•^.^x"*^ . ^■vv \ ii^_ |;.'^^^; ■>> f^':r: i^S:> ./--4-« •^' ^; "««i.':'«M- [/Stipplement to The Journal of the Department of Agriculture, Victoria, Ydth January, 1913.] THE JOURNAL DEPARTMENT OF vVGRICULTURE OF VICTORIA, AUSTRALIA. PUBLISHED FOR AND ON BEHALF OF THE GOVERNMENT BY DIRECTION OF THE HON. GEORGE GRAHAM, M.L.A., Minister for Agriculture. volume: X. 1912. ALBERT J. MULLETT, ACTING GOVERNMENT PRINTER, MELBOURNE. 1912. 172t)5. COPYRIGHT PROVISIONS AND SUBSCRIPTION RATES. The Articles in the Journal of the Department of Agriculture of Victoria are protected by the provisions of the Copyright Act. Proprietors of newspapers wishing to republish any matter are at liberty to do so, frovided the ] ourtuil and author are both acknewled gcd . The Journal is issued monthly. The sibscription, which is payable in advance and includes postage, is 3s. per annum for the Commonwealth and New Zealand, and 5s. for the United Kingdom and Foreign Countries. Single Copy Threepence. A limited number of the issues comprising Volumes III. (1905), 8 parts, exclusive of February, March, April, and May, 1905, out of print; IV. (1906), 10 parts, exclusive of Parts 7 and 9 (July and September, 1906), out of print; V. (1907), and VI. (1908), r2 parts each; VII. (1909), 10 parts, exclusive of Parts 2 and 10 (February and October, 1909), out of print; and VIII. (1910) and IX. (191 r), 12 parts each, are at present in stock, and will be supplied at the foregoing rates. Subscriptions should be forwarded to the Director for Agriculture, Me bourne THE JOURNAL OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE VICTORIA. VOliUME X. Parts 1-12. index:. Paffe Adcock, G. H.— Yield of Reconstituted Vineyard at Rutherylen Viticultural Col- lege ... ... ... ■•• 339 Afterbirth, Removal of ... ••• 71 Agricultural Education — Grant to Agricultural Soci' Agricultural Imports of the Kingdom Agricultural Research in States of America Agriculture in Victoria Ailments — Eye Blight in Cows Contagious Diseases, Etiology of Cramps in Terrier Diseases of Farm Animals Foot Rot, Device for Itch Pregnancy-non ... Worms Worms in Sheep Worms in Yearlings Answers to Correspondents Ants' Nests, Destroying Apple Moth, Light-brown ... Apiculture — Location Bees, The Bees, Races of ... Hives ... Hive Floors and Covers ... Water for Bees ... How to Make a Start Use of Comb Foundations Swarming Queen Bees, Rearing Archer, R. T.— Pig Industry, The Baker, G. H. F.— Silos and Silage Bare Fallow, Benefits of ... Barr, B. A.— Bunyip Agricultural Society ... 354 Basis Wines ... ... 321,488 Baxter, G. — Blacksmithing, Farm 49,123,192,217 Beekeeping in Victoria i, 113, 176, 226, 355> 413, 472, 529. 64g> 7S8 Bees, Queen, Rearing of ... ... 758 Bees, Races of ... ... ... 176 Bees and Spraying ... ... 4 Beet, Sugar ... ,.. ... 483 ■ties ... 235 United 286 Ignited 229 452 391 gy of 489 390 83 572 71 71 71 154 582 7I' 39o> S82 582 III I "3 176 226 355 413 472 529 649 758 73, 160 ,239 15 484 Beet Sugar, A Large Beet Sugar Industry and Closer Settlement Beuhne, F. R.— Bee-keeping in Victoria — Location Bees, The Bees, Races of Hives Hive Floors and Covers Water for Bees How to Make a Start ... Use of Comb Foundations Swarming Queen Bees, Rearing ... Beuhne, F. R., and French, C., Jun. Bee Moths Beuhne, F. R., and Pescott, E. E.— Bees and Spraying Blacksmithing, Farm 49, 123, 192, Blight Eye in Cows Blight, Irish Blight, Irish, Results of Spraving for ' ... Blood Smear, How to Make Botany — - Weeds — Naturalized Aliens and Poison Plants of Victoria Vernacular Names of Victorian Plants ... ... 443, Bracken, Eradication of Breeding Crop Plants Breeds, Pigs Bricks, Cement Machine-made Brittlebank, C. C— Eruptive Disease or " Exanthema " of Orange Trees in Australia ... Lucerne Trouble, A Building Hints for Settlers — ■ Two-bail Milking Shed ... Six-bail Milking and Feed Shed Durable Whitewash Concrete for Cow Sheds, &c. Bunyip Agricultural Society Butter, British Imports of ... Butter Export Trade and Dairying Season, 1911-12, Review of Vic- torian Butter Fat, Feeding for ... Butter, High-grade Calves, Care of Calves, Rearing cf Pa^'e 582 ^37 113 176 226 355 413 472 529 649 758 411 4 217 391 357 745 555 359 567 286 358 239 391 401 65 576 578 578 354 719 375 483 484 357 415 IV Index. Cameron, S. S. — Farm Animals, Diseases of (An- thrax, Blackleg) ... ■•• 83 Lime in Agriculture ... •■. 5^5 Worms in Sheep ... •.• ^54 Carmody, P. J. — Fruit Prospects for the Coming Season ... ... ■•• 753 Lime for Orchards ... ..■ 640 Castella, F. de- Basis Wines . - ... •■• 3^^ Grapes and Other Soft Fruits, Shipment of ... ... ..- 108 Storage Test of Shipping Grapes 715 Use of Lime in Victorian Vine- yards ... ... •;• 628 Vine Diseases in France (Fungi- cide Sprays) ... 54' n^, i73 Cattle Breeding and Dairy Records 409 Cement Bricks, Machine-made ... 391 Certification of Stallions ... ... 288 Cheddar Cheese-making, Spring ... 642 Cheese-making, Spring Cheddar ... 642 Cheeses, Good and Faulty, Exhi- bited at the Royal Show^ 1912 ... 713 Chestnut as a Shelter Tree ... 582 Closer Settlement and Beet Sugar Industry ... ... ••• i37 Cockerels, Topping up ... ... 7' Cold Storage ... ... ... 358 Cole, C. F.— Propagation of Fruit Trees — Pruning ... ... ... 57 Disbudding ... ... ... loi Topping ... •... ... 169 Lifting ... ... ... 208 Diseases ... ... 344, 425, 536 Comb Foundations, The Use of ... 529 Competitions — Niiill Farm, 1911 ... ... 33 Swan Hill iVTilking ... ... 232 Egg-laying, Burnley 67, 136, 200, 263, 324> 385. 430, 448, 5iS> 574, 644, 692, 774 Concrete for Cow Sheds ... ... 57^ Contagious Diseases. Etiology of ... 4S9 Cool Storage of Fruit .. ... 229 Couch Grass ... ... ... 262 Cow, A Profitable Dairy ... ... 552 Cows, Eye Blight in ... ... 391 Cramps in Terrier ... ... 390 Crop Plants, Breeding ... ... 358 Crops, Water Requirements of ... 340 Cropping in Victoria ... ... 719 Crowe, R. — Dairy Products from the London Market ... ... ... 6 Perishable and Frozen Produce 135, 386, 518, 708 Review of the Victorian Dairying Season and Butter Export Trade, 1911-12 ... ... ... 375 Curlewis, A. W. — ■ Sheep Dipping ... ... ... 671 Currajong (Brachychiton), Insect Pest of ... ... ... ... 662 Dairy Herd, Replenishing the ... 657 Dairy Products from the London Market Dairy Records and Cattle Breeding Dairying — ■ Two-bail Milking Shed ... Si.x-bail Milking Shed ... Swan Hill Home Milking Com- petitions Dairy Cow Test, Bunyip Review of Dairying Season, 1911-12 Rearing of Calves Profitable Dairy Cow, A Red Polls as Butter Producers ... Replenishing the Dairy Herd Dairying Season and Butter Export Trade, igii-12. Review of Decay and Putrefaction Dipping Sheep Disbudding Fruit Trees Diseases of Animals — Eye Blight in Cows Farm Animals Contagious Diseases, Etiology of Pregnancy-noa ... Worms Worms in Sheep Worms in Yearlings Diseases of Fruit Trees ... 344,425, " Exanthema," Eruptive Disease of Orange Trees Dodder, The Mischievous ... Douglas Mixture ... Downy Mildew, a New Lucerne Trouble Drain Pipes, Underground Drainage Losses ... Draining with Dynamite Drilling versus Broadcasting Manures Dynamite, Draining with ... Easterby, H. T.— Beet Sugar Industry and Closer Settlement, The Kggl^ying Competition — Burnle}-, 1911-12-13 67, 136, 263, 324, 385, 430, 515, 574, 644, 692, Eggs, The Fertility of Hen Ensilage and Lucerne Erosion Eruptive Disease, or " Exanthema " of Orange Trees in Australia Ewart, A. J. — Influence of Radio Active Mineral on the Germination and on the Growth of Wheat Influence of Superphosphates on the Germination of Wheat On Wattles and Wattle Bark Weeds — Naturalized Aliens and Poison Plants of Victoria (Wat- sonia Meriana) Ewart, A. J., and Sutton, C. S. — Vernacular Names of Victorian Plants ... ... 443. " Exanthema," Eruptive Disease of Orange Trees in Australia 6 409 12 576 232 354 375 415 552 556 657 375 761 671 lOI 391 83 489 71 71 154 582 536 401 535 582 65 391 665 533 533 533 137 774 357 653 262 401 417 256 684 359 567 40 J Index. Export— Dair\' Produce from the London Market Shipment of Grapes and other Soft Fruits ... Pig Industry, The Hull as a Distributing Centre for Australian Produce Dairying Season, Review of Fruit Trade of Victoria, The :;64 Storage Test of Shipping Grapes Export, Statistics — • Fruit, Bulbs, Plants, Grain, &c. 386, 518. Perishable and Frozen Produce, &c. ... ... 135. 386, 51S, Eye Blight in Cows Fallow, Bare, Benefits of ... Fallowing, Early Fallowing Land, some Result Farm Animals, Diseases of Farm Blacksmithing (See Black- smithing farm) Fertilizers. List of Registered 26, Flax, New Zealand, Insect Pest of the Flowers — ■ Monthly Notes 63, 325, 579, 1303 387- 645, i79> 453, 709. Fly Pest, The Foal, Hand-rearing Fodder — Fodder Crops for Northern Areas Silos and Silage Lucerne Effect of Drought on the Quality of Straw Top-dressing Pastures ... Seed Testing Manuring for Milk Lucerne and Ensilage Good and Bad Pasfure ... Phosphates on Pasture ... Foods, Comparative Values of Footrot, Device for French, C, jun. — An Insect Pest of the Currajong (Brachycheton) Insect Pest of the New Zealand Flax ... Frontal Shrike Tit (Insectivorous Birds of Victoria) Mealy Bugs destroyed by Lace wings Moth, Light-brown Apple New Pest to Maize (Harlequin Fruit Bug) Vine Moth Caterpillar Parasite The ... White-headed Stilt (Insectivorous Birds of Victoria) French, C. jun., and Beuhne, Y. R Bee Moths FroDtal Shrike Tit 108 239 282 375 666 135, 708 708 391 484 410 ^83 422, 683 260, 513, 772 664 740 I-- 231 410 483 534 534 653 664 718 664 662 68 450 553 411 Fruit — Fruit Prospects for the Season Fruit Trade of Victoria Export and Imjjort Statistics I'aee coming ••• 753 564, 666 135, 386, 518, 708 Cool Storage of Fruit ... ... 229 Export of Grapes from Sjiain ... 409 Storage Test of Shipping Grai)es 715 Grapes and other Soft Fruits, Ship- ment of . . ... ... 108 Fruit Trees — • Propagation of Fruit Trees ... 57, loi, 169, 208, 344, 425, 536 Fumigation for the Destruction of Scale Insects ... ... :566 Fungus Diseases ... ... 536 Olive, The 69, 127, 196, 212, 404, 465 LTnprofitable Orchards — Reasons and Remedies ... ... 104 Fumigation for the Destruction of Scale Insects ... ... ... 366 Fungus Diseases — Fungus Diseases (jf Fruit Trees ... 536 Irish Blight ... ... ... 357 Irish Blight, Results of Spraying for ... ... ... ■ ... 745 Garden — Monthly Notes ... 63, 130, 179, 260, 325, 387, 453, 513, 579, 645, 709, 772 General Notes ... ... ... 229, 286, 357, 409, 483, m, 664, 71S Geranium Cultivation for Essential Oil 677 Grants, Annual, to Agricultural Societies ... ... ... 235 Grapes and other Soft Fruits, Shipment of ... ... ... 108 Grapes, Export of, from S])ain ... 409 Grapes, Storage Test of Shipping ... 715 Grass, Common Love ... ... 391 (Eragrostes Brownii.) Hammond, A. A. — Fumigation for the Destruction of Scale Insects ... ... ... 366 Harlequin Fruit Bug (New Pest to Maize) ... ... ... 4-0 Hawkins, H. V.— Burnley Egg Laying Competition, 1911-12-13 67, 136, 200, 263, 324, 385, 430, 448, 515, 574, 644, 692, 774 Haystack Building ... ••• 763 Herd Testing ... ... 5", 665 Hints to Settlers ... ... •••576 Holdings, Land of Small ... ... 410 Horses — Government Certification of Stal- lions ... ... ••• ■•■ 288 Foal, Hand Rearing ... ... 5S2 Hull, Port as a Distributing .Centre for Australian Produce ... ... 282 Imports — • Fruit Bulbs, Plants, Grain, &c. 135, 386, .518, 708 Imports, Agricultural, of the United Kingdom .., ,.. ,-■ 28P Index. Industries, Small Rural 316, 361, 478, Insectivorous Birds of Victoria 68, Insect Pests — An Insect Pest of the Currajong (Brachychiton) Insect Pest of the New Zealand Flax ... Mealy Bugs Destroyed bv Lace- wings Moth, Light-brown Apple New Pest to Maize (Harlequin Fruit Bug) Vine Moth Caterpillar Parasite, The ... Fumigation for the Destruction of Scale Insects ... Irish Blight Irish Blight, Results of Spraying for Itch ... Kenyon, A. S. — Note on the Occurrence of Lime in Victoria Irrigation in the Early Days Kevs, S. J. — Swan Hill Home Milking Compe- tition. Ton Knight, J. — Lavender Cultivation Mint Cultivation Rose Cultivation Geranium Cultivation Kyle, A.— Rearing Calves ... Lacewings Destroying Mealy Bugs Lavender Cultivation Lead, Arsenate of, Analysis Leghorns for Central Gippsland Leongatha Labour Colony, Trustees' Report Lice, Wood or Slaters Lick, A Good Lick, Superphosphate as a Cattle ... Lifting, Fruit Trees Lime — The Chemistry of For Orchards For Tobacco Land In Agriculture ... Use in Potato Culture Occurrence in Victoria In Victorian Vineyards ... Relation to Soil Fertility Limestone Deposits, Victoria 1590, Liming, the practice of ... London Market, Dairy — Products from ... Lucerne — Lucerne Lucerne, Proper Time for Sowing Lucerne and Ensilage ... Lucerne Plants ... Lucerne Trouble, a new (Downy Mildew) Macdonald, L. — Olive^ The 69, 127, 196, 212, 404, Pag^e 677 258 662 720 485 III 450 553 357 745 71 76q 658 232 316 361 478 677 415 485 316 486 391 722 582 572 20S 602 640 6:i6 58s 6^9 76q 628 610 608 231 582 653 528 65 465 Maize, a new pest to (Harlequin Fruit Bug) Manures, Artificial — Analyses ... ... 22, 423, To Wheat-growing Land Drilling versus Broad Casting ... The new Nitrogenous Manuring for Milk Relative Solubility of the Phos- phoric Acid in Rock Phosphate and Bone-dust Notice to Manufacturers and Im- porters Superphosphates, Influence on the Germination of Wheat ... Unit Values, 1912 Mealy Bugs [Dactyl of iiis), and Lace- wings (Chrysofa) Meat Exports Meeking, E.— P^ruit Bulbs Plants, Grain (exports and imports) 135, 386, 518, Fruit Trade of Victoria, The 564, " Metallica Cape" Milk, Manuring for Milk Records Milking, Hours for Milking Shed— Two-bail Six-bail Mint Cultivation ... Moisture Soil, Influence upon Nitri- fication Moth, Light-brown Apple ... Moths, Bee Nhill Farm Competitions, 1911 Nitrification, Influence of Certain Soil Constituents Nitrification, Influence of Soil Mois- ture upon Nitrogenous Manures, the new Oats, Crushed, for Draught Horses Olive, The 69, 127, 196, 212, 404, Orange Trees in Australia, Eruptive Disease, or " Exanthema," Orchard and Garden Notes 63, 130, 260, 325, 387, 453, 513, 579, 645, 772 Orchards, Lime for Orchards, Unprofitable, Reasons and Remedies Packing Fruit Trees Paint, White, for Buildings Parades, Stallion, 1912 Parasite, The Vine Moth Caterpillar Paspalum for Hill Pastures Pasture, Good and Bad Pasture, Phosphate on Pastures, Paspalum for Hill Pastures, Top Dressing Paterson, J. W. — Putrefaction and Decay... Soil Moisture and Cropping Water Requirements for Crops Paterson, J. W., and Scott, P. R.— Influence of certain Soil Constitu- ents upon Nitrification Page 450 681 391 533 231 534 676 641 256 22 485 533 421 534 230 576 361 275 III 411 33 393 275 231 262 465 401 179. 709> 640 504 209 262 312 553 563 664 718 563 483 761 222 349 393 Index. Paterson, J. W., and Srott, P. R.— continued. Influence of Soil Moisture u])on Nitrification Lucerne and Ensilage ... Relation of Lime to Soil Fertility Some Results in Fallowing Land Pescott, E. E. — Orchard and Garden Notes 63, 179, 260, 325, 387, 453, 513, 579, 709, 772 Pescott, E. E., and Beuhne, F. R. — Bees and Spraying Phosphates on Pasture Phosphoric Acid in Rock Phos- phate and Bone-dust, Relative Solu- bility Pigs- Pig Feednig ... 287, 357, Pig Industry, The •••735 160, Pigs, Breed Plants — Vernacular Names of Victorian 443. Potato Culture, the use of Lime in Potato Digging Machines ... Potato Diseases, Spraying against ... Potatoes, Result of Spraying for Irish Blight ... Potatoes ... Pregnancy-non Produce, Perishable and Frozen 135, 517. 518, Produce, Port of Hull as a Distribut- ing Centre for Australian Propagation of Fruit Trees — Pruning Disbudding Topping Lifting ... Diseases ... 344, 425, Pruning Fruit Trees Putrefaction and Decay Radio-active Mineral on the Germina- tion and on the Growth of Wheat, Influence of Rainfall in Victoria 134, 325, 519, Raspberry Canes, Fungus in Reconstituted Vineyard at Ruther- glen. Yield of ... Records, Milk Red Polls as Butter Producers Regulations — Examination of Stallions Annual Grants to Agricultural So- cieties Reminders for — January February March ... April May June July August ... September October November December Page ^75 653 619 130, 64s. 4 718 676 718 239 239 ,567 639 119 534 745 390 71 386, 708 57 lOI 169 208 536 57 76. 417 762 391 339 230 556 293 235 776 72 133 199 264 328 392 456 520 584 648 1911 ... 91, 181, 457= 54.5 Rhubarb ... Richardson, A. E. V. — Liming, the Practice of .. Nhill Farm Competitions Wheat and its Cultivation 265, 329, Robertson, W. A. N.— Etiology of Contagious Diseases ... Herd Testing How to make a Blood Smear ... Stallions, Certification of Regulations Robertson, W. C. — iNote on Limestone Deposits in Vic- toria Relative Solubility of Phosphoric Acid in Rock Phosphate and Bone-dust Rose cultivation Rural Industries, Small 316, 3bi, 478 Rutherglen Viticultural College — Yield of Reconstituted Vineyard Saltbush, Slender-Fruited [Atriflex Leftocarpa) Salt House, A Good Sawers, G. C. — Good and Faulty Cheeses E.xhibited at the Royal Show, 1912 Spring Cheddar Cheese Making ... Scale Insects, Destructive ... Scale Insects, Fumigation for the Destruction of ... Scott, P. R.— Arsenate of Lead, Analysis of Unit Values, 1912, Artificial Manures List of Fertilizers Supplementary List of Fertili- zers ... ... ... 422, Manures, Analyses of Samples 423, Chemistry of Lime Seed Testing ... ... ... • Seeding Operations (Wheat and its Cultivation) Settlers, Hints to Seymour, Geo.— Potato Digging Machines Results of Spraying for Irish Blight Use of Lime in Potato Culture ... Shearers' Hut Accommodation Act ... Sheep Dipping Sheep, Worms in ... Silage and Silos ... Silos and Silage ... Smith, T. A. J. Fodder Crops for Northern Areas under Irrigation on Small Hold- ings ... ... Haystack Building Lime for Tobacco Land ... Soft Fruit and Grapes, Shipment of Soil Moisture and Cropping Soils — Influence of Certain Soil Consti- tuents upon Nitrification Influence of Soil Moisture upon Nitrification Patre 391 608 33 201, , t)94 480 030 288 293 598 676 478 >677 339 391 713 366 26 683 681 602 534 265 576 119 745 639 673 671 154 15 740 763 636 393 275 Index. Page 619 222 225 4 262 28S 298 302 312 451 Soils — continued. Relation of Lime to Soil Fertility Some Results in Fallowing Land Soil Moisture and Cropping Soya Bean Sparrow Trap, An Effective Spraying and Bees Stack Covering Stallions — Certification Supplementary List of Certificated Stallions Terminable List of Stallions Parades Statistics — ' Live Stock Fruit Plants, lV:c., Perishable and Frozen Produce 135, 386, 518, 708 Rainfall ... i34) S^S) SiQ. 7^^ Stilt, White-headed, The ... ... 258 Storage, Cold ... ... ..•• 35^ Straw, Effect of Drought on Quality 410 Sugar Industry, The ... ... 137 Sunflower Seed for Poultry Feeding 390 Superphosphate as a Cattle Lick ... 391 Superphosjjhates, Influence of, on Germination of Wheat ... ... 256 Sutton, C. S,., and Ewart, A. J.— Vernacular Names of Victorian Plants ... ... 443> 5^7 Swan Hill Home Milking Competi- tion, 1911 ... ... .•■ 232 Swarming (Bees) ... ... 649 Swingle-bars for Five-horse Team ... 262 Testing, Herd ... ... ... 511 Thistles, Harvesting Through ... 230 Thomas, M. — Replenishing the Dairv Herd ... 657 Threlfall, R. G.— Paspalum for Hill Pastures ... 563 Tobacco Land, Lime for ... ... 636 Top Dressing Pastures ... ... 483 Topping (Fruit Trees) ... ... i6g Trap, Sparrow, An Effective ... 225 Underground Drain Pipes ... ... 391 Unit Value, 1912 (Manures) ... 22 United Kingdom, Agricultural Im- ports of the ... ... ... 286 Unprofitable Orchards, Reasons and Remedies ... ... ... 504 Vegetables — Monthly Notes 63, 130, 179, 260, 325, 387= 453, 513, 579. 645, 709, 772 Potato Culture, Use of Lime in ... 639 Fag's Vegetables — continued. Potato Diseases, Spraying Against 534 Potatoes, Result of Spraying for Irish IBlight ... ... ... 745 Potatoes ... ... ... 390 Rhubarb ... ... ... 391 Soya Bean ... ... ... 391 Vernacular Names of Victorian Plants ... ... 443, 567 Viticulture — Vine Diseases in France (Fungi- cide Sprays) ... ... 54, 116, 173 Vine Moth Caterpillar Parasite, The ... ... 553 Vineyards, Use of Lime in Vic- torian ... ... ... 628 " Metallica Cape" ... ... 421 Grapes and other Soft Fruits, Ship- ment of ... ... ... 108 Grapes, Export of, from Sjxiin ... Grapes, Storage Test of Shipping Wines, Basis ... ... 321 Wallis, E.— Unprofitable Orchards, Reasons and Remedies Water Requirements of Crops " Watsonia Meriana " (Weeds, Na- turalized Aliens and Poison Plants of Victoria) Wattles and Wattle Barks ... Weed Seeds, Germination of Welding (Farm Blacksmithing) Wheat — Wheat and its Cultivation gi, 181, 265, 329, 457, Wheat Germination, Influence Superphosphates Wheat Harvest, The Victorian Wheat, Strength in Wheat, Influence of Radio-active Mineral on the Germination and on the Growth of ... ... 417 Whitewash, A Durable ... ... 576 Wilson, Austin — Hull, Port as a Distributing Centre for Australian Produce ... 282 Wilson, J. — ■ Building Hints for Settlers 12, 576 Sparrow Trap, An Effective ... 225 Wines, Basis ... ... 321, 488 Worms ... ... ... ... 71 Worms in Sheep ... ... ... 154 Worms in Yearlings ... ... 582 543^ of 409 715 504 349 359 684 229 123 201, 694 256 387 286 iTol. X. SILOS AND SILAGE. UNIT VALUES FOR 1912. Part 1. rReari?tered at the General Post Office, Melbourne, for transmission by Post as a Nevvspaper.l F. H. BRUNNING, PTY. LTD. ALL ORCHARDIST'S REQUIREMENTS. Spray Pumps, Secateurs, Pruning Saws, Fruit Tree Nets, Fruit Tree Tags, Surpazoll, Nikoteen, Bordeaux Mixture, Gloves, Aerial Tree Pruners, Aphis Brushes, Syringes, Pruning and Budding Knives, Grafting Wax. Seed &Bulb Manual. Containing over 130 pp. and giving full prices and information of our large stock. Post Free on application. DEMON BIRD SCARERS. The best and most effective machines on the marliet for keeping birds away from fruit. Write for particulars. Corn Queen Planters. Can l»e used for Peas, Beans, &c., as well as Maize. With Fertilizers, £20 10s. Without ,, JE15 lOs. (See Illustration beloiv.) HEMINGWAY'S ARSENATE OF LEAD. Best and Purest Make in Commerce. Head of all brands in recent Govt, analysis. Prices on application. PLANET JUNR. IMPLEMENTS OF ALL DESCRIPTIONS. AERATORS, PLANTER'S FRIEND and CAHOON SOWERS, SPADES, HOES, FORKS. MAIZE. LUCERNE. RAPE. RYE GRASS. COCKSFOOT. SOY BEANS. pUEEN (CORN QUEEN PLANTER.) PASPALUM. PHALARIS. SORGHUMS. MILLET. MANGELS. CHOU MOELLIER. VEGETABLE, FLOWER & TREE SEEDS. 64 ELIZABETH-ST., MELBOURNE. THE -JOXJRXx^^L OF THE DEPAPJWIENT OF AGRICULTURE, A. T. SHARP, Editor. CONTENTS.— JANUARY, 1912. T^ee-keeping in Victoria — Location ... Bees and Spraying l)airy IVoducts from the London Market Building Hints for Settlers — XVL Two-bail xMilking Shed ... .Silos and Silage ... Artificial Manures Acts — Unit Values for 1912 List of Registered Fertilizers ... Nhill Farm Competitions, 1911 Farm Elacksmithing — -Welding (conrinued) Vine Diseases in France^Fungicide Sprays Propagation of Fruit Trees — Pruning ■Orchard and Garden Notes A New Lucerne Trouble — Downy Mildew ... Victorian Egg-laying Competition, 1911-12... Insectivorous Birds of Victoria — Frontal Shrike Tit The Olive — Propagation ... Answers to Correspondents — Topping up Cockerels ... 71 Worms Non-Pregnancy ... ... 71 Itch Removal of Afterbirth ... 71 ^Reminders for February PAQB. F. R. Btuhne 1 E. E. Pescotf and F. R. Beuhne 4 R. Crowe 6 J. Wihon 12 G. H. F. Baker 15 P. R. Scott P. R. Scott A. E. V. Richardson G. Baxter F. de Ca^tdla C. F. Cole E. E. Pescott C. C. Brittlebank II. v. Haivkius C. French. Jiinr. L. Maidoiiald 22 26 33 49 54 57 63 65 67 68 69 71 71 72 COPYRIGHT PROVISIONS AND SUBSCRIPTION RATES. The Articles in the Journal of the Department of Agiieulture of Victoria are 'protected by the provisions of the Copyright Act. Proprietors of newspapers wishing to republish any matter are at liberty to do so, provided the Journal and author are both acknowledged. The Journal is issued monthly. The subscription, which is payable in advance and includes postage, is 3s. per annum for the Commonwealth and Xew Zealand, and 5s. for the United Kingdom and Foreign Countries. Single copy Threepence. Subscriptions should be forwarded to the Director of Agriculture, Melbourne. A complete list of the various publications issued by the Department of Agriculture will be supplied by the latter. Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo Jan., 1912, No other Windmill has a Speed-governing Device like the ''Billabong's." This important improvement of ours is protected by patent rights. It has neither springs nor weights — nothing to get out of order. By merely turning a screw you can vary the speed of the mill to your desire. This will be found to be of great advantage when Windmill is sub- jected to a change of load, and in heav}- gales, &c. Stop and Consider. you want a mill to give lifelong service : therefore, it must be made of good material. Bearings should be so made that they may be cheaply and quickly renewed. Frictional or wearing parts should be few; and, what is most im- portant, the mill should have a lubricating system that will insure its being thoroughly and continuously lubricated while working, but which will prevent waste when mill is not required. The mill should be responsive to a very light breeze, yet stantl a gale. In oar Mill al! these Points are provided for. We know what is required of a good mill — we have had many j-ears of windmill experience. The fact that we have obtained ]iatent rights proves our pro- gressiveness; and, as to quality and workmanship, our being established for over half a century answers. Suppose You Save, say, £1, or £1 10s., or £2, by buying a cheaper mill, and then have to spend £2 to £3 in repairs — again another £3 or £4 ; or, suppose your cheap mi.l sticks up when j'ou most need it, you will soon lose pounds and pounds' worth of stock ; or, if it blows down in a gale, where is j-our saving then ? Pay a Proper Price and get tlie Right Article with a Good Manufacturing Firm to back it up. But the truth is, while our mills are well made, the price is so reasonable. Write for Catalogue and Prices. We can supply Tanks and Stands; Pumps of all kinds; Piping, Troughing, and Fluming; Farm and (Jarden Tools, Implements, and Requisites. JOHN DANKS & SON 391=395 Bourke Street, Melbourne. PTY. LTD. lo Jan., 19 1 2.] Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. Ill START RIGHT ! ! When equipping the thiiry with maeliinery don't let the matter of a £1 or two influence your choice, and prevent you from obtaining the best and most up-to-date plant that money can buy. A mistake made at the outset means just the difference between success and failure. It is false economy to purchase machinery of any description simply because it is "cheap" — the sweetness of low price never equals the bitterness of poor quality. Before purchasing a cream separator, milking machine, or petrol engine, visit the farms of the prominent and successful dairymen, and you will find that over 90 per cent, of them have either the "ALFA-LAVAL" SEPARATOR "L-K-G" MILKING MACHINES "FELIX" INDUSTRIAL MOTOR installed in their dairies or milking sheds. You run no risk whatever in purchasing any of the above time-tested machines, because they are guaranteed to be as rejn'esented, but should they fail to make good wliat is claimed for them we will take them back again and paj' all expenses. Our full-line Catalogue No. 3583, describes in detail these best-of-all machines ; it also gives full particulars and prices of the most modern farm, dairy, and cheese-making requisites. Posted free on application. — Write for it. J. BARTRAM & SON IV^.. 19-23 KING STREET, MELBOURNE. SOLE AGENTS :— Galvanized all-steel portable Silos. Every Farmer and Grazier should have a Telephone Service con- necting with tlie nearest Post Office. Thousands of Austi-alian farmers have already installed Telephones, the ad- vantages of which are so numerous and valuable that it is impossible to measure or appreciate their worth until you have one. A well-known Victorian grazier, Mr. V/. Gardiner, writes regarding The " ERICSSON " TELEPHONE :— " I find the telephone the most useful inven- tion I have on the farm, both in labour and time saving, also for business ))urposes. It has often saved me the price of itself in one transaction, and has paid for itself 50 times over in two cases of calling medical aid when no one could go for it. The " ERICSSON " gives satisfaction in every way." ^_^ Prices, edimates, and full particulars, ''■■•. on application to — J, BARTRAi I m PTY. LTD., 19-23 KING STREET, MELBOURNE. REPREStlNTING THE L. M. ERICSSON TELEPHONE COMPANY. Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo Jan., 1912. [F you want to have them up in a //^' fraction of the time taken with bar and spade ! If you want to miss tlie laborious bar work and ramming Then . . . BUY THE "iWflN" POST HOIiE DIGGER. The Greatest of all Earth Boring Tools. It cuts the hole just the size for the post, in a fraction of the time taken with bar and spade, and no time is lost ramming. Works in all conditions and kinds of soil — not rock. On a fencing job 120 ten-inch holes can be easily bored in a day, or 200 smaller sizes. By extending the pipe bar the " IWAN " POST HOLE DIGGER bores Empties with a shake ; is built -has no adjustable parts to wobble down to 35 feet, rigid — stays rigid about or stick. EVENTUALLY-WHY NOT NOW! 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 12 14 in. 7/. 7/= 7/= 7/. 7/6 8/6 9/6 10/= 27/- 34/= eacli. Thomas McPherson & Son Established 51 Years, 554-566 & 582-588 Collins-St., Melbourne. lo Jan., TgiJ.I r Journal of Agriculiurc, Vicforia- IS YOUR FRUITGROWING A HOBBY? OR ARE YOU AFTER £i S. D. ? ? In either case it will PAY YOU to use . . . "AUSTRAL" ARSENATE OF LEAD As it will give you the highest percentage of clean fruit, AND COSTS YOU LESS. (Many grrowers get 100% clean. You can get the same.) TO SAVE THE COST OF ONE SPRAYING you should combine— AUSTRAL BORDEAUX PASTE - 4 lbs. ) ^ gQ „ AUSTRAL ARSENATE OF LEAD 2 lbs. j In this way you control both Black Spot and Codlin Moth, and the time saved means extra £ s. d. to you. Write for Particulars, nientionin;^ Journal of AgHculture. INTERSTATE AGENTS. N.S.W.— F. CHILTON, , Tasmania— FRENCH BROS., Belmore Markets, Sydney. i Patterson Street, Launceston. Queensland— COOKSLEY & CO., 4* ^' Australia-R. MANNING & CO., Turbot Street, Brisbane. .j> Wellington Street, Perth. S. Australia— H. C. RICHARDS, I New Zealand-ARCHER & HALLIBURTON, Blyth Street, Adelaide. ' Cliri»tchur' h. A J JENKINS ^^STR^L SPRAY CHEMICAL WORKS, 368 Queen's Parade, Clifton Hill, Victoria. MAIZE FOR FODDER. Craig Mitchell Mammoth White. ENORMOUS GRAIN YIELDER, 150 Bushels to the Acre. Average Yield for Green Feed, 50 to 55 Tons per Acre. Pedigree Seed, 9s. per bushel. Cheaper in quantity. Order early to prevent disappointment. Write for our descriptive Farm and Maize List, posted gratis ; also General Seed and Plant Catalogue. The leading house for Lucerne and Rape. Try the NEW GIANT KANGAROO RAPE. For Cattle, Sheep, Horses, Pigs, Fowls, &c., it is unsurpassable. WILL FATTEN THREE MORE SHEEP TO THE ACRE THAN OTHER KINDS. WUl grow to a height of 11 feet, growing 2 feet in five weeks, 7^ feet in under twelve weeks. Price, 8d. per lb., 60s. per cwt. AGRICULTURAL SEED A SPECIALITY. LAW, SOMNER, & Co., Seed and Plant Merchants, 139-141 SWANSTON STREET, MELBOURNE. Established 61 Years. 'PHONE, CENTRAL 729. vi Journal of Agriculture . Victoria. [lo Jan., 1912. "AUSTRAL" MILKING MACHINES. FIVE YEARS OF UNBROKEN SUCCESS Have established the AUSTRAL as the Premier Milking Machine, and have demonstrated that it does not belong to that class of appliances whose efficiency terminates after a few months of use. It has stood the test of time, and that under all sorts of conditions. IT IS SIMPLE. Complexity and intricacy are the bane of milking machinery. Both in principle and construction the AustrRl is strikingly simple. Minute pulsating mechanism on teat cups or buckets has been entirely dispensed with, its place being taken by a single pulsating pump, simple and strong in construction, which serves for the whole outfit, whether two cows or ten are to be milked at a time. The pulsating pump is placed in the engine room, remote from the cows. IT IS AN EASY MILKER. Fear of injury to cows was at one time the bogie of machine milking. The Austra.! has done away with all that. Its action on the cow is as gentle as that of the softest hand, and much easier than the average hired help. After three and four years' milking with the machines, cows are found to be as sound in the quarters as when they started. Enquiry from any AuStral user will confirm the correct- ness of this statement. IT IS THE LAST WORD IN ECONOMICAL DAIRYING. The working parts are so few and the construction so simple and solid, that wear and tear, and consequently the cost of upkeep, are reduced to a minimum. An outstanding feature of the Austral is the Tank System, whereby the milk is conducted direct from cow to separator witliout any handling whatever. With this system, so great a saving is effected in time, labour, and trouble, that in ordinary circumstances its advantages are overwheln in/. A single bucket can be supplied for testing individual cows ; or where spec al requirements render it pre- ferable, complete bucket plants can be installed. GLOBE CREAM SEPARATORS. . CROSSLEY OIL ENGINES. Embodies the famous Link-Blade Bowl I The world's standard Oil Engine. In all Structure. Official tests conducted by the [ sizes and for all descriptions of farm work. Swedish Government at Alnarp placed the ^ "Globe" in the very forefront for clean ^^ VACCAR PETROL ENGINES. skimming and easy running, against all t competitors. f British built. Low running speed. All sizes from 14 to 200 gallons. Economical on fuel. WINDWILLS, SAW-GEHCHES, CK/^FF-CUTTERS, ar^d all Farq and Dairy Machinery. W.;en writing, please mention this Journal. W. H. BLflCKHflm, =°" ""^ ^"' J MELBOURNE. [o ]a\\. 191J.I Journal of Agriculture, Yictoria. M& Herd of Prize Winnings and Heavy Milk ^ and Butter Pro- ducing Strains* YOUNG BULLS AND HEIFERS FOR SALE. INSPECTION 3y APPOINTMEN I WILIiIflJI WOODlVIflSOK, ""„*;"" MALVERN, MELBOURNE, Vic. Journal of Agriculture , Victoria. [lo Jan., 191; CLOSER SETTLEMENT LAND. The followin;j allotments on the various Estates are availalile for application : — • Wheat Growing". Estate. ^,?,-j} Area, Irrigation Areas. tstale. No. of Allots. Kovuya 17 Swan Hill .. 6 Cohuna 36 Sheppaiton .. 8 Naniieella 24 Baniawm 17 Toiiyala 71 Dairying- a nd Mi Bona Vista . . 3 Deepdene 13 Eunieralla . . 12 Meadowbank 1 AUanibee 10 Morven 17 Werribee 24 Kenihvfjrth . . 2 Mooralla 1 Cremona 6 Glenaladale . . 4 totalling Area. f 72 acres. 492 „ 2,656 „ 77 „ 2,020 „ GfiS „ 3,92G ,, 287 acres. 2,294 „ 4,896 „ 51 „ 1,GC.4 „ 5,rs5 „ 4,943 „ 1,198 „ 026 „ 499 „ 502 Cornelia Creek Oaklands Hurstwood . . Mt. Widderln Nerrin Nerrin No. of Allots. 7 totalling- 2,755 acres. 7 „ 4,699 „ 10 „ 4,884 „ 17 „ 5,922 „ 17 „ 3,736 „ Beet Growing- and Dairying-. Boisdale Kihnan\' Park 5 totalling' 361 acres. 70 ,, 7,988 ,, Clerks' Homes. Glen Huntly Toorona'a 7 allotments. 62 Workmen's Homes. Pender's Grove . . . . . . 68 allotments. Allotments on these estates are sold under Conditional Purchase leasehold terms, extending: over 31i years, with pajnnents at the rate of 6 per cent per annum. Advances of money can be obtained up to 60 per cent, of the value of permanent impro\ements effected, repayments extending over fifteen years bearing 5 per cent, interest. For full information and terms apply to THE SECRETARY , LANDS PURCHASE AND MANAGEMENT BOAR^. MELBOURNE. AUSTRALIA'S WACON ;i" Tv," PATENT STEEL WHEELS. Patent Felloes. Renewable Carron Boxes and Oil Caps. The only Steel Wheel that has stood the Test. Beware of Imitations. A. MAY, Esq., Meningie, South Australia, says: — Dear Sir, — I have received Sprinsj' Wau'on. I am well pleased with same well, and I think those who have Steel Wheels will never >ise the old style ayain. of two tons of potatoes over a bad road of 30 miles, wher I never thought it would run so Two horses carried niy first load the old stvle of wagon was bogged, and is still there. August, 1903. ALBERT MAY, Esq., Meningie, S.A., says :— Dear Sir,— In answer to .\our letter wanting to know how tlie wheels of my wagon are, I am pleased to tell you I have had the wagon about 6i years, and it has not cost me a shilling ; the' wheels are like new, and I have done a lot of heavy carting. Only being a 2-ton Wagon, I lent it to a man cartiny wheat, and he had some very rough roads, loads being about 50 liags. Your Wagons are worth their moncA', and I would not be without one of them. I think this Wagon will last my life time. 40" and 36* Wheels. " August 13th. 1910. IPP" TABLE TOP— Truck body, and a!l classes of little Wagons for Farm and Station work. \NRITE FOR CATALOG TO-DAY. R. J. L. HILDYARD, QUEEN'S BRIDGE-ST., SOUTH MELBOURNE, V. lo Jan., lyi^] Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. "CYCLONE" SPRING COIL . . FENCE. SENT OUT IN ROLLS READY FOR ERECTION. VARIOUS HEIGHTS AND SPACINGS. THE Cyclone Spring Coil Fence is sent out in 5-chain rolls, and is easily erected. The crimps in the horizontal lines make it elastic. Cross ties, 1 ft. apart, form a perfect web, which will hold any stock, large or small. Resistin<^ power is immense, any strain being distributed over the whole fence. It is an advantage to have posts further apart than in ordinary fences. It cannot be strained past tension point, anfl thus needs no after straining. Top and bottom lines No. 9 gauge wire ; intermediate No. 11 ; cross ties No. 13. "The Cyclone Spring Coil is a GOOD Fence." v: GET OUR CATALOGUE OF FENCES AND GATES. CYCLONE WOVEN o 459 SWANSTON STREET, WIRE FENCE & GATE CO. • IVIELBOURNE . ^ Jyurnal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo Jan., 1912, GLEN ELGIN'S PHILANTHROPIST" 299 A.H.B. of Aus. (|)^ (|)(|) Winner of Champion, Sydney Royal Show, 1909, 1910, 1911. Reserve Champion, Melbourne Royal Show, 1907, 1908, 1911. Also holds the record of 142 Firsts, Chain[)ions, Specials, and Gold Medals for Ayrshire and Dairy Bull. The '^GlengarDoek" Stad of Pure^i::^ flyrshit^e Cattle Has won innumerable prizes in the ring. The females in this herd are noted for deep and heavy milking and test well above the average, and are kind and quiet. CHOICE YOUNG HERDBOOK BULLS FOR SALE At from 5 to 25 guineas each. Special Show Bulls higher. From Best Cows only, by Pure Herdbook Bulls. Full pedigrees and particulars, with photographs of animal for sale, his sire and dam, will be forwarded on application. INSPECTION CORDIALLY INVITED. Address — VISITORS MET AT LANC LANG RAILWAY STATION. ^4 A. T. PRIESTLEY. Post V'GLENCARNOCK," ' lelegSh'j YANNATHAN, Vic. o o z lo Jan., 19 1 2.] Journal of Ai^ricidtiirc , Victoria. XI ^ ■^^^ Vacuum Harness Oil vacuuw oil compANv Vacuum Harness Oil •i Vacuum Harness Oil Vacuum Leather Oil replaces the original and natural oils in leather which quickly disappear when harness is exposed to the weather. Vacuum Leather Oil preserves the leather; keeps it soft and pliable as a kid glove ; gives a black finish; makes it water-proof; and pre- vents it from breaking and cracking. Write for booklet: "How to Take Care of Leather.'* Vacuum Oil Co. Pty. Ltd. 90 William Street. Melbourne. Journal of Agriculture , Victoria. [lo Jan., 1912^ DEPARTMENT OF AGRrCULTURE, VICTORIA. GOVERNMENT STUD BULLS. AVAILABLE FOR SERVICE OF COWS BELONGING TO BONA-FIDE SETTLERS UNDER THE CLOSER SETTLEMENT ACTS. Fee, 5s. per cow. Jersey Bull "DREADNOUGHT"; Calved, 22nd October, 1908. girt \ — Sir Jack (188). Dam : — Lady Kitchener, by Lord Melbourne. {In charge of Mr. H. Crumpler, Block 148, Bamaiom. ) Jersey Bull "ROSE FOX"; Calved, 19th August, 1909. Sire : — Starbright Fox (190). Dam : — Tuberose, by Magnet's Progress (54 A.J.H.B.). (In charge of Mr. E. W. Prater, Block 106, Bamawm.) Jersey Bull "VERBENA'S BOY"; Calved, 10th January, 1908. Sire : — Acrobat. Dam : — Verbena 2nd, by Snowdrop's Progress 2nd. {In charge of Messrs. Laing and Mundie, Block 70, Bamawm. ) Jersey Bull "NOBILITY"; Calved, 2nd April, 1910. Sire : — Lucy's Noble of Oaklands. Dam : — Winnie of Melrose 3rd, by Royal Blue. (In charge of Mr. E. T. Partington, Block 136, Bamawm.) Jersey Bull "MILKY WAY"; Calved, 20th June, 1909. Sire :— Starbright Fox (190). Dam :— Milkmaid 34th (590), by Plinliramon (imp. 62 A.H.B.). {In charge of Mr. L. S. Hulands, Block 91, Nanneella.) Jersey Bull "GOLD MEDAL"; Calved, 3rd April, 1910. Sire :— Golden Fox ( 1 42 A.J. H. B. ). Dam ;— Melba, by Greystanes 2nd. {In charge of Messrs. Jacobs and Kennedy, Blocks 43 and 44, Nanneella.) Jersey Bull "MAGNET'S FOX"; Calved, 6th November, 1909. Sire :— Fox's Laddie. Dam :— Magnet 28th, by Defender (imp.) (2288 H.C. J.H.B.). (In charge of Mr. C. G. Woods, Block 29, Koyuga.) Jersey Bull "CREAM PROSPECT"; Calved, 22nd March, 1910. Sire:— Lord Creamer (155 A.J.H.B.). Dam :— Daisy of Prospect (347 A.J.H.B.), by Cardigan. (In charge of Mr. L. H. Radclyffe, Block 2, Koyuga. ) Jersey Bull "ZODIAC"; Calved, lOth November, 1908. Sire :— Starbright Fox (190). Dam :— Zoe 4th (805), by Handsome Hero. (In charge of Mr. R. J. Chappell, Block 12F, Swan Hill.) Jersey Bull "GAY FOX"; Calved, 12th May, 1909. Sire :— Starbriglit Fox (190). Dam :— Floss, by Plinlimmon (imp. 62). (Di charge of Mr. F. Co.v, Block 6D, Swan Hill. ) lo Jan., 1912.] Journal of Ai:^ricul!iirt\ Yicioria. xiii DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, VICTORIA. GOVERNMENT STUD BULLS. AVAILABLE FOR SERVICE OF COWS BELONGING TO BONA-FIDE SETTLERS UNDER THE CLOSER SETTLEMENT ACTS-'^^^^^*'^^^^. Fee, 5s. per cow. Jersey Bull "WILLIAM OF AYRE"; Calved, February, 1910. Sire : — Favourite's Fox 2nd. Dam : — Bessie McCarthy, by Snowflake's Progress, (/n charge of Mr. J. S. Dickinson, Block 13, Nyah.) Jersey Bull "FOX'S LAD"; Calved, 5th October, 1908. Sire : — Fox, by Suowdrop's Progress 2nd. Dam : — Pansy 2nd, by Duke. {hi charge of Mr. Ernest E. Borley, Block 6, Nyah. ) Ayrshire Bull "PETER OF WILLOWVALE"; Calved, 30th Sept., 1909. tSiVe :— Annetta's Pride (243). Dam: — Madge 2nd (Appendix A.H.B.), by Red Chief (359), {In charge of Mr. F. Mclvor, Block 12F, Swan Hill. ) Particulars of extended pedigrees, milking records, &c., can be obtained from each bull holder, from the resident Dairy Supervisors (Mr. O'KEEFE, Rochester, or Mr. S. J. KEYS, Swan Hill), or from The Department of Agriculture, Melbourne. AVAILABLE FOR SERVICE OF COWS THE PROPERTY OF BEET GROWERS AT BOISDALE. Red Danish Bull "CLAUDIUS"; Calved, 10th November, 1909. Sire: — Ernst Bellinge (imp.). Dam: — Kirsten IX. (imp.). Fee, 5s. (available to 30 cows). Red Danish Bull "HAMLET"; Calved, 1st August, 1910. Sire : — Ernst Bellinge (imp.). Dam : — Marianne IV. G. Dam : — Marianne III. (imp.). Fee, 5s. (available to 10 heifers). Red Polled Bull "TABACUM"; Calved, 12th November, 1908. Sire : — Acton Ajax (imp.). Dam : — Janet, by Primate by Laureate (imp.). Fee, 7s. 6d. (available to 20 cows). Jersey Bull "GAY LAD II."; Calved, 8th August, 1906. Sire : — Acrobat, by Cherry's Pride (imp.). Dain : — Gaiety, by Snowdrop's Progress II., by Lady Superior's Progress (imp.). Fee, 5s. (available to 40 cows). (Winner of 7 first prizes.) Pai-ticulars of extended pedigrees, milking records and prizes may be obtained from, and arrangement for service made with, Mr. E. STEER, at the Homestead Block 21, where the bulls are kept. Journal of Agriculture , Victoria. [lo Jan., 1912, The "BAVE-U" Power Sprayer. THE PIONEER - - POWER SPRAYER OF AUSTRALIA. . Does the work of TWO Hand Sprayers at ONE-FOURTH the cost. All particulars on application to — E,TJSSE]LILi & CO. # Engineers. Makers of Irrigation Plants. Engines for all purposes. :^ o 3K xs: X X. X., tme x3x<^oxtxs,:n'X3. To GRAZIERS, FARMERS, and DAIRYMEN. You cannot do better than purchase your requirements from THE VICTORIA VARNISH Coy. ^T4 1^ Who are Importers and Manufacturers of the undeimentioned, namely : — Varnishes for all uses, Paints, Dry Colors, Stainer's Turpentine, Boiled and Raw Linseed Oil, Resin, Shellac, White Lead, &c. OUR MANUFACTURE IS OF ONE QUALITY— THE BEST. Note the Address— The VICTORIA VARNISH COY. Proprietary Ltd., Queen's Bridge, South Melb. Tel. Central 614. Established 1853. A. J. BORTHWICK, Manager. BONEDUST, SUPERPHOSPHATE, AND OTHER HIGH-GRADE FERTILIZERS DELIVERED AT RAILWAY STATION, FOOTSCRAY, OR ON WHARF, MELBOURNE. '9 IJ^ELZXVI.fa.CS'fc'UI.Z'^Z*. Office :— 407 POST OFFICE PLACE, MELBOURNE. BONES BOUGHT. CONSIGN TO ME, FOOTSCRAY. Telephone 2098. [lo Jan., 1912. Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. ^ >^ .ti > 2 c = -i- = E © t/5 t« (U 1 E 03 c 4> — aj • 3 J= ,r: UJ 0 t« &: 1^ JH 0 13 JS OJ <^> b. N 0 en Kl ^ ._ ■— O o 13 -^ C 9 C3 ■ 1— 09 fiC UJ GO C3 UJ f— t 3C LU 1— ! 1^ i; •ss. ; Q3 1 ^ 0 C5 -C5 M- 0 0 -•-• -•-» -s E cd -a ^ cd OQ >-> v% ^^ '^ cd CQ CO QC s. ^^ O) > *J» *^ c CO 3 *k CO H I 0 0 EE < es CO >■ IJU CC O CD NI ^ *i 3 5 II j; C O if W o C 4) «^ 4) — 55 "i A .s O «/3 e3 •c j= ^ fif ea rr. cS H u 0 Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo Jan., 1912. DON'T WASTE YOUR TIME AT THE PUMP HANDLE. FOR foolish it is for a man to try to raise water for stock or garden by means of a hand pump. Windmills are to be obtained now so cheap that it is a folly, rank folly, to waste one's time at the pump handle ; the windmill will not only do the work better, but do it cheaper than any other method of raising water. The farmer, or the farmer's man's time would be much better employed about the farm. The first cost of a windmill is practically its only cost. All that is re- quired to keep it in order for years is simply to lubricate it occasionally, and this, with recent improvements, needs only to be done about once a month. For many j'ears the ALSTON Windmill has become a household word. The fame of the ALSTON mill has spread far and wide. They have made their reputation by actvial merit on actual service, by their simplicity and superior construction. They have stood the test of years. They have been erected in the most exposed sites with impunity. They have been used successfully on wells and bores three and four hundred feet deep. They have been used for pumping through miles of piping to higher levels. They have been used for pumping for stock ; for irrigation ; for drainage ; for house and for garden, and almost everything that a pump is used for. Thej' have been imitated and envied by rival makers but have never been ex- celled. Every ALSTON mill that has been sold has been an advertisement for its maker, and the demand for the ALSTON mill has increased year after year, and still preserves its jiremier position in the Commonwealth. Thousands of the ALSTON Windmills are made annually, and thousands of the ALSTON mills have been in constant use for nearly a quarter of a century, faithfully doing the work of water-lifting, to the satisfaction and delight of the foresighted and enterprising stock-owners who installed them ; now, seeing the advantages of their use, thousands of others are following their example. The windmill is, beyond dispute, the simplest, most reliable, and at the same time the cheapest method of raising water for stock. If you are interested further, write for a full and descriptive catalogue from the maker. The address is JAMES ALSTON, QUEEN'S Bridge. South Melbourne. This will give you a full and fair description of all different size mills that he makes, from the six to the twenty-live foot diameter wheel ; what each size will do, and what they will cost. IT WILL PAY YOU TO DO SO. OF THe JOURNAL -^r^oVc BOTANICAL aAKOBN. Tfte department of Mgricufture ov VICTORIA. Vol. X. Part 1. 10th January, 1912. CD ^- CD LU Li- bee-keeping IX VICTORIA. F. R. BtiiJiiic, Bee Expert. I.— LOCATIOX. Bee-keeping in Victoria is carried on under different conditions to those existing in otiier countries. In the Northern Hemisphere, and also in New Zealand, tiie principal supply of nectar comes from ground flora on meadows, roadsides, fields and woods. In Victoria, we depend almost exclusi\-elv on our eucal\i)ts and a few other native trees and shrubs. Owing to our hot summers, which pre\ent the secretion of nectar in soft herbaceous plants, except on irrigated land and in exceptionally cool districts, the amount of honev obtained from other than native flora is small in comparison with the quantity harvested from eucalypts. Even where climatic conditions a,re favourable to the sc^cretion of nectar, the system of closelv feeding down pastures, which is largely practised in Australia, does not permit of the proper development of the nectar-producing plants and the maximum production of nectar. As probably over 90 per cent, of the honev produced in Victoria is obtained from eucalypts, this fact should be borne in mind when sielecting a district in which to commence bee-keeping. With the opening up of countrv to settlement, the natural honey resourojs are to a large extent destroyed. It is a natural and inevitable result and no claim can be made on behalf of bee culturie to have the whole of the country kept in its natural .state. Everv countr\ , however, must have forests and timber reserves to maintain the supply of timber, to protect the sources of water supply, and to exercise a beneficial influence on the climate. As the forests of Victoria are now permanentlv reserved and are being improved by thinning, pro- tection against fires, and new plantations, they afford ample scope for apicultural enterprise and a great expansion of the bee-keeping indui^try. Moreover, the advent of irrigation .settlement on a large scale, together 17!: 02. A Journal of Agriculture, Yictoria. [lo Jan., 1912. with the practice of cutting fodder crops instead of feeding them off, will make bqa-keeping profitable in many places where, under the old system of continuous eating off, it could not be engaged in. Selection of Locality. For the purpose of becoming conversant w'ith the habits of bees, to get some practice in handling them, and to gain the knowledge and experience not obtainable from literature, bee-keeping may be commenced almost anywhere. When, however, it is taken up as a business, a suitable district is essential to success. In selecting a site, due consideration should be given to the two main factors ; namely, the amount and \-ariety of bee flora within a radius of two or three miles of the site chosen. The permanency of the bee flora is, however, the most important consideration, and the intending bee-keeper should locate on, or close to, some permanent forest or other reserve, so as to avoid the risk of having his honey resources destroyed by the ring-barking of the trees. 1 ^^■^ 4tv. A BEE FARM IN EAST GIPPSLAND AN IDEAL SITUATION FOR AN APIARY. In some of the best honey country in Victoria, consisting almost entirely of yellow box and red gum for many miles in extent, there is a deficiency of pollen-producing plants befor'e and after the honey-flow. With a scarcity of pollen, colonies cannot attain their maximum development, and therefore the best results can only be obtained where the bees, prior to the honey-flow, are kept elsewhere. Thus, a practice has sprung up amongst bee-keepers of having two sites for an apiarv — one for breeding up in spring and wintering; the other for securing the honey crop. The moving of the bees from the winter site to the honey country, and back again when the honey-flow is over, entails a considerable amount of work, which can be avoided if a site is secured on the torder line of the two classes of country. Licences. When locating on forest or other Crown lands, it is necessary' to obtain two licences — a bee-farm licence for one acre upon which to place the lo Jan., 1 91 2.] Bee-keeping in Victoria. apiary, and a bee-range licence which secures to the holder the exchisive use of the bee flora for a radius of one male. No other bee-farm licence is allowed at a lesser distance than two miles. The payments to be made are is. a year per acre for a bee-farm site, and ^d. per acite for the radius of the bee range, or about ^4 4s. a vear. Site of Apiary. Having decided upon the locality, the spot upon which the hives are to be set out should be selected, with due regard to its suitabilitv for the bees and convenience of working the apiary. An even, gently sloping surface, of gravelly or sandy soil, will be found most suitable. It should, if possible, be sheltered by a natural or artificial breakwind on the south and west. A slope to the north or east is prefer- able to one to the south or west. The honey-house should be placed at the lower end, and the hives arranged in such a way that a good general view can be obtained from the door and windows of the building, so that during the swarming season the apiary may be under observation while necessary indoor work is being done. Having the building at the lower end of the ground has the double advantage of getting a better view of the whole apiary and of moving the supers of heavy honeycombs down hill at extracting time It is not advisable to stand hives under evergreen trees, such as pines or eucalypts. Colonies in permanently shaded positions never thrive so well as others out in the open. If placed under deciduous trees, as for instance in an orchard, the hives will have shade during the hottest part of the day in summer, and sunshine during the cold months of the year when the trees are not in leaf. Arrangement of Hives. In laying out the apiary, it is better to place the hives in groups of twos, tlirees, or fours, with a longer distance between the groups, than to stand the hives singlv in rows. The group system lends itself better to the various necessary operations of uniting or dividing colonies and in moving about amongst the hives ; it gives more space between the groups than would be the case between the same number of hives placed singly. When grouping hives, the entrances should point in different direc- tions. None, however, should face the south, as th,e strongest and coldest winds come from that quarter. It is also advisable to vary the grouping so that no two adjoining groups will be exactly alike. This will to a gneat extent prevent the straving of returning field bees and the loss of virgin queens returning from 'their mating flight. The latter frequently occurs when hives stand in symmetrical rows and without any variation in the arrangement and without distingu'shing landmarks. {To be continued.) Journal of Agriculture^ Victoria. [lo Jan., 191 2. BEES AXD SPllAYING. E. E. Pcscott. Principal. Horticultural School, Burnley, and F . R. Beulnic , Bee Ex-pert. The establishment of an apiaiv at the Burnley Horticultural Gardens has furnished an opportunity for obser\-ing and recording data regarding^ the working of bees among fruit trees, and the effect of the various orchard operations upon the bees. The apiarv was established during the spring of last yea;r ; and, although it is too earl\ to es'.tablish any definite con- clusions, certain observations have already le for cross-fertilization purposes. .'lo Jan., 191 2.] Bees and Spravuig. It has been frequently stated, especially in publications dealing exclu- :sively with the honey bee, that spra\ing the fruit trees, at the time when the trees are in blossom, will cause great mortalitx amongst thf bee colonies, particularly if the spray be a poisonous one. \Vhene\-er losses of bees occur in apiaries located in or near orchards in which spraying is practised, the -owners assume that the mortality is due to the poisons used in the spraying mixtures. So far. there appeals to be no proof that bees gather poison along with nectar and pollen, nor is there any instance on record of the poisons ha\"ing' been proved, b\ anal}sis. to be present in dead bees, bee hirvse, pollen, or honey. Dead bees may often be found not only on the blossoms of fruit trees which were not sprayed, l)ut also on acacia and other flowers blossoming at the same time. Heavy losses of bees from unknown causes occasionally ■occur at the time of fruit bloom in localities where there are no fruit trees at all ; while, on the other hand, apiaries located close to orchards in which tlie trees were sprayed repeatedly, suffered no perceptible loss and were in a thri\-ing condition. Again, bees might net be affected b\ the amount of poison gathered with the nectar, but it might be sufficient to kill the i)rood. In an independent experiment made last season, iron sulphate, i i)art in 400 of sugar s\rup, was (juite harmless to bees, but killed all the brood. In the ABC and- X Y Z of Bee Culture it is stated definitely that spraying trees during bloom is destructive to bees and brood. We quote — Now that spraying with various poisonous liipiitls has come to be almost universal among fruit-growers, the cpjestion arises, " Shall such spravini; be done during the t'me the trees are in bloom, or before and after .'" If it is administered when "the petals are out, bees are almost sure to be poisoned, much brood will be killed, and many times valuable cjueens are lest. About the first thing one notices during fruit-blooming time, if trees are sprayed while in bloom, is that a good deal of the brood dies, until the bee-kee])er begins to wonder whether the bees have foul brood, black brood, or ])ickled brood — unless the truth dawns ujion him that they have been carrying in poisonous licpiids from the trees that have just been sprayed. It is not advocated in this article that fruit trees should be sprayed when in full blossom ; the spraying operations can usually be conducted •either before or after the flowering stage. It was pointed cut in the January, igii, article previously referred to, that rain at the blossom time seiliously interferes with pollen action, and naturally liquid sprays would have the same effect. But there may be times when necessity compels the grower to spray at this season. At the Burnley orchards, there are altogether over 1,800 varieties of fruit trees, which bloom at ^•arious times — fromi the end of August t(j the beginnmg of November. Hence, the trees, particularly the apple and pear trees, must be sprayed at a time when some of them are in bl:,om, with both Bordeaux mixture and arsenate of lead. And this occurs every season. During last year, the pear trees were sprayed with Bordeaux mixture when some were in blossom ; while, later on. a number of apple trees were .sprayed with lead arsenate when in bloom. Under these circumstances it was decided to make observations in order to establish reliable data on this question. At the Burnley apiary, the bee hives are right under the fruit trees, and at the time of spraying with Bordeaux mixture the gmund had not vet been ploughed, so that the spray fell not only on any fruit blossoms which were open, but also on the C'ape weed then abundantly in bloom. Journal of Agricidiiirt , Victoria. [lo Jan., 191 2. Neither the spraying with Bordeaux mixture nor the subsequent one with arsenate of lead had any effect whatever upon the bees, the colonies developing normally and wi,thout any check ; there was not at any time dead brood in the hives. There is no doubt that under the atmospheric conditions prevailing at thie time the spraying of the trees proved quite harmless to bees. Observations will, however, be continued in future, to demonstrate whether spraying is injurious to bees at all ; or, if so, under what conditions. DAIRY PRODUCTS FROM THE LONDOX MARKET. R. Crowe, Exports Superintendent. Since it was impracticable to afford visitOTs to the Royal Agricultural Society's Show a trip to London tO' see how our products compare there with tho.se from other countries, the next best thing was adopted. Certain products from countries with which, w^e have to comipete against in London were procured there in the open market and displayed side by side with our own at the last Show in ■Melbourne The whole of the exhibits excited the keenest interest, and the movement proved an unqualified success. The educational effect upon all concerned was most marked, and was greatly appreciated. Butter. Butter from Denmark, Siberia and Ireland was shown alongside some from Victoria that had been purchased on the London market at the same time as the others and returned to Melbourne. The cask of Danish butter contained one cwt. The butter itself was of excellent quality, and as pleasing to the eye as on the palate. In appearance, it was of a nice straw colour, with a seemingly transparent surface characteristic of fresh well-made butter which has not been overworked, or plastered in finishing. A small label about 4 in. x 2 in., bearing the national trade mark (the " Lur " brand — the old vikings' trumpet) rested on top of the butter. On endeavouring to remove the label it was found to break away, the reason being obvious^ — to prevent its transference from one package to another. A disc of fine quality butter paper, corresponding in diameter to the top of the cask, covered the butter before the lining paper was folded in. The folding was so regularly and daintily accomplished as to resemble a circular fan. The cask was made of white beech, with white willow hoops. One of the staves bore the impression of the national trade mark, while the factory's brand occupied a place on the head of the cask. The flavour of the butter was all that could be desired. Upon analysis, it was found to contain 94.19 per cent, butter fat, 13.97 per cent, moisture, 1.2 per cent, salt, 0.64 per cent, casein, and no boric acid. Reichert value, 30. The cask of Siberian butter was of the same size as the Danish, but the package and contents were inferior to it in every respect. The package consisted of material more roughly dressed and put together. The butter was lifeless in appearance ; in flavour, it was not comparable to the Danish, and about a quarter of an inch of dairv salt was spread over the top surface. There was no national brand, and the contrast generally was quite pronounced. Upon analysis, the butter was found to contain 86.7 per cent, butter fat, 10.88 per cent, moisture, 1.72 per cent, salt, 0.7 per cent, casein, and no baric acid. Reichert value, 28. lo Jan., 191 2.] Dairy Products from the London Market. DANISH BUTTER. SIBERIAN BUTTER. IRISH BUTTER. AMERICAN LARD. Journal of AgricidUirc, Victoria. [lo Jan., 1912. The Irish butter was packed in a deal box containing 56 lbs., which was slightly wider each way at the top than at the bottom, no doubt to enable the contents to be more readily placed on the grocer's counter. As regards quality and appearance, there was not much to choose between the Siberian and Irish butters. The latter contained 84.53 P^r cent, butter fat, 12.8 per cent, moisture, 2.07 per cent, salt, 0.6 per cent- casein, and no boric acid. Reichert value, 30.7. The box of Victorian butter bore the Commonwealth stamp and cer- tificate number, and upon looking up its record it was discovered that originally it comprised portion of a parcel dealt with for export o^•er five months previously. Notwithstanding its age, the butter opened up in good condition. In the first place, it was not a superfine butter, and, of cour.se, was not up to the Danish standard. In any case, that could not be expected, as the Danish was probabh- not more than 9 or 10 weeks old. The Victorian butter wms decidedly better than the Siberian or Irish, and it opened up in accordance with the grade originally awarded to it. Slight depreciation had taken place, but not sufificient to warrant it being placed in a l(;wer grade. Cheddar Chel. ENGLISH CHEDDAR CHEESE. Canadian [HEODARCHtrSE CANADIAN CHEDDAR CHEESE. The lessons to be deduced were, first of all, the thoroughness ap- parent in every detail connected with the Danish product, the make and cleanliness of the package, the dainty finish, and the impression of the national mark ; the butter itself left nothing more to be desired. Since the Show it is pleasing to note that some Victorian butter factories have materially improved the appearance of their butter, by paying more attention to the finish and the folding in of the paper, and completing it with an attractive paper seal. Cheese. English Cheddar. Canadian Cheddar, English Cheshire, Dutch Edam and Gouda cheeses were shown, the two latter being typical of the kind for which there is a great demand in the Ea.st. The Cheshire and Cheddar cheeses were 90 lbs. each, and symmetrical in .shape. The (]uality of all varieties was very fine indeed. Comparisons could not be (h^awn, .so regular and characteristic was each make. Upon cutting, the texture was close, meaty, and everything that could be wished for. \\'hen advising makers of cheese during the previous season as to the sizes required for the English market, the greatest difficulty was experi- enced in persuading some manufacturers to depart from the 40 lbs. size lo Jan., 19 1 2.] Dairy Products from the Loudon Market. and to make cheese of 60 lbs. each. Not the slightest trouble was encountered in convincing all who saw the exhibits of the advantages possessed by the larger cheese. Locally, small cheeses are probably pre- ferred because, on account of the plentifulness of meat, cheese does n.t enter largely into the diet of the people, and the average grocer takes a long time to cut the last of a cheese. In England, however, where the population is dense, and cheese forms no inconsiderable pioportion of the working man's d:et, a number of large cheeses mav be cut out in a single day. From the manufacturer's point of view, everything is to be gained by making the large sizes for export, since less surface is exposed for evaporation and loss in weight per lb. than is the case with small sizes. In a climate such as ours, with a comparatively dry atmosphere, this is most important. In addition, two large 90 lb. cheeses goi in one case, whilst a slightly smaller case will hold only three of 40 lbs. each, or two of 60 lbs. each. It will therefore be recognized that a ton of the larger size cheese would cost much less for casing than a ton comprising the smaller sizes. Again, the grocer in London is prepared to pay more for the large sized cheese, because there is less rind or waste per \h. than is the case with small ones. Briefly, then, the cheese-maker bv making large sized cheese has more to sell, it costs less to pack for market, and a higher price can be realized. The analyses were as follow : — — Moisture. Ash. Proteids. Fat. Milk Suj?ar. 0/ /o 0/ /o % [ 26-33 \ - Nitrogen V y 6-37 J 0/ /o 0/ /o English Cheddar 36-25 3-75 29-95 3-74 Cheshire 39-11 2-CO 24-50 31-28 31 1 (liouda 40-12 5 95 25-01 24-60 4 -.32 Canadian Cheddar 33 53 3-55 25 33 35-58 2 01 Pig Products. Bacon from Ireland, Canada, Denmark and Holland ; hams from Yorkshire, Ireland and United States ; and lard from Ireland, Denmark and L^nited States were displayed. All of the sides of bacon were much larger than is favoured locally, and were dusted over with ground pea meal. Upon cutting, the quality did not impress experts, and their verdict was confirmed by frying rashers in the pan. They were mild cured, and the flesh was coarse and flabby, proving that feeding had not been considered in order to "top off" and harden the flesh. In curing, also, the minimum loss in weight was evidentlv aimed at. The one great lesson was that baconers from 130 to 170 lbs. represent the typical weights required in England, 150 lbs. being tlie ideal weight, whilst here the weights range from 120 to 150 lbs. Nearly all breeders know that it costs less per lb. to produce a pig of 180 lbs. weight than one of 130 lbs. weight, the cost per lb. for the last 50 11 js. being much less than for the first 130. The hams were not in any way exceptional, and did not call for special mention. The Yorkshire ham was unsmoked aUvd on that account appeared less attractive than the others. Journal of Agricidiure, Victoria. [lo Jan., 191 2. BflCON IRISH BACON. CANADIAN BACON. DANISH BACON. DUTCH BACON. YORKSHIRE HAM. IRISH HAM. AMERICAN HAM. ic Jan., igi2.] Dairy Products from the London Market. ii The lard from Irt-land and Denmark was put up in bladders, whilst the American was packed in a pail, very attractively got up. It is im- probable, however, that either of these forms will be adopted here W'hen an export trade is de\eloped. At various times lard has been exported from Victoria packed in butter boxes ; the stowing on board ship for long voyages is the determining consideration. Poultry. Sussex, Surrey, Irish, Canadian and French chickens were shown, and a glance was sufficient to enable one to recognize the difference in breeding, quality and packing. The case of French chickens stood out from all the rest as regards regularity of size, colour and plumpness. VICTORIAN I'ORK. There was little to choose between the Sussex and Surrey chickens ; they were uniform in colour, size, weight and condition, with white legs, and cleanly got up. In the case of 12 Irish chickens, at least eight different colours and shades of colour could be distinguished. The birds were not uniform in size and condition, and of course were discounted in consequence. The get up of the Canadian birds was even worse. The variety of colours was not so great, but the want of regularity in size and condition was more apparent; in addition, the feet had not been washed before killing. A glance at the exhibits as a whole was sufficient to impress one with. the advantages resulting from grading into uniform classes and exercising care in regard to everv detail in trussing and packing. Journal of Agriculture. Victoria. [lo Jan., 1912. BUILDING HINTS FOR SETTLERS. XVI._TWO-BAIL MILKING SHED. /. \Vilsoii. Silo Builder. The accompanying plan of a milking shed is the first of a series which it is proposed to publish from time to time in the Journal. This is a simple and sanitary shed meeting all the requirements of the Milk <_ ygj! "71^ >o 6\" -i -;k ^ \}r M P\ \A ^ %' A ^ ^j/^^^^^:^^r ---;i- mm ■^ ^ :^^i m:. PLAN OF TWO-BAIL MILKING SHED. and Dairy Supervision Act. It can be erected at a small cost, without the assistance of outside labour. The Avoodwork is all sawn timber, as follows : — Angle studs, 4 in. x 4 in. hardwood. Plates, rafters, runners for bails, tongi.es, and two short braces for front and all other studs, 4 in. x i^ in. hardwood. Purlins and rxmners for iron, 3 in. x i| in. hardwood. Braces, 3 in. x i in. hardwood. The shed is lined on the inside with galvanized corrugated iron, the small corrugations making a neat finish. Lining the walls on the inside 1 '■) I AN. , 19 1 2.] Building Hints j or Sctihrs. 13 WPiS Hill' 'ill iiii W Il'i.'!{{|]{||{l|| ll^ n n /J ■^ FRONT ELEVATIOX SiDE ELEVATION. 14 Journal of Agriculture, Vicloria. [lo Jan., 1912. does away with the angles and corners which are formed wliere the usual practice is followed. This prevents cobwebs, dirt, &c., from accumu- lating, and the walls can also be more readily washed with a mop or swab. As shown, the floor provides a raised kerbing, dung space, and gutter at the rear of the cow. A brick cess pit is also provided on the outside of building ; this is connected with the brick gutter by an open iron gutter, the end of which projects ih in., and allows the fluid to flow into a kerosene tin placed in the pit. Timbers should be tarred or painted, preferably before trection. The approximate cost of material landed on truck at Melbourne is jQ6 17s. Material for Tzvo-hail Milking Shed. Hardwood — 4 in. X 4 in. — two g ft. ; three 7 ft. lengths. 3 in. X 3 in. — one 7 ft. length. 4 in. X i^ in. — four 12 ft. ; two 11 ft. ; eleven 9 ft. ; two 8 ft. ; four 5 ft. ; two 4 ft. ; two 3 ft. lengths. 3 in. X I5 in. — four 12 ft. ; seven 9 ft. leng'.hs. 3 in. \- I in. — two 14 ft. ; one 12 ft. length. Corrugated galvanized iron, 26 gauge — ten 6 ft. lengths (roof). Small corrugated galvanized iron, 26 gauge — eleven g ft. ; four S ft. lengths (walls). Springhead nails, 2^ in. — 2 lbs. lo Jan., 19 1 3.] Sil'>s a)id Silage. Galvanized clout tacks, i^ in. — t^ lbs. Bolts and nuts — two 5 in. x 5 in. ; two 7 in. x { Cement — two bags. Sand — two loads. Bricks— 268. SILOS AXD SILAGE. a. II. F. Baker. Silo Supcrvh'n . A silo is a practically air-tight receptacle in which green fodder is stored in a succulent state. In this condition it will remain for as long a period as required without deteriorating in value. The material thus preserved is known as ensilage or silage. Correctly, the word "silo" means a pit; but it may be a square, round, or oblong receptacle of any size below or above ground. Methods of Silage-makixg. There are various methods of silage-making, and it is immaterial which is followed, as long as care is exercised and a good sample is obtained. The farmer should never neglect an opportunity to have some such fodder stored on the farm. Pit Silo. — The underground or pit silo was the first style adopted in Victoria and it met with varying success. It may be of any shape, pro- vided the wall surface is comparatively smooth and as plumb as possible, the bottom being the full width of the upper portion. The reason for this is that, as the silage settles down, any unevennes.s of the wall surface is liable to allow of air entering the mass and decomposition occurring at that place. In hillside situations or porous soil, the wall or floor surfaces may be left in their natural conditions, but where drainage is necessary it should be walled with slab, brick or cement ; also provide a pipe or other means to carry off any .sub-surface moisture to prevent the silage being damaged thereby. The difficulty of properly draining the underground silo and of hoist- ing the silage, together with the cxDst of excavating, bricking, &c., has militated against the adoption of this system to any great extent. Stack Silage. — Stack silage has also been more or less popular in many districts for a few years, and it is a very good makeshift method of preserving green fodder in years of superabundant growth. Tub Silo. — Some fourteen years ago the overground, or tub silo as it is now called, was introduced to Victoria from America ; and, owing to the ease w^ith which it is both filled and emptied, it has almost super.seded all other forms of silo. It was first introduced to the Victorian fanners by the late David Syme. Professor Cherry, then lecturer on Scientific Dairying to the Department of Agriculture, was so favourably impressed with its utility that he advocated its adoption far and wide. It has been considerably improved and cheapened since its introduction ; and now. with the assistance given by the Government by the extended payment system, it is within the reach of all Victorian farmers. The tub or overground silo may be built of brick, concrete, all .steel, all wood, or wood and iron combination, all of \\hich have proved satis- factory and have stood the test of time. 16 Journal of Agriculture ,\icioria. [lo Jan., 1912. The brick and concrete silos are tiie most costl\', l>ut their period of use- fuhiess is greater .->,,£^i^UB^^B^^ "te^ '"*- >>^^Mfl|H|l .^i^^ ^S^'swe^SaJfJ*^ gi,^^??^ p^ JK '■:-^..' W^ 1 ^^B^..- ^_,_, ,-di^^ jgjfcs- '* K^'- '■1 H^^^^^Hr ->,;- B 1 '( ^mk-' -■*-.■ ■ fe-' * lmg-r\ I 1 wsn^H Bt^*^.^ ^^SS^^^^^SS IPR^: •"f ■nr^ ' .: '-*' ^<**C"l_ ~"-'- k:^ ■ ■'",: 1 ^- :^1 . * 1 ■ Pl^ %---^.-t :*^' I ^ <■: i aj^m .-- . ,.^ t^n ^ : ^■:-*^^^^^.:- ^ ; -r iM ■■^ . 'm miM ■,;.,-' -'-fc ^IHI ;.-J--< ^-1i ''■Jt. PIT SILO. The all-steel portable silo, known as the Russell, is recommended where white ants are prevalent, where there is danger from l)ush iires, [■Hill wliud and iron Sii_0. or where the farmer is on a leased property. Being all steel, the white ants cannot destroy it. there is no fear of it being burnt, and it can be easily dismantled and rebuilt. lo Jan., 191--] Silos and Sila^^^t. 17 The all-wood silo can be cheaply constructed whfTe sawn tinilier is readUy [jrociiraljle. CONCRETE SILO. STEEL AND ALL WOOD SILOS. The wood and iron type of silo is very popular in all parts of the State; when properly constructed and limewashed before filling and after emptying, it will last many years. i8 Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo Jan., 1912. When to Cut a Crop for Silage. The time at which to cut a crop for silage varies with the different varieties usually ensiled. Thus, maize, one of the principal crops grown for silage, is ready when the bottom leaves are drying off and the grain is doughy and glazing. The same applies to sorghum, amber cane, planter's friend, millet, or teosinte. Oats, wheat, barley, rye, &c. , should be ensiled when on the turn from the green to ripening stage ; the grain will then be fairly full but milky. With weeds, thistles, wild oats, &c., it is necessary to ensile them as soon as the pollen appears, so as to prevent the seed from fouling the ground during the following season. When ensiling any immature growth it is necessary to mix some drier fodder with it to counteract the excessive moisture and thus prevent a soft mushy sour silage resulting. As legumes, such as beans, clovers, lucerne, peas, and vetches, have been found to give as good value when dry cured as hay, it is not ad- visable to ensile them, except as portion of a mixture. When ensiled by themselves the loss of food properties is greater than the gain in palata- bility and digestibility, the loss in the most valuable nutrients being the heaviest. Filling the Silo. Briefly, it may be stated that the preservation of green fodder as silage depends on the fermentation going on in the mass, which is con- trolled by the amount of air present. Should an excess of air be allowed entry, then decomposition sets in and the material is ruined. There are two recognized varieties of silage — sweet and sour. By sour, it must not be understood that the material is in any way offensive; it is pale greenish yellow in colour with a vinous odour. Sweet silage, on the other hand, is of a brown colour and has a sweet luscious odour. The sour variety is found more suitable for milking cows, while the sweet has been recommended for fattening stock. Slow filling and well trampling, by keeping a minimum of air in the silo, arrests the fermentation ; the temperature does not rise above 90 deg. Fahr., and sour silage is produced, whilst by quick filling the air is not so well drawn out, the temperature rises to 120 deg., or even to 150 deg. Fahr., and sweet silage is obtained. Filling too quickly is not considered an advantage on account of the liability of the mass to generate too great a heat with the result that the silage is liable to decompose. On the other hand, filling too slowly is liable to result in a cooling off of the material before sealing the mass down, with the result that loss ensues. Before commencing to fill the silo, the interior wall should be lime washed with a thick wash made of lime and skim milk. This may be done each evening after filling, using the silage as a stage. The wash is put on to protect the lining of the silo against the acid juices of the silage, and must never be neglected nor applied thinly. Unless unavoidable, the crop or material intended for silage should not be cut until it has reached the proper stage of maturity. Every effort should be made to ensile the material the same day as it is cut in the field. In order to exclude as much air as possible and economize space, it is necessary to reduce the fodder to a fine mass before filling into the silo. It is therefore necessary to pass it through a chaff or silage cutter and cut it into half to three-quarters of an inch in length. From the lo Jan., 191 2.] Silos and Silage. 19 cutter it is carried by means of an elevator or blower, which should deliver the material as near the centre of the silo as possible. This may be done by the aid of bag chute attached to the mouth of the elevator or the blower, whichever method is in use. The labour of distributing the fodder is thus minimized, and an even sample of the material will be distributed all over the silo. If the fodder be allowed to fall direct from the mouth of the conveyor, the heaviest parts will fall on one side, and the lighter parts on the other — the silage will not settle evenly and loss will eventuate. To assist in the close packing of the silage it is absolutely essential to well trample it all over the silo. Trampling the sides or around the edges is not sufficient, for with the shrinking of the centre the outer edges creep towards it and away from the walls, thus allowing access of air and consequent loss. The centre should always be kept a little higher than the outer edges. The rate of filling should not be under 5 ft. nor over 12 ft. per day. Avoid, as much as possible, delays in filling ; a day or less is not serious but a longer period will have adverse results. The amount of settlement that takes place after the silo has been filled, sealed, and weighted is a fair index as to how it has been filled and packed. In a well filled silo it will amount to close on 3 ft., and more in those that have not received proper attention. The writer has seen a shrinkage of 10 ft. in a 2i-ft. silo that had been filled to the top but was not trampled. The owner of this silo believed that trampling was injurious. but after one season's trial he is now a greater advocate for trampling and packing than he was for the other method. Too much stress cannot be laid on the importance of well packing tJie silage in the silo. Sealing and Weighting. The satisfactory sealing and weighting of the silo are also very im- portant features that make for success. Many devices have been tried with more or less success, but all that is necessary is to cover the green fodder with a sheet made of tarred bags and upon this place a foot of chaffed straw or other waste material, and well wet same. This is to encourage mould growths which act as an air-tight seal and thus preclude air from gaining access to the silage. Upon the top of this material place a foot deep of some weighty substances, such as sand, earth, logs, brick or stone, to press down the top 4 or 5 ft. of silage; all under that depth is pressed down by the weight ^'^ove. If the pre- cautions mentioned are taken, the farmer will be pleased with both silo and silage. The same precautions are necessarv when filling a pit silo, whether the fodder be chaffed or not. When ensiling whole sheaves in a pit silo, start building from the centre by first making a heap there and laying the sheaves in such a manner that they are placed lengthwise along the walls, not butt ends as in a stack. In this case the order is reversed to assist in excluding the air. Always build with centre higher than the sides; if time permits, cut the bands and remove them. If the pit is a large one, the ends of the pit should be sloped to admit of the waggons or drays being driven right through the silo and over the silage ; this will aid very much indeed in consolidating the silage. If a small silo is in use, take a draught horse into it and walk him around, after everv load is added, to pack the fodder. Seal in the same way as a tub silo, and weight with the earth taken out of the excavation. As shrinkacf? will be considerable, build the silage 20 JonniaJ of Agr!cultiin\ Victoria. [lo Jan.. 1912.. .several feet higher than the .surface. If it has been well filled and'' packed, it will only shrink to surface level. (^"ut drains around the -pit to prevent water flowing in. Stack Silage. A stack of silage is built in the same wav as a stack of hay. The- necessary precautions to take are to guard against building the stack large- in area and low in height, as a large amount of green material can be- placed in a .small area. Hav stack dimensions are of nO' value for silage- stacks. In general practice, it is found that one-fourth the area of a ton of hay will hold a ton of silage. During building, the stack sh;.ul(l be weighted every night after' ceasing work. This can be done by suspending weights on wires across the stack, or placing .some weightv material on it. Finish off the stack in a .suitable shape tO' resist the weather, and weight it tO' assist settling - and exclusion of air. Several ilevices for weighting suick silage have been tried, but none are .so satisfactory as the dead weight on top. It is ever doing its duty and does not require any attention after being placed there. I.ogs, stones, sand, bricks or earth may be used for weighting. One good plan is to make a framework of heavy saplings. Lav these around the- edges. cutting notches in them so that they will fit intO' each other where joined; then fill between them and all over the stack with earth. This • device will do good work and give satisfaction. Opening the Silo. When opening a silo carefully remove the weight and seal. The-- latter, together with any mouldy silage that may be on top. should be- placed on the manure heap for future use as humus for the soil. The silage required should be daily .scraped off in layers from the top- and bagged or passed down a chute to the feed truck. Avoid, as far as practicable, sinking holes in the silage; in fact, keep as little of the silage exposed to the air as possible. Remember, air is the chief factor in destroving silage. Some careful farmers cover their silage with a tarred bag sheet immediately they have removed all they want for the- day. Datlv Ration. The dailv ration of silage for a dairy cow i-;, fmm 30 to 40 lbs., when fed wnth other fodders; when there is some grass available. 30 lbs. per day is ample. Sheep will eat as much as 3 lbs. a day, but 2 lbs. will keep big wethers or ewes in good condition. . It is advisal)le tO' give- horses small quantities only of silage, otherwise there may be trouble from stomach derangements ; limit the amoimt fed to a few lbs. per day. Pigs and poultry will only eat .small quantities. Advantages of Silage. Silage mav be made of all plants that animals are allowed to eat in'" the green state and such fodder preserved by this means loses but littl'^ of its feeding properties in the process. In one way there is a slight improvement, that is, the tougher fibre of siloed fodder is softened and made therebv more digestible and acceptable to animals. At no time of the year do animals do better than in the height of -spring; they then rapidly make flesh and yield their maximum flow of lo Jan., 191--] Si/os and Silage. milk. It is tor these reasons that the silo is recommended to the farmer- so that the surplus growth of spring may be carried on in the same suc- culent condition to a leaner time. Dry fodder never ecjuals the rich spring growths. No other method of fodder conservation can hope to- approach the rational one of ensiling, for by that all the succulent juices are retained, the fibre is .softened, and little of the food properties are- lost; while, by dry curing the fodder, all the natural juices are lo.st. No fodder is relished .so much by stock as silage. Its influence is very beneficial to the animal sy.stem, is invigorating, and prevents cripples and impaction. Succulent silage makes for gcwd health and heavy milk flow^ With the help of a silo a farmer can take two crops off the same area in a year, for when a crop reaches the right stage of maturity it can be- chaffed direct from the field into the silo, leaving the land free to be manured, prepared, and sown with a succeeding crop for silage. The silo enables a farmer to make good use of all undesirable growths on the farm and to eradicate objectionable weeds ; seed of anv kind that has passed through the mild fermentation which goes on in a silo will not germinate. Silage made from any fodder can therefore be fed to animals without fear of spreading weeds. It is safe from the ravages of birds and vermin. There is no danger from fire, and when properly made it will remain in a tempting easily digested condition for years. In times of drought, as many animals die of impaction as of star- vation for the system is imable to deal continuously with toughened hard- to-digest fodder with the con.sequent result that death takes place, whereas had the crop been converted into silage a soft succulent easilv digested fodder would have been available to tide the animals over the period of scarcity. Crops can be ensiled at their best and placed ready for feeding at any time. On farms where green fodder crops are grown, and where ensiling is not practised, it is necessary to start carting the fodder for succuleiit feed before it is at its best. In many cases where the crop is an autumn one, reaping is continued into winter long after the crop has reached maturity and been damaged by frosts. The loads must of a necessity be light to enable the horse to pull it out of the paddock. The land is cut into ruts, making ploughing the following spring very difficult, whereas if this crop had been ensiled it could have been left till it reached the right stage of maturity and then ensiled in the long (lays when it is pleasant to work and when the ground is firm. The silage is ready for feeding in the short days of winter and unpleasant tasks are escaped. Every year, in all parts of the State, there is a shortage of succulent fodder, from late summer to early spring, but by the aid of the silo cattle can, with profit, be tided over this time of stress. The dairy returns can be kept up — prices for dairy produce are highest in the lean times. Silage therefore keeps up the dairy returns, keeps the stock healthy and thriving, enables the farmer to carrv more stock, spurs him on to better efforts in all his farming pursuits by increasing the profits of the farm and aids in keeping up the fertility of the soil. No one who has fed silage to his stock would hesitate a moment before stating that a- farm is not complete without a silo. 22 Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo Jan., 1912. Throughout the whole of the State every spring there is an abundance of growth which goes to waste. A few weeks later it would be ot great benefit and assistance to the animals on the farm in enabling them to digest the hard dry innutritions fodder at their disposal, which is only eaten when necessity compels. It is therefore the duty of every farmer to equip his farm with a silo. THE ARTIFICIAL MANURES ACTS. UNIT VALUES FOR 1912. P. Rankin Scott, Chemist for Agriculture. The Amending Artificial Manures Act of 1910 requires that manu- facturers or importers shall, on or before ist November in each year, register the brands of their several fertilizers, and at the same time supply to the Secretary for Agriculture, under declaration, the name and address of manufacturer or importer, the place of manufacture, the raw material from which the manure is manufactured or prepared, a statement of the percentages of nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash contained in the manures, and the retail price per ton. From these percentages of plant foods and prices, the unit values of the constituents which have a com- mercial value are calculated, and these unit values constitute the basis of calculating the values of all manures for the period during which the registered brands continue in force, i.e., until the publication in the Government Gazette of the list of registered brands for the following season. A fixed limit of deficiency is allowed in all fertilizers (see schedule hereunder). When a manure is shown to contain less nitrogen, phosphoric acid, or potash than the proportions stated on the label or in the invoice certificate, to the extent set forth in the schedule, the vendor is liable to a fine of ;£io for a first offence, and ^50 for any subsequent offence. vSCHKDULE. Description of Manuv All manures containins' nitrogen All manures containing potash All manures containing water soluble phosphoric acid All manures containing citrate soluble phosphoric acid All manure containing citrate in- soluble phosphoric acid . . Percentagss of Deficiency allowed in regard to Ingredients of Fertilizing Value. XoTB.— Provided that the total phosphoric acid deficiency shall not exceed 1-50 per cent. lo Jan., 1912.] Ariiflcial Maiucres Ads. 23 The label and invoice certificate referred to above are those mentioned in sections 5 and 7 of the principal Artificial Manures Act of 1904. These clauses require the vendor to attach to each bag a label or tag, declaring the composition of the manure sold in quantities exceeding 56 lbs., and to deliver to all purchasers of manures, at the time of sale, an invoice certificate conveying similar information to that required to be stated on the label. Practical Utility of Unit Value System. From the unit values and the guarantee contained on the tags or invoice certificates, it can be readily ascertained whether the price asked for a fertilizer is its reasonable commercial value (see method of calculation). It will be noted that the price asked for mixed manures is generally higher than the commercial value which would be arrived at by means of a calculation from, the unit value, but it must be remembered that in fixing the unit values no allowance is made for the cost of mixing .and other incidental expenses, but only the actual value of the constituents which have a commercial value is taken into account. The unit values and methods of calculation .are shown hereunder : — Unit Values of Manures for 191 2. [Calculated from declared f rices of Fertilizers registered at the Office of the Secretary for Agriculture.) s. d. I per cent, of nitioyen in the form of nitrate ... ... ... ... 17 5 I per cent, of nitrogen in the form of ammonia ... ... ... ... 14 9 I per cent, of nitrogen in the form of blood ... ... ... ... 12 9 I per cent, of nitrogen in the form of fine bone ... ... ... i^ 9 I per cent, of nitrogen in the form of coarse bone ami unspecified ... 12 o I per cent, of phosphoric acid as water soluble ... ... ... 4 9 I per cent, of phosphoric acid as citrate soluble ... ... ... 40 I per cent, of phosphoric acid as fine bone ... ... ... ... 46. I per cent, of phosphoric acid ao coarse bone ... ... ... ... 40^ I per cent, of phosphoric acid as insoluble, in bone su[)erphosphates, and Thomas phosphates ... ... ... ... ... ... 3 *^ I per cent, of phosphoric acid as insoluble, in all other manures ... 2 o I per cent, of potash in the form of sulphate ... ... ■■• ••■ 5 5 I per cent, of potash in the form of chloride ... ... ... .•■ 4 ^ Method of Calculating the Commercial Value of a Manure. The commercial value per ton of a manure sold in Victoria is obtained by multiplying the percentages stated of the fertilizing substances bv the corresponding unit values lixei" "lerefor, and adding the separate values t<\^:lhtr. Examples : — ■ 1. XiTKATE OF Soda — Invoirc (■(■rtif\<-at( or tcKj, \o '50 per ci; lit. niirof/cn. Colndatioii— £ "■ dA 1O-50 X 17s. 5d. = ... ... ... 13 10 0 Calculated vahie per ton = ... ... 13 10 0 24 Journal of Agriculture, Yictoria. [lo Jan., 1912. 2. .SuPliRPUOSPHATE — Incolct certi/fcdte or fag — Water soluble phosphoric acid Citrate soluble phosphoric aci OtO 0 !D 0 !DO 0 00 CD so 000 CO to 0 0 0 t~ 0 t- ^ t~ !M I> 0 IM 0 0 0 0 t- t- 0 OiO IM t+« (M IM ea ■* ■* ■* ^ ■* ■* ■* >o TjliOiO inu5 lOin rH lO iH 1— t r-4 0 35 (1( 3 0 H 0 0 00 0 0 00 00 •* 00 00 000 l> 0? 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 00 00 09 03 0 t~ 99 109 ^05 00159 030 35 eij 03 9 03 •* ^ •* (M IM (M (N N r^<^^ 1 0 0 0 00 00 IM tooo 00 0 0 Oinio 00 (-1 S? ■0 0 IM (M C-J IM 99 0 00 00 ■^ .-100 (MO 00 >ooo 00 0 o5 •* ■ 0 ie d ^0 0 0 OI> ^ I> t^ t- t-t- tH iH COM COM 0000 NO0(M 0 00 -^ ■*rH r-f t-l T-l .H r-t CO a ^00 00 (M 0 lOinO 0 0 bc lOrH 0 0^ J3 1— ' I— t rH »-( *^ ."I !2i . 0 02 OD TJM • cc .M MM g^ ■=! 0 tfl pq !3 M %< I-i Vi _, —■■— r-i-T^a M 0 ll •^ J5 s d — .d frH 03 c4 X-t ^ , ■f2^S .a! 'Si 0 1^ 03 1i^ .3t3 Fede Fede Nc Fede S. ar Cock .14 s •8 'fl s u 0 2 5 d .S S 2 .^ -«1 a £ 1 P. 1 p. s t4 a d 1 ' ' . -,-1 ■ rf ' O .S3 5^ £W o +=■- g (5 S , o - -.2Pd •ai S ID .[T o 00000 o--oooocooto« i> o>n>noi> o'^]t-omt~0(Mt~ c § S = S ie 8 0 0 0 0 a 0 -T3 -g p^ ■^ sy i ■rt s C3 a op - eS 0 0 iftiriiO-^if^OO Oi ty o d O) oscs^ot-ciosos*.* 00 00 O O 00 O irt »rt lO o>om csai 00000*0 0*!M 00 0-*0000lN c- t- t~ t- O 00 rH 00 lO O 00 irt X O O O OS O O C5 »n C5 inmo— IOOO30O t^(N>ffliOiooO'*>n if^irtiooiAOOioirt 00 00 o o 00 o ^o »o 1^5 CO rH rt -I ^ o 00 in 00 ooooJOeoeo la t-r- 00 Tjlo ■* OCO ot-O'^osO'* ■* O lOOXMOvO o lOtDooo o m o la o o >n * o lo i>oo(Mvn ot-ooao>ni>oDio 00 00 00 00 tr-l rtCOr-l'MTllOOMO T)< T-l I-l ^ ^ or-o 00 ooooooiHr- in o i« CO la TO 00 >aco 10 1* o 10 t-i o e» CO *C0 OCO *00 laiMOino >ft o o osoous-HO t^ooot^in i> o oio o to i> o lA (M ?1 0> !M 00 ?] O X C-. 00 00 iM O X in in lO o mioooo 000000 in OM r* c^ in 00 in 000 inininin t>-o o OrHiHOiH O-HfMr-li-lrHO-H'M ousin coco M 00 O O t^ O 00 Oinom-^iM ■* CO CO CO (M ff] ■* CO 3 -"2 S 03 on i?^.a ^ : • OS s^4 ?^ (D Ti ' 6C • ■ — 05 r^J" a. ^ — acBO o c3 cS -»!ffl o O o O =3 e3 ■(« M Iz; K g K jrH' N.gS'E, -Heel's 5 "i Jz; ;?; .a ft-H, (?; I?; .a p. S" i*2 s 2 !o a as ET ■5 =3. pq ?m'^'2 It on ■a 1^ ■f 2 •Is •^i s;g : : : d = a-S - - - a a - - - 00 -2S JiHirnal of Agriculture , Victoria. [ro Jan., 191 2. o 3 a §« £•=! ==s gs = s A. H. Hase Mt. Lyell bourne rphy Peni er an A. Mil G. W. Wisch Aust. Mel H. B. bou Cumin bou crt »o 1:0 !£) ift ?D o in CO ic 1ft M ic CO ■^ in cc sc cc in c cooooocoo c cocoooooo 00 xcoioioxin^ccit-' in intNi-iNOccintMoo ■^o 000x00 C-IO OOOQOOO 00:0 oi GO H< o in CO o in 00 CO o -t*o-+oxo'tciin o CO o oj in CO X ci in in CO OlIXM -t « -* (M o in .-to 000000 00 o in 00 in 0000 ino ininTt^osoo inin in co c- inco oooin inco in-^i-ioioit^ 'tco c-i CD oii>co cococo-^ ^ ^ r~i^T~i,-i r-t CO i-( CO (M 'M CO O-l G-1 C-1 CO O O O O' X O O ( in 01 CO in CO c-i CO ; in CO 1-t in --H "^ r-* . coo 000x00 in ift «ci 01 o : CO CO (M « O OS xo-^oxo-^ccx cc:rcoiCo:DOir3c^ o 000000000 OOOO'NOOOM ■^rlOtrtcDOCOW ^ O O --H X f* O i-^ 05 c (MO OOOfMOO »oo tOOOt^OO C-liO COCOlOCCCOtC o o o o o o o -.o o <:cco:cininiaO'*x r^ (M T-l 1-1 (M O S-l Oi ■-• o :a3 MS •CO o- ^-, '^ SB CO m o Q ^. 2 3 '^ _r "^ ^•^ ^ 2 " 1^ =3 : t r.^ (2; .2 tK .2 "g O) — tc tcs 5 'S I ^ -=> . i: '~ ^ • ■ :;;:;: : : : : ■'P. . . : . ! ° "o .c '"5 n p. §• :0 :0 -.O oinK>nxi>o^siinxt-Oininint-xot-«:oo«;s^»i> 0 cooo CO OI> in — c;^^ncoc:lnoln30ln0ln3ooo£osx^nxln t- t- = 0 -M »>! 0 X — 1 0 "M -M -^ un IS in in c- 0 in c in 0 t- — t- -o in IN !M -M -M XC0rHCCt>»n'*t-Xr^w73Xt>-O-^rH ^71'-H-*XI>MX-)>^Xt-'M'M71'M533!M!»in-«'3;t-Xt>t- 0 --H T-^ in C0>* 05 1- O'-ooo-xoo-mcomcoooo 7^ !M -* 0 -M ■>] 'M "M 0 -M S; 31 in 0 0 ■>! = ininooomooc; — oin>nsc;c;c;inoc;c:xc;c;'noc -M t- 0 in -M -M s ■« 01 s •>! •:i Ti in = in = -M :; c: = .3 = r: •M r: - to inQO»o i-i (N cot^ooint— t— in?0'+^^coini— o-^ c: CI -T t- M in -M -0 t- -0 M in c- :£ X o — K c — -i .- in -w in -X c ■^ tC oc ■* c: 0 « X 7C = •M ■>! -^ 0 T-i X n 71 in c c 3 — in 0 0 in ~3 [> -xi ^ in — t- in -M un -f M :^ ■>! 0 33 1~ Oininsmsooccinoinmoinocrocioxoirincin cot— in-finincct— 3-flnI-s;x3i'-Hcco^3lnln«ln«-l■ " ^ = ~~ ^:3^rt„s^-^_^t~^~ic;t-'M-' -M=l-3-Hv-l^t-,^7l^^^.nr^ln-^^.-.r-<^-l-o.--.-. 0 ■M -M m in 0 -c -f 0 :o:ci-MCtcow-xininccc:ininoin -i> ^; X X t X I- I- -M c — m t- t- .r. -i oininoininooooininininoininooin — ininoincin — -X rj in t- t- 0 in c: — t^ t- X r- 3: t^ in I- in m — — t- in i\ in 3- .- X ^ r 30 Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo Jan., 1912. ■ * ^ r , ', , ', c 0 0 S 0 s g 3 S _ a; 0 0 6 tH j= 0 0 n 0 a 0 - : .0 " d 0 s . „ ^ 0 03 ■d "^^ ^ •a "■d =SPH ■^ 3 d 0 0 d d 1. S ® d 0 > : t :5 ;S > „J2 gcs Is at- < : - d a: ill 0 < Jd |1 a m ., bjb ^ -.Sd 0 ■d S 72 . 1 0 0000 0 0 0 00 00 oooo fi 2 fl '^ J "-go 0 0 0 in 0 c 0 in 00 00 0 0 5-1 C' M » •-' "^ Ph .^ S. '^ lO i> 0: X in m in -f t^ in in in in in CD in §1 A >o 00s 050 oinooo ss t- 00s 00 oi>t-c> 1 0 ■*(N ■*] If 5 CO CO in ■? rt 00 0 0 Ocp O*! H •* CO M C35 t^ i> C5 Tl< 00 C0 05 05 in t- CO " a tHeototo n 0 >-l 05 00 0000 ^ s? r-tfH tH rH IN n\ 0 ■*in i-HN 00 COrH cp inr-CTi 1 » I— 1 5.2 0 OtOMt- ■*o 0 rH in 00 ooino 14J= s? CO I>> CD ^ 0> QOO 0 r-os 00 00000 0 w 0 0000 Or-I -^ 00 1-t tH (MO 1-1 Oi OoO M aJ ^ 0000 00 in 0 00 00 ooino -S3 0? N OMt--* I> l> CO r-l i-H s d CM CO 125 d 'd, 13 !» "li^^ !« ^ 5"§5^5^§S|g^ja ■ sg-Soag-gSgi^-^oaig-g -<5^gg^^S^§^ ^^5li ^ oS^-^og^-^5^S^«'!o-^S^ t3 « ■^OOOOO 000000 OOOOiOOO 00000000000050tO!D!0«0 ciooooooooooo oinocctooo OOOOOOOm»0O>0i0t^t--(Mt>I^ ga^ r-lrHrH,-lrt i-l,-l ,-1 rt tH S°" t+i »o "^ »ft -^ *« ^ w c^ CO CO CO QO r^ :o TjH QO :o 0 inin>oaOQOoooo-*^cOT)(T)iTi<-*co-*-<)i (MOa(NIMr-lr-(rtrH>-lr-lr-lrHrHi-l J3 00 00000000000000000 1' •.T'TrrOOOOinOOOOOOOOO 1 -li Ph rHrHi-l'^^'^'^'^'^SOOOOmiOiOmm oooo 00 0 0000 -oo ^ o i> ,-1 1~ t^ ;S (M (N (N =: S 3,4.|^3^.g-§||HJ.§-§3 |h3J S^^feS^^SSW^^feSWS^ d 0 s 1 ? 0 1. 1 1 a •sa 0 a-< Q . . . ^ s : ; ;^i 0 _o. Q 0 5,.,.M.... =5 ~ 0 0 M 2; m n^ ;5 CL, di 3-' Jcnrnal of Agriculture, Xictor'ia. [lo Jan., ipiz- a Is o £ s I1IJI§2 Ji -T o 7^ =3 ^ r- - • Price asked for the Manure per ton> crt in :c :r l^ :c :0 o o :C in 2a r- F:- -)< -3 X -3 t- r: P- 5 w o ^ ? 2 f' 5 S f^ ? ? 5 9 U^ x ^ °-; — c >n = i> v« o O'. O 3 i n< S? r r r „■>,„„ .^ -M -., Ch d = -^ o c; -M e o 55 _^ ri « ccin M ?? CO -f « -.o ^ ^•g ^©^ IS- ^ I ?^ I S' : : :5 : : : : : = 25 20 lO 5 5 20 lo Jan., 1912.] Nhill Farm' Comfetitious, igii. 33. NHILL FARM COMPETITIONS, 1911. A. E. V. Richardson, M.A., B.Sc. (Agric), Agricultural Superintendent. In connexion with the Nhill Farm Competitions for 191 1, entries were received in the following sections : — Large Farms, Small Farms, Crops, Fallow. SECTION l.-LARGE FARMS. The following scale of points was used in judging these farms :^ A. Best system of cropping, r-tation, cultivation ... ... 35 B. Character^ condition, and value of fami crops ... ... 20 C. Condition of the fallow, taking area into consideration ... 20 D. Live Stock — [a] Horses (b) Sheep \c) Cattle (d) Pigs [e] Poultry E. General farm equipment F. Boundary and subdWisional fences and gates ... ... 20 G. The most complete and eiificient system of water storage ... 45 H. Arrangement, character, and condition of farm buildings ... 20 I. Best kept and most suitable orchard and vegetable garden ... 10 J. Best provision of reserve fodder ... ... ... ... 20 K. Best efforts in direction of tree planting ... ... ... 5 E. Farm and live stock insurance ... ... ••• ••• 5 Details of Judging. System of Cropping, Cultivation, Rotation, and Manuring. The general scheme of rotation and cropping varied within very small limits among the competitors in all sections. In most instances, the general plan followed was a four-course rotation in which wheat, pre- ceded by a bare fallow, headed the series. The wheat stubbles are usually burnt off ; and, after a preliminary discing, oats, either with or without manure, are sown as the second crop in the series. These oats are invariably stripped ; and, during the third year, the self-sown oats are grazed with sheep. Finally, the rotation is brought to a close with a season of bare fallowing, which .serves as a preliminary to the next wheat crop. Under such a scheme of rotation, it is apparent that only one- fourth of the holding is under wheat and one-fourth in bare fallow, whilst the remainder is either grazed or partially devoted to oats. On the larger holdings, the rotation is still further extended by interposing two years of grazing between each successive round of wheat crops. The rotation is thus a five years' course, comprising i, wheat; 2, oats; 3, grazing; 4, grazing; 5, fallow; 6, wheat; i.e., one wheat crop in five years. In other cases, two wheat crops were taken off in succession, thus necessitating one wheat crop being placed on stubble land — a very risky practice in a dry season — and the rotation then worked out as follows : — I, wheat; 2, wheat; 3, oats; 4, grazing; 5, grazing; 6, fallow. Whatever may be the merits of these various practices, it must be clearly apparent that they may only be profitably practised when land values are comparatively low, and when each individual holder has a relatively large area of land. With a considerable rise in the price of land, and the inevitable increase of population that mu.st be ahead of Victoria, these practices must undergo considerable modification in favour ] 7862. B 34 Jonnial of .\gri culture ,\ tetania. [lo Jan.. rgr:*. of rotations which will yield higher net returns per acre. Indeed, the time will soon come — if prices for land increase at a rate even approximating that of the last de- cade— before those who are now prac- tising such rotations will find it more profitable to sell their land and in- vest the money at fixed deposit rather than continue a svstem of rotation liy which only one crop of importance is obtained in four or five vears. In this connexion, sys- tematic and con- tinued experimental work, having for its object the test- ing of every pos- sible rotation likely to be suitable to the Wimmera dis- trict, would be of invaluable service to the primary pro- ducers of the dis- trict. Some of the farmers of the dis- trict have been ex- perimenting in this direction, but it must be recognized that the scope of any experimental work that may be carried out on a private farm under ordinary conditions is verv strictly lim- ited. The Man on the Land, though he may have the in- lo Jan., 1912.] A7//7/ Farm Comfctitiojis. iqi 1. 35 cl'iiation ami the patience, may wX always have tlie necessary time and facilities for carry- ing on experimental work of a far- reaching character. Tn this connexion it is pleasing to find that there are some in the district who do find time to tackle experi- mental work, and not solely on their own account, luit for the general ad- vancement of the agricultural prac- tice of the district. Mr. Batson, for example, has a most interesting collection of plots, which include, inter alia. Swedish oats, Polish wheats {Tn- ticiim Poloniciiiii). Emmer {T . di- cocciim). and many American wheats of the Durum class. like Ku- banka. Chul. (ial- galos, Fretes. Tur- key Red, as well as Egyptian wheat, rye and rye grasses, rape, barley, and lucerne. The American wheats referred to above are supposed to be very drought resistant in the United States, but they have yet to prove that claim in competition with the be.st of our Australian wheats. It is interesting to note that these I B 2 3*5 Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo Jan., 1912. American wheats did radier badly when first introduced, but Mr. Batson persevered with them; and now, having become acclimatized, they are showing up well in comparison with varieties like Federation, Dart's Im- perial and Jumbuck. Besides these variety tests, Mr. Batson has conducted manurial tests, and has experimented with forage crops such as rape and barley. This year, he has a fine crop of wheat grown after a rape crop which was fed down with sheep. Though, with Mr. Batson and Mr. H. E. Dahlen- burg, the rape crop has not been too successful, the principle involved in this departure from, the traditional practice of the district is of the very greatest importance. What is needed in the Wimmera is a hardy quick-growing winter forage, which, sown in autumn, will come up with the first rains ; and, maturing quickly, will be available in July and August before the natural herbage has made much growth. Could such a fodder be obtained, it is safe to say that it would lead to great developments in the Wimmera district, and the necessity for relying on the natural pasture and wild oats would be obviated. Further, if such a fodder were of a leguminous character, the additional advantage of increasing the organic nitrogen content of the soil would be gained. Barley is not appreciated to any large extent in the district, and this may be due to the fact that most attempts to grow good samples of malting barley have failed. The six-rowed barleys for feed are very drought resistant, especially if suitable varieties are chosen ; and, with proper treatment, they will be found a most profitable adjunct in any system of mixed farming in the drier districts of the State. Experimental work, however, is absolutely necessary for the con- tinuous and progressive advance of agricultural practice, and Mr. Batson stands out prominently by his enterprise in testing new varieties of wheat, oats, barley, rye, rape, grasses and lucerne, also in growing those that are most successful on a large scale, as well as in conducting manurial and other trials. The system of cultivation, manuring and rotation, adopted by Messrs. Crouch and Dahlenburg, differs very little in detail. Mr. Sanders, besides lengthening the chain of rotation, grows two wheat crops in suc- cession, one of which is on stubble land. It is not a practice, however, which could be generally followed with success ; and, if this season has not fully demonstrated the futility of growing wheat on stubble land in the A\'immera, it has, at least, done so in the other wheat-growing por- tions of the State. Cleanest and Best Crops. Many of the crops examined were not nearly so clean as was expected, owing to the prevalence of wild oats. There can be no doubt that the presence of such oats in the vv'heat crops will reduce the yield in the Nhill district by bushels per acre this season. As these oats shed their grain long before harvest, it is safe to assume that the 191 1 crop will leave a legacy of rubbish for future crops ; and, providing that the usual rotation is practised, considerable difficulty will be experienced in ridding the land of this pest. In spite of the acknowledged damage done to the crop by wild oats, many wheat-growers solace themselves with the fact that some of the damage done by this pest will be counterbalanced by the grazing value of the wild oats, which spring up spontaneously from the stubbles with the fall of the first rains. In spite of the prevalence of wild oats, some tolerably good crops were seen. Jan., 1 91 2.] Nliill Farm ComfeUtions, igii. 37 Mr. Batson's crop was, on the whole, the best and most regular of the large farm crops. Mr. Crouch's crops were very good, but, in one paddock of Federation pickled with J lb. of bluestone to the bag, the crop was very badly smutted. This empirical method of pickling, as I subsequently discovered, was largely practised in the di'^trict, and should be displaced by a system in which solutions of known strength and con- centration are used. Condition of the Fallow. In awarding points for fallow, the area, depth and character of the soil, mulch, freedom from weeds, regularity and evenness, and amount of moisture conserved below the mulch, were taken into consideration. Mr. Sanders lost heavily in this section on account of the comparative absence of moisture in the fallows, the rough and crusty nature of a fair area of fallow and the prevalence of weeds. READY FOR WORK HORSES AND STABLE ACCOMMODATION AT MR. C. E. DAHLENBURG's. Mr. Crouch's fallow was in good condition, and the conservation of soil moisture was assisted by a liberal and effective soil mulch. Live Stock. Horses. — In all instances the display of horses was very crefiitable, and more especially was this the case with draught stock. Messrs. Sanders, Dahlenburg, and Crouch each possess a number of roorny, strong-boned, ^ood-quality mares. With the exception of Mr. Sanders, however, little use has been made of them, for there were only a few young stock coming on. Mr. Batson's horses are more uneven in quality than the other com- petitors, and he has allowed them to get in rather low condition. Mr. Dahlenburg's horses, I think, are the best and most even in quality, though Mr. Sanders has more voung stock of good quality. Sheep. — In all cases, the sheep are used for wool only, and breeding Iambs for freezers does not, therefore, come into consideration. The 38 Journal oj \gnci(Uurc.\icior'ia. [10 Jan.. 1912. selection of pure merino ewes and rams of iiardx c.jnstitulion, witli Iiifj frames, good length of siai)lf. and dense in tlie flfttv, is therefore a most important consideration. The sheep of both Messrs. Sanders and Eatson possess the char- actei-istics mentioned above, and they haw takt-n care to .see that the ewes are mated with rams of good quality. Otlnr .S7/'r/\ -On none of the farms were c("\vs. pigs ^J-'d poultry relied upon to swell the farm income. AN'hile the holdings of the district remain comparatively large, it is perhaps inevitable that wheat and sheep will incnopolize the attention of the large wheat-farmer, and cattle, pigs, and poultry l>e considered as mere appendages to the faim. Certainly, the difficulty of obtaining an adequate supply of labour in country districts will prevent many from undertaking any other activities than those wdiich can be immediateilv perfomied by the members of the family. At the same time, it is certain that the returns from every fami could be greatly augmented by the systematic exploitation of the.se avenues of profit. ' The cows, poultry, and pigs have been regarded merely as ministering to the domestic comforts of the home, and a policy of laissez faire has, therefore, been adopted in regard to these. Very little attention was given anywhere to thti housing of the ])igs and poultr)-. The most popular structure for pigs was the familiar pole and thatch, which has, at least, the merit of coolness on a summer day; and, for feeding receptacles, the hollowed-out log had many faithful devotees. With respect to the policy adopted in regard to poultry, it is \vith some satisfaction I noted that, even if, in .some ca.ses, houses were not provided, the hens were at least prevented from roosting on the reels of the binders by the erection of wire .screens on the implement sheds, and b\ inducing the fowls to make a home in a clump of shad> trees adjoining the farm buildings. Farm 1 mplcniints and Machinery. The efficiency of the farm operation.s is largely dependent on the type of implements and machinery used. Except in one instance, all farms large and small \vere provided with portalile engines, either oil or steani. and these performed such diver.se duties as sawing wood. chafFcutting.. winnowing, and running a machine shearing plant. There was little to choose between the various farms in the com- pleteness of the equipment. A comparison of the present day implements with those in use a decade ago affords very striking proof of the advance- ment made in recent years in the direction of improved machinery. The only weak point in an otherwise excellent equipment was the general absence of suitable .seed graders. These should be looked upon as in- dispensable implements on every wheat farm, and their systematic use for the preparation of seed wheat will lead to a considerable improvement in the average yields. Among many ingenious time aiid labrn, Miill. ever, are old and need immediate renewing. (iood litting, well swung gates are of some importance in economic working, and much delav is I'ATEXl StKD COVERER FOR MALI EE LAND. Made liy Mr. Davis, Xhill. -caused, as well as mental irritation, when the familial '"' barb wire " gate is continually encountered in passing from paddock to paddock. 40 Journal of Agricidture , Victoria. [lo Jan., 1912. Mr. Crouch, with his 30 wooden and 8 "cyclone" gates, has now banished these nerve-racking, unsightly structures from his property, and the equanimity with which he may now contemplate his gates will more than compensate him for the trifling cost of installation. Mr. Crouch has also replaced several miles of old fence by a neat substantial post and dropper structure. Water Storage. This is one of the most important features to be considered in the drier portions of the State. Though Nature has not provided the Wimmera farmer with running creeks and rivers, she has provided an unlimited supply of underground water of very good quality which may be obtained from wells or bores. Over the greater portion of the district the sub- soil is eminently suited for holding water, and very little is lost by RESIDENCE OF MR. C. E. DAHLENBURG. KIATA. seepage and drainage from properly constructed dams. However large and numerous dams may be on any given property, it is always a com- mendable practice to tap the unlimited underground stores of moisture, by a bore or a well. Mr. Sanders has a well 278 feet deep, fitted with a windmill and pump. A 7,000-gallon storage tank is located on the highest portion of his holding, and from this the water gravitates through pipes and ball taps to water several 320-acre blocks. There are thirty-nine dams, con- veniently placed in various parts of the holding, and varying in capacity from 700 to 5.000 cubic yards. In addition, there is a large swamp occupying over 1,000 acres on a portion of the property; and this, in latter years, has been covered with a fine body of perfectly fresh water. Windmills placed conveniently near the homestead furnish a supply of water from neighbouring dams for the houses and gardens of Messrs. lo Jan., 1 91 2.] Nhill Fartn Competitions, igii. 41 Batson and Dahlenburg, whilst Mr. Crouch has a windmill attached to a well 160 feet deep, from which water is lifted into two tanks of 2,000 THE ..ESTHETIC SIDE OF FARM LIFE. gallons each. The whole of the rainwater from the homestead and farm buildings is conserved, either in underground cement tanks or in numerous ANOTHER VIEW OF MR. C. E. DAHLENBURG's GARDEN. overground galvanized-iron tanks, at the properties of Messrs. Dahlen- burg, Crouch, and Sanders. 4^ journal of Ai^rituitiirc. Victoria. \io Jan., I9I2_ Far 1)1 BiiUdiii<^s, FJc. Pride of place must be given in this regard to Mr. Dahlenlmrg.. Besides the modern commodious ii-ro(;med brick residence with all con- veniences, there is a fin.; array of substantial farm buildings. Fo.remost among these is the stable, 90 ft. x 40 ft., well ventilated, solidly built, and blocked throughout with well-set sleepers. Attached to this is a large galvanized-iron chalT shed. 40 ft. x 22 ft., and engine .shed. Near by is a barn 50 ft. x 24 ft., built on piles. Avith a fine wooden floor, and capable of accommodating 3,000 bags of wdieat, and a circular iron silo- 15 ft. x 10 ft., in which oats for feed are stored. Other features of interest are the impU-ment shed, dairy, smithy, fowdhoiise. and drafting yards for sheep. RESIDENCE OF MR. GEORGE BATSON. NHILL. Mr. Crouch's homestead and buildings have not been laid out on the- same generous plan, but they are very well suited ff^r the purjDose for which they were intended. Mr. Crouch has a fine stable, well appointed implement shed, .smithy, buggv shed, chaffhnuse and engine house ; and, in addition, he has a commodious hayshed, and an up-to-date, well-l>uilt wonlshed. 55 ft. x 27 ft., with drafting yards attached. In all the farms examined in litrhting the hou-e with ^as. either this section, pmvision was made for acet\lene <;r serogen. Orcliard and Garden. One of the most pleasing features in the competitioai is the recognition- of what might l>e called the aesthetic side of farm life. On Mr. C. E. Dahlenburg's property, there was a beiutiful display f>{ flowers in the gardens and greenhou-e. Xeatb clipp.-'d privet heflges. 80 varieties (if roses, a bewildering array of poppies, godetias, dahlias, and! lo Jan., ipi-.] Xliill Farm Ci>iiip<.iiiioiis. igii. 43 carnations, ple.isantly sti in lawns of \v«-ll-ke])t buffalo and couch grass, with ornamt^ntal tnt-s and shrubs in thr background, combine to make a most artistic effect. One cannot hidj) tVtling that here, at least, an eft'ort has l»-rn made to make farm life .it'.ractive, and to make the farm what it should be — • a home. Primarily, of course, a farm must be profitable, but it does not succeed, in the highest sense, unless it appeals both to youth and old age, by reason of its intrinsic attractiveness. The practical value of the gardens is not overlooked ; for. in addition to a well regulated series of vegetable beds, there are over 2 acres of assorted fruit trees, the majoritv of which are in full bearing. The orchards of Messrs. Bat.'on. Dahlenburg. and Sanders were well kept and nicely laid out, and provide an excellent varietv of fruit for PORTION OF MR. BATSON S ORCHARD AND VEGETABLE GAKD domestic purpo.ses. The vegt-tablf garden of Mr. Batson. as well as his well-kept vineyard, is worthy of special mention. Trt-: Planting. Very little systematic work has been done in this direction. In all. cases, belts of natural timber have been reserved in various paddocks for shelter purposes, and the.se, it may be considered, to a large extent, render tree planting unnecessary. The native bulloak and lx)x. however. ca.st very little shade, and small clumps of thickly planted sugar gums and pines would serve the dual purpose of adequate shelter and subsefjuent profit. Siiiiiiuarv. Mr. Dahlenburg has secured first place in the comi)etition with a fine all-round display. System and method are to l>e observed in everv de- partment of fami work. The stock are very creditable, and the farm stands out prominently w'ith respect to the equipment, orchard and garden, farm buildings, reserves of fodder, and for svstem in tree olantinnf. 44 Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo Jan., 1912. Mr. Batson is a creditable second, and has scored consistently ii> nearly all the sections, and established a comfortable lead in his system of cropping and condition of his crops. Mr. Crouch is deserving of the greatest encouragement, especially in view of the trouble he has evidently taken in erecting an entirely new set of farm buildings. By attending to a few small details pointed out in the above discussion, he should be a hard competitor to beat next season. Points Awarded. D.— Stock. (65). 6 -^ bb M) 2 bt) r3 1 . ^ m 0 "f tl ^ fl "d <^ 1 1 J3 00 "§ 0 s 3 S 1 1 1 d 1 M i 1 1 1 35 27 20 1.5 20 14 25 20 20 16 10 8 5 2 5 4 20 19 20 13 45 37 20 17 10 10 20 18 5 4 5 1 285- 1. C. E. Dahlenburg 225 2. G. Batson 31 18 16 17 17 4 4 3 lY 13 35 14 10 15 3 2 219 3. W. Crouch 27 17 17 18 16 7 2 2 18 16 38 16 5 12 2 a aii) 4. W. Sanders 25 15 10 20 18 6 3 2 18 14 42 lU 7 14 2 4 210 SECTION SMALL FARMS. There were only three entries for these sections and the points allotted were as follow : — Points Awarded. Competitor. 1. J. Diprose 2. W. Dahlenburg 3. J. & A. Anderson T3 ii 3 bB -s . T) J3 ^ a B S 0 •^ tit t» .2"-S IS 00 a. a 1 1.1 5| .2 xn 1 •ri > 1 3 7 1 a <^ m 0 « WW W 00 w-y mW Hi M i-i 30 20 20 40 31 20 15 10 10 20 10 5 5 20 14 17 17 12 9 8 15 8 2 20 12 19 32 16 10 6 5 18 4 4 3 18 12 16 16 14 14 6 10 19 3 0 205. 153 149^ 13a The Messrs. Anderson have the makings of a first-class farm; and,, with careful management, it should be difficult to beat next season. They stand out from other competitors in the very fine provision made for water storage and the condition and arrangement of the farm fences and gates. There is an excellent orchard, but it is sadly in need of cul- tivation, and fine systematic work has been done in the direction of tree planting. The Messrs. Anderson, however, have only recently purchased the farm, and it is not yet in full working order. Neither pigs nor cows are kept on the farm ; and, though there are excellent poultry yards, they are practically empty. Mr. Diprose has a fine well-kept orchard in full bearing, and a vegetable garden showing evidence of care and system in working. His lo Jan., 1 91 2.] NhilL Farm Competitions, igii. 45 draught stock were good, particularly the yearlings and 2-year olds. He had the most complete collection of implements and the best all-round crops. Mr. Dahlenburg had a fine set of buildings, and has made rapid strides during the few years he has had possession of his farm. The out- buildings are well laid out, commodious and substantial. More attention, however, needs to be paid to the fences and gates, and a windmill and tanks with water laid on to the farm, and homestead are urgently required for economic working, SECTION III.— CROPS. There were 10 entries for this section; and, of these, 3 were for crops grown on mallee land. Farmers who enter for such crop compe- titions naturally wish to know the reasons which actuate a judge in award- ing the prizes. Before discussing the details, I should like to indicate what I conceive to be the objects of such a competition and the manner in which such objects may be realized by a scheme of ludging. These competitions, I take it, have for their general object, the stimu- lation and improvement of the farm practice of the district, and they are successful in proportion to the extent to which they realize such an object. In crop judging, it seems natural to infer that the best crop and the one most deserving of the prize is that which pans out financially the best. But, if this is to be the sole criterion, I am inclined to the belief that the general object of the competition, namely, the stimulation and improvement of farm practice, would be defeated. To award the prize to the heaviest yielding crop, irrespective of other considerations, would mean a severe handicap for those necessarily placed on holdings of comparatively poor soil. It may be a much harder proposition to raise a 20-bushel average on some types of soil than to secure 30 bushels off a rich black flat. The yield of a crop in any given district, assuming other things to be equal, is dependent on the fertility of the soil on which the crop is grown ; and, in the Nhill district, at least, there are areas on each farm that regularly produce bushels better results than others. Though heaviness of yield, therefore, is an important consideration. and, in a measure, an indication of a farmer's calibre, it is clearly not the only consideration. Under normal conditions, the efficiency of a fanner's work is judged by the condition of his crop, the relative freedom from weeds and undergrowth, its regularity and evenness, the judgment displayed in sowing the right quantity of seed per acre, the extent to which he has tried to suppress diseases such as smut and bunt, and, lastly, the care with which the seed has been chosen, and with which he has attempted to keep it true to type and of a high standard of pro- ductivity. In nearly all crops, wild oats were very prevalent, and in some instances, overshadowed the wheat. Wild poppv, charlock, and various members of the thistle family were common intruders, though the amount of damage done by these was far less than by the wild oats. Disease was noticeable in all the crops examined, the commonest being ball smut {Tilletia tritici) loose smut {Ustilago tritici) and flag smut {Urocystis occulta). The dryness of the season evidently had a very salulary effect on the development of rust, as well as on takeall. though many patches of the latter were noticeable. An interesting occurrence of takeall disease was 46 Joiinu'il of A iirictiUiirc. Viciona. [ic Jan., 1912. observed on virgin land on Mr. (irec^nwotxl's property. Here the disease ivas observed on stray patches of barlev grass in takeall affected patched' of crop. The prcvnlep.ce of ball .smu: this season in the Nhill crops raises the (juestion of the efficacy of ihe i)ickl:ng scluticns adopted. On inquir\ it was noticeable that many of the crops were pickled at the rate of j lb. bluestone to the bag. How much water was used in preparing the solution does not seemi tO' have troubled the farmers concerned. Bluestone is an efficient fungicide o)ily if proper precautions are taken, and only when solutions of definite strength and concentration are employed. It js not sufficient to merely guess the strength of the pickle by the depth of colour or tint. Solutions of definite strengths should be employed, say, 2 lbs. to 10 gallons of water, and the inevitable lo.sses of solution due tO' con- tinued pickling .should be made up by adciing a definite weight of water and bluestone, and not in an arbitrary way by pitching a handful of bluestone at occasional intervals into^ the pickling tub. So far as the regularity and tvcuness of the crop is concerned, this is, in many ways, an indication of careful farming, though it is not always an infallible sign. In spitCf of the variable and patchy nature of most of the land on which the crops were grown, it is pleasing tO' note that many of the crops were almost perfectly even and uniform in char- acter, displaying care in handling the soil, during the previous fallowing season, and in drilling both seed and manure. With regard to trueness tO' t\pe, it is a matter for regret to find that most of the crops are very badlv mixed, and contain an inordinate number of strange heads of wheat. One would experience but little difficulty in gathering a large sheaf of "strangers "" from a square chain of crop. Not only is it evident that the crops are becomang badly mixed, but there are unmistakeable signs of degeneration in the Federation crops of the district. Evidences of this may be gathered from the large number of barren spikelets at the basal portions of the ears, amounting, in many cases, to one-quarter and one-third of the total number of spikelets. Also, the marked tapering nature of so many of the heads is another indication of this phenomenon. These are no mere physiological derangements due to the effect of an abnormally dry sea.son, but are undoubted signs of a falling aw^ay in character and type from the original square headed compact variety in- troduced some years ago. This degeneracy of type is not, however, confined to the Nhill district, but is noticeable in other portions of the State, and it is what might logically be expected fronii any wheat, or indeed any crop in which special pains are not taken to prevent the natural tendency to degeneration ob- servable in all cultivated plants. We have heard a great deal lately about selection of stock — draught horses, dairy cattle, stud sheep. We know that it was by continuous, patient selection that the famous Booth and Bates types of Shorthorn cattle were evolved. Is it logical to assume that selection, which has had so potent an influence in raising the standard of our domestic animals, .shall prove unavailing when applied to the vegetable kingdom? In systematic, careful, long continued selection, we have an instrument in which we may truly mould plants at will. The sugar content of beets has been trebled, the percentage of starch in potatoes and protein content of maize greatly augmented by systematic selection. lo Jan., 1912.] N/ijIl Fanu Competitions, igi i . 47 Does it then require mucli faith to believe that wheat — our staple crop — can be vastly improved, both in quality and in prolificacy bv the aiDplication of those scientific principles which ha\t^ proved so useful with other crops and with live stock? Will it be admitted for one moment that this degeneracy of type, which has been observed in the crops, cannot be counteracted? It is a ccnimon saying amiOng farmers that such and such types of wheat are '' running out." This will be the fate of Federa- tion unless some entei-prising individual takes it in hand, and prevents it, by a rigorous systematic course of selection, from falling with ever- increasing momentum t(j the low le\el of mediocritx . With these preliminary oliservations we mav pricenl to examine the results of the competition. Points A-icardcd. Freedom Evenness Freedom Trueness Apparent Yield. from and from to Total. Competitor. Weeds. Regularity. Disease. Type. 15 15 15 20 35 100 1. G. Parkin 14 15 11 9 35 84 2. W. G. Greenwood 11 \i 12 13 25 75 3. G. Crouch 12 13 11 12 24 72 4. r J. and A. Anderson 14 11 13 10 23 71 1. P. Bone 12 13 12 12 22 71 6. W. Dahlenburg . . 10 12 12 12 21 67 7. Eeichelt Bros. 10 11 12 8 '-'■' 63 Mr. G. Parkin secures the highest marks in this .section. His was a magnificent crop of Federation .standing 5 feet high, almost perfectly level and remarkably free from weeds. He. also secured the maximum for yield. Mr. Greenwood was second with a good sample of Federation, which, in comparison with other crops, was very true to type. The figures for the apparent yield are proportional, but not equivalent to, the estimated yield per acre. Crops Grown os Mallee Land. Points Aicardcd. Freedom Freedom Regularity Trueness Apparent Yield. from from and to Total. Competitor. Weeds. Disease. Evenness. Type. 15 15 15 20 35 100 1. E. F. Scliultz 11 10 13 11 27 72 y R. L. Simon 9 13 11 14 22 69 3. Marshall Bros. l:i 1:5 in \-l 19 67 SECTION IV.— FALLOW LAND. The competition in this section was very keen ; and. with one or two exceptions, the fallowing was very thoroughly done. The principal object in bare fallowing is, of course, the conservation of soil moisture, and fallowing is successful just in proportion to the amount of moi.sture conserved. The amount that may be thus conserved i« governed by the moisture present in the soil at the ccmm.encement of fallowing operations, and by the amount of moisture that sub.sequently falls as rain. The ideal is to conserve all the moisture that falls. That ideal, however, can 48 Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo Jan., 191: never be wholly achieved, simply because losses through evaporation and percolation are inevitable. The farmer's object, hovi^ever, should be to reduce the amount of loss by evaporation to a minimum, and this can be done by providing that, at all times, the moisture reservoir of the subsoil shall be covered with an adequate and loose soil mulch. It is not necessary that the surface should be harrowed down to the consistency of an onion bed, for this may defeat the object in view, by assisting rather than retarding capillary activity. The ideal should be to have a fairly liberal surface mulch with the fine particles below and clods of moderate size on the surface. This is achieved by stirring the surface as often as is necessary. This means that the soil should be stirred only when it becomes apparent that the loose surface mulch is in danger of becoming consolidated after showers of rain. Many over- zealous farmers often work the land too much, though this is far less frequent an occurrence than those who do not put sufficient work into their fallow. Hence, in judging the fallow, the following points have been taken into consideration : — (a) The amount of moisture conserved in the soil and subsoil below the mulch. {b) The depth, character, and efficiency of the mulch and its suitability for the prevention of further losses of moisture by evaporation. [c) Freedom from weeds. [d) Regularity and evenness of the surface, for this is an indication of the judgment displayed in working. [e) The size and condition of the surface particles and clods. The following table summarizes the result: — - Points Awarded. Depth Moisture conserved. and Freedom Regularity Condition Character from and of Surface Total. Competitor. of Soil Weeds. Evenness. Clods. Mulch. 10 10 10 10 10 50 1. W. Greenwood 10 10 9 9 9 47 ■ (J. E,eichelt ^■\W. Crouch.. 9 10 8 8 9 44 9 10 8 8 9 44 4. P. Bone . . 9 9 8 9 8 43 , ,/Borgelt Bros. *• \W. Dahbnburg 8 8 9 8 8 42 9 9 8 8 8 42 7. B. D. McKenzie 6 8 7 7 9 37 Mr. Greenwood's fallow was in excellent condition„ and he displayed great judgment in handling the patchy nature of the soil on his holding. He gave his land a liberal soil mulch, and its effectiveness was demon- strated by the amount of moisture conserved below. It was also very free from weeds of any kind, regular and even in character, and the tracks letft by the implements displayed system and method in working the different blocks Messrs. Crouch and Reichelt also exhibited very creditable areas of fallow. In conclusion, I would like to add that these competitions have been productive of a vast amount of good. Not only have they attracted general attention to the different aspects of rural life on some of our best farms, but they have evidently had a most stimulating influence on lo Jan., igi2.] Farm Blacksmiihing. 49 the competitors in preceding years, inasmuch as very considerable improve- ments have been effected on many of the farms quite recently, with a view of bringing them up to a standard suitable for competition. It is, of course, inevitable that, in any given district, there will always be a few farmers who stand out conspicuously from their fellows, in the efBciency with which they conduct the various farm operations, and in regard to the general standard of cultivation. From the point of view of the State, it is of the highest degree of importance that the great bulk of the farming population should follow the lead set by the more progressive farmers of a given district. In a word, it is of the highest importance to encourage the many to do what the few are doing at the present time. From the standpoint of the State, true progress will come, not bv increasing the size of the individual holding, but by encouraging higher class farming, and I feel sure that the yearly focussing of the farmers' attention on the merits of the best farms of a district must lead to great general improvement in the farm practice of that district. In this direction, the Nhill Agricul- tural Society has done most valuable work during the past eleven years, and it is sincerely to be hoped that this good work will continue. I cannot allow this opportunity to pass without pointing out the great amount of good work Mr. C. H Towns, the popular secretary of the Nhill society, has done. The success of a society is very largely dependent on the energy and enthusiasm of its chief officers ; and, for the able direc- tion of the work of the farm competitions for the past eleven ^■ears, Mr. Towns is almost wholly responsible. FARM BLACKSMITHING. {Continued from -page 799, Vol. IX.) George Baxter, Instructor in Black smithing, Working Men's College, Melbourne. v.— WELDING {Continued). Swingle-tree Mountings. Figs. 42 and 43 show two methods of mounting a swingle-tree. The first is much simpler than that depicted in Fig. 43, but is not as strong. Holes must be bored through the timber to receive the ironwork, whereas in the second instance the iron is made to surround the wood, thereby prevent- ing it from splitting, which would easily happen if the first method be adopted. Notwithstanding this disadvantage, it is commonly used ; and, to overcome the loss of strength due to boring the holes referred to, wood of a larger section is employed. It would undoubtedly be advisable to first make one of the simplest nature. The following information concerning both methods will, it is hoped, be sufficiently clear to enable one to make eitlier. Fig. 42 will be considered first. Take a piece of \ in. or f in. round iron of any convenient length and start by making a wedge-shaped point in the same manner as that described for the hinge (Fig. 40); then bend it over the beak of the_ anvil, using a drift to make the hole the correct size and shape. (See a. Fig. 42). 5° Journal of Agriculture , Vicioria. [lo Jan.. 1912- In taking the welding lieat care must be exercised to pre\ent the eye being Iiurnt. Cooling the eye occasionally will have the desired effect. \\'hen properly heated, weld wdth the hand hammer. To obtain the best results, start by striking light and quick blows on the thin edge of the scarf and gradually increa.se the weight of blows as the thicker part is hammered. It is desirable that the welded portion should be left thicker than the original bar for several reasons, one of which is that it fits the hole tightly, and therefore prevents it from turning round ; another reason is that it strengthens what would otherwise be the weakest part. One welding heat should be quite sufficient to insure satisfactory results ; in fact, much stronger than if two or more heats are neexled to join the parts together. It must be remembered that each welding heat wastes u 42. SWINGLE-TREE MOUNTING. H. Ready for weldiiiy ; ''. Welded, ready for serewiiij;' ; c. Coniiileted s\viii|.sle-tree. away so much metal, and the inevitable result is that the work is in many cases rendered useless. Cutting to length is the next operation ; then screwing to fit a nut. It is always best to purchase nuts already screwed. It saves a lof of time 43. SWINGLE-TREE MOUNTINGS. a. Fullerin,:; preiiaratorN' lo tlrauiiiy down: h. End drawn and swaged; c. Mitre; i\. .Sliows cross section: c. Finished foryiny ; /'. Connileted swindle-tree. and they are .so cheap that it would not pa\- to make them. They may be purchased from any ironmonger. The eve-bolt (Fig. 42 Z*) may be usred for purposes other than in the ca.se iilusti''ated ; for instance, if there are children in the home they will want a swing, and no safer and better way of fixing the rope tO' the 3 0 Jan.. 191 -.j F arm BlacksDiill/iii s SI cross beam can be found than by making two eye-bolts out of f in. diameter iron for the purpose. Again, it is sometimes necessar\- to attach a block and tackle to the roof for lifting heavy weights — the eve-bolt is just the article required for the purpose. Where an underground tank is on the farm the cover requires to be lifted ; if an eye-bolt made from ^ in. diameter iron, with a round ring attached to the eye, be connected in the s;ur.e manner as previously described it will l)e found to be very con-venit^nt. To accomplish the forging con- nected with Fig. 43 is a much more difficult matter. The sketches show' the various stages of con- struction ; a is a piece of flat iron, say 1 2 in. x % in., with grooves formed in it with the fuller and the beak of the anvil in such posi- tion that the central portion will, ■on being flattened out, be of the necessarv length for the swingle - tree. As the size will varv, 't will l>e impossible to state the length. After the fullering is done, each end is rai.sed to a welding heat and drawn down to a circular shape like b (Fig. 43). In drawing out work of this nature the iron is roughly rounded wdth the hammer iind afterwards swaged smooth and to exact size. Illustrations of swage and swage block appear::"d in the September. 191 1. issue. The next operation is to flatten ■out the central part to about ^ in. thick at the middle section and gradually taper it aw^ay to I in. at the edges as illustrated at d. The breadth is allowed to increase to about 2 in., whilst flattening. The mitre (c) is made with the fuller and sett-hammer. When this is satisfactorily done it is bent at the centre of the flatjened portion, to fit the swingle- tree, which is usually made semi- circular : then scarf the round ends like a link and weld up. To attach to the wood, drill a small hole through the flat part ; and. after fitting tightly, either put a screw in each side, or bore a hole through the wood and drive a piece of iron right through and slightlv rivet the ends to prevent it dropping out. Another method of fastening 'is to forge the . Cutting- the c. Collar con weliliiis' heat. FORGING BOLTS. iidii for collar: b. Partly hent ; ■ctl\ .shaped : d. Prejiaring- for the 52 Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo Jan., 1912- mount slightly smaller than the wood ; and, by making the iron red hot and quickly driving on and cooling out before the iron burns too deep, the contraction of the iron will hold it tight, just as a tvre is held on to^ a wheel. Forging a Bolt. The majority of bolts are made by machinery ; but, at the same time, blacksmiths are continually being called upon to make them for special purposes and where it is not convenient to buy them. Machine made bolts are short, ra;rely exceeding 10 in. long; so that when a longer bolt is re- quired it is either made outright by the smith or else a shorter one is lengthened. Screwed ends, i.e., plain circular pieces of iron cut off in 9 in. or 10 in. lengths, are screwed at one end, and a nut fitted to them at the bolt factories and sold cheaply bv most ironmongers. They are very convenient and save a great deal of hard work in screwing, par- ticularly in large bolts. If a long boit, say 2 ft., be required, a head would be made on a piece of iron and a screwed end welded on to the other end. A bolt head is made by wrapping a piece of square or flat iron around the end of the required sized round iron ; and, after raising to a welding heat, forging the head to shape. In order to do this in an inteljigient and systematic manner, several things require to be taken into consideration. In the first place, it will be understood that in the United Kingdom bolt-heads and nuts are made to fixed measurements, known as Whitworth's standard, so that a bolt made in one shop will fit a nut made in another ; also, that a spanner may be made to suit the nuts of all bolts of a given size. The size of a bolt is known by the diameter of iron in its circular part. The farmer who has an American as well as an Australian made machine has no doubt found out that a nut from one will not fit a bolt from the other. This is on account of the United States engineers having adopted a standard known as the Sellars, which is slightly different to the English. But, even in American machines made by different makers, the nuts are in many instances not interchangeable. The importers of agtt'icultural machinery, besides selling the com- pleted machine, also sell duplicate parts, and they are particularly careful that the duplicates of their machines will not be exactly suitable for others. Consequently, the user of the machine is practically compelled to buy his renewals from the agent from whom he bought his machine. Whilst one cannot blame the manufacturer for protecting his own interests, the practice is at times aggravating to the farmer. When a nut drops off a screwed end, he finds that, although he has some of the same sized nuts on hand, the threads are differently cut, and so cannot be made use of, necessitating a journey of often many miles for the proper article. The Whitworth standard of sizes for bolt heads, nuts, and the width of spanner jaws, is found by taking the diameter of the iron in the body of the bolt as the unit, and multiplying that diameter by # and adding ^ in. to the product. The depth of nut equals the diameter of the bolt, whilst the depth of head is f that of the nut, but in ordinary practice, is mad^ the same. When making a bolt, it would be well to bear this in mind, for it is far more satisfying and no more difficult to make the head right than wrong. lo Jan., 1 91 2.] Farm BlacksmiiJiing. =53 The ordinary method of making a bolt in a black.smith's fire is, as previously stated, to wrap a piece of square or flat iron around a circular bar. Now, as the heads are to be made to fixed sizes, the size of the bar used for forming the head requires to be carefully selected so as to make the bolt with a minimum of labour. The following table is compiled to enable the maker to at once select the most suitable size for bolts ranging from \ in. to i in : — - T.AJBLE OF SIZE OF IRON FOR BOLT HEADS, WITH FINISHED DIMENSIONS OF HEAD. Diameter of bolt Size of square iron for head Width of head across the fiats Depth of head in. in. in. in. 1 6 3 7 2 8 4 s 1 is i ^ i life u lA h i 1 i 1 i If 1 The correct method of making the collar to fomi the head is to first of all find out the length which will exactly encircle the round bar. Thus, to the diameter of bolt, add the thickness of square bar and multiply the sum by 3)-. The end of the square bar is now heated to bright red and placed on the hardee at a distance from the heated end equal to the re- quired length when it is cut about half-w^ay through, as shown at a in Fig. 44, and then bent to b when it is broken off, and the circular bar inserted and the ends knocked down as shown at c. The collar is now driven off and the round bar heated ^ to redness and placed in the collar similar to d, and driven 45. BOLT-TOOL. do^yn on the top. The object is to swell the round bar slightly where it will be wasted by obtaining the wielding heat. By altering the position of the bolt from vertical to horizontal and resting the collar on the anvil, a blow struck on it tightens it so that it will not slip off in the fire In welding, the head is struck sufficiently hard to crush the metal and so form a flat surface on oppo- site sides. It is quickly turned at right angles and struck. By this means the square head is roughly formed ; and, at the same time, the weld is partly made. To complete the welding and to obtain correct shape a bolt-tool (Fig. 45) or fork- tool (Fig. 46) is required. When a bolt-tool is used, the bolt* is immediately placed through the hole and the square hole of the anvil, ^5. method of using a fork-tool and hammered down to the required depth, then removed, and again hammered on the sides. A pair of calipers should be previously set to the width of the head for testing the size. The fork-tool mnv be used for heading various sized bolts, and in that respect is a better tool than the bolt-tool, w'hich can only be used for one size, so that a set of such tools would be necessary. _54 Journal of Agriculture. V icioria. [lo Jan.. 1912, The swage block has a number of njunil holes in it which may be used in the place of a bolt- tool. The sketch clearly shows the manner in which the fork-tool is utilized. A great many bolts are made with hexagonal heads ; but, as they are more difficult to forge and the square head is likely to fulfil all the requirements of the farm, they will not be described. {To be contiuiicd .) VINE DISEASES IN FRANCE. {^Continued from page OjO. Vol. IX.) F. de Castella, Government Yitlculturist. FUNGICIDE SPRAYS. Though there is no reason tO' fear that copper sprays Avill ever be re- quired in Victoria to combat the various vine fungi which wreak such havoc in French \-ineyards, since we are protected from them by climatic condi- tions, other branches of our agriculture are vitblly interested in the ques- tion. Orchardists are only too familiar with the need for copper sprays, and. more recently still, potato-growers are being forced to resort co the same specific in order to overcome the Irish Blight. The fungus diseases, W'ith which these two industries have to deal, present manv features in common with those against which French ^'ine- growers use such sprays. The mycelium of all these fungi grows in the interior of the tis.sues of the host plant, the spores alone appearing on the outside. They are, therefore, not amenable to direct treatment and can only be fought by the indirect or preventive method. The latter consists, briefiv. in spreading over the whole of the growing surface liable to in- vasion, a very thin coating of a slightly soluble copper salt so that every drop of rain or dew must dissolve sufficient of it to render it an unsuitable medium for the germination of the spores of the fungus. In view of this similarity it will no doubt prove of interest and use, to both orchardists and potato-growers, to know somiething of the different •sprays employed in France since there is no country where they are more extensively applied nor where a greater variety of formulae are in general use. In Victoria, so far, we only know copper lime and copper soda. In France, numerous other copper-containing substances are in every-day use, some of which present advantages in certain directions. Some idea of the extent to which spraying is practised in France will be gathered from the total quantity of sulphate of copper used for the pur- pose in that country ; this was estimated by Professor Chuard, in 1909, to amount to no less' than 50,000 tons of sulphate of copper annually — a quantitv equivalent to 12,500 tons of metallic copper. This was prior to 1910. In view of the extraordinary prevalence of fungus diseases during that disastrous season, even the above huge consumption must ha\e been considerably exceeded. Brief reference must here be made to some general considerations which ha\e a bearing on all the different copper sprays. They are all based on the original Bordeaux mixture, the efficacy of which, as a specific against Downv Mildew, was accidentally discovered through the practice, common among se\eral small growers whose vines abutted on main roads, to protect themselves from the depredations of passers, by sprinkling their lo Jan., 191--] Vhie Diseases in France grapes with a mixture of lime aiul bluestone. Grapfc:.s so treated, being looked upon as poisonous, were left severely alone. \\'hen Downy Mildew, iv.-centl\- introduced from America, commenced to ra\age the vineyards, it was noticed how free from mildew were these poi.sciied outer rows. The- general adoption of the copper lime spray immediately followed, and even now it is the most widely used of all sprays, though several other com- pounds tend to supersede it in certain quarters. The hydrated oxide of copper which is formed when iinir is added to a copper sulphate solution* is the active agent in Bordeau.x mixture ; though only slightly soluble in w\at!er, it is sufficiently so to render each drop of rain or dew coming in contact with it unfit for spore germination. Its ^•ery slight solubilitv. in fact, causes its influence to be more lasting, since it is only entireh washed oft" by ver\ hea\'y rain. This brings us to one of the most important points in connexion with copper compounds, viz.. their power of adherence. It is mainly because some of the more recent sprays possess it in a high degree that they tend to displace the original Bordeaux. Even with this, however, adherence varies considerably according to the procedure followed in its preparation, as will be seen later. ^^'hate\■er 1)- the spraving compound used, the following are the most important points to be considered in order that the best results may be obtained : — 1.- Even distribution of spraying material. 2. Sufficient, but not excessive, solubility. 3. Adherence, so that frequent repetition of spraying may be obviated. 4. Convenience of preparation. The first of these is; no doubt, largely dependent on the spray pmnp- employed. It cannot be too emphatically sfated that satisfactory results- are not to be expected from a faulty pump. Protection cannot be com- plete unless distribution is so thorough that no dew drop, however small, can escape contact with some of the spray material. The fulility of throw- ing a few large drops every here and there, leaving large spaces of leaf surface untouched, and consequently, so many open doors for the entry of the fungus parasite, is ol)\-ious. Such a course is absolutely incompatible with the essentially preventi\e nature of the treatment. The subject of the present article, however, is .spraying mixtures, not spray pumps, and the composition of the former exercises a greater influence on the facility for even distribution than might, at first sight, be imagined. Wetting Power of Spraying Mixtures. This is a question which has quite recently recei\-ed a good deal of atten- tion in France. The lower the surface tension of a liquid, the smaller the drops which it can form, and consequently the greater its wetting power. It is for this reason that the wett'ing power of alcohol is much greater than that of water. By the addition of certain substances it is possible to reduce the surface- tension of the spraving liquid and consequently its wetting power, with the result that the facilitv for even and thorough distribution is consider- ablv increased. Soap is one of the substances used for this purpose, but it presents the drawback of combining with the copper hydrate and modi- fving the composition of the mixture, thus necessitating alteration in the * Aoeordiiv to Pickerin<;- (£?pwfH{/i Report of the Woburn Etperimental Fruit Farm) the active agent would be a bi^-ic sulphate, and not hydroxide. Whetlier this view be correct or not is of little consec|uence,. so far as its mode of action is concerned. 56 Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [10 Jan., 1912. proportions of its constituents. Several copper soap formulae are recom- mended in standard French works. Only certain kinds of soap are suitable; with others, the gain in wetting power is either insufficient, or counterbalanced by loss in adherence. A kind of mucilage known as Saponine appears to possess, in a high degree, the power of reducing surface tension without the drawbacks of the majority of soaps. The usual source from which it is obtained is the powdered bark of certain plants such as Quillaia, Saponaria, &c., and these have been successfully tried for the purpose. Quite recently, the powdered fruit of Sapindus utilis, the Soap Tree, has been recommended for the same purpose.* Used in the proportion of 2 per 1,000 of the spraying liquid, it very considerably increases its wetting power, without exerting any chemical action on the copper compounds contained in it. Other Conditions. Solubility conditions seem to be fulfilled by all the sprays in common use. Adherence is, perhaps, the most important property of all, especially when dealing with severe visitations. It stands to reason that, the better the deposit adheres to the foliage, the longer will its protective action be felt and the less often will it need to be repeated. If adherence be satis- factory, it will require heavy rain to wash it off, whilst if it be faulty it will be removed by a few light showers. The more recently a mixture has been prepared, and the cooler it has been kept, the better it will adhere. This applies particularly to copper-soda which deterioraties very rapidly, especially if the weather be warmf. Copper-soda deteriorates much more rapidly in this way than copper-lime (Bordeaux) or copper-potash ; the latter, strange to say, is not at all generally used. In order to increase adherence, several substances are added to mixtures. We may mention the following : — Soap, rosin, sugar or molasses, linseed oil, and gelatine. Some of these will be referred to later. As regards percentage of copper, though various strengths have been recommended at different times, practical men now seem to be agreed, after long years of experience, that ij to 2 per cent, is most satisfactory; 2 per cent, is the most usual strength — anything over this is unnecessary.! These percentages are estimated as sulphate of copper, or its equivalent, if other copper compounds of copper be employed. Convenience of preparation is of great practical importance. It is mainly on this account that several of the newer preparations are gradually displacing Bordeaux mixture in spite of their higher price. Most of these innovations require to be merely mixed with the proper quantity of water immediately before use. Their freedom from grit or lumps of any kind obviates trouble through the clogging of nozzles, so frequent with badly prepared Bordeaux. It is, of course, impossible to deal here with more than a few of the many spray formulae now in use in France. It will suffice to refer briefly to the way in which Bordeaux is prepared and to those of the newer sub- stitutes which appear to have most to recommend them. {To be continued.) * G. Gastine. Revue de Viticvlture, Ath May, 1911, p. S'i.'i. This tree, which is somewhat extensively grown in Alsreria, would do well in Northern Virtoria. Its value for increasinsr the efficiency of spraying mixtures alone would justify its introduction to Victoria. t .T. M. Guillon and G. Gouirand, Revue de Viticulture, Vol. XI., p. 29. X This applies to France. In the moist climate of Switzerland, where downy mildew is very virulent, anything less than 2 per cent, is considered insufficient, whilst sprays containing; up to 3 per cent, copper sulphate" are often used. lo Jan., 1912.] Propagation of Fruit Trees. 57 PROPAGATION OF FRUIT TREES. {Continued from page 8ji , Vol. IX.) C. F. Cole, Orchard Supervisor. Pruning. The writer wishes it to be dearly understood that the methods advo- cated in this article are for general use in a nursery, and not when planting out trees permanently in an orchard. When planting out certain of the types illustrated, it would^^ however, be as well to practice the same or a very similar method of cutting, if the grower wishes to secure suitable growths so as to enable him from the start to frame his trees upon sound lines. The object of the propagator, when pruning young trees in the nursery rows, should be to start the future head growths from, or as near as possible to, the main stem of the young tree. This can only be accom- plished by cutting the branches hard back to the basal buds, or by removing all branch growths, thus framing a straight-stemmed tree and pruning it as such. By practising either of the above methods, the future trees will be framed with uniform vertical or somewhat similar head growths. It is not only an advantage to the propagator when packing for transit, but also to the grower, who will have a tree framed upon sound principles. Whichever method is put into execution will be controlled by the position and condition of the buds. No hard-and-fast rule can be laid down of how and where to cut. owing to the many different types to be found growing in the nur- sery row. Before cutting, the propagator will need to have a clear conception of the future position of the growths and type of tree he wishes to attain. The sole object is to get good, sound, healthy •i 52. CARELESS PRUNING. growth, and at the same time frame a tree with an evenly-balanced and shapely head carrying no more than three or four healthv vertical growths. The position of the buds upon the branches, also the many types of trees,, varies considerably. Hardlv two branched trees of a variety are alike; some carry buds evenly spaced to the base of the branches, whilst others have them irregularly, and in many instances the buds near the base are blind. At times, the most expert hand is at a loss how to prune some types to advantage. The ten different types selected by the writer for illustrative purposes- cover a fairly wide field outside of the simplest types. Before commencing the operation examine the collars upon a branched tree, i.e., the basal portion of the branches where they join the main stem, to see if there are any sound collar buds. Should any be present, reduce the centre of the tree, if necessary, and leave the required number of branches — three or four. Then cut these branches back to the main stem and budsj care being taken not to cut or injure the buds. The result will 58 Journal of AgricuUiircYictoria. [lo Jan., 1912. lo Jan., 191^-] Propagation of Fruit Trees. 59 be that the full flow of ascendini;- sap will elaborate the collar buds and cause them to make stroii<;. clean jj;r(Avths. and so form a tree ecjual to one from a pruned ''straight" i.e., an unbranched yearling tree. Many propagators prefer pruning \\\)qw similar lines to those practised upon trees when first planted out in the orchard, i.e , leaving three to four branches and cutting them back to within 3 or 4 in. from the main stem. This method is sound when pruning two-year-old trees in the nursery rows, or where there are no buds at the basal part of the branches, or no collar buds to operate ui)on. Hut, where possible, especially with yearling trees, cut back to the basal or collar buds, particularly in the ca.se of almonds, apricots, nectarines, peaches, plums (all kinds), and quinces. Another method that may be practised at times, more so upon stone than seed fruits, especially nectarines and peaches, is to reduce the tree back to an inside bud, if any, upon the stem clo,se to where the bud and stock are united, see Fig. 59^, where the position of the bud is shown by >- . A line through the stem indicates where to cut. This operation is performed the same as when heading back a budded stock to the united bud. The result from such treatment is that a tree, equal to a strong one-year-old from an inserted bud, is produced. A very common type in the nursery row is a tree on which the branches on one side are stronger than those upon the other. If the head formation is similar to Fig. 601^?, i.e.. with regard to the number of branches, treat it when pruning, the same as Fig. 60*3:, by cutting the stronger branches back the same length as the weaker ones. Then, during the early part of the vegetative period, and when the stronger shoots have made about 12 in. of growth, check them bv nipping the terminal ends. This will give the weaker ones a chance to pull up. When such a type is being planted out in the orchard, the root condi- tions .should receive attention, if necessary (see Fig. 25). The top should receive somewhat similar treatment during the first season as if standing in the nursery row. A difficult tree at times to prune is a two-year-old cherry, especially varieties that are free bloomers, and of which the bloom and wood buds are similar. The method of cutting back tO' the basal buds upon the branches should not be practised, owing to the buds, in all probability, being bloom ones. Cherries rareh- break growth from a bloom bud, differing in this respect from most fruits. Therefore, the pruner will need to exercise care. Cut close to the buds, selecting those upon the outside of the branches. It is only upon rare occasions that it is necessary to cut at an inside or upper bud upon a branch to obtain a vertical growth. ^^ hen pruning, it is just as easv to cut correctlv as incorrectly. It is purely a matter of making one cut. Fig. ^2 shows a pruned tree where the cuts ha\e been carelessly done. Compare this with Fig. 55^ ; the cuts in this ca.se are neatly made, and the tree correctlv pruned. Fig- S^(^ is '^ common type of a yearling apple tree carrying a head growth of four branches. The central branch has a somewhat crooked grow^th. and is the one that would, if left, receive the direct flow of ascending sap. To remedv this, and bring about the equalization of the sap, which means uniform growths, it will be necessary to remo^•e the central branch where indicated by line. Having done this, and there being no collar buds, select outside buds upon the three remaining branches so that when cut each branch will be of equal length and form an evenly- balanced pruned head. This, with proper treatment and care, will not only be a perfect specimen of a two-vear-old tree bv the following winter,. but will be framed upon sound lines. 6o Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo Jan., 1912. p — . . ^ ^ #> s • . .^ Ifclll — ^, ^a. .1 V- ■9^^^^^^^^^^amm^ 3 jSe% i fc ^ _ #>' .: "^^^--: \\ ^\. X =^ ^V \ ^ -- ^^ 1-^^ -Sag! -IT "' ' "'^ — ■*^^ 7 ""^fe "w"^^ / jg; ^^^^^^^ / *# ^^^t^^^ X ^-' '"'^ -^ 10 Jan., 191^-] Pn'pagdtuni of Fruit Trees. 6r Fig. 54a is another type of a strong well grown one-year-old apple tree with low branch growths. With trees of this type the main stem or central vertical growth should never be reduced back to the branches — the future head of the tree should not be formed by utilizing these branches. All of the latter should be cut away, close to the main stem. Then reduce back to where there are three or four good sound buds, see Fig. 54/^. The result will be, by the following autumn, a tree with sound head conditions that may be packed without fear of breakage during transit. F'g- 5 5'^ is a sound t\-pe of an apple tree, produced from •a yearling stiaiglit or from a branched yearling. This is achieved by first reducing the growths of the latter type back to the main stem, making a straight : and then, by heading back this straight to sound buds the requisite height from the ground. When pruning sucii a type {Fig. 5 5«), cut away the central branch, leaving the three lower ones which form a well-balanced head. As there are sound out- side basal buds upon these branches, cut back tcj them the same as illustrated in Fig. 5 ^b. By the winter followingsuch a type will be what is termed a three-year-old, and hard to separate from a well- ?o d -m m^y %, 59. YEARLING PEACH TREES. ii and 6. rupriined. c and d. Pruned. grown one-year-old branched pruned. When planting out permanently and pruning a tvpe like Fig. 55a there is no necessity to cut so hard back. Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo Jan., 1912, Fig. ^6a i.s a yearling pear tree produced from ground grafting a mis- budded stock. Such a type, if the stem is long enough, should be treated by reducing it l)ack below the branches. But as the type illustrated has branched too low it will be necessary to cut away the two outside branches so as to form a tree having a stem of suitable length. The central growth should then be cut back as shown in Fig. 56^. Fig. 57« shows a typical branched one-ye;ar-old pear tree from bud, well grown and having sound head conditions. As there are sound collar buds at the basal end of the branches, reduce back to these buds : Irst, by cutting away the terminal branch upon the main stem. Owing to the terminal portion being some- 4\ \ ; 4#1 what oblicjue, this is necessary il the pruner wishes to have the main stem straight. By the fol- lowing winter there should be a repetition of growth, but much stronger. Fig. :,'?a is a well-grown one- year-old Japanese plum. It is rarely that this variety of fruit is not plentifully supplied with 60. yearling cherry and peach trees. collar buds Ul)On the main stem „. Unpruned cherry. c. Pruned Cherry, at the base of the branches, and *■ ^-'npruned Peach. d. Pruned Peacli. also upon the stem below the head growtlis. If the stem is long enough to form the future head of the tree, cut upon the stem below the branches- where indicated by line, i.e., if there are suitable buds. If the stem is . too short, or there are no suitable buds, reduce back the branches to the collar buds, the same as Fig. 58^?. Failing collar buds, branch prune at the basal buds. lo Jan.. 191-.] OrcJiard and Garden Notes. 6^ Pig. 59^ and b are common types of yearling peach or nectarine trees. Fig. 59a requires to be differently pruned to Fig. 59^1. By examining the branches upon the former, it will Ite seen that they have sound basal buds to work upon. All branches not required to form the future head upon this type (Fig. ^ga) should be cut away close to the main stem. Then harden back the vertical growth to where marked thus — . and prune back the three branches left to the basal buds. (See Fig. S9'^-) Fig. 59^ is a very simple type to prune, having sound buds upon the main stem, and above the strong oblique growth, to operate upon. To get clean growth and form an evenly-balanced head condition, it will be necessary to utilize these buds. When pruning such a type, the correct method is to remove all branches close to the main stem. Then prune back to where there are three or four sound buds evenly spaced to form the future head growths. (See Fig. 59«/.) Fig. 60b is a distinct type of a one-year-old tree from Figs, ^ga and b. Allowing the two stronger branches to grow unchecked, and thereby utilizing the greater quantity of the sap flow and plant food, has been the means of .starving the opposite branches and the top of the tree. If such a type had a sound bud upon the stem near the union of the stock, like Fig. 59^7, the better plan would be to reduce back to such a bud. To correctl}- prune such a type, so as to get an evenly-branched head, the two stronger branches as well as the three low'er ones should be cut back close to the main stem. This will leave the three higher ones, and these should be cut back to the sound basal buds. (See Fig. 60^.) Fig. 60a is a straight type very easilv pruned correctl v, but is so often pruned otherwise. If the growth made is long, vigorous and straight, it simply means reducing back to a bud the desired height from the ground so as to form a tree with a stem the requisite length. But with a type like the one illustrated, having made a short sturdy growth, and the terminal -end being bent, it is necessary to cut so as to form a well-balanced head upon a straight stem. To obtain this end. it will be necessary to cut at bud marked thus — , and not at bud indicated by W^^. This type of yearling tree is more prevalent amongst cherries than other kinds in the nursery row. {To be coiii'nnied.) ORCHARD AND GARDEX NOTES. E. E. Pescott. Principal. Horticultural School. Burnley. The Orchard. The necessity for constant surface cultiNation is apparent every summer, but more so in dry seasons. Not only in non-irrigable districts is this a necessitv, but also in those districts where the trees can be watered, and more so in the latter case. In irrigated orchards, the tendency of the soil, as a result of artificial waterings, is to set and harden. Consequently, stirring the surface must be resorted to, in order to keep up a good mechanical condition of the soil, and also to prevent loss of irrigation water by evaporation. In non-irrigated orchards, the cultivation work is necessary to conserve what water has entered the subsoil as a result of the winter and spring rains. Soil crusts should not be allowed to form. Summer showers are not alone the cause of these formations ; dry w^eather conditions cau.se the soil to consolidate, and anv trampling, or vehicular traffic tends to harden the surface, and thus to allow of the escape of moisture that the trees must meed. 64 Journal of Agriculturi, Victoria. [10 Jan., 1912, Pests and Spraying. If woolly aphis is at all existent, a spraying with a strong nicotine solution will reduce it considerably. A paint, the basis of which is any of the petroleum oils, or one of the miscible oil preparations now on the market, will be useful where this pest is not very frequent. The method is to mix the oil with lime, or sulphur, potash, or some other crude chemical of an insecticidal value, and to paint the parts attacked with a good strong^ brush. The sulphur-potash remedy has been previously mentioned in these notes, and it is especially effective in not only killing out the pest where- ever applied, but also iri rendering that particular spot obnoxious to any other aphides that may come along later. It is made by dissolving 2lbs. sulphate of potash in | gallon of water and then mixing with 2 lbs. of sulphur. The whole is worked up to the consistency of house paint with linseed oil. It is applied to the affected parts with a brush. Codlin moth spraying will still require to be carried on. All affected apples should be gathered and destroyed. None should be allowed to remain on the trees or on the ground. As soon as the workings or marks of the insect are observed, the fruit should be gathered and destroyed. If the fruits are left, there is always the danger of the larvae escaping to a crevice or hiding place and so continuing the loss. Cherry and pear trees may be sprayed with arsenate of lead wherever the slug is present ; vines may be sprayed similarly wherever the vine moth caterpillars are found. Budding. January and February are the suitable months for budding. In budding, it is necessary that the bark shall run or open freely ; and, to do this, the ti1ee must have a good sap flow at the time of performing the operation. If such does not occur, the trees to be worked, or the stocks, should be given a good watering, and the budding deferred for a day or two. Full instructions for budding were given in Mr. Cole's articles on the Propagation of Fruit Trees in the September and October, 191 1, Jourtials. Summer Pruning. In January and February, trees that require it may be summer- pruned. In performing this work, care should be observed that as much of the leafalge as possible is retained on the trees. Unduly long laterals of fruiting trees may l>e shortened back, always cutting to a leaf. Unnecessary terminal leader growths, of which there are sometimes three or four, all strong growing, may be reduced to one; retaining this one as a leadei^ In no case should this growth be cut or interfered with in any wa\'. The result of these cuts will be to divert the sap which was flowing into growths that would subsequently be pruned, into more profitable channels, so that weak buds and growths may be strengthened, and induced into fruit beariiig. Vegetable Garden. The \'egetable section should be kept in good condition by alternate cultivation and watering. A good surface scarifying with the Planet Jr., or with a hoe, should be given when the soil has well settled afteri eadi watering. This will keep the soil in good condition, and the crops in good growth. Where crops are growing, an occasional overhead watering will be beneficial .; it w ill clean and invigorate the leaves. lo Jan., 1912.] A New Lucerne Trouhlc. 65 As soon as a crop has been removed from a plot, the ground should be well manured and dug over. If any pest, such as aphis or caterpillars, has been prevalent, it would be advisable to burn all crop refuse, to destroy any insects that may remain. Seedlings of such crops as cabbage, celery, lettuce, cauliflower, &c., may be transplanted; and seeds of peas, French beans, turnip, cauli- flower, &c., may be planted. Keep the tomatoes well watered and fed, pinching out surplus and strong growing laterals. In earl} districts the onion crop will be ripening. In late districts, or with late crops, the ripening may be hastened by breaking down the top. An autumn crop of potatoes mav be planted. Flower Garden. The lawns, flower beds, and shrubberies will need frequent waterings. Such plants as cannas, delphiniums, perennial phloxes, and penstemons, will require a good water supply. These and similar plants will benefit by a good mulching. Much hand work will be of great benefit in the flower garden and borders at this season of the year. Regular hoeings do much to improve the texture of the soil, and to conserve the soil moisture. In shallow and undrained soils, constant waterings will be a necessity, if the plants are to be kept alive ; at the same time, there is alwavs the danger of excessive water in undrained soils. Mulching will also be an important work this month. This work will greatly assist the retention of soil moisture ; at the same time, it will greatly reduce the temperature of the soil. Anv material that will ulti- mately be incorporated with the soil in the form of humus is useful for mulching purpo.ses. Dahlias and chrysanthemums should be kept growing and in good heart, by watering, light feeding, and mulching. Thev should also be tied to the stakes as the growths extend. Pests, such as caterpillars of several species, and red spider, will now shortly appear. For the former, weak sprayings with arsenate of lead, or Paris green, may be given. Wherever the red spider is ob.served. the attacked parts should be cut off and burned. Not only should this be done to the chrysanthemums and dahlias, but also to all plants in the beds similarly affected. Constant waterings will often relieve the plants of this trouble, but the most efficacious miethod is to burn all parts affected as the insect makes its appearance. Carnations may now be layered and seeds of pansies and perennial and biennial plants may be sown. A few late gladioli and a few spring iflowering bulbs for early flowering, may also be planted. A NEW LUCERNE TROUBLE. Downy Mildew {Perouosfora trifoliorum. De Bary). C . C. Brittlebank, Assistant to the Vegetable Pathologist . Some crowns of lucerne were recently forwarded to the office of the Vegetable Pathologist for examination, and were found to be affected with Downy Mildew. As this disease is evidently a recent introduction, the following notes will be of interest. 17862. C ^6 Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo Jan., 1912.. Peronospora tnfoliorurn is a common parasite on various legumes in. America and Europe, and in the former country there is record of damage to lucerne by this pest. Until the specimens under notice came to- hand there was no record of it for Victoria. As this fungus belongs to a genus, many of which are destructive to cultivated plants, it behoves the growers of lucerne, especially in irriga- tion areas, to be on watch, lest their crops be invaded by this pest ; if once established, it would be most difficult, if not impossible, to ex- terminate. It is spread not only by conidia, which are blown from plant to plant, but also by oospores or resting spores formed within the tissue- of diseased leaves. The latter, falling into the crowns of the plants and on to the soil, serve as fresh sources of infection, frorr. which the disease spreads during the foliowing year. Even if the lucerne be eaten down to the crowns by sheep or other stock, a certain number of fallen leaves would be trodden into the soil and start the disease afresh in the following spring. Although onlv a few specimens of this disease have been brought under- notice, and probably but few lucerne growers have seen it up to the pre- sent time, it does not follow that the disease is of no econonrx importance. Until a few years ago, the Lucerne Rust had not been obser\ed in Vic- toria ; the first specimens obtained were found by the writer on the rail- way embankment at Garden Vale, near Melbourne. At the present time, many parts of the State are infested by this disease, and tons of valuable fodder are destroyed every year. Lucerne rust was, without doubt, imported with consignments of seed from other countries, as in nearly every shipment of lucerne seed spores ccmld be ol)tained in abundance. Most probably, the resting spores of the downy mildew of lucerne have reached Victoria in fragments of diseased leaves, niixed through ship- ments of seed. General Appearance of Diseased Plants The specimens under notice had a stunted and unthriliy look, the- upper portions of the stem and leaves being covered by a thick greyish, or violet-grey downy layer Many of the diseased leaves were coated on both surfaces and had their edges curled downwards and inwards towards the mid-rib. Others again, were of a yellowish grey, more- especially those exhibiting the downy coating on the under side only. Several of the stalks were almost bare of leaves on their lower portions and clearly showed the disastrous effects of the disease. If a small portion of the grey felted coating be mounted for examina- tion by the microscope, it will be found to consist of minute tree-like- structures, bearing, at the tips of the many fo'-ked branches, oval egg- shaped bodies known as conidia. These minute bodies are capable of infecting any lucerne or clover plants on which they may fall, weather conditions being favourable. If small patches only of the field be attacked, they .should be at once covered with straw and burnt over to destroy all diseased plants and" fallen leaves. By taking this precaution, it is possible that the disea.se mav be arrested in its destructive course. As irrigation colonies become more numerous, so will the conditions be more favourable to the spread of various diseases — warmth and mois- ture constitute suitable conditions for the development of fungoid pests. Settlers should therefore be continually on the lockout for the appearance- of anv disease such as the one under review. lO Jan., 1912.] Victorian Egg-laying Competition, igii-12. 67 VICTORIAN EGG-LAYING COMPETITION, 1911-12, CONDUCTED AT BURNLEY HORTICULTURAL SCHOOL. {Continued from fage 820. Vol. IX.) H. V. Hawkins, Poultry Expert. Eggs Lait during Competition. No. Position in of Breed. Name of Owner. April to Total to Competi- Pen. Oct. Nov. Date (8 months). tion. 12 White Leghorn W. G. Swift 938 153 1,091 1 31 II R. W. Pope 901 161 1,062 2 40 ,, A. J. Cosh (S.A.) 905 140 1,045 3 20 „ H. McKenzie 819 141 960 4 33 " Range Poultry Farm (Old.) 826 130 956 5 37 „ E. Wakion 790 143 933 6 18 „ S. Brundrett 775 121 896 7 13 Black Orpington . . D. Fislicr . . 736 117 853 8 46 Minorca G. W. fhalmers 736 114 85U 9 21 Wliite Legliorn R. L. Appleford 718 126 844 10 39 ,, A.W. HaU 093 146 839 11 25 )> B. Slitchell 702 127 829 12 55 „ W. G. McLlster 698 124 822 13 44 Black Orpington . . T. S. Goodisson 700 114 814 14 38 White Leghorn Mrs. C. R. Smee 662 138 800 15 32 Silver Wyandotte . . M. A. Jones 696 101 797 16 10 Black Orpington . . H. A. Langdon 659 137 796 17 9 White Legliorn J. O'Loughhn 661 130 791 18 36 .> F. A. Silhtoe 652 128 780 19 1 » A. Brebner 647 129 776 20 67 „ C. L. Shamiau 657 118 775 "t 0, 49 >» W. J. Thornton 627 148 775 / ^^ 24 )» F. Hannalord 621 148 769 23 3 1. K. Gleghom 634 134 768 24 28 ,, J. Campbell 628 135 763 25 2 » E. P. Nash 611 150 761 26 66 White Wyandotte J. E. Bradley 662 97 759 27 50 White Leghorn C. H. Biisst 619 136 755 28 19 1) A. Jaques 682 120 752 29 4 Golden Wyandotte H. BeU 636 112 748 30 22 Black Orpington . . P. S. Wood 630 116 746 31 5 White Leghorn L. C. Pa>Tie 609 134 743 32 65 ,, H. Hammill (N.S.W.) 605 128 733 33 45 „ T. Kempster 601 131 732 34 47 „ C.W.Spencer (N.S.W.) 588 141 729 35 27 ,. Hill and Luckinan . . 593 135 728 36 51 •» ■ • J. W. McArthur 623 104 727 39 63 Black Orpington . . A. J. Treacv 635 92 727 8 Wliite Leghorn T. W. Goto' 590 128 718 62 „ P. Hodson . . 563 149 712 40 59 „ W. H. Dmdop 562 126 708 41 57 » G. E. Edwards 559 144 703 }L42 60 „ J. J. Harrington 575 128 703 08 Faverolles K. Coiirtenay 585 117 702 44 43 White Leghorn W. B. Crellin 572 128 700 45 11 Brown Leghorn F. Son cum 556 141 697 46 41 White Leghorn Morgan and Watson . . 579 109 688 47 53 >, A. Stringer 551 135 686 48 42 White Orpington . . P. Mitchell 585 93 678 49 52 White Leghorn W. J. McKeddie 540 136 676 50 30 Black Orpington . . Rodgcrs Bros. 554 112 666 51 6 Silver Wyandotte . . Mrs. H. J. Richards 552 110 662 52 35 White Leghorn J. H. Brain 488 143 631 53 34 u E. Dettman 508 122 630 54 54 i» F. N. Hodges 524 97 621 55 7 H. Stevenson 480 134 620 56 16 Silver Wyandotte . . Miss A. Cottam 515 104 619 57 26 White Leghorn F. Seymour 488 125 613 58 23 Oolden Wyandotte G. E. Brown 511 88 599 59 64 White Leghorn J. D. Read 446 146 592 60 J 56 Mrs. C. Thompson . . 438 130 568 61 61 Silver Wyandotte J. Reade 456 87 543 62 17 White Leghorn W. J. Eckershall 432 104 536 63 14 Black Orpington . . W. J. Macauley 425 96 521 64 15 Minorca H. McChesney 351 105 456 65 48 " 3. James . . 242 104 346 66 40,378 8.240 48,618 68 Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo Jan., 1912. INSECTIVOROUS BIRDS OF VICTORIA. FRONTAL SHRIKE TIT. {Falcunculus jrontatus, Gould.) C. French, Junr., Acting Government Entomologist. The Frontal Shrike Tit, a very handsome bird, is fairly plentiful in most localities a few miles from Melbourne. Thev are usually seen in pairs, generally amongst the topmost branches of eucalypts and other trees. FRONTAL SHRIKE TIT. {Falcunculus jrontatus, Gould.) The male has a beautiful dark coloured crest, and a black throat ; but the throat of the female is green. The bill of this bird, being short and verv strong, is admirably adapted for destroying the hard wing-cases, &:c., of the destructive insects which hibernate under the bark and in the crevices of the trees. They also break open hard galls and scales and eat the insects contained therein. They are very active and seem to devote most of their time hunting for insects, and they do a con- siderable amount of good in keeping the strawberry cockchafer, cherry green beetle, codlin moth, longicorns, wire worms, and other pests in check. Remains of these insects have been found in stomachs of the Frontal Shrike Tit. . The nests are very beautiful structures. In form, they are cup- shaped, being slightly contracted at the rim. The 01.; side is generally lo Jan., 191 2.] The Olive. 69 composed of the inner bark of the eucalypt, mosses, lichens, cobwebs, and grasses, whilst the inner lining consists of grasses and fine shreds of bark. They are usually placed on the topmost branches of eucalypts, and though often found are most difficult to obtain, being fortunately out of the reach of boys. As this bird is one of the best destroyers of noxious insects, it should, needless to say, receive every protection. THE. OLIVE. L. Macdonald, Horticulturist, Dookie Agricultural College. {Continued from page Sjg. Vol. IX.) Propagation. The olive is one of the easiest trees to raise. It is propagated either from seeds, cuttings (as truncheons, hard wood, or terminal cuttings), sprouts, stools, or the excrescences found on the base of the tree. Seeds. — Like the peach, apricot, and other deciduous trees, the olive fails to come true from seed ; and, in the majority of cases, there is a rever'sion to more or less wild and worthless types. Hence, all seedlings, except those that are retained where it is desired to raise new varieties, should be worked over with selected varieties, either by budding or grafting. The .seed mav be planted out 'a the open nursery or started in small l)eds where conditions can be controlled better, and planted out in their second season's growth. The latter is, perhaps, the more suitable method. In either case, the soil should be well prepared. The seed should be obtained, if possible, from selected trees. The pulp should be thoroughly removed before planting. A good method of doing this is by soaking the .seed in an alkaline solution made up of j to | lb. of caustic soda to I gallon of water. Cracking the outer shell can also be adopted, but should be carried out with care so that no injury may be done to the kernel. This is a slow process and is not recommended for general pur- poses. The seed should be sown i to 2 in. in depth and covered with some friable material. Where surface watering is adopted, a light mulch of short horse manure, or some such material, is advantageous, as it prevents the ground " caking " on top or cracking. Germination is often tardy and irregular where no injury has been done to the outer .shell, the seed sometimes remaining in the ground many months without makmg growth. Quicker results are obtained with those seeds whose outer shell has been injuried in some way, thus permitting the, moisture to gain more ready access to the kernel. Seeds may be sown as soon as the fruit is fully ripe or at any time through the winter months, say from; May to September. Cuttings. — ^The various sorts of cuttings are used chiefly for repro- ducing selected varieties. They mav, however, be worked over with other kinds by either budding or grafting. This is sometimes done to diminish or increa.se the vigour of certain varieties. Truncheons. — These may be obtained from heavy limbs split in quarters, or from round branches i to 3 in. in diameter. Those of a diameter from 2 to 3 in. are the most suitable for planting out. They 70 Journal of Agriculture , Victoria. [lo Jan., 1912. should ba about 15 to 20 in. in length and .should be taken from the tree.s in June, July, or August. All side shoots should be removed and care taken not to brui.se the bark. When planting in the nursery, it is a good plan to place the truncheons at an angle in the furrow, tread firmly, and cover over completelv with .soil, taking care to leave the top of the cutting close to the surface in such a manner that it will remain moist and gain a sufficiency of air. Several trees may be obtained from each trun- cheon in this manner, as thev often develop sprouts and roots along the greater part of their length. If only one shoot is desirfed, the most suit- able should be selected and the others remo\ed. Terminal Cuttings. — The.se are made from the tips of the shrtots after they have passed the herbaceous stage ; they should be cut about 6 in. in height. All of the lower leaves should be removed immediately after cutting, to prevent evaporation of moisture and consequent wilting. The 7. OLIVE TRUNCHEONS AND CUTTINGS. a, b, and c. Truncheons, 3in., 2in. and lin. diameter respectively ; d and e. Cuttings ; f. Catting- pre- pared for planting ; g. Terminal cutting-; h. Terminal cutting- prepared for planting-. end for planting should be cut off close to a node, as they callus and root better w^hen cut in such manner. Those cuttings with the buds close together are the best. They should be planted in a compost containing a good proportion of sharp sand and be kept continually moist. This kind of cutting is best started in lath or shelter hou.ses or in frames, and ])l anted out when well rooted. Cuttings of old wood below an inch in thi(.l.ness should be of lesser length than the truncheons, and should be started in the nur.sery. Cuttings are considered the quicker method of raising selected varieties. They come into bearing earlier, but are supposed to be shorter lived. Tt is possible that, in poor soils or trying situations, the seedling mav be the more thriftv and long lived tree, but experience in this country has not go;'? to prove that this is the case. Many of the oldest trees in Aus- tralia v,;re raised from truncheons and are still doing well. However, their age is comparative vouth in the life of the olive tree, and perhaps JO Jan., 191 2.] Answers to Corres-poyidods. 7r it is as well to accept the opinion of continental writers on the greater longevity of seedling trees until there is greater e\'idence at hand to the •contrary. Sprouts. — These may be obtained from the base of old trees, a good .shield-shaped piece being cut off with each. They should then be shortened and treated in the same manner as terminal or small cuttings. They may also be obtained from truncheons where good growth is made and a rapid jnultiplication of numbers is necessary. Stools. — This is a rapid and effective method of obtaining rootlings for transplanting and working over or for increa.sing a selected variety. Well established young trees are cut down close to the ground. A number of shoots de\-elop from the adventitious buds that break out on the stub. The earth is then moulded up over the base of the.se and if kept moist rooting soon takes place. When the shoots are well-rooted, the soil is broken away and the shoots removed with a sharp knife or secateur. A fresh batch may then break out and can be treated in the same manner. Eyes. — This is a term used for the excrescences that occur around the lower part of aged trees. Thev may be used for propagation and succeed best where bottom heat is available. After removal with a sharp knife, they should be planted ah out an inch in depth in the same manner as seeds, covered with some friable material, and kept continually moist. When sprouting occurs, they should be removed to the nursery. Thev require skill in handling, and are not recommended except under circum- stances where conditions mav f)e controlled. {To he co)itiinied.) ANSWERS TO CORRESPONDENTS. The Staff of the Depirtment has been orjranized to a large extent for the purpose of n'w in? information to farmers. Questions in every branch of atrrifulture are gla<:lly answered. Write a short letter, sriving as full particulars as possible, of your local conditions, and state precisely what it is that you want to know. All inquiries forwarded to the Editor must be accompanied by the name ani address of the writer. This is verj' necessary, as sometimes insufficient information is furnished by ihe inquirer. Topping up Cockerels for M.^rket. — E.D. inquires as to method of feeding. Answer. — Give equal parts pollard, barley meal, and bran, with the addition •of steamed lucerne chaff (about a third), and sufficient skim milk to m>x the whole to a crumbly consistency. For the last few davs, add a little mutton fat or glycerine to mash. Feed a little at first, and gradually increase quantity as the appeti'e improves. Avoid grains. Skim m.ilk to drink will improve and whiten the flesh. Birds should be kept off green grass when fattening. Grit must always be available. NON-PkEGNANCY. — H.E.M. states that he has a cow that will not get in calf, but has returned to the bull regularly for the past year. Answer. — Syringe out with 2 per cent, solution of lysol. The day previous to service flush with a solution of baking soda. If this treatment be not successful, an impregnator should be tried. Removal of Afterbirth. — H.E.M. asks how to remove afterbirth that does not come away naturally. Answer. — Insert the hand and detach frjm the button-like protuberances to ■which it is attached in a manner somewhat resembling the end of a finger in a glove. Pay special attention to cleanliness, and irrigate the womb ^^ilh an anti- septic solution, such as lysol or Condy's fluid. Worms. — E.C.P. inquires as to treatment for worms. His yearling colt is not in as good condition as he shoTdfl be, evidentiv owing to the prevalence of worms. Anszoer. — Give one teaspoonsful of liquor arsenicalis in feed twice daily. Most yearling colts suffer from worms. Itch. — E.J.D. states that his mare is suffering from itch, near the mane being affected the worst. AnsTner. — Wash with a solution of phenvle, and smear well with carron oil. 72 Joiinidl of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo Jan., 1912. REIVllNDEHS FOR FEBRUARY. LIVE STOCK. Horses. — At Grass. — Supplement dry grass, if possible, with some greenstuflf- Provide plenty of pure water and shade shelter. In Stable. — Supplement hard feed with some greenstuff, carro'.s, or the like, and give a bran mash once a week at least. Avoid over-stimulating foods, such as maize and barley. Give hard feed in quantities only consistent with work to be performed. Stable should be well ventilated and kept clean. Remove manure promptly to a sufficient distance. Exclude flies. When at work, give water at short intervals. Always water before feeding. Cattle. — For milking cows the food should be of a succulent nature. Water should be pure, plentiful, and easily accessible. Provide shade shelter and salt licks. Keep milking sheds and feed boxes scrupulously clean. Remove attractions for flies. Care should be taken that the remainder of the cows required to calve next spring should be served this month. If succulent feed not available, calves should be given milk until green grass appears. Their condition will thus be maintained and enable them to winter well. Pigs. — If hard fed, some green vegetable food should be added. Give an ounce of Epsom salts in the feed occasionally ; also a handful of charcoal. Water baths are appreciated in hot weather. Keep free from lice by brushing occasionally with an oil brush. Sheep. — Drench any weaners scouring ; Cooper's tablets are handy for this work. Lime dams and pools ; thick water and dry feed are responsible for many troubles with ewes la'er on. Keep salt available. Do not wait until in-lamb ewes, or good wool-growing sheep are poor, before commencing to feed a little oats cr oaten hay; it means better mothers and more- shafty fleeces. Coarse crossbred ewes ;ire not in season till now. Downs' rams should be mated -with this class for lambs ; merino rams for graziers' sheep. Poultry. — Chickens should now be trained to perch; they will be more healthy and less liable to develop wry tails. Provide plenty of green feed and give less grain and me.\t. Avoid condiments. Keep water in cool shady spot and renew three times each day. Keep dust bath damp. Birds showing symptoms of leg weakness should be given i rrrain of <|uinine per day (three months old chickens, ^ grain) and plenty of skim milk. CULTIVATION. Farm. — See that ha} stacks are weatherproof. Cultivate stubble and fallow, and prepare land for winter fodder crops. Get tobacco sheds ready for crop. In districts where February rains are good, sow rye, barley, vetches, and oats for earlv winter feed. Orchard. — Sjiray for codlin moth. Search out and destroy all larvse. Cultivate the surface where necessary and irrigate where necessary, paying particular attention to young trees. Fumigate evergreen trees for scale. Continue budding. Flower Garuen. — Cultivate the surface and water thoroughly during hot weather. Summer-prune roses by thinning out the weak wood and cutting back lightly the strong shoots. Thin out and disbud dahlias and chrysanthemums. Layer carnations. Plant a few bulbs for early blooms. Sow seeds of perennial and hardv annual plants. Veget.able (tARDEN. — Continue to plant out seedlings from the seed-beds. Sow seeds of cabbage, lettuce, cauliflower, peas, turnip, and French beans. Keep all vacant plots well dug. Vineyard. — February is ihe month for the " Yema " or Summer bud_ graft. Select scion-bearing vines; mark with oil paint those conspicuous for quality and quantity of fruit, regular setting and even maturity. Sulphur again, if necessary, but avoid applying sulphur to wine grapes too short a time before gathering. Cellars. — Prepare all plant ana casks for the coming vintage. An ounce of bisulphite of potash to each bucket of water used to swell press platforms, tubs, &c., will help to keep it sweet. Keep cellars as cool as possible. Complete all manipulations so as to avoid handling older wines during vintage. lo Jan., 1912.] Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. xvn ii ROYAL MEDAL" MILKING MACHINES There ARE radical differences in the "ROYAL MEDAL" -distinctions in principle and construction ^which make it a complete departure from any other machine on the market. TT is noteworthy that, previous to the advent of the "ROYAL MEDAL," practically all milking machines were constructed on the same principle — most had certain ad- vantages— all had certain defects. In the "ROYAL MEDAL," however, an entirely new principle has been conceived — and carefidly cairied out through twenty THIS SHOWS THE "ROYAL MEDAL" MILKER WITH CUPS IN POSITION «S IMPROVEMENT on improvement has been added, until to-day the machine stands out as unquestionably the most perfect milker. The "ROYAL MEDAL" is no experiment. It has been carefully tested by six years' use on valuable pedigreed cows, of which regular milk records were kept, and by an extended test at the Bedfordshire County Institute, which resulted in its being awarded the medal of the Roj'al Agricultural Society of England. LEARN MORE ABOUT THIS MILKER. By filling in and mailing this coupon below you secure the "ROYAL MEDAL" booklet. Here the subject of milking machines is dealt with full}' and completely, and the various unique features of the "ROYAL MEDAL" are described and explained. No up-to-date dairyman should fail to secure a copy. " ROYAL MEDAL" MILKING MACHINES, 34 Queen Street, MELBOURNE. LONDON OFFICE: Caxton House, Westminster, S,W. JACK H. DAVIES, Manauini, 71 10. A RECORD WHEAT YIELD. 16 BAGS PER ACRE. "What is undoubtedly a record wheat yield for the locality is being gathered in by Mr. Samuel Gross, of the Three Bridges, Drung Drung. With a Mitchell 6 feet Harvester doing excellent work and drawn by five horses, Mr. Gross has taken up to 18 bags of Federation wheat per acre, the field harvested yielding a magnificent average of sixteen bags From other parts of the district excellent returns are also being harvested, but that bagged by Mr. Gross, so far, is the higliest recorded." THE USER'S OPINION. "A report of the work done b}' jour 6 feet Harvester appeared in the Horsham Times of 7th Januar\' last, and you will probably be pleased to hear that the machine has given me the utmost satisfaction. You will notice by the report that I had a record crop, which the machine had no difficulty in dealing with, and it made a splendid sample. It was very light in draught, and I would have no hesitation in recommending it to any one who stands in need of a really first- class Harvester." SAMUEL GROSS, Drung Drung, 20;i,/10. This is the "MITCHELL" in farm work — not what WE claim in an advertisement, but ITS ACTUAL WORK IN A 50 BUSHEL CROP. As it handles a 50 bushel crop "excellently," don't you think it's safe to handle YOURS? PLOWS, GRAIN DRILLS, ONE-WAY DISCS, HARROWS, WALTER A. WOOD BINDERS, MOWERS & RAKES, "MAX" MILKING MACHINES, "DIABOLO" SEPARATORS, "WATERLOO BOY" OIL ENGINES, "AUSTIN" ROAD GRADERS, HORSE YOKES, CHAFF CUTTERS, "LINKE NOACK" EARTH SCOOPS. MITCHELL & COMPANY PTY. LTD. FACTORY £ OFFICE: :V SHOW ROOM: WEST FOOTSCRAY, MELBOURNE. I 596 BOURKE-ST., MELBOURNE. Please mention this Journal when writing us. J^efFigeratiug ^ ^ and lee JYCakiixg j^CaekineFY ^ ^ Made by HUMBLE «& SONS, ^< 1 m\ Geelong, *ei'i^R.-' '" I^^^H^Jf r*v-'''M aaliiisi ^^ Victoria. jHjjTifiJi'iir' ikSi ''."i/'ii ''. 11'', Specially suitable for Butchers, Breweries, Squatters, Butter, Bacon, and lee Factories, and all classes of Cold Storage, &c. The Machines can be supplied from 3 cwt. capacity upwards, and either belt-driven or fitted with Engine A large number of these Machines are working in the Australian States, New Zealand, and South Africa, and are giving universal satisfaction. All classes of Refrigeration work undertaken, Including coils. One of these Machines is installed at the Dookie Agricultural College. " Ferrier's " Woolpresses and Rabbit Poison Distribntors, Engines, Boilers, Horseworlts, &c. Full Particulars on Application to— Humble and Sons, General Eng'ineers, VULCAN FOUNDRY, GEE LONG. VICTORIAN RAILWAYS. VICTORIA FOR YOUR VACATION. The Victorian Railways issue SUMMER EXCURSION FARES To the Seaside, Mountains, Lakes, and Caves FROM 15th NOVEMBER TILL 30th APRIL. LORNE. Waterfalls, fern glens, sea and river fishing ; splendid accommodation. FLINDERS. Ocean beach and golfers' paradise. QUEENSCLIFF. Bay and ocean beaches ; rail and steamer services. THE BUFFALO PLATEAU, with its famous gorge, falls, and peaks, the Horn and the Hump, embraces the finest mountain scenery in Australia. Excursion fares all the year round. THE AUSTRALIAN ALPS. Mts. Bogong, Feathertop, Hotham. The Baw Baw Range. THE DIVIDING RANGE. Macedon, Woodend, Daylesford, &c. Healesville in the Hills. THE GIPPSLAND LAKES. The most charming chain of lakes in the Commonwealth. THE BUCHAN CAVES. Indescribably beautiful. CAMPBELL'S FALLS, ON FALLS CREEK, UPPER YARRA. For full information as to train services, fares, &c., "write to or in- quire from the Government Tourist Officer, Tourist Bureau, opp. Town Hall, Collins street, Melbourne. E. B. JONES, A ding- Secretary for Railways. V^ol. X. WHEAT AND ITS CULTJVATION. Part 2. [Registered at the General Post Office, Melhoiirne, for transmission by Post as a Newspaper.] Th e Pig In d us try. RYE GRASS. COCKSFOOT. PRAIRIE. PASPALUM. PHALARIS. TIMOTHY. DWARF ESSEX RAPE. LUCERNE. ALSIKE. COW GRASS. WHITE DUTCH. VEGETABLE, TREE, FLOWER, SHRUB aCRIOULTURAL SEEDS. Samples and Prices of Agricultural Seeds Post Free. Planet Jr. Seed Drills & Cultivators. Planter's Friend Corn Drills. Iron King Seed Drills. Corn Queen Planters, Aerators, Firefly Plows, "DEMON" BIRD SCARER. Special labour-saving device; most effective for scaring the birds. Goes for 16 hours without charging. WRITE FOR PAMPHLET. FULL & COMPLETE STOCK OF AGRICULTURAL SUNDRIES. HEMINGWAY'S ENGLISH ARSENATE OF LEAD. The purest and best make on the market. WRITE US FOR FULL PARTICULARS AND PRICES. SPRAY PUMPS. GARDEN GLOVES. NIKOTEEN. MANILLA LABELS. FRUIT TREE NETS. SEED & BULB BOOK Containing over 130 pages of useful information. POST FREE ON APPLICATION. Manures & Fertilizers of all descriptions. "ELECTRIC" GARDEN HOSE. The best 5 -ply hose on the market. Specially non- kinkable, and does not crack. In any length, ^ in., I in., and 1 in. PRICES ON APPLICATION. FULL & COMPLETE STOCK OF ORCHARD REQUISITES. MURCHISON'S SCRUB DESTROYER. Write for special pamphlet giving full prices and particulars. 64 ELIZABETH-ST., MELBOURNE. THE JOURKAL OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, -^XCTCDTIXj^, J^XJ&TXIJ^JL.Xj^. T. HOPKIMS, Acting Editor. CONTENTS.— FEBRUARY, 1912. The Pig Industry Diseases of Farm Animals ... Wheat and its (..'ultivation... Propagation of Fruit Trees R. T. Archer S.S. Cameron, D. V.Sc, M.R.G. V.S. ... A. E. V. Richardson, M.A., B.Sc. (Agric.) ... ... ... C. F. Cole Tlie Shipment of Grapes and other Soft Fruits The Liglit-Brown Apple Moth Bee-keeping in Victoria Vine Diseases in France Potato 1 Jigging Machines ... Farm Blacksmitliing The Olive Orchard and Garden Notes Reminders for March Statistics Victorian Egg-laying Competition, 1911-12 ... F. de Caslella C. French, Jvnr. F. R. Beuhne F. de Caslella G. Si-ymonr G. Baxter L. Macdonald E. E. Pescott PAGB. 73 83 91 101 108 111 113 116 119 123 127 130 133 134 136 COPYRIGHT PROVISIONS AND SUBSCRIPTION RATES. Tlie Articles in the .Journal of the Department of Agriculture of ^'iGto^ia are protected by the provisions of the Copyright Act. Proprietors of ne\\s{)apers wishing to republish anj' matter are at liberty to do so, provided the .Journal and author are both acknotrledi/ed. . The Journal is issued monthly. The subscription, which is payable in advance and includes postage, is 3s. per annum for the Commonwealth and New Zealand, and 5s. for the United Kingdom and Foreio:ii Countries. Single copy Threepence. Subscriptions should be forwarded to the Director of Agriculture. Melliourne. A complete list of the various publications issued bj' the Department of .Agriculture will be supplied by the latter. Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo Feb., 1912. No other Windmill has a Speed-governing Device like the "Billabong's." This impoitunt improvement of ours is protected by patent rights. It has neither springs nor weights — nothing to get out of order. By merely turning a screw you can vary the speed of the mill to your desire. This will be found to be of great advantage when ^'^^indmill is sub- jected to a change of load, and in heavy gales, &c. Stop and Consider. You want a mill to give lifelong service ; therefore, it must be made of good material. Bearings should be so made that they may be cheaply and quickly renewed. Frictional or wearing ]jarts should be few; and, what is most im- j>ortant, the mill should have a lubricating system that will insure its bein;,' thoroughly and continuously lubricated while working, but which will prevent waste wlien mill is not required. The mill should be responsive to a very light breeze, yet stana a gale. In our Mill all these Points are provided for. We know what is required of a good mill — we have had many years of windmill experience. The fact that we have obtained patent riglits proves our pro- gressiveness; and, as to quality and workmanship, our being established for over half a century answers. Suppose You Save, say, £1, or £1 10s., or £2, by buying a ciieaper mill, and then have to spend £2 to £3 in repairs — again another £3 or £4; or, suppose your cheap mi 1 sticks up when you most need it, you will soon lose pounds and pounds' worth of stock ; or, if it blows down in a gale, where is your saving then ? Pay a Proper Price and get the Rig^ht Article with a Good Manufacturings Firm to back it up. But the truth is, while our mills are well made, the price is so reasonable. Write for Catalogue and Prices. We can supply Tanks and Stnnds; Pumps of all kinds; Piping. Troughing, and Fluming; Farm and Garden Tools, Implements, and Requisites. JOHN DANKS 391=395 Bourke Street, Melbourne. lo Feb., 1912.] Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. START RIGHT ! ! When equipping the dairy with machinery don't let the matter of a £1 or two influence yoiu (jjioice, and [)revent you from obtaining the best and most up-to-date phuU ihat money can buy. A mistake made at the outset means just the difference between success aiul failure. It is false economy to purchase machinery of any description simply because it is "choap" — the sweetness of low price never equals the bitterness of pooi- qualify. Before ]urchasing a cream separator, milking machine, or petrol engine, visit the farms of the prominent and successful dairymen, and you will find that over 90 per cent, of them have either the "ALFA- LAVAL" SEPARATOR "L-K-G" MILKING MACHINES "FELIX" INDUSTRIAL MOTOR installed in their dairies or milking sheds. You run no risk whatever in purchasing any of tlie above time tested midlines, because they are guaranteed to be as represented, but should ihcy fail to make good what is claimed for th.em we will take them back again and pay all expenses. Our full-lino Cat xlogue No. 35DS, describes in detail these tcst-of-.-ili r.;nchines; it also gives full particulars and prices oi the mocjt modorn farm, dairy, and ehcesc-making requisites. Posted free on application. — Write for it. J. %mmm & son ivo., 19-23 king street, Melbourne. SOLE AGENTS :— Galvanized all-steel portable Silos. Every Farmer and Grazier should have a Telephone Service con- necting vrith th(! nearest Post Office. Thousands of Australian farmers have already installed Telephones, the ad- vantages of which are so numerous and valuable that it is impossible to measure or appreciate their worth until you have one. A well-known Victorian grazier, Mr. W. Gardiner, writes regarding The " ERICSSON " TELEPHONE :— " I find the telephone the most useful inven- tion I have on the farm, both in labour and time saving, also for business purposes. It has often saved me the price of itself in one transaction, and has paid for itself 50 times over in two cases of calling medical aid when no one could go for it. The " ERICSSON " gives satisfaction in every way." J. Prices, estimates, and full particulars, on applicaticm to — l\ PTY. LTD., 19-23 KING STREET, MELBOURNE. Represuntinq the L. M. ERICSSON Telephone Company. Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo Feb., 1912. If vou \mj\ fervcGSiiQ [F you want to have them up in a fraction of the time taken with bar and spade ! If you want to miss the laborious bar work and ramming ! Then . . . %% ''mm'' POST HOUE DIGGER. The Greatest of all Earth Boring Tools. It cuts the hole just the size for the post, in a fraction of the time taken with bar and spade, and no time is lost ramming. Works in all conditions and kinds of soil — not rock. On a fencing job 120 ten-inch holes can be easily bored in a day, or 200 smaller sizes. By extending the pilie bar the "IWAN" POST HOLE DIGGER bores down to 35 feet. Empties with a shake ; is built rigid — stays rigid — has no adjustable parts to wobbk about or stick. EVENTUALLY-WHY NOT NOW 3 i 5 6 7 8 9 10 12 14 in. 7/- 7/- 7/- 7/- 7/6 8/6 9/6 10/- 27/- 34/= each. Thomas McPherson & Son Established 51 Years, 554-566 & 582-588 Collins-St., Melbourne. lo Feb., 1912.] I JoiiDial of Agriculture, Victoria. MAIZE FOR FODDER. Craig Mitchell Mammoth White. ENORMOUS GRAIN YIELDER, 150 Bushels to the Acre. Average Yield for Green Feed, 50 to 55 Tons p3r Acre. Pedij^ree Seed, 9s. per bushel. CiieajxT in quantity. Order eail}' to prevent disappointment. Wi-ite for our descriptive Farm and Maize List, posted gratis ; also General Seed and Plant Catalogue. The leading house for Lucerne and Rape. Try the NEW GIANT KANGAROO RAPE. For Cattle, Sheep, Horses, Pigs, Fowls, etc., it is unsuipassaWlo. WILL FATTEN THREE MOKE SHEEP TO THE ACRE THAN OTHER KINDS. Will grow to a height of 11 feet, growing 2 feet in five weeks, 7^ feet in under twelve weeks. Price, 8d. per lb., 60s. per cwt. AGRICULTURAL SEED A SPECIALITY. LAW, SOMNER, & Co., Seed and Plant Merchants, 139-141 SWANSTON STREET, MELBOURNE. Established 61 Years. 'PHONE, CENTRAL 729. Journal of A^rictdture, Victoria. [lo Feb., 1912. "AUSTRAL" MILKING MACHINES. FIVE YEARS OF UNBROKEN SUCCESS Have established the AUSTRAL as the Premier Milking^ Machine, and have demonstrated 1 liat it does not belong to that class of appliancL-^ whose efficiency terminates after a few months of use. It has stood the test of fcime, and that under all sorts of conditions. IT IS SIMPLE. Complexity and intricacy are the bane of milking machinery. Both in principle and construction the Austral is striking]}' simple. Minute pulsating mechani." A^^H— ^-^wa| Vacuum Harness ^^ Oil Vacuum ■Bs Vacuum oil cooipanv Harness Vacuum Harness • - .;.;::;.r:v ^ WCdUW till tOdd'HIIV ...,^_»,..^... B^"--. '__•:- .•■v^ii?5ai»=^ja ?\ sr-*-~^ IC ^ ^^ Vacuum Leather Oil replaces the original and natural oils in leather which quickly disappear when harness is exposed to the weather. Vacuum Leather Oil preserves the leather; keeps it soft and pliable as a kid glove; gives a black finish; makes it water-proof; and pre- vents it from breaking and cracking. Write for booklet: "How to Take Care of Leather." Vacuum Oil Co. Pty. Ltd. 90 William Street. Melbourne. Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo Feb.. 19 12. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, VICTORIA. GOVERNMENT STUD BULLS. AVAILABLE FOR SERVICE OF COWS BELONGING TO BONA-FIDE SETTLERS UNDER THE CLOSER SETTLEMENT ACTS. Fee, 5s. per eow. Jersey Bull "DREADNOUGHT"; Calved, 22nd October, 1908. Sire, : — Sir Jack (188). Dam : — Lady Kitchener, by Lord Melbourne. {In charge, of Mr. H. Crumpler, Block 148, Bamawm.) Jersey Bull "ROSE FOX"; Calved, 19th August, 1909. Sire : — Starbright Fox (190). Dam : — Tuberose, by Magnet's Progress (54 A.J.H.B.). {In charge 0/ Mr. E. W. Prater, Block 106, Bamawm.) Jersey Bull "VERBENA'S BOY"; Calved, lOth January, 1908. Sire : — Acrobat. Dam : — Verbena 2nd, by Snowdrop's Progress 2nd. {In charge of Messrs. Laing and Mundie, Block 70, Bamawm.) Jersey Bull "NOBILITY"; Calved, 2nd April, 1910. Sire : — Lucy's Noble of Oaklands. Dam : — Winnie of Melrose 3rd, by Royal Blue. {Ill charge of Mr. E. T. Partington, Block 136, Bamawm.) Jersey Bull "MILKY WAY"; Calved, 20th June, 1909. Sire :— Starbright Fox (190). i)am:— Milkmaid 34th (590), by Plinlimmon (imp. 62 A.H.B.). {In charge of Mr. L. S. Hidands, Block 91, Nanneella.) Jersey Bull "GOLD MEDAL"; Calved, 3rd April, 1910. Sire : — Golden Fox (142 A.J.H.B.). Dam : — Melba, by Greystanes 2nd. {In char-ge of Messrs. Jacobs and Kennedy, Blocks 43 and 44, Nanneella.) Jersey Bull "MAGNET'S FOX"; Calved, 6th November, 1909. Sire :— Fox's Laddie. Dain :— Magnet 28th, by Defender (imp.) (2288 H.C.J.H.B.). {In charge of Mr. C. G. Woods, Block 29, Koyuga.) Jersey Bull "CREAM PROSPECT"; Calved, 22nd March, 1910. Sire :— Lord Creamer (155 A.J.H.B.). Z)am :— Daisy of Prospect (347 A.J.H.B.), by Cardigan. {In charge of Mr. L. H. Badclyffe, Block 2, Koyiiga. ) Jersey Bull "ZODIAC"; Calved, 10th November, 1908. Sire :— Starbright Fox (190). Dam :— Zoe 4th (805), by Handsome Hero. {In charge 0/ Mr. I!. J. Chappell, Block 12F, Swan Hill.) Jersey Bull "GAY FOX"; Calved, 12th May, 1909. Sire : — Starbright Fox (190). Dam : — Floss, by Plinlimmon (imp. 62). (In charge of Mr. F. Cox, Block 6D, Swan Hill. ) lo Feb.. 191 2-1 Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. xiii DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, VICTORIA. GOVERNMENT STUD BULLS. AVAILABLE FOR SERVICE OF COWS BELONGING TO BONA-FIDE SETTLERS UNDER THE CLOSER SETTLEMENT ACTS-^-^'^^''^^^^- Fee, 5s. per cow. Jersey Bull "WILLIAM OF AYRE"; Calved, February, 1910. Sire. : — Favourite's Fox •2nd. Dam : — Bessie McCarthy, by Snowflake's Progress. {In charge of Mr. J. S. Dickinson, Block 13, Nyah.) Jersey Bull "FOX'S LAD"; Calved, 5th October, 1908. Sire : — Fox, by Suowdrop's Progress 2nd. Dam : — Pansy 2nd, by Duke. (In charge of Mr. Ernest E. Borley, Block 6, Nyah. ) Ayrshire Bull "PETER OF WILLOWVALE"; Calved, 30th Sept., 1909. Sire: — Annetta's Pride (2-4.3). Dam: — Madge 2nd (Appendix A.H.B.), by Red Chief (359). (In charge of Mr. F. Mclvor, Block 12F, Swan Hill.) Particulars of extended pedigrees, milking records, &c. , can be obtained from each bull holder, from the resident Dairy Supervisors (Mr. O'KEEFE, Rochester, or Mr. S. J. KEYS, Swan Hill), or from The Department of Agriculture, Melbourne. AVAILABLE FOR SERVICE OF COWS THE PROPERTY OF BEET GROWERS AT BOISDALE. Red Danish Bull "CLAUDIUS"; Calved, 10th November, 1909. Sire: — Ernst Bellinge (imp.). Dam: — Kirsten IX. (imp.). Fee, 5.S. (available to 30 cows). Red Danish Bull "HAMLET"; Calved, 1st August, 1910. Sire : — Ernst Bellinge (imp.). Dam : — Marianne IV. G. Dam, : — Marianne III. (imp.). Fee, 5s. (available to 10 heifers). Red Polled Bull "TABAOUM"; Calved, 12th November, 1908. Sire :— Acton Ajax (imp.). Dam : — Janet, by Primate by Laureate (imp.). Fee, 7s. 6d. (available to 20 cows). Jersey Bull "GAY LAD II."; Calved, 8th August, 1906. Sire : — Acrobat, by Cherry's Pride (imp.). Dam : — Gaiety, by Snowdrop's Progress II., bj' Lady Superior's Progress (imp.). Fee, 5S. (available to 40 cows). (Winner of 7 first prizes.) Particulars of extended pedigrees, milking records and prizes may be obtained from, and arrangement for service made with, Mr. E. STEER, at the Homestead Block 21, where the bulls are kept. Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo Feb., 1912, To GRAZIERS, FARMERS, and DAIRYMEN. You cannot do bettei- tlian pufciiase your lequiiemeuts from THE ViOTORIA VARNISH OOY. '^7;^— Who are Importers and Manufacturers of the undermentioned, namel}' : — Varnishes for all uses, Paiiits, Dry Colors, Stainer's Turpentine, Boiled and Raw Linseed Oil, Resin, Shellac, White Lead, &c. OUR MANUFACTURE IS OF ONE QUALITY— THE BEST. Note the Address— The VICTORIA VARNISH COY. Proprietary Ltd., Queen's Bridge, South Meib. Tel. Central 614. EsTABLrsHED 1853. A. J. BORTHWICK, Manager. BONEDUST, SOPERPHOSPHATE, AND OTHER HIGH-GRADE FERTILIZERS DELIVERED AT RAILWAY STATION, FOOTSCRAY, OR ON WHARF, MELBOURNE. Office :— 407 POST OFFICE PLACE, MELBOURNE. BONES BOUGHT. CONSIGN TO ME, FOOTSCRAY. Telephone 2098. lo Feb.. 191^-] Journal of Agriculture , Victoria. XV s ><..^ ^<3 1 w ^ 8 <2 ^ 8 <-) ^0 '^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^4 5 v> CQ ?J ■^ 5 'Si K^ <>* ^ 8 2) i* <>< '='0 .8 § •§ ^ 5^ ^ -Ki S? N 4-J (h- 0 u c 0 0 ^ (.) m T! <1) C/5 1) (U m d 'n c \-. 0-, D p 0 0 u =3 4~> CJ CJ Q) OJ c/2 ^ 4) ^^ d ^ >^ £3 h*4 &3 H I O < CO >- 00 <» C/5 J2 >- nJ 0 -J-» a> -a CA CD 0 0. -t-* S c- &. cd :>> CO s. CD 3 CO o t/5 I- c © ■0 'S o -a: •a S H - S s Ol — p ^ £ :: .22 A j^ e t/v 4> ^^^_^ L. « u > e U.' u n ■n OJ -^ N c es -1 ■< 0 3 j= ■c« fA, 3 ■ ca B f/i S3 H -J 0 4> ->* tA >• ■-I Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo Feb., 1912. piston s Patent Wiudmills —AT THE ROYAL SHOW.- At the recent Royal Show a tine coUeeLiuu of Windmills was exhibited by James Alston, of Queen's Bridge, Melbourne. Mills of all diameters, from 6 ft. to 25 ft. were shown at work, suitable to all requirements of farmers or stock raisers, the small Mills being suitable for lifting moderate supplies from shallow wells, while the larger sizes are capable of dealing with almost any depths. A splendid Mill, 25 feet diameter on a 50-ft. Steel Tower, working an 18" pump, and throwing a stream of water of about 15,000 gallons per hour, attracted much attention. This, we believe, is the largest Mill ever shown on the Show Ground. Alston's Patent Steel Windmills have all the most up-to-date improve- ments in their construction. Pumps of many descriptions were shown, including the latest Draw Plunger Pumps for bore use, which admits of the plunger being drawn without disturbing the pipes in the bore. en THe JOURNAL OF ^fie department of ^^ncufture OP »-' ' NEW Yi VICT^ORIA. eoTANic Vol. X. Part 2. lOth February, 1912. THE PIG IXDUSTRY. I.— PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION. R. T. Archer, Senior Dairy Inspector. In all the leading dairying countries the revenue from the pig re- presents a very considerable portion of the farmer's income and is the means of utilizing to the best advantage the by-products of the dairy, viz., skim-milk, butter-milk, and whey. While this applies to the coun- tries against which we have to compete on the markets of the world, it must be admitted that the condition of the industry in the State of Vic- toria is at present very unsatisfactory, and is likely to continue so, until it is placed on a better basis. The problem is how to accomplish it. Fortunately, we have sufficient information to indicate the lines upon which it is advisable to move. Twenty-two years ago the financial conditions of Victoria were very depressed and the various products of the soil were correspondingly low in value. Fortunately, other countries had had similar experiences and had overcome them. Our statesmen found a solution of our difficulties in the experiences of Denmark. About 40 years ago, when the principal industry in that country was the production of grain, the farmers had a great struggle to keep their heads above water. Then came the estab- lishment of the dairying industry, which has been the means of bringing prosperitv to them. It was the experience of the Danes that influenced our legislators to do so much to develop the export trade of dairy produce from Victoria. This had the desired effect on the finances, and paved the way to the present prosperity. It has become our third staple industry, and enabled us to export in the season 1910-11 butter to the value of two and a half O^ million pounds sterling. DC 74 journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo Feb., 1912. Later on, the Danes discovered that they were not getting all that was possible out of their industry, and that thev could do better with their skim-milk and butter-milk by converting them into bacon for export to Britain, which already provided the outlet for the bulk of their butter. To' enable them to start on sound lines, qualified men were sent by the Government to discover the class of meat that brought the best returns and how to produce it, with the result that they forthwith started breed- ing stations. These were placed under the control of experienced breeders who were subsidized to breed pure pigs, so that pure boars should be available at a rea.sonable rate to dairy farmers for crossing with the native breed of pigs. The breed decided on was the Large Yorkshire, and regular importations are still being made to keep up the standard. Breeders' associations were started in different districts to provide boars for use by the members. This system of breeding, combined with proper methods of feeding, has enabled them to produce a type of bacon which commands the highest price on the British markets. The im- portance of this will be evident from a study of the figures given below, taken from The Grocer: — Imports into Great Britain, 1910. Source of Supply. Product. Quantity. Value. cwt. £ £ Denmark Butter 1,726,091 10,208.192 Bacon 1,794.416 6.341,726 Canada Butter 117,000 117,498 Cheese 1,607.074 4,424,806 Bacon 411.935 1.449,637 Hams 37,621 138,232 Lard 25,052 Pork 1,768 4,205 Total Pig Products 1.617,126 United States . . Cheese 38.247 105,400 Bacon 1.306,921 £4.453,293 Hams 665.771 2.329,516 Lard 1,342.257 4,201,013 Pork (Salt) . . 38,866 101,645 Total Pig Products 11,085,467 Holland Cheese 231,318 567,360 Fresh Pork 366,180 1,025,301 Total Fresh Pork Ex- 465.229 1,302,641 ported Victoria Butter Cheese 1909-10. 1910-11 2,483,565 13,601 Ham and Bacon 232.200 £489 £6,772 Pork (carca.ses) 4.439 592 9,988 £1,081 £16,760 16,760 lo Feb., 191 2.] The Pig Industry. 75 Exports of Pig Products from United States, 1910. (Kindly supplied hy the Consul for the United .States of America.) Country. Bacon Lard Hams Pork Belgium France . . Germany Netherlands Other European Countries British North America Other Countries . . Total Exports Belgium France . . Germany Netherlands Other European Countries British North America Other Countries . . Total Exports Belgium France . . Germany Netherlands Other European Countries British North America Other Countries . . Total Exports Belgium Germany Netherlands Other European Countries British North America Other Countries . . Total Exports cwt. £ 19,699 48,317 210 547 2,482 6,118 9,511 21,749 23.331 54,815 16,852 65,737 261,456 458,739 80.361 208,008 4,206 10,029 833.416 2,261,703 212,121 555,337 90,512 219,555 .. 85,949 253.272 370,480 3,878,384 47,368 117.549 455 1.234 972 2.445 -• 2,863 7.844 24,328 83,355 232,966 445,393 . . i 1,242 2.573 3,561 7.995 415 860 15,010 29,923 111.881 274,629 368,433 684,413 These tables will serve to illustrate the importance of the trade to the United States and what a large proportion of the whole exports is sent to Britain. It also shows that, in addition to the United Kingdom, there are many other ever-expanding markets the trade of which we may hope D 2 Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo Feb., 1912. to .share should we choose to develop the industry. The English figures are the Board of Trade returns, and are reproduced from The Grocer: — Imports of Pig Products to Britain. Product. Source of Supply. Quantity. Value. 1908 1909. 1910. 1908. 1909. 1910. Bacon] . . Denmark United States . . Canada . . j Other Countries Total United States . . Canada Other Countries Total . . United States . . other Countries Total . . United States . . other Countries Total . . cwt. 2,049,513 2,858,312 687,759 90,158 5,685,742 cwt. 1,809,745 2,189.053 443,386 183,279 cwt. 1,794,416 1,306,921 411,935 350,117 £ 5,680,923 6,726,084 1.827,636 245,936 £ 5,801,382 6,057,473 1,364,357 578,453 £ 6,341,726 4,453,293 1,449,637 1,146,618 4,625,463 3.863,389 14,480,579 'l3,801,665 13,391,274 Hams . . 1,169,601 52,657 2,969 1,073,569 53,593 1,867 665,775 37,621 15,730 2,936,960 138,472 9,237 2,952,084 154,222 6,590 2,329,516 138,232 58,837 1,225,227 1.129,029 719,126 3,084,669 3,112,896 2,526,585 Pork (Salted) ' . . 81,119 189,489 55,639 202,900 38,866 188,325 139.178 189,673 113,555 199,307 101,645 202,523 270,608 258,539 227,191 328,851 312,862 304,168 Lard?.. 1,924,881 62,610 1,703,578 57,022 1,343,257 109,236 4,258,051 ' 4,694,353 149,359 i 163,673 4,201,013 319,061 1,987,491 1,760,600 1,452,493 4,407,410 j 4,858,026 4,520,074 Lard (Imitation) Pork (Fresh) 174,064 231,847 275,402 306,700 438,909 1,023,322 603,444 1,196,797 7,343,132 8,005,478 6,537,601 22,609,209 23,547,680 22,442,342 Canadian Bacon Trade. In a report on trade between Canada and Britain, published in The Grocer, Lord Strathcona, High Commissioner for Canada, states — In respect of bacon, it will be noted that a decrease of £a,(i}„2']^ (or 25.35 per cent.) took place in 1909 in the imports of this important product. The shortage in the supply of bacon for the market of the United Kingdom during the year under revision has created an interesting situation. Bacon is unquestionably the stai)le breakfast dish in England, and the demand has been a steady and increasing one for some years past. ITp to 1905, the rapid growth and expansion of the Canadian bacon exports to the United Kingdom was so gratifying that it was hoped that the Dominion would eventually find it one of the largest and most profitable of her industries. This hope has not, however, been borne out, though a leading agricultural journal recently pointed out, in speaking of the excellent reputation established on the British market for Canadian bacon, that had the supply been equal to the demand, it is difficult to estimate the magnitude that might have been reached. lo Feb., 1912.] The Pig Industry. 11 A glance at the following import statistics will show the f the supply of Canadian bacon which has taken place. ailing off in Country. 1907. 1908. 1909. 1910. Canada Denmark United States . . •Other Countries. . cwt. 873,340 1,799,787 2,599,817 92,661 5,365,605 cwt. 687,759 2,049,513 2,858,312 90,158 5,685,742 cwt. 443,386 1.809,745 2,189,053 183,279 4,625,463 cwt. 411,935 1,794,416 1,306,921 350,117 3,863,389 Unprecedented Rise in Prices. Whatever may be the cause of this decrease, the effect of smaller supplies from Canada and elsewhere has been to cause a serious and un- precedented rise in price of bacon in this country. A comparison of prices is given below : — Bacon. 1908. 1909. 1910. 1911. Irish 54s. to 63s. 70s. to 77.S. 75s. to 83s. 64s. to 733. Danish 42s. ,, 55s. 66s. „ 75.S. 68s. „ 78s. 60s. „ 69s. Canadian 47s. „ 50s. 69s. „ 71s. 72s. „ 76s. 57s. „ 67s. Swedish 51s. „ 53s. 70s. „ 72s. 743. „ 77s. 62s. „ 66s. American 428. „ 47s. 6d. 58s. „ 64s. Russian 64s. to 70s. 50s. to 583. Dutch 72s. ,, 76s. 59s. „ 64s. Such abnormal prices at once reduce consumption. It has been stated that 70 per cent, of the households in the United Kingdom are main- tained on 45s. per week or less, and higher prices therefore operate at once to diminish purchases. The prospect of Canadian and United States supplies of bacon continuing to be restricted causes concern in the provi- sion trade in Great Britain, and it is being pointed out that attention in that country could profitably be directed towards increasing home supplies. It is urged there would be, in consequence, less dependence on outside sources, while the prohibitive prices ruling at the present time may per- haps be avoided in the future. New Sources of Supply. New sources of supply are being found. Russia, Siberia, and Holland are being drawn upon, while consignments of pigs have been received from China. Canadian farmers must maintain an abundant supply of Jiogs if the Dominion is to successfully compete with a country like Den- mark, where painstaking attention is devoted not only to the successful production of bacon, but also to the maintenance of regular supplies to this great market. It is to be noted that a large British co-operative society has decided to establish three factories in Denmark, where the conditions are so favorable for production, and at least one of the largest private bacon curers in the United Kingdom, whose products have a high reputation has also decided to follow this example. 78 Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [10 Feb.. 1912. As an evidence of the direct interest taken by tlie Danish Government in the development of this important trade, it may be pointed out that advertisements are officially inserted in the British provision trade journals stating that the business is under Government control, and that bacon from perfectly sound pigs is guaranteed to buyers. It must be realized that, while an enormous market exists in Great Britain for bacon, there will always be competition of a formidable character to meet in it, and great efforts will be required if Canada is to retrieve the position which was obtained prior to 1905. The following are the total exports of bacon from Canada : — / 1903 1904 1905 igio 3,000,000 4,000,000 5,000,000 1,617,126 Consumption in Great Britain per Head of Population. Product. 190.). Bacon and Hams . . lbs. 17-28 Beef (Salt and Fresh) 13-34 Mutton (Fresli) 9-87 Butter . . 10 - .■)7 Cheese 6-19 Eggs r)l-75 Spu-its gals. ■91 Beer 27-70 1906. \1U 14-49 10-47 10-92 6-63 51-48 •90 27-97 190/ 1612 14-82 11-61 10-48 5-89 50-11 -91 27 • 58 1908. 17-07 14-31 11-01 10-45 5-65 48-65 -85 26-62 1909. 14-06 15-49 11-83 9-93 5-80 46-95 -65 25-83 It will be seen from this that, except for beef and mutton which show an increased consumption, the other products show a decrease. But, as we have seen above, the price has increased, and this goes further to illustrate that there is an opening for us to develop an export trade in pig products. Especially so, as it can be shown that this country pos- sesses facilities over those we have to meet in competition, so as to admit of product'on at a cost that will leave a fair margin for profit. Fresh or Frozen Pork. Supply ill SiiiitJi field Market. Lofidon. Source of Supply. United Kingdom Australasia . . Canada and United States of America South America Holland and Other Countries . . Quantity. tons. 8.520 191 136 31.407 at £56 per ton = £1.758,792. lo Feb., 19 1 -^.l Tlie Pig Industry. 79 In a paper bv Mr. London M. Douglas, the well-known English authority, is the following comment on the meat industry : — The year igio will be memorable in connexion with the meat industry of England, because of its having witnessed such a crisis in the history of the meat supply as is likely to have far-reaching results. During last year it began to be realized in some of the larger European States that the home supplies of meat of all kinds were not keeping pace with the increase in the jjopulation, and as meats from other countries and from British colonies were refused entry into these States the home prices became consecjuently higher and higher. Agitation has now gone so far that it is most likely that Germany, Austria, Hungary, Switzerland, France, and Italy will be compelled to open their frontiers to supplies of foreign meat. In Portugal, the ])rohibitions have already been removed, with the result that in that country the jirices of meat have fallen to their normal level. This is of extreme importance to all interested in agricultural matters- in Australia, as it means in the near future the opening up of enormous markets. Instead of having a share of the British trade only to depend upon, as an outlet for our surplus products, we shall have millions of Europeans as customers. In the Age of 20th December, 1911, men- tion was made that the Minister of Customs had been notified that the new Swiss duty on frozen meat, smoked meat, and bacon would be 4s. ofd. per cwt from ist January, 1912. The old duty varied from los. 2d. on frozen meat to 4s. ofd. on fresh bacon. In The Grocer of i6th September, 191 i. it was stated that the French Government, owing to dearness of food in that country, is allowing live pigs to be imported from Denmark subject to duty, the late prohibition being removed. The import duty on bacon and ham to France is 15s. to 25s. per cwt., and nearly as much on fresh pork. It will be noticed that the greatest quantity of the fresh pork is sent from Holland to Britain. Considerable shipments of frozen pork have been sent to Great Britain from China. Two shipments, comprising about 10,000 carcases, were taken to Liverpool, but as they did not comply wdth the regulations of the Local Government Board in certain technicalities the health authorities refused to allow- them to go into consumption. They were to be landed and placed in bond under cold storage until reshipped, probably to the Isle of Man for curing into bacon and ham for re-exporting. It was stated at a meeting of produce merchants that the Chinese frozen pork was being cured and .sold as English bacon. Whether that is so or not it is certain that if there is a glut of frozen pork it can be cured and sold as bacon. In a report in an English paper on the pork trade last sea.son appears the following statement: — A fair quantity of Victorian pork is on Smithfield. qo to 100 lbs. weight. It is said to be rather too fat for the pork butchei, but it is of first-rate quality. About 5^d. per lb. is the price. The pork trade is a disappointment to those people who were last year anticipating heavy prices. Old sows this time last year were making Ggd. ;'now they would be worth only half of that figure. There is a slump in pigs, caused partly no doubt by the fact that the Chinese pigs are iiow arriving regularly, and of good quality, and are accepted by the trade. In support of this we have copies of complete account sales giving the results of operations of Victorian farmers on the London market, but which still yielded a satisfactory return. The charge for slaughtering has since been increased to 4s. 6d. per pig over 100 lbs. weight. 8o Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo Feb., iqiz. Cost of Makketing Pork in London. Particulars o/ 11 Carcases Pork (1,621 lbs.) j^er s.s. " Aeneas." £ 5. d. By 11 carcases, 1,593 lbs., at 5|d. .. .. .. .. . . 36 10 2: Melbourne Charges : — £ s. d. To Slaughtering 11 pigs, and delivery to freezing works, at 3s. 6d. . . 1 18 6 „ Freezing (iiicluding handling, wrap, baggmg, and storage), at Is. 6d. 0 16 6 „ Ocean freight, 1,621 lbs., at |d. .. 4 4 5 „ Marine insurance . . . . 1113 ,, Railage to ship. . . . ..040 ,, Labour (loadmg into ship) and stamps B/s Lading . . * . . 0 19 ,, Agency, correspondence, postage, &c. . . . . . . . . 0 10 6 Toted Melbourne Charges .. 9 6 11 = 1 •408d. per lb. London Charges : — £ s. d. To Discoimt, 2 months, at 5 per cent. 0 6 2 „ Landing charges, &c. . . . . 0 18 0 „ Port rates . . . . . . 0 10 „ Commission and full guarantee, at 3 per cent. . . . . . . 1111 Total London Charges .. 2 7 1 = 0 ■ 355d. per lb. Charges— Grand Total .. 11 14 0 = 1 • 763d. per lb. Net Proceeds . . . . 3 • 737d. per lb. (Loss in weight, 28 lbs., or 1 73 per cent.) £ s. d. Net Return per Pig — (Average, 147 lbs. dressed weight) . . . . . . 2 5 1 Less freight .. .. •• •• •• ..033 Net Return .. . . '. . • • • • . . 2 1 10 Chinese Pork. A correspondent of the Globe writing on the subject of Chinese pork says : — I have recently returned from China, and am able to state that the frozen pigs that are being' exported to England are of breeds quite equal to many raised in England and far superior to those coming from several countries in Europe. I had an opportunity of speaking to our Ambassador at Pekin, and also to the Consul-General in the town from which the pigs are imported, upon the question. They both assured me that the English company which inaugurated this business deserves every credit for its enterprise in tapping a valuable source of food supply, that the pigs were of a special breed from a district that had been noted for generations for their excellence in quality, and that they were fed on rice which is exceedingly cheap in the district. There is no doubt that the food of these pigs is far and away superior to that of those raised in the neighbourhood of all large towns in England. In the Argj/s of nth November last is published the following cable: — Inspector Farrar, who was sent to China by the Local Government Board when charges were made that pork bred in that country and shipped to Great Britaia was not sound, has made his report. He says that all pigs in China which are intended for home consumption and for export are grain fed and bred on farms, the conditions of which compare favorably with those in England. lo Feb., 1912.] The Pig Industry. 81 Dear Bacon in Great Britain. While Victorian farmers are obtaining low prices for their pigs we frequently see comments on the clearness of bacon in Great Britain and in this country too. In Great Britain various reasons are given for the decrease in the number of pigs kept, the principal of which are : — 1. That yearly an increased amount of milk is being consumed in its natural condition as a beverage, making less skim milk and whey available for pig feed. 2. Owing to more stringent sanitary regulations, fewer pigs are kept bv cottagers. These formerly aggregated a considerable total. In the trade there have been deductions on pigs over 180 lbs., and also on overfat bacon. Disease has played its part in checking production, as swine fever, tuberculosis, and measles cause considerable loss and trouble. This last-named disease is not known in Victoria, but in America nearly every pig has to be examined microscopically for the purpose of detecting its presence or otherwise. All these are handicaps in favour of Victorian farmers. The principal cause, however, of the high price of bacon in Great Britain is the restricted supply from foreign countries. On the other hand, the reason that pigs in Victoria are bringing such low prices is that there are far more fat pigs produced than can be handled by those in the trade. They pick what they require from those offering. British Bacon-curing Factories. The following table gives the products of British bacon-curing fac- tories principally for the wholesale trade. The products by farmers, pork butchers, provision merchants, &c., for private trade are as far as pos- sible eliminated : — Product. Bacon Hams Pork (Salt) Lard Sausages Heads Sausage Casing: Preserved Meats (Brawn Offals Other Products Tinned Jleats, &c.) Quant ity. Value. cwt. £ 1,716,000 5.365,000 457,000 1.658.000 18,000 31.000 587,000 1,414.000 751,000 182,000 290.000 383.000 278.000 157,000 10,509.000 A very interesting feature of these figures is that the recognised out- put of the bacon factories, viz., bacon, hams, pork, and lard, total? ^8,468,000, while the by-products give ;^2,04i,ooo — nearly one-fourth' additional. So it appears that they could sell bacon, &c., at cost price and have 25 per cent, over for working expenses. At most bacon fac- tories in this country, a private individual can get a pig killed and cured for id. per lb. It, therefore, stands to reason that it will not cost id. per lb. to turn out the bacon, as the work will not be done for nothing. As about one-fifth the weight of the carcase is lost in curing, it should be possible to buy at 4d. per lb. carcase weight, and sell at 5d. for bacon. 82 Journal of Agriculture , Victoria. [lo Feb., 19 12. The Byron Bay Co-operative Bacon Factory Company (New South Wales) claims that it can place bacon on any market at 56. to 5fd. per lb. At the present time we see the market quotations as follows : — Best Porkers, suitable for first-class counter trade, lealized from 4d. to i\^d , a few medium to good realized from 2)k'^- to ji^d. ; prime bacon sizes, 3d. to 3|d. : medium, from 2gd. to 2|d. ; and heovy lots less. Baco7i. — There was an improved demand yesterday. Prime light-weight sides are selling at from Ggd. to 6|d., special lines commanding higher rates; medium to good realize from 5d. to 5|d., and occasionally to 6d. ; shoulders offering at down to 45d. per lb. ; middles, S^d. to gd. Hams. — In anticipation of Christmas, trade was brisk. Prime light weights are quoted at from lod. to lo^d., up to is. being mentioned for special cures, whilst for medium weights and quality, down to qd. is being accepted. These quotations show a considerable margin between the buving and selling prices. The Future Prospects of the Industry. The future prospects of the industry, so far as this country is con- cerned, may be considered decidedly hopeful. While it is temporarily under a cldud, experience goes to show that all that is required is proper organization to place it on a sound footing. With this it should develop into a very important branch of the export trade. Statistics show that two great sources of supply to the British market (United States and Canada) are gradually but surely declining, and ere long must cease altogether on account of the rapid increase in population and the consequent increased food requirements in those countries. In Denmark, we cannot expect to .see any great increase in production as the limit has been almost reached. Holland and Sweden are the only other European countries from \\hich we may anticipate competition. The rapid growth of the population in central Europe increases the food re- quirements of those countries where there is already a short supply of animal foods generally. As we have seen, China is likely to become a rival. :hampion pen of porkers (labge Yorkshires). {To he Continued^ lo Feb., 1912.] Diseases of Farm Animals. 83 DISEASES OF FARM ANIMALS. Anthrax and Blackleg. Ill response tu many enquiries for information concerning the above named diseases, the following article by Dr. S. S. Cameron, M.R.C.V.S., is reprinted from the Journal of Agriculture for July, 1906. — Editor. ANTHRAX. Synonyms : — Cumberland Disease — splenic fever — splenic apoplexy — black rot. Anthrax is the most ancient contagious disease of animals that is known. The sixth plague of Egypt, referred to by Moses, was anthrax, and elsewhere he indicates the transmission of the disease from cattle to man by means of soiled clothing. Homer, Ovid, Plutarch, Dionysius, Livius and other ancient writers frequently refer to this disease ; and in some cases their descriptions are most exact and plainly manifest the disease as we know it now-a-day=. Anthrax exists in most countries of the world and has been prevalent throughout Australia for a long period, affecting cattle and sheep prin- cipally but horses and pigs in les.ser degree. In New South Wales it was known prior to the seventies as Cumberland Disease (from its particular prevalence in the County of Cumberland) and the credit of definitelv identifying and announcing this disease as anthrax belongs to the late Graham Mitchell, F.R.C.V.S., of Melbourne. Early in 1876 there was great mortality of sheep in the Western District of Victoria which was recognized as being analogous with Cumberland disease and identified by Mitchell as anthrax. His announcement was, however, officially discredited, much bitter feeling being engendered, and it was not till after Mr. Mitchell's death in 1888 that the correctness of the diagnosis was publicly admitted. A detailed history of the controversy on the subject, which was a lengthy one, is given in a brochure on " Cumberland Disease in Australian Sheep " published by Graham Mitchell in 1877. Definition. — An acute contagious febrile blood disea.se. affecting her- bivorous and omnivorous animals (including man) principally, caused by the bacillus anthracis, and characterized by a general haemolysis with engorgement of the spleen and other organs and by sudden on.set, rapid ■ course and almost uniformly fatal termination. Causation. — The bacillus anthracis was discovered in the blood of animals dead of the disease in 1850 by Davaine, and was demonstrated by him to be the specific cause of the disease thirteen years later (1863). It was the first disease-producing organism to be recognized, and the science of bacteriology may be said to date from its di.scovery. Usually, but not without exception, it is found in the blood of all parts of the body and in the spleen and other organs. Compared with others since discovered it is a large bacillus (5 to 20 microns long by i to 1.15 microns thick) and is distinctly rod-shaped with square ends. It is non-miOtile, serboic, stains by Gram's method or any aniline dye and grows freely on a variety of culture media. Grown outside the body it assumes a filamentous form and bears spores which are particularly resistant to extremes of tem- perature. • A micron equaU o-^Vnn P-'*''* of an inch. 84 Journal of Agrictdture, Victoria. [lo Feb., 1912. The anthrax bacillus is quickly destroyed in the presence of putre- faction and septic ferments, and as decomposition of an unopened anthrax carcase is very rapid the search for the bacilli may be fruitless if the examination is delayed till putrefaction is advanced. Not only may the bacilli not be found by microscopic examination, but the blood and tissues will not be infecti\"e to other animals after a few days except in those cases where, through admission of air, the bacilli have sporulated. In such cases the bacilli would have become disintegrated but the spores would produce anthrax in any susceptible animal inoculated. This fact has an important bearing on the diagnosis of the disease and also upon the suppression of its spread. It will be obvious that microscopical and bacteriological methods of diagnosis cannot be relied on except when the examination is conducted on comparatively fresh specimens, taken in a manner to minimize risk of contamination with putrefactive organisms. Even as regards inoculation, Friedberger and Frohner set out that " in- oculation gives negative results when the matter containing the bacilli is soiled by other microbes or is in a state of putrefaction." On the second point, as to pre- venting the spread of the disease, seeing that spore formation in the bacilli does not occur in the living animal nor in the carcase to any extent if air and oxygen are ex- cluded and that the bacilli them- selves are quickly destro^-ed after the death of the animal, it follows- that the risk of spread of the dis- ease is greatly lessened if the car- case is not cut or opened up to con- tact with air. The germs are im- prisoned, so to speak, and die from oxygen starvation. Any risk there is lies in the possibility of the discharges from the carcase containing bacilli which, on contact with the air, form spores by which the contagion may be propagated. If,. however, such discharges are collected and burnt along with the carcase,, or buried deeply with it, the risk of spread of anthrax may be reduced to a . minimum. It is this quick destruction of the bacillus by decomposition and the absence of sporulation that accounts for that sudden cessation of an anthrax outbreak which is so frequently observed and which appears so. inconsistent with the expected behaviour of a contagious disease. When the bacillus has become liberated from the carcase it may be preserved in the soil and propagate for an almost indefinite length of time. This is more likely to occur if the soil is rich in organic matter, and hence moist alluvial lands are notoriously more retentive of anthrax infection than dry uplands. A paddock with anthrax-infected soil rnay not produce anthrax for years, until the occurrence of conditions which favour the transmission of the germs from the soil to the herbage. In very damp seasons the germs may be brought to the surface by the eleva- tion of the water level on swampy ground ; or they may be washed out by floods and deposited on the surface ; or the excessive moisture may bring up earth worms whose earth casts may contain bacilli from an anthrax- A. Anthrax bacilli in blood. B. Filamentous development of anthrax bacilli on artiticial culture. lo Feb.. 191^-] Diseases i>f Farm Animals. 85 grave or infected soil ; also grass or plants springing from deeplv-buried seed and pushing up through rain-loosened soil may carry bacilli to the surface on their growing leaves. Again, anthrax may occur in very dry seasons when infected water-holes, swamps and morass land dry up and leave the germ-mixed mud accessible to stock. A growth of vegetation springs up on the mud coating, and stock often pull up such vegetation by the roots and so run further risk. Flies and insects of various kinds are also much more numerous during the dry summer season, and they are undoubted carriers of contagion. Method of Infection. — It will have been gleaned from what has been said about infection from pasturage that one of the principal ways in which the germ gains entrance to the system is in the food by ingestion. In addition to pasture, hay or other fodder grown on infected land is a frequent cause of anthrax breaking out on previously uninfected properties. In New Zealand, anthrax in sheep has been traced to the feeding of grow- ing root crops, in which case the likelihood of ingesting soil along with the food is very great. Root crops that have been manured with bone- dust supposed to have been contaminated with anthrax germs have been particuarly blamed. Since the investigation of this phase of the subject by Professor Gilruth, when Government Veterinarian in New Zealand, im- ported Indian bonedust has been held responsible for a number of out- breaks in Victoria and elsewhere throughout Australia. Inoculation is another form of infection, flies and insects conveying the germs from anthrax carcases to wounds and abrasions on other animals. Inoculation may also occur through accidental wounds made with knives and instruments previously used on an anthrax carcase ; in fact, this is the most common way in which man becomes infected with the form of anthrax known as "malignant pustule." It is questionable whether the disease in animals is ever caused by Inhalation, but in man the pulmonary anthrax called " woolsorters' disease" is most likely caused through inhalation of the particles con- taminated with anthrax germs which rise when dried skins, hides and wool are being handled. Forms of Anthrax and Symptoms. — As a general infection anthrax occurs in hyper-acute, acute and siib-acute forms. The first of these is more usually described as Apoplectic or Fulminant anthrax. The animals, cattle or sheep mainly, are affected suddenly without premonitory symp- toms ; they have convulsions and die in the course of from a few minutes to an hour. The earlier cases in the anthrax outbreak at Keilor,_ Victoria, in the beginning of 1903 were of this form, some of the cows being found dead within an hour of their having been observed feeding, and apparently perfectly well. Others w-ere seen to suddenly stop feeding, look round wildly, stagger and fall as if in a fit and die after struggling for a few minutes. The fulminant form of anthrax appears to afford an illustration of the phenomenon observed by various investigators that the bacilli are less numerous in the blood in proportion to the more rapid course of the infection. Quite often in these cases the bacteriological examination of the blood gives negative results because the bacilli are located or colonized in one particular organ or spot ; they have not had time to multiply to an extent sufficient to pervade the whole body before death results from the lethal effects on the central nervous system of the anthrax toxin formed locallv. 86 Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo Feb., 19 12. Acute General Anthrax is a little less rapid. Death occurs in from two to twenty-four hours. During this time there is hig]i fever with increase of temperature, tremors, excitement, grinding of the teeth, groaning, stupefaction, or frenzy, staggering gait, spasms, laborious breathing, prostration and finally the convulsions which precede death. There mav be great straining to pass fagces and urine, with frothy and blood-tinged discharges from the natural orifices. Emphysema or a gaseous distension under the skin may also be observed. Sub-acute General Anthrax. — In this the features are somewhat similar to those of the acute form, only that the course is less rapid and the steps from one set of symptoms to another are more prolonged and defined. There may be intermission of symptoms for a time and the fatal culmination does not usually occur until the lapse of 36 or 48 hours, and it may be postponed for five or even seven days. Gloss-anthrax. — In horses and pigs anthrax often assumes a local form affecting the tongue and region of the neck and throat. These become swollen and there may be also swellings on the shoulder flank and thigh, which are at first hard, hot and painful and later on become doughy, fluctuating and cold. The tongue is greatly enlarged and blackened and may protrude from the mouth. There is inability to swallow and great difficulty in breathing. Post-mortem Appearances. — The carcase has a tendency to swell quickly, decomposition of the abdominal contents being very rapid. There is alsO' a gaseous distension (emphysema) under the skin which on pres- sure gives out a crackling sound. Blood-tinged fluid effusions are noticed under the skin. In what may be described as typical cases, but to which there are many exceptions, the blood is profoundly changed, being black in colour and remaining black on exposure to air. It does not clot freely and has a tarry appearance. The lining membrane of the chest and abdominal cavities is dotted with patches of blood extravasation (ecchymosis) as also are the heart sac, the kidneys and the liver. The heart and large veins leading from it are filled with black liquid blood and the heart muscle is soft and relaxed. The lymphatic glands are always congested, and may be spotted with hoemorrhages. The liver is usually enlarged, soft, friable and easily broken down. The lungs are engorged with blood and dropsical. The trachea and bronchial tubes contain bloody mucus. The mucous lining of the stomach and bowels is reddened and spotted with blood extravasations. In the spleen the most decided changes are observed. It is enlarged to two or three times its natural size, and its structure or spleen pulp is softened, broken down, and heavily charged with blood and fluid of a deep colour. The appearances described are not likely to be all met with in every case, in point of fact " in the rapidly fatal cases the changes in the blood and tissues are often little marked " (Law) ; but even in fulminant anthrax there may usually be found localizations of the described appear- ances in some organ or group of lymphatic glands where colonization of the bacilli has occurred, and blood or tissues from such part will be found loaded with bacilli. Prevention. — The carca.ses of animals dead of anthrax and all matter likely to have become contaminated should be destroyed by fire as described under the headings "Disposal of Carcases " and " Disinfection '" lo Feb., 19 1 2.] Diseases of Farm Animals. 87 in the chapter on Prevention of Disease. Lands upon which anthrax has become "enzootic," i.e., where the soil is impregnated with the bacilli and the disease breaks out periodically, should if possible be turned from grazing use for a time and cultivated. The underdraining of low-lying, damp land is also to be recommended, not only because of the removal of stagnating moisture but also because of the soil aeration which draining effects. Under the slow influence of oxygen, anthrax bacilli are gradually robbed of their virulence. Seeing that anthrax is not usually conveyed from animal to animal by direct contact but is most often contracted from the pasture or food, a practical measure towards the prevention of its spread is the removal of all apparently healthy animals from the paddock in which the disease has been occurring to dry upland country. The mortality will almost at once cease, and even if an odd animal does succumb after removal the risk of contaminating the new paddock will be small if the precautions previously mentioned, as to disinfection and the non-opening of the carcase before iburning or deep burial, are strictly observed. Besides, the anthrax germs are not likely to become perman- ently fixed on dry sandy soils. Preventive Inoculation. — Immunization of flocks and herds by inoculation with an " anthrax vaccine " has been practised for many years with varying degrees of success. Some of the " vaccines " used consist of an attenuated or weakened culture of the bacillus and others of sterilized anthrax toxins. They are prepared in various ways — {a) by the action of heat (Toussaint), sunlight (Arloing), compressed oxygen (Chauveau) or antiseptics (Chamberlain and Roux) ; {b) by the cultivation of the bacillus in an oxygen atmosphere (Pasteur) ; and {c) by sterilizing anthrax blood and dissolving out the soluble toxins (Law). Pasteur's method is the one that has given the best results and by it protective virus of two grades of virulence are usually used. The first is a very weak virus (" ist vaccin ") resulting from cultivation in oxygen at a high temperature (42 degrees C), to prevent the formation of spores for twenty- four days. The second or stronger virus (" 2nd vaccin ") is got when cultivation under the same conditions is carried on for twelve days. To inoculate, the prescribed dose of ist vaccin is injected under the skin on the innei aspect of the thigh (sheep) or behind the shoulder (cattle) and fourteen days later the 2nd vaccin is similarly injected. The dose must be regulated according to size and age, but the average is Jth of a cubic centimeter for sheep and double that amount (Jth c.c.) for cattle. The protection lasts for about a year or more, after which re- inoculation is necessary. It cannot be confidently recommended to practise inoculation for anthrax indiscriminately It should never be practised except on anthrax lands, that is,, where the disease occurs periodically as an enzootic, as " elsewhere it may lead to the stocking of a new area with a malignant germ (the anthrax bacillus) which in young and susceptible animals re-acquires its original virulence." Another drawback as regards sheep is that different breeds and families appear to possess a \ery irregular sensitiveness to the same virus ; hence in large part doubtless, the many fatalities that result from inoculation of sheep on the one hand and the many failures to protect on the other. In Australia the best results are obtained between May and September. Law's method of anthrax protection by injection of sterile solution of anthrax toxins has been practised with success m America. The blood 88 Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo Feb., 191 2. of an anthrax animal is heated for half-an-hour at 212 degrees F. to destroy the germs ; it is then washed with boiled water to dissolve out the toxins, and the resultinjj solution is injected in doses of 2 to 4 c.c, as the protecting virus. The advantages claimed are: — {a) That the material can be prepared on the spot when dealing with an outbreak ; and {b) that, as the germs are destroyed, the risk of inoculating virulent anthrax or introducing it to a new area is avoided. BLACKLEG. Synonyms : — Black-quarter — Quarter-Ill — Sym-ptomatic Anthrax — Enifhysematous Anthrax. Definition. — An acute infectious febrile disease, affecting almost solely young cattle, cau.sed by the bacillus Chauveauii and characterized by fever, lameness and hot, painful swellings on the quarter, thigh, neck, shoulder or elsewhere which tend to become emphysematous and gan- grenous. This disease has only becom.e prominently prevalent throughout Aus- tralia during recent years. It is a disease so common in England that it would be well known to imported veterinarians, and its occurrence would scarcely have escaped their notice, yet it was not till the late nineties that its existence was chronicled. Since then it has been the cause of con- siderable mortality amongst calves and young stock in many dairying districts. The incidence of the disease is practically confined to young cattle between the age of three months and two years. It seldom-, if ever, attacks calves while still on a milk diet solely ; this because of the fact that the germ is usually introduced from the soil when grazing. Nature and Causation. — For a long time blackleg was looked upon as a modification of anthrax but it is now known to be caused by a dif- ference bacillus, and while it has many features of an anthracoid character its clinical history, local symptoms and age period of incidence serve to easily differentiate it from true anthrax. The actual cause is a bacillus, called the bacillus Chauveauii or bacillus anthracis emfhysematosus, having the following features : — Rod-shaped with rounded ends one end being often larger than the other on account of the presence of a spore, so making the bacillus club-shaped. It is anserobic, living in the tissues without utilizing the oxygen of the blood and being but rarely found in the blood in which oxygen is abundant; motile, the movements being both undulatory and rotary; and sporulates within the body. It withstands putrefaction, and is found abundantly in the tissues a long time after death, even up to six months. A refer- ence to the description of the anthrax bacillus will show that in regard to all the features just mentioned the bacillus of blackleg is the direct antithesis of the anthrax bacillus. Like the latter, however, this bacillus persists in the soil for an almost indefinite period, and blackleg can be readily produced by inoculating the washings of marshy soils that have been contaminated a long time previously. The disease occurs under the same conditions and on the same class of country as anthrax. An obvious preventive measure, therefore, is to avoid depasturing young cattle on wet clayey or marshy soils during the age period of this disease. It would seem to be necessary for there to be wonnds or scratches of the mucous lining of the mouth or alimentary tract before the disease can be con- tracted, for it is probably only conveyed by inoculation. In this connexion lo Feb., 1912.] Diseases of Farm Animals. it is significant that the age period of tlie disease is synchronous with denti- tion changes, and it is likely that in the great majority of cases the inocu- lation occurs through the raw edges of the gums when the milk teeth are being cast. Pasturing on sciub or on spear grass or other rough herbage is also likely for obvious reasons to predispose to the contracting of the disease. Lack of vigour through high condition on the one hand or through poverty on the other is a noticeable auxiliary cause, as also are chills and sudden changes of weather during the spring when young stock are shedding their winter hair. Symptoms. — The period of incubation or time elapsing from inocula- tion to the manifestation of symptoms varies from one to five days, the average being two days. The animal then becomes dull, feverish and depressed ; there is loss of appetite and rumination, and a marked increase of temperature. A stiffness or lameness in walking is then ob.served. This is usually confined to one limb and there quickly succeeds a swelling or tumefaction of the affected limb or of some other part ^^^^^ ^ of the body. The swelling is small at first but extends very rapidly and may acquire a con- siderable size in a few hours. It is hot and painful, and when rubbed or pressed with the hand a crackling noise is heard due to the distension of the tissues beneath the skin with gas. Later, the swelling becomes cold and insensi- tive, and on being lanced a dark- red frothy and offensive fluid exudes along with bubbles of gas. As the disease advances the animal rapidly weakens, the breathing be- comes very distressful and, pre- ceded by a rapid fall of temperature, death results in from one to three days. Post-mortem Examination. — The carcase — the internal organs as well as the tissues underlying the skin — will be found greatly bloated or dis- tended with gas. The tissues in the region of the swelling are engorged with dark, frothy blood ; they are friable, breaking down readily under finger pressure and have a bruised pulpy appearance. The bacillus is present in this pulpy mass in large numbers. The lymphatic glands in the neighbourhood are enlarged and congested. The lungs, liver and kidneys are also usually congested but the spleen is rarely enlarged. Prevention. — RecoA-ery practically never occurs and curative treat- ment is useless so that quick destruction of all cases definitely diagnosed as blackleg is a wise procedure. The carcases should be burnt and the disinfection methods and other preventive measures recommended in anthrax cases and for infected areas should be carried out in every detail. Cultivation of infected land is more successful in eradicating blackleg than anthrax, the aeration of the soil effected by the cultivation operations being inimical to the development of the anaerobic germ. ^^A M L ^- ^ A A. Bacillus of blackleg. B. Bacillus of blackleg showing drumstick development. po Journal of Agriculture. Victoria. [lo Feb., 1912. Preventive Inoculation. — Immunity against blackleg can be pro- duced artificially by subjecting the systemi of an animal to tlie action ol the weakened toxins of the bacillus. This may be done by different methods, but that which has been most successful is the use of a weakened virus or " vaccine " prepared from the diseased flesh according to the method of Arloing. '' P'orty grammes of the diseases muscle are dried rapidly at 32 degrees C. (90 degrees F.) and triturated in 80 grammes of water. This is divided in 12 equal parts and put on plates in two thermostats, six at 100 degrees C. (212 degrees F.) and six at 85 degrees C. (185 degrees F.) where they are kept for six hours, when it forms a dry, brownish powder. One-tenth of a gramme (li gr.) of this powder is dissolved in five grammes of distilled or boiled water and will furnish ten doses. The animal to be protected is first injected in the tip of tl"»e tail or elsewhere with the virus prepared at 100 degrees C, and ten days later with that prepared at 85 degrees C." (Law.) A peculiar fact about the weakened virus so prepared is that its full virulence is regained by the addition to it of a small quantity of lactic acid. The Pasteur Institute prepares the vaccine, and issues it in the form of short threads that have been soaked in a virus of required strength and afterwards dried. The threads are introduced under the skin by a special needle after the manner commonly practised in inoculation for pleuropneumonia. An American firm also distributes virus prepared by the Arloing method but in the form of solid pilules which are injected under the skin by means of a syringe fitted with a canula, needle and spring piston. F'or the successful prevention of the disease on infected farms or in infected districts all the young cattle between three months and two years old should be inoculated in the spring and autumn. The two inoculations are necessary because the protection which it conveys only lasts about six months. It should be mentioned that this method of immunizing stock against blackleg should be restricted to cattle in infected areas otherwise there is grave risk of introducing the disease into new country. Such risk is much greater if the inoculation is carried out during the hot summer season. In New South Wales, blackleg is a notifiable disease, the penalty for failure to report being ^50. and for selling or purchasing stock affected with it the fine is ;^ioo. Under the Noxious Microbes Act 1900 ])reventive inoculation by private owners without a licence from the Chief Inspector of Stock constitutes an offence. lo Feb., 191-.] Wheat and i/s CnUivatio7i. yi WHEAT AND ITS CULTIVATIOiV. T.—INTRODUCTIOX. A. E. Y. Richardson , M.A., B.Sc. (Agric), Agr'icuUtiral Superintendent. Ever since the dawn of history civilized man has used wheat as a staple article of diet; and, in competition with foods of other races, it is d;si)lacing rice, millet, and other grains to such an extent that its pro- duct'on has become one of the most fundamental problems of the time. No problems in the realm of agriculture should be of greater moment than those relating to the production and distribution of our daily bread. Par- ticularly is this true with respect to Australia, for the prosperity of her people and the stability of her finances are in a very large measure de- pendent on the success of her wheat harvests. It is estimated that the world's average annual production of wheat for the past five years has been 3,150 million bushels. Of this vast quantity, Australia has only contributed about 2 per cent. Although the wheat industry of the Commonwealth has made enormous progress during the past decade, it will be many years before Australian production will exert any appreciable influence on the price of wheat in the great markets of the world. Importance of the Wheat Industry. Some idea of the importance of the wheat industrv to Australia mav be gained from a perusal of the latest figures of the Commonwealth Statistician. Of the total area under cultivation for all crops in 1909-10, namely. 10,972,299 acres, no less than 6,586,236 acres were reaped for wheat, or 60 per cent, of the total, whilst 2,228,029 acres or 20 per cent, of the total were cut for hay, the greater portion being wheaten hav, that is, probably 75 per cent, of the total area under cultivation to all crops was placed under wheat in 1909-10. The man in the street naturally seeks some explanation for the extra- ordinary popularity of this cereal, and under the existing economic con- ditions convincing reasons are readilv forthcoming. ^^'heat is an excellent pioneer crop, and it lends its?lf admirablv to the extensive sy.stem of farming common to all comparatively new countries, where, compared with densely-populated countries, land is cheap, and individual holdings con- siderable, high class farming is rarely practised, and the object of the cultivator is rather to secure a small average return from an extensive acreage than a large average return from a small area. With our multiple- furrow ploughs. 20-tine cultivators, and 4-horse drills, large areas can be cultivated with the minimum of hand labour, and the complete har- vesters enable the grain to he taken off with the greatest facility. With the increase of population, and the inevitable increase in land values ahead of us, this system of farming, particularlv in Victoria, will gradually be modified, and a new era will be ushered in, characterized by smaller areas under individual cultivation and higher averages per acre. Under existing conditions of cultivation, it does not require the exer- cise of much skill, or of a great deal of labour, to secure a payable crop of wheat, though it does require the very highest skill, ability, and in- telligence to secure the maximum crop the soil and season will allow. 92 Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo Feb., 1912. As long as the wave of expansion continues in Russia, Canada, Argen- tine and Australia, enormous supplies will be raised for many years to come under pioneer conditions — under conditions of extensive farming — and it is owing to the capacity of these countries during the last genera- tion for raising cheap wheat that wheat is being displaced from its position in the rotation systems of highly farmed and densely populated countries. An additional reason for its popularity lies in the fact that for wheat there is always a ready market, and that, unlike many agricultural pro- ducts, it does not suffer by storage or transportation over long distances. Moreover, it is a most reliable crop, especially when treated in a rational manner, and, being more resistant to drought than any of the other cereals, it is more likely to succeed under arid Australian conditions than other crops. Finally, during the last decade, prices have been most satisfactory, and the standard of efficiency in wheat cultivation has been considerably raised by the recognition of the value of fallowing, judicious crop rota- tion, rational soil cultivation, and systematic manuring. The wheat farmer has, therefore, greater confidence in the future, for he feels that he knows more of the essentials for successful cropping than he did a decade ago. In subsequent art'cles, some of the more important phases of the wheat industry will be discussed, including problems relating to the cultivation and manurial requirements of the crop, seeding and harvesting operations, crop rotation, wheat improvement, and experimental and research work. To pave the way for future discussion, it would be well to indicate in a general and elementary manner the position of our staple crop in the vegetable kingdom, and the nature and structure of the grain under con- sideration. Classification. Wheat belongs to the great family of grasses {Graminece), which are characterized by the possession of hollow stems, closed joints, alternate leaves, with sheaths split on the side opposite the blade. Wheat, rye, barley and rye-grass all belong to the tribe Hordecc of this order. In all these, the flowers are arranged in what botanists call spikes, and each spikelet is one or many flowered. Other important farm crops are included under the Gramiitca:. and the following rough classi- fication shows in simple manner the more important members of the order. / Maydejt . . . . Maize. Spikelets 1 Andro pogonea? . . Sorghum. (One Flowered) ^Panice;e .. .. Millet. ' Oryzeie . . . . Rice. Graminere . . \ ( Phalaride;^^ . . . . Canary Grass. Spikelets \ Avenett . . . . Oats. I (Many Flowered) JFestucea? .. .. Fescue, Brome Grass. ' Horde;e . . . . Wheat, Barley, Rye. Although the number of varieties of wheat in the different wheat- growing countries of the world runs into thousands, all these varieties are included in the one genus — Triiiciim. It is generally admitted thnt there are eight general types in cultivation, with differences sufficiently great to enable them to rank as separate species or sub-species. Hackel,* however, recognises but three true species, and classifies the remainder as. sub-species. * Die Naturlichen Pflamen famiUen. lo Feb., 191 2.] Wltcat a)id Us Cultivation. 93 Now, though many of these species are likely to be of very little value to the Australian farmer, they are of the highest interest to the breeder of wheats suitable for our local conditions. By the crossbreeding of some of these species with those wheats in general cultivation in Australia, som,e very desirable characteristics, e.g., drought resistance, non-shattering of grain, rust resistance, and early maturity, may deliberately be imparted to our local varieties. The eight types of wheat referred to above may be classified thus : — Monococcum .. (1) Einkorn. (2) Spelta = Spelt. (3) Dicoccum = Emmer. I J (4) Compactum = Club Wlieat. Triticum ] Sativum | (5) Turgidum = Poulard Wheat. (6) Durum = Macaroni Wheat. . (7) Vulgare = Common Wheat. IPolonicum . . (8) Polish Wheat. (i) Einkorn, (2) Spelt, and (3) Emmtr. — Of these different types, the first three (Einkorn, Spelt, and Emmer) are to be found on most wheat-breeding stations, and are frequently of service in imparting such properties as hardiness, drought resistance, abilitv to hold the grain, and capacity for thriving on poor soil. They have all been cultivated from the very earliest times, but their cultivation is now chiefly confined to portions of Germany, Spain, Italy, and Russia. Both for forage and for food purposes, however, they are gradually being displaced, even in those countries by varieties of Triticum sativum vulgare — common bread wheat. (4) Club or square-head wheat differs from common wheat, principal Iv in its short stiff straw and short but compact head. Its yield is unsatis- factory, however, and it is very susceptible to rust. (5) Poulard wheat is grown principallv in the hot dry areas bordering the Mediterranean. It very closely resembles the durum or macaroni wheats in the appearance and characteristics of the grain. Egyptian, and the so-called mummy wheat with branched and compound heads, belong to this sub-species. (6) Polish wheat (T. Polonicum) has not done well in experimental plots under Australian conditions, though it is successfully cultivated in the drier portions of southern Europe. The grains of this wheat are very long and somewhat resemble rye. (7) Sativum vulgare — common bread wheat — is the most widely cul- tivated of all the species, and it enjoys this popularity on account of its high yielding power, and because it makes such excellent bread. The greater majority of the varieties of wheat grown in Australia belong to this important sub-species. The future of the Australian wheat industry is largely dependent on Che profitable utilization of tho.se vast areas at present considered outside the margin of "safe" farming. From the remarkable developments that have resulted during the last decade in the profitable opening up of lands that hitherto were considered practically useless, it is quite apparent that it is not safe for any one to predict the possible confines of profitable wheat farming in the future. To further extend the zone of profitable cultivation, it is evident that attention must be concentrated on those factors which will enable the 94 Journal of Agriculture, Yictoria. [lo Feb., 1912. grower of the fuUire to raise wheat successfully on the more arid portions of the Commonwealth. In the past, efforts have been mainly directed to the question of culti- vation and the devising of methods to secure the maximum conservation of soil moisture. ^\'hile great improvements have been effected in the system of cultivation and manuring during the last decade, are we to assume that further advance with respect to these practices is impossible? There is. however, another important factor to be considered, but this is frequentlv ignored in discussions relating to the ultimate utilization of our arid areas, viz., the influence of the plant. Very little attention has been devo.ed to- the question of raising varieties of wheat which will thrive i, ^44ii||^/l^;^4i:#:^. %^k ■ '"■^fi,.. /v» a: ■HV ^ ^^B-^^ — k«^^^l K" ''wHI FIG. I. LE HUGUEI\C; 1 , h i"'--' "I- i.>^ i Imv M\:E. under extremely arid conditions, though, manifestly this is a problem worthy of the best efforts of our wheat-breeders. Though the wheats, which are at present popular with growers, seem to be well adapted to the conditions under which thev are grown, there is not a single variety w^hich can be safely described as free from defect. While a great deal may b? accomplished by scientific effort in the pro- duction of new varieties suitable for our driest areas, it is not reasonable to expect that more would be accomplished in a decade in this way than by centuries of care by past geneiations of wheat-giowers under arid climes. That is to sav. the production of drought-resistant varieties is likelv tc lo Feb., 191^-] W'/ieai and its Cultivation. 95 be successful if we use as foiuidation stocks those varieties which have been grown for generations under the very driest conditions. There is always a difficulty attendant on the introduction of varieties from foreign shores. Very rarely does an introduced wheat do well during the initial stages of its introduction to an unfamiliar climate, and very often its merits are overl(X>ked by those who are inclined to hasty judgments. This ditlficulty may be appreciated from the experience at the Parafield Wheat Station (South Australia) where over 200 varieties of wheat from different portions of Russia. India, United States, Canada, and Argentine have been grown for some years. Many of these varieties were total failures during the first season or two, but they gradually became " acclimatized," and some of them promise to equal and excel the very best of the local varieties. The most probable method, then, of securing suitable varieties for our arid areas would appear to be — {a) The systematic testing for a period of years of the best of our local wheats and foreign wheats, when grown under conditions similar to those that obtain in the very driest areas, and {b) The gradual improvement of such varieties either by systematic selection or by crossbreeding combined with selection. (8) Triticum sativum durum — durum or macaroni wheat. Among the many thousands of varieties grown in different parts of the world the durum wheats promise to be of some value in the production of drought- resistant varieties. They are tall and erect, with smooth, bright green leaves, and long, narrow translucent grain of exceptional hardness, which is invariably rich in gluten, but poor in starch. The heads are usually heavily bearded and vary in colour from light yellow to a bluish black. During recent years these durum wheats have become very popular with the wheat-growers of the arid portions of the United States, and this is simply because, under the'r conditions of climate, these wheats are more productive than tho?e hitherto cultivated. Durum wheat, on account of its relatively high gluten content and its densitv. is well suited for the manufacture of macaroni, but it is not generally regarded as suitable fnr milling purposes, on arcount of the dark colour of the flour and of the resultant bread. This question of colour in flour is very important, both to the miller and the baker. The consuming public, whether rightly or wrongly we :ieed not consider here, demands bread of snov.- white colour, and looks upon dark-coloured bread as inferior in quality. So long as this demand for snow-w^hite colour in bread continues, so long must both miller and baker consider the question of colour in flour of supreme importance. Incidentally, it might be m.entioned that Victoria and South Australia have always been able to produce wheats which on milling give a flour of excellent colour; and it is principallv on this account that these wheats have met with a ready sale on the English market. We cannot, however, overlook the fact that, generally speaking, thev are low in glutei content and in strength. It may be that these deficiencies are a characteristic of the climate, and if so we might be inclined to infer that improvement in these respects is beyond the limit of possibility. While admitting, how- ever, that these important qualities are. in a large measure, dependent on ihe climate, there is reascn to believe that these properties may be greatly improved by crossbreeding and selection. 96 Journal of Agricultme, Victoria. [lo Feb., 191 2. If proof of this were necessary, the case of Comeback, Bobs, and John Brown — varieties j-aised by the late Mr. Farrer — might be men- tioned. Whether their properties can be retained in ordinary cultivation, or whether they will gradually fall to the level of our ordinary wheats, can only be determined by testing the milling properties of these varieties through a succession of years. Bobs and Comeback, however, are not grown in quantities sufficient to influence appreciably the f.a.q. sample of wheat. Nor are they likely to come into general cultivation until it is proved that they will yield as heavily as ttie best of our wheats, or until millers encourage farmers to grow them by offering an increased price sufficient to compensate the grower for any monetary loss by reason A IIKA\\ CROP OF DURUM WHEAT. of a possible shortage of yield. If Comeback and Bobs could be further improved by making them as prolific as, say, Federation, the farmer would grow them as readily as he now grows Federation. The Australian wheats, then, at present have the reputation of pro- ducing.flour of unrivalled colour, and for this reason, they are always welcome on the English wheat market. Voller,* who is regarded as an authority on milling problems, gives the following useful information for British millers in making blends: — For largest loaf, use good Minnesota or Manitoba. For whitest flour, use good white English, Oregon, or Australian. For sweetest flour, use good English and Manitoba in equal parts. * Modern Flour Milling. lo Feb., 191 2.] Wheat and its Cultivation. 97 The production of flour of good white colour is therefore a matter of considerable importance. Of course, it does not follow that snow-white bread is more digestible or more nutritious than dark bread. As a matter of fact, the nutritive qualities of whole meal bread are well known. The public, however, have a decided preference for snow-white flour as against dark flour. The durum wheats, therefore, when first introduced into cultivation in America were looked upon by millers with dismay. Thev promptly docked the growers of durum wheat, but in spite of the docking, it soon became evident that these wheats, on account of their prolificacy and adaptability, had come to stay. To meet the taste of the consuming public, therefore, they had no alternative but to bleach the flour with various oxidizing agents to rid it of its objectionable colour. Nitrogen peroxide is most commonly used for this purpose, and ordinary flours as well as the durum flours are treated in this way. As much controversy has been waged in connexion with this question of bleaching, a short summary may be of interest to possible growers and millers of durum wheat. Ladd utterly denounces the ' practice of bleaching durum and other flours as " undesirable, dangerous, and fraudulent."! He contends that injurious nitrites are left in the flour, that the quality of the gluten is lowered, and that the bleaching permits of low-grade flours being used. On the other hand, Wesener and Teller| examined a number of flours and foodstuffs, and, inter alia, found that rain-water contained eight times as much nitrogen trioxide as ordinary bleached durum flour, and that ham contains five hundred times more of this compound than the highest amount found in a series of bleached flours. They also affirm that bleaching has no injurious effects on the gluten, and entirely disagree with Ladd's views. Snyder, § in an exhaustive review of the subject of bleaching of flour, concludes that in bread-making tests of commercially bleached flours, no- difference could be observed between the bread made from bleached and ordinary flour of the same variety of wheat, except that the bleached flours produced a whiter bread and also showed a tendency to produce larger loaves. No difference was observed in the digestibility with pepsin solution, and the bleaching did not impart any odour or taste to the bread or leave in it any residue. It is interesting to note that the question of flour bleaching, both of durum and ordinary bread-wheats, was discussed at length before Lord' Warrington in the High Court of England in a dispute over a patent for bleaching flour {vide Reports of Patent Cases, xxvi., 1909); and. after hearing evidence from such specialists as Ladd, Halliburton, Hehner, Dewar, Ballantyne, and Wilcox, His Honour, during the course of a lengthy judgment, found — (i) That there is no substantial difference in point of digestibility between bread made from unbleached flour and bread made from bleached flour. (2) No deleterious action on the flour is caused by bleaching with nitrogen peroxide. It might be mentioned that several varieties of this sub-species are grown in different parts of the Commonwealth, but those most in favour at the present time are grown entirely for forage purposes, and not for t Bulletin No. 72. North Dakota Experiment Station. % American Fool Journal, September, 1907. § Bulletin No. Ill, University of Minnesota. 98 Journal of Agriadturc, Victoria. [to Feb., 191 2. grain. Among manv that might be mentioned are Kubauka, Medeah, Atalanta, and Huguenot. The first three are heavily bearded, and are tiieretore somewhat ob- jectionable for hay, though thev give exceptionally heavy cuts. Huguenot is quite free from beard, but in all other respects closely resembles Medeah. These wheats make very sweet hay, which is much relished by stock. Owing to the fact that thev tiller rather badly it is necessary to sow them rather thickly, otherwise the hay is very coarse. It is often advantageous to mix these varieties with wheats like Majestic and Baroota Wonder, when sowing them for hay. The illustrations represent two crops of hay grown at the Parafield Wheat Station on stiff, red clay .soil during 1910. No. I weighed 4f tons per acre, whilst No. 2 gave over 5 tons per acre of dried hay. Though the.se two varieties give heavy yields of hav, thev give poor y'elds of grain, and on this account will never rank as dual purpose wheats. Having considered in outline the various sub-species of the genus Triticum, let us now consider the internal structure of a tvpica^ kernel. For this purpose, we will take the variety most commonlv grown, viz., Federation. Microscopic Structure of the Wheat Kernel. If a thin .section be taken longitudinallv through a wheat grain and examined under a microscope with a lower power objective, three distinct structures will be observed (Fig. 3) viz. : — 1. Embryo or germ. 2. Endosperm. 3. Protective coats. Embryo. — At the end opposite the bnisJi. will be found the embrj'o or germ, which is destined to form the future wheat plant. Careful ex- amination of the embryo will reveal — {a) The -plmnale , that portion of the germ which develops into the stem and leaves of the voung plant, consisting of minute rudi- mentary leaves enveloped within the plumale sheath. {b) The radicle or rudimentary root, with its root sheath and root cap. (c) Absorptive epitJicUinu. a series of elongated cells Iving between the embroyo proper and the endosperm, Iving with their long diameters being directed towards the endosperm. According to Brown and Morris,* this epithelium secretes diastase during the process of germination, and this enables the starchy contents of the endosperm to be transformed and assimilated by the developing germ. It is thus the means wherebv the germ derives its sustenance from the stored up food in the endosperm until it has developed sufiiciently to maintain itself by its own root activities. Compared with other portions of the grain the embryo is rich in pro- tein, fat, and ash con.stitutents, and, though it contains a considerable amount of sugar, it has but little starch. Nearly one-sixth of the embryo consists of fat and oil and about one-third protein, so that these two con- stituents make up practically one-half the germ. Endosperm. — By far the greatest portion of the kernel is made up of the endosperm, which acts as a storehou.se of food for the young plant * Germination of the Graminese. lo Feb., 1913. W/ieat and its Cultivation. 99 during the time it is seeking to establish itself in the soil. The endosperm occupies, on an average, about 80 per cent, of the kernel. It is prin- cipally compcsed of what are known as starch cells — large elongated cells with their long diameters arranged radially to the surface of the kernel. These starch cells, however, are found, on examination, to con.si.si of an Cellular ileurcrt tissue Elifssperm cells Tesfi fnfoarfi fpie>rp .7; Photo.] IC. C Brittlpbank FIG. 3. LONGITUDINAL SECTION OF A GRAIN OF WHEAT SHOWING THE INTERNAL STRUCTURE. outer covering of cellulo.se containing within a large number of starch grains. Besides these starch grains, the starch cells contain a consider- able amount of gluten, and Fleurent has shown that the amount of such gluten varies with the position of the starch cell in the endosperm. From a detailed examinarion of a number of Inrlian. Russian, and French Photo.] S- C. Bntrl.-i.aiik. FIG. 4. LONGITUDINAL SECTION OF FEDERATION WHEAT. wheats, he was able to show that the amount of gluten in the endosperm increased from the centre to the periphery. In an Indian variety, e.g.. the amount of gluten varied from 8 per cent, at the centre to \o\ per cent, at the peripheral portion of the endosperm. It is the endosperm which forms the tlour in thr process of milling the grain. loo Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo Feb., 1912. Protective coats. — The starchy endosperm and the embryo are both protected by a firm tough coat, which, on superficial examination appears to be homogeneous in structure. When examined under a microscope, Photo.] [(■■ C. Brittlebank. FIG. V TRANSVERSE SECTION OF FEDERATION GRAIN. ril(it(J.[ , '- ■ '- i-nttlrli;iUk. TIG. 6. TRANSVERSE SECTION OF FEDERATION WHEAT. X 400, SHOWING STRUCTURE OF PROTECTIVE COATS AND ENDOSPERM. lo Feb., 1912.] Propagation of Fruit Trees. loi however, this covering membrane is found to consist of several layers of sharply differentiated cells. These various structures serve as a protec- tion for germ and endosperm, and, in the process of milling, become detached from the remainder of the kernel and collectively form the bran. At least five different layers may be distinguished under the microscope besides several irregular, vaguely defined intermediate layers. Examina- tion of a number of varieties of wheat commonly grown in, Victoria reveals wide differences in their microscopic appearance, especially in regard to the structure and characteristics of the layers immediately covering the endospenn. and it may be that tnese microscopical characters are correlated with important external characteristics of the varieties concerned. An examination of Fig. 6 will reveal the following structures : — {a) The epidermis, which consists of a layer of longitudinal cells with their long axes in the direction of the length of the kernel . {b) A second layer, the epicarp, very similar to the former in gene- ral appearance resting on an irregular layer apparently devoid of cellular structure. {c) The etidocarp, placed at right angles to the cells above de- scribed. In cross section the cells of the endocarp appear to be very regular in character, with thick cell walls which in longitudinal section display minute pits. {d) The testa, consisting in the unripe kernel of two distinct layers of cells closely applied to the aleurone layer. The testa is very tough in character,- not readily permeable to water and homogenous in structure. {e) The aleurone layer, consisting of large more or less rectangular cells, with thick cell walls containing oil and granular nitro- genous matter. It is frequently called the gluten layer, though this is a misnomer, as the gluten found in the flour is derived from the starch cells of the endosperm and not from the aleurone layer. What is known as the bran consists of the five layers described above. The micro-photographs of the sections illustrated above were pre- pared by Mr. C. C. Brittlebank, Acting Vegetable Pathologist of this Department. To be Continued . PROPAGATION OF FRUIT TREES. {Continued from page 6j.) C. F. Cole, Orchard Supervisor. Disbudding. Cutting off, i.e., reducing the stocks back to the inserted bud will be the cause of numerous shoots pushing out around and below the bud. The growth of these shoots is generally earlier and more rapid with stone than with seed fruits. As such shoots are robbers they will, if neglected too long, seriously affect the growth of the buds. The probable result will I02 Journal of Agriculture . Victoria. [lo Feb., 1912. be either death to the moving bud or a weakened condition of growth. To prevent this, it is necessary to remove all superfluous shoots before a certain period elapses. This period is controlled by the species, variety of fruit, and the quickness of the growths. Deciduous stone fruits, such as the apricot, nectarine, peach, and plum will first require attention. All shoots should be removed before they become hardened at the base of the growth and before they are more than 6 or 8 in. in length. With healthy and well grown stocks there is no danger of leaving the shoots to attain this length. Such shoots are a protection to the growing bud until this time. With the apple, cherry, pear, &c. , the shoots should be removed earlier. When disbudding, as this operation is termed, the operator should carry an old knife to remove any shoots from the stock just below the surface of the soil. Shoots may be removed fromx the stock by rubbing them off with the thumb and finger, i.e., if soft enough, or cut off close to the .stock with a sharp knife. 61. DISBUDDING STOCKS. a. Stock showiug robber shoot?, b. Same stock disbudded, showing growing bud. Before starting to remove the shoots, first locate the inserted and growing bud. The bud is the terminal point. When the stock is reduced shoots cannot sprout around or about the bud. If there is any likelihood of injuring it while disbudding, hold the growing bud carefully with the one hand to insure its safety, and remove the useless shoots with the other. Growing buds are very easilv broken away from the stocks. When dis- budding stone fruits, remove all shoots, if the inserted bud has not started to grow and is alive. If the bud is dead, and one wishes to save the stocKs for future use, cut off to a shoot close to the ground ; failing a shoot, reduce to ttie ground. During the following winter, such stocks .should be carefully removed, trimmed, and planted out again for budding upon. Almond. lo Feb., 191-.] Propagation of Fruit Trees. 103 apricot, and peach stocks carrying dead buds are not worth while bother- ing about when disbudding ; either remove or rub off all shoots. With the apple, select a strong vertical shoot and remove all others. Trim and train into a tree the same as a growing inserted bud. Such a tree should either be Northern Spy, Winter Majetin, or some other blight-proof varietv used for stock purposes. If not wanted for sale during the winter, it may be head-grafted the following spring with some other desired variety. When removing trees for sale from the nursery row the propagator should be careful not to mix them with the worked varieties. To guarf] against mistake the rows should be carefully ex- 62. DISBUDDING STOCKS. a. Yearling tree, pruned, showing robber shoots. 6. Same disbudded. amined in the autumn, and all trees marked by tving a short piece of raffia or some other suitable material around the stems. When disbudding the pear and quince it will repay +he operator to cut off the shoots with a sharp knife close to the butt of the stock. Whilst doing so he should be careful to remove the fleshy basal portion of the shoots. If rubbed off, the shoots will probably sprout again. By cutting, the risk of doing so is greatly lessened. All propagated trees unsold and left standing in the nursery rows should be pruned. Such trees require to be disbudded in the spring. Remove all superfluous shoots that push out upon the stem, &c.. only I04 Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo Feb., 1912. leaving those required to form, or reform, tlie future head of the young tree. Fig. 62A shows a yearling branched tree that has been pruned back to a straight stem. The operation of disbudding should have been per- formed earlier, i.e., when the shoots were soft and easily removed with the thumb and finger. Consequent upon this delay, it has thus become necessary to remove the shoots with a sharp knife. By the early removal of shoots that are not required the ones left to form the future head benefit greatly by receiving the whole of the nourishment. When removing 67^. DISBUDDING STOCKS. a. Two-year-old tree, pruned, carrying too many shoots. 6. Same disbudded. hardened shoots from the stems of young trees, cut close so that the cambium will heal quickly and neatly across the scars. Fig. 63A shows a two-year-old tree that has been branched pruned, i.e., the three branches operated upon to form the future head have been reduced back to their basal buds. Consequent upon this, more shoots than what are necessary have shot from the basal buds. Where this occurs, all shoots not required should be removed either by rubbing or cutting ; the former action takes precedence whilst the shoots are soft. With two-year-old trees very few shoots push out upon the stems. This is owing to the previous season's disbudding. lo Feb., 191 2.] Propagation of Fruit Trees. 105 With several varieties of plums, such as Hill F,nrl. Grand Duke and Diamond, that start and make strong rapid growth at the beginning, it is not unusual for the stems of many of the growing buds to split up- wards, starting a little above the basal portion of the growth. This splitting occurs if the stocks are strong and the season favorable for vigorous growths. The writer's experience is that the sj) Fitting is more prevalent when worked upon the myrobolan stock, and attributes this largely to the stock forcing too rapid and also too strong a growth at the beginning upon varieties that are naturally strong growing. To mini- mize this, disbudding should be delayed a little longer with varieties subject to splitting, so as to allow the superfluous shoots to utilize some of the rapidly ascending sap and nourishment. Where the stems have split, cut back to a basal bud to start a fresh vertical growih. Staking. Staking, i.e., placing a wooden stake in a vertical position clo.se to a bud requiring support so that its growth may be tied to it and thereby insure its safety until the stem is sufficientlv hard to be self-supporting. The stake will also be utilized to train any hud that is growing otherwise than vertical. This operation is an important one and should not be overlooked. The time is controlled by a knowledge of the growth of species and the varieties that are being propagated. Very good stakes can be made by cutting 5 feet palings in halves and then splitting them into stakes i in. wide. Stakes should be pointed with a tomahawk. If the pointed ends are dipped into tar and left to dry before using the stakes will last for years. Whatever class of stake is used they should be rigid. Immediately after disbudding all varieties of plums the growing bud should be supported by tying to a stake. If not, there is a great risk of the bud being blown out by the first strong wnnd. The writer has found if the growing buds are any length, that the best plan is to disbud a few, stake and tie at once, and so on until finished. If a strong wind should spring up the superfluous shoots will protect the growing bud somewhat until operated upon. The writer has seen hundreds of plum buds with a growth of fromi 6 to 8 inches broken off by a sudden gust of wind immediately after being disbudded. The stakes should not be removed until the wood of the bud is hardened. About December is a suitable time. Fig. 64B shows a growing bud properlv staked and tied. Citrus, l(jquat, medlar, mulberrv, and walnut buds should be staked early and no risks with them taken. With the almond, apple, cherry, nectarine, peach, and quince only buds of crooked growth require staking. But the propagator should alwavs bear in mind that there is a risk of losing unstaked buds up to a certain stage of growth. The apricot is a fruit that at times makes strong growth in late summer and early autumn if the weather is favorable. It should therefore be staked after being topped and trimmed. Stakes should be strong and of a fair length. If the stakes are short, there is a big risk of the young tree, when carrying a good head growth, breaking off at the terminal end of the stake during wet windy weather. Again, if the apricot is growing freely, it differs from other trees in the nursery row, owing to that part of the stem above where it is callused 52. E io6 Journal of Agriculture , Yictona. [lo Feb.. 1912. to the stock not hardening simultaneously with the part l)elow. Owing to this feature there is always the risk of breakage at this particular place if the stakes are removed previous to late autumn, especially if the head growth is heavv. Some varieties are worse than others in this respect. Although staking is a simple operation, it takes practice to place the stakes in a vertical position. The butt of the stock, if vertical or nearly so, will be a guide. By holding the stake in a vertical position, and keeping the pointed end away from the butt, and at the same time gauging the same distance apart becween the stake and the terminal end of the stock, will facilitate this operation. In Fig. 64A the dotted line indicates the correct position of the stake, the butt having been used as a guide. STAKING. a. Growing bud requiring staking ; clotted lines indicate correct position of stake. properly stak?d and tied. h. Same bud, In sandy or loose soils the stakes can either be pressed into the soil with the hands, or tapped into position with a hammer, or mallet ; the latter l)eing necessary if the soil is firm. Fig. 64A also indicates the position of the stake when placed in position alongside a bud growinp- obliquely. With vertical ones the .stake .should be placed directly behind. The operator will require tO' exercise great care when bending the growth upward, .so as Xo place it in the correct position against the fiat of the stake, so as to be ready for tying. Growing buds are tender and brittle, some more so than others. There is also a risk of causing injury if the lo Feb., 1912.] Propagation of Fruit Trees. 107 stake is placed too close to the stock or growing I.lkJ. When tying to the stake, select that part just Ijelow tlie nodes, i.e., the swelling or knot below the buds. Do not tie too close to the terminal end of the buds. If so, there is every likelihood of tlie stems buckling owing to its upward growth being checked by the string. It will be necessary to keep going over the rows and tying the buds as thev grow until they attain a certain height. When tying bind twice around and not too tightly. By doing so there is not the same risk of the string cutting into the expanding growth of stem as when using a single strand. Owing to the rapid growth and quick expansion a close w^atch should be kept upon the buds to see that the strings are not cutting. If so, release by cutting the string at the back of the stake ; renew the string, if necessary. When tying to the stake growing buds 65. STAKING. n. Results of not staking, h. Results of staking. that are branching see that the growths are not cramped or tied so as lo cau.se them to become deformed or crooked. Almonds, apricots, nec- tarines, and peaches should be staked, if necessary, as soon as trimmed.^ The best "material to use for tying wdth is threads drawn from sujee bagging (Fig. 3). Much unnecessar\ staking can be prevented by budding the stocks upon the side facing the prevailing wmds that blow during the first five months of the bud's growth and previous to the hardening of the stems. Such winds generally blow from a northerly direction. Failing a knowledgr- of the winds of a locality, the native or other timber is a guide at times : it has a tendency to lean in the opposite direction. With some species of trees, the growth is greater and denser upon the sheltered side.^ Young and quick growing trees that branch early and catch the wind, like nectarines and peaches, are greatlv influenced. {To be continued.) io8 Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo Feb., 191 2 THE SHIPMENT OF GRAPES AND OTHER SOFT FRUITS. F. de Castella, G over 71m ent Viticulturist, and E. Me eking. Senior Fruit Inspector. The shipments of soft fruits from this State by the Somerset and other vessels during the past two seasons, and also the shipments forwarded from South and Western Australia during the same period, have demon- strated beyond doubt that, provided certain conditions are complied with, all classes of soft fruits may be successfully exported. It is therefore considered that the following points in connexion with the handling, transportation, and other details of preparing these fruits for export will be of value to growers and exporters. Condition and Maturity of Fruit. It is essential to ship only varieties of proved carrying power. If from irrigated vines or trees, the final watering should have been given some weeks before time of shipment. In the case of grapes this watering should not be later than ist January. Grapes or fruits from recently- irrigated vines or trees will not carry well. In the absence of up-to-date pre-cooling and transport arrangements in this State, picking peaches, pears, or plums on the unripe side is recommended, since slightly unripe peaches and plums carry better than those picked quite ripe. Grapes, in particular, ripen but little after picking — far less than most other fruits. They should, therefore, although not quite ripe, be nearly so, before picking ; otherwise, on arrival at their destination, though sound, they will be of poor quality. Packages (Sizes, Marking, etc.). Any shape of package may legally be used, provided the nett weight or number of fruits be legibly stamped thereon. In addition to the weight or number, the name or registered brand of the grower or exporter, the name of the State, the word "Australia," and the name and variety of the fruit should be also stamped or stencilled on cases. The variety of fruit need not be shown in full, but may, with advantage, be abbreviated; for example, "Dora" for " Doradillo " grapes; " B. Bosc " for " Beurre Bosc " pears; " Dia " for "Diamond" plums; " Yorks " for " Early York " peaches. The following are the different sizes recommended for the various kinds of fruit : — Grafts: — The cases used by West Australian shippers are recom- mended. These are made in two sizes. Larger size: — 22| in. x 13I in. x 7 in.; nett capacity 28 lbs. grapes. Smaller size: — 26| in. x 13I in. x 5 in. ; nett capacity 25 lbs. grapes. Cases should be lined with white or coloured lining paper, cut to size, not only on account of appearance, but also to prevent loss of cork through cracks, joints, etc. Peaches, Pears and Plums: — These should be packed in trays measuring 18 in. x 14 in. x 2\ in. Three of these trays cleated or hoop- ironed together make a standard bushel. lo Feb., 1912.] Tlic Shipment of Graf a, eye. log Gathering. None but first grade fruits should be exported. They should be carefully picked the day before they are packed and left overnight in a shed or other convenient place, protected from dew. For this purpose, a shed with open sides, allowing free ventilation of air, may be recom- mended. The very slight wilting which occurs to the fruit during this period, toughens the skin, reduces internal pressure, and, in the case of grapes, minimizes danger of berries bursting through, compression when lid is nailed down. During this time, the bunch of grapes or the other fruits must, on no account, be stacked one on top of another but should be placed in layers, side by side. No fruit should be handled too much. It should be carefully severed from the tree with specially made clippers having blunt points, and handled by the projecting stalk, thus avoiding, as far as possible, the hands ccming into actual contact with the fruit itself. Grapes should be carefully laid in the picking receptacle, and, during the whole operation of handling and packing, should be manipulated from the stalk. The f.ame rule holds good regarding the handling of peaches, pears and plums. Packing. Grapes .• — Export grape cases are packed on the flat. Line with white or coloured lining paper, cut to size, not only on account of appearance, but to prevent loss of cork through crack joints, etc. Clips should be used to avoid tearing by the wind. Cover bottom* (side) of cases with about \ inch of finely granulated cork free from dust and also from chips or larger fragments, which prevent the cork penetrating between the berries. On this, place a layer of bunches ; if these are very large and especially if berries are very close, the bunch should be cut intO' several smaller ones. Any damaged or doubtful berries must be removed with scissors or special pointed secateurs — on no account pulled off. Do not press grapes against sides ; leave a little room for the cork. When the first layer of grapes is in, cover with cork ; shake well and add more cork, if necessary ; then more grapes, and so on until the case is full, shaking frequently. The whole top surface is then covered with cork until the grapes are completely hidden. The cork should be slightly above the level of sides of case so that some pressure must be applied before the lid can be nailed down. Before doing this, draw the paper carefully and evenly into place. It is essential that the fruit be tightly packed and that plenty of cork be used. When the case is opened, only cork should be seen, all grapes being buried in it. Begirmers are apt to use too little cork. The larger case described above which holds 28 lbs. of grapes, requires nearly 5 lbs. of cork to pack it properly. Beginners would do well, at least for the first few cases, to weigh both grapes and cork. A measure capable of holding 5 lbs. of cork will be found convenient. Peaches, Pears and Plums: — The trays to contain these should be lined with a layer of wood-wool about \ inch thick. The fruits should then be carefully placed in layers or rows with a very thin portion of wood-wool between each. Japanese or other large plruns, peaches, nectarines, and pears should be wrapped in paper cut to size according to dimensions of fruits. The usual sizes to which wrapping-paper is cut Journal of Agricidfurc . Victoria. [lo Feb.. 1912. are: — 10 in. x 7^ in. for smaller sizes, and 10 in. x 10 in. for the larger varieties. To carry out this operation, the wrapper should be placed in the left hand, the fruit carefully lifted by the stalk, and the calyx or " eye " end placed in the centre of the paper. The hand holding the fruit and wrapping-paper is then closed, bringing the edges of the paper around stalk end of the fruit, and the operation is completed by twisting the ends of the paper in the right hand around the stalk. When the tray is filled a thin lining of wood-wool, sufficient to pack the fruit tightly W'ithout undue compression, should be placed on top of the rows. Three trays so packed should be placed together, the lid carefully nailed on the topmost tray and the three firmly cleated or hoop-ironed together to form a rigid package. For this purpose, hoop-iron is recom- mended as forming a neater and firmer package than those fastened together with wooden cleats. The method for fastening the trays together, is as follows : — One end of the hoop-iron is affixed to the top left-hand corner of the uppermost tray. The hoop-iron is then brought around the edge and pulled taut. For this purpose a special tool is used, consisting of a piece of iron having a handle about one foot in length with a cross handle, which is about 3 inches on either side. From the lower end of this tool, two rounded pieces of iron, each about 2 inches in length, project horizontally. These projections are separated by about |- inch from each other. The hoop-iron, after being fastened to the top end of the tray, is carried between these two projections. The packer then, by using the package as a fulcrum, draws the iron taut, and, holding it in this position with his body, leaves his hand free to nail the hoop-iron around the edges of the trays. Forwarding. Where nO' district cool storage accommodation is available, fruit should be consigned to cool stores at Melbourne, and not to the ship's side direct. There is no disadvantage in forwarding a w^eek before the ship sails. In fact, such a course is recommended. Consignments must, at latest, be forwarded in time to get into cool stores in Melbourne at least three or four days before the exporting vessel is to sail. This will enable consignments to go into the ship's refrigerator in cool condition and give them a better chance to be successfully carried than if shipped uncooled, and, moreover, minimizes risk of missing the boat. They must, at latest, be forwarded in time to get into cool stores in Melbourne on the Friday before sailing owing to the impossibility of handling during the intervening Saturday and Sunday. Where facilities are available, fruit should be cooled to 30 degrees Fah. as soon as possible after picking and transported direct to ship in refrigerator cars. The exporter, or prospective exporter, of soft fruits must remember that to place soft fruits on distant markets, attention to the above details must be rigidly adliered to. Unfortunately, many other details of equal importance connected with the transportation of his fruits do not come under his control. But the effect of any remissness on the part of those concerned in the transportation side of the business may be greatly minimizes if avoidable errors on his part are not committed. T.O Feb., 1912.] The Light Brown Apple Moth. iiK THE LIGHT BROWX APPLE MOTTL {Tortrix {C acacia) rcsponsaua.) C. French, Junr., Aciiiig Gove r nine ut Entomologist. During last October several growers at Mildura forwarded, for ex- amination, several bunches of young Zante currant grapes that were almost destroyed by caterpillars. On examining them, I was of opinion that the cause of the trouble was the larva of the Light Brown Apple Moth, a very destructive insect which attacks almost any kind of garden plant, as well as apples, and other fruits. This moth is found in most parts of Victoria. The larva is of a greenish colour, and measures about I in. in length. The moth itself is about the size of the well known Codlin Moth, and is of a pale yellowish trown colour. The accompanying illustration shows the life history of the moth : — EXPL.iXATIOX OF PLATE. Fig. 1. Apple branch and fruit, sliowing damage done to pip.s. witli larvae escaping. Natural size. ,, 2. Moths on wing. Natural size. „ 3. Upper portion of apple when newly formed, sliowing where eggs of moth are deposited. ,, 3. Larvae. Magnified. Some additional specimens of the caterpillars were .sent at my reque.st. These I placed in the breeding cages on 19th November, and on the 24th they pupated or turned into the chrysalis ; on the 12th December they emerged as perfect moths. When about to pupate, the caterpillar .spins a loo.'^e silken web in which it turns into the chrysalis. In this stage of its existence it is often attacked by para.sitic wasps and other useful in sects, which to a certain extent keep it in check. Fortunately, in arsenate of lead, we have an excellent remedy, The sprav must be forced well into the bunches of young grapes as it is in the middle of the bunch that the caterpillars are generally found. Trapping the moths by lights has also proved effective. An ordinary hurricane lamp placed on a brick in a basin of kerosene will answer admirably. The moths are attracted to the light, fly against the glass and fall into the kerosene, and are destroyed. If this pest is not kept in check it will cause hea^•y losses to growers of grapes. It is therefore advisable that immediate action be taken to stamp it out. * * * * -^f -x * Mr. F. de Castella, Government ^'iticulturist. submits the following note : — " I have read with interest the proof of your note on the Light Brown Apple Moth, now api^earing as a vine pest. I have long known vines, in different parts of the State, to be attacked, at flcAvering time and after, by small green caterpillars, which spin a web and make a nest in the young bunches, thereby interfering with their development and causing more or less .serious damage. I distinctly remember these at St. Hubert's, on the Yarra, as long ago as the early seventies ; in general appearance, at least, they were the same as the caterpillars which T recently saw at Mildura. It is reassuring to know that this is an Australian native, and net one of the French bunch caterpillars, for w^e have but little idea here._ of the fearful havoc which is sometimes wrought in Europe by allied species. Journal of Agriculture. Victoria. [lo Feb.. 1912. LIGHT BROWN APPLE MOTH. (Tortrix {Caccecia) responsana.) lo Feb., 191 2.] Bee-keeping in Victoria. xix The 1 9 10 vintage, in parts of Burgundy and Champagne, was reduced by fully one-half, owing to the ravages of two web- forming, bunch cater- pillars, known locally as Cochylis and Eudemis. Another species the common name of which is Pyrale* is often very destructive, especially near Bordeaux. Though satisfactory to know that we have not to deal with either of these, we must not underestimate the enemy, for we have no guarantee that the Australian Cacacia, if left to itself, might not develop into an equally redoubtable pest, especially under such conditions as prevail at Mildura. where the vine-planted areas are so continuous as to practically constitute one vast vineyard, as is also often the case in France. I do not wish to be thought an alarmist, but I consider that we have here a pest which requires careful watching, and I am glad that you are advising growers to take immediate steps to stamp it out. At the time of my last visit to Mildura (15th November) though little damage had been done, bunches with webs in them were quite numerous, so much so that I requested several growers to .send you speci- mens for identification. At that time, most of the insects had already left their webs. It was, in fact, rather difficult to find one. A second generation will no doubt make its appearance shortly, when I hope fresh specimens will be forwarded to you; it is not impossible that we have to deal with more than one species, and we cannot have too much informa- tion on the subject. Growers would not only be studying their own in- terests, but also those of the industry at large, if they would immediately forward to you specimens of any strange insects that may appear from time to time in their vinevards or orchards." BEE-KEEPING IN VIOTOIUA. F . R. Beuline, Bee Expert. {Continued from page J.) II.^THE BEES. There are many terms used in connexion with bees which are liable to cause misunderstanding when wrpngly applied by the uninitiated. Some of these words have a general as well as a specific meaning. Any community of bees m.ay be called a colony, but in practice the term is only applied to bees established in a dwelling provided by man. Colonies in trees, rocks, or other natural abodes are known as bees' nests. While a hive of bees denotes a colony in an artificial dwelling the dwelling itself without bees or combs is known as a bee hive. Communities of bees on the wing, clustered outside away from the hive, or inside the hive without combs, are called swarms. Every normal colony of bees in the active season consists of three classes of individuals, viz., the queen, a large number of workers, and a variable number of drones. The queen is the mother of all the other * According to French authorities the scientific names of these are — for the first. Cochylis roserana (or Tortrix ambiguelH) : for the second, Eudemis botruna: whilst that of Pyrale U Tortri.v ( (Enophtira ) Pille rian a. 114 Journal of Agriciiliure. Victoria. [lo Feb., 1912^ bees and the only fully-developed female. The workers are sexually un- developed females, and constitute the largest part of the colony, numbering: from 40,000 to 70,000 in a strong colony in the height of the .sea.son. On the average, it takes 4,500 worker bees to equal one pound in weight. The drones, which are of larger size than the workers, are the males, and their only use in the economy of the hive is to mate with the virgin queen. Towards autumn, when they are no longer required, or at anv time during a scarcity of nectar, they are driven out of the hive by the workers and left to die of starvation, except in the case of a colony with an old or failing queen, or a queenless stock. Both of these will retain their drones and also admit these expelled from other hives — a provision of Nature to enable the mating of the future young queen to take place. Life History. A knowledge of the life historv of bees will assist any one to better understand what conditions are necessary to the highest welfare of the colony and the maximum profit to the bee-keeper. While such knowledge- / WORKER BEE, QUEEN AND DRONE OF THE ITALIAN BEE. will not take the place of practical experience in the management of bees,, it will form a good basis for an understanding of the various mani- pulations. The bee, like other insects, goes through four stages of development, viz.. (i) egg. (2) larva, (3) chrysalis, and (4) imago or perfect insect. The ovaries of the queen contain up to 500,000 eggs, which she deposits in the cells of the comb during the breeding sea.son — after the cells have been prepared for her by the worker bees. The life of a queen bee is about three years. Under the most favorable conditions, she will deposit up to 3,000 eggs in twenty-four hours. The eggs in the ovaries of the queen are all alike as to sex. The act of fertilization takes place in the oviduct when the egg is on its way out, i.e., it is ta produce a female — a queen or a worker bee ; the egg producing a drone is not fertilized. Thus, even a queen which has never met a drone will, after a delav of two or three weeks, deposit eggs. None of these, how- ever, can produce anything but drones. This reproduction without fer- tilization was first discovered bv Dr. D;^ierszcn in 1853. It is knowit as parthenogenesis cr virgin-development, and has a verv important hearing; on practical bee culture. lo Feb., 191 2.] /^ce-kccpi/ig ill YictOTia. 115 The drones of a pure bred queen of any rare are alwav.s pure of the same race., even though the queen her.self was mated to a drone of a dif- ferent varietty. Thus, by having one single pure bred and purely mated queen, and raising from her eggs a new queen for each colonv, the race or strain of bees oi an entire apiary of hundreds of colonies may be changed in one season. As each young queen is pure bred, her drone progeny are also pure, irrespective of how she mated. The following season there will therefore be none but pure drones in the apiarv. All young queens will then be mated to pure drones ; and, if from a ])ure bred mother, will produce queens, workers, and drones of pure race. The mating takes place in the air, often a con.'^iderable di.stance away from the apiary, and some of the queens will most likelv be mis-mated when other bees exist wilhin two miles of the place. Fertilized eggs are deposited by the queen in the smaller or worker cells of the comb; the cells are 1-5 in. in diameter — twenty-five to a .square inch of comb surface. Unfertile eggs are laid into drone cells, which are \ in. wide — sixteen to the square inch. By the use of full sheets of comb foundation in the frames of the modern hive, the raising of drones is reduced to a minimum, because the wax sheets are embossed with the pattern of worker comb only. Any egg which is fertilized, and would in the ordinary course produce a worker bee, can at the will of the nur.se b es b? made to produce a queen, when necessary. This fact is made use of in what is known as artificial queen-rearing, by depriving a suitable colony of its queen and brood and substituting a comb containing eggs or young larvae from a queen of the race or strain desired. After the egg which produces a worker is laid, it remains unaltered for three days. It is then supplied with a minute quantity of larval focd by the nurse bees, and a scarcely visible grub or larvae, which lies coiled at the bottom of the cell in the shape of the small c of ordinary type emerges. It grows rapidlv ; and, on the sixth day after emerging from the egg, it assumes an upright position in the cell. The worker bees cap the cell with a paper-like substance, the grub meanwhile spinning a cocoon round itself in the cell. The young bee has now entered the third or chrysalis stage, from which it emerges as the perfect insect, eighteen days from the time the larva first appeared, or twenty-one days since the egg was laid. In the case of the queen, the time of development is five davs less, i.e., three days in the egg stage, six days in the larval state, and seven days as chrysalis, or sixteen days in all from the time the egg was laid to the young queen emerging from the sealed cell. The drone is in the egg for three days, larva seven days, and chrysalis fourteen days, or a total of twenty-four to twenty-five days from the egg to the perfect in.sect. The following table mav be useful in showing the variations in the time of development: — Ni'MBER OF Days cif DkyeluP-ment. In the Egg-. Larva. Sealed Cell. Total. Worker Bee ... ... ... 3 days Qaeen ... . ... 3 « Urone ... .. ... 3 " 1 1 6 days 12 days 1 'J 1 days 6 . 1 „ 16 „ 7 „ U „ i 24 „ i 1 {To be continued.) ni6 Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo Feb., 1912. VINE DISEASES IN FRANCE. {Continued from page jO.) F. de Castella, Government Viticulturist. FUNGICIDE SPRAYS— coji//««ec?. French Bordeaux Mixture or Copper-Lime. The usual formula is: — Sulphate of copper, 6 lbs. ; quicklime. 3 lbs. ; water, 30 to 40 gallons; according as one wants a 2 per cent, or a ij per cent, mixture. The copper sulphate is dissolved in the greater part of the water and a milk of lime made with the balance; the latiter is poured into the former in a thin stream, with constant stirring. Authorities are emphatic as to the necessity of pouring the lime into the copper sulphate ; if the reverse were done, a coarser grained and less adherent form of copper hydroxide would be obtained. The chief difificulty in properly preparing the mixture is due to the variable composition of the lime ; it is, on this account, impossible to exactly gauge the proper quantity by weight. The correctness of the lime dose is of vital importance. If too little is used the mixture will be acid and burn the foliage ; if too much, it will be alkaline, less adherent, and \vill not run through the spray nozzles so easily. Exact neutrality is. most desirable ; in order to obtain it, a slight excess of milk of lime should be prepared, which is added carefully until neutralization is shown by an indicator. Litmus paper may be used for the purpose, but phenolphthalein papert is more convenient, the pink colour to which it changes being more readily noticed than the blue of the litmius. The following instructions are conci.se and easily followed. They are taken from a sheet, distributed by the Viticultural Station at Lausanne (Switzerland) : — • Weigh 2 lbs. of bluestone, and dissolve in 5 gallons of water in an open cask, in which the 10 gallon level is marked by a peg. Solution is facilitated by suspend- ng the bluestone in a basket just below the surface of the water, a day beforehand. Thoroughly mix the blue liquid so as to have an even solution. Take about 2 lbs. of quicklime and place it in another tub ; slake it gradually with small quantities of water at a time; when thoroughly slaked, make up to about 5 gallons with water and stir carefully so as to make a thin milk of lime. Prepare the mi.xture, dipping out the milk of lime with a dipper and pouring" it through a fine sieve into the bluestone solution, carefully stirring with a stick,. meanwhile ; do not dip too deeply into the lime, so as to avoid lumps. As soon. as a couple of gallons have been thus added, an assistant (a child will do) with clean hands and who has particularly avoided touching either bluestone or lime, takes a strip of the white indicator paper, cuts off a small piece, and drops it into the mixture. Usually, if the milk is thin enough, the first piece remains white. The operator then adds more milk, stirring well. The assistant drops in a second fragment of the paper, and so on until the piece of paper becomes pink ; the other pieces previously dropped, change colour also. There is now enough lime ; make up to 10 gallons with pure water and stir well. The rest of the milk of lime may be thrown away. Thanks to the indicator paper, weighing the lime may be dispensed with ; alt that is necessary is good, fresh lime, from a builder, slaked to a very thin milk. If one is prevented from using the mixture at once, add, to every 10 gallons, 2 ozs. of sugar dissolved in a little water. This will cause it to keep its power for several weeks. It is, nevertheless, better to use freshly prepared mixture. Many sub.stances in addition to sugar are often added to increase adher- ence. Gelatine seems to be one of those which has most to recommend it. t strips of white blotting pipL'rdippel in a '2 jer cent, .solution of Phfnolpluh.ilein and allowed to. dry, make a very g-ood indicator. lo Feb., 19 1 2.] Vine Diseases in France. u-j Burgundy Mixture (Copper-Soda). The chief objection to this mixture is its rapid deterioration, especially in hot weather. It must therefore be prepared in small quantities, as re- quired. The usual formula is : — Copper sulphate, 2 lbs. ; crystallized carbonate of soda (common washing soda), 2| lbs. ; and water, 10 gallons. Owing to the variable composition of washing soda, it is better to proceed according to the last directions given for Bordeaux mixture, checking neutrality with phenolphthalein paper. The sheet quoted above recom- mends the use of water free soda (Solvay soda) instead of washing soda. Two solutions are made, one of 2 lbs. copper sulphate in 5 gallons water, and one of i lb. of Salvoy soda in 5 gallons of water. The second is poured into the first with constant stirring. Any dry spraying substance, from previous lots, causes rapid deteriora- ■ tion ; all vessels must, therefore, be kept thoroughly clean. The addition of sugar will have no effect in keeping it in good order, as with Bordeaux, but cream of tartar or Rochelle salt may be used for the purpose; 2 ozs. of whichever salt is preferred should be dissolved in the water for the second solution before the Solvay soda is added. In other respects, the preparation is the same. The addition of either of the above salts will enable the copper soda mixture to keep for a few days. Any copper soda mixture whicli shows a heavy greenish sediment is useless, since it will no longer adhere. According to R. Brunett {Revue de Viticulture, 19th January, 191 1), Burgundy growers were dissatisfied, last season, with copper soda, which they have hitherto mainly used, and are preparing to adopt Bordeaux mixture in future. Copper-Soap Mixtures. Owing to its alkalinity, soap can take the place of lime or soda in the preparation of copper mixtures. Its action in lowering surface tension augments the wetting power considerably, and this is perhaps the main advantage to be derived from its use. Adherence is good whilst fresh, but diminishes rapidly with keeping. Like copper-soda, copper-soap must be prepared immediately before it is used. Equal quantities of copper sulphate and soap powder are used. For a i| per cent, mixture this would mean, for every 10 gallons of water, \\ lbs. copper sulphate, and \\ lbs. powdered soap. Dissolve each substance in 5 gallons of water and mix thoroughly, pouring soap into copper, not the reverse.* Copper- soap mixtures are not new ; they have been in favour in some quarters since first recornimended by M. G. Lavergne at the close of the last century, but they have not come into very general use. Se\-eral of the proprietary spray powders, which merely require mixing with water to be ready for use, are mixtures of soap and copper sulphate. Quite recently. MM. "\>rmorel and Dantony have recommended a new aopp\?r-soapt which seems to have much to recommend it. It is of colloidal nature; when diluted, it wets well and does not deteriorate on keeping. It is prepared as follows : — Dissolve I lb. of copper sulphate in 10 gallons of water; dissolve 4 lbs. soan (free from alkali in excess) in 10 gallons of water. Pour the copper into the soap (con- trary to the usual practice). Opertain^ thus, instead of the usual voluminous, grealsy precipitate of copper soap, one obtains an opaque, greeny-blue liquid, with a surface tension as low as plain soap solution, which wets the bunches just as alcohol would * I.. Dearullx . Progres Agricole, 24th .\pril, 1910. t Revue de Viticulture, 1st June, 1911. Journal of Agncidturt: , Victoria. [lo Feb., 191 2. The kind of soap used is important ; it should be as rich as possible in oleate of soda and free from alkali in excess. Australian soaps, mostly piade from animal fat, would probajbly prove unsuitable for the purpose, since tihey contain much soda stearate. Stearate of soda . . . renders the preparation of colloidal copper soap difficult. In a general way, stearate should be proscribed from all insecticide or fungicide formula? containing soap. Our e.xperimetits show that its presence brings about an im])ortant increase in surface tension and a decrease in the solu- bility co-efficient. Acetate of Copper or " Verdet." Two sorts of acetate of copper have come into prominence of late years for spraying purposes. The.se are the neutral acetate, known in French as verdet iieutre, and what is known as vcrdct gris, which is a mixture of several basic acetates. This substance, of which the English common name is verdigris, has long been used by colour manufacturers, calico dyers, &c. Its mianufacture constituted an important industry in Southerii France manv vears ago, where it was a by-product of wane-making, Ijeing obtained bv treating copper plates with grape- marc which had undergone acetic fertmentation. It is therefore rather curious that it should now turn out to be a valuable specific for the treatment of vine diseases. This use, in fact, appears likely to bring about the revival of the almost extinct verdigris industry. Neutral acetate is readily soluble in water; verdet gris, though not soluble, mixes readily with water to form a sort of semi-solution. In water, the basic verdets do not give a true solution, such as neutral acetate does. Hydration i)henomena occur; the viscous paste at first formed, if diluted slightly, becomes colloidal. If maceration is sufficiently prolonged and the quantity of water is sufficient, dissociation brings about the separation of a soluble part which colours the solution blue (neutral acetate) and light flakes which float in it, gradually falling tc the bottom, but which the slightest agitation again places in suspension. . . .* Both substances constitute excellent fungicides. On the whole, p.eutral verdet is most highly recommended by authorities. Though quite soluble, its adherence is satisfactory, owing to a partial decomposition which takes place after spraying. The copper salt' must undergo a chemical change and pass from a soluble to an insoluble colloid state, in order that it may both adhere to the surface and set free a sufficient quantity of copper to contaminate the water drops in which conidia and zoospores might (otherwise) germinate With neutral verdet it is an insoluble and colloid basic acetate which is s])ontaneously produced after spraying; whereas with dilute liquid mi.xtures of basic verdets, it is a mixture, difficult to define, so far as proportions are concerned, of copper hj-droxide, gelatinous basic acetate and soluble neutral acetate, the latter itself giving rise to the insoluble basic salt (Bencker).* Sufficient has been said to show that the verdets should constitute an excellent sprav, insoluble enough to insure adherence, and yet soluble enough to constitute a powerful germicide. These theoretical considera- tions have been am.ply borne out in practice, and the verdets are coming into general use in France. In Switzerland, where downy mildew is particularlv virulent, they are held in high esteem. Either the soluble (neutral), the insoluble (verdet gris), or a mixture of the two are u.sed. * A. riejeanne — Les Verdets. Revue de Viticiitture, 3Uth June, lOl*"'. * Ibid. ]0 Feb.. jgi2.] Vine Diseases i)i France. 119 The solutions or semi-solutions are very fluid, and never clog sprav nozzles. Being richer in metallic copper* than sulphate, considerably less is required. In other words, \erdet may be looked upon as being twice as strong as sulphate, so that i Ih. to 10 gals, of water (i per cent.) would be equivalent to a Bordeaux mixture containing 2 lbs. to 10 gals. Preparation is almost instantaneous and very simple; it is only necessary to thoroughly mix with a small quantity of water for a few moments, and then to dilute to the required bulk. As ^•erdet does not lea\e such \-isible marks on the sprayed plants as copper-lime or copper-soda, supervision of the work done is more diffi- cult. This slight defect is easily corrected by the addition of plaster of Paris at the rate of h lb. to 10 gals, of .spray mixture. POTATO DIGGING MACHINES. G. Scyiimiir, Potato Expert. The harvesting of the potato crop by hand has always proved a tedious and expensive operation. Especiallv so has this been the case in late years, owing to the scarcity of labour, and the indifferent manner in which the work is carried out by those available. Rates for this w-ork have increased during the last 20 years bv 50 per cent, to 75 per cent. This increase, coupled with the fact that the delay has frequently caused the har\-esting to be prolonged into the wet season, and thereby injuring the condition of the soil for the succeeding cereal crop, especially barley, has created a want for a satisfactory potato-raising machine The following points, .some of which have hitherto proved insurmountable, are required in a satisfactorv digger : — 1. That it shall lift the crop clean from the soil and not cover those lifted. 2. That it shall leave them in convenient rows for ])icking u\>. 3. That it shall not bruise or damage the tubers. 4. That it shall leave the land in a level and workable condition. Inventors have followed two well-defined lines in their efforts to solve the.se problems. One is the separation of the tubers from the soil, generallv by scattering them to one side of the machine; the other, by raising the soil and tubc^rs as with a scoop or shovel and passing the whole on to an endless band or elevator provided with spaces for the soil to pass through, the tubers being deposited in a neat row at the rear of the machine. The soil is returned to its place again, leaving the field quite level. The history of potato- raising machinery is one of manv failures and some partial successes. Probably the most primitive attempt was die potato plough made by Howard and others more than 40 years ago. This was as simple as it was possible to make it, being neither more nor less * Neutral acetate contains 31-7 per cent, of copper. Verdet .ijris, which is a mixture of bi-, sesqui-, and tri-basic acetato variee obtained from the strongest and most prolific trees, and should be of well-matured, but not over-matured, wood and of a suitable size. A good method of obtaining suitable ones where little growth is made is to cut back some of the branches on a selected tree. This will cause the growth of vigorous wood. All leaves should be removed from the scions imme- diately after cutting to prevent evaporation of moisture, and they ought to be placed with their ends in water or kept moist in some other way until used. Upright wood of good growth and sufficiently matured should be selected. Budding. — Quite a number of different forms of buddings are adopted in various places and some dif- ference of opinion exists among propagators as to which is the better method, also with regard to the removal of the wood from the buds. In budding the olive, the writer favours the removal of the wood, unless the stock is verv sappy or unless the buds are cut in such manner that only a thin film of wood fibre is left adhering to the bud. The two chief forms of budding that are adopted and generally give ex- cellent results are — (i) twig buds ; (2) axillary buds. Twig Buds. — These are made from small shoots that are cut from the scions in the same manner as ordinary leaf or axillarv buds. They succeed best in spring. Some of the disadvantages in twig budding are that the right kind of twig is not always easily ob- tained. It often happens that these short twigs have only well developed fruit buds, not onlv at the axils of the leaves but also at the terminal point, and do not make the best stock. Hence, it is necessary to use some judgment in selecting only the right class of scion. More time is also needed in this form of budding, but if it is carried out in spring excellent results should be obtained. Axillary buds. — These are the common forms of buds used in the propagation of fruit trees generally. They are easily made and quickly inserted, and can be u.sed with success, either in spring or late summer. Grafting. — ^This work is carried out in early spring just when the trees begin to make new growth. Many different forms of grafting may be adopted. For general purposes, however, the tongue or whip graft and the cleft graft will be found suitable. The tongue or whip graft is used chiefl\ on young stock, or where the diameter of the stock is not great. It is found to be the most satisfactory graft in such cases. 10. TWIG BUD. 130 Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [10 Feb., 19 12. The cleft graft is used chiefly for working over old trees or larger stock. When working with either of these grafts on stock of greater diameter than the scion, care should be taken to get as great a contact between the sap layer of one side of the scion and stock as possible. Also, materials should be at hand for bandaging up the wound to exclude the air and hold the scion firmly in position. Raffia, strips of waxed paper, or clpth will be found suitable for this purpose. TwO' scions are usually put in each cleft in working OA'er old trees; if too many shbdts spring from them, they should be removed in the next season. A great many adventitious buds spring out on limbs that have been cut back for grafting — these should be thinned out so as not to inter- fere with the growth of the scions. Old trees may be successfully worked over by heading down the top. When the strong young shoots develop they may be budded ; the l)uds usually take better in the new growths. {To be Coiitimied.) ORCHARD AND GARDEN NOTES. E. E. Pescott, Principal, Horticultural School, Burnley. The Orchard. Green Manure. The benefits accruing from growing a cover crop for green manure are evervwhere recognised. The crop should be planted as soon as possible after the early autumn rains have prepared the ground for the plough. As the crop makes no growth in winter, and very little in the spring time — it being advisable to plough it in as early as possible in spring — it is ad- vantageous to get a good and abundant growth in the autumn. Conse- quently, the earlier the crop is planted, the greater the amount of herbage there will be for manurial purposes. The crop may be sown towards the end of February. A leguminous crop should be preferred before any other, owing to the amount of nitrogen which this class of plants contains. The sowing will need to be a plentiful one, as it is well to have a good dense growth. Field peas and tares or vetches are generally grown for the purpose. The partridge variety of the field pea is coming intO' favour for this work. In some instances, the tick bean has also been used with good success. In ordinary orchard .soils, it is often advisable to sow i cwt. each of bonedust and superphosphate per acre, to stimulate the crop into a quick and good growth. jO Feb., 1912.] Orchard and Garden Notes. 131 Spraying. Another spraying for codlin moth will probably be required for the later varieties of apples and pears. The coolness of the pre.sent summer has not been favorable tO' the rapid de\-elopment of this pest, and it has not been so prevalent during this .season. A spray with nicotine solution or with a resin wash may now be given for either woollv aphis or bryobia mite, but only after the crop has been gathered. If these pests are not very prevalent, the spraying may be left until winter, when a good red oil emulsion, or a lime-sulphur spray may be given. Fumigation. Citrus and other evergreen trees that are attacked by scale insects should be freed from the scale at this time. Although spraying with such mixtures as resin compound, crude petroleum emulsion, and lime-sulphur emulsion, will do good work in keeping scale insects in check, the only effective means of complete eradication is by fumigation. The trees are enclosed in a tent that will prevent the escape of any gas through its texture. The gas is generated inside the tent, and the tent is kept over the tree for a period of from half to three-quarters of an hour. The best remedy is hydrocyanic acid gas, which is generated by placing cyanide of potassium in a mixture of sulphuric acid and water. As both the cyanide and the gas are deadlv poisons, every care should be exercised in using them. The operator must take care that not the slightest portion of the fumes is breathed. Fumigation should be carried out at nighttime, or on a cloudy day, and the foliage of the trees must be thoroughly dry. Young Trees. Young trees of the citrus family should now be making a good thrifty growth. The foliage should be glossv, and the general appearance should be a healthy one. Occasional light waterings, as well as a mulching of grass or of well rotted manure will be helpful to the trees. Young deciduous fruit trees will also benefit by having a manure mulch ; and. if it has not been previouslv done, unnecessary growths in the centre of the tree should be removed. Budding. It is now a suitable time to carry out any required budding work. In budding, it is necessary that the bark .shall run or open freely ; and, to do this, the tree must have a good sap flow at the time of performing the operation. If such does not occur, the trees to be worked, or the stocks, should be given a good watering, and the budding deferred for a day or two. Full instructions for budding were given in Mr. Cole's articles on the Propagation of Fruit Trees in the September and October. 19 11, Journals. Cultivation and General Work. Guava trees have just finished flowering, and a good watering will be of benefit to them. Persimmon and loquat trees may also be watered to their advantage. The soil should be kept loose and well worked between the trees, espe- cially if the weather be at all hot. The surface must also be well worked after every irrigation. 132 journal of Agriculture , Victoria. [10 Feb., 1912. Vegetable G-arden. Celerv crops will now be a prominent feature in the vegetable section. The seed may be spwn from January to March, and succession plantings should be carried out occasionally during those months. The growth of celery should be quick ; a fair supply of water, and a good rich loose soil are helpful to its growth. The plants should be earthed up as they make growth. Ample water will now be required in the vegetable garden. The sur- face- should be kept well hoed and mulchings of manure should be given wherever possible. Cabbage, carrot, turnip, radish, lettuce, peas, cauliflower, &c. seeds may now all be sown ; and young plants from any seed beds may be planted out. Flo^vver Garden. Ample waterings and sprayings, with subsequent cultivation, will be helpful in hot, dry or windy weather. Weak plants, herbaceous plants, and surface rooting plants will be greatly benefited by a cool and nutritious mulch. Old stable manure will be helpful. Dahlias may be mulched and disbudded, thinning out the weak and use- less shoots. Where sufficiently advanced, chrysanthemums may be dis- budded. Stake all tall growing plants to prevent any damage from winds or from their own weight. All old flower heads, and weak wood may now be removed from the rose bushes. They should then be well watered, so as to induce good growth for the autumn blooms. They may be fed towards the end of the month. Flowering trees and shrubs that have passed their blossom time should be pruned and thinned out freely. A few bulbs may be planted for early blooming ; also prepare beds for the main planting next month. <^^^)j^^V&^ lo Feb.. 1912.] Reminders for March. 133 REIVIINDERS FOR MARCH- LIVE STOCK. Horses. — Feed as advised last month. Those in poor condition should be " fed up " in anticipation of winter. Cattle — Feed as last month. Where grass is plentiful, cattle can be profitably bought this month. Secure heifers to calve in autumn to replenish the herd. Old cows in good condition should be sold. Cows not in calf should also be sold ; otherwise they will come in next season too late to be profitable. Only exceptional cows, and those required for town milk supplv, should be served between now and July. Pigs. — Feed as last month. Breeding sows should be served; the young pigs will sell well in early spring when milk is plentiful. Fatten stores for winter curing. Weaners should not be allowed to go back; if markets are favourable, may be sold as porkers when ready. Sheep. — Merino and fine comeback breeding ewes should be kept strong for lambing. Crutch those most woolly and clear their eyes. Rams should not be running with merino or fine comeback ewes at this time. Pure British ewes and very coarse crossbreds are only properly in season now. If possible, spell a paddock from now, to draft ewes with lambs into during April. Poultry. — Cull out the drones and get rid of surplus cockerels. Keep forward pullets well fed — eggs are rising in value. Repairs to houses should be done this month. Thoroughly cleanse all houses and pens. Spray ground and houses with a 5 per cent, solution of crude carbolic acid, to which should be added a little lime — this will act as a safeguard against chicken po.x ; burn all refuse and old feathers. Provide a liberal supply of green food. Add a small quantity of sulphur to mash; also, for each moulting hen, add a teaspoonful of linseed to the morning mash. Use tonic in water, which should be kept in cool shady spot. CULTIVATION. Farm. — Work fallow where possible for autumn sowing of cereals. Sow winter fodder crops, such as rye, barley, and vetches. Prepare land for lucerne plots for autumn seeding. Make silage of maize and other crops for winter use. Orchard. — Prepare new land for planting ; plough deeply and sub-soil ; leave surface rough. Plant out strawberries after first rain. Plant crops for green manure. Continue to fight the Codlin Moth. Vegetable Garden. — Prepare ground for winter crops. Plant out seedlings in moist soil. Sow cabbage, cauliflower, lettuce, early peas, swede turnip, beet, carrot, radish, and early onions. Flower Garden. — Cultivate and water. Feed dahlias, chrysanthemums, and roses. Plant out shrubs, trees, and all kinds of bulbs. Sow hardy annuals. Plant geranium and pelargonium cuttings. Spray for Aphis, Red Spider, and Mildew. Vineyard. — Select scions, if not done last month. Where ripening is difficult, assist by removing basal leaves only, as soon as berries change colour. This is the month for drying currants, sultanas, and gordos (Le.xias and Clusters). Do not pick before grapes are properly ripe. For instructions for packing grapes for export, apply to Department. Shipments should be made in March and early April. Cellars. — Vintage month. For light dry wines, pick as soon as grapes are ripe ; do not wait for over-maturity, as is so often done. Pay attention to acidity ; correct same if necessary with tartaric acid or late grapes. Acidimeter supplied by Depart- ment; price, 3s. 6d. Sulphiting and the use of pure yeasts are strongly recom- mended, as thev insure production of sound wine ; further information supplied on application. ^34 Journal of A^^^ncidturc. Victoria. [lo Feb., 191: STATISTICS. Rainfall in Victoria.— Fourlli Quarter, 1911. Table showing average amount of rainfall in each of the 26 Basins or Regions con stituting the State of Victoria for each month and the year, with the corre aponding monthly and quarterly averages for each Basin, deduced from all available records to date. Basin or District. Glenelg and Wannon Rivers Fitzroy, Eumeralla, and Merri Rivers Hopkins River and Mount Emu Creek Mount Klephant and Lake Corangamite Cape Otway Forest M'orabool and Barwon Rivers Werribeeand Saltwater Rivers Yarra River and JJandenong Creek Koo-wee-rup Swamp South Gippsland Latrobe and Thomson Rivers Macallister and Avon Rivers Mitchell River Tambo and Nicholson Rivers Snowy River Murray River Mitta Mitta and Klewa Rivers Ovens River Goulburn River Campaspe River Loddon River Avon and Richardson Rivers Avoca River Eastern Wimmera ... Western Wimmera . . . Mallee District The whole State October. points. 170 242 148 167 2:« 156 153 270 196 211 27« 134 82 120 197 34 103 112 91 77 52 54 58 61 71 32 points, points. 287 290 251 243 26 29 25 30 345 97 247 46 242 95 338 ) 157 346 386 365 233 284 300 354 183 336 337 242 207 170 145 152 201 199 121 79 120 104 121 159 141 114 77 170 92 35 13 15 7 10 16 4 21 109 2.34 55 points. 188 193 193 191 238 196 193 269 253 264 265 187 200 180 209 137 256 235 181 169 142 123 129 161 142 96 December. 172 points. 314 333 355 371 429 413 386 497 536 469 591 264 296 340 353 185 419 317 213 210 222 188 179 311 257 144 283 points. 145 156 159 157 222 185 215 320 267 .321 305 270 247 279 279 141 2.39 230 175 175 120 87 108 113 82 80 166 a s 0 a < < points. points. 510 620 604 6.39 528 603 568 591 759 80-5 615 628 634 650 924 927 811 866 800 971 973 935 519 690 537 731 601 759 664 842 296 461 692 sM 521 802 339 598 300 .551 289 4.32 249 355 247 389 388 475 332 423 197 297 447 572 too points = 1 inch. 10th January, 1912. H. A. HUNT, Commnnwealth M e.teorologist. lo Feb.. 1 91 2.] Riiiiiiidcrs for March. 135 Fruit, Bulbs, Plants, Grain, &c. Imports. Exports. Goods. Imports. Exports. Goods. Inter- State. Oversea. Oversea. Inter- 1 State. Oversea. 146 Oversea. Apples ... 7,150 Ill 100 Linseed Apples, Custard ... 2 — — Loquats 3! — — Ai3ricots... — — 181 Logs 1,967 18,655 — Bananas, bimches .. 24,639 81,903 — Mace 99 — Bananas, cases 3,992 25,175 — Maize 449 728 — Barley ... 19,282 22,702 — Melons ... 136 — ""■ Beans 37 317 — Nutmegs — 285 — ^ Bulbs ... 1 261 — Xuts 103 2,102 — Cherries ... 1,019 — 3,064 Oats 3,856 5 — Chillies ... 1 64 — Oranges ... 112,315 2,134 3,127 Cocoa beans — 1,272 — Passion ... 275 — — Cocoanuts — 315 — Paw Paws 14 13 — CofiFee beans — 506 — Peaches ... 28 — 118 Copra — 76 — , Pepper ... — 197 — Cucumbers 10,973 — 20 Peas, dried 1,577 3 — Currants, black ... 1 — — Pineapples 17,242 217 381 Dates — 13,734 — Plants 101 : 274 26 Figs — 780 — Plums — — 312 Fruit- Potatoes 5 ! — -- Canned — — 4,303 Rice 6,670 1 9,337 — Dried _ 3,013 652 Seeds 477 4,378 — Mixed 69 18 — Spice — i 177 Grapes ... 1 — — Strawberries 1 — — Green ginger — 87 — Tomatoes 4,649 18 35 Hops — 224 Vegetables 7,681 482 — Jams, Sauces, &c. , . — — 1,377 Wheat, Grain, &c. 1,336 14 " Lemons 2,817 1,697 1,948 Yams 36 — — Totals 69,984 152,255 11,645 Grand Totals ... 228,905 ' 191,520 15,044 Total number of packages inspected for quarter ending 31st December, 1911 = 436,069. E. MEEKING, Senior Fruit Inspector. Perishable and Frozen Produce. Exports from State Deliveries from Produce. (Oversea). Government Cool Stores Description of Quarter ended Quarter ended Quarter ended Quarter ended 31.12.1911. 31.12.1910. 31.12.1911. 1 31.12.1910. Butter lbs. 24,450,852 25,253,752 24,917,984 1 19,941,600 Milk and Cream cases 2,930 801 51 i 80 Cheese ... lbs. 15,480 264,840 500 255,172 Ham and Bacon II 62,500 46,560 ... Poultry head 5,310 9,879 4,T59 5,489 Eggs... . . . dozen 30 500 3,811 Mutton and Lamb carcases 1,118,555 998,883 66,454 113,287 Beef quarters 5,457 2,759 Veal carcases 935 1,468 79 343 Pork // 1,491 1,078 858^1 851 Rabbits and Hares pairs 159,450 5,490 11,763 i 3,804 Sundries lbs. ... 52,365 1 80,296 R. CROWE, Superintendent oj Exports. 136 Joiir)ial of Agriculture, Victoria. [10 Feb., 1912. VICTORIAN EGG-LAYING COMPETITIOiN, 1911-12, CONDUCTED AT BURNLEY HORTICULTURAL SCHOOL {Co}itinued from -page 6j .) H. V . Hawkins, Poultry Expert. Eggs Laid during Competition. No. Position in of Breed. Name of Owner. April to Total to Competi- Pen. Nov. Dec. Date (9 tion. months). 12 White Leghorn W. G. Swift 1,091 152 1,1:43 1 31 » R. W. Pope 1,06? 143 1,205 2 40 » A. J. Cosh (S.A.) 1,045 131 1,176 3 20 „ H. McKenzie 960 148 1,108 4 33 " Range Poultry Farm (QUI.) 956 134 1,090 5 37 »» E. Waldon 933 141 1,074 6 18 >i S. Brundrett 896 114 1,010 7 39 j» A.W. Hall . . 839 150 989 8 13 Black Orpington . . D. Fisher . . 853 121 974 9 21 White Leghorn R.. L. Appleford 844 128 972 10 46 Minorca G. W. ChMlmers 850 95 945 11 65 White Leghorn W. G. McLister 821 115 937 12 25 > B. Mitchell 829 102 931 13 38 » Mrs. C. R. Smee 800 130 930 14 10 Black Orpington . . H. A. Langdon 796 118 914 15 9 White Legliorn J. O'Louglilin 791 121 912 16 49 ,, W. J. Thornton 775 135 910 17 32 Silver Wyandotte . . Mrs. M. A. Jones 797 111 908 18 44 Black Orpington . . T. S. Goodisson 814 93 907 19 li White Loghorn F. Hannaford 769 137 906 20 1 » A. Brebner 776 1.5 901 21 f » E. P. Nash 761 138 899 } 22 28 » J. Canipl)ell 763 136 899 3 K. Gleghorn 768 129 897 )2. 36 ,, F. A. SUlitoe 780 117 897 50 i» C. H. Busst 755 136 891 26 19 n A. Jaques 752 132 884 27 5 „ L. C. Payne 743 127 870 28 45 » T. Kempster 73:^ 136 868 }., 67 » C. L. Sharman 775 93 868 47 ) » C. W.Spencer (N.S.W.) 729 135 864 }3, 22 Black Orpington . . P. S. Wood 746 118 864 62 White Leghorn P. Hodson . . 712 143 855 33 4 Golden Wyandotte H. Bell 748 10? 850 34 57 White Leghorn G. E. Edwards 703 145 848 35 8 M T. W. Goto 718 127 845 36 66 White Wyandotte J. E. Bradley 759 85 844 37 65 White Leghorn H. Hammill (N.S.W.) 733 107 840 38 11 Brown Leghorn F. Soncum 697 139 836 39 59 White Leghorn W. H. Dunlop 708 122 830 40 27 »» Hill and Luckman . . 728 101 8?.9 41 51 )» J. W. McArthur 727 100 827 42 60 .) J. J. Harrington 703 113 816 43 43 W. B. Crellin 700 115 815 44 63 Black Orpington . . A. J. Treacy 727 80 807 45 53 White Leghorn A. Stringer 686 113 799 46 41 Morgan and Watson . . 688 108 796 47 58 Faverolies K. Courtenay 702 93 795 48 52 White Leghorn W. J. McKeddie 676 106 782 49 42 White Orpington . . P. Mitchell 67S 97 775 50 30 Black Orpington . . Rodgers Bros. 666 96 762 51 6 Silver Wyandotte . . Mrs. H. J. Richards 662 97 759 52 35 White Leghorn J. H. Brain 631 121 752 53 34 )) E. Dettman 630 121 751 54 7 i> H. Stevenson 620 1''.3 743 55 64 »» J. D. Read 592 146 738 56 26 »» F. H. Seymour 613 115 7?8 57 54 ,, F. Hodges 6-:i 89 710 58 16 Silver Wyandotte . . Miss A. Cottam 619 87 706 69 56 White Leghorn Mrs. C. Thompson . . 568 124 69? 60 23 Golde 1 Wyandotte G. E. Brown 599 84 683 61 61 Silver Wyandotte . . J. Reade 543 108 651 62 17 White Leghorn . . W. J. Eckershall 536 88 624 63 14 Blaok Orpington . . W. J. Macauley 521 74 595 64 15 Minorca H. R. McChesney . . 456 83 539 66 48 " G. James . . 346 87 433 66 48,618 7,680 56,298 1 lo Fee.. T912.] Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. XVll ii ROYAL MEDAL" MILKING MACHINES. ffy LET THEIR USERS TELL THE STORY OF THEIR SUCCESS. Below are a few written appreciations of "ROYAL MEDAL" excellence from well-known dairymen throughout the world Let their experience guide you at least to the extent of finding out more about 'X'lxe IVExllsiex* -tlxa.-t ±s "It gives me great pleasure to testify to the excellence of your Milker that you fitted up here two years ago." "It has done its work beyond my expecta- tions, and, if properly handled, I consider it perfect. " "Our herd is one of many to which an inde- pendent milk expert comes round every few- weeks and takes a record of every cow"s milk. We have always found the quantity and quality of the milk most satisfactory." TH/S SHOWS THE "ROYAL MEDAL" MILKER WITH CUPS IN POSITION TDH; "J? ■jliJi-tE31>Drrr." " Tiiere has been no troul)le from either sore teats or swollen quarters, and I think that in itself is a great point in its favour. Young cows do particularly well with it." " It milks quite clean." "The quantity of milk has not diminished." " The teats are left in perfect condition." "It leaves the teats quite soft and natural, and milks them dry." "I anticipate a great future for your Machines." AWARDED THE MEDAL OF THE ROYAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY OF ENCLAND. Let us send j-ou the "ROYAL MEDAL" Booklet. It M'ill demonstrate to j'ou the many differences which mark the " ROYAL MEDAL" as a complete departure from every other machine on the market, and give you an idea of its many outstanding advantages. The coupon below brings this book post free and by return mail. " ROYAL MEDAL" MILKING MACHINES, 34 Queen Street, MELBOURNE. LONDON OFFICE: Caxton House, Westminster, S.VV. JACK H. DAV/ES, Managing Director. POST FREE BOOKLET COUPON. ' ' Royal Medal " Milking Machines, 34 Queen Street, Melbourne. Please fonvard a copy of your Free Book. It is to be understood that I consider myself under no obligation. Name A ddress J5. XVlll Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo Feb., 1912. 'Phone 4S81 Central. The Australasian Mutual Live Stock Insupanee Society m, ROYAL BANK CHAMBERS, 70 Elizabeth St., Melbourne. directors : HON. AGAR WYNNE, M.P. HENRY GARDNER, Esq. CHAS. YEO, Esq., J.P. WALTER G. HISCOCK, A.C.P.A., Manager. FARMERS AND BREEDERS- Has tliis simple truth ever struck you ? Ours are the world's minimum rates. Our terms and conditions are equal to the best obtainable. Every pound of our money is invested in Australia. We pay promptly. We pay in full. INSURE WITH THIS SOCIETY, AND RECOMMEND IT TO YOUR NEIGHBOURS. A GOOD AUSTRALIAN ^ ' Why didn't you put your penny in Ike plate thit morning f ' Because it mat a foreign mission, and dada say* i£i not right to send capital out 0/ the country." For ROOFS of all descripti USE '1^' RUBEROID ROOFING. For OUTSIDE PAINTING of barns, stables, fences, &c., USE INDELIBLE COLD WATER PAINT. For INSIDE PLASTERED WALLS USE I*" CALCIMO IN ALL COLOURS. These Goods are UNEQUALLED by any others, and are obtainable from all Storekeepers. -SOLE AGENTS- BROOKS, ROBINSON & Co. Ltd., Melbourne. lo Feb., 19 1 2.] Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. xix Dairy Science. The last word. Scientific men in the dairy centres of Europe have given close attention to the question of feeding for milk and feeding for butter fat. It has been laid down by one of the leading German Scientists that where a large quantity of very watery food is used for some time, a poor, thin milk is obtained : and he particularly recommends, when a milk rich in fat is wanted, to use a cake made exactly from the same material as Sunlight Oil Cake : stating that, by the use of such a cake, an increase of butter fat in the milk has been observed. Further, where the butter is inclined to be soft when the animal is fed on certain foods, Sunlight Oil Cake substituted in the ration will make the butter firmer. Every animal will not show the same corresponding result with Sunlight Oil Cake, but Sunlight Oil Cake will produce the highest milk flow and butter fat from a good milker and will increase the average from a poor milker. Sunlight Oil Cake is the last word in Dairy Science. For Post Free Book— 'MILK FLOW AND BUTTER FAT increased by Scientific Feeding," By H. M. SOMER, Royal Agricultural Society, Write to Lever Brothers Limited (Dairy Department) Sydney. Guaranteed Pure. SUNLIGHT ^^- - See that the name "Sunlight" is branded on every cake. Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. fio Feb., 1912. "HORNSBY" Petrol Engines iSTATIONARY AND PORTABLE) T-IAVE a World-wide Reputation for all round Superiority. There is nothing Equal to them. Just as suitable for Motive Power as the well-known HORNSBY OIL ENGINE. For 30 Years the HORNSBY BINDER Has Led and still Leads the Way. Winner of the Six Highest Prizes ever offered. It stands unrivalled for Strength, Simplicity, Light- ness of Draught, Low Cutting, and ease of Man- agement. Will go through the Harvest without a hitch. Hornsby Mowers are Famous the World over. Hornsby Oil Engines, Gas Engines, and Suction Gas Plants are Unequalled. R. HORNSBY & SONS, LTD., MELBOURNE. SYDNEY. ■ BRISBANE. DOOKIE AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE. (SHEPPARTON DISTRICT.) H. PYE, Principal. The College offers every facility to students to become competent agriculturists and dairyrnen. The work is carried out on a large commercial scale, the ploughing, drilling, manuring, harvesting, threshing, and shearing being done by students under competent instructors. Over 2,000 sheep and lambs, 150 cattle, and 50 horses, including stallion, are on the farm, which comprises over 6,000 acres. Fees (per Annum)— i^'tVsi! Year, £32 5s. ; Second Year, £27 5s. ; Third Year, £22 5s. ; Payable half-yearly. LONGERENONG AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE. (HORSHAM DISTRICT.) W. Z>. WILSON, B.Sc, Principal. One aim of this institution is to fill in the gap between the State School and Dookie, i.e., to take students between the ages of fourteen and sixteen years. The farm contains an area of 2,386 acres, and is admirably adapted for demonstrating what can be done in farming with irrigation. There is a large area of the farm under cultivation, and the orchard and vineyard cover an area of 30 acres. Fees — Resident, £20 per annum ; Non-resident, £5 per annum ; Payable half-yearly. Applications relative to tlie above Colleges sbould be sent to the Secretary, Council of Agricultural Education, Department of Agriculture, Melbourne. On receipt of Post Card a copy of the Prospectus of either College will be posted. NEXT SESSION COMMENCES MARCH, 1912. INTENDING STUDENTS MAY NOW BE ENROLLED. TO Feb., 19 1 2.] Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. j^RTlOflflli TRUSTEES :; Executors & Agency Company Australasia, Ltd. . # . DIRECTORS : HON. WALTER MADDEN, Chairman and Managing Director. EDWARD FITZGERALD, Esq., L.L.D. MICHAEL MORNANE, Esd. HON. DUNCAN E. McBRYDE, M.L.C. HENRY MADDEN, Esq. DAVID HUNTER, Esq. This Company acts as Executor, or Joint Executor of Wills, Administrator, Trustee of Settlements, and Agent for Absentees under Power of Attorney. MONEY TO LEND ON BROAD ACRES AND FARM LANDS. <>"■"•■■ 113 QUEEN ST. USSSSl st.) MELBOURNE. /" SAVINGS BANKS LOANS ON BROAD ACRES (Up to Three-fifths of Valuation), In sums from .£2,000 to .£25,000. Interest at 4h per cent* For 3 or 5 years, with option of paying off part on any half-yearly pay-day. ON FARMS (CREDIT FONCIER) (Up to Two-thirds of Valuation), In sums from £50 to £2,000. Interest at Ah per cent. Loans Repayable by Instalments spread over 3 1 J? years, or may be paid off" on any half-yearly pay-day, subject to a small charge if paid off during the first five years, but no penalty after five years. ADDRESS - Inspector-General of Savings Banks^ 29 MARKET STREET, MELBOURNE. TREWHELLA ::= ' GRUBBING JACKS. Quick. Powerful. Simple. Mr. Ohas. Hamilton, Moleswortli, Vic, says:— "I would not be without one of these Jacks on the farm." Mr. 0. C. R. Brown, Timber Merchant, Frances, S.A. :— " Have been using Trewhella Wallaby Jacks now nearly six years, and as long as I have anything to lift will never be without one." Write for Illustrated Catalogue to— TREWHELLA BROS., ENGINEERS, TRENTHAM, VICTORIA. xxii Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo Feb., 1912. r DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, VICTORIA. JSuFnley J^ortieultural School. E. E. PESCOTT, •;Wr Principal. ANNOUNCEMENT. The curriculum and management of the Burnley Horticultural School have now been arranged so that greater advantages and facilities will be given to students of both sexes in Horticulture and allied subjects. The present course of Horticulture for male students includes a two years' course, students being charged a fee of £5 per annum. Classes have been formed at Burnley, whereby students of both sexes may receive instruction on two afternoons of each week — Tuesdays and Fridays. Instruction includes theoretical and practical work, and will commence at 2 p.m. This will be a two years' course, and the fee charged will be £2 per annum. It has also been arranged that several short lecture courses shall be given on subjects which are suitable adjuncts to Horticulture, such as Poultry Farming, Bee-keeping, and Fruit Preserving, and these courses will be open and free to the general public. The subjects and dates of the Short Course Lectures will be announced monthly in this Journal. \^^2 Session commences J 2th February. ^t^aS::f:;^St The director of agriculture, PUBLIC OFFICES, MELBOURNE, OR TO THE PRINCIPAL. ^ - ^ TO Feb.. 1912.] Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. SPECIALISING -IN THE SUPPLY OF ALL FRIEND NOZZLE. "Harvey" Shifting-Handle Ploughs. '* Four Oaks " Bucket Spray Pump. '• Myers " & " Deming " Spray Pumps. "Jones" High-pressure Spray Pumps. " Friend " Power Sprayer. pgUlTGHOWEf^S' REQUISITES & IMPLEMENTS Is done by us more than any other firm in Victoria. It will therefore pay you to call and see us or write for Illustrated Catalogue (A). Some of our Lines are — " Excelsior " Fruit Graders. Spraying Hose— high quality. Spraying Materials for all Pests. Pumps for all Purposes. "COMET" FARM MOTORS. Our Quality is Good. Our Prices are Right. Call and See. IF. I?.. -IV yi rn-r- -r- A-^-f— > ^"^O ELIZ^^BETH ST. _LVJ lLiJ iJ — iV ^_t\;_ DVEELBOXJR,3SrE. r DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, VICTORIA. AGRICULTURAL CLASSES, 1912. At least thirty students, exclusive of school children, must be enrolled at each centre, the rent of the hall and all local charges to be paid b}' the Agricultural Society under wliose auspices the Class is held. As only a limited number of classes can be held during the year, it is essential that Agricultural or other Societies should make early application prior to 1st March. LECTURES ON AGRICULTURAL SUBJECTS, 1912. Agricultural or other Societies wishing to have public lectures delivered are requested to make application prior to 1st March. The hull, advertising, &c. , must be provided locally, free of cost, but all other charges are borne by the Department. Staff — The Director (Dr. S. S Cameron), and Messrs. Archer, Carmody, Carroll, de Castella, Cother, Crowe, French Jr., Griffin, Ham, Hart, Hawkins, Johnstone, Kendall, Knight, McFadzean, Pescott, Richardson, Robertson, Sawers, Seymour, Smith, Strong, Turner, and Expert of the State Rivers and Water Supply Commission. V: applications relative to the above Institutions and Lectures should be sent to the rector of Agfriculture, Melbourne. J xwv Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo Feb., 1912. "WATERLOO BOY" 4 h.p. PORTABLE OIL ENGINE. ABSOLUTELY THE SIMPLEST AND CHEAPEST EFFICIENT ENGINE IN THE WORLD. USES BENZINE OR KEROSENE. IGNITIONi — Is make and break style, charge firerl by electric spark. Igniter, which in other Engines is difficult to get at, in the "Waterloo" can be completely removed by loosening two cap screws Both Magneto and Battery Ignition, — a very useful arrangement, as work can never be stopped. SPEED LEVERi — Acts same as throttle of a steam engine. You can speed up or down, or stop altogether with it. Makes the Engine easj' to start, prevents "kicking back," and saves fuel. IVIIXER. — Is a great idea, patented because it is worth patenting. Has an adjustable mixing cup that can, by a winged nut, be slipped up or down to give more or less air. No valve springs or pump to get out of order ; makes Engine easy to start ; aids the governor and speed lever in getting more power out of the fuel. GOVERNORi — Centrifugal type, sure and sensitive. Allows a charge in the cylinder only when the work requires it. PUELi -Works on either benzine or kerosene, but benzine is better, as it is not so dirty. The speed-saving devices. Speed Lever, Patent Mixer, and Governor make the " Waterloo " con.sume the least fuel. Compare it for simplicity, fuel cost, and power with other engines, and you will send your order to us. HOPPER COOLED.— That is, there are no Tank, Pipes, and Pump to cool the cylinder. JNlakes the Engine easy to move about ; less space, less weight, and no water pump troubles, as there is no Pump. Also lessens the fuel bill. TRANSPORT^ — is a very strong one. Through axles in both front and rear wheels. Turntable on front axle is simple and strong. Ijjp- SEND FOR CATALOGUES OF OUR OTHER FARM REQUISITES. MITCHELL & COMPANY FACTORY & office: WEST FOOTSCRAY, MELBOURNE. PTY. LTD. SHOW ROOM: 596 BOURKE ST., MELBOURNE. D^cfFigerafiug ^ ^ and lee JVCaking JM!aekiueFY ^ ^ Made by gUMBLE&SONS, Geelong, Victoria. Specially suitable for Butchers, Breweries, Squatters, Butter, Bacon, and Ice Factories, and all classes of Cold Storage, &c. The Machines can be supplied from 3 cwt. capacity upwards, and either belt-driven or fitted with Engine. A_ large number of these Machines are working in the Australian States, New Zealand, and South Africa, and are giving universal satisfaction. All classes of Refrigeration work undertaken, including coils. One of these Machines is installed at the Dookie Agricultural College. "Ferrier's" Woolpresses and Rabbit Poison Distributors, Engines, Boilers, Horseworks, &c. Full Particulars on Application to— Humble and Sons, General Eng'ineeps, VULCAN FOUNDRY, GEELONG. VICTORIAN RAILWAYS. VICTORIA FOR YOUR VACATION. The Victorian Railways issue SUMMER EXCURSION FARES To the Seaside, Mountains, Lakes, and Caves FROM 15th NOVEMBER TILL 30th APRIL. LORNE. Waterfalls, fern glens, sea ixiA river fishing ; splendid accommodation. FLINDERS. Ocean beach and golfers' paradise. QUEENSCLIFF. Bay and ocean beaches ; rail and steamer services. THE BUFFALO PLATEAU, with its famous gorge, falls, and peaks, the Horn and the Hump, embraces the finest mountain scenery in Australia. Excursion fares all the year round. THE AUSTRALIAN ALPS. Mts. Bogong, Feathertop, Hotham. The Baw Baw Range. THE DIVIDING RANGE. Macedon, Woodend, Daylesford, &c. Healesville in the Hills. THE GIPPSLAND LAKES. The most charming chain of akes in the Commonwealth. THE BUCHAN CAVEr.. Indescribably beautiful. CAMPBELL'S FALLS, ON FALLS CREEK, UPPER YARRA. For full information f^s to train services, fares, &c., -write to or in- quire from the Government Tovirist Officer, Tourist Bureau, opp. To-wn Hall, Collins street Melbourne. E. B. JONES, Acting Secretary for Railways. \fb^ Vol. X. WHEAT AND ITS CULTIVATION. Part 3. [Rey^isterefl at the General I'ost Otiiie, Melbouirie, for transmission by Post as a Newspaper.] M^FFRA BEET SUGAR FACTORY, RYE GRASS. COCKSFOOT. PRAIRIE. PASPALUM. PHALARIS. TIMOTHY. DWARF ESSEX RAPE. LUCERNE. ALSIKE. COW GRASS. WHITE DUTCH. VEGETABLE, TREE, FLOWER, SHRUB AGRICULTURAL SEEDS. Samples and Prices of Agricultural Seeds Post Free. Planet Jr. Seed Drills & Cultivators. Planter's Friend Corn Drills. Iron King Seed Drills. Corn Queen Planters, Aerators, Firefly Plows, "DEMON" BIRD SCARER. Special labour-saving device; most effective for scaring the birds. Goes for 16 hours without charging. WRITE FOR PAMPHLET. FULL & COMPLETE STOCK OF AGRICULTURAL SUNDRIES. HEMINGWAY'S ENGLISH ARSENATE OF LEAD. The purest and best make on tlie mnrket. WRITE US FOR FULL PARTICULARS AND PRICES. SPRAY PUMPS. GARDEN GLOVES. NIKOTEEN. MANILLA LABELS. FRUIT TREE NETS. SEED & BULB BOOK Containing over 130 pages of useful information. POST FREE ON APPLICATION. Manures & Fertilizers of all descriptions. "ELECTRIC" GARDEN HOSE. The best 5-ply hose on the jnarket. S[)ecially non- kinkabie, and does not crack. In any length, ^ in., I in., and 1 in. PRICES ON APPLICATION. FULL & COMPLETE STOCK OF ORCHARD REQUISITES. MURCHISON'S SCRUB DESTROYER. Write for special pamphlet giving full prices and particulars. — 64 ELIZABETH-ST., MELBOURNE. THE JOUKX.VI. OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, T. HOFKLYS, .Icting Editor. CONTENTS.- MARCH, 1912. TA'iK. The Beet Sugar Industry and Closer Settlciiient ... ... H. T. Eaaterby 137 Worms iu Sheep ... ... ... S. S. Gaimron, D.V.Sc, M.R.C.V.S. 15-i The Pig Industry ... ... ... ... ... R. T. Arrh'-r KiO The Propagation of Fruit Trees .. ... ... ... C. F. Cok lliO Vine Diseases in France ... ... ... ... ... F. de Gaddla 173 Bee-keeping in Victoria ... ... ... ... ... F. R. Bcukne 17ti Orchard and Garden Notes ... ... ... E. E. PescoU 179 AVheat and its Cultivation... ... A. K. V. Rirhardson, M.A., B.Sc. (Ag-ric.) 181 Farm Elacksmithing ... ... ... ... ... G. Bo.xtcr 192 The Olive ... ... ... ... ... ... L. Macdonald 196 Reminders ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 19!) Victorian Egg-laying Competition, 1911-12 ... ... ... H. V. Hawhbis 200 COPYRIGHT PROVISIONS AND SUBSCRIPTION RATES. The Articles in the .Journal of the Department of Agriculture of Victoria are protected b}' the provisions of the Copyright Act. Proprietors of newspapers wishing to republish an}' matter are at liberty to do so, jjrocidtd the Journal and author are both a den oide. dged. The Journal is issued monthl}'. The subscription, which is payable in advance and includes [lostage, is 3s. per annum for the Coninion wealth and New Zealand, and 5s. for t!ie United Kingdom and Foreign Countries, Single copy Threepence. S!iliscri[itions should be forwarded to the Director of .AL'riculture, Melbourne. A complete list of the \arious publications i.ssued by the Depariinent ot Agriculture will bs sup!)lied by the latter. Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo March, 1912. No other Windmill has a Speed-governing Device like the "Billabong's." This important improvement of ours is protected by patent rights. It has neither springs nor weights — nothing to get out of order. By merely turning a screw you can vary the speed of the mill to your desire. This will be found to be of great advantage when Windmill is sub- jected to a change of load, and in heavy gales, ife ' Stop and Consider. You want a mill to give lifelong service ; therefore, it must be made of good material. Bearings should be so made that they may be cheaply and quickly renewed. Frictional or wearing parts should be few; and, what is most im- portant, the mill should have a lubricating system that will insure its being thoroughly and continuously lubricated while working, but which will prevent waste when mill is not required. The mill should be responsive to a very light breeze, yet stand a gale. In our Mill all these Points are provided for. We know what is required of a good mill — we have had many years of windmill experience. The fact that we have obtained patent rights proves our pro- gressiveness; and, as to quality and workmanship, our being established for over half a century answers. Suppose You Save, say, £1, or £1 10s., or £2, by buying a cheaper mill, and then have to spend £2 to £3 in repairs — again another £3 or £4; or, suppose your cheap mill sticks up when you most need it, you will soon lose pounds and pounds* worth of stock ; or, if it blows down in a gale, where is your saving then ? Pay a Proper Price and g:et the Right Article with a Good Manufacturing Firm to back it up. But the truth is, while our mills are well made, the price is so reasonable. Write for Catalogue and Prices. We can supply Tanks and Stands ; Pumps of all kinds ; Piping, Troughing, and Fluming ; Farm and Garden Tools, Implements, and Requisites. JOHN DANKS & SON 391=395 Bourke Street, Melbourne. PTY. LTD. lo March, 1912.] Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. Ill I I When equipping the dairy with machinery don't let the matter of a £1 or two influence your choice, and prevent you from obtaining the best and most up-to-date plant that money can buy. A mistake made at the outset means just the difference between success and failure. It is false economy to purchase machinery of any description simply because it is "cheap" — the sweetness of low price never equals the bitterness of poor quality. Before purchasing a cream sejianitor, milking machine, or petrol engine, visit the farms of the prominent and successful dairymen, and you will find that over 90 per cent, of them have either the "ALFA- LAVAL" SEPARATOR "L-K-G" MILKING MACHINES "FELIX" INDUSTRIAL MOTOR installed in their dairies or milking sheds. You run no risk whatever in purchasing any of the above time-tested machines, because they are guaranteed to be as represented, but should they fail to make good what is claimed for them we will take them back again and pay all expenses. Our full-line Catalogue No. 350S, describes in detail these bcst'Of-all machines; it also gives full particulars and prices of the most modern farm, dairy, and chc ese-making requisites. Posted free on application. — Write for it. J. BARTRAM & SON IVd. 19-23 KING STREET, MELBOURNE. SOLE AGENTS :— Galvanized all-steel portable Silos. Every Farmer and Grazier should have a Telephone Service con- necting with the nearest Post Ollice. Thousands of Australian farmers lune already installed Telephones, the ad- vantages of which are so numerous ami valuable that it is impossible to mea^iuro or appreciate their worth until you have one. A well-known Victorian grazier, Mr. W. Gardiner, writes regarding The " ERICSSON " TELEPHONE :— " I tind the telephone tlie most useful inven- tion I have on the farm, boili in labour and time saving, also for business piu'ijoses. It has often saved me the price of itself in one transaction, and has paid for itself 50 times over in two cases of calling medical aid when no one could go for it. The "ERICSSON" gives satisfaction in every way." Prices, estimates, and fall particulars, on application to — J. BSRTRHI! k m PTY. LTD., 19-23 KING STREET LBOURNE. Reprbsi^nting the L. M. ERICSSON Telephone Company. Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo March, 19 12. If vou fervcestoi f^-^ rf^ T^. ''mw POST HOliE DIGGER. The Greatest of all Earth Boring Tools It cuts the hole jiL.it the size for the po>it, in a fraction of the time taken with bar and spade, and no time is lost ramming. Works in all conditions and kinds of soil — not rock. On a fencing job 120 ten-inch holes can be easily bored in a day, or 200 smaller sizes. By extending the pipe bar the " IWAN " POST HOLE DIGGER bores down to 35 feet. Empties with a shake ; is built rigid — stays rigid — has no adjustable parts to wobb about or sticlv. EVENTUALLY-WHY NOT NOW! 3 i 5 6 7 8 9 10 12 U in. 7/. 7/- 7/- 71- 7/6 8/6 9/6 10/- ?,7/- 34/= each. Thomas McPherson & Son ' Established 51 Years, 554-56G & 582-588 Goilins-St., Melbourne. lo March, 191 2.] Journal of Agriculture , Yicioria. TIME IS EY TO THE 0RCHARDI8T. WELL \ why not save time (and money) by using "AUSTRAL" gfL° JELLY FOR DESTROYING WOOLLY APHIS, RED SPIDER, PEACH APHIS, AND ALL SCALE PESTS. II YOU save at least one man's time in mixing. II YOU are using a better and more effective emulsion. YOU run no risk of damaging your trees. YOU have no loss through spoiled batches. II YOU simply mix -with cold -water. II Ii^OTE! CJost of -75 gall. fC.:E3X3 OXXii EZl^^XTX-SIOlNr. HOME MADE. 3 gall. Red Oil (a! 2s. ... 3 Ib^. Soft Soap (w, 3d. Man's time and fuel Spoiled batches (say 1 in 10) T(iT.\L (NOTE.— 30 lbs. Jeliy contains 3 gall. Red Oil.) You therefore SAVE XS. on every Vat BY USING JELLY. Writf, for particular-^ awl co/iles of (('■^ ."S o ~ O t« ~ ~ o .— •— (U cq t^ P -^ .^ ti^ ^ 0) ■.^_, , ^ 0 >^ 0 C3 UJ I— LU 1^ 09 < CO g 0 .2 ^^J ^ 0 C3 "O H- Od 0 -J-» -s-» E cd -0 &. cd fiQ ^^ ^ "* m fiQ CO QC s. C3 O) > ^* ■ ^^ ** sz CO 3 w CO H C3 c/: ^^ c 0 -a: C/5 . >- c ^ 0 "^ a> C/3 "T3 3 a> NJ t/3 B a> c« c« > 0 0 3 Cu B c« o. o« 3 n ^ W) C 0 0 c i^ 2 C/5 z ~ UJ «J u i^ x« 1— y 0 U. :: C OQ ■CJO S '■« CO - 35 h O t= iJ (/: Joiinial of Agriculture , Victoria. [lo March, 1912. DON'T WASTE YOUR TIME AT THE PUMP HANDLE. Foil foolish it is for a man to ti-y to raise water for stock or garden by means of a hand pump. Windmills are to be obtained now so cheap that it is a folly, rank folly, to waste one's time at the pump handle ; the windmill will not only do the ■\\ork better, but do it cheaper than any other method of raising water. The farmer, or the farmer's man's time would be much better employed about the farm. The first cost of a windmill is practically its only cost. All that is re- quired to keep it in order for years is simply to lubricate it occasionally, and this, with recent improvements, needs only to be done about once a month. For many years the ALSTON Windmill has become a household word. The fame of the ALSTON mill has spread far and wide. They have made their reputation by actual merit on actual service, by their simplicity and superior construction. They have stood the test of years. They have been erected in the most exposed sites with impunity. They have been used successfully on wells and bores three and four hundred feet deep. They have been used for pumping through miles of piping to higher levels. They have been used for pumping for stock; for irrigation; for drainage; for house and for garden, and almost everything that a pump is used for. Thej' have been imitated and envied by rival makers but have never been ex- celled. Every ALSTON mill that has been sold has been an adveroisc ms^nt for its maker, and the demand for the ALSTON mill has increased year after year, and still preserves its premier position in the Commonwealth. Thousands of the ALSTON Windmills are made annually, and thousands of the ALSTON mills have been in constant use for nearly a quarter of a century, faithfully doing the work of water-lifting, to the satisfaction and delight of the foresighted and enterprising stock-owners who installed them ; now, seeing the advantages of their use, thousands of others are following their example. The windmill is, beyond dispute, the simplest, most reliable, and at the same time the cheapest method of raising M'ater for stock. If you are interested further, write for a full and descriptive catalogue from the maker. The address is JAMES ALSTON, QUEEN'S Bridge, South Melbourne. This will give j'ou a full and fair desci ijition of all different size mills that he makes, from the six to the twenty-five foot diameter wheel ; what each size will do, and what they will cost. IT WILL PAY YOU TO DO SO. THG JOURNAL OP Y^e department of Mgricufture OF VICTORIA. Vol. X. Part 3. lOth March, 1912. THE BEET SUGAR INDUSTRY AND CLOSER ^ SETTLEMENT. Harry T . Easterby, General Manager Mafra Sugar Factory. Historical. The fine building which is depicted on the front cover of the Journal in which this article appears was erected by the Maffra Beet Sugar Company in 1897-8, and cost for machinery and plant some ;^7o,ooo. This com- pany was subsidized by the Victorian Government to the extent of ^2 for every jQi subscribed by shareholders. They carried on operations for two seasons. Due to a number of adverse conditions, which are within the memory of most people, the factory was closed after the second campaign, and the Government entered into possession as mortgagee. The adverse conditions referred to exist no longer, and beet growing, which was then totally new to farm-ers', has become quite a familiar operation owing to the efforts of the Government during the interval 1900 to 1909 in inducing farmers to carry out experiments. For the best crops of beet a series of prizes has been offered each year. In 1909 it was, upon the advice of Dr. Maxwell, the eminent sugar expert, decided to re-open the Maffra Factory in a purely experimental way in order that it might be demonstrated: — Firstly — That beets could be grown commercially and profitably by farmers, and, Secondly — That a standard marketable sugar could be produced. which would compare favorably with the best manufactured in the Commonwealth. The details of securing the necessary acreage, to make a trial run Vvorth while, were put into the hands of Mr. F. E. Lee, who. originally 2098. F 138 Journal of , Agriculture , Yjctoria. [10 March, 1912. an officer of the old Beet Company, had for many \ears been associated with the industry and with the carrying- out of the field experiments. To his enthusiasm arid belief in the ultimate success of the industry must be credited the fact that sufficient growers Avere found to justify the re-open- ing. Upon Mr. Lee's relinquishing this work, to take up a position on the Closer Settlement Board, the writer relieved him of the out-door man- agement in connexion with the scheme. The next step was the selection MAFFRA SUGAR BEET FACTORY BEEF L;i: of a capable factory manager, and here the Government were fortunate in securing the services of one of America's most prominent Beet-sugar men, Mr. G. S. Dver, whose family has been most honorably connected wirh the Beet Industry in America ever since its inception. The first campaign under the auspices of the Government was started in April. 1911, and despite many initial difficulties, it has successfully proved that which it was intended to do. Manv of the crops realized lo March, 19 r2.] Beet Sugar Industry. 139 a veiv handsome profit after paying all expenses, and it was clearly shown that beet-growing could he made a most successful industry. The sugar produced was of the finest quality, notwdthstanding the fact that the machinery had been lying idle for tw^elve years and that a totally inex- perienced and raw crew were operating in the factory. When placed on tlie market it commanded the highest market rates for first-class sugar. The success of this experimental campaign was considered so satisfiutory that the Government decided to continue operations and build up the Beet-sugar industry in Victoria upon a sound foundation. Present Development. Those farmers who had made a financial success of beet growing with few exceptions replanted on a larger scale for this year, notable increases being from 5 to 17 acres, 2 to 10 acres. 5 to 9 acres, 18 to 28 acres, and so on. But beyond this, relatively few of the farmers surrounding the Maffra Factory have undertaken to grow beets. The majority of them are successful dairymen and graziers rather than cultivators of the soil, and, as thev can make money at these pursuits, they have hitherto not given the question of growing beet a great deal of attention. However, it was clear that a larger acreage must be secured in crdei to provide more beet for the factory than in the previous year, and that this securing of area and larger supply of beets must be progressive until the full capacity of the Maffra Factory (40,000 tons of beets) wms reached. This will necessarily occupy some two or three years, for farmers generally will only com.e in by degrees, and when they see that other people can make good money from beet-growing. This year large num- bers of persons are beginning to recognise the advantage they derive as beet-growers from lieing able to obtain supplies of pulp as fodder for their cows and pigs. This aspect of the question will be dealt with at a later stage. In addition to the Maffra District^ other parts of Victoria have this vear been given an opportunity of demonstrating whether beet-root growing \-. suitable to their localities. Tn Gippsland itself beet is being grown from Bairnsdale to Nar-nar-goon. Experimental half acres ha\-e also been planted at Kcchester. Bamawm.. Shepparton. Colac. Bacchus Marsh, Portland, &c.. &c. Upon the irri- gation areas in the North beet- root can undoubtedly be made a profitable crop, and one which the settlers would be keen to cultivate, because they know it has an assured market value. Seeing that beet growing will not be taken u}) by the farmers of the :Maffra and surrounding districts upon a large scale immediately, the Victorian Government, recognising clearly the value- of the Sugar-beet industry as an important asset to the country, determined to make this question in some respects a closer settlement one. A tide of immigra- tion is now setting in to our shores, and it is necessary that new settlers should have a staple payable crop to engage upon. What better crop could there be than sugar-beet, with its sure and certain market, its big monev returns, and its by-products of pulp, tops, and molasses, to assist the dairying business ? Therefore in suitable localities the growth of beet is to be bound u[) with closer .settlement. F 2 140 Journal of Agriculture , Victoria. [lo March, 1912. Closer Settlement — Boisdale Estate. The first move in the above direction was the purchase of some 2,500 acres, portion of the well-knoAvn Boisdale Estate, one of the finest areas in Victoria. The land was"" bought in two sections, the first subdivision consisting of 785 acres, being divided into 18 blocks. These were thrown open to .settlers in August, 191 1, and were immediately applied for. The second subdivision was bought a little later, and was not ready for settle- ment till September, 191 1. This consisted of 1,728 acres, and was divided into 39 allotments. Of these, 26 blocks have been taken up, 6 of the remaining blocks are still open to applicants, while 7 blocks are held by the Department of Agriculture for the present, for the purpose of growing beet-root and assisting to make up the supply to the factory. The land thus made available was intended for combined beet and dairy CORA LYNN BEET CROP, BUNVIP DISTRICT. farming. The soil is a rich alluvial deposit and is several feet in depth. Blocks vary from 40 to 60 acres. The Boisdale purcha.se promising so well, another purchase of 8,000 acres of the far-famed Kilmany Park was made in the spring. This estate has now been subdivided and made available for settlement in blocks of from 60 acres upwards. Particulars concerning the settlement of this estate are given at the end of this article. The first fact that strikes an intending settler applying for land at Boisdale is that there is no pioneering work to be done. Here is no necessity to wrest with the axe a hard- won home from the giant forest or the tangled scrub; he can set him.self, his familv and household goods. -lo March, 1912.] Beet Sugar Industry. 141 down in the midst of a well-ordered community with most of the adjuncts •of civilization. A well-equipped Butter and Cheese Factory is upon the Estate, to which settlers can sell their milk. State School, Public Hall, Post Office, and Railway Station are all •within easy distance of settlers, while the roads are good, and a plentiful BOISDALE CEIEESE AND BUTTER FACTORY. STATE SCHOOL. IBLIC HALL. BOISDALE. supply of water is easily obtained by sinking from 15 to 25 feet. Many of the blocks are also well w^atered by billabongs. The River Avon bounds the property on the East, while the lofty Australian Alps lend 142 Journal of Ai^riciiltun\ Yictorid. lo March. 191 ?. beauty to the landscape on the North. Ahogether, the settler can con- gratulate himself upon his surroundings and the value of his land. The tvpe of house provided varies according to the requirements of the settler. For a young man just commencing, the style of house shown below is all that is at present needed. SETTLER S HOUSE— TWO ROOMS. The man with a family, however, requires something better than this^ and the Closer Settlement Board accordingly erect a house of the follow- ing type ;— SETTLER S HOLSE FOUR ROOMS. for which easv terms are given in the shape of annual repayments spread over a series of years. The settler generally builds his own outbuildings, such as stables and cowsheds. The houses originally upcn portion of the Estate are also utilized, some of the best of these being built of brick, forming most substantial homesteads with necessarv silos, milkinc; sheds, stables. &c. lo March, 191:!.] Beet Sugar Industry. 143 Beet Growing and Dairying at Boisdale. lo order to provide that beet-root growing should lie made part and parcel of the scheme of Closer Settlement at Boisdale the following clause ^vas inserted in the terms and conditions of purcha^je : — For a period of at least ten rears, unless remission is given bv the Agricultural Department, a minimum area of 10 acres shall be utilized for beet culture each }ear, the cultivation of the crop to be carried out to the satisfaction of the Agricultural Depart- ment. A system of three-course rotation to be followed {i.e., the 10 acres under beet in any year shall not be put under beet again until the third year following) unless remission of this condition be approved by the Agricultural Department, and the whole result- ing crop of manufacturable beet shall be supplied to the Maffra Factory, which will pay for same at a rate per ton of topped clean roots delivered at the factory, such rate to be determined by the Factory Manager from year to year during the ten years or until this condition is remitted, which may be done at any time by the Board. At the present time ^i per ton is being paid for beet roots. A boisdale beet and dairy homestead. As the blocks were only taken up between August and October, it v/as necessary for the Department to at once prepare the 10 acres of ground upon each settler's block so that beet-growing could be immedi- ately put in hand for the present campaign. Accordingly the land was ploughed, rolled, harrowed, and seeded, in most cases in advance of settlement, each successful applicant taking over his beet plot upon arrival. Owing to the fact that the Government did not obtain posses- sion of the land imtil late in the year, no autumn fallowing, which is very advisable, could be carried out. but omitting this, the land generally was put into as good a condition for seeding as the circum.stances would per- mit. For next season, however, the whole of the preliminary cultiva- tion for beet-root should be properly carried out. While the beet crops throughout the District are upon the lighter side this year, partly on iiccount that sowing was a little late and partly owing to the season, it is evident that given right treatment the Boisdale soils can be made to 144 Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo March, 191 2'. lo March, 1912.] Beet Sugar lndiistr\ 145 produce heavy yields of beet. The following two photographs are of Messrs. Raeburn and Bedggood's crops, which are equal to anv in the Maffra District and are superior to the majority. bedggood's beet crop, boisdale (1912). The first subdivision of the Estate was prepared and seeded first, and had, on the whole, better preparation in the shape of ploughing and sub- soiling. Good crops, however, are also to be found upon the second sub- division, as the following photograph will show : — MK HLLION s BEET CROP, BOISDALE (1912). 146 Ji'itnial of Agriculture, Victoria. [10 March, 1912. MR. HARVEY S DAIRY HERD, BOISDALE. Dairying is being carried on simultaneously with the growing of beet, and excellent returns are being secured by settlers from the sale of their milk and cream to the Boisdale Butter Factory. Mr. Trevor Harvey, one of the Boisdale settlers, has a herd of dairy cows which are mostly of the Jersey type. RED DANISH BULL. CLAUDIUS. Placed bv the Govtrnment for the u?e of settlers at Boisdale. 10 March, 191 :;.] Beet S//C(/r l}idititr\ 147 Mr. Harvey weighs all his milk and cream, and keeps a lalnilated lecord of the yield of each cow. He has also a miniature chemical laboratory, and makes his own tests. He is thus enabled to know exactly uhat he is doing and what progress he is making. His milking .sheds and general surroundings are the most advanced of the new beet farms on Bois- dale. The following figures, supplied by some of the settlers, show that a good living can be made by dairying on the small area that each man holds : — Settler. Xo. 0: Cows. Moiithl - Rt turn-i. £ d. A. 11 21 0 0 B. 14 20 0 0 C. 11 19 8 0 D. 12 18 0 0 E.* 10 14 0 0 F. 12 IS 0 0 o.t 28 32 (» 0 H. 14 21 () (» I. 17 18 0 (J J. 12 16 0 0 K. 13 18 0 0 L. 16 21 (J (J M. 21 18 0 0 N. 12 16 0 0 0. 9 12 () () * Si-X of these are two-year-okl heifers, t Two blocks. The Department has a number of Red Polled and Danish cattle aX Boisdale, which are being retained to form the nucleus of a dairy herrl ■on one of the State experimental farms. ' Lucerne grovvs exceptionally well, and many settlers have had three fine cuttings recently. Beet (trowing for next Season. Farmers whi intend growing beet for next season (1913) are strongly advised to get their land fallowed as early as possible — not later than in the Autumn, so that the final ploughing and subsciling and the working up of the seedd^ed can be carried out just prior to sowing. Sowing should invariably be done in August, and early thinning is an immense advantage, fully 25 per cent, greater yield being secured by carrying out this important act in the cultivation of the crop at the right time, viz. : — upon the appearance of the fourth leaf. Farmers generally this year were too late, both with sowing and thinning, and the yields would have been. much more satisfactory had both these operations been ■carried out at the proper time. Cultivation is now particularly easy w-ith the special beet cultivators imported from America by the Department, and which are lent free to farmers under conditions which are ascertain- able at the Sugjr Factory. ncultiuc. \ ictoria. [ro March, 191 2: Full details as to preparation of ground for beet, and subse- quent cultivation, were given in the last- August number of this- Journal, copies of which can be ob- tained upon applica- tion to the Department of Agriculture or tO' the Sugar Factory^ Maffra. These may be briefly epitomized as under : — Always select the best lands for Sugar Beets. Tilled land is. always preferable. Avoid poor land — land^ where sheep have just pastured, sandy land' tliat will blow or drift, cold, wet or late land. See that the land is cleared of all corn- stalks and roots, and' rubbish of any kind before being ploughed, so that nothing will in- terfere with the perfect working of the Culti- vator. Use only well rotted manure or artificial' fertilizers approved for beet on land intended' for beets. Do not put a coat of heavy, coarse- manure on your landi just previous to plant- ing beets. It is very apt to interfere with. the proper seeding and cultivating, to cause a. poor stand, and to hurt the quality of the- beets. The land should be ploughed in the Autumn, and allowed) to mellow by lying. lo March, 1912.] Beet Sugar Industry. 149 fallow through the early winter inches deep and subsnilini: iiv l!v'r rhen \\\ July a second ploughing 8 or 10 6 inches should be catjied out. The SYNDICATE BEET CROP. subsequent cultivation before seeding involves harrowing and rolling to an extent sufficient to provide a smooth, lev^el, and well-tilled seed-bed. STACKING LUCERNE IJ Get your soil in the very best possible condition ; put beets in early, not later than August, and work them early, thinning out carefully to only one in a place; then cultivate the soil often. This always pays well. 15° Journal oj Agriculture . Victoria. [lo March, 1912. Never plant more than three-quarters of an inch deep in the early part of the season, and fnun three-quarters to one inch in the latter i)art of the season. BREAKING UP LAND FOR BEET AT BOISDALE. Plant thin out the beets in rows never more than :8 inches apart and to 8 inches between the plants in a row, unless the land is CULTIVATOR FOR BEET. very rich, when the beets can be left 6 inches apart, so as to control the size of the plant. lo March, 191^-] ^'^ 'V S/tgar hidititr\ In thinning, always select and leave the strongest, healthiest, and most uniform sized plants. Great care should be taken to leave the voung plant in as good a condition as possible by placing a little earth around the root, so that it cannot fall down nor get sunburned. Start vour cultivator as soon as the beets are well through the ground, so as to keep the weeds from starting. Cultivate often, par- ticularly after everv rain, always leaving the surface level and never hilling or ridging up the beets. The beet is one of the best crops to give profitable returns in pro- portion to the care and attention bestowed on it. Various important p".ints are: — Secure a good stand by using plenty of seed and properly preparing the soil ; thin properly when the young beet has reached the proper size; avoid thinning out too far apart in the rows; maintain a good state of cultivation. The proper time to thin is upon the marked appearance of the third or fourth leaf. The secret of raising beets cheaplv and of good yield and qualitv is — keep a clean field. On the Value of Beet Pulp as Tattle Fodder. Ail important feature of the beet-sugar industry is the supply of pulp which it returns to the farmer. This beet-pulp forms a valuable stock food, and the testimony of farmers and others entitled to speak upon the subject will be read with interest. The United States Secretary for Agriculture states : — ■ " In order to get the benefit of beets as a rotator and to get the pulp to feed to his cows the farmer could actually afford to furnish to the factory the sugar from his beets free, and then would be only selling the air — for the sugar in beets comes wholly from the air." I take the following from a recent article in the American Sugar Industry relative to the value of beet pulp as a stock feed : — " Sugar beets will yield from fifteen to twenty tons per acre. About two-thirds of this will be returned as pulp The tops make additional feed. The dry matter contained in a pound of beet pulp is about equal to the dry matter in an equal amount of ordinary roots, such as mangels. It has been found that one pound of corn is equal to eight pounds of wet beet pulp when fattening lambs. Beet-pulp, either wet or dry, constitutes an important addition to the list of feeds that the dairyman may feed to his cows."' " Experiments in feeding both wet and dried pulp have l^een carried on at some of the stations. The Utah Station found that horses will eat as high as twenty pounds of wet pulp daily Combined with oats and lucerne, 9.5 pounds of the wet pulp were found equal to 1.5 pounds of oats. At this rate, with oats at two shillings a bushel, wet beet pulp is worth about sixteen shillings a ton. Nine pounds of w^et pulp were equal in feeding value to 2.8 pounds of lucerne. If lucerne is worth ^2 10s. a ton. then pulp is worth nearly sixteen shillings," Some Experiences with Wet Pulp. Interesting as may be the experimental work, the experience of some of the farmers who have been using the feed carries much weight. The following statements are from men who have been feeding wet pulp : — Xo. I. — " T cannot speak too highly of the feeding value of sugar-beet pulp for cattle. I have had nothing but excellent results from feeding it to 15- Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo March, 1912. my live stock. My cows have increased their flow of milk one-third through feeding the wet pulp. Young live stock will get fat on it." No. 2. — " I am very much satisfied with wet beet pulp as a cattle food. My cows gave an increase in the flow of milk when fed with the pulp. To the best of my knowledge I think it is worth about £^\ per ton." No. 3. — •' Sugar-beet pulp is another good feed for milch cows. I am sorry that I cannot get another carload at the present time. With the pre- sent prices of feed, I think sugar-beet pulp is worth about sixteen shillings per ton. It made a difference of from fifty to sixty pounds of milk in one day when I quit feeding it. I earnestly recommend the feeding of beet pulp to dairy cows." Some Experiences with Beet Pulp in the Maffra District. " I am feeding my cows solely on beet pulp. I cart it out in the paddock, and distribute it in small heaps on the grass, allowing about a heap of 80 lbs. per day to each cow, and find they waste very little. I am milking 65 cows, and since I have been using pulp the milk supply has increased from 113 gallons to 140 gallons a day, or slightly under half a gallon pier cow. I consider beet pulp is equal to green oats for winter feeding — in fact I proved it so when the factory was working last May, and I have also proved it to be as good as millet for this time of the year (Summer), and consider these two crops to be the best milking fodder in their respective seasons. I have never used lucerne or bran to any extent and therefore cannot compare them, but I consider it far ahead of green maize. I think that pulp would give even better results by the use of oaten hay or chaff with it." W. J. Dwyer, Maffra. " Re the value of beet pulp as fodder for milch cows, I have been feeding mv cows on the pulp alone, and the quantity of milk has increased about half a gallon per day for each cow. I think beet pulp is equally as good as any other fodder grown. "^ A. A. Martin, Maffra. " I have been feeding beet pulp to my rows, the pulp being fed alone, being placed in the paddock in small heaps. It has resulted in an Increase in the daily milk yield equal to about half a gallon per cow. In my opinion there is no better fodder, and at the present price is cheapei than chafT or bran, and cows will yield more milk on the pulp." /. Robertson, Maffra. "I have been feeding my cows on pulp from the factory, and am desirous of informing you that it is an excellent food for producing milk. Since I have been using the pulp my cows have just given one-third more milk than before I used it. I am feeding my cows on pulp alone, twice a day, and I consider cows fed on pulp will produce more milk than those fed on lucerne or green oats. My cows eat the pulp greedilv and will lick it off the ground, and I can safely say that any one who can get pulp need never worry about growing anything else. I have poddy calves fed on beet pulp, and they are all vealers and could be sent to market I would thoroughlv recommend it to anybody with cows."' Jo Jin A. Mitclielmore, Maffra. KiLMANY Park Estate. This property abuts on the main Gippsland Railway line, about 120 miles from Melbourne and 6 miles fiom Sale, and the Nambrok and Ful- ham railway stations are practically on the estate. The whole of the blocks lie between the railway line on the north and the Latrobe River on the south, the latter being one of the finest rivers in Gippsland. The soil ranges from light grazing and cultivation land on the north- east, thence slopes southwards and westwards to mixed farming and lo March, 1912.] Beet Sugar Industry. 153 dairying land, and finally to extensive areas of river flats, highly suitable for dairying and beet growing. Tliere is a good supply of timber on the estate for fencing and firewood purposes. Water is obtainable at easy depths on tlie lower land by sinking, and good catchments exist on the higher slopes. The area has been subdivided in such a way as to meet the requirements of practically all kinds of farming. Some of the blocks range up to 270 and 280 acres of a lighter class of land suitable for cereal growing, and grazing, at values from below ^10 to ^6 los. per acre. Then there are mixed farming blocks of somewhat small area, and finally the blocks carrying beet-growing conditions similar to those imposed in the case of the Boisdale settlement previously described. There are 56 beet blocks available^ varying in size from 20 acres to 195 acres. On the larger areas 10 acres of beet are to be grown annually, and 4 acres on the smaller areas, which are intended as small farm homes for workmen on the estate. On the majority of the blocks, however, it is contemplated that settlers will combine beet-growing with dairying, for which latter there is, in every case, a suflficiency of land, exclusive of the beet area, and they will be able to follow the plan which has been so successfully adopted in con- nexion with the Boisdale Estate. The fact that some of the lighter land on the estate is relieved of the beet-growing conditions is an indica- tion of the desire of the Government that only land that is fully suitable for beet-growing, and on which profitable crops of beet may be grown, should have the beet-growing conditions attached. In the acquirement of these blocks, the transaction, so far as the pur- cha.se of the land is concerned, will be with the Closer Settlement Board, it being a requirement that the deposit and subsequent instalments be paid by the settler without assistance from the Government. It is probable, however, that, in order to more quickly establish the industry and provide an acreage of beet up to the maximum capacity of the factory, the Depart- ment of Agriculture will be authorized, as in the case of Boisdale, to make advances to desirable and suitable settlers of a sufificiency of money to purchase stock and implements adequate to the running of the dairy portion of the farm, to the extent of making a living in the interval between the acquirement of the land and the harvesting of the first beet crop. The repayment of all such loans will be secured by a lien on the stock so purchased and on the resulting crop of beet ; but repayment may not, in all cases, be insisted on after the first harvest. BOISDALE BEET SIDING AND STATION. 154 Journal of Ag.. Yic. [lo March. 1912. WORMS IX SHEEP. By S. S. Cameron, D.V.Sc, iM.R.C.V.S. Of the domestic animals that are kept in large numbers to minister to tlie wants of man the sheep is the least subject to attacks of disease. True, the goat, the donkey, the mule, and the cat are much more disease- resistant, but amongst domesticated animals in the economic sense these may be considered a negligible quantity. Sheep are but slightly liable to the ordinary ailments of an inflammatory or sporadic nature, which are of frequent occurrence in horses and cattle, such as colic, pneumonia, pleurisy, enteritis, impaction, or constipation. They are also remarkably immune against germ diseases; and except for anthrax, malignant catarrh, foot and mouth disease, braxy, and one or twO' other contagious diseases of somewhat mild characLcr the ovine species is free from the attack of disease scourges which decimate the equine, bovine, and porcine species respectively, such as glanders, pleuro-pneumonia, and swine fever. Nevertheless sheep, like mortals, have "troubles of their own" in the shape of a truly worrying number of parasitic diseases. Invasion by macroscopic (naked eye) animal parasites such as w^orms — as distingu^hed from microscopic vegetable parasites called bacteria — occurs more frequently in the sheep than in any other domestic animal- and the diseases caused through such invasion, by their untoward effect on growth and fattening and by their frequent fatalities, are a great source of loss to the sheep raiser. These losses are practically perennial in certain districts, but in other localities they are only trouble.some inter- mittently, i.e., during certain seasons. Preventive Measures. — Before proceeding to a detailed treatment of the diseases of sheep caused by parasites, it will be well to discuss generally the factors favorable ta parasitism and the measures which can be most advantageously adopted tO' counteract them. Nearly all the harmful worm parasites, and indeed many insect parasites, require moist ground or stagnant water tO' live in while they are in the egg or larval stage. Hence if sheep could be kept to^ country free from stagnant water, marshy ground and boggy spots, the chances of their becoming affected with parasitic diseases would be practically non-existent. This statement is particularly true in regard to such diseases as fluke, lungworm and stomach worm, and, apart from its scientific foundation, is supported by the practical experience that during and after years of drought the pre- valence of fluke and worms in sheep is very much lessened. In England and other closely-settled agricultural countries it has also- been found that along with the reclamation of swamps and marshes and the under-draining of wet lands, parasitic di.seases of animals have declined enormously. This, because the natural harbours in the shape of stagnant water for snails, molluscs, and the like animalculse. in which the parasites have to live during some period of their life history, is done away with. Obviously then, to avoid infestation with parasites, sheep should not be grazed on low-lying, damp or marshy land, and for this reason as well as because it also predisposes to foot rot, it is an axiom of the sheep- breeder that such land is not good sheep country. But, equally obviously, in Australia, where the runs are so large, it is next to impossible to confine sheep grazing to dry uplands. On many runs, at all events in some lo March, iqi:? ] ]Vor///s /// SJiccp. i^- districts, some parts of the extensive paddocks are low-lying and wet. and if sheep are grazed on these parts during the spring and earlv summer there will always be more or less danger of them becoming infested with Avcrms. On such runs great efforts should lie made to fence off the wet parts so that they could be left bare of sheep during the months when the temperature is favorable for the development of the immature stages of the various parasites. September, October. November, and December are the months during which parasitic developmental processes are most active. Before this the eggs of the parasites have either not been passed out on 10 the ground, or if they have thev mav be eaten with impunitv, becau.se /hey are only in a "half-hatched " condition and incapable of develop- ment. Later than December the likelihood of their development is not great, because as a rule the conditi(ms of the land as regards moisture are not favorable. This statement does not at first sight appear to be in accord with the fact that worm troubles in sheep are most markedly manifested during the late summer, but it must be remembered that a considerable time elapses after invasion of the system before the effects are pronounced. Associated with wet land as a causative agency in the prevalence ot parasitic diseases is the fact that on many extensive grazing areas the onlv available supply of water for stock is that contained in natural or artificial waterholes or tanks. Such stagnant water supplies frequently become foui and foetid from pollution by animal discharges and surface drainage from adjacent camping grounds, and they are always likely to be highlv charged with the immature forms of animal parasites, for which the\ constitute an ideal developing medium. Hence the extraordinarv prevalence of intestinal and other parasites in Australian domestic animials ; and hence also, perhaps in great measure, the fact that, excepting Iceland only, hydatid disea.se in man is more prevalent in Australia than in any other country in the world. The remedy, and it is one that will have to l>e carried out if the prevalence of worm diseases is to be minimized, lies in the fencing of all water-holes so that no stock can gain access to them, and the provision of troughs for drinking purposes. The troughs to be .-ituated near by the water holes and automaticallv supplied with water from them by pumping with wind mill j^ower. E\en without the fencing- oft' of water holes the provision of troughs would greatly lessen the trouble because there is nothing in the objection sometimes raised that it is of no use providing drinking troughs as stock wdll not make u.se of them. It will be found on trial that stock will alwavs go naturally to clean water and may be frequently observed to refuse, or drink but sparinglv of, contaminated w^ater. Overstocking of sheep pa.'ture should be rigidly avoided, for it is the opinion of those best qualified to judge that it is in great degree responsible for the spread of the worm pest. In addition to the excessive fouling of the land with a greater amount of parasite-impregnated droppings from, infested sheep, the depletion of the land of its most nutritious grasses and plants results in a lack of thriving which predispcses to worm infection. One of the best means for improving fluke\- or wo-rm-infested pastures is to burn them; but it is not usuallv practicable. For lambing ewes nothing is better than a paddock that has been burnt in the autumn. The feed that springs after the burning produces a good flow of milk and the burnt ground will be comparatively free from the eggs of parasites with which the young lambs are so liable to become infested. The periodical dressing of lambing paddocks with freshly burnt lime is also of great advantage. 1^6 journal of Agriculture , Victoria. [lo March, 1912 but such preventive procedure is scarcely practicable on larger areas. From what has been previously said as to the beneficial effects of draining, this preventive measure should not be neglected. Of course, the expense of under-draining will be an effective bar to its adoption on a large scale, but where stud sheep are being reared the expense will show ample recompense. Pipe draining is not necessary ; an equally effective and much cheaper plan is to place two straight saplings, 8 or 9 inches thick, 3 or '4 inches apart in the bottom of the cut drain, theri put 'a third sapling on the top to keep the other two apart and form an eye or channel, and fill in a covering of scrub or brushwood over the saplings before replacing the earth. vSurface draining by the running of plough furrows and helping here and there with the spade, can be done at moderate expense even on large areas, and it should be done wherever surface water is apt to remain, so that likely breeding places for parasites may be done away with. Preventive and Tonic Licks. Except in so far as the licks usually recommended act as tonics and alteratives and so help tO' keep the sheep in robust health and thriving condition, it may be doubted whether they are really preventive of para- sitic invasion. Their use should certainly never be allowed to excuse the carrying out of the previously detailed measures which, being based on scientific knowledge of the nature of the invasion and means of spread of its cause, are truly preventive. Nevertheless custom and experience have spoken to the usefulness of these licks and a word or two may be said about them. Salt. — Experienced authorities hold that, apart from the question of preventing attacks of parasites, it pays well to give sheep all the salt they will take, the expense and trouble showing a good return in more and better mutton and more and better wool. In some districts where the salt bushes have not been eaten out and where the land and herbage are of a saline nature sheep may not need an artificial supply, but wherever on trial it is found they will take it an ample .supply of rock salt should always be made available. Liverpool salt {i.e., coarse, crushed rock salt) is preferred by some, and it certainly constitutes a good vehicle for the admixture of other worm medicines. Whatever salt or lick is used should be protected from waste by rain by being placed in covered troughs. Salt and Iron. — Sulphate of iron, finely powdered and mixed welT with Liverpool salt in the proportion of one part (| cwt.) of the former to- 40 parts (i ton) of the latter. This to be constantly available to sheep in country at all subject to fluke and worms, and to be given in even S'Ound country (other than true salt-bu.?h country), when the season is such as is likely to favour parasitic infection. Where sheep are actually infested this lick may be improved as an appetite stimulant by the addition of flowers of sulphur and ground ginger in the proportion of one-half the amount of the sulphate of iron. Salt and Lime. — A mixture of slaked lime, i part, and Liverpool salt, 12 parts, to which may be added one half -part of sulphate of irorr or ground ginger or both. Salt and Turpentine. — Mix thoroughly one pint of turpentine with from 28 lbs. to 56 lbs. Liverpool salt according to condition and age of sheep ; spread thinly in weather -protected troughs. As an active vermifuge- for tapeworms half-a-p3und of powdered areca nut mav be added to this- lick. ioMarch, 19T2.] Won/is m S/n'cp. 157 Remedial Measures. — It may be truly said that while it is com- paratively easy, by the carrying out of the measures previously indicated, to keep sheep free from worms, it is a heart-breaking and patience-taxing struggle to get a mob in order again that has got low from worms or fluke. So far as fluke is concerned a flock should never be given the chance of getting emaciated or poor from it. Whenever, by the observance of any of the usual symptoms (which in regard to fluke as also in regard to other parasitic affections of sheep are too well known to need recapitula- tion in an article of this character), it becomes known that the sheep are infected with fluke, advantage should be taken of the fact, that in the first stages of the trouble they thrive exceptionally well, to draft them off to the butcher before the wasting stage commences. When the flukes first invade the liver their presence stimulates an increased flow of bile whereby for a time the process of digestion is greatly assisted, and consequently a fattening tendency is promoted. This fact is so well known that many years ago it was seriously proposed in England (and actually put into practice by some breeders) to artificially infest sheep with fluke so as to quickly fatten them. If the sheep are closely watched and preliminary fattening noted, not much loss will result ; but once this stage is past, and emaciation with its accompanying dropsy sets in, no remedial treatment is of much avail in arresting the " rot." Where it is possible to treat sheep individually or where stud sheep are concerned, the following pre- scription may be used : — Powdered oak bark. ,, calamus root. ,, gentian root. ,, juniper berries of each i lb. ,, sulphate of iron, J lb. ,, common salt, 2 lbs. for sheep; 3 lbs for lambs. Mix dry and give at the rate of a teaspoonful per sheep once a day mixed with a feed of chaffed ensilage or green oats, bran, crushed oats or chaffed hay. As regards stomach, intestinal and lung worms medicinal treatment is greatly aided by the provision of artificial fodder ; in fact, the cure of a mob is less certain, and certainlv more troublesome, by the use of drenches, than by changing them on to lightly-stccked artificial feed such as young oats, rape, prairie, rye, or other sown grass, or by giving them a liberal allowance of chaffed hay or ensilage strengthened with crushed oats or bran. The latter course has to be frequently adopted because it is difiicult to get the artificial pastures mentioned in the green state during the months when treatment is most often wanted, viz., January and February, unless its requirement has been anticipated, as it should be on a well-managed sheep farm. Especially is this artificial feeding needed as a help in treat- ment when it is found that lambs are affected at weaning time. Worm Drenches. — (i) T/ie Arsenic drench. — For stomach worms (the " thread " worm or H amonchiis contortus) and intestinal worms (the sheep tape worm or Moniezia). The dose of arsenic is about 2 grains for a grown sheep, \\ grains for a weaner and up to i grain for a lamb: White arsenic, 2 ozs. avoirdupois. Washing soda, 4 ozs. ,, Water, i gallon. -158 J iiiinial of Agriculture, Vicforia. [10 March. 1912. Boil slowly, stirring meanwhile for hali-an-]-iour until the arsenic is all dissolved; then add water to make thf mixture measure 3 gallons; let -sediment settle and decant clear liquid or pour it quietly off. Bury or •otherwise destroy sediment. Dosage. — For groicn sheep — i fluid ounce (two tablespoonfuls) the three j^allons sufficing for 480 grown sheep. For zvemiers — Add one gallon of water, making four gallons, which, with a dose of one ounce, will suffice for 640 weaners For lambs — Add water to make 5I gallons, which, with a dose of one ounce, will suffice for 880 lambs. The greatest care and exactness should be exercised in preparing and measuring the drench. The arsenic should be ordered in packages which •do not require breaking or re-weighing and the quantity prepared should •correspond to the number of sheep to be drenched. The mixture should be frequently shaken while drenching, (2) Turpentine drencli — For lung worm {Filaria tnonchialis) or ^{strongylus filaria). Rectified oil of turpentin'e, i oz. Milk or white of egg, 2 ozs. or Rectified oil of turpentine, Linseed oil and starch gruel of each 1 oz. Dose. — Grown sheep, 3 ozs. ; weaners, 2 ozs. ; lambs, i| ozs. If the -sheep are weak the dose to be proportionately reduced. The turpentine •drench has also been found to be very effective for stomach and intestinal worms. (3) Thymol drench. — In view of the great success which has recently attended the treatment of allied forms of intestinal worms in man with thymol, this drug is worthy of a trial for stomach worms in sheep. The •dose for a sheep would be from 5 to 20 grains according to age and con- ■dition and it should be given dissolved in half an ounce of turpentine and diluted with about two ounces of milk or linseed oil. Directions for Drenching. — The sheep .should be yarded on the ■evening before the morning on which the drenches are to be given and kept without food. They must be drenched on an empty stomach and kept away from food and water for three hours at least after thev are ■drenched. One drenching will often suffice, but if no improvement occurs repeat in a lortnight. If the sheep continue to show signs of Avorms "drench every two months. Intra- tracheal Injection for Lung Worm. — This direct method of treating lung worm is certainly very tedious, but equally certainly it is very effective, and may be adopted with advantage over all other methods of treatment when small lots of sheep are concerned or in the case o-f valuable studs. Its efficiency lies in the fact that the medicaments used have a chance of coming intO' actual, and therefore destructive, contact with the worms lodged in the air passages. Coughing fits are also pro- moted by which the worms are dislodged and expelled. The operation is comparatively simple but requires care — otherwise the losses may be considerable. To operate the sheep is " turned," set on its rump and held between the knees of a standing assistant with its head and neck outstretched. The wool must be carefully " parted " in the middle line of the throat midway down the neck, an incision lengthways of the windpipe and about an inch long is then made with a sharp blade down on to the rings of TO March, 19' -■] Woni/s /;/ S//i\p. i5«^ the windpipe. The needle of the syringe is then inserted in a downward direction in tlie space between an\- two rings and tlie contents of the syringe injected forcibly towards the lungs. A dab of sheep dip or other antiseptic dressing may be applied to the wound after withdrawal of the syringe. An ordinary hypodermic syringe of large size may be used, but if it is fitted (as intra-tracheal syringes are) with short stout needleii the preliminary incision of the skin may be dispensed with, i.e., in the hands of an expert operator who by practice can hit the windpipe between the rings every time. The vermicidal solution to be injected may be compounded as follows : — (i) Syrup of poppies Rectified oil of turpentine of each one fluid ounce. Pure carbolic acid, ten drops. Olive oil. two drams. Sufficient for eight sheep. Dose. twO' drams (i dessertspoonful). {2) Rectified oil of turpentine, one ounce. Laudanum or chloroform, naif an ounce. Carbolic acid, pure liquefied, ten drops. Olive oil, half an ounce. Sufficient for eight sheep. Dose, two drams (i dessertspoonful). Half doses of either prescription for young lambs. Two-third doses for weaners. Fumigation or Inhalation for Lung Worm. — This treatment in- volves the introduction into the air passages of some gaseous agent which will have a poisonous effect on the worms lodged there, or by inducing coughing will cause their expulsion. It is a rapid method of dealing with large numbers, as a hundred or two at a time may be subjected to the treatment. The process may be illustrated by instancing fumigation with sulphur, although chlorine gas or volatilized formalin may be used with equal safety and success. The sheep are placed in a woolshed or other building, all the opening.s into which should be effectively closed. Bags may be stuffed into air holes, louvres and other openings, and cracks and crevices in doors, floors, ceilings, and windows may be pasted over temporarily with paper. Rock brimstone or flowers of sulphur is ignited inside the building and kept burning so giving off sulphurous acid gas (SOg-) . This is done perhaps most conveniently by placing the ignited sulphur on an iron plate or ."^hovel kept at a dull red heat by the flame of a lamp underneath. It may be also vaporized bv placing it on top of a layer of live wood or coal ashes on a shovel or plate. Two or three persons should remain in the building .seated on their haunches at different parts so that they are practically in the same position as the sheep with regard to the inhalation of the sulphur flames. When the fume-laden atmosphere approaches the unbearable for the men it will be time to throw open the doors and let the sheep have some fresh air but they may be left in the building (with open doors) until the fumes have dissipated. If any of the sheep cough violently or are otherwise overcome they should be immediately removed to the outer air and in no event should the inhalation be pushed to the point of suffocation. It is better to repeat the process at an interval of a few davs rather than run anv undue risk. i6o Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo March, 1912. THE PIG INDUSTRY. {Continued from Page 82.) R. T . Archer, Senior Dairy Inspector. II.— THE NEED FOR CO-OPERATIVE EFFORT. Denmark's Example. What is the remedy for these unsatisfactory conditions? Co-operation. The results of co-operation in Denmark will surely indicate the lines on which we should act. The trade in that country was entirely controlled by private or proprietary firms until the year 1888, when the first co- operative bacon curing factory was established. The following figured will give a good idea of the results : — Year. 1888 1889 1893 1894 1895 1896 1897 1900 1901 1902 1903 Number of Co-operative Bacon Factories. 1 8 14 15 17 20 25 26 26 27 29 Number of Pigs killed. 23,400 131,500 317,780 385,700 528,800 626,850 583,400 660,000 651,000 777,200 About 800,000 Average Price paid lor Pigs. £ s. d. 2 9 0 2 18 0 3 5 0 2 18 0 2 8 0 2 5 0 2 15 0 2 16 0 3 0 0 3 4 6 In addition to the co-operative factories, there were 25 private factories. Each factory serves a tract of country about 16 miles in radius, within which the pigs are fattened, and the average number supplied by each farmer per year runs from 10 to 12. They reckon to supply a pig for each cow they milk. In 1902, 777,200 pigs killed by the co-operative factories averaged 129 lbs. in weight. The price realized averaged 64s. 6d., or 6d. per lb. free to the owner. In the Danish factories no part of the pig is lost, even the bristles are of value. The blood is dried and prepared for feeding horses, cows, and poultry. For the disposal of the cheaper cuts of bacon, liver, sausages, &c., the factories have established shops in their local towns. The tails, feet, and heads nearly all go to Ireland in barrels, while the cured bacon almost wholly goes to Great Britain. The cost per pig of killing and curing averages 2s. 6d., while the charges for freight and selling, in the British markets, 8i.c., come to about 2s. 9d., equal to about Jd. per lb. [o March, 1912-] The Pig Industry. 161 Strong evidence of the soundness and prosperity of the pig industry is shown by the increasing numbers of swine in Denmark: — Year. 1881 1888 1893 1898 1903 Total of Pigs. 527,000 771,000 829,000 1,168,000 1,456,699 To complete their wonderful organization, the district factories are each represented on a Central Association of Co-operative Bacon Curers in Copenhagen. Funds of ;^400 or ;^5oo a year are subscribed by the local factories for running this association, which costs considerably under a farthing per pig. The duties of the Central Organization are: — 1. To deal with strikes of workmen. 2. To deal with insurance of workmen against accidents. 3. To deal with insurance of bacon to Britain. This mutual insurance system has resulted in a great saving over the former practice of each factory doing its own insurance. 4. To hold exhibitions of bacon. The simple method of conducting these exhibitions is worth noting, also the practical steps taken to benefit by the results. The Exhibition Committee of Copenhagen telegraphs at any time, and without notice, to the managers of local factories to forward some sides of bacon, just as they are ready for shipment to the British markets. The judges' deci- sions are thereafter intimated to the managers of co-operative factories, along with remarks stating whether any defects are due to faults in the manufacture, or to the breeding and quality of pigs. With this information, managers are enabled to correct and improve their methods, while an expert in pig-breeding is sent by the Central Association to visit the farmers in districts where the quality of pigs is defective, and to instruct them in the breeding and feeding of a better class of animal. Of paramount importance is the fact that no skim milk is allowed by law to leave the creameries or butter factories without being pasteurized. It is believed that this practice has almost eliminated tuberculosis from pigs. Before a factory is started, it is considered necessary to make sure of a supply of pigs to be regularly delivered, and to obtain security for a sufficient loan to provide buildings, plant, and working capital. Farmers who fail to supply the number of pigs they guarantee are liable, according to the signed conditions of co-operation, to a fine of ns. 3d. per head on the deficiency, but the fine has seldom; been incurred or imposed. In providing the capital no money is actually raised from the farmers, but is obtained by loan on their personal security from banks and various other sources. " Each for all and all for each " is their motto. At the beginning, some difficulty was experienced in getting farmers to sign such a deed ; but, since the benefits of co-operation have become known,. i62 Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo March, 191:1. farmers are not only willing but anxious to share in all the responsibilities. Only one factory, it is believed, has been unsuccessful, and that was due entirely to the want of a sufficient supply of pigs. About the beginning of 1903 the Agricultural Department of Ireland sent a representative committee to Denmark to obtain full information with regard to the system adopted by the Danes in the development o>" their bacon industry. The Canadian Government also^ sent a delegation, and later a body of Scotchmen visited Denmark for the same purpose. In the case of the first two countries reference elsewhere proves that, by following the Danish methods, great improvement in their trade was effected, and the relative positions of the produce from the.se two countries 0:1 the British market show that we should be guided by their experience. Although the United States of America produces and exports the greatest quantity of pig products, it will be seen that the prices obtained for the same are \-ery much below what is received bv the other countries named, and is sufficient proof that we must aim at the quality produced by Denmark and Ireland. At a meeting of those interested in the improvement in the condition of trade in pig products in England, as reported in The Grocer of 5th March, 1910, Mr. Hannon, who- was one of the delegates sent to Den- mark, and who has largf experience in the trade in Ireland, said: — There was needed (i) a systematized improvement of breeds; (2) assistance in carrying out experiments to guide the farmer in producing pigs for the curers at a minimum cost; (3) demonstrations to see if food production on the farms for pigs could be extended ; and (4) increased facilities for obtaining information on phases of the question. Mr. W. H. Butt, President of the Bristol Grocers' Association, contirmed what other speakers, had said about consumers preferring lean bacon, and stated that there had been a considerable imfrovenicni in Irish bacon in the last five years.^ and the breeders there had bred to produce a pig to meet the popular demand. That improvement in Irish bacon dates from the time the Commis- sion was sent to Denmark to inquire into the methods of breeding, feeding, &:c., and may be taken as an additional proof of the lines we should follow. RoscREA Farmers Co-operative Bacon Factory. The first farmers' co-operative bacon factory in the United Kingdom ■was inaugurated at Roscrea, Tipperary. Ireland, in January, 1908, and it was able, under adverse circumstances to show a successful record in its first year. The Roscrea factory has a nominal caputal of ^15.000. of which rather less than ^12,000 was subscribed, about ^"7,000 being the outlay for site, buildings, and plant. The initial expenditure left a little over ^4,000 for working capital. Experience showed that this was too little, and that the working capital of such a factory, having a capacity of about 750 pigs per week, should be at least ^lo'.ooo. At the end of the first year's working, notwithstanding the fact that the capital was limited and that the markets had been unsettled, the balance- sheet showed a gross profit of ;^4,ooo. After paying all ex- penses of working and depreciation there was a credit balance of ^308. The experience of the directors of the factory was unique, as they had ■c. instantly to decline business which they could have secured if ' more capital had been available. For the same reason, it is anticipated that. lo Marc£i, 191--] 7'//i' /'/i; I)idustry. 16^ with an additional ^5.000 <;f capital, the gniss earnint^s of the factory would approximate ;^8.ooo. 3. ROSCRAE CO-OPERATIVE BACON FACTORY. Figures like these speak more eloquently than words, and it may now be safely stated that the principle of co-operation in bacon curing has been established in the Llaite 1 Kingdom, and the recognition of this will bear fruit in the immediate future in the general impetus which will thus be given to the pig industry, and the general construction of bacort factories in the country as an essen- tial part of agricultural develop- ment. This undertaking is purely co- operative. r>ach shareholder has- to sign a bond under a penalty of 10s. per pig to supply such bacon pigs as he produces and all of them- to the factory. Every shareholder shares in the profits in the form of a bonus proportionate to the num- ber of pigs he supplies. Of the 2.800 shareholders the majority were small farmers. As- already stated, shareholders sign a guarantee to supply all their pigs of weights required in the bacon trade, to their own factory. This defeats unfair competition, where enhanced prices are offered to in- duce them to send pigs away. In constructing the buildings, it was arranged that each department or set of operations should follow \w sequence as far as possible. Pigs BLEEDING PASSAGE. 164 Journal of Agriculture , \ ictoria. [10 March, 1912. are landed at the receiving platform where they are weighed alive, and the suppliers can be paid on that basis at once, if they so desire. The dead weight is ascertainable usually the day following delivery, and aver- ages about 25 per cent. less. After weighing, the pigs are driven into sties, allowed to remain over- night and usually killed next morning. They are driven one by one into the catching pen, where they are shackled or caught up by means of leg chains, a running noose being formed by means of a chain slipped through a ring ; this noose is passed over one hind foot. The chain is then attached to a hook at the end of n steel rope which is governed by hand or power hoist. Hoisted to overhead bar in this position, they are slaughtered by stick- ing in the direction of the heart, letting the blood out quickly. This opera- tion does not take more than one minute. The carcases are pushed along the overhead bar to the bleeding passage and allowed to hang some little time, and are then pushed off the bar on to the dumping table. This dumping table forms part of what is known as a slaughtering tack, which is the main part of the pig abat- toir. While on the dumping table, the leg chains are re- moved, and the car- cases are then rolled into a rectangular scalding vat capable of holding some five pigs at once. The vat is partially filled with water at about 180 deg. F., and the carcases are turned round and round until the hair becomes loose. One by one, they are then tilted on to a scuttling table where they are scraped almost free from hair. A hook is inserted into the apex of the lower jaw, and the animals suspended to the track bar head upwards. They are pushed along this bar until they come under the opening of a vertical singeing furnace, which is so con- structed that the carcase of the pig may be hoisted through a circular fire, and so the whole carcase is burned or singed. This operation takes only a quarter of a minute, and the carcase is again lowered to the track bar, pre 5. PIGS HANGING UNDER SINGER. lo March, 19^2.] T he Pig / ii(ii(str i 165 senting a very black and shrivelled appearance. Th's Imrning is a great advantage to Wiltshire bacon, giving the bacon a peculiar piquant flavour. The fat under the skin becomes momentarily melted, and subsequently t>ecomes firmer than it would be otherwise. After leaving the singeing furnace, the carcases are thrown into a •cold water bath, cooled, and the sinews of the hind feet exposed, whilst a gambrel is inserted to spread the hind feet apart. By the gambrel the carcases are hoisted to the track bar, where they are scraped quite clean and washed. The intestinal and general offal are removed and taken to a separate apartment to be sorted for various u.ses. The flake lard is always left with carcases and is weighed in together with head and feet. This forms the dead jveigJit, which is sometimes taken while the carcase is v/arm, and some- times when cold. The difference al- lowed between warm and cool weight is 4 lbs. ( 'ooling in the open air usually occupies about 6 hours. After weighing, the carcase is split up into sides, the head and fore feet severed, and the lard removed. The head and feet are chilled and put into pickle to be cured. Curing. — The sides are pushed into the hanging house, in case they have not alreadv been allowed to hang, after which they are pushed along the track bar into the chill room, where they are kept at a temperature of 38 deg. F. until, on inserting a meat thermometer into the gammon end, it registers 40 deg. F. On the average, it takes t^G hours to reach this degree of coolness. When it has been attained, the sides are taken into the curing cellar, where finally they are trimmed and at once pumped with a recognised pickle in fourteen different places. They are then laid on the cellar floor and stacked in tiers ten sides deep. The cellaf is kept at a temperature of about 42 deg. F. Each side is covered over, first of all, with, an equal mixture of curing antiseptic and saltpetre, in DISEMBOWELLING DEPARTMENT. 366 Journal of Agriculture. Yictona. [lo March. 1912. 7. VIEW IN HANGING HOUSE AFTER BRANDING OF THE SIDES HAS TAKEN PLACE. a finely granulated state, and en top of this is placed a thick layer cf salt. For mild cured bacon, this is all the curing that is required, and in about 14 days the process is complete, after which the bacon is taken out and washed in cold water, and then should be in a state for selling as green bacon. If wanted as dried bacon, it must be hung in a drying 8. CURING ROOJa^, SHOWING PICKLING PUMP. 10 March, 191^-] T he Pig Industry. 167 room for 3 days in a temperatuiv of 90 deg. F., and is then available as pair liried hacon. If it is wanted as smoked liacrm. it must li;' Inuv 9 LARD ROOM. 3 days in a smoke sto\e where the temperature does not exceed 90 deg. F.. and where a thick volume of smoke is produced from hardwood saw- dust, i.e.. cak, ash, or beech. 10. REFRIGERATING MACHINE. These operations refer to what is technically known as Wiltshire bacon, i.e., whole side bacon. In conjunction with the production of i68 Journal of Agriculture . \uiona. [lo March, 191 2. Wiltshire bacon, are sausage-making, lard-refining, hams, middles, rolls, or other special products. Competent management and a staff acquainted with the various operations aie indispensable. The writer is indebted to Mr. Loudon Vi. Douglas, the authority pre- viously referred to, for the descriptive matter and illustrations of the Roscrea Factory. MODEL SIDES OF BACON. II. A TYPICAL WILTSHIRE FLITCH. British Dairy Farmers' Association Comparative Prices. 1. Streaky Quarter 2. Rib Quarter 3. Middle Quarter 4. Ham Quarter . . 5. End of Neck . . 6. Middle of Neck 7. Thick Back and Side.s 8. Prime Back and Ribs 9. Loin . . 10. Fillet 11. Shoulder 12. Prime Streaky 13. Thin Streaky . . 14. Flank 15. Middle of Gammon 16. Knuckle of Gammon 17. Fore end d. 11 i)er lb. 11 8i n 10 11 10 10 8 11 8^ 11 7 6 3 0 March, 1912.] The Pig Industry. 169 Weights of parts of a Pig of total dkad weight (without offai.) of 194 lbs. lbs. oz. Tiones from back (chine) Blade bone Steaks Cuttings . . Kidneys . . Flake fat Fat (intestinal, &c.) Feet Blades Skull (upper part of head) . . Chap (lower jaw) . . Two sides 5 12 2 4 2 4 2 (» 0 fi i 0 '> 4 4 (J 0 8 14 8 2 8 1.50 0 Total 193 Standard of Excellence for Judging a Carcase of Pork. 1 . Dressing of carcase . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 2. General appearance and firmness of flesh and fat . . . . . . 10 3. Proportion of meat to bone . . . . . . . . . . 1.5 On sijlitthig the caivase into halves, the following pouits are to be noted : — 4. Plumpness of legs . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 5. Thickiiess of loin and smallness of proportion of fat to lean . . . . 20 6. Streakiness of belly part . . . . . . . . . . 10 7. Fleshiness of forequarter. . . . . . . . . . . . 15 8. Smallness of head . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 (To he continued .) PROPAGATION OF FRUIT TREES. {Ccntinued from -page 107.) C . F . Cole, Orchard Supervisor. 100 Topping. The practice of topping growing buds at a certain period to encourage branched growth, and then trimming away superfluous growths not re- quired to form a head, is considered by manv to be unnecessary. Others maintain that it is a faulty practice, the forced branched growths not being suitable to prune upon, so as form the future base of the tree when planting out permanently in the orchard, owing to the wood being im- mature. Topping, when performed at the proper time upon certain kinds and varieties of growing buds, is decidedly an advantage. Under normal conditions a tree is produced, the stability of which is unquestionably sound and equal in all respects to a two-year-old tree produced from a yearling straight. With many varieties topping is not an advantage, and should no; be practised. Amongst these are apples, cherries, pears, and plums (Jap anepe and cherry plums excepted). I/O Jouiiial of AgricnUnrc, yici(^ria. [lo March, 1912. Before practising this operation a tliorough knowledge of the varieties and their habit of growth is necessary, the climatic conditions of the district, and the action of the soil with regard to growth. When per- formed upon unsuitable varieties short stunted growths are generally en- couraged. Such growths are unsuitable to prune upon. With varieties that are suitable and branch freely of their own accord, topping will need to be restricted. Only those buds growing freely and strongly should be operated upon, e.g., take the Jonathan apple under favorable conditions. Growing buds of this variety branch freelv and strongly, yet there are many buds of this variety unsuitable for topping to be found in the nursery row. Those with a weak tendency should be left un- tojjped. If operated upon, weakly branch growth is encouraged. Almonds, apricots, nectarines, peaches, and plums (Japanese and cherry) should be topped when the buds have made about 16 to t8 in. 66. TOPPING AND TRIMMING. n7>tes rendut de I'academie des Sciences, Paris, 29th March, 1910. 174 Journal of Agriculture, 'Victoria. [lo March, 191 2. saving, as pointed out above, but an even greater saving is possible by the use of oxychloride. To quote Professor Chuard — This product, now on the market, is obtained directly from copper, in the electrolytic manufacture of soda or potash by the Granier process, which is based on the use of metallic copper anodes. It is a pale green, non-crystalline powder, insoluble in water, but capable of remaining in suspension sufficiently to permit of its regular application. It possesses remarkable adherence, a fairly general property, in fact, of oxychlorides. This product contains 50 per cent, of copper. At the rate of 500 grammes per hectolitre (i lb. to 20 gals.) it has regularly given results at least equal to those obtained from a mixture based on 2 per cent, copper sulphate. This means a reduction of 50 per cent, in the quantity of copper used. He explains the efficacy of reduced doses of tliis substance as fallows :- - Oxychloride of copper exposed to air and moi'^ture, as it is after its application on the leaf, undergoes oxidation which gives rise, progressivel}-, to small quantities of soluble cupric chloride. This formation .... of a readilv ionizable com- pound, explains in the clearest and most satisfactory manner the superiority of copper oxychloride over hydrate or carbonaLe^'" those much less dissociable forms under which copper is to be found in copper-containing spravs. Apart from theoretical considerations, however, oxychloride has been extensively tried on a practical scale and has given excellent results. It appears, in fact, to be the recent introduction which has most to recom- mend it from all points of view. In addition to its use as a spray, it constitutes an excellent fungicide powder when used in the dry state. As we shall see presently, copper-containing powders are becoming very popular, not as substitutes for, but as a complement to, spray mixtures. SUBSTITUTE.S FOR COPPER. Other metallic salts besides those of copper possess fungicide pro- perties, and some of them have been tried for the treatment of fungus vine diseases of the vine. A few years back, mixtures containing mer- curv were recommended, and, after trial, abandoned as being less satis- factory than the copper sprays they were intended to replace. More recently still, silver has been suggested as a substitute for copper. Though the employment of a noble metal for spraying purposes might seem extravagant at first sight, it is economically feasible,' the deadly effect of silver salts on fungi rendering possible the use of very much weaker sprays. The strength recommended is \ oz. of nitrate of silver to 10 gals, of water. It is made into a mixture witli soap, of which 2\ ozs. are mixed witli the above quantities. This silver soap spray possesses excellent wetting power, which renders it suitable for treatment directed against mildew of the bunch {Rot Oris) ; the greasy nature of the new-formed fruit causing it to be difficult to properly wet with Bordeaux mixture. It appears to have more effect on hunch mildew than against the same fungus on the leaves. It has been tried on a practical scale with contradictory results, and does not appear likely to displace copper as the basis of fungicide spravs for general use. Copper-Containing Powders. Being much easier and cheaper to apply, powders were long since extensively experimented with as substitutes for liquid sprays. It * In copper-soda mixtures the copper is present in the form of liydrated rarbonrtte. lo March. 191 -.] V/)/r Diseases in France. is now generally recognised that they cannot, when used alone, be relied upon as efficient protection, and for a good manv years little has been heard of their use. Since the disastrous mildew visitations of the 19 10 summer, they have once more come to the fore, not, however, as •substitutes for. but as a com])lement to the usual copper sprays. An application of suitable powder, applied with the bellows or, preferablv, with the knapsack machine, in the same way as sulphur, immediatelv" after spraying, very considerably increases the efficiency of the prntectinn afforded by the latter. It will be readily understood that a powder can easilv be blown into the interior of the vine, thus making it possible to reach parts which it would be difficult to get at with the liquid spray. Numerous forms of copper-containing powders are now for sale in France. Some are mixtures of sulphur and sulphate of copper, .so that the same application mav serve to combat oidium as well as mildew. In other cases the copper sulphate is simply mixed with an inert sub- stance, serving to dilute it and to enable it to be ground into a finer powder than would otherwise be possible. Such is Sulp ho steatite a very popular preparation which is a finely powdered mixture of talc and copper sulphate. In some powders, again, the copper is in the form of oxide, or of acetate (verdet). whilst the oxychloride of copper, previously referred to as a spray, constitutes an excellent powder for use in the dry state. These latter substances have the advantage of not burning the foliage. If the copper is present in the form of sulphate it is recommended to add a certain quantitv of lime before use to prevent damage to the foliage. Conclusion. The abo\'e is a brief re\iew of modern French and Sw^ss opinions on the whole question of fungicide sprays, so far as their composition is concerned. It will be remarked that they do not agree on all points with modern English views ai stated in the Eighth Report of the Wobuni Experimental Fruit Farm (1908) which was reviewed by Mr. McAlpine, late Vegetable Pathologist for ^'ictoria, in the Journal for November, 1910. The chief difference consists in the proportion of copper con- sidered necessary in order to secure adequate protection. Even with verdet and oxychloride, which permit a reduction in the quantity of copper used, very much stronger mixtures are recommended than the 10 ozs. to 50 gals, provided for by the Woburn formula. A point of the most vital importance, of greater importance, perhaps, than the composition of the spraying mixture, is the absolute necessity for early treatment if protection is to be achieved. The first spraying must be carried out before there are any visible signs of the disease. This was emphatically impressed upon the Socrete des Agriculteurs de France by M. Capus in February last, as follows : . . . For the defence of leaf, bunch and grape, one moment alone is of importance : that of invisible invasion or contamination, after which the enemy being in occupation, any intervention by the vine-grower is rendered futile. ^^ hat we must guard against by treatment is thus, not the visible invasion, but the hidden invasion. 1/6 Journal of Agriculture , Victoria. [lo March, 191 2.. The exhaustive inquiry conducted by La Revue de Viticulture on the- results obtained during the disastrous 19 10 summer led to the following: conclusions* : — The efficacy of copper salts in the treatment of mildew does not admit of any doubt, provided such treatment is applied at a suitable time. The failures which occurred in igio were due in the majority of cases to late treatments, to treatments- which were not plentiful enough, to incomplete treatments not followed up by application of powders, or to treatments with liquids which did not contain a sufficient dose of copper. As the result of its inquiry, La Revue issued the following practical' instructions as to what should constitute efficient treatment : — 1. Spray with copper mixtures in a preventive way before mildew appears in the- region, no matter what the length of the vine shoots may be. 2. Repeat such spraying, in an offortu7ie manner, every time the vine is in a receptive state; that is, each time that a fall in barometric pressure corresponds- with a fall in temperature. 3. Execute sprayings very ra-pidly over the whole vineyard, irrespective of weather-; even if it be raining. 4. Spray abundantly and see that the workmen apply the liquid to all organs- of the vine; gangers to follow up workmen instead of walking in front of them. 5. Each spraying to be simultaneously carried out on each side of each row. 6. In districts where vines are trellised, they should be tied up as early as- possible. 7. As soon as the flowers are formed, spraying to be followed, whilst the vines- are still wet, by sulphuring with sulphur containing 10 per cent, of copper sul])hate or applications of powders of talc, &c., containing 5 to lo per cent, of copper sulphate; these powders to be spread in a cloud in such a way as to cover the whole surface of the grapes; such applications to be made between sprayings, as soon as setting is over. ATter the fruit commences to colour apply no more sulphur, but only copper-containing powders. 8. Vine-growers should make the necessary arrangements to assure rapid execution of copper treatments. 9. Vines should be kept in a good state of vegetation, so that they may offer- greater resistance' to the attacks of mildew. BEE-KEEPING IN VICTORIA. {Continued from, page 115.) F. R. Beuhne, Bee Expert, III.— RACES OF BEES. Of some twenty known varieties of the honey bee (Apis mellifica) four only have been introduced and established in Australia, viz.. the Black Bee ; the Italian ; the Cyprian ; and the Carniolan. TJie Black Bee, it has been stated, was first brought to Tasmania from Great Britain in 1824. From Tasmania .some hives were taken to Sydney and from thence the variety has spread pretty well over the whole of Australia. It is hardy and will fly on cold and wet days when some- * Raymond Brunei, Repoi't read at the Tours Vitioultural Congre.ss, 14tli Januar.v, 1911. .to March, 191 2.] Bce-keefing in Victoria. 177 of the other races will not leave the hive, and it commences brood rearing very early in spring — almost in midwinter. As in the raising of brood, pollen, the fertilising dust of flowers, is required, the black bee is a most important factor in the fertilisation of the blossoms of the earliest flowering kinds of fruit trees. In cool districts, or when the pollination of fruit blossom is of greater importance than the yield of honey, the black bee or one of its crosses with Italian or Cyprian is probably the best kind of bee to keep. On the other hand. Blacks, although commencing to breed early, do not maintain a high rate of re- production for long and, where the main honey flow occurs in summer, do not give as good a yield of honey per hive as Italians. They are excessive swarmers, more excitable when handled than the other races, offer less resistance to foulbrood, and often allow wax moth grubs to .infest their combs. The Italian Bee was introduced in the seventies. It is of somewhat lighter build than the Black and has three yellow or light orange coloured bands across the abdomen. It is gentle and little inclined to sting when properly handled. Italian queens, even those imported direct from Italy, vary greatly in colour, some are quite yellow, and some almost as dark as -black queens ; whilst others have dark and yellow bands. The colour of the queen is therefore no indication of purity of race, the best proof of which is the uniform markmgs of all tier worker progeny. Italian bees cling tightly to the combs when the frames of combs are handled, while black bees or hybrids often drop off without shaking. Pure bred Italians, and, to a lesser degree their crosses with others, are more immune from foulbrood, and rarely allow wax moth grubs to get into their combs. They begin breeding later in spring than Blacks, but at the approach of warm weather soon overtake the latter and main- tain a greater worker force throughout the season. A variation of the Italian is the Golden Italian which was secured by select breeding for colour, or by crossing with Cyprians. It has five yellow bands instead of three — practically the whole of the abdomen is yellow. Bees of this variety are more susceptible to cold and wet than the three banded Italians .and rather predisposed to Bee-Paralysis. Italians, when pure, do not cap their combs so white as black bees do, and are therefore less suitable for the production of comb honey. The Cyprian in appearance, and many other respects, resembles the Italian. It is somewhat slimmer, the yellow rings are of a deeper shade, and the fuzz rings of the segments whiter. Cyprians are good breeders, sometimes continuing brood rearing when a honey-flow has stopped till all stores are consumed. They raise a large number of fine queen cells at swarming time or when made queenless. Their undesirable characteristic is viciousness during a dearth of nectar, when even the use of smoke, so effective with other races, will not subdue them. As they are not superior to Italians in honey gathering they are not desirable, and not many are now kept in Victoria. The Carniolan is one of the more recent introductions, in appearance and habits resembles the black bee, from which it is distinguished by the greyish colour of the segment rings. Carniolans are excessive swarmers, as gentle as Italians when pure, but owing to their close resemblance to blacks it is difficult to maintain purity of race. Taking the experience of the largest honey producers of this State for guidance the three banded Italians can be recommended as the best bees to keep for honey produc- tion. i7i Joitnial of Agriculture . Victoria, [lo March, 1912. Handling of Bees. The sting of the bee is an important factor in preventing over produc- tion of honey. There are many persons who have an almost unreasonable fear of bees, or, rather of getting stung, and yet there are very few people to whom a sting causes more than a sharp pain for a short time and some discomfort ihrough swelling of the affected part. Both pain and swelling become less and less after a number of stings have been received and the seasoned beekeeper, while reducing the number of stings he receives to a minimum by observing certain rules, takes little notice of the stings he does receive be}ond removing them proniptlv. There are, however, some individuals to w^hom a sting causes serious pain and protracted discomfort, and to whom bees have a lasting dislike — attackiiig them whenever they come near hives. Such people should have nothing to do with bees. Most, however, after being stung a number of times become more or less immune, even though the first few stings caused considerable pain and swelling. With the right strain of bees; an under- standing of their habits ; correct methods of handling ; and a know- ledge of irritatinp; causes the largest apiary can be run without more than an occasional sting being received. Of late years bee stings have ? been used by medical men for the M cure of certain forms of rheuma- lism. That the poison of the sting has no lasting injurious effect upon the human system seems evi- dent from the fact that many pro- minent men who have lived amongst bees all their lives have attained to extreme age, e.g., Dr. Dzierszon, Rev. Langstroth, Dr. C. C. Miller, A. T. Root, and others. To avoid stings as much as possible one should dress in light coloured clothes, bees have a rooted objection to anything black, and more so when it is rough or fuzzy The odours of such things as camphor, kerosene, turpentine, eucalyptus oil, carbolic acid, lysol, dogs, horses, ants, or meat, on the hands or clothes of the operator, or anywhere near the hive, will cause bees to sting. In their attacks on; trespassers (as in their search of nectar) bees are largely guided by the sense of smell. The odour of flowers attracts them to the spot where the flowers grow, while the sense of sight locates the blossom. When approaching a hive one should walk lightly and avoid standing in the line of flight of the bees leaving the hive or returning to it. Before opening the hive blow a whiff of smoke from the smoker in at the entrance, and another one or two over the top of the frames as soon as the hive cover is raised sufficiently. When these precautions are taken there need be little fear of stinging unless the bees are of a vicious strain, in which case the lo March. 191-.] Orcliard and Cardcji Xotcs. 179 queen should be removed and one from a gentler stock introduced. There are. however, occasions when even the best tempered bees will sting more or less viciously. For instance, when a honey flow has suddenly cea?ed and bees have had access to honey other than the nectar in flowers ; or when a colonv has become hopelessly queenless, which means that they have no queen and no brood to raise one from. The remedy in the first case is never to allow bees access to honey outside the hive, and not to open hives when robber bees are seen hovering round. In the second, give the queenless colony a comb of Ijrood from another hive, or introduce a queen. To reduce the effect of a sting to a minimum it sliould be quickly removed, when very little of the poison will have entered the puncture. The sting itself is a sharp-pointed and barbed hollow shaft connected with the poison sac in the body of the bee. When the sting has entered the rubberlike human skin it cannot be withrawn on account of the barljs, and in the effort of the bee to free itself the sting with the poison bag, and the actuating muscles attached, is torn from the abdomen. The muscles may be seen to continue working sometimes for many seconds after the sting has become detached from the bee and it is therefor ad- visable to immediately remove it from the skin. This is best done by scraping it away with the fingernail or if both hands are engaged rubbing it off on your clothes. On nO' account should a sting be picked o& with the finger tips because that cann.ot be done without pressing the poisoii bag and injecting the whole of its contents into the skin. To neutralise the effects of a sting a number of remedies are recom- mended. The blue bag is the most commonly advocated cure — I am no', at all sure whether green or yellow would not do as well. Ammonia is certainlv more effective, but it has the disadvantage of irritating the bees, and more stings are likely to be the result. Washing the part stung with soap and water allays irritation, whil.st if manv stings have been received bathing with hot water will diffuse the poison, lessen the pain, and reduce the swelling. For the average individual the best thing to do is to quickly remove the sting and think no more about it. (To' he confiniced.) ORCHARD AND GARDEN NOTES. E. E. Pcscoit. Principal. Horticiilfural School. Biinilcy. The Orchard. Green Manure. As emphasized in last month's notes, the importance of a cover crop for green manure should not be overlooked. Where the physical properties of the soil require improving, or where the soil needs humus, this class of crop is an urgent necessity. The sowing of the crop should not be delayed, so that a good herbage may be produced before the cold of winter stops the growth. Tt is gene- rally found that it is far better to secure as good a growth as possible in the autumn. Cultivation. Late in the month, or early in April, a start may be made with the autumn ploughing. Advantage .should be taken of the first rains to get this ■work done. i8o Journal of Agriculture , Victoria. [lo March, 1912.. The present season has been entirely opposite to that of last year, when- summer and early autumn rains were abundant, and the first opportunity must be taken to open up the soil to- let the moisture in. Planting. It is advisable to open up and prepare early the new areas for plant- ing. If at all possible, the soil should be well aerated and sweetened before planting. It is possible to grow young trees in freshly opened soil, but the general experience is against such work, it being preferable to have- the soil as sweet as possible for the young orchard. In anticipation of planting, the soil at first need only be ploughed roughly, and it should not: be afterwards harrowed. Straivberries. Strawberries may be planted during the month. If planted early, they become established this season, and so are enabled to bear a light crop in the springtime. Strawberries require good soil ; new .soil, or old grass land is always preferable. In planting, ample room should be left for cultivation between the rows, as all weeds should be kept down. Pest.':. No codlin-moth-affected, or diseased fruit of any kind should be left on the ground after the crop has been gathered. These should all be destroyed by boiling. Rust infested plum and peach leaves, as well as all foliage of stone fruits that have been attacked by this and other fungus diseases, such as shot hole, &c., should be burned if possible. This will minimize the possibility of future attacks. The same treatment should be given to foliage where either red spider- or the bryobia mite have been in evidence. Vegetable Garden. Autumn weeds must be kept out of the kitchen garden. These rapidly grow, and remain as robbers r'ght through till springtime. It is doubtful whether any chemical means should be taken to keep the weeds in check in this section. Both red oil emulsion and the lime-sulphur wash have been used for this purpose ; but the work is only in an experimental stage, and this treatment cannot be generally recommended. It will be best for the- present to resort to hoeing or to hand weeding. The section should be well dug over for planting the winter crops. Before digging, a light sprinkling of bone dust, and a good top dressing of stable manure should be spread on the surface. These may then be dug in, as they provide humus for the soil. Large plots should be avoided in winter; where such occur, a path should be run down the centre. This will provide more efficient drainage. The beds too may be more raised than in the summer time. Early onions may be planted out in the beds, and if not already done, onion seeds should be planted at once. All classes of seedlings may be planted out; and .seeds of lettuce, early peas, beet, carrot, radish, cabbage, cauliflower, and swede turnip may be- sown. Asparagus beds should be cleaned out and cut down as soon as the- berries begin to colour. Celery rows should be kept earthed up ; rhubarh 7 0 March. 191^.] WHicat and its Cultivation. beds should be given a dressing of manure to encourage the coming winter crop, and new rhubarb plantations may now be established. Flower Garden. The hot dry weather has made havoc in some flower gardens, and, as a result of this weather, red spider has been prevalent on some succulent and herbaceous plants. 'I'hese should be destroyed, particularly where dahlias are growing ; or a good nicotine spraying should be given if the plants are to be retained. Chrysanthemums, roses, and dahlias will now all be coming into bloom ; and as these show their bloom buds, they should be fed with liquid manure weekly. All classes of spring flowering bulbs, as well as hardy annual, biennial, and perennial seeds, should be planted and sown. Roses should be watched for mildew attacks, and the sulphur should be freely used for this. Plantings of shrubs and trees may now be made, and wherever flowering shrubs have ceased to bloom, thev may be pruned. Frequent cultivation and watering will be necessary, especially if the weather continues hot and drv. WHEAT AND ITS CULTIVATION. {Continueii from page loi.) A. E. V. RicJiardson, M.A., B.Sc. {Agric.) Agricidiural Superintendent. II.— ITS STRUCTURE AND NUTRITION. One of the most interesting chapters in the h'story of agricultural science is that relating to the discovery of the food requirements of plants. More than a century of careful scientific investigation was necessary to establish the f'lndnrrental facts of plant nutrition and on this basic know- 91111 7. GERMINATING Vi'HEAT GRAINS. ledge the superstructure of modern agricultural science rests. The aim of the present article is to supply a simple account of the more important of the facts of plant nutrition by using our staple farm crop as an illus- tration. l82 Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo March. 191 2. LONGITUDINAL SECTION THROUGH THE ROOTCAP OF A YOUNG WHEAT ROOT. In the preceding article we noted that the wheat kernel consists of three distinct por- tions (i) Embryo or germ (2) Protective coats (3) Endosperm — the latter consisting mainly of starch and serving as reserve ma- terial for nourishing the young plant. To bring about the germination of this kernel three factors are necessary, namely (i) moisture, (2) air (3) warmth. Under these stimulating agencies the germ soon enlarges and the plumule and radicle burst- ing through the pericarp form respectixely the miniature stem and the root of the young plant. The first supply of food for the young plant is derived from the reserve materials of the endosperm. As these reserves of food, however, are insoluble in water, they are manifestlv incapable of passing out of the cell walls in which they are enclosed. They must be brought into a condition in which they may diffuse readily from cell to cell. This transformation is effected by the chemical activity of a substance called diastase, which is secreted by the epithelial cells of the scutellum {vide p. 99, Fig. 3). Diasta.se belongs to a class of bodies called unorganized ferments or :-'nzymes and a very small amount of diastase is able to transform prac- tically .an unlimited " '» amount of starch into a * -.^ soluble form. It is diastase which is re- sponsible for the con- version of the starch of the germinating barley grain into maltose — one of the sugars — in the manufacture of iBalt. This diastase transforms the starch of the grain into mal- tose which being soluble diffuses from cell to cell until it reaches the growing points of the develop- ing embryo' and sup- plies it with some of the nourishment neces- sary to its growth. Similarly, the pro- tein matter of the endo- sperm, which, like the 9. TRANSVERSE SECTION OF A YOUNG WHEAT ROOT SHOWING ROOT HAIRS (/•//.), VASCULAR BUNDLE (v.b), EPIDERMIS (('), AND GROUND TISSUE. lo March, 1912.] W'Jieat and its Cultivation. starch, is insoluble in water, is acted on by a ferment present in the grain, and is broken down into diffusible proteids called peptones. 'J'hese soluble peptones, as well as other nitrogenous compounds of lesser importance (amides and amido-acids) diffuse from cell to cell and nourish the growing tissues of the young embryo. It is not long before the reserves of food in the .seed are exhausted, and henceforth the young plant must lead an independent existence. At this stage an examination of the root system will reveal several interesting feature.s. Along the greater portions of the roots, minute delicate fibrils will be observed. These are the tender root hairs which push their way through the minute interstices between the soil particles and apply themselves ro. TRANSVERSE SECTION OF WHEAT ROOT (x 270). closely to the uneven edges of the soil grains. Microscopical examination proves them to be long tubular appendages — mere delicate prolongations of the epidermis. The epidermis forms the external Jayer of the root. and. as may be seen in Fig. lo, it is composed of cells clo.sely packed together with no interstitial spaces or openings of any kind. In this respect, as will be shown later, it differs markedly from the epidermis of the leaf. From this absence of openings it will be clearly apparent that the plant, so far as the root system is concerned, is quite incapable of appropriating food of a .solid character from the soil. Whatever nutrients are obtained from the soil, therefore, must be liquid or gaseous in character. Now the particles that compose a normal soil in good condition are very irregular i84 Journal of Agriculture , Victoria. [lo March, 191 2. in shape, and are invested with a film of water. This film of moisture surrounding each soil particle is really a very dilute solution containing various substances dissolved from the mineral constituents of the soil. It is this film surrounding each soil particle which is the source of the plant food obtained frorh the soil. The mode of entry of this dilute solution to the epidermal cells of the root may be illustrated by a very simple ex- periment. If a lamp chimney covered over one end with a piece of bladder or of parchment be partially filled with strong brine, and then placed m a vessel of water, the two liquids will be separated merely by the thin mem- brane. Under these circumstances, each of the liquids will diffuse through the membrane and mix with the liquid on the other side. The attraction for water inwards will be greater the stronger the brine. The movement will continue until the liquids on both sides of the diaphragm have the same composition. This process is called osmosis, and each cell in the epidermal layer of the root is a small osmotic appara- tus. The cell sap corre- sponds tO' the salt solu- tion, the cell wall and protoplasm to the dia- phragm or the bladder separating the liquids, and the soil solution on the surface of the soil particles corre- sponds to water in the vessel. But there is one important differ- ence to be borne in mind. While the pro- toplasm of the cell readily allows the soil water bearing in solu- tion plant food to dif- fuse inwards and mix with the cell sap it refuses to allow the bulk of the dissolved sub- stances in the cell sap to diffuse outwards. The osmosis of plant nutrition is therefore a controlled osmosis, the control being exercised by the living protoplasm of the cell. The density or concentration of the cell sap must on fertile soil be always greater than that of the dilute solution investing the soil particles, so that the solutions outside may be carried inside the cell and tend to make it tight with water or turgid. The solutions which penetrate the epidermal cells by osmosis, pass from cell to cell in the root tissue by the same process. In the lower types of plants, such as the algae, which are composed entirely of simple cellular tissue, the movement of water within, the plant may be accounted for by osmosis alone II. EPIDERMIS OF ROOT OF FEDERATION WHEAT (X 270). ao March, 191^- W//caf and its Cidiivatlon. In the higher plants the transference of water from cell to cell by 'Osmotic agencies alone would be far too slow to keep ])ace with the water '.requirements of the leaves. Specially developed structures are therefore found in these plants, and serve as conducting media whereby the water taken in at the root finds its way rapidly to the leaf. Fig. 10 shows a ■cross section of a young root of Federation wheat. Several delicate root hairs {r.h.) will be observed, each forming simply an elongated cell of the •epidermis. In the centre of the root is the axillary vascular bundle ((u.b.) which runs throughout the length of the root and ultimately merges Into -similar structures in the stem. Fig. 15 is a longitudinal section through one of the vascular bundles •of the stem. Each bundle consists, mainly, of a series of elongated cells with ligni- fied thickened cell walls, and a variety of long cylindrical vessels forming -continuous open tubes, with and without spiral thickenings. These ves.sels originally contained protoplasm, but during the course of growth the protoplasm was used for thickening the cell walls, and the matured vessels are merely long tubes specially adapted for con- ducting water. The dilute solution of mineral plant food, which has diffused through the root hair, epidermis, and root tissue, now finds its wa\ to the conducting tissues of thf axillary vascular bundle, and is conveyed through similar tissues in the stem to the leaf. ^. LONGITUDINAL SECTION OF YOUNG WHEAT ROOT SHOWING AXILLARY VASCULAR BUNDLE {v.h.) FOR CONDUCTING SAP, ALSO ROOT HAIRS ir.h.). Structure and Function of THE Leaf. What takes place when the dilute mineral solution reaches the leaf may best be understood by referring to the structure of the wheat blade. Fig. 16 is a transverse section of a leaf of Federation wheat. Above and below, the leaf is bounded by a single layer of epidermal cells, and lying between is the mes^phyll. The upper portion of the mesophyll is typicalh closer in structure than the lower portion, which is usually spongy in character and contains a large number of intercellular spaces. These intercellular spaces form labyrinthic chambers in which air freely circulates in the interior of the leaf. Scattered through the body of the mesophyll are the vascular bundles which form in wheat a set of parallel strands serving not only as a skeleton for the support of the remaining leaf tissue, but also as media for the conduction of the sap to every part of the leaf. The cells of the mesophyll contain a large number of green bodies called chloroplasts or chlorophyll corpuscles, which give the leaf its characteristic green colour. The epidermis (Fig. 17) of the leaf in contrast to that of the root is studded with microscopic openings called stomata, more or less regularly placed. Each stoma or pore consists of two sausage-shaped 1 86 Journal of Agrkidfiire. Victoria. [lo March. 1912. guard cells joined together at the extremities in such a manner as to leave a very narrow slit-]ike pore between them. The opening and closing of these stomata are brought about by changes in the curvature o£ the guard cells, and this in its turn is dependent on the turgiditv or water content of the cells- Tt is interesting to note that in this specimen of wlieat the number of stomata on the uffer surface per square centimetre amounted to 3,681, whilst the number on the lozver surface was 3.321 per square cm. Respiration. — These stomato are the breathing pores of the plant. Re- spiration is quite as necessary for fhe life process of plants as it is for animals and the process is essentially the same in animals. The stems, roots and leaves of a plant are constantly in need of oxygen for respiration, and while under ordinary conditions the aerial portions of a plant can secure a sufficiency of oxygen for their requirements, it not infrequently happens that the roots suffer from lack of proper supplies of air in the soil. This may readily be seen in the unhealthy, sickly yellow appearance of wheat growing in low-lying por- tions of fields after heavy winter rains, or in badly drained water-logged soils. Respiration goes on through- out a plant's existence and its general effect is to destroy the carbonaceous material of the plant and liberate car- bonic acid gas. Assimilation or Phoiosyn- tlicsis. — This process of re- spiration in green plants is overshadowed by the oppo- site process of assimilation. The leaf is the medium ' whereby all green plants are 13. TRANSVERSE SECTION OF THE STEM OF enabled to obtain from the air FEDERATION WHEAT, SHOWING VASCULAR ^^e carbon which forms the BUNDLES. greater portion of their bulk. Carbonic acid gas is present in ordinary air to the extent of about four parts in 10,000. Air containing carbonic acid enters the stomata and circulates freelv in the intercellular spaces. Under the influence of sunlight which supplies the necessarv energy and in the presence of the chlorophyll and moisture in the leaf, the carbon of the carbonic acid is fixed by being converted into carbohydrates and oxygen is set free and exhaled by the plant. This process is called " carbon fixation," " assmiilation," or as it is dependent on light " photosynthesis." The energy necessary to effect these changes is of course obtained from the light and the leaf has trans- formed the energy of sunlight into potential energy possessed by the newly formed carbohydrate. Stephenson for this reason described coal as "bottled sunlight," because the energy it possessed was derived from the sunlight, which, ages ago assisted to groA> the vegetation which we now mine as coal. lo March, igi:;.] W/waf aJid its Cuhiva1'to)i. 187 This pnjcess is of eiinrmuus praclical importance in the economy of nature. All animals directly or indirectly are dependent on the preliminary life of plants to store up food, and green plants have the power of securing the greater portion of the' s )lid matter of which thev are composed from the carbonic acid gas of the air. Much discussion has taken place as t<> exactly what happens in the process of assiniilation. Tn any case starch may be regarded as the first visible product formed. Starch, however does not accumulate in the leaf, but is transferred from the leaf to the stem and roots to be stored till required. The starch is transferred bv the agency of an enzyme — diastase — such as is formed in the germinating grain. The starch is thus converted to sugar, which being soluble may diffuse to such parts as require it. Photosynthesis takes place only in the day time, whereas respiration is constantly in progress. Respiration, however, is never so rapid as the opi)Osite process of assimilation so that the net result is an increase in dry weight as a re- sult of assimilation. Traiisfiratiou. — A third function of the leaf is to get rid of the superfluous water taken in by the root-hairs. As the mineral plant food taken in hv the ro/di/<:s////f////ig 195 the strainer in position, with the wire attached. B is the barrel, and C the key for operating it. To make the strainer, cut the pipe to length and bore two f-in. diameter hole through it at right angles to each other, and about i inch from either end. One hole is to receive the wire, and the other is for the purpose* of containing the stop. The stop is made from a piece of f-in. round iron by heating one end immediately at the point, gripping it tightly in the vice, leaving half an inch of the heated end projecting above the jaws, and hammering it down to form the head, somewhat similar in shape to the head of a nail. The opposite end is treated in the same way, but before making tlie head the iron must be placed through the hole of the pipe, and then held in the vice and beaten. When finished the stop will resemble the handle of the vice. It should be free to move up and down when the pipe is revolved. The key, only one of which is required for any number of strainers, is more difficult to forge. It is made by reducing several inches of the i-in. bar to f-in. diameter, with the hammers and swages, and then welding on to it the piece of §-in. iron. Before bending the handle to shape, the slot requires to be made either by making a slot hole with a flat punch, or by drilling a hole at the back, slitting with a cliisel, and forging to shape. The former is the better plan. The slot must be made sufficiently wide to easily slip over the fencing wire it is intended to tighten. The fencing wire will be passed through a hole bored in the straining post and reeved through the strainer ; then doubled back, and again reeved through the hole in the strainer only, and thus prevented from drawing out when the strain is placed upon it. To tighten the wire the key is placed in the end of the pipe so that the slot fits over the wire, then by revolving it the wire is wound around the barrel and at each half revolution the stop drops down, and, coming into contact with the post, prevents the wire from unwinding. When the \vire is sufficiently tightened the key is removed. Although this strainer is simple in construction and application it is thoroughly efficient. (To he continued.) 1196 Journal of Agriculture , Victoria. [10 March, 191 2. THE OLIVE. By L. Macdonald, Horticulttirist, Dookie Agricultural College. {Continued from page 130.) Soil Preparation. It pays to give soil preparation thorough consideration when an orchard is being planted, and the same applies also to laying out an olive grove. If the soil be ploughed and subsoiled to a good depth, the young trees have a much better chance of establishing a good root system ; and, in future years, are able to withstand, without injury, conditions that would seriously affect trees planted on poorly prepared soil. The soil should be broken up to as great depth as possible and left with a fine tilth on top. This is particularly so in the somewhat dry lands where irrigation cannot be adopted, as it admits of a better conservation of available moisture ;ind gi\es the young roots more genial conditions in which to tlevelop. Transplanting. Little difference exists between the actual operation of planting olive trees and that of any other of our fruit trees. They are planted (luring the winter months — May, June, or July. However, it will l)e found that, in some districts, they succeed better if planted at certain times according to the locality. Again, some varieties show a disposition to succeed better II. TPYiCAL YOUNG SEEDLING OLIVES. '^ pl^nted early, while the opposite is the case with others. In transplanting, it is important to see that the roots are not exposed to the sun or wind and not allowed on any account to become dry. In dry districts, where irrigation is not available, it is advisable to plant -early ; that is, in May or June, so that the winter rains will set the soil well around the roots. With late planting under such conditions there is always the likelihood of the weather taking up and the soil drying out. In any case, however, the soil if moist should be trampled firmly around the roots ; and, if dry, watered to force the air out and set the soil well around the roots. The tops should be pruned hard back in proportion with the root surface. This will give the tree a better chance of adapting itself to its new situation. If the top were not reduced, it would mean that the roots, many of which wefe lacerated and broken in removal, would not be able to supply a sufficiency of sap to meet the demand made by the respiration of such a large leaf surface. Consequently, drying out of the bark and tissues would result to the detriment of the tree. All broken or damaged roots should be removed. :io March, igi^.] The Olive. 197 It often happens that the young trees shed their leaves after trans- planting, sometimes remaining through a whole season without making any growth. This is particularly s.o if planited out of season. No alarm, however, should be occasioned at this; so long as the bark remains green and plump, they may be depended on to start into growth again. In the first season after transplanting, the young trees should be allowed to make as much growth as possible, even though a number of shoots come from below the crown. This is to encourage as great a root extension as possible ; shaping up can be undertaken before the next season. The distance to plant the trees apart will depend chiefly on local con- ditions, variety and methods of culture. Various distances from 20 to 30 ft. apart are recommended bv different authorities. Some varieties, such as the Verdale. are not such strong growers, as. for instance, Polvmorpha ; hence, thev can be planted closer together. The writer is inclined to favour the lesser distance, between 20 to 25 ft. ; that is, where hand picking is intended. This will necessitate the practice of careful pruning -each vear. as with our other fruit trees, to keep the trees low and in proper shape. If the trees are allowed to grow unrestrained, they will eventually crowd at this dis- tance. Such crowding will cause the exclusion of light from the lower parts of the trees and result in bad setting of the fruit, and ■dying back of the lower branches. The tops of the trees will become -so broad and unwieldy that heat- ing down the fruit will have to be resorted to. Where this method -of gathering the fruit is intended, the trees may be planted further -apart and allowed to grow to a great size. In some localities, it is found that certain varieties show a tendenc} to be self-sterile, if planted in isolated blocks. Hence, it is advisable to plant other varieties adjacent to insure cross-pollination, which is likely to result in more regular crops. CROWN AND TOP OF YOUNG TREES SUITABLE FOR TRANSPLANTING. Cultivation. It is thought, by many, that good cultivation is unnecessary for the olive. In fact, it is claimed, by some growers, that the trees do better where culti- vation is not adopted. Quite a number of the plantations in this country are either not cultivated at all, or at odd times with intervals of years between. This system of cultivation at periods of long intervals is perhaps more detrimental than none at all, owing to the strong tendency of the small feeding roots of olive trees to rise close to the surface of the soil. If the soil is undisturbed for several years it becomes a netw^ork of fibrous roots, these will be destroyed if the ploughing takes place again. ' Con- -stant cultivation encourages deeper rooting. Journal of Agriculture , Victoria. [lo March. 191 2. In those districts where the rainfall is light, and the conservation of all available moisture is one of the most important contributories to successful culture, there can be no question that good cultivation is essential. The well broken surface soil absorbs readily any water that falls. The " run off" is minimized and the maintenance of a line tilth through the dry season hinders evaporation of moisture from the lower soil layers. Although the surface soil through being fre(]uently disturbed is not of direct value as a feeding ground for the roots during the current season, it serves a valuable purpose in maintaining more congenial conditions for root develop- ment in the underlying soil. Besides, the plant foods that are liberated bv the action of light and air on the frequently disturbed soil will be washed down and made available during subsequent seasons. Where irrigation is practised, constant and thorough cultivation should be carried out. It is important that the cultivation following irrigation should take place as soon after watering as pos.sible. otherwise cracking TOPS OF YOUNG TREES HEADED BACK READY FOR TRANSPLANTING. and drying out of the .soil will quickly take place. The furrow system of irrigation is the most satisfactory, and two or three waterings will usually be found sufficient ; this will, of course, be governed by conditions and the nature of the .soil. It is a mistake to use water too frequently 01 make it take the place of cultivation. In some soils where constant irrigation with clean cultivation is carried out, the land eventually becomes inert, cold, and irresponsive to the use of artificial fertilizers. The trees become pale, drawn, and vigourless, owing to the physical deterioration of the soil. In such cases, provision should be made for the addition of humus or plant fibre on which the soil bacteria may continue tlieir activities. This is usually best done by growing legumi- nous crops between the trees. In the drier parts, such crops should be grown only during the winter months and turned in before the land dries out in the spring. Owing tO' harvesting operations taking place during the winter, some judgment should be exercised in planting such crops, other- wise the best results will not be obtained. (To he continued .) lo March. 191^-] Rcmi)idcrs for April . 199 REIVIINDEHS fOH flPHlli. LIVE STOCK. Horses. — Those stabled should be fed liberally. Food of a more stimulating; nature can now be given to {^et them well over the " changing coat " season. Those doing fast or heavy work should be clipped ; if not wholly, then trace high. The legs should not be clipped. Those not rugged on coming into the stable at night sweating freely should be wiped down and in half-an-hour's time rugged or covered with bags until the coat is dry. Weaned foals should have a little crushed oa's daily, if available. Cattle. — As the nights become colder the dairy cows should be rugged. The rugs should be removed in day-time when the shade temperature reaches 60 degrees. If new grass is plentiful, give a ration of hay or straw, whole or chaffed, to counteract the purging effects of young grass. Cows may now be spayed. Pigs. — Sows not already served should be put to the boar. Supply all pigs with plenty of bedding, and see that sties are warm and well ventilated. Supply so^\s liberally with grain. Castrate young boars. Sheep. — Where early lambs are being bred for local markets, transfer ewes and lambs to best pasture as soon as dropped. Castrate ram lambs when a few days old; defer tailing them until the ewe lambs are ready. After tirst rain (when dust is settled) clear wool from the eyes of young merino sheep ; whilst yarded put weak weaners in hospital paddock, and any unprofitable wooUed sheep in fattening paddock. Poultry. — Do not feed much grain this month — soft food aids moult; add a teaspoonful of linseed to each bird's ration once daily. The more exercise t3re hens get the better they moult. Remove all male birds from pens. Add Douglas mixture to drinking water. Keep a sharp look-out for chicken pox. Forwanl pullets should now be in their winter quarters, with plenty of scratching litter, and fed liberally — including ration of animal food. CULTIVATION. Farm. — Dig potatoes as they mature. Cart out and spread stable manure. Prepare and plough land for main cereal crops. Sow Chou Moellier seed in beds for transplanting. Sow the following mixture per acre for green feed during the winter months for the dairy herd : — i^ bushels. New Zealand Black Oats; 5 bushel, Cape Barley ; ^ bushel. Tick Beans ; ^ bushel, Vetches. Sow Giant Drumhead Cabbage for transplanting (i lb. sufficient for i acre, in rows 3 feet apart) ; provided the soil is in good friable condition, plants from seed sown last month should be planted out. Sow wheat and oats according to locality ; also rape for winter feed or green manuring. Prepare clean seed-bed for lucerne ; and sow Hunter River, Arabian, Turkestan, or Peruvian seed, free from dodder, in drills 7 inches apart and at the rate of 10 lbs. of seed per acre. Sow permanent pastures with grasses and clovers. Orch.\rd. — Prepare land for planting; plough deejjly and sub-soil. Plant legumes for green manure. Plant out strawberries. Clean up Codlin Moth from trees as soon as all fruit is gathered. Flower Garden. — Plant out evergreen shrubs, trees, and Australian plants, divisions of herbaceous plants, seedlings, layers, and rooted cuttings. Feed chrysanthemums with liquid manure weekly until flowers begin to open. Prepare land for future plantings of roses and shrubs. Vegetable Garden. — Plant out seedlings from the seed beds. Dig all vacant spaces roughly. Sow onions for early crop; also peas and broad beans. Clean out asparagus beds wherever the seeds are ripening. Vineyard : — Vintage operations occupy the greater part of April. See last month's notes. Cellars. — Cleanliness is emphatically urged. Carefully remove all fermentable refuse — skins, lees, skimmings, &c. Such odds and ends favour multiplication of vinegar flies {Drosofhila junebris). If present, destroy these with formalin or insecticide powders. A little bisulphite or sulphurous acid in washing water is recommended ; also free use of lime on floors, itc. Journal of Agriculture. Viclona. [lo March, 1912. VICTORIAN EGG-LAYING COMPETITION, 1911-12, CONDUCTED AT BURNLEY HORTICULTURAL SCHOOL. {Continued frojn -page 6y .) H. F. Hawkins, Poultry Expert. Eggs Laid during Competition. No. Position iu' oJ Breed. Name of Owner. April to Total to Competi- Pen. Dec. 31. 1,243 Jan. Jan. 31 (lOmths) tion. 12 White Leglioru W. G. Swift 132 1,375 1 31 R. W. Pope 1,205 145 1,350 2 40 A. J. Cosh (S.A.) 1,176 132 1,308 3 20 H. McKenzie 1,108 138 1 ,246 4 37 " E. Waldon 1,074 136 i.-uo 6 33 Kange Poultry Farm (Qld.) 1,090 114 1,204 6 39 A.W. Hall . . 989 145 1,134 7 18 S. Brundrett 1 010 97 1,107 8 21 R. L. Appleford 972 113 1,085 9 13 Black Orpington . . D. Fisher . . 974 104 1,078 10 46 Minorca (Blacli) . . G. W. Chalmers 945 98 1,043 11 M White Leglioru 1"' Haiinaford 906 135 1,0-; 1 12 25 B. Jlitclieil 931 107 1,038 13 66 W. G. McLister 937 100 1,037 14 10 Black Orpington . . 11. A. Langdon 914 121 1,035 15 9 White Lefjhorn J. O'jyoughlin 912 122 1,034 16 38 Mrs. C. J<. Smce 930 100 1,030 IT 2 E. P. Nasli 899 130 1,0_9 18 19 A. Jaques »84 141 1,025 19 50 C. H. Busst 891 128 1,019 20 36 F. A. Sillitoe S97 117 1,014 21 28 ", J. Campbell 899 114 1,013 22 3 » K. Gleghorn 897 111 1,008 ?3- 49 W. J. Thornton 910 97 1,007 24 1 A. Brebner 901 104 1,005 •^5- 44 Black Orpington . . T. S. Goodisson 907 95 1,002 26. 32 Silver Wyandotte . . Mrs. M. A. Jones 908 88 996 27 45 White Leghorn T. Kempster 868 124 992 28- 62 >> P. Hodson . . 855 131 986 29- 5 L. C. Payne 870 108 978 30- 47 '„ C. W.Spencer (N.S.W.) 864 112 976 31 11 Brown Leghorn F. Soncum 836 136 972 32 57 White Legiiorn G. E. Edwards 848 118 966 3a 65 H. Hammill (N.S.W.) 840 114 954 34 67 C. L. Sharman 868 84 952 3& 8 T. W. Coto 845 106 951 } 36 22 Black Orpington . . P. S. Wood 864 87 951 4 Golden Wyandotte H. Bell 850 96 946 38 43 White Leghorn W. B. Crellin 815 118 933 39^ 66 White Wyandotte J. E. Bradley 814 85 929 40 60 White Leghorn J. J. Harrington 816 109 925 41 59 W. H. Dunlop 830 93 923 42- 53 j> A. Stringer 799 114 913 43- 51 »» J. W. Mc Arthur 827 83 910 1 41 Morgan and Watson . . 796 114 910 V 44 27 II Hill and Luckman . . 829 81 910 J 63 Black Orpington . . A. J. Treacy 807 86 893 47 58 FaveroUes K. Courtenay 795 92 887 48 35 White Leghorn J. H. Brain 752 130 882 49 52 ! W. J. McKeddie 782 93 875 50 84 E. Dettman 751 117 868 )M 64 11 J. D. Read 738 130 868 30 Black Orpington . . Rodgers Bros. 762 105 867 53 42 White Orpington . . 1>. Mitchell 775 90 865 54 6 Silver Wyandotte . . Mis. H. J. Richards 759 101 860 55 7 White Leghorn H. Stevenson 743 110 853 56 26 F. H. Seymour 728 87 815 57 56 Mrs. C. Thompson . . C9' 119 811 58 16 Silver Wyandott." . . Miss A. Cottam 706 79 785 ) 59 54 White Leghorn F. Hodges 710 75 785 ( i3 Golden Wyandotte G. E. Brown 083 87 770 61 61 Silver Wyandotte.. .T. Reade 651 103 754 62 17 Wliite Leghorn . . W. ,T. Ecker^hall 624 74 698 63 14 Bl.Tck Orpington . . W. J. Macaulcy 595 65 660 64 15 Minoica H. R. McChesney . . 539 66 605 65 48 ., 3. James . . 433 56,298 76 509 06 7,062 03 .360 10 March, 1912.] Journal of AgricuUtire, Victoria. a OYAL MEDAL" LKING MACHINES. ^NLY with the advent of these Milkers did really ^^ satisfactory Machine Milking become possible. For in the ** Royal Medal '' all those defects which have hitherto characterised the Milking Machine have been remedied. Where others have failed, the ^^ Royal MedaP' has proved entirely successful. The seal has been placed on its merits by the u \) :l'd of the Medal of the Royal Agricultural Society, England, and by the unfailing satisfaction which it has given during seven years^ use on valuable pedigreed cows. A FEW "ROYAL MEDAL" DIFFERENCES —Departures in Principle and Construction which Distinguish the Machine. The "Royal Medal" has less than half the overhead gear of most other machines. The " Royal Medal " has less than half the rubber tubing-it has only five small tubes The " Royal Medal" stiijjs the cows right out. There is not a bolt or screw thread about the teat cup. You can easily take it to pieces with your fingers — no corners or crevices in teat cup. Brushes go right r^, ,.r^ • Kir J ix-n 1 ^ ,•„ ^;^ @ through without taking cup asunder The "Royal Medal" Pulsator is sim- J = of plicity itself, it is right on the teat cup, I Cups pulsate independently, which which means a great saving in engine fuel. prevents the machine from falling off. The Coupon Below will bring you THE " ROYAL MEDAL" BOOKLET —A Treatise on Milking Macliinery which you will find both Interesting and Valuable. ii MILKING MACHINES, 34 Queen Street, MELBOURNE. LONDON OFFICE: Caxton House, Westminster, S.W. JACK H. DAVIES, Managing Director. POST FREE BOOKLET COUPON. " Bo'jal Medal" Millcivg Machines, 34 Queen Street, Melboniiie, Please forward a copy of your Free Book. It is to he nnderstocd that I consider myself under no obligation. Name Address J6. XVlll Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo March, 1912. 'Phone 4S81 Central. The Australasian Mutual live Stoek Insupanee Society m, ROYAL BANK CHAMBERS, 70 Elizabeth St., Melbourne. HON. AGAR WYNNE, M.P. HENRY GARDNER, Es(|. CHAS. YEO, Esq., J.P. WALTER G. HISCOCK, A.C.P.A., Manager. FARMERS AND BREEDERS^ Has this simple truth ever struck yott? Ours are the world's minimum rates. Our terms and conditions are equal to the best obtainable. Every pound of our money is invested in Australia. We pay promptlj^ We pay in fiill. INSURE WITH THIS SOCIETY, AND RECOMMEND IT TO YOUR NEIGHBOURS. A GOOD AUSTRALIAN ' Why didn't you put your penny in the plate thi» Morning T ' Beeoute it vtaiaferexgn mxssxon. and dada layt ii'l not riglU to tetui capital out of the country." For ROOFS of all descriptions USE RUBEROID ROOFING. For OUTSIDE PAINTING of barns, stables, fences, &c., USE INDELIBLE GOLD WATER PAINT. For INSIDE PLASTERED WALLS USE OALOIMO IN ALL COLOURS. These Coods are UNEQUALLED by any others, and are obtainable from all Storekeepers. SOLE AGENTS BROOKS, ROBINSON & Co. Ltd., Melbourne. lo March, 19x2.] Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. Dairy Science. The last word. Scientific men in the dairy centres of Europe have given close attention to the question of feeding for milk and feeding for butter fat. It has been laid down by one of the leading German Scientists that where a large quantity of very watery food is used for some time, a poor, thin milk is obtained : and he particularly recommends, when a milk rich in fat is wanted, to use a cake made exactly from the same material as Sunlight Oil Cake : stating that, by the use of such a cake, an increase of butter fat in the milk has been observed. Further, where the butter is inclined to be soft when the animal is fed on certain foods, Sunlight Oil Cake substituted in the ration will make the butter firmer. Every animal will not show the same corresponding result with Sunlight Oil Cake, but Sunlight Oil Cake will produce the highest milk flow and butter fat from a good milker and will increase the average from a poor milker. Sunlight Oil Cake is the last word in Dairy Science. For Post Free Book— 'MILK FLOW AND BUTTER FAT increased by Scientific Feeding," By H. M. SOMER, Royal Agricultural Society, Write to Lever Brothers Limited (Dairy Department) Sydney. SUNLIGHT 1 Q"^'*^"*^^'* PnvQ. W% #C I ^®® ^^^^ ^^^ n&mQ "Sunlight" is mi f^ A l\b I branded on every cake. Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo March, 191: Britain's BEST Oil Engine— ^HORNSBY. The recognized essentials of Oil Engine Superiority are ... DESIGN SIMPLICITY QUALITY ECONOMY THESE the HORNSBY possesses, proved by the Pact Made in Two Types-Stationary and Portable. ^"^^^ *^ ^^« Won all the Largest Prizes ever offered. WHY THE . . . HORNSBY 7S BIND It has the Best and Lowest Cutting Finger Bar. It is Lightest in Draught. It has Simplest Mechanism. It is Strongest, Most Durable, and ]\Iost Reliable "Hornsby" Mowers are Unequalled for CLEAN CUTTING. Hornsby Petrol Engines, Gas Engines and Suction Gas Plants are unequalled. !. HORNSBY & SONS LTD., MELBOURNE. SYDNEY. BRISBANE. SHORTHORN Bull (Milking Strain) " Hayle Duke of Pentland." Dropped July 31st, 1905. Bred by Jas. Lidyett, Myrniong. iSiVc .'—Hayle Prince, 836 U (imp.), three times Champion at Melbourne Royal Show. Dam .•—Jessamine IH. First and Champion Melbourne Royal Show 1905 in Milking- Shorthorn Class, and gave 68 lbs. of milk with 3 9 test. "Hayle Duke of Pentland" has been used at the Wyuna Irrigation Farm for the last five years, and most of the youns cows tested to remain in the herd are by him. Hence the reason for sale. Price, 10 guineas. Inspection at Wyuna Irrigation Farm, vid Tongala. SHORTHORN Stud Bull "John Murray." 5 years. Sire .-—Earl Sumnicrton 4th. Dmn .—Oxford Sunmierton 8th. Price, 5 guineas. Inspection at AVyuna Irrigation Farm, vi& Tongala. JERSEY Bull "Cream Prospect." Dropped March 22nd, 1910. Sire .-—Lord Creamer (15". A. J.H.B,). Dnia :- Daisy of ProsineH (347 A.J.H.B.). Price, 12 guineas. In.s2:)ection on application to Dairy Supervisor O'Keefe, Rochester. Extended pedigrees and particulars on application to DEPARTMENT OP AGRICULTURE, AlELBOURNE. 10 March, 19 1--] Journal of Agriculture, Vict'Oria. xxi flflTIOflflli THUSTEES Executors & Agency Company of Australasia, Ltd. . . . DIRECTORS : HON. WALTER MADDEN, Chairman and Managing Director. EDWARD FITZGERALD, Esq., L.L.D. MICHAEL MOKNANE, Esq. HON. DUNCAN E. McBRYDE, M.L.C. HENRY MADDEN, Esq. DAVID HUNTER, EsQ. This Company acts as Executor, or Joint Executor of Wills, Administrator, Trustee of Settlements, and Ag:ent for Absentees under Power of Attorney. MONEY TO LEND ON BROAD ACRES AND FARM LANDS. V- 113 QUEEN ST. {Littair,n°Jst) MELBOURNE. SAVINGS BANKS LOANS ON BROAD ACRES (Up to Three-fifths of Valuation), In sums from £2,000 to £25,000. Interest at 4^ per cent. For 3 or 5 years, with option of paying oflF part on any half-yearly pay-day. ON FARMS {CREDIT FONCIER) (Up to Two-thirds of Valuation), In sums from £50 to £2,000. Interest at 44 per cent. Loans Repayable by Instalments spread over 31.\ years, or may be paid off on any half-yearly payday, subject to a small charge if paid off during the first five years, but no penalty after five years. ^ ADDRESS : Inspector-General of Savings Banks^ V 29 MARKET STREET, MELBOURNE. TREWHELLA :=;' CROBBINC JACKS. ^j^ Quick. Powerful. Simple. Mr. Chas. Hamilton, Molesworth, Vic, says: — "I would not be without one of tliese Jacks on the farm." Mr. O. C. R. Brown, Timber Merchant, Frances, S.A :— " Have been using; Trewhella Wallaby Jacks now nearly si-x year-^, and a.s lougr as I have anything to lift will never be without one." Write for Illustrated Catalogue to— TREWHELLA BROS., engineers, TRENTHAIVI, VICTORIA. xxii journaL of Agriciature, Victoria. [lo March, 1912. r DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, VICTORIA. JBuniley J^ortieultural School. E. E. PESCOTT, -iWr Principal. ANNOUNCEMENT. The curriculum and management of the Burnley Horticultural School have now been arranged so that greater advantages and facilities will be given to students of both sexes in Horticulture and allied subjects. The present course of Horticulture for male students includes a two years' course, students being charged a fee of £5 per annum, '■[^ Glasses have been formed at Burnley, whereby students of both sexes may "wr. i^feceive instruction on two afternoons of each week — Tuesdays and Fridays. Instruction includes theoretical and practical work, and will commence at 2 p.m. This will be a two years' course, and the fee charged will bf £2 per annum. It has also been arranged that several short lecture courses shall be given on subjects which are suitable adjuncts to Horticulture, such as Poultry Farming, Bee-keeping, and Fruit Preserving, and these courses will be open and free to the general public. The subjects and dates of the Short Course Lectures will be announced monthly in this Journal. Demonstrations in Fruit Preserving will be given by Miss Mendoza, Fruit Preserving Expert, in the Hall, on Maich 1st, 8th, and 15th, at 2.45 p.ni; These Demonstrations are Free to the Public. STUDENTS SHOULD ENROLL WITHOUT DELAY, Application for admission should be made to The Director of Agriculture^ Public Offices^ Melbourne, ■Mm : [lo March, 1912. Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. SPECIALISING -IN THE SUPPLY OF ALL- pt^UlTGHOWEl^S' REQUISITES *, IMPLEMENTS Is done by us more than any other firm in Victoria. It will therefore pay you to call and see us or write for Illustrated Catalogue (A). frIenD nozzle. Some of our Lines are — " Harvey " Shifting-Handle Plouglis. :!: " Excelsior " Fruit Graders. " four Oaks " Bucket Spray Pump. i " Myers " & " Deming " Spray Pumps. | "Jones'* High=pressure Spray Pumps. \ "Friend" [:',vcr Sprayer. ''" Spraying Hose— hijh quality. Spraying Materials for all Pests. Pumps for all Purposes. "COMET" FARM MOTORS. Our Qit./ity is Good. Our Prices are Right. Call and See. r ^ depart; ENT OF AGRICULTURE, VJCTORIA. AGRICULTURAL CLASSES, 1912. Ab least thirty students, exclusive of school children, must be enrolled at each centre, thft rent of the hall and all local charges to be paid by the Agricultural Society under who3e auspices the Class is held. As only a limited number of classes can be held during the year, it is essential that Agricultural or other Societies should make early application LECTURES ON AGRICULTURAL SUBJECTS, 1912. Agricultural or other Societies -wishing to have public lectures delivered are requested to make early application. The hall, advertising, &c. , must be provided locally, free of cost, but all other charges are borne by the Department. Stkff — The Director (Dr. S. S Cameron), and Messrs. Archer, Carmody, Carroll, de Castella, Cother, Crowe, French Jr., Griffin, Ham, Hart, Hawkins, Johnstone, Kendall, Knight, McFadzean, Pescott, Richardson, Robertson, Sawers, Seymour, Smith, Strono-, Turner, and Expert of the State Rivers and Water Supply Commission. Applications relative to the above Institutions and Lectures should be sent to the \1 Director of Agriculture, Melbourne. 1 XXIV Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. lo March, 1912.] "WATERLOO BOY" 4 h.p. PORTABLE OIL ENGINE. ABSOLUTELY THE SIMPLEST AND CHEAPEST EFFICIENT ENGINE IN THE WORLD. USES BENZINE OR KEROSENE. IGNITION. — Is make and break style, charge fired by electric spark. Igniter, which in other Engines is difficult to get at, in the "Waterloo" can be completely removed by loosening two cap screws Both Magneto and Battery Ignition, — a very useful arrangement, as work can never be stopped. SPEED LEVER. — Acts same as throttle of a steam engine. You can speed up or down, or stop altogether with it. Makes the Engine easj' to start, prevents "kicking back," and saves fuel. MIXER. — Is a great idea, patented Jpecause it is worth patenting. Has an adjustable mixing cup that can, by a winged nut, be slipped up or down to give more or less air. No valve springs or pump to get out of order ; makes Engine easy to start ; aids the governor and speed lever in getting more power out of the fuel. Allows a charge in the cylinder GOVERNOR. — Centrifugal type, sure and sensitive, only when thp work requires it. FUEL. -Works on either benzine or kerosene, but benzine is better, as it is not so dirty. The speed-saving devices, Speed Lever, Patent Mixer, and Governor make the "Waterloo" consume the least fuel. Compare it for simplicity, fuel cost, and power M'ith other engines, and you will send your order to us. HOPPER COOLED.— That is, there are no Tank, Pipes, and Pump to cool the C3'linder. Makes the Engine easy to move about ; less space, less weight, and no water pump troubles, as there is no Pump. Also lessens the fuel bill. TRANSPORT. — is a very strong one. Through axles in both front and rear wheels. Turntable on front axle is simple and strong. SEND FOR CATALOGUES OF OUR OTHER FARM REQUISITES. MITCHELL & COMPANY PTY. LTD. FACTORY &. office: WEST FOOTSCRAY, MELBOURNE. SHOW ROOM 596 BOURKE ST., MELBOURNE. D^efrigeFating «^ e^ and lee JVCaking jYCaehiueFY ^ ,'e e$3 Made by HUMBLE & SONS, -^^^ Geelong, Victoria. : , ^''^ " "" ^^j^ Specially suitable for Bucchers, Breweries, Squatters, Butter, Bacon, and Ice Factories, and all classes of Cold Storage, &c. The Machines can be supplied from 3 cwt. capacity upwards, and either belt-driven or fitted with Engine. A large number of these Machines are working in the Australian States, New Zealand, and South Africa, and are giving universal satisfaction. All classes of Refrigeration work undertaken, including coils. One of these Machines is installed at the Dookie Agricultural College. "Ferriefs" Woolpresses and Rabbit Poison Distributors, Engines, Boilers, Horseworks, &c. Full Particulaps on Application to— Humble and Sons, General Eng'ineers, VULCAN FOUNDRY, GEELONG. VICTORIAN RAILWAYS. VICTORIA FOR YOUR VACATION The Victorian Railways issue SUMMER EXCURSION FARES To the Seaside, Mountains, Lakes, and Caves FROM 15th NOVEMBER TILL 30th APRIL. LORNE. Waterfalls, fern glens, sea and river fishing ; splendid accommodation. FLINDERS. Ocean beach and golfers' paradise. QUEENSCLIFF. Bay and ocean beaches ; rail and steamer services. THE BUFFALO PLATEAU, with its famous gorge, falls, and peaks, the Horn and the Hump, embraces the finest mountain scenery in Australia. Excursion fares all the year round. THE AUSTRALIAN ALPS. Mts. Bogong, Feathertop, Hotham. The Baw Baw Range. THE DIVIDING RANGE. Macedon, Woodend, Daylesford, &c. Healesville in the Hills. THE GIPPSLAND LAKES. The most charming chain of Ukes in the Commonwealth. THE BUCHAN CAVE55, Indescribably beautiful. CAMPBELL'S FALLS. ON FALLS CREEK, UPPER YARRA. For full information !.,a to train services, fares, &c., write to or in- quire from the Government Tourist Officer, Tourist Bureau, opp. To-wn Hall, Collins street, Melbourne. E. B. JONES, Acting Secretary for Railways. Vol. X. WHEAT AND ITS CULTIVATION. Part 4. [Re!,nstered at the General Post Office, Melbourne, for transmission by Post as a Newspaper.] FARM BLACKSMITHING. BB F. H. BRUNNING PTY. LTD. GRASSES AND CLOVERS. RYE GRASS, COCKSFOOT, PRAIRIE, PHALARIS, DWARF ESSEX RAPE, PASPALUM, TIMOTHY, RIB GRASS, WHITE CLOVER, ALSIKE, COWGRASS, TREFOIL, BURR CLOVER, CRIMSON CLOVER, SUCKLING CLOVER, FESCUES, ETC. Samples arid Prices of All Agricultural Seeds. Post Free. SEED & BULB MANUAL FOR 1912 Containing over 130 pp. of useful and instructive information. -JUST PUBLISHED. • POST FREE ON APPLICATION TO THE BULB DEPARTMENT. SPRAY PUMPS. LEAD ARSENATE. SECATEURS. FRUIT TREE NETS. MANILLA TAGS. BIRD SCARERS. PLANET JR. DRILLS. AERATORS. CAHOON SOWERS. NIKOTEEN. FRENCH PROVENCE LUCERNE. Onaranteed dodder free by the French (ioNernment. Special Prime Seed. INCOMPARABLE CORN SHELLER. Single Hole, £5. Double Hole, £9 lOS. PRICE ON APPLICATION. HUNTER RIVER LUCERNE. Special True Seed. Not mixed with Clieap Seed. PRICE ON APPLICATION. PLANET JR. IMPLEMENT. (Write for Catalogue). 64 ELIZABETH-ST., MELBOURNE. THE JOURNAL OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, CONTENTS.— APRIL, 1912. FAOB \Vheat and its Cultivation... ... A. E. V. Richard-^^on, M.A., B.Sc. {Arjric.) 201 Propagation of Friiil Trees ... ... ... ... C. F. Cole 208 The Olive ... ... ... ... ... ... L. Macdonald 212 Farm Blacksmithing ... ... ... ... ... G. Baxter 217 Soil Moisture and Cropping ... ... /. W. Paterson, Ph.D., B.Sc. 222 An Kffective Sparrow Trap ... ... ... ... /. Wilson 225 Bee-keeping in Victoria ... ... ... ... ... F. E. Beuhne 226 General Notes ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 229 Swan Hill Home Milking Competition ... ... ... S. J. Keys 232 Annual Grant to Agricultural Societies ... ... ... ... ... 235 The Pig Industry ... ... ... ... R.T.Archer 239 The Influence of Superphosphates on Wheat ... A.J. Ewart, D.Sc. , Ph. D., F L. S. 256 Insectivorous Birds of Victoria ... ... ... ... C» French, Jnr. 258 Orchard and Garden Notes ... ... ... ... E. E. Petcott 260 Answers to Correspondents ... ... ... ... ... ... 262 Egg-laying Competition ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 263 Reminders ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 204 COPYRIGHT PROVISIONS AND SUBSCRIPTION RATES. The Articles in the Journal of the Drpartment of Agriculture of Victoria are protected by the provisions of the Copyright Act. Proprietors of newspapers wishing to republish any matter are at liberty to do so, provided the Journal and author are both acknowledged. The J'-'urnal is issued monthly. The subscription, which is payable in advance and incluuos postage, is 3s. per annum for the Commonwealth and New Zealand, and 6s. for the United Kiiig-dom and Foreign Countries. Single copy. Threepence, Subscriptions should be forwarded to the Director of Agriculture, Melbourne. A complete list of the various publications issued by the Department of Agriculture will be supplied by the latter. Journal of Agriculture , Vicioria. [lo April, 1912, No other Windmill has a Speed-governing Device like the "Billabong's. 99 This important improvement of ours is protected by patent rights. It has neither springs nor weights — nothing to get out of ortler. By merely turning a screw you can vary the speed of the mill to your desire. This will be found to be of gieat advantage when Windmill is sub- jected to a change of load, and in heavy gales, &c. Stop and Consider. You want a mill to give lifelong service ; therefore, it must be made of good material. Beatings should be so made that they may be cheaply and quickly renewed. Frictional or wearing parts should Ije few; and, wliat is most im- portant, the mill should have a lubricating S3'stem that will insure its bein;^ thoroughly and continuously lubricated while working, but which will prevent waste when mill is not required. The mill should be responsive to a \cvy light breeze, yet stand a gale. In our Mill all these Points are provided for. We know what is required of a good mill — we have had many years of windmill experience. The fact that we have obtained patent rights proves our pro- gressiveness; and, as to quality and workmanship, our being established for over half a century answers. Suppose You Save, say, £1, or £1 10s., or £2, by buying a cheaper mill, and then have to spend £2 to £3 in repairs — again another £3 or £4; or, suppose your cheap mid sticks up when yon most need it, you will soon lose pounds and pounds' worth of stock ; or, if it blows down in a gale, where is your saving then ? Pay a Proper Price and get the Right Article with a Good Manufacturing Firm to back it up. But the truth is, while our mills are well made, the price is so reasonable. Write for Catalogue and Prices. We can supply Tanks and Stands; Pumps of all kinds; Piping, Troughing, and Fluming ; Farm and Garden Tools, Implements, and Requisites. JOHN DANKS & SON 391=395 Bourke Street, Melbourne. PTY. LTD. lo April, 191 2. Journal of Agriculture , Victoria. BARTRAM'S CONSTELLATION FOR DAIRY FARMER Just as the Southern Cross is inseparably associated with Australia, so is the name " BARTRAM " closely allied with the dairying industr}^ of Victoria. The introduction of improved methods, and the adoption of the most up-to-date labor-saving machinery, has enabled those engaged in dairying pursuits to get out of their cows the maximum return at the least cost. The five "STARS" that have so materially helped to guide hundreds of dairy farmers to fortune and sucness, are : — • "ALFA-LAVAL" "L.K.C." CREAM SEPARATORS RHILKING MACHINES "FELIX" IRRIGATION OUTFITS "FELIX" "ALFA" PETROL MOTORS STEEL WINDMILLS In buying the above lines you run no risk whatever. Years of everyday use on hundreds of farms in Victoria alone have demon- strated beyond doubt that they are as represented in our catalogues, and are easily the best manufactured. They carry our guarantee of efficiencj' and long service, and behind the guarantee is a reputa- tion of 40 years of unequalled service to Victorian dairymen. Write for our Illustrated Catalogue. It is Free, and gives much valuable advice. When in town come and see us. Our expert knowledge is fully and freely at your service. We give liberal terms and accept easy payments. J. BARTRAf^ k SON PTY 19-23 KING ST., LTD.. MELBOURNE. ^m oimn Journal of Agriculture, V id aria. [lo April, 19 12. 1- ray wi '' Climax' ' '^Ka!iiy:,'-r,'.T^v-'-''-ia^Bia^? The "CLIMAX" SPRAY PUMP is in use throughout the world, and is the most economical for medium-sized orchards. It is strong, simple in construction and operation, and will do good work. The working parts are brass, thus thei-e is no fear of corrosion from acids, the cylinder being of seamless brass tubing. Other parts requiring strength are in malleable iron. The body of the pump constitutes an air chamber, and large openings make the inside easily accessible. One Star Nozzle for misting purposes, and one Dayton-Vermorel Nozzle for general spraying, su[)i)lied with each pump without extra charge. No. I— Uin. Cylinder (without cask) fitted on 3 iron legs, £2/7/6; with 30 gal. ca^k, as shown, and 8 ft. ho5e, £3/10/- ; with 5Q gal. cask, as shown, and 8 ft. hose, £4. No. 2— 1^ in. Cylinder (without cask) fitted on 3 iron legs, £3/7/6; with 30 gal. cask and 12ift. hose, £4/10/-; with 50 gal. cask and 12^ft. hose, £5. Water Pipe and Fittings We have large stocks of the above. Write for Price List. Ask for Speci.al List. Our 256 page Book of Tools is also Post Free. Illustrates over 2,000 of the Best Tools at Money-Saving Prices. /- fop ]V[yePs Pump, Which draws 1,500 galls, per hour, and throws a jet of water 60 feet. Thos. MePhepson k Son, Tool Merchants, Collins-St. West, Melbourne. '^^^■■^'■""'^'^■^'^-iiiii^-'"^' lo April, 1912] Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. mmmmm^iiam&msM»iimaKS^:ff.:j:^x^m TIME IS MONEY TO THE ORCHAROIST. WELL ! why not save time (and money) by using 'AUSTRAL" gfL° JELLY FOR DESTROYIMC WOOLLY APHIS, RED SPIDER, PEACH APHIS, AND ALL SCALE PESTS. YOU save at least one man's time in mixing. 11 YOU are using a better and more eflfective emulsion. t ^ >. YOU run no risk of damaging your trees. 1°^"^ YOU have no loss througli spoiled batches. YOU simply mix with cold -water. II 3Nr01*E: C7os-fc of "75 S^H* I^^E3I3 C3IX< EZIVEXTX^SIOIM. MADE WITH JELLY. HOME MADE. 30 lbs. Jelly @ 3d. (Barrel lots) Soft Soap Time and fuel Spoiled batches Total £0 7 nil nil nil 6 1 3 gall. Red Oil @ 2.s. ... * 3 lbs. Soft Soap @ 3d. Q Man's time and fuel Y Spoiled batches (say 1 in 10) ... £0 .. 0 ... 0 ... 0 ... £0 6 0 1 0 8 0 9 0 9 £0 7 6 1 Total. b (NOTE.— 30 lbs. Jelly contains 3 gall. Red Oil.) You therefore SAVE IS- on every Vat BY USING JELLY. Writt for partindars and copies of testimonials — A.I . I r N l) 1,372 „ Glen Huntly .. .. .. 5 allotments. Cremona 7 I ,, 612 „ Tooronira .. .. ..60 „ Nuniuikah . , 2 234 „ Oreenvale .. 4 251 „ Workmen's Homes. Wyuna 1 ltl2 „ Dunrobin 5 100 Pender's Grove .. .. 03 allotments. Wheat Growing-. Allotments on these estates are sold under Conditional Purchase leasehold terms, extending over 31J years, with payments at the rate of 6 per cent, per annum. Advances of money can be obtainsd >ip to 00 j'er cent, of the value of permanent improvements effected, repayments extending over fifteen years hearing 5 per cent, interest. For full information and terms apply to TH E SECRE TA R Y, LANDS PURCHASE AND MANAGEMENT BOARD. MELBOURNE. AUSTRALIA'S WACON 2:^:^: PATENT STEEL WHEELS. Patent Felloes. Renewable Carron Bo-xes and Oil Caps. The only Steel Wheel that has stood the Test. Beware of Imitations. I never thought it would run so Two horses carried my first load A. MAY, Esq., Meningle, South Australia, says: — Dear Sir, — I have received Spring Wagon. I am well pleased with same, well, and I think those who have Steel Wheels will never use the old style again. of two tons of potatoes over a bad road of 30 miles, where the old style of wagon was bogged, and is "still there. August, 1903. ALBERT MAY, Esq., Meningle, S.A., says:— Dear Sir, — In answer to your letter wanting to know how the wheels of my wagon are, I am pleased to tell you I have had the wagon about 6i years, and it has not cost me a shilling ; the wheels are like new, .and I have done a lot of heavy carting. Onlj' being a 2-ton Wagon, I lent it to a man carting wheat, and he had some very rough roads, loads being about 50 bags. Your Wagons are worth their money, and I would not b.; without one of them. I think this Wagon will last my life time. 40" and 36' Wheels. August 13th, 1910. pj^ TABLE TOP — Truck body, and all classes of little Wagons for Farm and Station work. WRITE FOR CATALOG TO-DAY. QUEEN'S BRIDGE-ST., SOUTH MELBOURNE, V. R. J. L HILDYARD, BB lo April, 191 2.] Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. ■\ LIGHT, STRONG, PERFECTLY RIGID. t-'G^p^ c^/3^ V *' CYCLONE" WOVEN GATE 9 r-t. -to 16 ft. Will hold anything, and can be made rabbit proof by putting rabbit proof intersection at the bottom. The wider gates have three stays. Get our Catalogue of this and many other Cyclone Gates. " THEY'RE ALL GOOD." CYCLONE FENCE & GATE CO., 459 SWANSTON ST., corner franklin ST., MELBOURNE. 1 EM P^S PATENT SHEEP-BRANDING LIQUID AS USED BY LEADING PASTORALISTS OF AUSTRALIA. IN THREE COLOURS, BLACK, RED & BLUE. Sold in 8 gallon cases, 4 6 grallon. 1 gallon tins, 5 - each. -AGENTS FOR VICTORIA AND RIVERINA- DALGETY^g°; MELBOURNE Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo April, 191 2. "GLEN ELGIN'S PHILANTHROPIST" 299 A.H.B. of Aiis. @(® Winner oli Champion, Sydney Royal Sliow, 1909, 1910, 1911. Reserve Champion, Melbourne Royal Show, 1907, 1908, 1911. Also holds the record of 142 Firsts, Cluiiniiions, SiJOcials, and (iold Medals for Ayrshire and Dairy Bull. The '^GlenqaFnoek" Stud of Pure, Ayrshire Cattle Has uou inimineralile prizes in the ring. The females in tliis lierd are noted for deep and heavy milking and test well above the average, and are kind and quiet. CHOICE YOUNG HERDBOOK BULLS FOR SALE At from 5 to 25 guineas each. Special Show Bulli higher. From Best Cows only, by Pure Herdbook Bulls. Full pedigrees and particulars, with photographs of animal for sale, his sire and dam, will be forwarded on apjilication. INSPECTION CORDIALLY INVITED. VISITORS MET AT LANG LANC RAILWAY STATION. Address A.T. PRIESTLEY. Pof • V'CLENCARNOCK," TdL-aphj YANNATHAN, Vic. ro April, 1912.] Journal of Agricidtitre , Victoria. XL Vacuum Gargoyle Prepared Red Spraying' Oil Needs no Soft Soap OP other ingredient. Requires only Clean Soft Water. \';icuum Gargoyle Red Spray Oil now obtainable in prepared forni is the same Oil as that originally introduced to Australia for fruit- tree spraying. Full particulars^ Horticultural Department, Vacuum Oil Co. Pty. Ltd., 90 William Street, Melbourne. Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo April, 1912. THE rOEAL CLOSER SETTLEMENT COMBINATION. THE RICH BOiSDALE ESTATE AND THE FAR-FAMED^ KILMANY PARK. Both of these Estates have been specially selected, purchased, and subdivided for Beet Growing and Dairying- combined, and to afford opportunity to THRIFTY, EXPERIENCED MEN WITH SMALL CAPITAL to make a comfortable living while acquiring the freehold of the land. For the possibilities and practical results read the article on "THE BEET ID^TIDTJSTi?,"'^^," in the March, 1912, issue of The Journal of Agriculture of Victoria. lo April, 1912.] Journal of Agriculture, \ icioria. Xlll BOISDALE ESTATE Subdivided into 57 blocks, and already settled wiih the exception of Six Blocks of from 40 to 60 acres, to carry 10 acres of lieet annually. Price, £25 10s. to £27 10s. per acre. KILMANY PARK 42 farm blocks from 56 to 195 acres, to carry 10 acres Now open of Beet annually. for Price, from £7 lOs. to £22 lOs. per acre. Application, - Subdivided 14 Woikmen's blocks from 20 to 46 acres, to carry into 4 acres of Beet annually. Price, from £23 tO £25 per aero. For particulars and conditions of purchase and as to blocks available, apply to the SECRETARY, CLOSER SETTLEMENT BOARD, MELBOURNE. For information concerning the financial aid given to suitable Settlers to stock the farms, apply to THE DIRECTOR OF AGRICULTURE, r^ELBOURNE. Journal of Agriculture , Victoria. [lo April, 1912. r- A THE STANDARD FOR FENCING. "NEPTUNE" UNRIVALLED PATENT STEEL FENCING WIRE. 5 0 % SAVED ill your Wire Account, and then you have THE BEST POSSIBLE FENCE. "^ £9 8s. 6d. saved on 3 miles 6 Wire Fence §^ ^ by using "NEPTUNE," as against Ordinary Wire. -SE5]!^a3 IFOI^ SjA.Ik«flC3E=»IjESS.- MORRIS & MEEKS, agents, MELBOURNE. mssxmm^^.^ i-|"; — itjm| To GRAZIERS, FARMERS, and DAIRYMEN. Proprietarm Ltd. You cannot do better than purchase your requirements from THE VICTORIA VARNISH COY. Who are Importers and Manufacturers of the undermentioned, namely : — Varnishes for all uses, Paints, Dry Colors, Stainer's Turpentine, Boiled and Raw Linseed Oil, Resin, Shellac, White Lead, &c. OUR MANUFACTURE IS OF ONE QUALITY— THE BEST. Note the Address— The VICTORIA VARNISH COY. Proprietary Ltd., Queen's Bridge, South Melb Tel. Central 614. Established 1853. A. J. BORTHWICK, Manager ^ff^^r^^^miin*'^^^*'^'''^^^^'**^'^'^^ SUPERPHOSPHAT AND OTHER HIGH-GRADE FERTILIZERS DELIVERED AT RAILWAY STATION, FOOTSCRAY, Oi^ ON WHARF, MELBCURNE. J". C? O C? HESZjt:^ I Hj JI-P , nvri^^f-actvir ©r . Office :— 407 POST OFFICE PLACE, MELBOURNE. BONES BOUGHT. CONSIGN TO ME, FOOTSCRAY. Telephone 2098. lo April, 191:;.] Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. V .^ -»1 ^0 S ^ ■'>k i ^ 1 ji -* to ^ ^ 5 ^^ ■^ ^ <:; 5 ^ cq l-J ^ ^§ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ > > ^>3 ^ <<_ cn bJO 'Td a CQ E ^ ^ 4-1 <*-. 0 Lm C 0 0 1j CJ rt (IJ cii c/: C/5 • 7^^ , , r' ^ OJ ^ :3 & 0 C3 C3 1^ a ^ figs OS CD CO I— 00 .2 E cd CO CO o C5 t/5 c r 0 h- i- 3= •"" 0 -=* -CJ CD 0 >- .^ J C K{ > (/3 -« :: t/: ^ •v rS z > =: u i« c3 UJ B ::^ 3 S ^ tu :: _j ^ZA/-^v>_ /'v^/ -1 :^ \ ^ ^ ^ «-^^^»,J M -■? V\-W\Vv^ or « 2 © ^ B ca ® S ^ -o « ^ > -a: 3 "S 0 r/1 3 a z j= -^ a ca B f/5 :3 H E Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo April, 1912. j^IstoR s Patent Windmills AT THE ROYAL SHOW. At the recent Pvoy.-il Show a tine collection of Windmills was exhibited by James Alston, of Queen's Bridge, Melbourne. Mills of all diameters, from 6 ft. to 20 ft. were shown at work, suitable to all requirements of farmers or stock raisers, the small ^lills being suitable for lifting moderate supplies from shallow wells, while the larger sizes are capable of dealing with almost any depths. A splendid Mill, 25 feet diameter on a 50 ft. Steel Tower, working an 18" pump, and throwing a stream of water of about 15,000 gallons per hour, attracted much attention. This, mb believe, is the largest Mill ever sliown on the Show Ground. Alston's Patent Steel Windmills have all the most up-to-date improve- ments in their construction. Pumps of many descriptions Avere shown, including the latest Draw Plunger Pumps for bore use, which admits of the plunger being drawn without disturbing the pipes in the bore. THG JOURNAL OF Yfie department of Mgricufture OF LJBJ^ARY New vork VICTORIA. b^jr^'' .1^ Vol. X. Papt 4. loth April, 1912. WHEAT AND ITS CULTIVATIOX. {Continued from ptige 191.) A. E. Y. Richardson, M.A., B.Sc. {Agric.) Agricidtiiral Superintendent. III._FOOD REQUIREMENTS AND CHEMICAL COMPOSITION. The manner in which the young wlieat plant builds up its tissues from simple inorganic m.aterials has been described, and it now remains to con- sider from an analytical point of view the composition of the grain and straw elaborated by the plant's activity. We need not enter at this stage into a discussion of the effect of environment on the chemical composition of the product or on the milling quality of the kernel. It is sufficient to note that the climate, the nature of the soil, the mode of fertilization, and even the cultivation of the soil are all important factors in influencing the quality and character of the grain. It has already been remarked that the food of plants consists of 10 essential elements, namely, carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur, phosphorus, iron, magnesium, potassium and calcium ; and that three other elements, though invariably present in the ash, are not regarded as essential to plant life. Now of these essential elements seven are obtained from the soil, whilst three, carbon, hydrogen and oxygen are obtained either from air or from water. One of the most interesting and astonishing facts in agricultural science is that no less than 95 per cent, of the total dry-matter of the plant i= obtained not from the soil at all. The imp >rtance of this fact is m.ore evident when we consider that, whilst the air contains practically an inexhaustible supply of carbon, con- stantly replenished by the vital activity of animals and by the processes of 3831. H Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo April, 19 12. combustion, the soil contains a limited (|uantity of several essential mineral ingredients which mav onlv be replenished by the application of fertilizers. The constituents other than carljon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen are called the inorganic or ash constituents of the plant. To properly appreciate the focd requirements of wheat it is necessary to consider the amount of nitrogen and ash constituents removed from the .soil by an average crop. For our purpose, in the absence of sufficient local data, we may consider a summary of the results obtained at Rothamstead where scientific experimental work has been systematically conducted for o\'er seventy years. Tables I. and II. are digests of the elaborate tables given in the Rothamstcad Memoirs (Vol. VI.), p. 104. Table I. represents the total produce, dry-matter, ash constituents and nitrogen obtained from plots 2, 3, 5 and 10, treated respectively for 20 years with — {a) Farmyard manure. (]}) No manure. (c) Mixed mineral manures. {d) Ammonium Salts only. TABLE I. Quantity per Produce, Dry-Matter, Nitrogen and Ash Constituents Removed per Acre by Wheat Treated with Various Manures. (Average of 20 years.) No. of Plot. Plot 3 — No manure Plot 5 — Mixed minerah . . Plot 10 — Ammon. salt^ Plot 2 — Farmyard manure Total [ 1 Drv Produce. Jiatter. Ib^. lbs. •2,36i 1,988 ■2, SOS 2,360 4,421 3,727 0.064 5,098 Ash Con- stituents per acre. lbs. 93-44 115-71 145- 11 246-84 Nitrogen per acre. lbs. 20 - 3 24-3 40 - 0 51-7 Nitrogen and Asli Con- stituents expressed as per cent, of Drv Matter. 5-72 5-92 4-96 5-85 Balance of dry matter obtained from Air. 94-28 % 94- 08 % 95-04 % 94- 15 "o Of these four plots the unmanured plot (plot 3) approximates more •closely to the average wheat yield of Victoria than do any of the other plots, and may therefore be studied in greater detail. Its yield of grain (15-2 bush.) is commonly reached and exceeded in many parts of the State, though the average yield of the State has never •equalled it. Table II. has been arranged to show the following details. — (i) total yield; (2) dry-matter; (3) essential soil con.stituents, and (4) non-essential plant constituents removed by the grain and by the straw of a 15.2 bush. crop. lo April, 1912.] W//eaf and its Cultivalioii. 203 TABLE II. Amount of Produce. Dry-Matter. Essential and Xon-essential Soil Constituents Removed per Acre from Plot 3 (unmanured). Average of 20 Years" Results. Plot 3. Grain. Straw. Total Produce. Yield l,") "2 bushels 12 •96 cwt. 2,364 lbs. Dry Matter 766 lbs. 1,222 lbs. 1.988 ,, Essentials — 1. Nitrogen 14-1 lbs. 6^2 lbs. 20-c0n:s. 2. Phosphoric Acid 7-83 .. 2^4 .. 10-23 „ 3. Potash 5-22 ,, 11-92 ., 1714 „ 4. Iron Uxide (ferric) •10 „ •53 „ •63 „ 5. Lime •49 ,. 3-92 ,, 4^42 ,, 6. Magnesia 1-64 ,, 1-18 .. 2-82 „ 7. Siil])huric Acid •22 .. 2^99 ., 3-21 „ Non-essentials — r. Silica •10 .. 52-98 ., 53-08 ., 2. Soda ■03 „ •20 ,. •23 ., 3. Chlorine •01 „ 1-64 ,, 1-65 „ Careful perusal of the.se tables, representing the averages of 20 years' work, suggests the following remarks : — (i) In a 15.2 bushel crop the ratio' of grain to straw is approximately 60 : 100 — that is, for every bushel of grain obtained there are 100 lbs. of straw. (2) The most important of the essential ash constituents are concen- trated in different portions of the wheat plant, e.g., 70 per cent, of the nitrogen and 75 per cent, of the phosphoric acid is found in the grain, whilst 70 per cent, of the total potash is present in the straw. (3) Between 5 per cent, and 6 per cent, of the total dry-matter of wheat is obtained from the soil, whilst no less than 94-95 per cent, is obtained from the atmosphere. (4) A T5-bushel crop of wheat removed from the soil 20 lbs. of nitrogen, 10 lbs. of phosphoric acid, and 17 lbs. of potash. (5) Assuming that the grain is carted oft" the farm and the straw is used for litter and ultimately returned to the soil, the two main constituents taken from the soil are phosphoric acid and nitrogen, whilst the greater part of the potash, together wi!h more than half the organic matter are returned to the soil. (6) Assuming, however, that the straw is burnt, as is frequently done in Victoria, and the whole of the grain is sold, then 1.145 lbs. of organic matter of the straw is converted into carbonx acid gas, water, and ammonia, and thus absolutely lost, whilst 77^ lbs. of ash, of which 53 lbs. represent silica, are left behind. The loss of organx matter is going on fairlv rapidly in the wheat areas of the State, owing to the continual oxidation of the organic matter of the H 2 204 Journal of Agriculture, Victorid. [lo April, 1912. soil consequent on fallowing, and partly clue to the continual practice of stubble burning. In later articles it will be necessary to consider the probable ultimate effect of such losses and the possible methods of counteracting them. (7) Each of the essential ash constituents mentioned above, though aggregating less than 5 per cent, of the dry-matter, are nevertheless abso- lutely necessary for the life and full development of the plant, and it is the most deficient of these constituents which determines wiiat the harvest shall be. (8) The four constituents, lime, magnesia, iron, and sulphur are con- tained in such small quantities in the w'heat plant and in such large quanti- ties in the soil that the soil supply is ne\'er likely tO' be depleted in these ingredients. Thus in most cases the problem of maintaining soil fertility, so far as it is governed by purely chemical consideration, ceiitres round the adequacy of the nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash content of the soil. Lime sometimes becomes of great importance in the maintenance of soil fertility, but the necessity for lime in such cases invariably arises from a faulty biological and physical condition of the soil. (9) All these mineral substances can enter plants only through the roots and root hairs and in the form of a dilute mineral solution. We may now turn from the elementary composition of the wheat plant to a consideration of its proximate constituents, and particularly with the proximate composition of the kernel itself. The composition of the kernel may, perhaps, be best understood by considering it in relation to the products obtained in the process of milling. To gain some information on this point a sample of Federation wheat, grown at the Parafield Wheat Station (S.A.) in 19 10, was milled in the Departmental Flour Mill, and the original wheat, together with the flour, bran, and pollard was analyzed by the Chemist for Agriculture of this Department (Mr. P. R. Scott). The following table gives the amount of the proximate constituents — water, fat, carbo-hydrates, fibre, protein, and ash in the bran, flour, pollard and wheat: — ■ TABLE in. Constituents. Federation Federation Federation Federation Wlieat. Flour. Bran. Pollard. 0/ /o 0/ '0 0/ /o 0/ /o 1. Moisture 10-99 10-48 9-47 9-08 2. Fat 2-37 1-58 4-42 4-90 3. Carbo-hydrates, Starcli. &c'. 73-54 78-56 60-72 63-03 4. Fibre ]-87 ■30 7-62 6-13 5. Ash 1-34 •63 4-09 2 94 6. Protein . . 9-89 8-45 13-68 13-92 I. Water. — It will be noted that this particular sample of Federation contains about 11 per cent, of moisture, whilst lesser quantities of this ingredient are found in the flour, bran, and pollard prepared from it. so April. 191-^.] W/zi-a/ a//d its Cultivation. This discrepancy is accounted for by the evaporation that has taken place in the process of niilling, during which process considerable heat is developed. The percenl:age of moisture present in wheat varies within very vi^ide r.mits, and it has even been known to fluctuate considerably from day to day with variations in the humidity of the air. The amount of moisture in the grain becomes a matter of considerable commercial importance in the drier portions of ths Commonwealth, especially in parts of South Australia where at harvest time the temperatures are very high and the atmosphere exceedingly diy. Under such circumstances, the moisture content of the ripe grain is very low. When such gram is .stored for a considerable time, or shipped to a more humid climate, a considerable gain in weight may result. For example, judging from the evidence given to the South Australian Royal Commission on the Marketing of Wheat, it would appear that .75 per cent, to 3.5 per cent, of the total weight of wheat was gained by merely storing the Avheat at the local railway station for six months. On the other hand, it is conceivable that transferred from a moister district the grain may even lose in weight by storage, more especially if it were stored in a district relatively drier than that in which it was produced. 2. Fat. — It will be noted from the table that the flour contains a m.uch smaller percentage of fat than either bran, pollard or the grain itself. Small as this percentage is, however, it is probably much higher than the amount found in commercial flour m.ade from the same variety of wheat. This arises from the fact that, in the experim.ental mill with which this sample was milled, it is rather difficult to get rid of the whole of the germ and to keep it out of the flour. Fat, of course, occupies a high position as a food stuff, but the amount present in flour is so .small as to make it of secondary importance. The fat of wheat is not found uniformly distributed throughout the kernel, but is almost wholly concentrated in the germ and in the bran. It is owing to the high fat-content of the germ that it is so necessary to eliminate it from the flour in the process of milling. The germ not only discolours the flour, but is also a positive source of danger to the keeping quality of the product, inasmuch as the fat of the germ readily develops rancidity and impairs the value of the flour. 3. Carbo-hydrates. — The principal constituents of the carbo-hydrate group are starch, dextr'n, and sugar, of which starch is by far the most abundant. It forms from 65 to 70 per cent, of the wheat grain, and the great bulk of the endosperm from which the flour is ultimately derived. The amount of dextrin and sugar vary considerably in different varieties of wheat, but generally speaking, the amount is very small. In sound wheat and flour the sugar is usually cane sugar. The presence of much maltose, however, is an indication of unsoundness. Cellulose, the substance which makes up the " skeleton " of vegetable organisms, the "fibre" which holds the various parts of the plant to- gether, belongs to this group, and is found in the kernel in three forms — («) The wTodv fibre, or ligaified cellulose of the bran. {6; Th'^ Darenchymxtous cellulo-e formina; the partitions of the endosperm. (c) The delicate fabric forming the envelope of the starch colls. 4. Jisli. — The composition of the ash or inorganic portion of the grain, the residue left on igniting the crushed grain, is very interesting. ?o6 Journal of Agricidiiirc, Victoria. [.o April, 1912. The following figures give the mean of the results of twelve representative samples of Victorian wheat recently analysed in this Department by the Chemist for Agriculture :— - TABLE IV. Composition of Ash of Twelve Typical Vap.ieties of Victorian Wheat. Phosphoric anhydride Potash . . Magnesi?., Lime Soda Sulphuric anhydrile Brown oxile of manganes! Silica Chlorine Alumina Iron oxide Less oxygen = Chlorme (P,0,,) . 40-87 (K.,0) 29-93 (MgO) 14-61 (CaO) 3-72 (Na.O) 3-24 (SO3) 3-02 (MnjO^ 1-62 (SiO,) 1-51 (CI) •90 (AU03) •58 (Fe.Og) •50 100 50 e •50 100-00 With regard to the essential ash constituents, it is interesting to note the relatively large amounts of phosphcric acid and potash present, and it is not d flficult to understand why manuring with superphosphate has produced such remarkable results during the last decade on soil naturally deficient in this constituent. Whtn we realize that practically all the phosphoric acid absorbed bv a wheat crop is transferred to the grain and thus carted off the farm each year, it is not hard to understand the necessity for continuous phosphatic fertilization. A comparatively large amount of magnesia is found in the wheat ash, Init soils generally contain an abundance of this constituent. Proiein. The nitrogen us compounds of the wheat kernel have been the subject of much painstakin.g research. In a communication to the American Chemical Journal of 1893, Osborne and Voorhees pointed out that the nitrogenous compounds of wheat consist principally of proteids, of wh'ch they recognised five. \\'igner, however, has since shown that nitrogen, combined in other forms than prote'd, is present in the wheat kernel, and in quantities far larger than has been generallv suppored. He shows that, Avhile the flour contains very little ncn coagulable nitrogenous matter, there is a consider- able quantity of non-proteid nitrogen in the bran or husk. The principal prote'd of wheat is glu'en, which, however, really con- s'sts of gliadin and gJntcnin. If a small quantity of flour be mixed with waler so as to make a dough, and this dough be kneaded out under a gently flowing stream of wa'er, the starch and other non-gluten compounds are gradually washed away, and a sticky elastic mass of gluten is left behhid. This gluten is composed of two proteids, viz.. gliadin, which is soluble in dilute solutions of alcohol, but is insoluble in neutral aqueous solutions, and glutenin, which is insoluble iii alcoholic solutions. Gliadin may, therefore, be separated from glutenin by digesting the gluten with lo April, 1912.] 11 '//<■(?/ and its Cultivation. a 70 per cent, solution of alcoh il. If thi.s ."-olution be filtered and care- fu Iv" evaporated, the gliadin may be obtained in tran.sparent laminae. Ths gliadin forms with water a sticky medium, and it helps to bind the particles of flour toge:her, making the di^ugh tough and cohen?nt. The glu'enin imparts solidity to the gluten and evidently forms a nucleus to which the gliadin adheres. It is distinguished from gliadin -by being nr.n-adhesive and ncn-plastic, and by the fact that it is in- .'oluble in dilute alcohol. These two proteids together constitute the gluten of wheaten flour, and it is owing to the presence of this gluten that it becorr.es possible to make a porous bread from flour. The carbonic acid gas evolved during the fermentative action of the yea.st becomes im- prisoned in the gluten, and the expansion of this gas during leavening and baking causes the bread to " rise " and become light and porous. The gliadin and glutenin together amount to 80-90 per cent, of the total prjteids of the wheat kernel. It i.s founil that the amount of gliadin compared v'lth glutenin varies very considerably in d fferent wheats, and, on this account, it was for- merlv suggested that what is known as strength in wheat was dependent on the gliadin-glutenin ratio. Subs?quent investigations, however, have failed to estab'ish any relation between the strength and the gliadin- glutenin ratio. It may 1 e mentioned that the gliadin-glutenin ratio of four different samples of Federation wheat from the Parafield Wheat Station in 1909 was found by the writer to be 42 : 58. The gliadin-glutenin ratio in these samples was not connected by any definite relation to the strength -or other physical properties of the flour. This may be seen from Table v.* The four samples of wheat referred to were all samples of Federa- tion. Grade I. consisted of fine plump grain weighing 68J lbs. y.ex bushel, obtained by sieving a parcel of wheat with a mesh of .275 cm. Grade II. we"ghed 67! lbs. per bushel, and was composed of grains passing through a .25 cm. sieve, but retained by a .225 cm. mesh. Grade III. weighed 63 lbs. per bushel and was obtained with a .2 cm. sieve, wh'lst ihe lowest grade was hand-picked from shrivelled grain which passed through the .2 cm. sieve. Taf)le V. summarizes the densitv. volume, and milling products of each grade of wheat and the gliadin-glutenin ratio and strength of the resultant flours. TABLE V. Percentage of 1 Gluten 1 ^0 £3 0 •^0 Milling Products. Content. 03 5 <; 5 0. a. IP 5 c. X Grade. 1 '•^ ^ '" Wet Gluten. Dry Gluten. 12 I. lbs. 08 -25 grams. 4-899 arams. •489 c.c.m. 0369 % % % 77 4 11-7 10-9 0/ 0/ /o 1 /o •25-91 1 9-24 2-71 % 42-51 0/ i7 49 49-0 11. r.7-75 4 048 -405 -0299 74 4 12 5 13-1 23-86 1 8-25 2-89 441 j5-9 48 3 III. .. H3-1 2-687 -268 -0188 69-1 15-3 15-6 22-77 ' 7-92 2-87 42 93 i7-07 48-1 IV. 55 2 1-481 •148 ■0124 58-2 14-0 ' 27-8 26-7 ; 9-4 2 -83 42-44 57-56 46 5 Vide " Milling Qualities of High and Low-grade Wheats" by A. E. V. Richardson. S.A. Djpartm^nt of Agriculture. Bulletin Xo 61. Journal of Agriculture, Viciona. [:o April, 1912. Besides the two proteins already described, namely, gliadin and. glutenin, three others have been isolated and described. These are — (i) Leucosin. — A protein soluble in water, coagulating at 50-60 degrees, and similar to albumin. (2) Globulin. — A protein soluble in a dilute salt solution and coagulated by heat. (3) Proteose, which is soluble in water and not coagulated by heat. It will be necessary at a later stage, when reviewing the milling qualities of various wheats, the effect of environment on the composition and properties of the kernel, the f;tctors underlying strength in wheat and flour, and in discussing the possibility of improving the quality of our wheats, to consider in greater detail the elementary notions outlined above {To be continued}) PROPAGATION OF FRUIT TREES. {C oniinued from page 173.) C. F . Cole, Orchard Supervisor. Lifting. When lifting young trees from, the nur.sery rows for sale or planting out care should be exercised to see that the branches are not broken ox injured, also that the roots are not mutilated. If a branch upon a tree carrying well balanced head growths is broken it will probably give diffi- culty when pruning to reform such head conditions, particularly if the tree be carrying only two or three branch growths and has no suitable buds upon the stem to head back to. The method of removing the soil to enable the trees to be lifted will be controlled bv the class of soil, the roots, and the kind of tree to be lifted. Very often, in light or sandy soils, and after a heavy rain, all that is necessary, with kinds that are chiefly surface-rooting, is to force the spade well down upon each side or around the trees to be removed, keeping the spade a suitable distance off so that the roots will not be cut or injured close to the butts. Then by taking hold of the tree by the butt, below the bud mark, with one hand gently pulling whilst forcing the spade upwards beneath the tree with thf other, it will be removed without injury. In heavy, deep rooting, or soils having a stiff clay sub- soil, it will be necessary to open out well upon each side, keeping well away from the butts. When doing this the spade should be used side on to the trees, the opening being parallel with the row. After removing the soil the required depth upon either side the spade may be used flat on, so that the operator may be enabled to get well beneath to cut any small tap roots. If two persons are working together one should take hold of the tree by the butt whilst the other forces the spade well beneath, using it as a lever by pressing the handle upwards towards the trees at the same time that the other person is pulling. The handle should not be pressed downwards or away from the trees j by so doing there is a risk that the blade, when forced upwards, will scrape the bark upon the roots, or else break them close to their basal parts. ■lo April, 1Q12.] Propagation of Fruit Trees. 209 When the tree has been lifted the soil should be shaken from the roots by giving the butt a few sharp clouts with the palm of the hand. Tne practice of tapping the butts against something hard is faulty in that it involves great risk of causing injury to the bark or cambium. Deci- duou.s trees carrying foliage at the begmning of the liftmg season shoukl have the foliage removed as soon as they are lifted. The operation of removing the leaves from most kinds is easily performed by drawing the i\and down the growths towards the crown, upwards with others. It is a matter of choice whether the leaves are removed before or after lifting, Lut if the leaves are not removed the trees will wilt to some extent. When evergreen trees, such as the loquat, are destined for a long journev it will be found beneficial to remove the foliage, and any tender or immature growths, by using a sharp knife. This applies also to the citrus family with regard to tender and immature growths. Apple trees, if a portion of the roots are required for root-grafting, should be opened out well in order that all the length of root possible be obtained. The pieces of roots cut off should be healed in and not allowed to get dry before being grafted. When trees having brittle roots, like the apricot, cherry, &c., are being lifted care must be exercised in pulling because of the risk of breakage. Yearling loquats worked upon the quince stock should be handled with care when being lifted from the soil, tied together, or packed, as they ate very liable to break away at the union with the stock. As soon as the trees have been lifted all those belonging to the one variety should be tied together and labelled, the name being written distinctly upon a waterproof tag, such tag to be affixed to a portion of the tree where there is least likelihood of its detachment. Lifted trees should be healed in if not required for early despatch or planting-out. Deciduous trees will receive no hurt for a day or two if packed in a sheltered position, the roots being kept well watered and covered with sacks or some such suitable material. Evergreen trees should not be allowed to lie about ; they should not be lifted until re- quired, and packing should proceed as .soon as possible if for transit. Packing. The manner in which trees should be packed for transit will be deter- mined chiefly by the distance, the time occupied in reaching their destina- tion, and the botanical order to which they belong. Evergreen require rather more care than deciduous trees. The chief factor in packing is to keep the roots moist and cool, care being exercised in seeing that no material is used that will develop heat when damped and kept ^way from the air. When deciduous trees are being packed for a short journey, straw, grass hay, rushes, or some similar suitable material may be used for the outside covering. No obnoxious grasses or weeds should be used as that would be the means of disseminating the seeds of such plant pests. Some partly decayed straw or grass hay well damped, should be packed about the roots. To secure this class of packing for the roots the straw or grass should be placed in a heap, kept covered and well watered some short while before using. The straw or grass will thus become partly decayed by the time it is required, and if damped well before using it will keep moist about the roots for some weeks with no fear of heating. When straw or rush is used for packing the opera- tor should place upon the ground, about i foot apart, and parallel to 2IO Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [\o April, 1912. one another, 8 to 10 strands of hay lashing (rope), first tying a loop upon one end of each of the strands. Then the straw or rush is laid upon the strands, beginning from the centre of the ropes and kept as nearly as possible all one way ; the width is to be judged by the quantity of trees- to be packed. If the bundle is to be bottle-shaped, i.e., a bundle in' which the roots of the trees are placed all at one end, about 18 inches of the material used should overlap the last strand of rope at the bottom, or root end, of it, and the bedding should be laid wider at the bottom, and tapering off to the top. If a double end bundle is required, that is O'ue having the roots of the trees placed at each end, the packing material: should overlap at both ends, and its length will be determined by the growth of the trees. The ropes and packing material having been placed in position, a light covering of the damp root material is to be spread upon the bedding at the end, or ends, where the roots are to lie. Then a strand of rope is laid across the top of the bedding parallel to, and over, the second rope from the bottom ; also one near the top of the bundle. If all the trees to be packed in the bundle are of the one variety there is no necessity to tie them up into small lots, and each lot labelled sepa- rately, but they may be allowed to lie loosely, and only the one tag affixed. The trees are laid upon the bedding, the roots of the first layer or two placed over and midway between the two last strands of rope at the basal end, and the first layer of trees having been placed in position the damp root material is packed' well amongst the roots. This process is continued until all the trees are placed in position. It is not necessary to place all the roots of the trees directly upon one another j a certain quantity of them may be worked forward toward the head growths, care being observed that the roots receive attention in regard to damp material with a little of the dry packing worked in amongst the head growths to prevent them from breaking. The ends of the two strands that were placed upon the top Cif the bedding should now be passed through the loops, drawn taut, and tied off. A covering is to be placed upon the top of the trees, equal in length to the bottom bedding and overlapping the material at the root end. Each strand is to be taken separately, one end passed through the loop, drawn fairly taut and half-hitched off. All the strands having been fixed each rope in turn is to be undone and drawn tight, slacking tO' be prevented bv tying off with two half-hitch knots. The bottom of the bundle must now receive attention ; the roots are to be covered with moist material and a piece of rope tied to the second last strand, hitched to the last, and enough length of rope left to insure that where a loop is tied it will reach to the centre of the bottom of the bundle. Half of the- overlapping material is to be folded well in, the loop end of the short rope drawn down, and a short stick placed through the loop ; press care- fully into the bundle in order to keep the folded-in material in position whilst turning the bundle over. This done, take a strand of rope and begin strapping half-way along, working down to the bottom of the bundle and hitching off at the last strand. Finish folding in the other half of the overlapping material, withdraw the stick, pass the end of the- rope through the loop, draw taut, and hitch off : quarter off the bundle by strapping in the same manner ; cut away anv superfluous ends ot rope and the bundle is finished. To- guard against breakage care must be- ex 14. DIFFERENT TYPES OF LATERALS, SHOWING FRUITING HABIT. will sometimes be found growing on three separate seasons' growth. Although this takes place at times, the quantity of fruit Ix^rne on cth°r than 15. DIFFERENT TYPES OF LATERALS IN BLOOM. the previous season's growth is so unimportant that it should not be reckoned with in the pruning of the tree. At this point, perhaps, the different types of fruiting laterals in No. 14 might be examined. These will indicate, to some extent, the manner 214 Jour}ial of Agriculture, Vicloria. [lo April, 1912. in which those laterals that are classed as one-year-old at pruning bear their fruit and also suggest the most satisfactory method of handling them for fruit production. Fig. B. in No. 14 shows a good type of fruiting lateral. It will be observed that this lateral is fruiting right to its terminal point. It will be of no value for fruit production during the following season owing to no fresh growth being made. If allowed to remain on the tree it may e\-en- tually break into fresh growth and subsequently bear fruit. However, in a well-regulated tree the object is to remove such shoots after they have fruited well, and encourage fresh ones from year to year. Fig. C. in the same plate shows two vigorous laterals carrying a good supply of fruit. This type, and that shown at B., are best for fruit production on the olive. They, with all the other laterals depicted in this plate except E., are in their second season's growth, or are what would be one-veir (or season)-old at pruning. The arrows at H indicate the terminal BRANCH SHOWING DETERIORATED LATERALS. point of the previous season's extension. Further growth is being made, which may fruit in the ensuing season. Fig. D. is an example of a lateral, bearing fruit both on the previous season's growth, which terminates at /, and on the current season's growth, which is indicated at /'. The next lateral on the same plate, indicated at E., is from the Poly- morpha variety. It is in its third year's growth. The fruits borne on the old wood at k have sprung from what might be termed adventitious buds. This frequently takes place; more especially on som.e varieties, as Uvaria or Polym.orpha, that are in a vigorous state of growth. The letter / indi- cates the terminal point of the first season's growth, while ;« is the terminal of the second season's growth. Fruit alone has been pi'oduced in its third season, no further extension of wood growth being made. Al- though this type is of some value for fruiting it is by no means amongst the best of the olive laterals. lo April, 19 12.] Tlte Olive. 215 Two different types are again illustrated at F and G. The former are from Conditiver and show the solitary, terminal fruiting habit of this variety. The latter are from Nigerrima and show the clustering at the terminal jooint that often occurs on this and other varieties. The branches of fruit at A are from the Uvaria variety. Before stopping to review the various types of wood depicted on No. 14, it would, perhaps, be better to consider the nature of the various types shown on No. 15. They represent four of the most characteristic laterals found on well-cared-for trees. Fig. A is a branching lateral in its third season's growth. A couple of lea\es may be noticed still growing on that portion that is indicated at e, which is the extent of the first year's growth. Wliere those leaves re- main on wood of this age, it often happens that fruit is born from buds that break out at their axils, as was shown at Fig. E. on No. 14. The fruit buds may be observed at / springing from the axils of the leaves. This is on the second season's growth, which terminates at g. A further extension is being made at // during the third season. The three remaining types shown in this plate belong to what are known as one-year (or season)-old laterals at pruning. They were photo- graphed at the beginning of their second season's growth, in whxh they subsequently develop fruit. A very free development of fruit buds may be noticed practically the whole length of those at B and C. The difference occurs only at the terminal point. On those shown at B a further extension is being made at i, while at j, in the other pair, the terminal point has ceased to make any further wood extension and has developed only flower buds. This terminal fruiting habit is most apparent in those shoots that have a downward or drooping tendency and are not likely to recontinue in active growth. Those shown at D are what are commonly known as barren laterals. The terminal point of the first season's growth is indicated at K, while a further fresh extension is being made. These laterals often serve a useful purpose by sheltering the more permanent parts of the tree, besides sometimes developing fruit in their third or fourth season's growth. After a careful examination of the types of wood illustrated in Nos. 14 and 15 it is manifest that the olive is essentially a " lateral-bearing" tree. That is, it produces its fruit chiefiy on comparatively long slender growths that extend from year to year from the more permanent parts of the tree; also, that the great bulk of the fruiting wood is of last season's growth. The best class of this fruit bearing wood is represented by those types depicted at Figs. B and C in No. 14 and at B and C in No. 15. In the majority of cases, however, once these laterals fruit, their decline sets in. This tendency is more marked in those that have assumed a drooping or downward tendency. Hence, one of the most important objects in the treatment of established trees is the encouragement from year to year of a good supply of these fresh laterals for fruiting in the following season. If the trees are left to themselves the laterals extend very slowly owing to the crowding that usually results and the deterioration that takes place in the wood. The fruit is then borne on the few inches of growth that is made at the terminal points and chiefly on the outside of the tree. The branch shown on No. 16 gives a fair indication of what happens where the vigour is diminished and continual subdivisions take place. It is plain that any fruit borne on the terminals of these many deteriorated laterals will be inferior in quality and more difficult to gather than that which is produced on the strong-growing ones. 2l6 Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo April, 1912, The crowns of the young trees should be formed about 18 inches from the ground and a good set of main arms encouraged. The stan- dard system of training the trees is adopted in some places. This consists of training the tree to a single stem for about 5 feet from the ground and then allowing the head to assume a globular form. The gooseberry bush method of training several trunks from the ground is also adopted, but neither of these methods is recommended here. The writer favours the establish- ment of a low crown and the main- tenance of a modified vase form ; that is, more branches are retained than is usual with some of our other fruit trees. Care should be taken, however, that ample space is af- forded for the free development of laterals on all the main branches, as the wood will not mature when crowding takes place 17. BRANCH UNPRUNED. '''"^ the best results cannot be mamtained. For the fir-t three or four years after planting the main object in pruning should be the establishment of a good frame-work and the maintenance of good growth in the tree. The trees should be kept well in hand and fruiting wood encouraged right from the base upwards. It will be necessary, as stated before, that provision be made for the re- • '^ ^ . newal of the supply of fruiting wood from year to year. This is best done by maintaining a reserve of strength in the tree, by cutting back and thinning out. Thus more general growth throughout the tree is encour- aged each season, and the possi- bility of it spending its strength in any one season by excessive cropping and being unable to produce sufficient wood for a crop in the following season is minimized. Owing to the pliable nature of the wood the direction and rigidity of the main limbs should be carefully maintained ; otherwise a pronounced ten- (Ui^ BRANCH AS IN NO. 1 7 PRUNED SHOWING THINNING OF LATERALS AND CUTTING BACK OF LEADER. to April, 1912.] Farm Black%miih'ni e. 217 dency to spread will be observed where heavy crops occur and the limbs will not easily regain their original position. This tendency is more marked, of course, in some varieties than in others, owing to the habits of growth being entirely dissimilar. The pruning season may start as soon as the crop is off the trees, and may continue until just before the spring growth sets in. That is, the work should be carried out usually about June or July in most of our districts, varying somewhat with the locality and variety. If the frame-work has been properly established the chief care at each annual pruning will be the selection and encouragement of the right class of laterals for fruiting. As a general practice the spurring back of the laterals is not advised. It is better to practice thinning, leaving the remain- ing ones long. {To he cotilinued.) FARM BLACKSMITHING. {Continued from page 195.) George Baxter, Instructor in Blacksmithing, Working Men's College, Melbourne. v.— WELDING {continued). Forging Spanners. Figure 53 shows two methods of forging spanners. A is the usual manner in which they are made from steel out of a solid bar, and B is the best method of making from iron. To forge the first named a piece of mild steel is required equal in thickness to the depth of the nut and in width about one and three-quarters the breadth of the nut. FIG. 53. SPANNER. {a) Roughing out. [b) Position to cut off bar. [c) The completed spanner. {d) and {e) Scarfed ready for welding. Such a piece of metal is first drawn down to form the handle, as shown in A ; the length of handle requiring to be fifteen times the diameter of the bolt. It would then be cut off at B, the enlarged portion roughlv rounded, and a hole punched as shown by dotted lines. The hole being then drifted out to the breadth of nut the gap would be cut out with the chisel and the spanner afterwards forged as near as possible to shape shown at C. The handle should be the last part finished bv rounding the edges with a top and bottom swage, so that it will be comfortable in the hand. 2i8 Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo April, 1912- For an iron spanner (best made as shown at D and E) take a square- bar equal in size to the diameter of bolt it is intended for ; cut off a piece long enough to make the handle, upset and lap-scarf it, and allow the point of scarf to spread out as shown. To make the jaw, heat and upset the bar at the place where the weld is to be, then bend and scarf with the ball end of the hand hammer. After welding, forge to shape by cutting off the corners to dotted line and finish. The following proportions of spanners will no doubt be found useful. Taking the breadth of the nut as i, then the outer diameter of jaw will be 2 ; thickness of jaw fths. for steel, and fths for iron; length of handle- 15 ; greatest breadth of handle i ; least breadth of handle, g. Working and Tempering Stlel. It may be considered an accomplishment to know sufficient about the nature of steel, and the manner in which it is manipulated at the forge, to be able to make a useful tool. It certainly should be eminently useful to the farmer, removed as he is, in many cases, by miles from a black- smith's shop. Proficiency in the art of tool-making can only be acquired by long practice, close observation, and extreme care. Whilst the farmer does not require to enter into all the intricate detaiU- of tool-making, or study all the phenomena connected with steel, yet if he is desirous of making or repairing a tool he wants to understand more about it than could be learned by simply watching some one else do the work. He wants to know something of the causes of failure, and of the effect that heat has upon the metal, etc. By carefully following the directions given in this article he should be able to meet with a fair measure of success at first, and with further practice there is no reason why he should not becom.e quite an expert. Steel is produced by mechanical means, the process chiefly consisting of adding a small percentage of carbon to wrought iron. The effect of the combination is that the character of the iron is altered to such an extent that it almost appears to be a different metal. The structure has been altered from fibrous to granulur j the hardness intensified ; the weight increased, and the property of welding so affected that it becomes extremely difficult and in some cases impossible of accomplishment. When steel is heated to redness and suddenly cooled it becomes very hard and brittle, and it is this property which makes it the most useful of all metals. It can be made to cut glass ; it can be rendered so soft that it may be cut by another piece of steel such as the blade of a pocket knife j it can be forged' and bent into any conceivable shape. It can be made so elastic that thou- sands of oscillations will not alter its shape. (For example take a watch spring, which will remain visibly perfect for years). It can also be made- of any degree of hardness between the two extremes, and the process by which this is done is called temfering. Tempering by which elasticity is produced, is effected by reducing some of the hardness given to steel by heating and quickly cooling it. The. degree of hardness of a tool varies : firstly, by the hardness of the material to be cut and, secondly, by the manner in which it is to be cut ; for instance if the work is to be performed by means of a blow then the tool needs to be made as elastic as possible and at the same time retain sufficient hardness to maintain a cutting edge ; but if the tool be required to work in a lathe where the pressure is fairly constant then it may be made much harder. A piece of steel that has been heated to redness and cooled out will if polished be of a silvery whiteness, and if slowly reheated changes in the- ]o April, \gi2.] Farm Blacksjiiithiiig. 219 -colour of its surface will be noticed. These changes are due to the oxida- tion of the surface of the metal exposed to the atmosphere and heat. As the temperature rises the colours darken. The first indication of change takes place when the temperature rises to 250 deg. Fahr. It will then be noticed to be of a dirty white colour. As the heat increases it assumes a yellow colour, then dark straw, brown, purple, and varying .shades of blue. 'J'he changes, which are called the tempering colours, are followed as guides in determining the hardness of the steel. The first essential to the production oi good tools is the selection of suitable steel. Manufacturers of steel make it in many grades, and as each grade is intended for a specific purpose if steel be u.sed for a purpose that it is not intended for then good results cannot be obtained. Notwith- standing this there are many who have an idea that the high priced qualities are the best for all purposes. That is a mistake; there are times when the cheapest is best. In purchasing steel it is always well to state the purpose for which it is to be used and the merchant will know what grade to supply. The tools about a farm do not as a rule require to be made of high- grade steel, e.g., steel containing a large percentage of carbon. The quality used for miners' drills would suit most purposes and give very good results if properly treated. It costs about 4d. per lb. In working steel, greater care must be exercised than in forging iron or mild steel It will not permit of beiiig heated to a temperature above bright red without injury, because when so heated the carbon becomes burnt out and so it is destroyed. Neither must it be hammered after the redness has. left it. for such treatment would cause it to crack. Low grade steel may be welded, but the operation requires considerably more skill than the welding of iron. Welding steel should therefore be avoided, excepting in the case of pointing picks, crow-bars, or plough-shares. What is known as blister steel is most suitable for welding purposes. Forging a Cold Chisel. To make a cold-chisel (Fig. 54) for cutting metal, take a piece of f-in. octagonal steel, and cut off a piece 6 J in. long. Heat one end to redness and form the head, which is done simply with the hand hammer. In draw- ing out the chisel end, do so with as few heats as possible, for the rea.son that each heating reduces the carbon value. For ordinary purposes the shape of the chisel should be as shown in the sketch. The width of blade does not require to be more than \ in., and the lengih of tapered part alx>ut 3 in. It is now ready for tempering and grinding. To temper, heat the tool slowly and evenly to a low red for a distance of about 2 in. from the point, place about i in. of the heated portion in water which has previously been heated to about 70 deg. Fahr., and after a period of about five seconds, slowly raise the tool about \ in. ; let it remain there for several seconds longer. Remove from the water, and with a piece of sandstone, brick, or emery cloth rub vigorously to remove the scale from the surface, when the part which was cooled will be white, and as the heat is conducted to the point from the back so the colours will appear on the surface. When the point assumes a purple hue, quickly plunge again into the water; cool right out, and grind. In grinding a chisel to cut iron the angle formed at the point should not be le.ss than 70 degrees. If ground too thin it will not stand up to the work, no matter how well it may be tempered. The punch (Fig. 55) needs no further comment than that it requires the same treatment as the chisel. 220 ] ounial of Agriculture. Victoria. [lo April, I9I2_ A drill (Fig. 56) is made to fit the socket of a machine or ratchet-brace by forging ; the cutting end is first formed like a punch, then flattened at the end as shown, and the corners cut off. The temper of a drill needs to be dark straw at the point, which is slightly harder than the chisel. A cross-cut chisel (Fig. 57) is used for cutting key-ways in wheels that are fixed to a revolving shaft ; or when it is necessary to remove a large- amount of metal from a large flat surface the cross-cut is used for chipping a number of grooves, and the ridges so left are cut off with a flat chisel. The process of making a cross-cut needs but little description, the shape- being suggestive of the mode of procedure. One point about it is that the end of the chisel needs to be made wider than the remaining part of the blade. If it is not widened out as shown in the drawing it will stick in the groove formed by cutting, and so cause trouble. It is tempered in exactly the same manner as the cold chise(. If a tool when put to use after forging and tempering is found to- quickly blunt, it shows that the temper has been reduced too much. In such a case, retemper it to a lighter colour, e.g., if it were tempered, say,. FIG. 54. COLD CHISEL. FIG. 55. rUNClI. FIG. FIG. 57. CROSS CUT CHISEL. to a purple hue, then let it be dark straw. It will further be found that whilst one piece of steel will be sufficiently hard at purple, another will require a higher temper — due to the quality of the steel. When a tool breaks in working, it may be through being tempered too hard, or through overheating in forging or tempering. If from the first cause the fracture will be quite white, and on examination of the fracture it will be found to be of a very fine grain. When overheating has been the cause then the break will be partly black and partly bright and the fracture will be always curved; if badly burnt the break will show a very coarse and cry.stalline grain. Pointing a Pick. Picks are made of iron, with a small piece of steel welded on to the- point. This, of course, wears away, and necessarily requires to be relaid. Sometimes only a very short piece of steel has been welded on, and when such is the case a new piece may be welded on by splitting the end of the pick with a hot chisel (so as to make it look like the letter Y), a piece of steel first made wedge-shaped and inserted into the split ; a welding heat lo April, 1912.] Farm Blacksmiili'nig. taken, and then hammered to required shape. In making the wedge, have the surfaces roughened by driving a chisel into them, and previous to putting into position make the pick point red hot; the v^^edge cold. The reason for doing so is that by having the Y heated, and the steel cold, the iron is embedded in the cuts made in the wedge by striking a good hard blow on it, and the wedge is thus prevented from falling out in the fire. When very much worn it becomes necessary to lengthen the pick point by first welding a wedge-shaped piece of iron on the back of the pick some distance from the point, as shown at A in Fig. 58, so that the point of the pick and the piece of iron form the Y shape for the reception of steel— B, same figure. It is then treated as mentioned above. The best steel for welding to picks, crow-bars, or plough-shares is blister steel, which may be bought in sizes suitable for requirements j but if not available then a piece of miners' drill steel may be used. In taking a welding heat on steel great care must be exercised to secure good results. Steel, being much more diffi- cult to weld than iron, has to be done at a much lower temperature. It is always advisable, and in most cases necessary, to use a flux for the purpose. For welding blister steel to iron, sand will do for a flux, or if a small quantitv of borax (about i in 4) be added, the work is facilitated. When FIG. FIG. higher grade steel is to be welded, there are special welding mixtures that may be purchased, but if borax alone be used it makes a very effective flux. The heat for welding steel is of a yellowish colour. If heated the same as iron the steel would fly to pieces when struck with the hammer. Relaying a Plough Share. All plough shares cannot be relaid. Some are made of cast iron, which is unweldable. Those made of wrought steel can be repaired time after time. Fig. 59 shows one well worn, and the dotted lines indicate the original shape. To make them up to those lines, a piece of iron is welded on, a start being made at the top corner and working towards the point. It is impossible to weld the piece all the way along at one heating, about 4 inches being about the maximum length that can be done at once. When the iron is v.elded on a piece of steel is then put on the point. It is almost impossible to describe in detail how this may be done, the condition of the iihares being different in each instance. Ingenuity and common sense are required to carry out the work successfully. (Coiicluded.) -2 2 2 Journal of Agriculture , Victoria. [lo April, 1912. SOIL MOISTURE AND CHOPPING. By John W. Pater son, B.Sc, Ph.D., Exfcrimcntalist. A twenty-bushel crop of wheat (grain, straw and roots) contains at harvest about 450 lb. of water. This water is present as water in the crop. Chemical analysis further shows that it contains about 170 lb. of hydrogen chiefly in its starch and protein compounds. This hydrogen would nearly all come from water which was decomposed as water by the plant while growing. It requires 1,530 lb. of water to yield 170 lb. of hydTOgen. Adding 450 and 1,530 we get 1,980 lb. of water. One inch of rain- fall per acre weighs just over 100 tons, so that 1,980 lb. of water equals 0.0088 inches, or 0.88 points. If water only played the part of phosphoric acid or any ordinary food material to plants then 0.88 points of rain would satisfy the requirements of this crop for water. The insufficiency of such a ranifall is abundantly manifest. About 2,000 times as much rain must fall on the ground annually, and such a rainfall must have a suitable periodic distribution, to give a yield of wheat such as is here contemplated. What then was the use of all this rain of which the crop has nothing to show at harvest, but which was nevertheless required to produce the desired yield? There are three answers : — (i) Part of it was used in the vital processes, and afterwards discarded from the stems and leaves during the growth ot the plant. (2) Part of it was necessary for the soil changes whereby food materials are prepared for the plant. (3) Part of it was inevitably lost from the .soil. First: — As to the water discarded by the plant. — The crop of wheat under consideration would weigh dry about i| tons. In producing this dry matter it is essential that very much water must pass through the plant during growth. It has been variously estimated that frqm 200 to 600 lb. of water must pass through the plant for each i lb of dry increase. Taking 400 as a middle figure, it would thus be necessary for i J x 400 ^= 600 tons of water to be absorbed from the soil and evaporated from the leaves to produce the crop of wheat. This amount of water equals 6 inches of rainfall. Satisfactory figures are wanting. It is certain however that different crops, and probably in an important degree different varieties of the same crop, make widely different demands in regard to water per unit of dry matter formed. The subject is an important one as bearing upon the best crops, and the best variety of crop to cultivate in dry districts. Economy in the use of water is not howe\-er everything in a crop ; ability to obtain the water under various conditions is not less important. The power of any crop to obtain water depends upon several factors among which are : — - (i) The percentage of water in the soil. (2) The readiness with which its water is gradually given up by the particular class of land. (3) The amount of pure air (oxygen) at the rootlets. (4) The soil temperature. (5) The concentration (osmotic value) of the weak salt solution forming the soil moisture. (6) The variety and vigour of the crop. (7) Climate — particularly as regards sunshine, humidity and wind. lo April. i9I--] Scil Mniifurc and Cropping. Secondly: — .4^ to zvaicr necessary for the soil processes ivlierehy food materials arc rendered available for crops. — On the average a soil will contain loo times more plant food than the crop then growing on it re- quires. But the crop cannot use it because the soil constituents must be easily soluble before thev can be taken up or ab.sorbed as plant food. The soil constituents which the crop finds most difficulty in obtaining enough of in soluble forms are nitric and phosphoric acids, and sometimes potash. There is extremely little available phosphoric acid and also sometimes little available potash left in a poor soil at harvest. For the next crop, unless manured, the chief source of supply is the amount which can be rendered available in the intenal. A year's fallow gives longer time. But in order that the process whereby the phosphoric acid is made available may go on, the soil must be sufficiently moist. Chemical change scarcely occurs between dry solids. In addition to chemical change, solution of mineral plant foods is to some extent effected by tHe soil bacteria, but these also require moisture. In fallow, it is desirable to conserve moisture apart from the water requirement of the next crop, because the moisture facilitates the solution of mineral plant food during the period of fallow. But probably soil moisture is most important from the point of view of nitric acid formation. Deficiency of phosphoric acid can be made goo*! at relatively small cost by a small application of superphosphate and its use is perfectly safe. Nitric acid on the other hand is not only much dearer, but its application artificially as nitrate tends to force on a kind of growth which renders the crop more subject to damage by drought at a later date. The process whereby nitric acid is formed from the insoluble nitrogenous compounds of decaying crops is termed nitrification. The change is brought about by several different kinds of bacteria. There are three stages. One kind attacks the nitrogen of the decaying crop residues ; a second carries the work through another stage ; the third yields the finished nitric acid. It is known that sufficient moisture must be present to allow these germs to work, and that they may be killed by se\'ere drought. Exactly how much water they require to do their best work, and at what stage of dryness they cease work altogether is a subject however upon which there appears no reliable information. Nitrification is a necessary antecedent to crop-production on any land growing grain or roots, and to provide suitable conditions for it is of primary importance. It is of particular importance on soils continuously under crop without any return of fresh vegetable matter to them, because en such land nitrification becomes each year more difficult. Thirdly: — As to water lost inevitably from the soil. — There are three ways in which water is lost from soils : — - (i) Surface drainage into ditches and watercourses. (2) Percolation into underground springs. (3) Evaporation from the surface. (i) Surface drainage causes most loss on baked surfaces, lying on the slope, and when the rainfall is concentrated in a short period of time. N[ore particularly in autumn and winter, when the land is hard, is much water lost in this way. Early ploughing after harvest avoids loss, as not only is the surface left rough to impede surface flow, but at the same time the upper portion of the soil it rendered sufficiently open and porous to take in what falls upon it. (2) Percolation into underground springs. This loss is unavoidable^ and in many ca.ses it is an advantage preventing the soil becoming water- logged. In some classes of land, particularly clays, when no natural 224 Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo April, 191 2. escape for surplus water exists it is necessary to underdrain to get the «ame result. (3) Evaporation from the surface. All soils are subject to this loss and the amount may represent the total annual rainfall. According to Greaves the yearly amount evaporated from a water surface in the vicinity of Lon- don equals 20.6 inches. There is more loss than this from a soil kept fully saturated. While fully saturated all soils lose water at the same rate. As different soils are allowed to dry those with largest particles (sands) lose water fastest. After a time those with finest particles (clays) lose most because they have most to lose. Finally, both kinds of soils come to a balance losing or gaining moisture according to the humidity of the air. Evaporation may be greatly diminished by protecting the soil from the action of sun and wind. Under ordinary circumstances as the soil loses moisture by evaporation, more water reaches the surface from below. It rises by capillary attraction through the pores of the soil. The smaller these pores are (within limits) the higher the water will rise; if they are very large it will practically not rise at all Leaves or loose litter spread on the surface have very wide pores and water cannot rise through them. At the same time they prevent rapid evaporation because they shield the soil surface from sun and wind. Litter spread on the surface to limit evaporation is called a mulch. Instead of spreading litter the soil itself may be used as a mulch. For this purpose it is only necessary to stir it to a depth of 2 or 3 inches when it is not too wet. By this means the surface pores become too large to raise the water above the lower layer of the stirred soil. The stirred soil soon appears to dry while an unstirred portion may appear to remain wet, but that is because in the latter case the water is continuing to rise to the surface and dissipate by evaporation, while in the former case no water is rising to the surface and none is lost, because the surface layer is not getting any from underneath to lose. Beneath the apparently dry surface water is being saved from loss in the body of the soil. Working with a 3-inch soil mulch on a clay loam, Professor King of Wisconsin found that 63.13 per cent, of the evaporation on similar unmulched land was saved in 100 days. When referring to the water requirements of a wheat crop it was ob- served that about 400 tons probably was required to produce i ton dry in- crease, equal to approximately 100 tons for each ton of the crop in the green sappy state. In greater or less degree the same is true for the re- quirements of weed plants, and so weeds, whether in the crop or on fallow, rob the land of much moisture. As the making of a soil mulch, whether on fallow land or by way of intertillage in growing crops, kills weeds at the same time as it makes a mulch it has thus a double effect in conserv- ing moisture. The particular importance of soil moisture conservation in Australian farming arises in large part from the powerful evaporation which occurs ■during the summer months. In some ways the conditions are special and more exact information is required. With this object, experiments are being conducted during the present season bearing on the relation of soil moisture to the requirements of the plant, to the conditions for nitri- fication in soils, and to different methods of bare fallowing and inter- tillage. To the reporting of the results of the experiments designed under those heads the present article will serve us as an introduction. lo April, 191^-] '4;/ Effective Sparrozv Trap. = 25 AN EFFECTIVE SPARROW TRAP. /. Wilson, Silo Builder. The prevalence of sparrows throughout the State frequently causes great loss to producers, and to combat this pest the writer has designed a simple, yet effective, trap, by which as many as 200 sparrows have been caught in a single day. The following details of construction and the accompanying illustrations will enable readers to give the method a trial. Cut a i2-ft. piece of 3-ft. x 2-ft. hardwood into 3-ft. lengths, and check them out 3-in. x i-in. on two sides at both ends to take the top and bottom rails, so as to make all the outside faces flush. Also cut four Q-ft. lengths of 3-in. x i-in. Lay two lengths of 3-in. x 2-in. on edge on a level piece of ground, and nail the 3-in. x i-in. pieces temporarily in the checks. Square the side and spike together firmly. Then deal with the other side in the same manner. Next cut six 3-ft. lengths of 3-in. X I-in. and nail them in the other checks at the ends. Fix the other two lengths 12 inches from each end at the top of trap to carry the wire netting. T i 1 ^T==3 1 1 1 1 Q d=3 \ Cover the frame with |-in wire netting. Keep the netting 6 inches from the ground in the centre of trap. Cut out five holes of i|-in. diameter in the centre of the netting. Insert points of snips and give a turn to form round holes. Co^-er the side with netting and lace top- and sides together with wire. Then cut out sides to the sweep of the top wire. Make and fix two ledge doors at each end of the trap. The following material will be required: — Timber. — One 12 ft., 3x2 hardwood. Four 9 ft. ; one 18 ft., 3 x i ; 35 ft-, 6 X |, T. and G. Galvanized wire netting, 3-ft. wide, ^-in. mesh, 11 yards. T-hinges and screws, 12 inches, two pairs. Clout tacks, 2 inch, i lb. Wire nails, 3 inches, i lb. As sparrows often congregate near poultry runs, it is suggested that one or two fowls be placed in the trap for the first day to attract the sparrows. It is also advisable, when emptying the trap, to leave one or two birds to act as decoys. Bait the trap with a handful of grain. 226 Journal of Agriculture , Victoria. [lo April, 191 2. BEE-KEEPING IN VICTORIA. {Continued from page 179.) F. R. Beuhne, Bee Expert. IV.— Hives. The hive most generally in use in Victoria is the " Langstroth " either •eight or ten frame. There are however a number of beekeepers who use a modified form of the Heddon hive. Whatever hive is adopted the walls should not be less than | inch in thickness, otherwise extremes of tempera- ture will affect the bees, and during very hot weather combs may melt down. All hives sold by manufacturers are made of |-inch wood, and 1 strongly ad\'ise beginners who intend to make their own hives not to use thinner boards. The eight-frame Langstroth hive, as shown in Fig. 5, is made of |-inch shelving, pine, or Californian redwood. It measures 20 in. by 13^ in. outside, and is 9j inches deep, giving an inside measurement of i8j x i2g X 9J. The ten-frame Langstroth is of the same length and depth, but of 16 inches outer and 14^ inches inner width, thus giving room for two more frames. The end boards of the hive are rebated inside to a distance of \ inch down and \ inch into the thickness of the board. On to the shoulder of this rebate is nailed a runner of folded tin so as to project \ inch up- wards. On this metal runner rest the top bars of the frames, and its purpose is to prevent the crushing of bees when handling frames and to avoid the gluing down of the latter by the bees. Two kinds of frames are sold by dealers, the Simplicity and the Hoff- mann. The outer dimensions of both are the same, viz., lyf in. x 95 in., with the top bar 19^ inch long, but while in the Simplicity, or loose hanging frame, top, side and bottom bar are all of the same width, viz., \ inch, in the Hoffmann, or self -spacing frame, the upper part of the side bars is t| inch wide. When pushed close together in the hive, they give the correct spacing of the combs, viz., i| inch, which is the a\'erage distance at which bees build combs when in a state of nature. Eight or ten frames in the respective hives leave a small space, this is occupied by a thin board of the dimensions of the frames and called the follower and its object \h to more easily remove or handle the frames after it is withdrawn. The thickness of the bars of the Simplicity frame is top bar \ inch or | inch, reduced to | inch at the projecting ends ; side bars | to 7-16 inch ; bottom bar J to I inch. In the Hoffmann frame the thickness and width of the top bar varies witli different manufacturers, American frames having a top bar I inch wide and | inch thick, while sorne frames of local make have a top bar | inch wide, and \ inch or f inch thick. The bottom bar is f inch X \ inch in all the different makes. Whatever the thickness of the bars the outside measurement of the frame is always the same. The Simplicity frame is the cheapest and easiest to uncap for the ex- traction of honey, but, being a loose hanging frame, it has some serious disadvantages. Each frame has to be spaced separately every time bees are handled, and as there is a ^-inch space between the frames when correctly spaced the bees will often build comb into these spaces and on to the end wall of the hive. Further, every time a hive is moved the ic April, 1912.] Bcc-kccpiuf^ in Victoria. 227 Fig. 5.--Ei<^ht-franie Langstroth Hive, Two Storey. n Fig. 6. — End and General View of Simi)licity Fran:e. Fig. 7. — End and General View of Hoffmann Frame. Fig. 8. — End and General View of New France. 528 Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo April, 1912. frames have to be secured in some way to prevent them knocking against one another and crushing bees, and for these reasons self -spacing frames ^re more advantageous. Tlie difference in the first cost between Simplicity and self-spacing frames is only 2s. to 2s. 6d. per hundred frames. Wide top bar Hoffmann frames as used in America are somewhat difficult to uncap when extracting ; as the comb of honey when sealed does not project beyond the wide top bar, it cannot be used as a guide for the uncapping knife, as can be done with the Simplicity or the Hoffmann, with a | inch x | inch top bar as shown in Figure 7. One drawback of Hoffmann frames is that the bees often fasten the side bars of the frames together with wax or propolis. The latter is a sub- stance gathered by the bees for the purpose of filling up any interstices or crevices in the hive. It consists of resin, wattle-gum, tar, paint, cart- grease, and similar substances. In some districts, propolis is a great nuisance to the beekeeper. Some strains of bees will daub it everywhere inside the hive. To overcome this difficulty, and also that of uncapping Hoffmann wide top bar frames, .and yet have a self-spacing frame, a number of apiarists, including the writer, have adopted the frame shown in Figure 8. It has a top bar |- inch wide. | inch thick^ bottom bar | inch x | inch, and side bars ig- in. x h in. The top and bottom bars are nailed on so that the side bar projects on the reverse side at the opposite end. The spacing is obtained by four stout flat-headed nails driven into the side bars and projecting J inch, as shown in the illustration (Fig. 8). These frames are not stocked by manufacturers, but will be made to order if ordered in sufficient quantities. They can however easily be made by any one at all handy with tools, the only difference between them and the Sim- plicity frames being that the side bars are i inch instead of -J inch, and that the frames are nail spaced instead of loose hanging. The Heddon hanging frame hive, also known as the Bolton hive, is what is called a sectional hive. The hive consists of shallow bodies 5f inches deep, with self-spacing fram.es 5I inches deep. The advantages •claimed for it are that it can be readily expanded or reduced in size ac ■cording to conditions and season by adding or removing stories ; that swarming can be prevented or controlled by means of inverting the sets of frames at intervals, thus causing the destruction of queen cells, and that shallow supers are easier to lift and handle when full of honey, and the shallow combs easier to uncap than deep ones. As an offset against these advantages, it must be mentioned that the Heddon hive costs more, that double the number of combs have to be handled when extracting, and that the splitting up of the hi^'e into so many sets of frames bv the intervening bee spaces has a tendency to re tard breeding up in spring. In connexion with this, I should like to say that the correct bee space between set of frames in the stories of a hive is \ inch. In the hives pur- chased from manufacturers too much allowance is made (generally) for shrinkage of timber, leaving up to f inch between the stories. This excessive space first acts as a great check on the bees entering the super in spring, while later on it is filled with comb and honey, and is a hindrance and nuisance every time a hive is opened, also causing the death of many bees when frames are replaced in supers without first removing the pieces of comb which connected the upper and lower frames. With a \ inch bee space between the stories there will be little or no bur comb. (To be continued.) ic April. 191--] General Notes. 229 GENERAL NOTES. By J. \V. P. AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH IN UNITED STATES OF AMERICA— According to the report of the Secretary of Agriculture of the United States for 19 10, there are now 62 agricultural experiment stations in active work in that country. Fifty-five of these stations receive appropriations provided for by Acts of Congress, which amounted to ^269,000 in the fiscal year 1909-10 ; in addition ^^200, 000 was contributed by the State Legislatures, and ;^ 150,000 was received by the stations as fees for analyses of fertilisers, sales of farm products and from other local sources. The total annual revenue is over _;^6oo,ooo as compared with half that sum in 1905. Generally speaking, the State funds are mainly used for the more practical work, including maintenance of sub-stations, demon- stration fields, agricultural surveys and a great variety of local experi- ments, while the funds provided by Acts of Congress are chiefly devoted to original research in difficult problems of agriculture generally. C50L STORAGE OF FRUIT— Annually for some years past the New Zealand Department of Agri- culture has placed in the cool chambers of the Auckland Farmers' Co- operative Freezing Company considerable quantities of fruit, comprising a large number of varieties of apples and pears. The object of the tests was to regulate the markets during periods of glut and thus avoid losses to the growers. In the December issue of the Journal of the Defartment the following important points are noted in connexion with the cool storage •of apples and pears : — (i) " Cool storage retards the normal rapid or fairly rapid ripening of the fruit. Consequently, most varieties should be well matured and well coloured, but gathered a little on the green side, to achieve the best results." (2) " Bruised or blemished fruit, or fruit attacked by pest or disease, should not be placed in cool storage." (3) " Ripe or over-ripe pears will not keep sound." (4) " Immature fruits shrivel." (5) '■' Apples of soft texture when ripe should be gathered for cool storage before becoming fullv ripe." It is believed that the development of cool storage in the Dominion will do much to improve the prospects of fruit-growers there. GERMINATION OF WEED SEEDS— Wonder is often expressed at the sudden appearance of weeds upon land under cultivation where no signs of the same plants were visible while the land lay in pasture. In the Journal of the Board of Agricid- iure (London) an account is given of some interesting investigations. The 230 JournaJ of Agriculture , Victoria. [10 April. 1912.- weeds experimented with were the ribwort or "rib-grass" {Plantago lanccolatci) and wild mustard {Sinafis arvens'is). In 1899, pots containing 100 seeds of each weed were placed at a depth of 12 inches below the sui- face of the ground. From 1900 onwards a pot was dug up each year and the seeds allowed to germinate. With rib-grass two-thirds of the seeds were dead by 1900, but after ten years 8 per cent, still retained their germinating capacity. With the yellow-flowered mustard the germinating capacity was as high after ten years (87 per cent.) as after one year. For purposes of comparison seeds kept in dry storage since 1899 have been allowed to germinate in each year from 1900 onwards. The seeds of rib-grass germinated fairly well the first few years, but by 1909 were all dead. The percentage of seeds of mustard germinating after one year was 82 per cent., and after ten years 24 per cent. In other experi- ments lasting for six years it was found that those buried deepest in the ground retained their germinating power ';est The seeds of cultivated plants, especially grasses, lost their germinating power in the soil much more quickly than the related weed seeds. Weed seeds were found to- retain their germinating power after passing through the digestive tract of a cow or pig, but when eaten by fowls were, as a rule, destroyed. MILK RECORDS— With the object of demonstrating the value of milk records to the- dairy farmer the Lancashire (England) County Council has been carrying- out tests during the last three years — in 1908 on fourteen farms, in 1909 on twelve farms, and in 1910 on twelve farms. Each herd was tested" as regards the yield and composition of the milk once every three weeks, this having been found to give results sufficiently correct for practical purposes. The total yield for the three weeks was got by multiplying the yield on the day of te ting bv 10.5, and the est'mated yield half-wav between two testings by 10.5, and adding the two results. A number of points elucidated by the records obtained are discussed in this report. The usual great differences were found in the capacity of individual cows. Taking the two best and the two worst cows at various ages (twelve good and twelve bad cows in all) the average yield of milk of the best cows was found to be nearly double that of the worst. It is estimated that in the case of the former, after paying for the cost of keep, a gross profit of ^10 per annum per cow is left, but with the latter a loss of 3s. 8d. per cow. This Department has arranged a scheme and prepared cards for keeping milk records, and is readv to supply niformation to thore wishing to improve their milking herds along those lines. HARVESTING THROUGH THISTLES— An ingenious invention has been made by Mr. E. N. I'anson. a farmer in the Grenfell district of New South Wales. Last year he sowed a crop of wheat in an old thistly paddock ; the crop was put in late and the thistles beat it. They were chiefly star thistles and a few black ones, and as it was impossible to make hay owing to the thistles being so- thick it was decidfcd to strip it. This however was also found to be- Tio April. 191--] General Notes. impracticable as they clogged up the combs of the harvesters. Mr. ranson did not wish to abandon the crop, however, so he hit upon another i)lan. He fixed a bar from which long prongs projected in front of and above the comb of the harvester. These prongs were wide enough to allo'.v the wheat to pass through to the comb of the harvester, but were sufficiently close to catch the thistles. The arrangement was worked bv a lever and was kept pointing forward above the crop when a clean patch was being stripped, but on coming to a thistly patch the prongs were lowered and pointed backward beneath the comb, so that the thistles were y)ushed down beneath it. Instead of having to abandon t"he crop the inventor stripped 16 bushels to the acre. A brief description of the above is given in the Agricultural Gazette of New South Wales for January, and it is anticipated that the contrivance, which the inventor was advised to patent, will prove of real benefit on thistlv crops. LUCERNE— Regarding the needs of lucerne we could almost sum the matter up in four words — lime, drainage, humus and inoculation. Perhaps we have given these in the order of their relative importance. Lime is necessary on soils not naturally of limestone formation or filled with limestone pebbles. The importance of this is impressed on us more and more each year; in fact, we believe to-day that there have been more failures through- out the United States on account of insufficient lime in the soil than from any other cause. Then as to drainage ; there is no use in planting lucerne on any soil where water may ordinarily be found at a depth of less than 3 feet. The lucerne may grow all right until its roots strike this water, but then it will d e. Fertile soils contain enough humus. Impoverished soils may be so deficient that special preparation must be made before lucerne can possibly succeed. Where stable manure is not available, on impoverished soils we would recommend preparation for lucerne one or two years in advance growing such crops as crimson clo-ver. mammoth clover, cow peas, Canada field peas or soja beans, and preferablv turning them under, or else pasturing them off so as to give the soil the greatest benefit possible from them. We recommend inoculation, not that it is always necessary, but it is an inexpensive process, and in five cases out of six it will actually pay. — Irrigation Age. Chicago. THE NEW NITROGENOUS MANURES— There is an increasing demand fcr nitrogenous manures in the more humid districts of the State, and this is likely to extend as cultivation l>ecomes of older date. In view of this fact and the present excessive price of some of these manures the discovery and rapid development of two chemical proces.ses wherebv nitrogenous manures are manufactured from atmospheric gases has m^cre than passing interest. The two new fertilirers are known as nitrate of lime, and cyanamid of lime. They are both products of the electric furnace, the necessary energy being obtained 232 Journal of Agriculture , Victoria. [10 April, 1912, for cheapness at waterfalls. During the past year it is estimated that from 170,000 to 180,000 horse-power was used in this way to manufacture nitrates and 20,000 horse-power in the manufacture of cyanamid. The new manures have been tested against the old at a number of experiment stations in Europe and America with most satisfactory results. At Rothamsted the old manures, nitrate of soda and sulphate of ammonia, were tested alongside the new manures — nitrate of lime and cyanamid of lime; and it is reported that " if there is any difference as regards effec- tiveness on the Rothamsted soil between these sources of nitrogen it does not exceed 10 per cent." From experiments elsewhere it would seem that with the cyanamid certain precautions should be observed as to harrow- ing or otherwise covering the material after it is applied, and also as to not applying too much, but nitrate of lime has an action absolutely similar to nitrate of soda, and is probably superior to it on soils poor in lime. So far no bulk samples have reached Australia, but they are sure to come. SWAN HILL HOME-MILKING COMPETITION, 1911. 5. /. Keys, Dairy Supervisor. The above competition was successfully carried out under the auspice?, of the Swan Hill Agricultural Society, the following cond't'ons being observed by competitors : — ■ 1. The cows to be milked at their homes under the supervision of officers of the Department of Agriculture for a period of 24 hours during the two weeks previous to the show, the day's butter production to be taken as the basis in deciding; the cow's yield. 2. In the event of two cows obtaining the same highest yield of butter, the prize to go to the cow that gave the most milk. 3. All cows entered to be shown on the day of show. 4 Nc test or butter returns to be made available un^il cows are in pens in show yard on the day of show. Greatest Butter Production. In the section for cows giving the greatest butter production 10 cow.s were entered. Last year's high returns were easily eclipsed, notwith- standing that, during the trial, a heavy wind prevailed, which no doubt affected the yields. The first prize fell to a beautiful Ayrshire cow, " Pearl," owned by Mr. Robert Hastings, and purchased from Mrs. Smith at her dispersal sale two years ago. Pearl is blood-red in colour, showing strong constitution, beautiful conformation, and splendid condition; she had jui: come into profit from a somewhat lengthy spell, was full of vigor, and in splendid heart for making an ideal milker. In general appearance and in colour lo Ai>RiL, 191-.] SriiiJ/ 11 ill 11 (line Milking Comfctilion. '-2>2> PEARL, WINNER OF TEST. 72 LBS. MILK 2 I BUTTER PER WEEK. LBS. COMMERCIAL this coAv appfars to show as much of the North Devon breeding as of the Ayrshire, hut Mr. Hastings assures me she was got b\ n pure Ayrshire bull and is out oi an Ayrshire cow — ; she gave the fine yield of 72 lbs. milk showing a 3.6 test, equivalent to 2.59 lbs. butter fat per day. (ir a Initter ]iroduction of 21.16 lbs. weekly DULCIE,' SECOND PRIZE. 63^ LBS. MILK — 20.2J4 LBS. COMMERCIAL BUTTER PER WEEK. 3S31. 1 '34 Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo April, 19 12. The second prize was won by "Dulcie, " also owned by Mr. Hastings. " Dulcie," 5 years old, easily beat her record of last year by producing (i'^\ lbs. of milk showing a 3.9 butter fat test, equivalent to 2.47 lbs. butter fat, or 20.224 lbs. of commercial butter weekly. Like her herd mate, " Pearl," she was bred by Mrs. Smith and sold at the high figure of ^14, which was a record for Swan Hill, and considered ridiculous, but Mr. Hastings has never regretted his bargain. On her first calf she gave up to 50 lbs. of milk daily. " Dulcie," a medium sized cow, of an even, quiet, and kind temper, with light bone, and carrying no surplus flesh, had had only 6 weeks' spell before calving, and had been in milk 60 days when tested. She was got by the same Ayrshire bull as the winner, and shows a good deal of the Ayrshire type, although black or brown and white in colour. Greatest Weight of Milk. Section. 2 was for the cow giving the greatest weight of milk in 24 hours. The first and second prizes went to the same cow? and in the same order as in section i, with the third prize cow, a Jersey and Shorthorn cross, 18 lbs. behind the winner. The two winning cows were chiefly run on a growing crop of oats, and after each milking were given a little damp bran, which assisted them materially. The rest of the cows competing were run on natural pastures, as well as lucerne. Had they received a little special attention and hand feed as well, no doubt some of them would ha\e been closer up in the contest. The full returns from the whole of the cows competing are as follow : — Milk, lbs. Butter Butter Fat. Commercial Owner. few. in 24 Fat Butter p.T Hours. Test. Week. lbs. lbs. K. Hastings . . " Pearl " . . 72 3-6 2 ■ 59 21-21 K. Hastings . . ■• Dulcie " . . 63 i 3-9 2-47 20-224 T. Binns " DoUv " . . 43 i 5-2 2-20 18-50 r.JMciver •• Spot " . . .50J 4-2 212 17-36 R. Hastings . . •■ Spot " . . 43 4-4 1-89 15-47 R. Prince " Darkey " 53 J 3-4 1-84 15-06 R. Prince " Jess " 47.1 3-6 1-71 14-00 R. Prince " Beaut V " 52 3-0 1-56 12-77 F.-Mclver " Plum " . . 46J 3-0 1 -41 11-54 R. Prince •• Xancy " . . m 3-2 1 -41 11-54 In 1 9 10, eleven cows competed, the highest butter return being 16.986 or 4.182 lbs. behind this year's winner. Tha lowest this year was 1 1. 1 13 lbs. of butter, while last year's lowest return was 9-775, being 1.338 better for 1911. The average for 1910 was 15.171 lbs., and 15.7 lbs. for 191 1. The greatest weight of milk given by one cow in 1910 was 63.75, while in 1911 it was 72 lbs., being a difference of 8.25 lbs. in favour of this year's winner. The lowest weight in 19 10 was 31I lbs., while in 1911 the lowest was 43! lb., being 12.25 l^s. better than in the previous year. The average weight for the whole of the cows competing was, in 1910, 41.25 lbs., and 51.56 lbs. in 1911, or 10.31 lbs. in favour of this year, when the show was held much earlier than usual, and before the lucerne and grasses were as well advanced. jc April 19 12.] Aiiimal Grant to AgncnUural Socictiis. 235 Value of Irrigation and Lucerne. The high yields of these cows prove plainly the special value of the Northern country for dairying when put under a thorough system of irrigation, and sown down in lucerne. There is no reason why all of the settlers should not have cows competing next year, and keep up or eclipse the high average attained this year. The best of the Swan Hill flats has been acquired by the Lands Pur- chase Board for closer settlement purposes, and has been subdivided into blocks containing about 50 acres each. ■ This land is equally w^ell suited for citrus fruit growing, and will, in course of time, return a large re\"enue from that source alone to the occupiers. The settlers are a very desirable class of men and women, who are working with a will. Up to 40 and 45 cows are being carried on blocks of 53 acres and under, and throughout the winter the whole of the stock were in splendid condition. A better class of dairy cow is entering the district than has hitherto been seen here. The Department of Agriculture is doing its best to assist the settlers. During the last six months it has purchased four pure Jersey bulls and one Ayrshire bull from leading studs, and located them amongst the settlers at Nyah and Swan Hill, where they are available for service at a nominal fee. It will be a matter of only a few years before their influence will be felt in the cream results from their stock, as well as their higher value in the open market, when any surplus stock have to be sold. So well have the settlers taken to dairying that most of them keep milk charts, and numerous applications are received to test individual cows. With such regular attention, and the growing and conservation of fodder, success is assured to the settlers in the Swan Hill district. ANNUAL GRANT TO AGRICULTURAL SO0JETIE8. AMENDED REGULATIONS FOR 1912. The regulations providing for the conditions hitherto in force to qualify for participation in this grant have been amended. Conditions B, I and 2 and C i and 2 have been abolished, but condition A remains as under : — The awards of prizes in all classes for stallions three years old and over at the Society's JShow must be subject to the possession by the exhibit of a Government certificate of soundness. Stallion Inspection Parades will be held at different centres throughout the State prior to the commicncement of the Show season (Time Table of Stallion Parades for 1912 will be available shortly after ist April, 191 2). The parade centres are so arranged that all owners of Show stallions have the opportunity of submitting them for examination for the Government Certificate of Soundness before the closing of entries for the Show. Show Secretaries will require to obtain evidence of the possession of the Govern- ment Certificate in respect of exhibits at the time of entry, and should not accept entries of other than certificated horses. Immediately after the Show, Secretaries of Societies are required to forward the names of all the horses that have won the prizes in stallion 1 1 2^6 j intnial of Agriculture. Yicioria. [lo April. 1912. classes, together with the names of the owners, to the Director ot Agriculture. The new* regulations further pro\ide, in lieu of the compulsory condi- tions concerning the holding of agricultural classes and a series of lec- tures, that encouragement shall be given to those Agricultural Societies which carry out classes or lectures by providing for them a greater pro- portional participation in the grant. Thus : — 1. — Agricultural Classes. A sum of ^10 as a special .subsidy will be added to the pro raid grant to such Societies as carry out agricultural clas.ses in strict conformity with the following conditions and to the satisfaction of the Department: — Applications must be submitted not later ilian 1st Ma\\ jgi2. Thirtv students at least mast be enrolled before a class can be held. The rent of hall and all local charges are to be paid by the Agricul- tural Society ; all other expenses by the Department. Arrangements must be made to insure the uninterrupted use of the hal) during the tinte the lectures are going on. A roll of attendances at lectures and demonstrations shall be kept. The agricultural classes will extend over two weeks, five days a week, a demonstration being given each morning and afternoon, and fom* limelight lectures on evenings to be arranged for by the Secretary of each Society. At the conclusion of each class, a written examination of about \\ houis duration will be held, a medal to be awarded bv the Department to the student in each district obtaining the highest number of marks for ex- amination work and regular attendance combined. Two-thirds of the maximum marks obtainable will be given for examination work, and one- third for regular attendance. The Department reserves the right to with- draw the offer of the medals in the event of there being less than five students remaining: for examination. Students in attendance at Agricul- tural Hifrh Schools and Colleges, or at the Continuation Schools, and teachers from such institutions or State Schools shall not be allowed to sit for such examination. A special examination for the Gold Medal offered bv the Australian Natives" Assocvation will be held at tine close of the year, and only winners of Departmental medals will l)e eligible to compete thereat. Subjects of First Week. Agriculture. Live Stock and Veterinary Science. Subjects of Second Week. Two or more of the following, to be .selected : — (a) Sheep Breeding and Management (including ^^'ool Classing and Lambs for Export) ; {b) Dairy Farming (including Management and Breeding of Pigs) ; {c) Poultry Breeding and ^Linagement ; {d) Orchard and Garden Work. IL — Lectures. A sum of ^5 as a special subsidv will be added to the pro rata grant to such Societies as arrange for and carrv out a ser'ies of four lectures lo April ioi^.] Auiuial Ciruiit io Ai^^ricidiural Societies. 237 throughout the year in strict contormity wirh the tollowing comhtions and to the satisfaction of the Department : — Applications must he sultmitted not hiter than 1 st May, and accompany- ing the application must be a list of the subjects (see l)elow) which the Society chooses for the series. The dates of lectures will then be fixed ■by the Department, and if Societies will state the most suitable seasons for their districts the lectures will, as far as possible, be arranged accord- ingly. An attendance of at least fifteen bona fide farmers, farmers' sons or farm-hands will be required, otherwise tht^ lecture will not count for the special subsidy. The President or Secretary or a member of the Council 01 Committee of the Society must take the chair at each lecture and must certify as to ihe number and bona fides of the attendance as above required. The rent of the hall, advertising and all other local charges are to be paid by the Agricultural Society ; all other expenses by the Department. The Department will recognise any suitable lecture, paper, or address that a Society may arrange to have delivered by any person other than a Departmental officer, and such lecture will count as one of the four re- •fjuired, provided due notification prior to delivery of lecture is given, and the President of the Society afterwards cenifies as to bona fides and ■suitability of the lecture and the number and character of the attendance. SVN'OPSIS OF T.FCTURES AND DEMONSTRATIONS. Principles of Agriculture. r. The plant food of the sod. 2. Cultivation methods and management. 3. Principles of manuring. 4. Valuation of artificial manures. 5. The management of the farm. 6. Special crops and catch crops. ■7. Irrigation principles and methods. Veterinary Science and Live Stock Subjects. 1. The structure and care of the horse's foot (lantern). 2. Brood mares and breeding mishaps (lantern). 3. Colic, constipation, and other bowel complaints. 4. Ailments of dairy cows — milk fever, impaction, udder complaints. 5 Contagious diseases of stock — abortion, blackleg, tuberculosis, anthrax, pleuro pneumonia, &c. 6. Aihiients of swine, or ailm.ents of sheep. 7. Unsoundness in horses (lantern). 8. Principles of stock breeding — stud horses. Dairy Farminij. 1. Breeding and management. 2. Dairy buildings. 3. Dairy management. 4. Milk and cream testing. 5. Foods and feeding. 6. Pig breeding, feeding, and m.inagement. 238 Journal of Agricidliirc . Victoria. [10 April, 191 2., PouLTRV Breeding and ^JANAGEMENT. 1. The poultry industry : its importance. Locality — suitability or otherwise. 2. Housing (construction of, materials, insect proof, aspect, &c.). How to select stock. 3. Breeds: payable or otherwise, eggs and table. Breeds adaptec^' for export — -modes of crossing. 4. Turkeys : their care and management. Chicken raising and care. 5. Foods and feeding demonstrated. 6. Common ailments of poultry. Incubation — natural and artificial. Orchard and Garden Work. 1. Fruit growing — Varieties suitable to the different localities, soils. and sites. 2. Preparation of land — Planting and pruning. 3. Culti'vation — Manuring and management. 4. Insect pests and fungus diseases and their treatment. Viticulture. 1. Wine making. 2. Phylloxera and resistant stocks — Preparation of land. 3. Propagation and grafting — Best varieties to grow. 4. Pruning and seasonable operations. 5. Wine-making and cellar management. 6. Drying raisins, sultanas and currants — Packing fresh grapes for export. 7. Vine diseases and treatment. Potato Culture. 1. The soil and its cultivation — Care of the growing crop, manures. 2. Seed and its selection — Keeping of seed potatoes. 3. Diseases and their treatment. Subjects and Siaff. Principles of Agriculture — Mr. A. E. V. Richardson, M.A., B.Sc. ;. Dr. J. W. Paterson, Ph.D., B.Sc; and Mr. Temple Smith. Veterinary Science, Stock Management, Dairy Sanitation and Educa tion — Messrs. Robertson, Kendall, Griffin, Cother, and Johnstone. The Dairying Industry and Export Trade — Messrs. Crowe, Archer, and Carroll. Orchard and Garden Work — ^lessrs. Carmody and Pescott. vSheep Breeding and Management — Viticulture — Mr. F. de Castella. Flax Culture and Demonstrations at Shows — Mr. Knight and staff. Poultry Breeding and Management — Mr. H. V. PTawkins. Poultry Dressing Demonstrations — Mr. A. Hart. Potato Culture — ^fr. G. Seymour. Tobacco Culture — -^^r. Temple Smith. Pig Breeding and Management — Mr. R. T. Archer. Fruit Industries — Mr. J. G. Turner and staff. In.sect Pests — Mr. C. French. Junr. Plant Diseases — Mr. W. Laidlaw and Mr. C. C. Brittlebank. Irrigation — Expert of State Rivers and Water Supply Commission. iic Apr:'. 191 -•] TJie Pis Indusirv. 239 THE PIG INDUSTRY. {Continued from fj-ge 169.) R . T. Archer , Senior Dairy Insptctor. III.— BREEDS. VVe have now to consider the type of bacon in greatest demand, that .gives the highest return, and liow to produce it. Years ago the popular demand was for heavy fat bacon but during the last three decades the popular taste has undergone a complete change, not only in the warmer climate of Australia but also in Britain, and now the requirement is young and tender bacon — juicy, lean, sweet, mildcured. Fortunately for the producer this is what should return the greatest profit, for the light-weight pig is cheaper to produce than the heavy-weight — for two reasons : FIG. 12. BERKSHIRE EOAR, •'lIIGHCLERE TOPPER." rst — owuig to the greater powers of digestion and assimilation of the young pig a greater weight of meat is produced from a given weight of food, consequently the less it costs to produce; 2nd — the lighter-weight pig brings the highest price per lb. In this country the most popular breed has been the Berkshire. This breed has many good characteristics. It is a rapid grower, well improved, which enables it to make good use of the food supplied, and it can be kept ready for market at any time either as sucker, porker, or baconer. Two faults of the Berkshire lie in the facts that they average small litters (about six) and they produce rather too great a proportion of fat to lean. There are strains of the breed however that average litters of ten or twelve, and those are the pigs to breed from, provided they possess the good features of the breed. 240 Journal of AgriciiUiirc. Yictoria. [lo April. 1912. FIG. 13. VICTORIAN BRED BERKSHIRE SOW. ■I, I'.i'l'K '-I lll-'l" 1^0, \R. FIG. 15. VICTORIAN BRED BERKSHIRE SOW WITH LITTER. lo April 191:;.] T lie /Vc Indusiry. 241 The " Standard of I'.xcellence " adopted by the Berkshire Society of Victoria, as published in the first volume of their Herd Book, 191 1, is as follows : — Colour — Black, with wliite on face, feet, and tip of tail. Skill — Fine, and free from wrinkles. Hair — Long, fine, and plentiful. "^ Head — Moderately sliort. face dislied. snout broad ; and wide between the eyes and ear.s. Eir.s — -Fairly large, carried erect or slightly inclined forward, and fringed with fine hair. Xeck — Medium length, evenly set on shoulders ; jowl full, and not heavy. Shoulders — Fine and well sloped backwards, free from coarseness. Back — Long and straight, ribs well sprung, sides deep. Haras — Wide and deep to hocks. Tail — Set high, and fairly large. Flank — Deep and well let down, making straight iniderline. L?gs and feet — Short, straight, and strong, set wide apart, and hoofs nearly erect. ^J'jjections — A ]ierfectly black face, foot, or tail ; a rose back ; white or sandy spots or whiti . Head — Narrow forehead or short pug nose. Ears. — Thick, coarse, or much inclined forward. Jowl — Fat and fuU. Neck — Short and very tliick. Chest. — Narrow, with botli forelegs apparently coming from almost the same jioint. Shoulders — Coarse, heavy, wide, and open on the top. Girth — Liglit round the heart, and foreflank light. Back — Weak and hollow when the ])ig is standing at rest. Sides — Shallow, not well let down between the forelegs. Ribs — Flat and short curved ; light back rib. Loin — Narrow and weak. Belly — Flaccid or wantmg in muscle, or gutty or ])odgy. Fla,nk — Thm, and not well let down. Quarters — Short, narrow, or droopmg. Hams — Narrow, wantmg in depth or deficiency of muscle in second thigh. Tail — Coarse, and set on low. Legs — Crooked, weak, and with round and coarse bone. Ankles — Extra large, round, and weak. Feet — Flat, splayed, and e.xtra wide and large. Evenness — Wrmkles on sides, neck, or shoulders. Coat — Coarse, curly, bristly, or mangy, with frmge along top of neck or shoulders. Action — Sluggish and clumsy. Symmetry — Predominance of certain points, especially heavy shoulders or forequarters generally, with weak loins and light hams. Disqualifications. Colour— Black hairs or black spots. Boars — Rupture, one testicle only down. Sows — Deficiency in or very irregularly placed or blind teats, injured or diseased udder. FIG. 21. MIDDLE YORKSHIRE SOW, " LADY-BIRD. " t'himpiou Royal Agricultural Show, Melbourne, 1911. The " Standard of Excellence" for Middle White Yorkshire. (Yorksliire Herd Book of Victoria.) Colour — White, fi'eedom from blue spots. Hair — Long, plentiful, and silky. Head — Short and light, wide between ears and eyes, face slightly dished. Ears — -Medium, carried erect, slightly inclined forward, fringed with fine hair. Shoulders — Well sloped backward and free from coarseness. Chest — Wide, and well let down. Neck — -Medium length, evenly set on shoulders, jowl full and not heavy. Back — Long and straight, sides deep, ribs well sprung. Loin — Broad, and not drooping. Belly — Full, thick, with at least twelve teats. Fla-ik— Thick a-id w°ll let down. lo April 191 j. The Pix Indusi'i -45 Haras — Broad, full, and meaty to hocks. Tail — Set on hi Back— Long and level (rising a little to centre of back not objected to) . . 12 Sides — Very deep .. •■ •• •• ■• •• •• 1*_* Ribs— Well sprmig . . ■ • • • • • • ■ • • • • -l Loin — Broad . . . . • ■ •• • • • ■ • • • ■ '^ Quarters — Long, wide, and not drooping . . . . • • • ■ ■ • ^ Hams — Large and well filled to hocks . . . . • ■ • • • - 10 Tail — Set high, and not coarse . . . . • ■ • • • • • • ^ Legs — Short and straight . . • • • ■ • • • • • ■ ^ Belly and Flank— Thick and well filled . . . . • • • • • • 8 Skin — Fme and soft . . . . . . • • ■ ■ • • • • •* Goat— Moderate quantity of straiglit silky hair . . . . . . . . 4 100 Objection-^. Head — Narrow forehead or dished nose. Firs — Thick, coarse, or ]iricked. Coat — Coarse or curly, bristly mane. Disqualifications. Any other colour than black. lo April 19 12.] The Pig Industry. FIG. 25. TAMWORTH EOAR, "mIDDLETOX MINSPRING. FIG. 26. L.\RGE BL.ACK SOW". ■' H.V.SKETON LONG LADY, "rWIgiP^nKP^ FIG. 27. LARGE BLACK BOAR, ROYAL BODMIN. 248 Journal of Agriculture. Yicforia. [10 April, 1912. Herd-book entries. — The Regulations for tlie registration of lx)ars and sows provide that no boar or sow is eligible for registration if known to have a cross of any ether breed within four generations, or if showing any white spot or mark. The name and registered number of the sire and dam must be stated, and a distinctive ear-mark must be given to each animal entered for registration. In the case of animals entered by persons other than the breeder, the correctness of the pedigree must (if required) be certified by the signature of the breeder. Applications for registration are received subject to inspection of the animals entered, if deemed necessary. All entries must be made on the Society's printed form, and must be accompanied bv the necessary fees as follows : — Members. — Re- gistration fees : Boars. 5s. per head ; sows, 2s. 6d. per head. Non-Mem- bers.— Boars : los. per head. Boars and sows must be entered for registration at time of service, or at not exceeding twelve months from date of birth. Double fees wil] be charged for registration of animals exceeding the age of twelve months at time of entry. Selection of Boar. In breeding, the selection of the boar is of the greatest importance, as he directly influences every pig one may have to fatten, and it depends on his breeding, verv largely, whether or not the pigs can make profitable use of the food given to them. As in the case of all sires the boar should be pure bred, of ai)proved strain both with regard to capacity to put on ilesh rapidly, and to influence the sow in the production of large litters, for certain it is that the boar does exerci.se that influence, and in proportion to his breeding. Bacon Tvpe of Boar. We have to bear in mind that the object in view is the procluc.ion of pigs that will give the greatest weight of lean meat in those parts which bring the highest price in the market. All meat in front of the girth is of comparatively low value, so the less we have there the better as long as the conformation is consistent with constitutional development. The boar should have a masculine appearance, forelegs set wide apart; thick throngh the heart or behind the elbow ; deep from top to bottom behind the shoulder, full behind the shoulder, giving good heart girth; jowl broad and strong, but not fat and flabby ; forehead Vjroad, and poll broad and full ; neck of medium length, stronglv muscled but not showing heavy crown of fat; eye large, full, and bright (this denotes sexual energy) ; general appear- ance alert and active. The shoulder should l>e compact on the top, and blend well with the top line and ribs at this point; an upright shoulder, from a bacon producer's point of view, is not regarded as a serious objection ; the lengthening from the back of the shoulder to the ham, gives the largest development where the meat is most valuable; ribs well sprung, arching out l>oldly from the backbone, then dropping suddenly, almost vertical!) , givmg a flat straight side. This is most important, indicating strong development of muscle along the back, and muscle is lean meat. The top line should rise very slightly above the straight line, giving a very slight arch, the highest point being over the loin ; back medium and uniform width throughout ; loin same width as the back, full, strong, and heavily muscled; rump same width as the back and loin, slightlv rounded from side to side over the top and from hips to tail ; ham should taper towards the hock, and carry lo April 1912.] 77;c Pii^ /iidiisi'rv. 249 flesh well down towxinls the hock, especially on the inside; underline trim and straight, no tendency towards a sagging l)elly ; hind flanks full, giving a gd thickness of meat at this, point; legs of medium length, bone clean and flattish in appearance (rough puff'y legs are very undesirable) ; pasterns should be upright, causing the animal tt) walk in a state of nature, and know that neglect brings about verv rapid degeneration, it should make us extremely careful in the selection of the boar. The sexual organs should be well developed. This dentites con- stitutional vigour. Never use a ruptured pig nor one with only one testicle showing. These conditions are hereditary. A ruptured pig may be castrated in the ordinary Avay, provided a few stitches are inserted in the purse, but the animal with only one testicle showing is very difficult to treat. On no account use a savage or bad tempered boar, for besides being a continual menace to his attendants and to live stock, his offspring will be restless, unsettled, and slow feeders. The old proverb "a con- tented mind is a continual feast " applies undoubtedly to the pig. and the be.st feeders are those that do not waste their food and energy in uselessly tearing about, but feed and rest most of the time between meals. The teats in the lioar are also of great importance, they should be of full number and well de\eloped. Sows with undeveloped udders should not be bred from as the defect is hereditary. Management of the Boar. On this point we cannot do better than quote Mr. Sanders Spencer, as he is one of the leading and most successful breeders. " We hold strongly 250 Journal of Agriculture. Yictoria. [10 April, 1912. to the belief that it is advisable to select the boar when it is young; if it be possible to see it on its dam, and to see its sire, so much the better. We will, therefore, assume that the delivery of the boar follows the weaning of it. It should be placed with other pigs of about the same age, and fed generously on pollard with a little barley meal added ; this two or three times a day ; and then between the morning and the midday meal give them a few peas ox a little whole wheat or oats. If skim milk can be obtained, the young pigs will pay as much for it as will any other kind of stock, and further, they will make far greater progress with than without it. A run in a small paddock or enclosure for a few minutes each day will help to keep the pigs in health. This system may be followed until the young boar is some five months old, when any unspayed sow pigs in the lot should be weeded out ; the food may be increased in richness by the addition of more meal, without any fear of the boar becoming too fat, provided sufficient exercise be allowed ; this is most important, as good feet and ankles can only be retained in this way, and further, as soon as the boar has been used, it is seldom possible or advisable to allow him much liberty." As strength of bone without coarseness is a most desirable feature, the best way to obtain this is by mixing with the feed daily about a tablespoonful of bone meal. Repeated trials have demonstrated that the density or breaking strength of the bones in those pigs fed bone meal is more than double that of those not fed bone meal. If the boar has been well reared he may be used for service at eight months, sometimes they are used before that age. It is a mistake to let him run with the sows, the litters are smaller, and not so strong, and the vigour of th^boar is impaired from the too frequent service of the sows. He shoulcf be kept in a special enclosure; when the sow has been in use a day or two put her into the boar's sty, and remove her after one complete service. Care must be taken in handling the boar, never trust him, but don't ill-use him. Under this system a boar will serve fifty sows in a season, and they are known to work up to 150. The food requirements of the boar depend largely on his age, and the amount of work he has to perform. He must be kept in a vigorous healthy condition, not allowed to get too fat. If he has plenty of clover or lucerne he will require very little grain. The more work he has to do the more grain feed will he require. If he is used too frequently the litters may be fewer in number and less vigorous, but on the other hand a long rest is not likely to be productive of the best results. The generative organs are in th^ most healthy condition when in regular use. If carefully managed the boar may give satisfaction for eight years or more. When finished with the cheapest way of disposing of him is to destroy and bury him, for it will not pay to fatten him. Selection of the Sow. The sow need not necessarily be pure bred provided she is of a good type. She should bo selected from a prolific mother, as fecundity is hereditary. The teats should number at least twelve, fully developed (any with defective teats should be discarded), set well apart, even in size, and the front teats well forward on the body. The number of teats does net indicate always the number of pigs she is likely to have. Sometimes- sows with ten or eleven teats will have big litters. lo April 191^] The Pig Indusiry. ]5acon Type of Sow. The head, neck, shoulder and bone should be liner than in the boar, ^Tud except for these points the description of the boar will apply to the sow. Extremes should be avoided. A long, scrawny neck, narrow chest, iind long coarse legs indicate a slow feeder and an undesirable quality of bacon. The carcase of such an animal contains too much bone, is deficient in muscle, or lean meat. The thick short type is also undesirable, the best bacon type being between the two extremes. Weak bones which tend to break down at the pasterns should not be tolerated. The bone should be ■clean and strong, not coarse, there should be enough of it to insure a good sized animal. An overgown or clumsy sow should not be used, and a savage animal should be got rid of, for often it is necessary to be in the sty with her for various purposes, and if she is bad tempered there is risk of loss of young, and she will not milk so well. Management of the Sow. Having chosen the young sow^, she must be well reared to develop her into the best frame possible. Many people breed the young sow at six months old, but this is not advisable, as it is more than likely that her growth will be checked to such an extent as to materially lessen her value as a brood sow. If she is put to the boar at eight or ten months old the result will be more satisfactory. If the first service is not successful, she will return in three weeks. The period of gestation is sixteen weeks. The variation being comparatively slight. Old or weakly sows frequently ])ig a few days before, but those in fair condition usually pig on the 112th day. A strong and vigorous sow may go a day or two over. She mav run out in a grass, clover or lucerne paddock until w-ithin a few days of farrow-ing, when she may be put in a sty. The sows are more healthy running in a paddock than kept in a sty, getting plenty of exercise and green food, and it is the cheapest way of working them. Care must be taken that the sow Jias plenty of food to enable her to keep up her own condition, and at the same time to develop her young. In the paddock she must be pro- vided with shade, shelter, and water, especially shade and water in the summer. The approaching parturition is generally preceded by enlargement of the vulva, the distension of the udder, and the giving way of the muscles on either side of the tail. As soon as the udder becomes smooth and heated, and milk can be drawn from the teats by the pressure of the thum and forefinger, the arrival of the pigs may be confidently looked for within the next twelve hours, unless it be a first litter, when the rule will not hold good. A few days before she is due to farrow she may be put into a roomy sty, 10 feet square, with a yard for exercise, will be sufficiently large, with a guard rail all round 9 inches from the floor and 9 inches from the wall, and provided with a limited quantity of short litter. An hour or two before farrowing she will begin to prepare her nest, and she should then be continually watched to prevent overlaying any of the little ones • — which may be taken away as they appear, first being rubbed with .a cloth, put to the teat to get a taste of the milk, and then placed in a box in which some dry straw has been laid. If the weather is cold, cover the box with a bag. If any of the pigs get a chill and turn cold, limp and damp, a teaspoonful of spirit will help to revive them, and a suck at the teat will complete the cure. The little pig will often give a peculiar 252 journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [10 April, igi2, squeal which indicates that it is approaching a condition of helpless uncon- sciousness. There is a difference of opinion as to how many pigs a sow should be "allowed to rear. It is generally considered bv those of the greatest experience that seven or eight for a first litter, and ten to twelve for mature sows are sufficient. Many pick the best up to the required number, and either destroy the rest or rear them by hand, or it may so happen that they may be reared on another sow, the litter of which is short of the desired number. As a rule the placenta will come away shortly after the last pig, and it should be removed right aw\^y at once. It sometimes happens that a little pig's teeth are so sharp and long that it pricks and hurts the sow so much that she will refuse to allow them to suckle. This often causes serious trouble, and the little ones should be examined, and the offending teeth removed. To remo\'e the teeth take the pig under the left arm, open the mouth with the left nand, and with the right hand and a small [)air of pinchers break off the offending teeth, and place the pig back to the teat. A little coaxing and scratching will make the sow lie down, and the pigs will then soon relieve the distended and inflamed udder, giving her comfort, and there will be no more trouble from that source. If the noise of the little pigs squealing excites the sow, take them out of hearing. When the sow's pen is cleaned out the bed should not be disturbed as it unsettles her. As a rule the sow will not have much difficult\' in farrowing, and, if possible, it is better that she should do so unaided If she is an excep- tionally long time in starting, or if there is a long interval after the first portion of the litter arrives, and the sow appears to be in pain, the hand should be smeared with carbolic oil and gently inserted, and if a pig is presented crosswise it should be gently presse-d back into the womb and turned, or if the head is presented it may be taken away gently. Should the little one have difficulty in getting its breath, open the mouth and blow down the throat. If the pigs are not removed as they arri\e they may be placed to a teat, and will imroediately commence to suckle, and will nestle up to the mother, and the heat of her body will help to keep them warm. In two or three days the little ones will be strong enough to take care of themselves. The health of the sow must be carefully wntchefl, and any indications of constipation corrected at once. 3 oz. of sulphur and a pinch of nitre may be mixed in the food as a corrective. As soon as she will take it a warm slop of bran and milk should be given. Her feed for four weeks should be in a sloppy condition, consisting of bran and pollard with skim milk if available. If whev is u.sed it should be .scalded, or it may have the effect of producing diarrhoea in the young pigs. The condition of the excreta is one of the best indications of the health of the pig, and this should neither be hard formed nor yet liquid. Either of these conditions requires immediate attention ; to a very large extent the disability may be regulated by the proportion of bran in the food. A few hours after farrowing, if her bowels and other organs are not acting healthily, the .sow should be given a little gentle exercise. A sow may be managed to bear five litters in two years, but this is not advisable; two litters a year will be more satisfactory. The main object now is to bring the young along as quickly as possible, and that can only be done by feeding the sow for production of milk. In three or four weeks the little pigs may be taught to drink from a small trough, fenced lo Ai'RiL iQi:;-] TJic ^^/i; Iiidusiry. 253 awav from the sow so tliat tlie littlu ones can run under the rails ; skim- milk to commence with, and then a little pollard added. Any males not required for breeding should be operated upon at as early an age as possible, say at two or three weeks old. The longer it is delayed the worse the effect on the i)ig. Great care must be taken with regard to cleanliness. The parts and instruments should be cleansed with an anti- .septic such as li to 2 per cent, solution of lysol. Hundreds of farmers take no sanitary precautions whatever, and probably lose no pigs, but rne has only to pay a visit to the public abattoirs to see that the effect of this neglect is often the loss and destruction of much valuable meat. The little extra care does not make many seconds difference in the time required for the operation. In England the female pigs not required for breeding pur- poses are spayeil, which improves them for fattening and curing. The little ones may be weaned at six to eight weeks. The sow. if in good condition, may come in season in about three days after they are removed. If she has suckled herself into a low condition, it may be necessary lo miss once or twice before sending to the boar, or a good plan is to leave the young with her a while longer. This often results in benefit to both sow and pigs, and the trouble" wdiich somietimes follows from a rest from breeding, of getting the sow in pig when she is mated, is avoided. When there is trouble in getting the sow to breed, particularlv if she has put on too much condition, it may often be overcome by feeding rich lather than bulky food, for instance, a few beans or peas will prove far more suitable food for a sow about to be put to the boar than a comparatively large quantity of sloppy and innutritious food. The sow is more likelv to hold if put to the boar just before going off heat than when she first comes on. If possible, she should be kept for a day or so by herself after being served. When there is difficulty in getting a sow to breed it may often be overcome by trying different bears, one after another. As soon as she proves in pig she should be fed nutritious, muscle forming food to keep up her own condition, and to develop her young. She should not be fat, but in good hard condition with a good store of lean meat which will help her to retain her condition while providing plenty of milk, whereas the fat would rapidly waste without assisting her in milk production. From the sixth to the fifteenth week of the sow's pregnancy she should be fed liberally < n those kinds of food which are best suited for the production of lean meat and muscle rather than fat, as the drain on her system in building up the framework of some fifteen little pigs is very extensi\e. A week or so before she is due to farrow she mav be fed on the same sort of feed she will get after farrowing. Pollard and bran with skim-milk if available should be the food for the sow for a month after farrowing. Then mav be added barley meal or other crushed grain. If she shows signs of constipation the proportion of bran should be increa.sed. If oats are fed the husk should be removed, as this is likely to be injurious to the voung pigs. She may now be fed three times instead of twice a day. If it is not possible to give the sows a grass run, it will be found beneficial to throw tares, lucerne, or other green stuff to them. Management of the Young Pigs. The management of the voung pig depends upon its ultimate desti- nation, whether it is intended for stud, show, or fattening. The show mav Ije looked upon as an advertisement, and it is not always the animal that: 254 Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo April, 1912. takes the prize at the leading shows that will give the best results at the stud. This depends largely on its treatment. It is an old and true saying that the young animal must never be allowed to lose its baby flesh. As above-mentioned, we fed the mother in such a way that the little ones have a good start, commencing life in good condition, and then not only maintain that condition, but continually improve upon it. The sow is fed on milk producing food, pollard and bran, with skim-milk if available, or water, in a sloppy condition. When the little ones are about a month old she may have barley or other meal in addition. Those that are intended for show purposes are sometimes kept from the mother, but put to her at regular intervals of two hours for a feed, and at the same time given as much cow's new milk as they will take. This brings them along ■evenly and rapidly, and is responsible for the wonderfully even litters that we see in the show pen. For stud purposes this is not the best system to work upon. Better to let the little ones run with the sow, and when about three weeks old provide them with a little trough fenced off from the mother so that they can run under the rail at will. In this provide them with skim-milk at about body temperature, giving them little and often as much as they will take. A few whole peas or wheat may also be given them. A little pollard may gradually be worked into it. In this way they will, by degrees, learn to eat, so that when weaning time arrives they will hardly feel the loss of the sow, and it will also take a great amount of the strain off her. It must be remembered that a pig has a com- paratively small storage capacity, that is why it must be fed little and often, and also of concentrated food. If allowed to become too hungry it will feed ravenously, which will probably upset the digestive organs. The food must be continued in a sloppy condition for the young pigs. Injudicious feeding will often bring about feverish conditions. The first indication of stomach derangement is almost invariably by the droppings becoming hard and dry, like peas. This is followed by diarrhoea. Any appearance of constipation must be corrected at once. A supply of a condition powder, the composition of which is given below, should be kept on hand, and a little put into the food regularly. It has been proved that young pigs will keep in health and thrive much better when this is done. Another great trouble in young pigs is a sort of rheumatic affection, especially if they are not provided with suitable houses or shelter. What- ever form this shelter may take, the most important points to provide for are dryness, freedom from draughts, reasonable warmth, light, ventilation, and convenience. Whatever is provided for a bed, it must be dry. In warm weather a hurdle O'f close lattice providing for good drainage may suffice, but in cold weather dry straw or similar material on the hurdle will be necessary. On no account should they be alloAved to lie on damp fermenting bedding. This is a frequent cause of pneumonia, which often results in death in twenty-four hours. Witli young pigs in cold weather at least, the food should be given to them warm, about 100° Fah. This economizes a certain amount of food, and anything that increases the comfort of the animals will favour more rapid development. After weanmg, the food should be continued for some time about the same as before. As they advance in age the proportion of barley or other meal may be increased. If oats are used these should be husked, as the fibrous husk often acts as an irritant to the stomach ot a young pig. A few whole peas or a little whole wheat may be given to them at midday instead of JO April 191^-] The Pig Imiusiry. 251; the ordinary food. At ten or eleven weeks old they may be fed three or four times daily. This is the most critical stage of the pigs life, and the treatment that we give those intended for the stud will be the most suitable for those destined for pork or bacon. The old idea of allowing the pigs to become stores is wrong, and unprofitable from every standpoint. Provided there is a demand for it, the younger the pig the more per lb. you will get for it, and the less per pound will it cost to produce. The young pig has greater powers of digestion and assimilation, and can, therefore, produce a greater weight of meat from a given amount of food than an old one. The younger it is the greater the proportion of lean to fat, it is also tender and juicy, and when mild cured is what the consumer will pay the most money for. The older and heavier they are, the greater the proportion of fat, the more it costs to produce, and the less per lb. will the curers pay for it. The aim should be to fatten the pig right from the time it is born, first through the sow, then as above indicated, then if the price for porkers at 70 to 90 lbs. is good, let them go. If not, they should be suitable for the bacon-curer at 120 lbs. carcase weight. This is the weight in greatest demand, and should be produced at five to six months old. To obtain these results we must have the right class of pig, quick growing, and .strong constitutioned, of those breeds that naturally produce lean or muscle more than fat. Sometimes little pigs are affected with tits, they suddenly fall over,, remain motionless for a few minutes, and gradually recover. After repeated attacks they die. This is due to over feeding or too rich food, but with the use of the powder above mentioned this is not likely to occur. Another way of working the little pigs is when they are about three or four weeks old, to turn the sow out for an hour or two in the middle of the day, and during her absence give them some milk in a trough. They will soon learn to feed, and by degrees add some pollard, and give a few whole peas or wheat. Any left in the trough will be eaten by the sow on her return. In this way they wdll learn to become independent of the mother, so that in eight or nine weeks time they can be weaned without feeling her loss, and the sow wdll gradually dry off without any inconvenience to herself. At weaning time a little barley meal may be given in addition to the pollard, and at ten w^eeks old they mav have about one-fourth meal and three-fourths pollard. About a tablespoonful of bone meal per pig pei da^ should be given in the food. This will greatly economize the food, and help to keep them healthy. Powder for Pigs. U.S..\. Bureau of Animal Industry. Wood cliarcoal Sulphur Salt .. Bi-carbonate of soda (baking soda) Hyposulphite of soda . . Sulphate of soda Sulphide of antimony (black antimony) ] lb. 1 Thoroughly pulverize and mix and give one tablesi>oonful daily \)er 100 lb. live "weight of pig. '-56 ]our)ial of Agriculture. Yicforia. [lo April, 1912. THE INFLUENCE OF SUPERPHOSPHATES ON THE GERMINATION OF AVHEAT. By Alfred J. Eivart, D.Sc.. Ph.D., F.L.S., Governmeni} Botanist of Victoria, and Professor of Botany and Plant PJiysiology, in the Melbourne University. It has frequently been stated that when wheat lies in a dry soil for a long time in contact with superphosphate of lime, its germination may be very seriously affected. The fact was mentioned as long ago as 1905 in the Journal of Agricidture of South Australia, page 135, and recent work has confirmed this fact. It appears however that the injurious action only becomes pronounced when there is a little free moisture to begin with and the soil subse(]uentlv dries, and when this is so, any seeds which had begun to germinate would die in any case if the soil remained dry for a sufficient length of time. When the germination takes place fairly rapidly, a stimulating rather than an injurious action appears to be exercised. In order to avoid the possibility of the superphosphate injuriously affecting the germination of the grain when it lay for a long time in contact with the seed in a dry soil, a drill has been invented and placed upon the market which plants the grain and superphosphate at different depth';. Some plots planted iiT the ordinary way and with this drill were inspected last vear, but it was not possible to make any definite conclusions from them, except that the planting of the superphosphate beneath the wheat did not seem to retard the growth in any way. Of course it should be remembered that the special value of this mode of planting would only become strongly apparent when the special condition mentioned prevailed, namelv, a long period of delayed germination owing to the dryness of the soil. In any case it seemed worth while to try whether mere contact with dry superphosphate would affect the germination of wheat and also to carry out small plot experiments with the grain and superphosphate planted at exactly measured depths. This is necessary because the very best drill varies a little in the depth at which the seed is planted, particularly where the seed bed contains many stones or unljroken clods. The experiments were carried out by the Second Year Agricultural Students (191 1) under supervision. In the first place experiments were tried by storing dry wheat with an equal quantity of dry superphosphate for three to six weeks, and noting the germination at the end of those times. The following are the results : — Experiment. I. II. III. IV. Average Germination coutrol 3 weeks. 90% 96% 91% ' Germination snperph. 3 weelvs. 860^ 940c 91% 9,o. 9 ' Germination superph. 6 weeks. 84% 92% 93% 80% 87% Evidently when the grain and superphosphate are dry, little or no injurious effect is exercised in a moderate length of time. In the follow- ing plot experiments, in the plots " A,'' the grain and phosphate were planted i inch deep. In " B " the grain was planted i inch and the phos- lo April, 191-.] /iiliiniicc ''/ SiipcrpJtosp/iaics, >jr'c. 257 phale 2 incht's, and in "•(""■ the grain was i inrh deep and the phos- phate 4 inches deep. The heads and straw were har\-ested and weighed separately, the former being cut off just before tlie grain ripened. All the plots were slightly affected with " rust " and plot " JV in series 5 was badly affected. They were carefully hand we'cded. but the weeding in series 6 was not quite so thorough as in the other plots. The superphos- phate was applied at the rate of i cwt. per acre except in series 2 where the quantity was doubled. The following are the detailed results : — Scries I. Control. Xo failure. Heads, 8 Straw, 72 Scrie.s II. : cwt. super, pi-r acre. c. Heads, 31 Straw, 228 B. Heads, 21 Straw, 157 Heads, 16 Straw, 144 Scries III. I L-\vt. super, per acre. c. Heads, 13 Straw, 128 B. Heads, 12 Straw, lie. A. Heads, 10 Straw, 123 Series IV. 1 c^vt. super, per acre C. Heads, 30 Straw, 180 A. Heads, 25 Straw, 160 B. Heads, 34 Straw, 19(i Series V. 1 cwt. super, per acre C. Heads, 33 Straw, 160 B. Heads, 16 Straw, 102 Badly in- tested witli Rust A. Heads, 10 Straw, 119 Series VT. 1 cwt. super, per acre. c. Heads, 14 Straw, 105 B. Heads, 19 Straw, 132 A. Heads, 19 Straw, 140 A. Grain and phosphate, 1 inch. B. PJiosphate, 2 inches ; grain. 1 inch. C. Phosphate, 4 indies"; grain, 1 inch. Summari/iiiL;- these results, the weights were: — A. (irain and Pliosphate 1 inili B. Piio^])liate 2 incites, Grain 1 incli G. Phosphate 4 inches, (irain 1 incli Gontrol, no mannre Heads. 89 686 103 703 121 801 i7 240 Apparently, therefore, so far as experiments on a small scale can be relied on, phmting the superphosphate from i to 3 inches below the grain seems to slightly increase the yield both as regards heads and siraw, and .'-.'nee with the e.xception of one series of plots and with the badly rusted plot in series 5, the results in each series are consistent with the averages of the whole plots, it seems probable that field tests would give similar results. In any case this method of planting is worthy of extended trial, since it is impossible to predict how long the grain may have to lie in the ground, and planting the superphosphate under the grain instead of in contact with it, certainly does not seem to injuriouslv affect the yield. It is possible that where a beneficial influence is exercised it may be because the presence of the manure under the grain encourages the young roots to grow more vertically downwards and so obtain a better supply of water. If this is the case the effect would be most pronounced on a loose friable soil in which moisture descends quicklv. It was in a soil of this character that the above tests were made. 2s8 Journal of Agriculture , Vicioria. [lo April. 19T. Mr. A. E. V. Richardson, Agricultural Superintendent, adds the fol- lowing interesting note to the above : — With reference to your article on " Influence of Superphosphates on the Germination of Wheat," there is one point which perhaps may have ■escaped notice, but which I think would ser\e to make the figures you use still more striking. If you take the average of the i cwt. A, B and C plots and compare them with the 2 cwt. plots they work out something like this : — ■ A. Plots- Manure sown with seed B. 1" under seed C 3" Head-*. Stra 2 cwt. 1 cwt. 2 cwt. ]6 18i 144 21 201 157 31 22| 228 1 cwt. 135. L 136L 1431 The manure placed deep as at C, was an advantage all round, but the advantage was much greater with the larger than with the smaller •dressing of manure. Taking the whole of the plots (15) the best yield was obtained from 2 cwt. super., but in order to give this result, the manure had to be drilled deep. The whole of the results indicate that deeper drilling of the manure may enable the farmer to use larger quantities of manure with profit than .has hitherto been possible with the ordinary drill. IXSECTIVOROUS BIRDS OF VICTORIA. THE WHITE-HEADED STILT. {Himantopus leucocefhalus, Gould.) By C. French, Junior, Acting Government Entomologist. During the months of October, November and December these beautiful Ibirds which are noted destroyers of noxious insects, also the fre.sh-water snails which are the hosts of the dreaded Liver Fluke, ha\-e been breeding near Laverton, on the Geelong line. This is probably the first authentic record for Victoria. The nests, about 10 to 15 feet apart in the middle of a fairly large swamp, placed on clumps of the dwarf Salt-marsh plant Salicorriia, and principally composed of dried Lyngoya destuarii and other aquatic plants, measured approximately 8 inches across, and were built up about 9 inches above the water. Dead twigs of the Salicornia were placed on the tops of the nests, several of which were placed on burnt clumps of the " Awned Sword Sedge" {Gahnia tri-fidd) about 12 inches above the water. The majority of the nests contained 4 eggs (one with ■five was discovered) and most of the eggs were placed with the small ends pointing towards the middle of the nest, though in some iuslances several of the eggs had the small ends pointing outward. Unfortunately, before all the eggs were hatched out ihe swamp com- menced to dry up ; the old birds left the locality, and deserted a number ■of eggs and young birds. lo April, 191:;.] The Whit.-Ucaded Stili. '59 Ihc accompanying photogiapli is t:iken from a group of birds, nests, eggs, and young, in the National Museum, Melbourne. The specimens were collected by myself and prrsrut.,] to the Museum. 26o Journal of Agriculture . Victoria. [lo April, 1912. OIlOHAllD AND GARDEN NOTES. E. E. Pcscott, Principal. Horticultural ScJiool. Burulcy. The Orchard. The exceptionally dry season has ht^en ruie of the causes in reducing- the fruit crop to a large extent. Large quantities of fruit have not fully developed ; and many varieties, notably the London Pippin, have been badly affected with the so-far mvsterious trouble known as " pig face " or ' ' crinkle. " ' Another feature was the prevalence of fruit blossoms early in March. Cherry, plum, pear, apple, and other fruit trees were in full blossom, the latter varieties carrying at the same time, crops of fruit. This was mainly the result of the hot week experienced in February. AVhere the trees were well forward, and had matured their foliage, or \vhere trees were shallow rooted, the excessi\-ely hot weather caused the dropping of the foliage. The subsequent cool change, with light rains, was sufficient to cause the fruit buds to fullv develop, and to burst into lilossom. The blossom, and if fruit subsecfuently formed, the fruit should be removed from the trees, so as to bring them back, as far as possible, to normal conditions. The continued dry weather has prevented the .sowing of green manure crops. But with the .showers that have fallen at the end of March, it will now be possible to ha\e the.'^e sown without delay. As previously mentioned, one of the main objects in connexion with cover crops should be to obtain as abundant growth as possible in the autumn, so that a greater quantity of organic matter may be added to the soil. In stiff clay and in sour soils, it will be an advantage to give the autumnal dressing of lime. From 4 to 5 cwt. per acre will be all that is necessary. For the successful coping with the Codlin Moth pest, it is essential that all fallen and diseased fruit .should be gathered and destroyed. Where bandages are u.sed, the.se should be remo\"ed and thoroughly cleaned, or preferably, they should be burned. Strawberries may now be planted out ; if planting is carried out at once, they will take a firm roothold of the soil before winter sets in. Vegetable Garden. The vegetaljle garden should now be well ilug over and left in a fairly rough state Various seedlings from the .seed-f)ed, such as cabl)age, cauliflower, onions, and celery may now be planted. The celery beds should be well drained, as blanched stems will ret in the winter, if much soil water accumulates around the jilants. Asparagus beds should be cleaned over, and all plants that have ripened their seeds should be cut Ijack. The weeds too should all be cleaned out, and their seeds should not be allowed to settle in the beds. Early peas, broad l^eans, and onions may now l>e sown. JO April, iqt^.] Orchard and Garden Notes. 261 Flower Garden. Seeds of all hardy annual and perennial plants should he planted without delay. It is ad\isal)le to have these well advanced in growth liefore the cold weather sets in and retards their growth for the. winter. Towards the end of the month a start should be made with the winter digging. A top dressing of eitlier manure or lime may he given hefore -' ^ ^ '<* ^62 Journal of Agriciihiirc , Yicioria. [lo April, 1912. ANSAVERS TO CORRESPONDENTS. The Staff of the DepTrtinent has been organized lo a larije extent for the puiijosc of '^\\ iny information to farmers. Question" in every tiranch of af<-ricultiire are yladly answered. Write a short letter, >rivinj{ a* full particulars as possible, of your local conditions, and state precisely what it is that you want to know. /ill inquiries forwarded to the Editor tnuxl be accompanied hi/ the name ani address of the writer^ This is very necessary, as sometimes insufficient information is fui nisiied by the inquirer. Couch Grass. — -E.S. has a couch grass bowling green in some parts of which the grass is not growing as well as usual. He asks whether the constant watering which it gets in the summer is likely to leach out some of the requisite plant foods in the soil and affect the growth. Answer. — Couch grass thrives in the poorest as well as in the richest of soils.- Consequently, any soil leaching from excessive watering would hardly interfere with its growth. This grass discolours badly in winter, and loses most of its foliage. E.xcessive rain or w^ater in winter would kill out the weaker grow;hs, of which there would be a considerable quantity, owing to the close cutting in summer necessary for bowling greens. It would be advisable to re-sow the bare patches- with a light seeding, 'op dressing with fresh soil, and giving a light sprinkling of blood manure, about 3 ozs. to the scjuare yard. Erosion. — A.J. writes " What is the best method of stopping the formation of a gully bv erosion in a gentlv sloping paddock with a clay sub-soil? The gully is forming in a paddock within 30 yards of my fence. It is 12 to 14 feet deep, and about 6 feet wide, and seems to be advancing at about the rate of a yard ever year. Prevention would have been better than cure as it will cost a very large sum to repair the damage already done, bat I am apprehensive for my own land and would like to present a sche r.e before the owner for stopping the trouble." Answer. — Your best plan would be to cut drains above the cutaway, with a slight fall to prevent the water running into the gully, and fill the cutaway w-ith scrub placed across the fall of the wa'er to hold the silt. When the scrub is covered put in fresh layers until the hole is full. Plant trees (willows) in and around the edges, and sow paspalum or other grasses on the top. White Paint for Farm Buildings. — H.C.B. asks for directions for making white paint suitable for painting farm gates, out-buildings, &c. Ans7uer. — Dissolve 56 lbs. of white lead in 9 pints of raw and 9 pints of boiled linseed oil, then add 2 lbs. of ultramarine blue (previously dissolved in oil), I pint of turps and ^ lb. of patent driers. Mix thoroughly, and strain through a fine sieve. For porous work, add more oil, and use less oil for second coat. This quantity will cover 100 square yards. Covering Stack. — W.N. inquires as to cheap method of covering a haystack. He asks whether hessian soaked in coal tar and dried would keep out the rain. Answer. — Thatching with straw is the cheapest and safest means of covering a stack, unless a proper hay shed is built. Hessian soaked in tar would not be capable of keeping out all rain ; a good tarpaulin canvas would be better. Swingle Bars for Five-Horse Team. — J.W. writes " Can you give particulars of necessary bars and chains to yoke five horses three and two, instead of all abreast, so as to avoid having to work offside horse on the ploughed ground." Answer. — The swingle bars required for a team of five horses worked two and three abreast are one three-horse bar, one two-horse bar, and three single bars. The leading horses (two) can be yoked wi'h leading chains to the two land and furrow horses, or a furrow and land horse to chains behind the hames, or can be yoked to a double set of birs connected with a cham running up between the back furrow and land horses from the double bar. This svstem will necessitate a greater length of the three-horse bar to distribute the draught evenly for the outside third horse, and is objectionable in turning as the bars, if slackened, are liable to interfere with the back horses. Crushed Oats for Dr.\ught Horses. — J.W. asks whether there is any advantage in feeding working draught horses on crushed instead of whole oats. Answer. — Crushed oats are quite 20 per cent, better as feed than whole oats, being easily and more completely digested. All the principal firms dealing in agricultural implements sell grain-crushing machines. lo April, 1912.] Ei:^g-Laviii^^ C omfeiition, 1911-191 263 VICTORIAN EGG-LAYING COMPETITION, 1911-12, CONDUCTED AT BURNLEY HORTICULTURAL SCHOOL. (Continued from page 200.^ H. F. Haw^cins, Poultry Expert. Eggs Laid during Compstition. Xo. Position in of Breed. Xaine ot Owner. April to Total to Competi- Pen. Jan. F.-b. 123 date (llmthi) 1,473 tion. 31 White Leghorn R. W. Pope 1,350 1 12 > W. G. Swift 1,378 81 1,459 2 40 . A. J. Cosh (S.A.) 1,S08 111 1,419 3 20 H. McKenzie 1.246 114 1,360 4 37 E. Waldon 1,210 114 1,324 5 33 " Range Poultry Farm (Qld.) 1,204 71 1,275 6 39 i> A. W. Hall 1,134 112 1,246 7 18 .. T. Brundrett 1,107 81 1,188 8 13 Black Orpington . . D. Fislier 1078 84 1,162 ) » 21 \Vhit« Legliorn R. L. Appleford 1,085 77 1,162 24 M F. Hannaford 1,041 106 1,147 11 19 )i • • A. Jaques 1,025 120 1,145 12 2 '> E. P. Xash 1,029 110 1,139 13 10 Black Orpington . . H. A. Langdon 1,035 103 1.138 14 9 White Leghorn J. O'Loughlin 1,034 103 1,137 } » 50 » C. H. Busst 1,019 118 1,137 46 Minorca G. W. Chalmers 1,043 84 1,127 17 25 White Leghorn B. Mitchell 1,038 83 1,121 18 28 J) • • John Campbell 1,013 107 1,120 19 3 » K. Gleghorn 1,008 109 1,117 ) .0 55 »f W. G. McLister 1,037 80 1,117 38 n Mlts. C. R. Smee 1,030 81 1,111 22 1 »» A. Brebner 1,005 94 1,099 23 45 )» T. Kempster 992 106 1,098 24 36 ,. F. A. Sillitoe 1,014 83 1,097 "t •>=; 11 Brown Legliorn F. Soncum 972 125 1,097 - 2d 62 White Legliorn P. Hodson 986 105 1,091 27 49 >• W. J. Thornton 1,007 82 1,089 28 32 Silver Wyandotte . . Mrj. M. A. Jones 996 79 1,075 29 44 Black Orpington . . T. S. Goodisson 1,002 68 1,070 30 57 White Legliorn G. E. Edwards 966 85 1,051 31 5 L. C. Pavne 978 70 1,048 } .« 65 » H. HammilKN.S.W.) 954 94 1,048 67 C. L. Sharman 952 93 1,045 34 22 Black Orpington . . P. S. Wood 951 92 1,043 35 47 White Leghorn C.W. Spencer (X.S.W.) 976 64 1,040 36 4 Golden Wyandotte H. BeU 946 91 1,037 37 8 60 White Leghorn T. W. Coto J. J. Harrington 931 925 71 97 1.022 1,022 } ^ 06 White Hvyandotte J. E. Bradlev 929 92 1,021 40 43 White Legliorn W. B. Crelliii 933 82 1,015 41 35 ., . . J. H. Br.iin 882 130 1,012 42 41 ,, Morgan and Watson . . 910 84 994 43 -51 „ J. W. McArthur 910 69 979 44 53 „ A. Stringer 913 64 977 45 64 „ J. D. Read 868 106 974 46 59 W. H. Dunlop 923 49 972 47 58 Faverolle- K. Courtenay 887 84 971 48 34 White Leghorn E. Dettman 868 97 965 49 52 W. J. MiKeddie 875 80 955 50 27 I, Hill and Luckman . . 910 42 952 51 6 Silver Wyandotte Mrs. H. J. Richards 860 89 949 52 63 Black Orpington . . A. J. Treacey 893 55 948 53 30 Rodgers Bros. 867 65 932 54 42 White Orpington . . P. Mitchell 865 64 929 55 7 White Leghorn H. Stevenson 853 47 900 56 56 .1 Mrs. C. Thompson . . 811 85 896 57 26 F. H. Sevnioiir 815 70 885 58 16 Silver Wyandotte . . Miss A. Cottani 785 77 862 59 54 White Leghorn F. Hodges 785 71 856 60 23 Golden Wyondotte G. E. Brown 770 79 849 61 61 Silver vVyandotte . . J. Reade 754 90 844 62 17 White Leghorn W. J. Eckershall 698 61 759 63 14 Black Orpington . . W. J. Macaulev 660 63 723 64 15 Minorca H. R. AlcCliesiiey . . 605 33 638 65 48 " G. James 509 69 5.66>t 578 66 63,363 69,031 264 Journal of Agriculture , Victoria. [10 April, 1912. REIVUNDERS FOR NAY. LIVE STOCK. Horses. — Those stabled can be fed liberalh'. Those doinj^ fast or heavy work should be clipped ; if not wholly, then trace high. Those not rugged on coming into the stable at night should be wiped down and in half-an-hour's time rugged or covered with bags until the coat is dry. Old horses and weaned foals should be given crushed oats. Cirass-fed working horses should be given ha\- or straw, if there is no old grass, to counteract the purging effects of the young growth. Catile. — Cows, if not housed, should be rugged. Rugs should be removed in the daytime when the shade temperature reaches 60 degrees. Give a ration of hay or straw, whole or chaffed, to counteract the purging effects of voung grass. Cows about to calve, if over fat, should be put into a paddock in which the feed is not too abundant. Calves should be kept in warm dry shed. Pigs. — As recommended in Remintlers for April. Sheep! — Attend lambing ewes first thing each morniu'/. Avoid overcrowding in lambing paddocks, and consequent shortage of feed. Scarcity of feed means inatten- tive mothers. Breeds of ewes having more than half of British blood should be kept in good strong condition, as they will not lamb until Julv or August. Yoiing ram weaners of all breeds should now be classed, anvl rejects castrated or' blocked. Be suspicious of weak fore-quartered sheep. If castrating, slit, tie with fine cord soaked in antiseptic, cut off, and apply Stockholm tar liberally inside and out. Blocking, whilst most humane in the case of rams two years old anrl over when the latest appliance is used, is not desirable for two-tooths. Clear wool from e\es of merino rams, and cut horns with pruning shears. POLLTRV. — Feed animal food to forward pullets, about ^ oz. daih', and equal parts short oats an Principal. ANNOUNCEMENT. The curriculum and management of the Burnlej' Horticultuial School have now been arranged so that greater advantages and facilities will be given to students of both sexes in Horticulture and allied subjects. The present course of Horticulture for male students includes a two years" course, students being charged a fee of £5 per annum. Classes ha\"e been formed at Burnley, whereby students of both sexes ina}' receive instruction on two afternoons of each week — Tuesdays and Fridays. Instruction includes theoretical and practical M'ork, and will commence at 2 p.m. This will be a two years' course, and the fee charged will be £2 per annum. it has also been arranged that several short lecture courses sli ill be given on subjects ■which are suitable adjuncts to Horticulture, such as Poultry Farming, Beekeeping, and Fruit Preserving, and these courses will be open and free to the general puljlie. The subjects and dates of the Short Course Lectures will be announced monthly in this Journal. STUDENTS SHOULD ENROLL WITHOUT DELAY, Application for admission should be made to The Director of Agriculture, Public Offices, Melbourne, OI^ TO THE :PE,I3SrCi:E>-A.IL,. J — ^'-■"'"Hii ItiUMIirT YAN, GOULDING, & CO. (JOHN F. GOULDING). WHOLESALE GRAIN & PRODUCE COMMISSION AGENTS & GENERAL BROKERS, 546-552 COLLINS STREET WEST (Near King-st.) FARMERS! Before Selling your Grain, Hay, Potatoes, Onions, consult or write us. It will pay you.^ CONSIGNMENTS Received and Sold Daily ex Rail or Wharf. Storage arranged on Liberal Terms and Advances made. All kinds of Seed (irain for Sale. Prompt Account Sales. Oats Specialists. New & Second-liand Bags for Sale at Lo^vcst Rates, I When In the CITY Call In. — Short distance from Spencer-st. RIy. Station, j lo April, 1912.] Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. SPECIALISING -IN THE SUPPLY OF ALL- FRIEND NOZZLE. "Harvey" Shifting-Handle Ploughs. " Four Oaks " Bucket Spray Pump. " Myers " & " Deming " Spray Pumps. "Jones" High-pressure Spray Pumps. " Friend " Power Sprayer. FHUlTQHOWEt^S' REQUISITES i IMPLEMENTS Is done by us more than any other firm in Victoria. It will therefore pay you to call and see us or write for Illustrated Catalogue (A). Some of our Lines are — " Excelsior " Fruit Graders. Spraying Hose — high quality. Spraying Materials for all Pests. Pumps for all Purposes. "COMET" FARM MOTORS. Our Quality is Good. Our Prices are Right. Call and See. -m -I=> -K/r-CPT" ~r r^liP ^^'^ Elizabeth st. n _ r~\i_ tvi n 1 i 1 I iV^JrX;^ [jvEELBOXJi^isrE. VICTOR ! A. AGRICULTURAL CLASSES, 1912. The new regulations governing the grant to Agricultural Societies provide for encouragement to those Societies which carry out classes or lectures by providing for them a greater proportional participation in the grant. A sum of £10 as a special subsidy will be added to the pro rat& grant to such Societies as carry out Agricultural Classes in strict conformity with the conditions of the Department. Applications must be submitted not later tlian 1st JMay, 1912. Thirty students at least must be enrolled before a class can be held. The rent of hall and all local charges will be paid by the Agricultural Society ; all other expenses by the Department. A roll of attendances at lectures and demonstrations shall be kept. The Agricultural Classes will extend over two weeks, five days a week, a demonstration being given each morning and afternoon, and four limelight lectures on evenings to be arranged for by the Secretary of the Societj-. For Subjects, Staflf, and all other necessary particulars, see page 235 of this Journal. Applications for Lectures, &c., are to be addressed to :-- THE DIRECTOR OF AGRICULTURE, MELBOURNE. XXIV Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. TO April, 191: "WATERLOO BOY" 4 h.p. PORTABLE OIL ENGINE. ABSOLUTELY THE SIMPLEST AND CHEAPEST EFFICIENT ENGINE IN THE WORLD. USES BENZINE OR KEROSENE. IGNITION. — Is make and break style, charge fired by electric spark. Igniter, which in other Engines is difficult to get at, in the "Waterloo" can be completely removed by loosening two cap screws Both Magneto and Battery Ignition,— a very useful arrangement, as work can never be stopped. SPEED LEVERi — Acts same as throttle of a steam engine. You can speed up or down, or stop altogether with it. Makes the Engine easy to start, prevents "kicking back," and saves fuel. MIXER. — Is a great idea, patented because it is worth patenting. Has an adjustable mixing cup that can, by a winged nut, be slipped up or down to give more or less air. No valve springs or pump to get out of order ; makes Engine easy to start ; aids the governor and speed lever in getting more power out of the fuel. GOVERNOR. — Centrifugal type, sure and sensitive, only when the work requires it. Allows a charge in the cylinder FUEL. -Works on either benzine or kerosene, but benzine is better, as it is not so dirty. The speed-saving devices, Speed Lever, Patent Mixer, and Governor make the "Waterloo" consume the least fuel. Compare it for simplicity, fuel cost, and power with other engines, and you Avill send your order to us. HOPPER COOLED.— That is, there are no Tank, Pipes, and Pump to cool the cylinder. Makes the Engine easy to move about; less space, less weight, and no water pump troubles, as there is no Pump. Also lessens the fuel bill. TRANSPORT.— Is a very strong one. Through axles in both front and rear wheels. Turntable on front axle is simple and strong. Ijgp- SEND FOR CATALOGUES OF OUR OTHER FARM REQUISITES. MITCH FACTORY & office: WEST FOOTSCRAY, MELBOURNE. ! SHOW ROOM 596 BOURKE ST., MELBOURNE. D^efrigerating ^ ^ and lee JYCakirig jVCaehineFY ^ ^ e$5 »J Js. M ^ Made by HUMBLE & SONS, 'In. iiii Geelong, Victoria. liir'i I'l -^ <^ HII Specially suitable for Duiohers, Breweries, Squatters, Butter, Bacon, and Ice Factories, and all classes of Cold Storage, &c. The iSIachines can be supplied from 3 cwt. capacity upwards, and either belt-driven or fitted with Engine A_ large number of these Machines are working in the Australian States, New Zealand, and South Africa, and are giving universal satisfaction. All classes of Refrigeration work undertaken, 'including coifs. One of these Machines is installed at the Dookie Agricultural College. " Ferrier's " Woolpresses and Rabbit Poison Distribntors, Engines, Boilers, Horseworlts, &c. Full Particulars on Application to— Humble and Sons, General Eng'ineers, VULCAN FOUNDRY, GEELONG. PLAX AND SPECIFICATIOX OF SHEEP-SHEARING SHED. 2s. Od. PoMag-. Id. MILK CHARTS (Monthly and Weekly), lid, per dozen, post free. When ordering, dairy farmers should mention " Montlily " or " Weekly." By Professor A. J. Exvart, Government Bofanist. WEEDS. POISON PLANTS, AND NATURALIZED ALIENS OF VICTORIA. 2s. 6d. PodcHje : Commonwealth, Hd. ; N.Z., 5d. ; British and Foreign, lOd. PLANTS INDKJENOUS TO VICTORIA. Vol. II., iO,s. Postaqe : Com.. 2d. : N.Z., 8d. : Brit. & For., Is. 4d. By C. French, F.E.S., Government Entomologist. DESTRITTIVE INSECTS OF VICTORIA. Parts I.. II., III., IV., V. 2s. 6d. each. Postnqe : Parto I. and III.. C. Id. ; N.Z.. 3d.; B. & F.. fid. each. Parts II. and IV., C, IM. ; N.Z., 4d. ; B. & F.. 8d. each. Part V., C, Id. ; N.Z.. 4d. ; B. & F., 7d. By D. JIcAIpine, Government Vegetable Pathologist. RUSTS OF AUSTRALIA. 5s. Postage : C, 2d. ; N.Z.. 8d. ; B. & F.. Is. 4d. S.MUTS OF AUSTRALIA. 4s. Postage : C. 2-kl. ; N.Z., 9d. ; B. & F., Is. fid. FUNGUS DISEASES OF CTTRUS TREES IN AUSTRALIA. 2s. Postage : C. \ A. ; N.Z.. 3d. ; B. & F.. fid. FUNGUS DISEASES OF STONE FRUIT TREES IN AUSTRALIA. 2s. fid. Pontage : C, lid. ; N.Z., od. ; B. & F.. lOd. SYSTEJIATIC ARRANGE.AIENT OF AUSTRALIAN FUNGI. 3s. Postage : C, 2d. ; N.Z., 8d. ; B. & F., Is. 4d. THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, MELBOURNE, VICTORIA. Remittances from places outside the Commonwealth to be by Money Order only. Pamphlets obtainable from the Director of Agriculture^ Melbourne^ Free on Application. NEW SERIES. 1. SILO CONSTRUCTION. A. S. Kenyon, C.E. 2. HINTS FOR NEW SETTLERS. T. A. J. Smith. 3. APPLE GROWING FOR EXPORT. P. J. Carmody. 4. BOOKKEEPING FOR FARMERS. W. Mclver. A.I.A.V., A.S.A.A.. Evtf. .5. CIDER MAKING. J. Knight. i;. FARM PLUMBINC. C. H. Wright. 7. CITRUS FRUIT CULTURE. E. E. Pescoll. 8. BUILDING HINTS FOR SETTLERS. A. S. Kenyan, C.E., and othe> s. 9. TOBACCO CULTURE. T. A. J. Smith. 10. SILOS AND SILAGE. G. H. F. Baker. 11. THE BEET SUGAR INDUSTRY AND CLOSER SETTLEMENT. H. T. EaMerhy. Vol. X. WHEAT AND ITS CULTIVATION. Part 5. [Re:. i?terefl at the General Po«t Offioe, Melhonriip, for fran=ini«sir.M in Post as a Newspappr. A PRESEMT DAY GLYDESDALE STALLJOM. F. H UNNING PTY. LTD, GRASSES AND CLOVERS. RYE GRASS, COCKSFOOT, PRAIRIE, PHALARIS, DWARF ESSEX RAPE, PASPALUM, TIMOTHY, RIB GRASS, WHITE CLOVER, ALSIKE, COWGRASS, TREFOIL, BURR CLOVER, CRIMSON CLOVER, SUCKLING CLOVER, FESCUES, ETC. S.iiiiplcs and Prices of All Agricultural Seeds. Post Free. SEED & BULB MANUAL FOR 1912 Containing over 130 pp. of useful and instructive information. JUST PUBLISHED. • P03T FREE ON APPLICATION TO THE BULB DEPARTMENT. SPRAY PUMPS. LE&D ARSENATE. SECATEURS. FRUIT TREE NETS. MANILLA TAGS. BIRD SCARERS. PLANET JR. DRILLS. AERATORS. CAHOON SOWERS. NIKOTEEN. FRENCH PROVENCE LUOFRNE. Guiiraiiteod dodder free liv the F'rench Oovernment. Special Prime Seed. IN OMPARABLE CORN SHELLER. Single Hole, £5. Double Hole, £9 10$. PRICE ON APPLICATION. HUNTER RIVER LUCERNE. Speci.ll Tiue Seed. Not mixed with Cheap Seed. PRICE ON APPLICATION. PLANET JR. IMPLEMENT. (Write for Catalogue). 64 ELIZABETH-ST., MELBOURNE THE JOURNAL OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 'VICTOK,!^^, .A."CrSTE,-A.LI.A.. CONTENTS.— M AY, 1912. I'AOB. Wheat aud its Cultivation... ... A. E. V. likharchon, M.A., B.Sc. (Arjric.) 265 Influence of Soil Moisture upon Nitrification /. W. Paterson, B.Sc, Ph.D., and P. P. Scott 275 The Port of Hull as a Distributing Centre for Australian Produce ... ... ... ... ... ... A. Wihon 282 General Notes ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 286 Certification of Stallions ... ... ... W. A. N. Robertson, B.V.Sc. 288 Lavender Cultivation ... ... ... ... ... J. Knight 316 Basis Wines ... ... ... ... ... ... F. de Castella 321 Egg-laying Competition ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 324 Rainfall in Victoria ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 325 Orchard and Garden Notes ... ... ... ... E. E. Pescott 326 Reminders for June ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 328 COPYRIGHT PROVISIONS AND SUBSCRIPTION RATES. The Articles in the Journal of the Department of Agriculture of Victoria are protected by the provisions of the Copyright Act. Proprietors of newspapers wishino to republish any matter are at liberty to do so. provided the Journal and author are both acknowledged. The Journal is issued monthly. The subscription, which is payable in advance and includes postage, is 3s. per annum for the Commonwealth and New Zealand, and 5s. for the United Kingdom and Foreign Countries. Single copj', Threepence. Subscriptions should be forwarded to the Director of Agriculture, Melbourne. A complete list of the various publications issued by the Department of Agriculture ■will bs supplied by the latter. journal of^ A. gr'f culture, Yktoria. [lo May, 1912. No other Windmill has a Speed-governing Device like the "Billabong's." This important improvement of ours is protected by patent rights. It has neither springs nor weights — nothing to get out of order. By merely turning a screw you can vary the speed of the mill to your desire. This will be found to be of great advantage when Windmill is sub- jected to a change of load, and in heavy gales, &c. Stop and Consider. You want a mill to give lifelong service ; therefore, it must be made of good material. Bearings should be so made that they may be cheaply and quickly renewed. Frictional or wearing parts should be few ; and, what is most im- portant, the mill should have a lubricating system that will insure its being thoroughly and continuously lubricated while working, but which will prevent waste when mill is not required. The mill should be responsive to a very light breeze, yet stand a gale. In our Mill all these Points are provided for. We know what is i*equii'ed of a good mill — we have had many years of windmill experience. The fact that we have obtained patent rights proves our pro- gressiveness; and, as to quality and workmanship, our being established for over half a century answers. Suppose You Save, say, £1, or £1 10s., or £2, by buying a cheaper mill, and then have to spend £2 to £3 in repairs — again another £3 or £4 ; or, suppose your cheap mill sticks up when you most need it, you will soon lose pounds and pounds' worth of stock ; or, if it blows down in a gale, where is your saving then ? Pay a Proper Price and g^et the Right Article with a Good Manufacturing: Firm to back it up. But the truth is, while our mills are well made, the price is so reasonable. Write for Catalogue and Prices. We can supply Tanks and Stands; Pumps of all kinds; Piping, Troughing, and Fluming; Farm and Garden Tools, Implements, and Requisites. JOHN DANKS & SON PTY. LTD. 391=395 Bourke Street, Melbourne. lo May, 1912.] Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. BARTRAM'S CONSTELLATION FOR DAIRY FARMERS, Just as the Southern Cross is inseparably associated with Australia, so is the name "BARTRAM" closely allied with the dairying industry of Victoria. The introduction of improved methods, and the adoption of the most up-to-date labor-saving machinery, has enabled those engaged in dairying pursuits to get out of their cows the maximum return at the least cost. The five "STARS" that have so materially helped to guide hundreds of dairy farmers to fortune and success, are : — "ALFA-LAVAL" "LK-C." CREAM SEPARATORS HilLKING MACHINES "FELIX" IRRIGATION OUTFITS "FELIX" "ALFA" PETROL MOTORS STEEL WINDMILLS In buying the above lines you run no risk whatever. Years of everyday use on hundreds of farms in Victoria alone have demon- strated beyond doubt that they are as represented in our catalogues, and are easily the best manufactured. They carry our guarantee of efficiency and long service, and behind the guarantee is a reputa- tion of 40 years of unequalled service to Victorian dairymen. Write for our Illustrated Catalogue. It is Free, and gives much valuable advice. When in town come and see us. Our expert knowledge is fully and freely at your service. We give liberal terms and accept easy payments. J. BARTRAM & SON rTS. MELBTu^rE': Journal of_ Agrkulture, Victoria. [lo May, 19 12. Who has an Axe to Grind? A Mattock, a Pick, a Hatchet, Scythe, Bush Hook, Slasher, Knife, Scissors, or Chisel ? Whatever it be, if it has an edge, you'll Sharpen it quicker and better with A '' Buff alo^^ Foot-power Grinder A "Bufliilo" Foot-power Grinder easily beats a Grindstone, because of the great speed attained, the quickness of the grind- ing done, and the fact that whatever the job it only requires one person to run the machine and grind at the same time. Any kind of tool, from the smrdlest to the ■ largest, may be ground— and without draw- ing the temper or heating. A simple, easy motion of the foot sends the emery wheel spinning at 3,000 revolutions per minute. Big Book of Tools Posted Free* It illustrates over 2,000 Modern Tools for Farmers at Money-Sa\ing Prices. Tool Merchants, 554=66 & 582=88 Conins=street, Melbcurne. 'imtsKmrnmsmmMsmm lo May, 191^-] ] iiurual of A-grhuliure. Victoria /~ IT WILL PAY YOU -^ TO LEARN MODERN METHODS IN AGRICULTURE LIVE STOCK & FRUIT GROWING FOR PROFIT. ; OWN HOMK how to MAKE MOKE ilOXEV by the employment of up-to-date t.ranches of Agriculture and Live Stock Husbandry, including Drainage, and Practical Orchard Management. We also give instruction in the following' subjects ; — Arithmetic Mathematics Languages Drawing Illustrating Electrical Engineering Steam Engineering Shire Engineering Mining Engineering Surveying Mechanical Drawing Architectural Drawing Building Construction and Estimating Timber Measurements CANDIDATES FOR ALL PUBLIC EXAMINATIONS. can teach you AT YOUl methods. We teach all Irrigation, Dairying Bookkeeping Shorthand Accountancy Commercial Law English WE PREPARE The instiuction yoes RIGHT TO YOUR HOME, no matter where 30U live. It is clear, concise, easily understood, and practical. Every student is handled privately and separately and receives individual attention according to his particular requirements. Our instructors are men of sound technical knowledge, combined with years of practical experience, and the.v are at the service of every student, to guide him with their valuable advice. Only spare time stud\ is required, and our fees are exceedingly moderate and within the reach of everybody. AVe invite you to WTite at once for a free copy of our Handbook D. It explains our system and shows how we can teach any man who is willing to be taught and anxious to increase his earninj' power. It costs nothing to inquire. " Don't put it off. Write tO-day. STOTTS CORRESPONDENCE COLLEGE 54 MARKET STREET, MELBOURNE. !^iSo™S "TIP-TOP" SEEDS .«& Co.'s ESTABLISHED 62 YEARS. THREE VALUABLE GRASSES. PASPALUM DILATATUM OR GOLDEN CROWN GRASS. A valuable forag^e grass for all kinds of stock. With- stands drought, and frost will not kill it ; particularly- suitable for dairy cattle as it will stand any amount of grazing, and trampling of stock does not injure it. Makes a very etticieiit fire-bi-eak when planted in strips throughout natural pastures, as it remains luxuriantly green when the surroundings are in a dry, parched, and inflammable condition. Sow 6 lbs. per acre. First quality heavy hand-shaken seed, 1 , 6 per lb. PHALARIS COMMUTATA The King of all Winter Grasses. Grows between 6 and 7 feet high. Resists frosts and droughts. This marvellous grass has been known to grow quite an inch a day on poor ground. Recom- mended to graziers and dairymen, as it remain."" par- ticularly luxuriant in winter, and behaves remarkably well during the hot, dry months. It seems to like all kinds of weather. Sow 2 lbs. per acre in drills ; or 4 lbs. broadcast. 7/6 per lb. TIMOTHY GRASS. This well-known variety adapts itself to almost any soil. It is a capital grazing grass, and produces ex- cellent hay. It is of strong growth and yields abundant feed. Quantity required to sow an acre, 30 lbs. Price, 1/3 per lb. WRITE FOR OUR NEW FARMER'S PRICE LIST. SENT POST FREE. Law, Somner, & Co.'s "TIP-TOP" Seeds, 139-141 SWANSTON-ST., MELBOURNE, Phone, Central 729. ■B^SB^I^ Journal of Agnculture, Victoria. [lo May, 1912. "AUSTRAL" MILKING MACHINES. FIVE YEARS OF UNBROKEN SUCCESS Have established the AUSTRAL as the Premier Milking Machine, and have demonstrated that it does not belong to that class of applisinces whose efficiency terminates after a few months of use. It has stood the t«gt of time, and that under all sorts of conditions. IT IS SIMPLE. Complexity and intricacy are the bane of milking machinery. Both in principle and construction the Austral is strikingly simple. Minute pulsating mechanism on teat cups or buckets has been entirely dispensed with, its place being taken by a single pulsating pump, simple and strong in construction, which serves for the whole outfit, whether two cows or ten are to be milked at a time. The puls.ating pump is placed in the engine room, remote from the cows. IT IS AM EASY MILKER. Fear of injury to cows was at one time the bogie of machine milking. The Austrftl has done away with all that. Its action on the cow is as gentle as that of the softest hand, and much easier than the average hired help. After three and four years' milking with the machines, cows are found to be as sound in the quarters as when they started. Enquiry from any Austral user will confirm the correct- ness of this statement. IT IS THE LAST WORD IN ECONOMICAL DAIRYING. The working parts are so few and the construction so simple and solid, that wear and tear, and consequently the cost of upkeep, are reduced to a minimum. An outstanding feature of the Austral is the Tank System, whereby the milk is conducted direct from cow to separator without any handling whatever. With this system, so great a saving is effected in time, labour, and trouble, that in ordinary circumstances its advantages are overwhelming. A single bucket can be supplied for testing individual cows ; or where special requirements render it pre- ferable, complete bucket plants can be installed. GLOBE CREAM SEPARATORS. Embodies the famous Link-Blade Bowl Structure. Official tests conducted by the Swedish Government at Alnarp placed the Globe" in. the very forefront for clean <^. VACCAR PETROL ENGINES. skimming and easy running, against all competitors. All sizes from 14 to 200 gallons. CROSSLEY OIL ENGINES. The world's standard Oil Engine. In all sizes and for all descriptions of farm work. British built. Low running speed. Economical on fuel. WINDMILLS, SAW-BENCHES, CH^FF-CUTTERS, aqd all Farin at^d Dairy Macl^inery. When writing, please mention tliis Journal. W. H. BLHCKHflin. 59-61 KING ST., MELBOURNE. lo May, 1912.] Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. Vll 1^ Herd of Prize Winnings and Heavy Milk ^ and Butter Pro- ducing Strains* YOUNG BULLS AND HEIFERS FOR SALE. MYSTERY VI. OF MELROSE. INSPECTION BY APPOINTMENT. WlLMflM WOODflflSON, ""dIT" MALVERN, MELBOURNE, Vic. Journal of Agriculture. Victoria. [lo May, 191; CLOSER SETTLEMENT LAND, List showing number of allotments on the various Estates available for application : — Estate. Irrig-ation Areas, Area. Wheat ( jrowing-. Koyuga 9 totallin g 27 acres. Estate. Area. Swan HDl 6 4SS „ Cohuna 28 2,084 „ Cornelia Creek 6 totalling 2,331 acres Shepparton 8 16 „ Oaklands 6 „ 4,140 „ Nanneella 23 2,509 „ Hurstwood .. 7 „ 3,440 „ Bamawm 52 3,643 „ Mt. Widderin 15 „ 5,521 „ Tongala 74 4,876 „ Nerrin Nerrin Pannoo Marathon &Willow Grove 17 „ 3,736 „ 2r. „ 8,909 „ 15 „ 8,889 „ Dairying- and Mixed Farming-. Bona Vista 4 totalling- 389 acres. Beet Growing- and Dairying-. Deepdene 7 8 " 1,320 „ 3,427 „ Boisdale 5 totalling- 256 acres Sleadowbank 1 j^ 51 „ Kilinany Park 48 „ 4,281 „ Allambee 9 1,619 „ Morven 15 ,, 5,160 „ Clerks' Homes. Werribee •23 4,389 „ Kenihvorth . 2 1,198 „ Glen Huntly 3 allotments. Mooralla 2 1,372 „ Tooronsa 5i Cremona 7 612 „ Nuniurkah . 0 234 ,, Workmen's Homes. Dunrobin 100 „ Pender's Grove 63 allotments. Allotments on these estates are sold under Conditional Purchase leasehold terms, extending- over 31J years, -w-ith payments at the rate of 6 per cent, per annum. Advances of money can be obtained up to 60 per cent, of the value of permanent improvements effected, repajTuents extending over fifteen years bearing 5 per cent, interest. For full information and terms apply to THE SECRETARY, LANDS PURCHASE AND MANAGEMENT BOARD. MELBOURNE. " The Finest Wagon Ever." PATENT STEEL WHEELS. Patent Felloes. Renewable Oarron Boxes and Oil Caps. The only Steel Wheel that has stood the Test. Beware of Imitations. BuUivant Bros., Gillenbah, Narrandera, write :— 4/4/11— " The 7-ton "Wool Wagon I got from you four years ago has given every satisfaction. I now want you to send me a 54 in. and 48 in., diameter wheel x 6 in. tyre 10-ton Wagon, with Table 19 ft. x 8 ft. Your Wagons are the Best." Hundreds of others say the same. When you get a Wagon see that it is the Genuine "Hildyard Patent." A well-known and up-to-date farmer in Victoria (Mr. E. A. Neald, of Nathalia) says :—" I had last season a 6-ton Ordinary Englisb Wagon, and one of the "Trusty" type Steel Wheel Wagons, 40 in. and 36 in. dia. -wheels, carting in sheaf hay. Although the (j-tr>n wagon seemed to carry the larger loads, I found, to my surprise, after keeping careful count, that the Patent Steel Wheel Wagon carted and put into the stack 700 sheaves a day more than the big wagon. The labour was tlie same for both wagons." agg^ TABLE TOP — Truck body, and all classes of little Wagons for Farm and Station work. \NRITE FOR CATALOG TO-DAY. J. L. HILDYARD, QUEEN'S BRIDGE-ST., SOUTH MELBOURNE, V. lo May, 191--] journal of Agriculture, Victoria. IX LIGHT, STROMG, PERFECTLY RIGID. "CYCLONE" WOVEN GATE 9 f-t. -to 16 f-t. Will hold anything, and can be made rabbit proof by putting rabbit proof intersection at the bottom. The wider gates have three stays. Cet our Catalogue of this and many other Cyclone Cates. " THEY'RE ALL GOOD." CYCLONE FENCE & GATE CO., 459 SWANSTON ST., corner franklin ST., MELBOURNE. PAT E N T SHEEP-BRANDING LIQUID AS USED BY LEADING PASTORALISTS OF AUSTRALIA. IN THREE COLOURS, BLACK, RED & BLUE. Sold in 8 gallon cases, 4 6 grallon. 1 gallon tins, 5 " each. -AGENTS FOR VICTORIA AND RIVERINA" DALGETYeTg° MELBOURNE. | Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo May, 191. "GLEN ELGIN'S PHILANTHROPIST" 299 A.H.B. of Aus. (^(^ (|)(^ Winner of Champion, Sydney Royal Show, 1909, 1910, 1911, 1912. Reserve Champion, Melbourne Royal Show, 1907, 1908, 1911. Also Winner of Bull and Progeny Prize of £10 for 5 females (the progeny of any one bull) producing the largest amount of commercial butter in 24 hours, Sydney Royal Show, 19)2. Also holds the record of 150 Firsts, Champions, Specials, and Gold Medals for Ayrshire and Dairy Bull. The "GleDgaFnoek" Stad of PlXt«&- flypshipe Cattle Has won innumerable prizes in the ring. The females in this herd are noted for deep and heavy milking and test well above the average, and are kind and quiet. CHOICE YOUNG HERDBOOK BULLS FOR SALE at from 5 to 25 guineas each. From Best Cows onh*, by Pure Herdljook Bulls. Full pedigrees and particulars, with photographs of animal for sale, his sire and dam, will be forwarded on application. INSPECTION CORDIALLY INVITED. VISITORS MET AT LANG LANG RAILWAY STATION. Address — A.T. PRIESTLEY. I Post V'CLENGARNOCK," lelegra^Sj YANNATHAN, Vic. lo May, 1912.] Journal of Agricidtiire, Victoria. Vaeuum Gargoyle Prepared Red Spraying' Oil Needs no Soft Soap OP other ing-pedient. Requires only Clean Soft Watep. Vacuum Gargoyle Red Spray Oil now obtainable in prepared form is the same Oil as that originally introduced to Australia for fruit- tree S23 raying. Full particulars — Horticultural Department, Vacuum Oil Co. Pty. Ltd., 90 William Street, Melbourne. Journal of Agnculture, Victoria. [lo May, 1912. BEET & DAIRY FARMING. THE IDEAL CLOSER SETTLEMENT COMBINATION, THE RIC BOISDALE ESTATE AND THE FAR-FAMED= KILMANY PARK. Both of these Estates have been specially selected, purchased, and subdivided for Beet Growing and Dairying combined, and to afford opportunity to THRIFTY, EXPERIENCED MEN WITH SMALL CAPITAL to make a comfortable living while acquiring the freehold of the land. For the possibilities and practical results read the article on "THE BEET IDNrT)TJST:R"Y"/' in the March, 19 12, issue of The Journal of Agriculture of Victoria. lo May, 1912.] Journal of Agnculture, Victoria. BOISDALE ESTATE Subdivided into 57 blocks, and already settled with the exception of Six Blocks of from 40 to 60 acres, to carry 10 acres of Beet annually. Price, £25 10s. to £27 10s. per acre. KILMANY PARK Now open for Application, Subdivided into 42 farm blocks from 56 to 195 acres, to carry 10 acres of Beet annually. Price, from £7 lOs. tO £22 lOs. per acre. 14 Workmen's blocks from 20 to 46 acres, to carry 4 acres of Beet annually. Price, from £23 tO £25 per acre. For particulars and conditions of purchase and as to blocks available, apply to the SECRETARY, CLOSER SETTLEMENT BOARD, MELBOURNE. For information concerning the financial aid given to suitable Settlers to stock the farms, apply to THE DIRECTOR OF AGRICULTURE, MELBOURNE. Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo May, 1912, THE STANDARD FOR FENCING. "NEPTUNE" UNRIVALLED PATENT STEEL FENCING WIRE. 5 0 % SAVED in your Wire Account, and then you have £9 8s. 6d. saved on 3 miles 6 Wire Fence 1^ i^ by using "NEPTUNE," THE BEST POSSIBLE FENCE. V as against Ordinary Wire. -S^SnxriD S^OFC S.^^3VEf>X<:E3S.- . MORRIS & MEEKS, agents, MELBOURNE. ^^^ ^ To GRAZIERS, FARMERS, and DAIRYMEN. Proprietary Ltd. You cannot do better than purchase your requirements from THE VICTORIA VARNISH Coy. Who are Importers and Manufacturers of the undermentioned, namely : — Varnishes for all uses, Paints, Dry Colors, Stainer's Turpentine, Boiled and Raw Linseed Oil, Resin, Shellac, White Lead, &c. OUR MANUFACTURE IS OF ONE QUALITY— THE BEST. Note the Address— The VICTORIA VARNISH COY. Proprietary Ltd., Queen's Bridge, South Melb. Tel. Central 614. Established 1853. A. J. BORTHWICK, Manager i^i^lBBIIIIWmiillillilillllllllillllllilMirii'lMWfl^ffifP'' tm.wmmimim.'.M.^^.ii^msmmi:^ BONEDUST, SUPERPHOSPHATE, AND OTHER HIGH-GRADE FERTILIZERS DELIVERED AT RAILWAY STATION, FOOTSCRAY, OR ON WHARF, MELBOURNE. Office :— 407 POST OFFICE PLACE, MELBOURNE. BONES BOUGHT. CONSIGN TO ME, FOOTSCRAY. Telephone 2098. lo May. 191 -•] Joiirjial of_ Agriculture, Victoria. ^£ GC < S ^ filtv /LU DO i 11 1 iiii.j ff ffllllll 0 \^i'' ■' !P :/ C tn >M i I — 11 llil* / OJ >u^ ^ ii W jz ^ UJ D TD ■ S < 3 DC 0 c 1- ^ IS 1/3 0 ,_^ 0 3 >^ 0 i4-r 0 0 .^ Vh ^ , t/3 c c X) 3 a >-i c CQ rt 0 t- ^ ^^ .- n -2 s "Ofi o .5 S 4> .w a> © « js 2 -I ® J5 ?3 ^ ^ U4 O W5 rz; s .^ &H - -o " V' c« OS >! g ^j ^ 0 cs "O H- 03 0 ■+-» -M ■g E Ol ID &. cd CQ >^ »% ^™^ ^* C^ OQ CO oc &. ^s Od > *■ « ^^ *" c CO 3 ■\ CO H X Q 0 cc < C2 CO >- ul CC C/5 o © 3 a> 3 a- 3 a. "^ 3 II ^ 3 Q I = = UJ c3 tU o ^ u. :: » I— I to ■<■ a oa o S . O « u 4S 03 to n rt a> £) .C 0 V3 t-i o Journal of Agnculinrc, Victoria. [lo May, 191 2. DON'T WASTE YOUR TIME AT THE PUMP HANDLE. FOR foolish it is for a man to try to raise water for stock or garden by means of a hand pump. Windmills are to be obtained now so cheap that it is a folly, rank folly, to waste one's time at the pump handle ; the windmill will not only do the work better, but do it cheaper than any other method of raising water. The farmer, or the farmer's man's time would be much better employed about the farm. The first cost of a windmill is practically its only cost. All that is re- quired to keep it in order for years is simply to lubricate it occasionally, and this, with recent improvements, needs only to be done about once a month. For many years the ALSTON Windmill has become a household woi'd. The fame of the ALSTON mill has spread tar and wide. They have made their reputation b}- actual merit on actual service, by their simplicity and superior construction. They have stood the test of years. They have been erected in the most exposed sites with impunity. They have been used successfully on wells and bores three and four hundred feet deep. They have been used for pumping through miles of piping to higher levels. They have been used for pumping for stock; for irrigation; for drainage; for house and for garden, and almost everything that a pump is used for. The}' have been imitated and envied by rival makers but have never been ex- celled. Every ALSTON mill that has been sold has been an advertisement for its maker, and the demand for the ALSTON mill has increased year after year, and still preserves its premier position in the Commonwealth. Thousands of the ALSTON Windmills are made annually, and thousands of tlie ALSTON mills have been in constant use for nearly a quarter of a century, faithfully doing the work of water-lifting, to the satisfaction and delight of the foresighted and enterprising stock-owners who installed them ; now, seeing the advantages of their use, thousands of others are following their example. The windmill is, beyond dispute, the simplest, most reliable, and at the same time the cheapest method of raising water for stock. If you are interested further, write for a full and descriptive catalogue from the maker. The address is JAMES ALSTON, QUEEN'S Bridge, South Melbourne. This will give you a full and fair description of all different size mills that he makes, from the six to the twenty-five foot diameter Avheel ; what each size Avill do, and v.'hat they will cost. IT WILL PAY YOU TO DO SO. THe JOURNAL OF Yfte department of Mgriculture LIBR. OP NEW ^ BOTAN VICTORIA. GARD Vol. X. Papt 5. loth May, 1912. WHEAT AND ITS CULTIVATIOX. {C ontinued from page 208.) No. 4.— SEEDING OPERATIONS. By A. E. T. Ricliardson, MA.. B.Sc. {Agric), Agricultural Superintendent. No activities in the farm calendar arou.se sucli .speculation and anxiety to the Australian wheat-grower as those pertaining to seeding operations. The nature and peculiarities of the Au.stralian climate are such as to render a clo.se studv of the factors underlying successful seeding quite imperative. In some of the more favoured countries of Europe the dis- tribution of the rainfall is so even throughout the year that the wheat- grower may sow his wheat at leisure in autumn ; or, if weather conditions be unfavorable for autumn seeding, he may defer operations until the advent of spring, and still secure a heavy crop. The uncertainty of the spring and early summer rainfall and the long hot and relativelv dry summers characteristic of the bulk of the wheat- growing areas of Australia, preclude such spring sowing from being a success in these districts. Autumn sowing, or early winter sowing, must therefore he regarded as essential to success over the greater portion of the State. Wheat- growers in the drier districts have learned, from long experi- ence, that in the great majority of sea.sons the ultimate success of the crop depends very largely on getting the seed sown on soil in good physical csl condition at the right finic- within what may be called the normal seeding ^ period, which, under the most favorable conditions extends over some six '-^ to eight weeks. When, however, heavy showers fall intermittently during O^ this period the seeding is considerably delayed, and much of the crop must ' — r be sown too late to secure optimum results. Where large areas are to be -^ sown, and difficulties arise either from a dearth of labour or teams, the :3 sowing season must he prolonged beyond the period necessary to insure ~> the best results. 4878. K 266 Journal of Agricidturc. Yictoria. [lo May. 19 12. Time to Sow. Autumn, then, is the season for seeding, and the actual date to com- mence operations will vary with the district, and the general character of the season. Much, of course, depends on the weather. In some years the rains hang back until late in autumn, and seeding often commences on a dry seed bed. In other years, again, the autumn rains are timely, frequent and copious, and the seed is sown under conditions which bring about rapid, even, and vigorous germination. Speaking generally, it may be said that it is safe to sow seed during the normal seeding period when the soil is either sufficiently dry to leave the seed ungerminated, or else when the soil is so thoroughly moist as to induce immediate germination. There is an intermediate stage, howe\'er, between these extremes when it is danger- ous to sow wheat. This condition arises when the soil is neither dry nor wet, but contains sufficient moisture to induce germination, yet insufficient to keep the young plant fully supplied with moisture. Under these cir- cumstances, unless rain opjjortunely falls, the soil begins to dry out and the grain malts. While wheat and other naked seeds are very susceptible to malting in slightly moist and rapidly drying soils, oats and barley, with their tough, fibrous, j^rotective envelopes, are not so susceptible. Hence, while it may be unsafe to sow wheat under such conditions, barley and oats may be .sown with much less likelihood of loss. Generallv speaking, the latter portion of April, and the month of May are the most favorable months for the drier areas, whilst the .seeding may often be prolonged till June in more certain districts. AVhere large areas are to be sown a start mu.st be made as early as possible to finish the seeding in a reasonable time. Manv farmers in their anxiety to get o\'er large areas frequently com- mence seeding operations earlier than is indicated above. One of two things may happen. Dry weather may continue after the seed is sown, and induce a con.siderable amount of malting, in which case some re- sowing will require to be done. On the other hand, timely showers may supervene and bring the young plants on with exceptional vigor, and re- sult in rank, heady growth. Not only are such crops liable to be cut later on with frosts, but they are also prone to lodge with the hea^'y winter rains. These contingencies may be obviated either by administering a check to the rapid growth by judicious feeding down with sheep, or bv taking the precaution to sow comparatively late maturing varieties in the early part of the seeding, and reserving very early varieties till the end of the season. Very late .sowing, in the drier areas, can onlv be successful when the winter pro\es to be exceptionally mild and the spring and summer rains ample, frequent, and timely, a combination ol' circumstances we may hardlv hope for. Hence, in the drier districts the wheat-grower is well ?\dvised to reduce the late sown crops to a minimum. Treatment of the Land. To adequately discuss the possible preparatory modes of soil treatment for wheat cultivation would take more space than can be given here, and discussion will, therefore, be reser\-ed for special consideration in later articles. For the present it is assumed that the wheat is to be sown on well-prepared bare fallow. Varieties to Sow. The choice of varieties is governed by the physical character of the soil, the climate in which the wheat is to be grown, and the purpose for lo Mav. 191^.] W/n'dt and its Cultivation. 26^ which the wheat is required. Tlie farmer must select those part'cular wlieats which prove the most favorable and profitable under his particular conditions. The difference between the yields of two varieties of wheats grown on the same farm, under absolutely identical conditions, is often sufficient to more than pay the rent or interest on the land on which the crop was grown. This has been frequently demonstrated in departmental experiments, and indicates the prime importance of selected experim.ental stations in each of the important districts of the State where, among other lines of investigation, continuous and systematic tests of all app oved varieties of cereals may be made in the interests of growers of that district. In the drier districts, in normal seasons, the earlier varieties are generally the most suitable, whilst in districts where the rainfall is heavy and growing season more protracted late maturing wheats may be expected to yield better results than early wheats. Some wheats of outstanding excellence, like Federation, may do well in any district, but it rarely falls to the lot of any variety to have such a wide range of usefulness. It is a good maxim for the wheat-grower not to confine h'm.self to a single variety of wheat. Fortunately, owing to the work of the late W. Farrer, of New South Wales, and to the enterprise of private farmers like Mr. W. Marshall, of Parkside, South Australia, there is a considerable number of good wheats to choose from. A portion of every farm is usually set apart for hay, and for this purpose it is well to grow some recognised hay varieties. A good hay-wheat should retain its colour well, produce an abundance of straw and flag, and should be sweet and palatable to stock. It should be fairly solid in the straw, and preferably beardless. For purposes of grain production the principal and essential requirement is prolificacy under the conditions in which it is grown. It is, of course, highly desirable that the grain should be of good milling quality, i.e., of good colour, high flour strength, and satisfactory gluten content. It very frequently happens, however, that the high quality wheats are shy vielders. Comeback and Bobs, for example, stand out prominently among Australian wheats on account of their high flour strength, but, unfortunately, they do not pro- duce such heavy yields as varieties like Federation and Yandilla King. Under conditions existing at present in Victoria the farmer has no alter- native but to grow prolific wheats irrespective of quality. Indeed, it would appear that the best he can hope for at pre.sent is f.a.q. pr'ces for his product. Before high quality wheats can be popular and profitable in this State — (i) The millers must be prepared to purchase high quality wheats like Comeback and Bobs, at prices considerably in advance of those ruling for f.a.q. wheat in order to give adequate encouragement to the grower; (2) the wheat-breeder must produce varieties in which the high quality of Comeback, and the prolificacv of Federation, will be combined. Among the numerous varieties now^ at the disposal of the farmer are the following :-- Hay-ivlieats. — Baroota Wonder, Correll's Xo. 7. Firbank, Hugueno", Majestic, Marshall's Xo. 3, Thew, Triumph. White Tuscan and Zealand. Grain-ii'heats. — Bayah Bunyip, Dart's Imperial, Federation, Gluyas, King's Early, Steinwedel, Marshall's X^o. 3, Yandilla King. Forage and Ensilage. — Medeah. Huguenot, Kubanka. K 2 268 Journal of Agriculture, Victoria, [lo May, 1912. Rate of Seeding. The amount of seed to he sown varies within very wide limits, and is governed by several considerations. The amount of seed required varies with — (i) Climate. — The lower the average rainfall of the district, the less seed is required. The minimum is required in dry, mallee districts. (2) Time of Solving. — Early sown wheat requires less seed than the same variety sown late. As the seeding progresses it is well to gradually increase the amount sown, since late sown wheat has much less opportunity to stool out and establish itself before the winter .sets in than the early sown wheat. (3) Character of Seed Bed. — Early sowing on clean land requires the minimum. Land, foul with weeds, must, if it has to be sown, be sown thickly to give the wheat an opportunity to choke the weeds. (4) The Character of the wheat, its stooling capacity, the size of the grain, whether it is aii early or late maturing variety, and its germinating capacity. Obviously all these influence the amount of seed required. (5) TJie Use to which the wheat is put — whether for grain, hay, green fo^rage or ensilage. The minimum will be required in the former casej the maximum in the latter. (6) Method of sowing— whether drilled or broadcasted. About 20-25 per cent, more seed is required w-ith the broadcasted to give the same braird as the drill. With these reservations, it may be said that the average amount of seed for grain is 45-60 lbs., while for hay and forage 1-2 bushels may be used. For grain the amount sown may be as low as 30 lbs. in dry, mallee districts to 65-70 lbs., in moister districts. Generally speaking, sow early crops thin, and late crops thick; sow light laiid thicker than rich, heavy land ; and be sparing with good stooling ^'arieties, and correspondingly liberal with varieties of poor tillering capacity. Method of Sowing. Since the introduction and general use of superphosphates in the wheat- growing areas of the State the old broadcaster has been superseded by drills which sow seed and manure through the same hoes. The advantages of broadcasting are — (i) The small cost per acre; (2) the large areas that may be sown in a day. Bearing in mind what has already been said regarding the necessity for sowing seed quickly wdien once the " normal seeding period " arrives, we may readily appreciate, even in this age of drills, the merits of broad- casting ; for, should unfavorable weather conditions prevail at seed time, the broadcaster may be useful in making the most of Avhatever intervals of fine weather mav occur in an unusual seeding season. In a normal season, however, when seeding conditions are favorable, the best place for the broadcaster is in the implement shed. The ad- vantages possessed by the drill more than outweigh those of the broad- ca.ster. With the drill seed and manure may be sown in the one operation. This not onlv econimizes labour, but it also enables young plants to i-apidlv find ihe superphosphate and make vigorous growth in the_ earlier stages of its existence. Whatever weeds may lie between the drills are not so fortunatelv situated as the voung wheat plants, and the latter are lo May, [91:;.] WJicaf ami its Cnltivaticii. 269 thus better able to cope with such weeds. Moreover, the drill is more economical with seed than is the broadcaster, as it requires at least 25 per cent, more seed with the broadcaster to get the same braird. Wherever a farmer values his seed-wheat at prices considerably above those ruling for f.a.q. wheat — ^wherever selected seed of high quality is sown — this saving of seed is a most important item. Moreover, with the drill the germination is far more regular, because it is sown at a uniform depth. Finally, the depth of sowing may be regulated with the drill to suit the condition and nature of the seed bed. Treatment of the Seed. (1) Is Change of Seed Necessary? There is a notion, \-ery prevalent among wheat-growers, to the effect that change of seed at periodical intervals is more or less necessary. It is very difficult to obtain, even from those who hold thi.s view most stoutly. the grounds which render such a change of seed necessary. Perhaps the most obvious reason lies in the farmers" expressive phrase that the " wheat has run out." This is an expression of the belief that the continued cultivation of the same variety of wheat under the same soil conditions for a number of years results in the deterioration of that particular strain of seed to such an extent as to render a change absolutely im- perative. In other words, it is the practical farmer's expression of the belief that varieties of wheat, under ordinary conditions of cultivation, tend to degenerate. Such a view is by no means new. It dates back at least to Roman times, for in the Georgics Vergil tell us — " Unless the peasant with his annual pain Renews his choice, and selects the largest grain, Thus all belo'W, by Nature's curse. Or Fate's decree, degenerates still tO' worse."" It is difficult, indeed, to see how, if careless and slipshod methods of cultivation are practi.sed, and no care taken to preserve the very best of the crop for the next season's seed, the prolificacy- of any given variety of wheat can be maintained at a high level. It is still more difficult to see how such a grower can improve matters by securing a change of seed from persons equally careless as himself. Unless the change he for the purpose of obtaining a better variety, or more vigorous seed, or for seed that has been subjected- to careful and continued systematic selection, there can he no advantage resulting from change of seed. Indeed, if it be merely a promiscuous exchange, it is more than probable the change would be a decided disadvantage. This would happen in all cases, for example, in which wheat is transferred from a fa\orable to an unfavorable environ- ment. Again, in extreme cases, such as would happen, e.g., in introduc mg new varieties from foreign climes, .several years must elapse before the new seed becomes "acclimatized." {Vide p. 95.) Moreover, such change of seed is often the cause of introducing new weed pests and diseases from one district of the State or country tO' another. The balance of evidence goes to prove that farmers should rely on locally- developed seed, and should gi\'e more attention to their own seed, and the prevalent idea that mere change of seed gives good results would appear to be founded more on opinion than upon well ascertained fact. (2) Grading the Seed. Another widespread notion which, fortunatelv. can be proved ex- perimentally to have no foundation in fact is that shrivelled grain is as good for seed purposes as plump grain. Some years agO' it was not an uncommon practice for some farmers to sell their best wheat as f.a.q. 270 Journal of Agriculture, Yictoria. [10 May, 1912. to the miller or merchant, and keep the shrivelled grain for seed. If there is one thing that has been conclusively demonstrated by carefully conducted experimental work it is the fact that plump grains are greatly superior to shrivelled grains from a productive point of view. As no local experimental results are available to assist us on this sub- ject, we may consider what has been done at the Ontario Agricultural College, Canada. Professor Zavitz reports results extending over six suc- cessive years with winter wheat, and eight years with spring wheats. Large, plump grain, of winter-sown wheat, gave 46.9 bushels per acre, as against 39.1 bushels of shrivelled grain of the same variety, i.e., 7.8 bushels per acre extra. Again, with spring wheats the difference amounted to 5 bushels in favour of graded grain, the large, plump grain yeilding 21.7 bushels, whilst the shrivelled grain of the same variety gave 16.7 bushels. In view of what has been said above, it follows that growers should make every endeavour to secure the very best seed — large, plump, vigorous — and if the seed represents the progeny of strong, selected, vigorous plants, good results will be assured. Great emphasis must be laid on the necessity for the selection of hardy, vigorous prototypes, because, under favorable conditions, small, but well-developed seeds from highly productive, vigor- ous plants, may give better results than large grains from unproductive plants. It can readily be shown, however, that, in general, the more vigorous plants possess the larger kernels, and that, by mere grading, the bulk of the grain obtained would come from the more vigorous plants. The large grains, obtained as a result of such grading, might be ex- pected to give more v'gorous, and, inferentially, more productive plants, because of the greater reserve food supplv for ihe young plant in the early stages of its growth. (3) Pickling the Seed. Pickling of the seed for the prevention of " stinking smut,"' or Bunt (Tilletia Tritici), is now regarded as a regular part of the farm routine. Much effort has been spent on the evolution of bunt-proof wheats, and it would appear that already a considerable amount of success has been obtained. Florence and Genoa, e.g., have been shown in experimental trials tO' be practically immune from smut, whilst wheats like Medeah and Huguenot have long been known to be smut-resistant. The same cannot be said, however, for the varieties in general culti\ation, for some of the most prolific yielding wheats we grow are verv susceptible to smut. The advantages of securing a bunt-resistant prolific wheat must be manifest. The process of pickling would be unnecessary, and the time, labour, and expense, involved in the operation, would be saved to the farmer. Seeing that the quality of smut-resistance has already been observed in a few varieties, it is not difficult to impart the quality to other more prolific, but more susceptible, varieties. The cost of the actual pickling operations is not great, but as a con- siderable proportion of .seed is destroyed by most of the fungic'des in general use, it follows that the total cost, including the damaged seed, is verv considerable. The production of a hunt- p> oof prolific warietv is, therefore, a legiti- mate aim of the wheat-breeder, and it is not too much to expect that such a variety will materalize in the near future. To understand why any treatment for smut should be effectual it is necessary to realize that bunt is caused by a fungus which reproduces itself by small bodies called spores, which are analogous to the seeds of the .10 May. 1912.] ]]'//{■(!/ and its Ciilfivaiioii. 271 higher plants. This smut fungus is parasitic in its growth, and attacks the A\heat plant just when germination takes place. The mycelium of the fungus then penetrates the wheat plant, lives on its host, grows with it, .and ultimately produces myriads of spores which collectively form the " bunt balls'" of the infected heads. The effect of the fungicides, used in pickling, is to kill all the spores in any wav adhering to the grain. Most of the spores adhering to infected grains will be found in the ^' brush "■ of the kernel, whilst a lesser number are usually found in the •crease of the grain. If a number of grains of wheat be poured into a vessel of water, it will be noted that small bubbles of air invariably be- come entangled in the tuft of hairs constituting the '.' brush,'' and in such cases the grain does not become moistened at these points, even after pro- longed immersion. This will explain the need for vigorous agitation of the seed whilst immersed in the pickling solution. Reinfection may, and often does, take place after the seed has been p'ckled. This commonly occurs where the pickled .seed has been trans- ferred to smutty bags which have not bt«n treated with the pickling solu- tion. Again, in sowing the seed the bunt balls, left among the grain by careless pickling, may be broken in the drill, and the contents of the ball scattered o\er the seed. It must, of course, be borne in mind that while loo.se bunt spores are killed by contact with the pickling solution, the spores contained within the unbroken bunt balls, which float on the surface of the pickle, are unaffacted by the fungicide. Steps must, there- fore, be taken during pickling to remove or break any bunt balls which may be present in the seed. An ideal fungicide for pickling purposes would require to be {a) cheap; (b) efective, i.e., capable of destroying all the spores adhering to the grain ; {c) capable of preventing reinfection of the seed ; {d) with- out effect on the gerinination of the grain. The fact that so much con- troversy has arisen respecting the various fungicides on the market is proof that the ideal fungicide has not yet been obtained. Bliiestone is a most popular fungicide, and, when properly used, is verv eft"ecti\e. The stronger solutions have a very deleterious effect on the germination of the grain, as they not only reduce the germinable power of the seeds, but also delay the germination considerably. Manv instances were observed last season by the writer when judging farm crops and farm competitions, in which crops were badly affected with bunt, although the seed had been pickled with bluestone. In all these cases, however, the cause was un- doubtedly the arbitrary method of pickling adopted. Instead of using a solution of fixed and definite concentration, the practice followed w^as that of dissolving a handful of bluestone in a small but unknown quantity of water and pouring it over a bag of seed. Such a method of procedure is most unsatisfactory, ^^'hat the grower needs to realize is that the strength or concentration of the solution is all important to successful work, for there is an optimum concentration at which the best results are obtained. Below this strength the fungicide is ineffectual, and with higher concen- trations the germinat'on of the seed is greatly interfered with. In practice the amount of bluestone which gives the best results is i| lbs. 'to 10 gallons of water, i.e., i| per cent. Of course, smutty seed may require as much as 2 lbs. to 10 gallons, but the farmer should make it his business not to sow dirty seed. He should make it an habitual prac- tice to reserve each j^ear the very cleanest and best-grown portion of his crop for next season's .seed. Various substances ha^e been used to lessen the corrosive action of the bluestone, and among these the u.se of lime and salt have been / 272 JoKnial of AgriciilturL . \"ictoria. [10 May, 1912. recommended ; hut the results of experimental work at present tend to show that the benefit obtained is not commensurate with the extra labour involved. ForwaUn has been know^n for manv years to be an effective fungicide and is now widely used for pickling wheat. It is a solution of formaldehyd gas in water, and the usual concentration of the commercial article is 37-38 per cent. It is a cheap fungicide, efficient in pre\enting smut, but it apparently has little power to prevent reinfection. -Bluestone, however, is highly efficient, both in destroying spores adhering to the seed, and also in pre- venting further reinfection by fresh spores falling on the seed after it has been pickled. It follows, therefore, that in pickling with formalin more care must be taken with bunt balls than when pickling with bluestone. Formalin is generallv considered to have a depressing influence on the germination, and the effect depends on the length of time the seed has been pickled before sowing, the nature of the .seed bed, and the concentration of the solution used, I may remark, however, that at the Parafield Experi- mental Farm a packet of Federation seed, which was immersed in a 1/400 solution of formalin for five minutes, on ist April, 1909, gave a germi- nation of 89 per cent, when planted on 25th May, 1910 — nearly 14 months later. The .strength usually recommended is i in 400, i.e., i lb. of formalin to 40 gallons of water. It is not desirable, nor is it necessary, to- use stronger .solutions than this. Indeed, unless the seed is smutty, it may even be advisable to use a weaker solution than this, and for general pur- poses I lb. to 45 gallons, or i lb. to 50 gallons, i.e., i in 450, or i in 500, may be recommended. Fungusine is a proprietary preparation, which has been used as a fungicide for the prevention of smut, but considerable difference of opinion exists as to its merits. There seems to be little doubt that fungusine does not have that deleterious effect on the germination of the grain which has been noted with formalin and bluestone. Indeed, in nearly all cases in which it has been tried, the germination has for some reason or other been materially stimulated by the pickling. Were it absolutely effective as a fungicide, and proved itself capable of preventing reinfection, there would be no question as to its value as a pickle. Before one can come to a conclusion in this matter, it is necessary to test it o\er a period of years, in a sys- tematic manner, side by side with standard fungicides. Until such experiments have been conducted it is not safe to indulge in hasty generalizations. It is interesting to note, however, that in\'estigation.'; have been conducted at the Cowra Experimental Farm. New South Wales, with these \arious fungicides for the past two years. The results are given in the Agricultural Gazette of New South Wales (April, 191 1). The following table has been extracted from the results to illustrate the point at issue : — 1. Bluestone 2% 2. Formalin 1/400 3. Fungusine (1) Efficiency of the Fungicide. Buntv plants. (Average 1909-10.) 1-4 9-6 3-4 (2) Effect on Germination., Plants killed. (1909-10.) (3) Efficacy in prevent ing reiiifection. Clean plants after relnlection. (1910 only.) 0/ /o ' 22-4 14-5 — " ( % 96-6 67-2 96-4 Note. — In all tliesp tests tlie seed was purposely infected until it was literally black with smut. Itwas thus infinitelv dirtier than seed sown under ordinary farming conditions. lo -May, 191-.] W'luat and its Cultivation. 273 The results of these experiments are thus summarized — " As a smut-preveiiti\e fungusine gave practically as good results as any method tried, and had no injurious effect on the germination of the seed. . . . In preventing rein- fection it was correspondingly efficient."" {Agricultural Gazette of Xew South "Wales, April. 191 r.) This result is in accord with the results of experiments conducted at the Parafield Wheat Station (South Australia) during 1909, where,, in com- parati^'e tests, fungusine ac(]uitted itself remarkably well. {Vide Journal of Agricidtiirc of South Australia, January. 1910 — Bunt Tests — A. E. "V. Richardson). Hot Water Treatnieni. — This has been recommended at -s-arious times, but, in practice, though the treatment is efficient, the method is very cumbersome, slow, and unwieldy. The method consists in immersing the seed for 10 minutes in hot water at a temperature of 130° to 132° F. The practical difficulty is to keep the temperature constant. A considerable lowering of temperature results immediately the seed is introduced, but this may be avoided bv pre-heating the .seed in a ^•essel of water, the temperature of which is approximatelv 130° F., before immersing it in the main bath. It is a method, howe\"er, which requires skilful handling and careful supervision. Methods of Pickling. — Seed-wheat mav be pickled with formalin cr bluestone, either by immersion for a stated time in a solution of given con- centration, or by pouring the solution o\er several bags of wheat on a cement floor, and shovelling over the mass until every grain has been thoroughly wetted with the solution. The advantage of the barn-floor method of pickling is the rapidity with which it may be done. The disadvantage, however, is that it is not possible to remove any bunt balls that may be present, and reinfection may subsequently take place. This, as pointed out abo\e, is of more con- sequence with the formalin pickle than with the bluestone, for the reason that formalin appears tO' be less able to prevent reinfection than bluestone. With fungusine, the floor method is the only one possible. Pickling by immersion is less expeditious, but, on the whole, it is more efficacious. The whole of the grain comes in contact with the pickle, especially when the vessel containing the grain is agitated. Moreover, any bunt balls which may be present can be removed by skimming, and danger of reinfection avoided. Several patent picklers are now on the market for expediting this work, and with these much of the old-time drudgery associated with pickling is avoided. "With bluestone pickling the apparatus needs to be con- structed of copper and wood. M.A MURING OF THE WhEAT CROP. The manurial requirements of the wheat crop under diverse soil and climatic conditions, the comparative merits of different forms of artificial manures and the principles upon which the maintenance of soil fertility depend may be reserved for discussion in subsequent articles. After-treatment of Wheat. A'er\ frequently the crop requires some kind of attention after sowdng, and the treatment will vary considerably with the type of growth made, the character of the season, and the nature and preliminary treatment of the seed bed. Rolling the crop after it has grown some 6 inches — 8 inches is frequently practised. 274 journal of Agriculture , Victoria. \io May, 1912^ With hay or ensilage crops this is often beneficial, as it helps to make- a level surface for the binder, thus facilitating the harvesting of the crop. Moreover, on light, open land, the consolidation of the soil effected by rolling is very beneficial to the growing crop. Rolling may also be prac- tised where the operations, preparatory to seeding, have not been of such a character as to provide for that soil consolidation so essential to the success of a wheat crop. On heavy lands which tend to set hard, and which are likely to run together with the winter rains, the roller should be displaced by the harrows. Harrowing is always beneficial to a \oung wheat crop, provided it be- not already too thin. Certainly, a percentage of the young plants is dragged out in the operation, but it is well in this connexion to remember the healthy proverb, '' The man who harrows should never look behind." This disadvantage is more than compensated for by the increased vigor of the remaining plants, and by the great stimulus given to stooling ; nor must it be forgotten that the harrows assist in subjugating the weeds, and in the drier portions of the State it assists in conserving the limited sup- plies of soil moisture by retard'ng capillary activity and lessening eva- poration. In harrowing the growing crop the work should be done at right angles to the drills. Feeding Down the Crop. — It has already been remarked that, in favorable seasons, the early sown crops are likely to come away very rapidly and make heavy, vigorous, rank growth in May and June. Such heady growth is exposed to two dangers : — ■ 1. Lodging in wet weather. 2. Blighting either from late spring frosts, or by a premature burst of hot weather in spring. Such growth may be arrested by feeding down with sheep. This is a decided advantage on light land, or on land which has, for various reasons, not been consolidated sufficiently through adequate tillage operations ; but on heavy land it may be a positive disadvantage to feed down a crop with sheep. This would happen if the land were wet, ard more or less boggy ;. under these circumstances the sheep would do more harm than good. In any case, unless the feeding be done fairly rapidly, little benefit will accrue from the process. In dealing with large paddocks, difficulty arises in putting on a suffi- cient number of sheep to carry out the work in reasonable time. Complications arise where the crop is not uniform, and where the rank portions occur in patches. Under such circumstances it becomes necessary to " shepherd " the ffock, as, if left to themselves, the sheep will invariably graze those portions which do not require feeding off. One point must not be overlooked in this connexion, and that is the time such operations may, with .safety, be performed. Late feeding down is generally decidedly detrimental, and can only be performed with any prospect of success when the spring rains are frequent and copious. In the drier portions of the State it is a good maxim for the wheat - grower, at all times, to plan his work with the expectation of the present season being a, dry one, and, in the event of such expectation being realized, crops requiring to be fed off will give best results when fed early. In addition to checking the rank growth, judicious feeding-off assists the stooling propensities of the plant, and reduces the pro]X>rt-on of fiag and straw to grain, thereby avoiding the danger of blighting by- hot, spring winds. (7'c he continued.) lo May, 1912.] Infltu'iice of Soil Moisttire tifon Niirificaiioti. 275 THE INFLUENCE OF SOIL MOISTURE UPON NITRIFICATION. By J. TF. Paterson, B.Sc, Ph.D., Exferimentalist, aud P. R. Scott, C lie mi St for Agriculture. Introduction. Xitric acid or nitrate contains nitrogen in the highest state of oxidation. Ammonia is a compound of nitrogen which has no oxygen. To convert ammonia into nitric acid, its nitrogen must be oxidized. This happens in fertile soil, and the oxidation is brought about by certain bacteria. The process of oxidizing ammonia to nitric acid is termed nitrification. Besides nitrogen and oxygen plants require eight other elements in their food materials. Each of these must be in the highest state of oxidation commonly occurring in Nature. Phosphites, sulphites, nitrites, and ferrous salts either kill the plant outright, or they give an unsatisfactorv return. This is also true of ammonia for ordinary crop plants. Ammonia is not poisonous in practical amounts, but it gives a much smaller vield than the With nitrogen in form of nitrate. With nitrogen in form of ammonia. highly oxidized nitrogen found in nitrates. The accompanying figure*^ shows very fairly the action of ammonia and nitrate nitrogen under con- ditions where nitrification is impossible. The reason why nitrates should be better than ammonium salts as a food of plants is somewhat obscure. The first organic compounds formed by plants from the absorbed nitrogen are amino-acids and their derivatives. As these contain the amidogen radical (XHj) which is closely related to ammonia (NH3), one might have expected the ammonium salts to give the better result. As the primary amide formation always occurs in the plant cell where oxidizable carbohydrate is present along with the absorbed nitrogen compound, it may be that nitrate pos,sesses an advantage in that • From A Manual of Agricultural Botany, hy Prof. Frank, Berlin Edinburgh : Wm. Blackwood and Sons. translated by John W. Faterson . 276 Journal of Agriculture. Victoria. [10 May, 1912. it contains easily available oxygen which is useful, while at the same time it yields NH5 in the nascent state in the process of its reduction. This,, however, is merely a suggestion; whatever the physiological reasons the superiority of nitrate to ammonia nitrogen for direct crop production may be taken as an established fact. It has been indicated that nitrification is the work of certain soil bac- teria. There are two kinds of bacteria and two stages in the change, but apparently both have very much the same requirements, save in the nature of their nitrogenous food'. One kind changes ammonia into nitrite, the second changes nitrite into nitrate. The conditions for growth of these bacteria are therefore the conditions for nitrification. They require — 1. The ordinary plant food of crops except iron. 2. An available base to neutralize the acids produced — carbonate of lime being the best. An ammonium salt — probably the carbonate. Free aeration of the soil. Sufficient moisture. Darkness. Temperature between 41 deg. and 130 deg. F., 97 deg. being; the best. I-'ILLIXG THE L'.Ol [ i_E. If moisture is necessary for nitrification, it follows that conservation of soil moisture has a double purpose. The moisture is held in reserve for the use of a future crop, but its presence meanwhile tends tO' the production of nitrates. To find how far exactly, and within what limits the presence of soil moisture has an effect upon the production of nitrates was the object of these experiments. Method of Work. The method of investigation was as follows : — Air-drv soil equal to 300- grams dry soil was placed in a bottle of 3 inches diameter, 6 inches high,. lo May, 1912.] IiifliH'iiCi of Soil Moisture upon Xiirificafinu. neck il inches, and of 500 c.c. capacity. Sufficient tapping was given to make the soil compact. A mark was placed on the bottle at the soil level, the .soil was replaced by water to the same mark, and from the weight of water required the api)arpnt S.G. of the soil was determined. From this and the real S.G. as found by the disi)lacement method, the porositv of the soil, and from this the total water-holding capacity was found bv calculation. There were two sets of experiments in consecutive periods, using about 100 bottles each. In the first experiments water was added to bring the original soil moLsture up to 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, and 70 per cent, of its total water-holding capacity in different bottles. In the second, the steps were 10, 20, 30, 50, 70. and 90. All the bottles were marked to the same volume, and the same weight of dry soil was used in everv. case. Before charging the bottles, tlie weighed soil was thoroughly mixed with its proper quantity of water in a Wedgewood mortar. One-half of the bottles got water only, the other half got 5 c.c. standard ammonium sulphate solution in their water. After filling, the bottles were placed in a dark cupboard in the laboratory, and the temperature of the cupboard was read daily at 9 a.m. and 5 p.m. The bottles in the cupboard were corked. Twice weekly each bottle was taken out, uncorked, aspirated for 5 seconds with the suction pump, corked, and replaced in the locker. The method of using closed bottles and aspirating seemed better than the method of using open bottles and adding water lost, which has been adopted elsewhere in investigating this subject. In order to judge of the two methods, six bottles were left open, and the results compared with closed aspirated bottles after a period of twenty-eight days. The follow- ing figures were obtained : — Table I. Original moisture per 100 of dry soil Loss from Closed Bottles Loss from Open Bottles 2-67 5-35 8-03 13-38 18-73 0-31 1-7 0-31 -to 0-39 6-3 0-56 9-5 0-58 8-3 24-08 0 - 68 8-8 With closed bottles the losses were insignificant, while with open bottles usually more than one-half of the original moisture was lost. The lost water in open bottles cannot be replaced in a satisfactory manner, because at the point where the water is added the soil will be much wetter than at other points in the soil mass. To demonstrate this, a glass tube of i-inch bore was packed with soil to the same degree as in the experiment bottles, and to a depth, of 10 inches. Water was then added from the top equal to 10.70 parts per 100 dry soil (40 per cent, of its water-holding capacity). At the end of seventeen days the tube was cut into four sections of 2| inches and the moisture in each determined. Of the total water in the soil there was found in the top .section 35 ,; in the second, 31 ; the third, 24 ; and in the fourth. 10 per cent. With a smaller quantity of water, or with a shorter time allowed, the differences would probably have been greater than here noted. In each experiment the ammonia bottles and the control blanks were done in duplicate, and the average results are taken where the figures are close, when wider, the average is marked doubtful. This happens in two instances with the very wet soils of the second experiments. 278 Journal of Agriculture, \ictoria. [lo May. 1912. The Soils. The first experiment uses one sample of sandy soil from the Horticul- tural School, Burnley. The second experiments employ a medium clay soil from the same place in addition. In preparation the air-dry soils were put through a 2 mm. sieve. The mechanical analyses of the prepared soils were as follow : — Table II. Diameter in millimetres. Sanely Soil. Clay Soil. Per cent. Per cent. Fine Gravel \ --1 •10 •48 Coarse Sand •5 -1 •97 1^61 Medium Sand •25 - -5 ■75 2-0(3 Fine Sand •1 - -25 6-76 11-70 Very fine Sand •05 - -1 74 10 46-20 Silt •01 - -05 3-29 515 Fine Silt •005- •Ol 2 14 7-25 Clay •005 and unde.- . 803 1864 Moisture •86 215 Loss on ignition 300 4-76 The clay soil contains a higher percentage of the finer particles, and inferentially a larger superficial area of soil grains. One would expect therefore that an equal quantity of water would be further spread out and form a thinner film in the clay than in the sand, and be less available for the purpose of nitrification. As will be seen later, this result was ob- tained. The higher percentage of water in the clav analysis is con- nected with the same cause. The chemical analyses of the soils were as follow : — Table III. - Sandy Soil. Oay Soil. Per cent. Per cent. Water •86 2 15 Loss on isjnition (1) 3-00 4^76 Soluble Silica -31 1-40 Iron and Alumina . . 2-22 411 Manganese -037 -03 Lime -19 •48 Magnesia . . ■15 -27 Potash (2) -046 •134 Soda -123 -139 Chlorine . . •014 -008 Phosphoric Acid (3) ■032 -061 Sulphuric Acid •06 •03 Carbonic Acid (4) . . •032 •12 Insoluble Residue . . 92-96 86-29 (1) Containing— Nitrate Nitrogen ■00094 -000868 Ammonia Nitrogen . . -00182 •002460 Organic Nitrogen -09'2-24 •116672 Total Nitrogen •095 •120 (2) Containins available Kg 0 •0353 -0847 (3) Containing available PgO^ ■0218 -0179 (4) Equal Carbonate ol Liine ■073 •273 TO May, 191-.] I iiflKi-iicc of Soil MoislKrc upon Nitrificaiion. •79 In the chemical analysis the larger percentage of lime, and particularly of carbonic acid, in the clav is notable as representing available base. The .sandy soil with .032 carbonic acid falls below the minimum requirements.* and is apparently deficient in available lime — a point which will be referred to later on. Analytical Methods. Before going on to the results, the analytical methods must be briefly described. Moisture. — At the close of the experiments, the soil in the bottles was mixed, and 25 grams dried at 212 deg. F. for five hours in a tarred dish. Xitrate Xitrogen. — Fifty grams of the mixed moi.st soil from the bottles was transferred to a small bag of nainsook, and 250 c.c. of a solution con- taining 5.36 c.c. sat. potash alum + .64 c.c. formalin was poured over the soil in the bag placed in a mortar. After kneading for 2 min. as much of the solution as possible was transferred to a Mason jar. and 'left over READING THE RE.SULTS. night to settle. Fifty c.c.'s of the clear solution was evaporated to dryne.ss on the water bath, cooled, and 20-30 drops disulphonic acid (Gill) added, stirred, and left ten minutes. There was then added 15 c.c. distilled water, potash till alkaline, the solution was filtered if necessary, and ma(ie up to 50 c.c.'s. This solution was read in the colorimeter against standard nitrate of potash. Allowance was made for the water in the moist soil. -\ll solutions and salts used were tested for nitrate, and care was taken in washing the bags, and preparing nitrate-free water. Chlorides were elimi nated with a measured quantity of saturated silver .sulphate. The analytical work was carried out bv Mr. \\". ( . Robertson, chief deputy chemist. Results of the First Experiments. Table IV. gives the progress of nitrification in sandy soil, with difterent degrees of moisture. Airunonia nitrogen added -^ .02121 gram per 300 grams soil = 70.7 parts per million. Length of incubation period — 27 days. Mean temperature, 66 deg. F. * In MinnesotA soil*. Suvder regaifls •! per cent, combined carbonic acid as the minimini from whitli good results can be got ; Hall at Rothamsted adopts a similar view. 2 8o Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo May, 1912. Table IV Water iu Soil as- Percentage of Percentage of Saturation. Dry Soil. 10 2-67 20 5-35 30 8-03 40 10-70 50 13-38 60 16-05 70 18-73 iS'itrate Nitrogen per 1,000,000 Parts Dry Soil. Control Ammonia Excess with Blanks. Bottles. Ammonia. 4-76 4-86 -10 7-51 14-24 6-73 10 08 41-68 31-60 10 • 60 52-41 41-81 11-64 59-97 48-33 12-89 57-64 ^44-75 1302 59-08 46 06 Percentage of added Ammonia Nitrified. -141 9-52 44-69 59-14 68-36 63-29 65- 15 Between 40 and 70 per cent, of the water-holding capacity, rate of nitrification did not vary in any important degree. At the variou.s steps below 40, there w-as a notable falling away ; 10 per cent, practically stopped nitrification, and at 20 the rate was only one-seventh of the best case. Another duplicate .set of bottles set up at the same time, but analyzed one week earlier, showed results on a lower plane for each degree of moistness, but placed them in the same order of merit. Results of the Second Experiments. Here two classes of soil were used — -the one a fresh sample from tiie same spot as in the first experiments, the other a medium clay. The water added to the sandy soil formed as before a percentage of its saturation capa- city ; the clay soil was brought up to the same content of water without reference to its water-holding capacity. Ammonia added=o.i gram, per 300 grams 8011 = 333.33 parts per million. Length of incubation period, 42 days. Mean temperature taken from bi-dailv readings, 68.=; deg. F. Table V. {a) Sandv Soil. Water ii Soil as — Percentage of Percentage of Saturation. Dry Soil. 10 2-67 20 5-35 30 8-03 50 13-38 70 18-73 90 -24 08 Nitrate Nitrogen per 1.000.000 Parts Dry Scil. C'outro Blanks 8-33 16-30 19-25 21-71 19-18 9- lie?) Ammonia Bottles. 10-03 60 12 82 79 110 35 117 65 27 68 Excess with Ammonia. 1-70 43-82 63-54 88-64 98-47 18-57 (?; Percent age of added Ammonia Nitri tied. 51 13 15 19-06 26 59 29 55 5 57 (?) The results here agree with those of Tabk^ TIL. and indicate that for this soil there is a long range in the medium degrees of moistness which are about equally favorable for nitrification. This sandv soil contained .86 per cent, moisture (see analyses) in the air-dry condition; when exposed in a thin layer for four days in a saturated atmosphere at the temperature lo May. 1 912.] /n-fliHin-c of Soil Moisture ufon Nitrification. j8r Df the laboratory, it held 2.35 per cent, of moisture. As seen from the top line in both tables, neither of these amounts is sufficient to maintain nitrification. In the 90 per cent, of saturation introduced in the second experiments, the result was poor owing probably to the water excluding air from the pores of the soil. If, as would appear, the best degree of saturation for this soil runs from 40 to 70 per cent., the figures indicate that, beyond those limits, increasing wetness acts more sharply than increasing dryness. Table VI. gives the results on the clay soil. Table VI. Xitrate Xitrogen per 1,000,000 Parts Dry Soil. Water Percentage of as Percentage of added Ammonia Dry Soil. Control Ammonia Excess with Xitrified. Blanks. Bottles. Ammonia. 2-67 9-00 10-55 1 -55 •46 0-35 13-65 14-52 ■87 -26 803 24-23 198-80 174-57 52-37 13-38 34-65 277-80 243-15 72-96 18-73 38-50 340-50 302 00 90-61 24-08 1-78 (?) 262-60 260-82 (?) 78-26 (?) Referring to their mechanical analyses, and the water content of the two varieties of soil, it was apparent that clay holds its water more firmly than the sand. The effect of this is now seen upon the nitrifying action, because while with sand it was the driest series only which remained stationary, with clay the second driest also failed to act. With sand, 5.35 per cent, of water induced nitrification although slowly, with clay it had no effect. With sufficient moisture, nitrification proceeded rapidly in the clay, and the water optimum is apparently higher with clay than sand. This is no doubt owing to its greater absorptive power, and in connexion with this it is further noticeable that the largest supply of water (24.08 per cent.) which ga\e a very poor result with sand gave a high return with the clay soil. On comparing the last columns of tables V and VI. it will be ob- served that nitrification was altogether more active in the clay than the sand. In the best case of the former just over 90 per cent, of the total nitrogen was nitrified. This result closely agrees with Professor Wagner's* investigations into the comparative effects of nitrate of soda and sulphate of ammonia, when applied as manures. Referring to the chemical analyses above, it was noticed that the clay soil probably contained sufficient avail- able base, while the sand was deficient in lime — as are a large number of Victorian soils. It is not clear that this deficiency has affected in kind the action of soil moisture in promoting nitrification, although in the sandv soil it has probably affected it in degree. Lime, however, lies outside the scope of the present experiments — their object was rather to obtain experimental data on the relation of moisture to nitrification in two types of Victorian .soils as they came to hand. The effect upon nitrification of lime and other substances added to the soil will be investigated in a future set of experiments. * Die Stickstoflfdiinguug der landw. ICultiirpflanzen, by Prof. Dr. Paul Wagner. Berlin, Pru' Parey. 282 journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [10 May, 1912. Summary. 1. Nitrification is inactive in these soils while they still contain about three times ni'ore moisture than in their average air-dry condition. 2. At the lower Imits of moisture less water starts nitrification in sand than in the clay. 3. At the higher limits of moisture less water stops nitrification in sand ihan in the clay. 4. While the optimum amount of water probably varies for each soil, and is higher for clay, still for both soils it lies within the range of four- teen to eighteen parts per 100 of dry soil. 5. A rise above the optimum amount of water is more harmful than an equal fall below it. 6. If the summer working of fallow land helps to retain water in the surface soil, this water may have a powerful influence upon the produc- tion of nitrates for the next crop. 7. A growing crop may reduce the nitrate supply for the next crop in two ways — it may use up all the nitrates actually present, and it may so- dry the land that nitrification in the interval between crops is reduced to a minimum. 8. The moisture requirements for nitrification suggest that in dry- seasons a single flooding of fallow land might be follow^ed by good results. THE PORT OF HULL AS A DISTRIBUTING CENTRE FOR AUSTRALIAN PRODUCE. By Austin Wilson, Special Trade Commissioner, Port of Hull, England. The object of my visit to Australia is to supplement the efforts of our agent, Mr. E. Bechervaise, of Geelong, in endeavouring to arouse interest in the Port of Hull, and to bring before the notice of growers and shippers, of Australian produce the special advantages, which this port offers in the way of facilities, for reaching the .British consumers in the densely populated northern and ni'dland counties of England. History records that in the year 1296 King Edward I. granted Hull its first charter; and the city was named Kingston (or Kingstown)-upon-Hull. In all legal and official documents it still bears this name, although in general use it has been shortened to Hull. Modern Hull is the largest port on the north- east coast of England, and is situated on the north bank of the Humber estuary. This estuary is formed by the confluence of the Rivers Ouse, Trent,' Aire and Calder, and Hull, and has a wide and deep channel leading directlv to the sea. Outside the Alexandra Docks there is 40 feet of water at low' tide in the channel, and the port is therefore accessible to large steamers at any time. The decks cover a river frontage of about 6 or 7 miles and are up-to-date and well equipped At present a new dock and deep-water quay, both- of which will be available this year, are being built. The new dock when fully completed will be the largest commercial dock in the world, having a water area of 85 acres, and will be equipped with all the best modern appliances for dealing- with ships and their cargoes. At the deep-water quay, steamers will be able to come alongside at any state of the tide to- discharge or load. Coaling appliances capable of delivering 600 tons per hour are already installed on this quay and are in daily use. lo May. 1912.] I'ort 0] U nil as a D-istributitig Centre, d:^c. 283 Hull is served by five railway companies, and has in consequence a fast serv'ce of trains to al! parts of the country. As an instance perishable traffic leaving Hull 6.30 p.m. arrives in London 2.30 a.m. ne.xt morning (200 miles). In addition to the raihva\ services there is an unrivalled system of navigable rivers and canals radiating north, south, and we.st of Hull which serve over i-6th of the total area of England. All river craft have the privilege (secured to them by Act of Parlia- ment) of using the docks free of dues, and they compete very strongly with the railwav companies for the carriage of goods to and from inland towns. In consequence of this competition the railway rates from Hull are on a lower basis than from ari) other United Kingdom port. Rates of con- veyance, &c., consequently as cheap or cheaper thin from any other port, serve a district carrying a population of between ten and twelve million people, or more than quarter of the total Briti.sh population. Hull is well placed as regards coal. It has access by rail to over 380 collieries, and during 1910 nearly 7,000,000 tons coal came into Hull by rail and river chiefly for export abroad. The South Yorkshire Coal- field is proven nearer to the sea each year, and new pits are being sunk from time to time. It is estimated that within ten years from now over 20,000 tons of coal will be raised per day in excess of what is being raised now, and over 100 000 more people w^ill be congregated in consequence of these developments. With the geographical position of the port and iijiand transit facilities, and the vast and increasing population which it serves, it is contended that Hull is an ideal distributing centre for Aus- tralian produce and well worthv of the serious attention of producers and shippers. Australia has hitherto sent the bulk of its refrigerated produce to London wh'ch is generalh acknowdjdged to be the dearest port in Great Britain. The dues and charges on goods landed there form a serious handicap when in competition with similar produce reaching the British consumers through cheaper channels, and as an instance of that Hull can deliver meat and apples ex ship Hull to London markets at practically the same cost as from ex ship London docks. A shipper of produce there- fore who uses Hull as a distributing centre can serve London as cheaply as his competitors and at the same time he has the benefit of the northern markets. In sending apples to London a grower finds usually the London expenses amount to about is. 3d. per case. If a northern wholesaler buys at Covent Garden, he has to pay cost of transit from London and delivery to retail shops, and also to allow for his own profit on the transaction. If he pays a high price for the apples, his retailers only have a limited sale, while if he buys the apples at a low price, the grower suffers. Both conditions are unsatisfactory as it is to the interest of the grower to sell as much produce as possible at remunerative prices. Up to recent times London has been able to absorb all thaft has been sent, and maintain uniform prices, but this market, like all others, has its limits, and for some time past it has been frequently glutted and an increasing proportion of the produce has had to be sold to buyers away from London. In these instances the grower not only gets poor prices from the London buyers, but he has to bear the cost of transport from London on the produce which is sent north, as buyers when bidding always bear in mind the expenses they will incur in getting produce to the ultimate destination. The cost of handling, cataloguing, and selling apples by public auction at Hull does not exceed 6d. per case as against is 2d. to is. 3d. in London. In the case of butter the freight to London can be reckoned at 4s. per cwt., cost of transit to Toolev-street is. per cwt.. and London 284 Journal of Agriculture^ \icioria. [10 May.. 1912. commissions at 3 per cent., say, 3s. per cwt., making altogether 8s. per cwt., without reckoning insurance and other expenses, which will probably bring the cost up to I OS. per cwt. If a northern wholesaler buys from London, the rail transit will cost at least 2s. per cwt. His profit and cost of retail distribution will be about 5s. per cwt., making altogether 17s. per cwt. Danish butter can be delivered from Copenhagen via Hull to Leeds for 2S. per cwt. against 17s. for Australian butter, and the producer must bear this difference. If the butter for northern towns was sent to Hull for distribution, about 6s. per cwt. would be saved which is now needlessly paid awav. There is a large and densely populated area served by the port of Hull which is at present being neglected by Australia, and we con- sider it is worthy of consideration. In regard to meat sent to London, it is well known to many that the svstem of handling there is far from perfect. The meat is landed to quay and harrowed round to lighters which convey it to cold stores. These cold stores are 20 miles from the Royal Albert and Victoria Docks, and 27 miles from Tilbury, and when the meat arrives at the cold stores it is frozen up again. If sold to a northern buyer it is carted through the London streets to a railway station, loaded into insulated cars and for- warded to its destination where it is usually carted to a cold store before being distributed to retail shops. This means that the meat is handled excessively and usually frozen twice before reaching the northern retailer, besides incurring unnecessary charges. In Hull steamers can berth along- side the cold stores and sling the meat direct from their holds to the stores. Insulated cars load alongside and convey the meat quickly, cheaply, and what is extremely important, with a minimum of handling to the towns in the area which are served by Hull. Another most important point is that although Australian produce ranks amongst the finest in the world, it very largely loses its identity before reaching the British consumer. The time has surely come when Australian produce should make a name for itself. The quality is all right and the price, but the method of marketing at present does not give it a fair show. Most of the emigrants come from provincial centres in Great Britain. They leave friends and relations behind who receive letters regularly, describing the splendid quality of the produce, and it is only reasonable to presume that there is a good chance of building up a large and growing trade amongst these people if they are catered for. It is claimed justly that people at home have vague ideas respecting the extent and general features of Australia, but I think the people in the pro\'inces may legiti- mately claim that Australians have so' far looked upon London as England so to speak in the marketing of produce. There are 30,000,000 people outside the London distributing area who can be reached through the out ports at a lower cost than via London, and Hull being the third po{|: in importance in Great Britain .serves a larger population than any other out port. So long as it is endeavoured to serve this area via London the cost of this expensive and roundabout method of distribution must come out of the growers' pockets. Competitors from Canada, North and South America, Russia, Denmark are sending their produce to the British consumers through the cheapest channels. Australia is already sufficiently handicapped by its distance from Great Britain and European markets, without still further handicapping itself by un- necessary transport and handling charges. At the rate the country is progressing it will be more and more dependent on the oversea markets each year, and if the progression continues on present lines the London markets will be glutted more and more frequently. In its own interests 10 May. 1912.] port oj Hull as a Dhtribiitiug Centre, cr-'c. 28s it is high time the importance of the British out ports was realized, and I have shown that the Port of Hull is a proper and suitable port for the distributing of Australian produce. Any grower or shipper of produce Showing method of discharging meat, ex steamer, Alexandra Docks, Hull. The meat is slung direct from hold to the cold store, alongside which the steamer is berthed. This shows the same meat being landed and transferred to the store. The sorting of the meat is done in the store, and not on the quay, as in London. Refrigerated cars load the meat direct from the store and convey it to inland towns with a minimum of handling. desiring information at any time regarding Hull can obtain same on appli- cation to Mr. E. Bechervaise. 17 Malop-street. Geelong. 286 Journal of Agriculiuu . Victona. [lo May, 1912. GENERAL N0TE8. By J. ir. P. ERADICATION OF BRACKEN— From time to time various methods liave been adopted for the perma- nent removal of bracken such as the use of spiked rollers or the appli- cation of manures to encourage other herbage, but apparently the old- fashioned method of repeated cuttings is the most effective yet tried. In this connexion the recent experience on a large estate in England is described in the Mark Lane Express of 19th June. When the bracken Avas cut down continually its growth became less vigorous each year. Clean cutting with a scythe or hook was the most effective, and care should be taken to cut below the lowest leaves which if left will go on seeding. Cutting should begin early in the year, and the more the growth of the plant is stimulated by the process the quicker will be its ultimate exhaus- tion. Burning and chain harrowing only encourage the evil by manuring and otherwise improving conditions favorable to the growth of the plant. STRENGTH IN WHEAT— Much of the wheat exported from India is lacking in strength, and except for its remarkable dryness has little to recommend it to the miller. For some years the Indian Agricultural Research Institute at Pusa has been collecting stock, both by selection and breeding new varieties, _ with .a view to providing a higher class wheat for export. From Bulletin 22 recently issued the efforts seem to have met with success. Wheats have been produced which in the climate of Western Bengal give not only a much higher yield than the native wheats, but also are characterized by great strength, and are therefore likely to command a higher price in the home markets. Commenting on the successful issue of the experiments the Journal of the Board of Agriculture (London) observes: — "The work at Pusa confirms what has been established at Cambridge — that it is possible, by the scientific methods of breeding associated with the name of Mendel, to combine high quality with good yield. The results obtained last year with Burgoyne's Fife — a new Cambridge wheat — shows that it gives a grain equalling the Canadian in milling quality combined with the cropping capacity of the best British wheats." There is a considerable field here for the Australian wheat grower. AGRICULTURAL IMPORTS OF THE UNITED KINGDOM— The value of the principal articles of food imported into the United Kingdom in 1911 was ^190,712,000. Of this vast total 40 per cent, represented value of grain and flour, 24 per cent, live and dead meat, 19 per cent, dairy produce, and 4 per cent eggs. The leading sources of wheat were India (20,161,518 cwts.), Russia (18,106,100), Argentina (14,748,600), Canada (14,373,000), Australia (13,910,720), and United States (12,939,229). Of beef less than one-fourth came as live cattle, the great bulk being chilled and frozen beef (7,362,434 cwts.), and of this Argentina contributed 83 per cent. Live sheep were unimportant, frozen mutton being the principal source of supply. Of this 93 per cent, came from three countries, New Zealand sending 1,981,467 cwts., Argentina 1,782,066, and Australia 1,291,696. Rabbits were imported as fresh rabbits (57,808 cwts.) chiefly from Belgium, and as frozen rabbits from Australia (394,155) and New Zealand (73-703)- The value per cwt. of these frozen rabbits was, however, only about one-third of the value per cwt. of the fresh Continental supply. Of bacon consignments (4,868,738 cwts.), Denmark sent 44 per cent.. United States 37. and Canada 13 per lo May. 191:;.] General Xotcs. 287 cent. The chief imports of butter (4.302.956 cwts.) were from Denmark 40 per cent., Australia 20 per cent., Russia 15 per cent., Sweden 8 per cent., New Zealand 6 per cent., France 4 per cent., Holland 2 per cent. Of cheese (2,348,322 cwts.) supplies w^ere draw^n chiefly from Canada, 63 p>er cent., and New Zealand. Russia was a large exporter of eggs. Turn- ing to wool imports (795,091,310 lbs.), Australia sent 41 per cent., Xew Zealand 22 per cent., .South Africa 13 per cent., and India 7 per cent. From the above it is apparent that Australia as exporter to the United Kingdom stands first in the matter of wool and rabbits, second in butter, and in mutton third, while for wheat it has the fifth place. HOURS FOR MILKING It is the common practice to milk cows twice a day. l)Ut in the evening the milk will usually be richer in butter-fat than it is in the morning. Milk has a tendency to lose fat Avhen it remains long in the cow's udder, and as there is usuallv a longer interval before the morning milking this causes the morning milk to be poorer in fat. Did twelve hours elapse be- tween each milking this result would not be found ; indeed, the morning milk might be slightly richer owing to the greater restfulness of the animals t)ver-night. Regarding the influence of times of milking upon the per- centage of fat some useful facts are published by Professor S. H. Collins, of Durham University, England. When the intervals between milking were twelve hours, e.g., cows milked at 6 a.m. and 6 p.m., the morning milk contained 0.18 per cent, more fat than the evening milk on the a\erage of 22 tests. When, however, the intervals were thirteen and eleven hours by milking at 6 a.m. and 5 p.m. the results were the other way, and the evening milk was then richer in fat than the morning milk by 0.33 per cent, on the average of 192 tests. With intervals of about fourteen and ten hours (6 a.m. and 4 p.m.) the excess in the evening milk was 0.70 per cent, on the average of 18 tests. With greater irregularity in the intervals the differences became still greater, and when the cows were milked at 6 a.m. and 3.30 p.m. the evening milk contained more fat than the morn- ing bv 1.09 per cent, on the average of 391 tests. As milk usually con- tains about 4 per cent, of fat (Official Standard — 3.5) a difference of 1.09 per cent, represents about one-quarter of the total fat in the milk. The other milk-solids are not affected by irregular milking, just the fat. From two milkings therefore the best results are obtained by milking as nearly as practicable at equal intervals of twelve hours. PIG-FEEDING— Pig-feeding experiments with sweet and sour skim milk were conducted at the Dairy Institute, at Proskau, by J. Klein (Milekzc. Zenthl., 6 (1910), No. 5, pp. 215-222). — Twelve pigs, three months of age. were divided into two groups and fed for twelve weeks a basal ration of ground barley and potato flakes to which fish meal was also added during the latter half of the period. Group i received an average of 5.5 kg. of sweet milk per head as a supplementary ration and made an average daily gain per head of 0.661 kg. and dressed 81 per cent, of the live weight. Group 2, which received 5.5 kg. of sour milk per head per day, made a corres- ponding gain of 0.655 kg. and dressed 80.65 per cent. This result agreed with that of previous experiments. There seemed to be no advantage in souring the milk as there was a slight loss of sugar, though it was thought that sour milk had a slight dietetic effect which offsets the loss of sugar. There was no noticeable difference in the chemical composition of the flesh. — Experiment Station Record . Ji^iinial of Ag/'iciiHitrt'. Victoria. [lo May, 1 9 12. CERTIFICATION OF 8TALLI0NS. FIFTH AxNNUAL REPORT— (SEASON 1911-12). Bv ir. A. A'. RobcrfsPN. B.Y.Sc. The Stallion Paradt-s arranged for during the season just completed, marking the fifth in which the scheme for the Examination ,and Certification of Stallions has been in operation, were carried to a successful issue by th^i veterinary officers engaged in the work. As in previous years, the major portion of such work was performed by four members of the staff — the object of limiting the examining staff in this manner being an endeavour to a^ttain, to the utmost, uniformity in the examination. A perusal of the table showing the work of the individual officers would, at first sight, tend to indicate that this uniformity had not been obtained ; but a more careful analysis shows that the variation which exists is due to a difference in the number of stallions rejected for type, and this number stands in inverse proportion to the progressiveness of the districts visited ; for example, in the more progressive centres the unsound sire has been forced to make way for the sound and the animal of lower type for that of a higher ; whilst the more backward portioas of the State ha'.'e a larger percentage of horses which are below a reasonable standard ; and so an officer attending the majority of such centres will reject a higher percentage. The work of the officers during tht- season under review is shown in the following table ■: — Officers' Examinations of Stallions. Season 1911-12. Officers. No. Examined. No. Certificated. No. Rejected. 58 51 74 38 Percentage Rejected. Mr. E. A. Kendall, B.V.Sc. .. Mr. R. G. Griffin, M.R. C.V.S. Mr. G. S. Bruce, F.R. C.V.S Mr. R. N. Johnstone, L. V.Sc. Mr. W. .T. Cother, G.M.V.C. .. 305 252 243 165 10 247 201 169 J27 10 1901 20-23 30-45 23-03 «75 754 221 Appeal Boards 4 4 Grand Total ... 979 758 221 22-57 Of the 130 parades held, 97 were carried out under the auspices of various agricultural societies ; and it is pleasing to note that in the majority of cases secretaries rendered all the assistance in their power, and helped to lighten the duties of the examining officer by adhering to the official time- table, and making suitable arrangements, for presenting all stallions sub- mitted for examination. The total number of stallions .examined by members of our own staff is .shown in the table of analysis given at a later stage of this report to be 979; to this must be added 91 for which certificates were transferred, making a total of 1,070 certificated in this State. The season stands out prominently as one of great activity in the draught horse industry as evidenced by the increase in the importations from New Zealand and the United Kingdom, the figures for the last two seasons Ix-ing as under : — Stallions imported to Victoria. Year. From New Zealand. From Great Britain. 1910 .. .. 1911 .. 207 254 13 53 IO May, 1912.] Ceriificatioji of Siallions. 289 Examination and K ejection. The 979 stallion.s examined were dealt with as is shown in the follow- ing table :- Analysis of Defects of Rejects, Season 1911-12. DR.iUGHTS. Lights. Ponies. Totals. No. Examined. 092 No. Certifi- cated. 5.^4 No. Examined. 165 No. Certifi- cated. 1-21 No Examined. 122 No. Certifi- cated. 83 No. Examined. 979 No. Certifi- cated. 758 No. Per cent. No. Per cent. No. Per cent.. No. Per cent. Rejected. Rejected. Rejected. Rejected. Rejected. Rejected Rejected. Rejected. rnsovindiiess. 138 19-94 14 -26-66 39 31-96 221 22-57 Sidelione ,58 8-38 58 5-92 Ringbone . . . 14 2-0-2 2 r'21 16 1-63 Spavin (Bone) 3 -43 6 3-66 3 2-45 12 1-22 Bog Spavin... 3 •43 1 •6 4 •4 Curb 4 •57 4 2-42 2 1-63 10 102 Roaring ... Shivering ... 2 •28 -2 Nasal Disease ... ... Total unsouncl 84 1213 13 7-87 5 4-09 102 10-42 Disapproved 54 7-8 31 18^78 34 27-86 119 12-15 Total rejected 1.38 19-94 44 26 •ee .39 31-96 221 22-57 It will be seen that 221. or 22.57 P^"!' cent., were rejected. This is a de- crease of 4.12 per cent, as between the number refused certificates last year which in turn was a 3 per cent, decrease over that of the previous season. Comparing last season's work with that of 1910-11 it is seen that the per- centage of draught horses rejected has fallen from 28.58 per cent, to 19.94- This great reduction is due entirely to the diminished number of unsound ones met with, the number refused as being below standard being prac- ticallv the same, yIz., 7.01 per cent, in 1910-11 and 7.8 per cent, in i9-iT-r2. Analysing the reasons for rejection still further it is found that sidebone is the diminishing factor, for whereas 19 per cent, of draught horses were rejected in 1910-11 only 8.38 per cent, were rejected on this account in 191 1 -12 — a difference of 10.62 per cent. Light horses show an increase of 2.05 per cent, in the number rejected and this is seen to be due to a decrease of 2.61 per cent, in respect of unsoundness and an increase of 4.70 per cent, in respect of type. Ponies show a similar state of affairs ; in tlie number rejected there is an increase of 10.87 per cent.,_ being due to a decrea.se of 1.38 in regard to unsoundness and an increase of 12.34 per cent, in regard to type. It would be premature at present to claim from these figures a general decrease of unsoundness in our stallions^ but it may be regarded as an indication of the trend towards the goaf which is sought. During the season 287 stallions which had been pre- viously certificated were presented for re-examination They \\ere dealt with as follows : — 290 journal of Agriculture . Victoru [10 May, 1912. -f X Ol l^T* ^ -tin S 1 C-. § Cl m I~ to^ 9 '^ T' "?' c =c m X •* CO >o 00 eo t~ X lO I 1 t~ai i ■ ■ C Cl CI -*o m (M ^ CI ^ — Cl 1 '" Cl « rt Cl -HrH 1 CI 00 t~ lO .-^ CI CO CO c " 1 01 X t- Cl OS ^ CO to 0-. I- X in Cl 1 CO t- C rH to to Cl . ^ CI Cl T-H r^ CI 1 1 ■^ Cl CI to ^ '-^ ^ ■•n • 'C . -^ . .^ . .^ ' g ■ ? 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Per cent. 16-32 Total. 123 17 1214 140 12:^ 24 147 The summary, on page 290, of the five years' work will show the total mimber of anim,als examined and the action taken. The detailed analysis of the reasons for rejection have been given in previous reports, and may be found in full in Rullt-tin Xo. 30. English Examinations. Considerable zest was given to the breeding of draught horses last season by the great increase in importations from Great Britain, a total of 53 stallions composed of 39 Shires and 14 Clydesdales being introduced as against nine Shires and four Clydesdales the previous year. Importers realizing the necessity of introducing only sound animals were careful to obtain certificates in England that would be accepted here. Thev experienced some trouble however in doing this in respect of Scottish horses ; and it was not until late in the year that the Glasgow Agricultural Society, realizing the difficulties which faced both breeders and shippers, took the matter in hand and appointed four veterinary officers to examine on their behalf horses for export to Victoria. So that for the coming season there should be little difficultv encountered. Transferred Certificates. The number of stallions examined in Great Britain. Xew Zealand, and other States of the Commonwealth for which certificates were transferred by this Department totalled 91, 44 being from New Zealand, 42 frcm Great Britain, and 5 from New South Wales. In respect of the certificates issued in these countries some little con- fusion has existed in the mind of holders thereof, to the extent that they ha\-e presented them at shows, &c., and have been surprised that they were not accepted. These certificates are issued as a guarantee that a V'ctorian one covering a s'rnilar period for which a certificate would he issued if the examination were carried out by a Victorian officer, will be issued without further examination. Until however they are so transferred for. a Victorian certificate or endorsed by the Chief Veterinary Officer of this State as " recognised for Victorian Shows," they cannot be regarded officially. Importers or buxers would therefore be wise in effecting a transfer as soon as con\-enient after entering Victoria. More care is also necessary on the part of buyers in noting the date upon which a certificate expires. This applies more particularlv to New Zealand certificates which, if issued prior to April the ist in any vear, are only transferable for a Victorian certificate expiring on the ensuing 30th June, whereas New Zealand cer- tificates issued after that date are exchanged for the Victorian one termin- able the 30th June 12 months. In respect of certificates obtained in the United Kingdom, if such are obtained prior to January ist, they are considered as certificates for. the current sea.son, while examinations con- ducted on or after January ist are transferred as for a certificate for the subsequent season. These months of grace are allowed to enable stallions to be got ready in Victoria for the season's sales, &:c., opening in July. 2g2 Joiirjial of Agriciilfiirc , Victoria. [lo May, 1912.' Alterations to Regulations. As a result of experience gained in the five seasons during which examinations have been conducted it has been found that some alteration of the regulations can be made. Perusal of the regulations issued with this report will reveal the following principal alterations and additions :■ — (i) In respect of stallions refused a certificate as being below standard — Part II. of the Regulations, Clause (3) has been added which for the future will allow a three or four year old stallion refused a certificate under this heading to be re- presented the following year for examination, unless the owner in the meantime avails himself of the appeal con- ditions, when the opinion of the Board shall be considered final. Any five-year-old stallion however rejected by a veterinary officer under this heading will not be eligible for re-examination except as pro\-ided for by the appeal con- ditions. {2) With regard to the notification of reasons for rejection a new Clause (3) has been added to Part III. providing for an official notification being sent to- owners of rejected stallions intimating the fact of such rejection and the reasons for the same. This will further an owner's opportunity of appealing against the decision within the stipulated period of 30 days. Clause (8) has also been added to this section of the regu- lations which may be regarded as a machinery section and refers to the dates upon which certificates will be issued. Appeals. During the season six appeals were lodged — four being on the question of unsoundness and two in respect of type, breed and conformation. Two of the former were successful and both of the latter. List of Certified Stallions. The list of certificated stallions issued with this report is one of horses which were examined in the past season only. Those which have received life certificates must be added to the list published in Bulletin No. 30, whilst the list of terminable certificates published in that Bulletin is now obsolete and need not be further considered, whilst in its place must be read the list of terminable certificates issued herewith. Secretaries of agricultural societies are specially requested to make themselves familiar with this prin- ciple, w^hich it is intended shall be followed for tlie future. In order to make this list as complete as possible it is specially requested that holder!^ of certificates become familiar with the notice on the back thereof and report to the Department the death of any stallon in order that the name may be removed. lo .May, 1912.] Ccrtificatiou oj Si al lions. 293 REGULATIONS Governing the Examination of Stallions for the Government Certificate of Soundness and Approval. I. — Examination Parades. (i) Societies within whose district an Inspection Parade is appointed are required to provide a suitable place for the examinations to be con- ducted, and to suitably and reasonably advertise the holding of the parade on receipt of notice from the Department of the fixture. The secretary or some member of the committee of the society is required to be in attendance at the appointed time to assist the examining officer in the arrangements for the inspection. (2) The Parades will be conducted and the Veterinary Officer will attend without expense to Societies other than that involved in advertising and making known the occasion to the public and the Stallion owners in the district, and providing the examination ground. (3) The Examining Officer will attend Inspection Parades held at times and places set out in the official Time Table^ for the year, and all examina- tions of Stallions for the Government Certificate will be made at such Parades or on some such publicly advertised occasion, unless under special circumstances as provided for in clause 5. (4) In the event of it being found imjjossible for local reasons to hold the Parade in any district at the time and date set out in the Time Table, notice to that effect — together with suggestions for alternative date and time compatible with the rest of the Time Table — should be given not later than 1st June, after which no alteration in the Time Table can be made. (5) The special examination of stallions for the Government Certificate of Soundness at other than the advertised stallion parades may be arranged for in cases where, through accidental circumstances, the owner has failed to submit the horse at such parade. Such examinations will only be arranged when the attendance of the Examining Officer will not interfere with the requirements of the Depart- ment for his services in other directions. An owner requesting such special examinations will be required to pre- pay a fee of ^i is. for each horse examined ; also the railway fare (first class return), and travelling expenses at the rate of 14s. per day, of the visiting officer. II. — Grounds for Rejection. (i) Refusal of Certificate on the ground of unsoundness will be made only when in the opinion of the Examining Officer the horse is affected at the time of examination with one or more of the following hereditary unsoundnesses in any degree, viz. : — Thoroughpin and Bursal Enlargements Nasal disease (Osteo-porosis) Chorea ("Shivering" or "Nervy") or such Other hereditary unsoundness as the Minister may at any time declare. (Blemishes or unsoundness, the result — in the opinion of the Examining Officer on appearances then presented — of accident, injury, and over-strain or over-work, will not disqualify.) Roaring Curb Ringbone Bog Spavin Sidebone Bone Spavin 294 Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo May, 1912. (2) The Certificate will also be refused in the case of animals con- sidered by the Examining Officer to be below a reasonable standard for Government approval, as regards type, conformation and breeding. (3) Stallions three or four years old, which are refused a Certificate a* regards type, conformation and breeding may, unless dealt with under the Appeal Board Condition, be re-submitted annually until five years old, after which the refusal shall be subject to re\iew under Part V. of there regulations only. Ill . — Certificates . (i) Particulars concerning the identity of the horse — name, breeder, pedigree, age, prior ownership, &c. — must be furnished to the Examining Officer at the time of examination. If deemed necessary in anv case the owner may be called upon to furnish a statutory declaration as to the cor- rectness of such particulars. (2) Certificates will be issued within sev( n days of the holding of the Parades, and will be forwarded to the Secietaries of the Societies under whose auspices the Parades are held, and who will either forward them to the owner direct, or deliver them to him on application. (3) The owners of stallions for which a Certificate is refused will within seven days of such refusal be officially notified of the fact ; the rea.son for such rejection will also be given. (4) Until the issue of a certificate, or until the publication of the official list of certificated stallions, the result of the Veterinary examina- tion will not be communicated to any person except as herein provided or under circumstances as follow : — The Examining Officer may, on request on proper occasion, communicate to the owner or his agent — dulv authorized in writing to inquire — the result of the examination. In case of refusal of the certificate the reasons for refusal will not under any circumstances, save in legal procerdings under the direction (f the Court, be communicated to any person except th;.' owner or his agent duly authorized in writing. Secretaries of Sixieties, persons in charge of the horse, grcoms or relati\es of the owner will nnt be considered authorized agents for that purpo e unless- they deli^•er to the officer the owner's signed authority to recei\e the in- formation. (5) The Victorian Government Certificate of Soundness can only be issued in respect of horses three years old and over, that have been examined by a Victorian Government Veterinary Officer, or horses in respect of which any of the following certificates are produced : — The Government Certificate of Soundness of New South Wales, Queensland, South Australia or New Zealand. The Veterinary Certificate of the Royal Shire Horse Society (England)- The Veterinarv Certificate of Royal Agricultural Society (England). The Veterinary Certificate of Royal Dublin Society (Ireland). The Veterinary Certificate of Highland and Agricultural Society (Scot- land). The Veterinary Certificate of Glasgow and West of Scotland Agricul- tural Society. Any horse which has been rejected by the Veterinary Examiners for any of the above certificates will not be eligible for examination for the Victorian Government Certificate of Soundness. lo May. 1912.] Ccrti ficition oj Sta:lioiis. 295 (6) The form of the A'ictorian Go\-ernment Certificatr of Soundness is as follows: — " G.R. — Department of Agriculture, Victoria, No. Certificate of Soundness and Approval, issued for the season {or issjicd for Life as the case may be), given in res])ect of the {breed) stallion {name and description of stallion) submitted for Government inspection by the owner {name of owner) at {place of examination) such horse having been found suitable for stud service and free from hereditary ur. soundness and defects of conformation predisposing thereto on examina- tion by {signature of Examining Officer) Veterinary Officer on the da\" of 19 . (Signature). Chief Vetermary Officer. Issued by direction of the Minister of Agriculture. (Signature). Secretary for Agriculture." (7) Two-year-old colts may be submitted for examination and a tem- porary certificate will be issued in respect of such as pass the examination Such temporary certificate must not be taken to imply suitability for stua service of approval as regards type, nor is the issue of it intended as ar: ir.dication of the likelihood of a certificate being issued when submitted for examination at a more mature age. (8) The season in respect of Government Certificates shall be con- sidered as opening on July ist, stallions passing the examination any time during the t.hree months previous to this date in New Zealand or Australia will be granted a Certificate for the season next following. In respect of stallions examined in Great Britain examinations on or after ist January will be considered as examinations for the following season. IV. — Tenure of CERXiriviiArE. (i) Certificates issued during the seasons 1907 and 1908 are life certi ficates. (2) Certificates issued during the season 1908 in respect of horses four years old and over are life certificates ; those for three-year-olds are season certificates only, and the horse must be submitted for re-examina- tion at four and five years before a life certificate will be issued. (3) In 1910, and subsequently, only stallions five years old and over will be given life certificates. Three-year-old and four-year-old stallions will be certificated for the season only, and will be required to be submitted for r^-examination each season until five years old, when a Life certificate will be issued. (4) The Season certificate issued in respect of any horse must be handed to the Examining Officer at the time of re-examination or forwarded to the Chief Veterinary Officer before a subsequent Season certificate or a Life certificate will be issued. (5) The Minister retains the right lo at any time have a certificated stallion submitted for re-examination, and to withdraw the certificate, in the event of the animal being declared, to his satisfaction, unsound. '.^6 Journal of Agriciilinn . Victoria. [lo May. 1912. V. — Board of Appeal. (i) Any owner of a stallion who is dissatisfied with the refusal of a Government certificate in respect of his horse may appeal against the decision to the Minister at any time within thirty days of the examination, under the following conditions : — {a) That the appeal be in writing and be accompanied by the lodg- ment of ;^5, such amount to be forfeited in the event of the appeal not being upheld, unless the Board shall for good cause otherwise direct. (b) That the appeal be accompanied by an undertaking to pay any railway fares and hotel expenses incurred by the Board of Appeal in connexion with the settlement of the appeal. (c) That, in the event of refusal having been on the ground of unsoundness, the appeal be accompanied by a certificate from a registered Veterinary Surgeon setting out that the horse has been found by him on examination since the re- fusal appealed against, to be free from all the unsoundnesses set out in Part II. of these Regulations. {d) That, in the event of refusal having been on the ground of being below standard for Government approval, the appeal be accompanied by a certificate from the President and two members of the Committee of the Society under whose auspices the parade was held, setting out that in their opinion the horse is of fit and proper type, conformation, and breeding to be approved as a stud horse. (2) On receipt of Notice of Appeal in proper form, and with the above conditions complied with, the Minister will appoint a Board of Appeal, which shall consist of : — [a) In the case of appeals against refusal of certificate on the ground of unsoundness, the Chief Veterinary Officer and two practising Veterinary Surgeons. {b) In the case of appeals against refusal ol certificate as being below standard for Government approval, the Chief Veterinary Officer and two horsemen of repute and standing. Such Board shall act and decide on the appeal, and its decision shall be final, and not subject to review. (3) In the event of the appeal being allowed, refund shall be made of the deposit, and any expenses paid bv the appellant under Clause i {b). Further, the Board may recommend to the Minister the allowance of such of the expenses of the appellant in supporting his appeal as it may con- sider reasonable under the circumstances of the case, and the Minister may, in his discretion, confirm the recommendation in whole or in part, whereupon allowance shall be made to the appellant accordingly. (4) No stallion in respect of which a Government certificate is refused will be allowed to be re-submitted for examination except in the case of an appeal or in such case as when a three or four years old stallion has been refused on account of type as herein provided for. In the even't of any rejected stallion being re-submitted for examination under another name or under such circumstances as in the opinion of the Minister are cal- culated to mislead the Examining Officer into the belit.;' that the horse has not previously been examined, the owner of such rejected stallion, if proved to the satisfaction of the Minister that he is responsible for such re-submission, shall be debarred from submitting any horse for examina- tion for such period as the ^linister shall determine. io May, 1912.] Cerfificatioii of Stallions. -^97 NOTICE TO SECRETARIES OF AGRICULTURAL SOCIETIES. Section " A " of the conditions to be complied with by Agricultural Societies before being eligible for participation in the annual Government grant is as follows: — " A. — That the awards of -prizes in all classes for stallions, three years old and over, at the Society's Show must be subject to the possession by the exhibit of a Government certificate of soundness.'' In order to comply with the above, the special attention of show secretaries is invited to the receiving of entries in stallion classes. No entry should be received unless at the time of entry the Government cer- tificate is produced, or unless satisfactory evidence is given that a Govern- ment certificate is held by the owner in respect of the exhibit. The award- ing of a prize card and the withholding of prize money in respect of any exhibit shall not be deemed as compliance with the condition. Care should be taken also to see that the certificate is not out of date, that is to say : — For three-year-olds a 191 2 three-) ear-old certificate must be held. For four-year-olds, a 1912 four-year-old certificate must be held (the 191 1 three-year-old certificate is out of date). For horses five years old and over, a life certificate must be held. Secretaries are strongly urged to become familiar with the regulations, particularly Regulation IV., which deals with the tenure of certificates. Secretaries are required to forward immediately after the show a return (forms for which will be sent to each society) giving required particulars concerning ist, 2nd, and 3rd prize winners as under: — Return to be forwarded to the Cliief Veterinary Officer concerning Stallions (3 years old and over) awarded Prizes at the Agricultural Society's Show held Name of Certificate Number. Name of Class and Section (not Number). Prize Awarded. Owner's Name. Owner's Stallion. 1st. 2nd. 3rd. Address. * Date. (Signed) Seci etary Agricultural Society. Particular atteii..on is directed to the method now in vogue of classifying certificated stallions. The list is now divided into horses carrying a life cer- tificate and those which are terminable, and supplementary lists will be i.ssued annually which should be added to tho.se listed in Bulletin Xo. 30. 4878. I- 298 Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. j^io May, 1912. SUPPLEMENTARY LIST OF LIFE CERTIFICATED STALLIONS. Cert. Name of Horse. Age. Date of Exami- nation. Officer. DRAUGHTS. 1999 Admiral Sperry 5 years A. Duff Maryborougli 16.8.11 R.N.J. 1978 Admiral Sperry 5 years W. Barnes Rainbow 8.8.11 E.A.K. 2022 Advance . . Aged H. McGregor N.Z. Govt. Cert. . . 29.7.11 2149 Albert of Tandridge 5 years M. J. Caffrey English Exam. 30.10.11 2045 Aibyn's Victor 5 years Jas. Rigney Ballan . . 26.8.11 E.A.K. 1979 Biaoor's Heir 5 years C. J. Freeman Rainbow 8.8.11 E.A.K. 1917 B.iroii Aldie 5 years G. and W. Lord . . Rosedale (Special) 26.5.11 W.J.C. 2145 Baron Belmont 5 years Falkiner Bros. English Exam. 23.3.11 1965 Baron Clinton 5 years R. N. Herkes Clvde . . 2.8.11 R.N.J. 204S Barooae Saxon 5 years Jas. Booth B-illan . . 26.8.11 E.A.K. 2063 Birrow Oak 5 years J. T. Brown Seymour 1.9.11 E.A.K. 1941 Bengal 2nd 5 years Arch. Kirk City Horse Bazaar 22.7.11 R.N.J. 2125 BlacK Prince 5 years Roberts Bros. Trafalgar 18.9.11 G.S.B. 1958 Blair Atliol Aged Caffrey and Murpliy N.Z. Govt. Cert. . . 18.5.11 2024 Bjrderside 5 years Geo. Nield Swan Hill 22.8.11 E.A.K. 1910 Bramliope Druid 5 years James Cowie Melbourne (Special) 10.4.11 E.A.K. 1909 Bramliope Royal WiUiam 6 years F. W. Griffin Melboiu-ne (Special) 10.4.11 E.A.K. 1911 Bramliope Sampson 6 years F. W. Griffin Melbourne (Special) 10.4.11 E.A.K. 1920 Braiser 2nd 6 years F. W. Griffin Enghsh Exam. . . 20.4.11 2013 Carol Redwood 5 years C. H. Feldtmanu Beualla 18.8.11 G.s'.B. 2025 Caviller Aged W. TeagueaudSons Swan HiU 22.8.11 E.A.K. 2116 Cedric's Favourite . . 5 years J. Wallace Warrnambool 14.9.11 E.A.K. 2030 Champion of Kelms- cott Clan Donald 5 years W. A. MUvaiu Kerang . . 23.8.11 E.A.K. 2100 6 years A. Kay Ballarat 16.9.11 R.G. 1918 Clydeside . . Aged Mitchell and O'Brien Melbourne (Special) 15.5.11 G.S.B. 2157 Contraband 5 years C. W. Tindall English Exam. . . 28.12.11 1922 Copperplate 5 years F. W. Griffin English Exam. . . 21.4.11 2002 Coronation 2nd 5 years Jno. McGillivrav Geelong 20.8.08 G.S.B. 1928 Dalrymple Jock 6 years A. Dufty N.S.W. Exam. . . 10.4.11 1974 Dan 5 years Christopher Bourke Donald 8.8.11 R.G. 1967 Dreadnought 5 years R. Semmler Murtoa . . 2.8.11 E.A.K. 2018 Drnmcolin 5 years Quinn Bros. Elmore . . 21.8.11 R.G. 2001 Danmore . . 5 years B. J. Huglies Inglewood 17.8.11 R.N.J. 2014 Ettrick . . 5 years E. Louby BenaUa 18.8.11 G.S.B. 2083 Ettrick Lad 6 years A. Colvin Agricultural Offices 9.9.11 G.S.B. 1936 Evanyett . . 5 years J. R. Kent Horsham 11.7.11 R.N.J. 2102 Everlasting King . . 5 years Geo. Fraser Ballarat 16.9.11 R.G. 2096 Federal Prince 5 years J. Pasco Sale 14.9.11 R.N.J. 2019 Federation King 5 years D. Trewick Elmore . . 21.8.11 R.G. 2126 Forest King 5 years A. J. Ryan Trafalgar 18.9.11 G.S.B. 2008 Frogmore . . 5 years J. Giddings Melbourne 18.8.11 E.A.K. 2103 Gay Garland 5 years W. R. Clarke Romsey . . 18.9.11 R.G. 1976 Girvan Chief Aged R. C. Hannali Donald . . 8.8.11 R.G. 1996 Glenroy . . 5 years J. Long Heathcote 14.8.11 R.N.J. 1956 Glen Stuart 5 years Geo. Hill N.Z. Govt. Cert. . . 26.1.11 2016 Glenview . . 5 years S my the Bros. Daylesford 21.8.11 G.S.B. 1927 Glen WiUiam 5 years L. Hutchessnn Horsham 11.7.11 E.A.K. 1954 Grampian 2ud 5 years J. McLeod Korumburra 25.7.11 R.G. 2153 Hacconby Kingmaker 5 years C. W. Tindall English Exam. 28.12.11 2041 Hamilton Star 5 years R. Steer Hamilton 24.8.11 R.N.J. 1945 Heatlier King 5 years F. Rae . . City Horse Bazaar 24.7.11 R.N.J. 2112 Hero Ben 5 years E. Bodey Camperdowi 13.9.11 E.A.K. 2057 Highland Laddie . . 5 years J. Robbie Wangaratta 28.8.11 R.G. 1991 Hone'it Oak Aged G. R. Burrell Balmoral 11.8.11 R.N.J. 1988 Ian North . . 5 years C. H. Warne Watcliem 10.8.11 R.G. 1935 Kelms Pride 5 years Jno. Dugdale Agricultural Offices (Special) 17.7.11 G.S.B. 2020 Kelsman . . 5 years M. O' Grady Elmore . . 21.8.11 R.G. 1914 Kelvin Lad 6 years Walter and Agar . . Agricultural Offices 13.5.11 G.S.B. 2043 Kingsway 2nd 5 years Executors of 1). Archibald Kyabram 22.8.11 R.G. 2106 Knight of Kildare . . 5 years E. Boland Terang . . 11.9.11 E.A.K. 2139 King Alexander 5 years S. McNabb Morwell 3.10.11 E.A.K. 1948 King William 5 years Benson Bros. City Horse Bazaar 24.7.11 R.N.J. 2082 L\ird of Burnbrae . . 5 years W. Cameron Meiton . . 2.9.11 R.N.J. 1943 Leek Bvronet Aged W. H. Robinson City Horse Bazaar 22.7.11 R.N.J. 1953 Lieutenant Mac 5 years R. G. Anderson . . City Horse Bazaar 25.7.11 E.A.K. 2065 Lome Ruby 5 years K. C. Harper Bundoora (Special) 31.8.11 R.N.J. 1913 Luxall 5 years A.. Robertson Melbourne (Special) 15.5.11 G.S.B. lo Ma\ , igi2.] Certification of Stallions. 299 Supplementary List of Life Certificated Stallions — continued. Cert Date of No.' Xamc of Horse. Age. Owner. Parade. Exami- nation. Officer. I Dr.\ughts — contin ued. 1908 Lyiiiiu Bouncer 5 years H. S. Ruddock . . Melbourne (Special) 10.4.11 1 E.A.K. i086 Lyuixu Truffle 5 years Jno. Smith Royal Show 4.9.11 E.A.K. 2122 Lord Clyde 5 years H. Re^-nokls Werribee 16.9.11 E.A.K. 2077 Lord (.ileugyle 5 years R. AUen Numurkah 29.8.11 E.A.K. 1929 Lord Harperlaiul . . 5 years E. Harders Horsham 12.7.11 R.N.J. 2094 JIacauU'v . . 5 years Jno. Findlay Alexandra 14.9.11 G.S.B. 1989 MeLeish . . 5 years W. Crozier Agricultural Offices 12.8.11 W.J.C. 2120 JIajor Gordon 5 years P. Mcintosh Co lac 15.9.11 E.A.K. 1951 Major Mac 5 years Stuckey Bros. City Horse Bazaar 24.7.11 R.N.J. 1939 Mauoravon Rosasou 6 years H. G. Leslie English Exam. . . 11.4.11 2127 Master Wattie 5 years Brock Bros. Tralalgar 18.9.11 G.S.B. 1919 Maze moor Topper . . 5 years M. J. Caffrey Newmarket 12.6.11 Appeal Board G.S.B. 2131 Mellingtoii Colonel 5 years T. O'Donohue Bunyip . . 19.9.11 1994 Melville Lad 5 years F. H. Dunn Co bra m 14.8.11 G.S.B. 2029 Merry Prince 5 years G. Pearse Swan Hill 22.8.11 E.A.K. 2032 Xew Blood 5 years T. BagnaU Pyramid 24.8.11 E.A.K. 1982 >'ewton Stewart 5 years E. Devereaux Warrackuabeal . . 11.8.11 E.A.K. 2044 One O'clock 5 years D. Robertson Bacchus Marsh . . 28.8.11 E.A.K. 2006 Orbost Oak 5 years J. and C. Wallace Kaniva . . 17.8.11 E.A.K. 2070 Orplian Boy 5 years J. Bums Euroa . . 1.9.11 R.G. 1983 Patrician . . 5 years R. McKenzie Warracknabeal . . 11.8.11 E.A.K. 2107 Peerless 5 years J. and A. Clarke Teraug . . 11.9.11 E.A.K. 2071 Pimpernel 5 years F. Cann Euroa . . 1.9.11 R.G. 2034 PowlsUmd Pure Blood 5 years Chas. Mills Pvramid Hill 24.8.11 E.A.K. L959 Premier's Fancy of 5 years R. Jack . . N.Z. Govt. Cert. . . 9.6.11 Willowbank 962 Premier Ward 5 years J. Carrol Sea Lake 19.7.11 G.S.B. 924 Pride of Aldowrie . . 5 years J. Mackintosh Newmarket (Special) 5.7.11 G.S.B. 036 Pride of Locliiel 5 years J. T. Ovens Kyabram 22.8.11 R.G. 148 Prince Aerial 5 years O'Leary Bros. Penshurst (Special) 22.2.12 Appeal Board 000 Prince Albert 2nd . . 5 years F. Berger Maryborough 16.8.11 R.N.J. 963 Prince Charlie 5 years C. Umbers Sea Lake 19.7.11 G.S.B. 952 Prince of Albyn 6 years J. Rousch City Horse Bazaar 25.7.11 R.N.J. 925 Prince Percival 5 years W. Langlev Horsham 11.7.11 E.A.K. 124 Robin Hood 5 years C. H. Gimblett . . Tallangatta 19.9.11 E.A.K. 052 Royal Blue 5 years Alf. Buckley Hopetoun 23.8.11 G.S.B. 964 Royal Conqueror . . 5 years J. Millstead Sea Lake 19.7.11 G.S.B. 004 Royal Dandy 5 years A. W. Warren . . Geelong 17.8.11 G.S.B. 109 Royal Favourite 5 years M. O'Keefe Port Fairy 12.9.11 E.A.K. 950 Royal Knight 5 years Baldwin and Car- ruther-s City Horse Bazaar 24.7.11 R.N.J. 017 Royal Mint 5 years Donald Blair Boort 15.8.11 R.G. 071 Royal Nugget 5 years Papworth Jjros. . . Charlton 17.8.11 R.G. 108 Royal Ribbon Aged B. McNulty Terang . . 11.9.11 E.A.K. 058 Sandy's Heir 5 years R. J. Mason Wangaratta 28.8.11 R.G. 005 Scotland's Fancy . . 5 years D. Lamb Geelong 17.8.11 G.S.B. 059 Scottish King 5 years Geo. Luckie Wangaratta 28.8.11 R.G. 934 Scottish King 6 years Donald Blah- Citv Horse Bazaar 22.7.11 R.N.J. 079 Severn Marlow Aged A. Lummis N.S.W. Exam. . . 3.8.11 054 Shepherd . . 5 years J. Liddle Beulah . . 22.8.11 g.s!b. 972 Silver King 5 years S. Farrell N.Z. Go\-t. Cert. . . 4.7.11 142 Solomon IV. 5 years J. A. Williams . . N.S.W. Exam. . . 072 Sunflower 5 years S. Dunn Tatura . . 31.8.11 R.G. 984 Sir Cliarles 5 years S. Atkin Warracknabeal . . 11.8.11 E.A.K. 136 Sur Principal Aged P. Quirk Romsey. . 18.9.11 R.G. 055 Sir Simon Percival . . 5 years H. Navlor Beulah . . 22.8.11 G.S.B. 915 Tamhorn Hugo 6 years T. Maddern English Exam. . . 3.3.11 921 Thorney Vulcan 5 years R. F. Anderson . . English Exam. . . 20.4.11 049 Tongala . . 5 years J. J. Downey Ballan . . 26.8.11 e.a!k. 098 True Blue 5 years J. Strawhorn Kyneton 12.9.11 R.G. 968 The Macdonald 5 years A. Wohlers Murtoa 2.8.11 E.A.K. 955 The Standard 5 years W. J. Plant Newmarket 24.7.11 G.S.B. 007 United 5 years J. McDonald Kaniva . . 17.8.11 E.A.K. 912 WiUaston Hero 5 years Caflfrey and Murphy English Exam. 3.3.11 023 Willaston Matchless 2nd Young Bonaparte . . 5 years J. McMurray English Exam. . . 23.2.11 993 5 years J. Mulraney Goroke . . 9.8.11 G.S.B. 078 Young Federation . . 5 years H. J. Hansen Numurkah 29.8.11 E.A.K. 128 Young HighL-vnd Lad 5 years X. G. Martin Trafalgar 18.9.11 G.S.B. 300 Journal of Agric/ilfun. Victoria. [lo May, 1912. Supplementary List of Life Certificated Stallions — continued. Cert. Date of No. Xame of Horse. Age. Owner. Parade. Exami- Officer. !_ ' nation. • Draughts — continued. 2050 Young Priuoe of Albyu Aged C. Lippiatt Ballan . . 1 26.8.11 E.A.K. 1931 Young Royal Blue . . Aged A. C. Hately 1 Horsham 1 12.7.11 E.A.K. 2074 Young Topgallant . . Aged J. McKenna 1 Nathalia 1 30.8.11 E.A.K. THOROUGHBREDS. 2009 Ambgrite . . Aged A. Cairns Charlton 17.8.11 R.G. 2075 Berriedale Aged P. Russell Beaufort 30.8.11 G.S.B. 2114 Blent Aged J. Jenkins Warruambool 14.9.11 E.A.K. 2111 Calvauite . . 5 years E. Manifold Camperdown 13.9.11 E.A.K. 1980 Crash 6 years A. J. Pyers Minyip . . 10.8.11 E.A.K. 20S2 Curtain Lecture Aged J. O'Keefe Shepparton 25.8.11 R.G. 1930 Emblem . . Aged J. R. McDonald . . Balmoral 11.8.11 R.N.J. 209.4 Little Gun 5 ye.ir-i J. C. H. Graves . . Mansfield 15.9.11 G.S.B. 2146 Mr. John . . Aged C. Bath Eltham (Special) 22.2.12 R.G. 2147 Posture Aged J. D. Lewis Agricultural Offices 2.3.12 R.N.J. 208) Winteriga 6 years D. Coutts Condah (Special) 31.8.11 G.S.B. LIGHT HORSES. 1941J Abydoj Aged D. MitcheU City Horse Bazaar 24.8.11 W.J.C. 2035 Ajax 5 years J. T. 0\ens Kyabram 22.8.11 R.G. 2110 Almont, J. 5 years G. J. Vagg Camperdown 13.9.11 E.A.K. 2141 Anist 6 year.s D. C. Chilcott . . Dookie (Special) . . 19.10.11 Appeal Board R.G. 1966 Billv I\rac . . Aged W. Greaves Bendigo 2.8.11 2069 Bleriot 5 years R. W. Storey Euroa 2.9.11 R.G. 2039 Brilliant 5 years C. and E. CanunDn Hamilton 24.8.11 R.N.J. 2051 Canary's Pride 5 year.s G. W. Anderson . . Hopetoun 23.8.11 G.S.B. 1985 Child Abdallah Aged T. Brennan Agricultural Offices (Special) 14.8.11 E.A.K. 2048 Cosmopolitan 2nd . . 5 years A. Wade Ballan . . 26.8.11 E.A.K. 2101 Dashaway . . 6 years Woolcock and S(in< Ballarat 16.9.11 R.G. 1923 Derando . . 5 years W. E. J. Craig . . Yuille and Co. (Special) 23.6.11 R.G. 2063 Dictator . . 5 years J. McNamara, jun. Yarrawonga 29.8.11 R.G. 2117 Dixie Brown 6 year.s W. Vaughan Colac 15.9.11 E.A.K. 2003 Emulation 5 years A. McFarlane Geelong 17.8.11 G.S.B. 2056 Ercildoon Dick 5 years C. Gardner Wangaratta 28.8.11 R.G. 2012 Fashion Direct 0 year.s T. F. Hogan Quambatook 15.8.11 R.G. 1969 Firestone , . '5 years R. N. Scott Agricultural Offices 5.8.11 E.A.K. 2137 Fitz Bell . . 5 years G. W. Booth Frankston 23.9.11 G.S.B. 1932 General Cass 5 years E. J. Glossop Agricultural Offices 6.5.11 G.S.B. 2138 Governor Dixie 5 years J. Heffernan Kilmore 28.9.11 G.S.B. 2067 Gundaroo 5 years G. Howe Seymour 1.9.11 E.A.K. 2130 Harkaway 5 J ears M. Harper Warragul 19.9.11 G.S.B. 2028 Honest 5 years W. J. Gillard Swan Hill 22.8.11 E.A.K. 1961 Jardiniere 5 years Gunsser Bros Sea Lake 19.7.11 G.S.B. 2053 King Almont 5 years H. Reid Beulah . . 22.8.11 G.S.B. 203 S Kingski . . 5 years H. V. McLeod , . Casterton 23.8.11 R.N.J. 1977 Lyntourie 5 years W. A. Morgan Donald . . 8.8.11 R.G. 1942 October . . 5 years J. Graham City Horse Bazaar 22.7.11 K.G. 2089 Ohio 5 years Howard Smith Royal Show 4.9.11 G.S.B. 2064 Oster Huon 6 years A. J. Pitman Yarrawonga 29.8.11 R.G. 2033 Ostermeyer Direct . . 5 years McLaren Bros. Pyramid 24.8.11 E.A.K. 2093 Ostrich Aged A. Colvin Agricultural Offices (Special) 12.9.11 G.S.B. 2095 Pasha's Son 5 years J. P. Buntine Bairnsdale 13.9.11 R.N.J. 2010 Prince Almont 5 years Geo. Da vies Charlton 17.8.11 R.G. 1970 Prince Miurice 5 years J. B. Zander Agricultural Offices 5.8.11 G.S.B. 2113 P.S. 5 years Wm. Garvie Camperdown 13.9.11 E.A.K. 2084 Ringer 6 years W. Marshall Agricultural Offices 9.9.11 G.S.B. 2097 Rob^ert Alto 6 years Thomson Bros. . . Kyneton 12.9.11 R.G. 2037 Rockefeller 5 years D. McLeod Kyabram 22.8.11 R.G. 2073 Splendour 5 years J. McKenna Xathalia 30.8.11 E.A.K. 2123 .Staudish Direct 5 years W. Walter Werribee 16.9.11 E.A.K. 2105 Togo . ; 5 years H. Tomkins Mansfield 15.9.11 G.S.B. 21.35 Tracer Boy 5 years Turner Bros. Whittlesea 22.9.11 R.N.J. 2143 The General 6 years D. Shelley Ballarat Show 16.11.11 R.G. 1998 Yelretso . . Aged — . Grogan DunoUv . . 15.8.11 R.N.J. 2144 Young Larrican 6 years T. Sutherland Ballarat Show . . 16.11.11 R.G. lo May, 191^.] Certification of Stallions. 301 s UPPLEMENTARY LiST OF Life Certificated Stallions — contin ued. Cert. No. Xanie of Hor.se. 1 Age. Owner. Parade. Date of Exami- Officer. nation. PONIES. 2134 Bobby D I'.zler 5 veirs H. Samson Dandenong 21.9.11 R.X.J. 2115 Brigii iiu Agihi Aged Geo. Smith Warrnambool 14.9.11 E.A.K. 2047 Bygiuley .. 5 yeirs J. J. Downey Ballan . . 26.8.11 E.A.K. 2051 Ci'.iiry".i Pride 5 years G. W. Anderson . . Hopetoun 23.8.11 G.S.B. 1947 Chuiunie . . Aged A. Bennett City Horse Bazair 22.7.11 R.G. 2026 Coaiiiidore Niit 5 years W. D. McCormic'k Swan HQl 22.8.11 E.A.K. 1973 Cyairo B ic'i Aged W. A-. Morgan Donald . . 8.8.11 R.G. 1940 Cvairo Dlu 6 years H. C. Lees English E.Kam. 11.4.11 2027 D.indy B ms - 5 years J. L. Loutit Swa-i Hill 22.8.11 E.A.K. 1975 D.iudy Brick 5 years J. W. Biker Don lid 8.8.11 R.G. 1986 Dandy Chief 5 ye ITS E. O'Meara Blrchip . . 9.8.11 R.G. 2133 Dawnligiit 6 years Wm. Lobb Koru uburra 20.9.11 R.G. 2035 Fiction 5 years W. G. Wilkinson . . Royal Show 4.9.11 E.A.K. 2140 Gilbert Aged J. Hancock Mildura 5.10.11 G.S.B. 2040 GQbert 5 years SV. J. Brown Hamilton 24.8.11 R.X.J. 1938 Greyligiit . . Aged E. Jones English Exam. . . 11.4.11 2118 Gwalia Cae ir 5 yeirs P. Sim . . Colac . . 15.9.11 E.A.K. 2104 Intere;t . . 5 yeirs W. Marshall Romsey . . 18.9.11 R.G. 2076 Jocli Frisk 5 year. D. Stewart Beaufort 30.8.11 G.S.B. 2119 King Olie 5 years J. James Colac 15.9.11 E.A.K. 2081 Limerick . . 5 years M. McKav Penshurst 1.9.11 G.S.B. 1933 Little Jack 5 years P. W. Pollo;c .. Horsham 12.7.11 E.A.K. 1949 Look He Com?' 5 years W. E. Ro;Ung City Horse Bazaar 24.7.11 W.J.C. 1937 Lord Towy\a!e 6 years A. E. Bowman English E-x:am. 11.4.11 2087 Lou Lou's Daud\' . . 5 ye.irs C. Joaes and Sons Royal Show 4.9.11 R.X.J. 2033 -Migic Biend 5 year> Frank D. Brown . . Royal Siiow 4.9.11 E.A.K. 1944 Master Brigii i-u 6 years W. R. Smith Jfewmarket 22.7.11 E.A.K. 2132 Monutiia B3II- 5 veirs R. Clulow Leongatha 20.9.11 R.X.J. 2042 Piper Aged A. Walter Hamilton 24.8.11 R.X.J. 2090 Prince D.indy 5 years F.Irish Royal Show- 4.9.11 E.A.K. 1957 Prince Hirol I 5 yeirs S. PoUock Agricultural Offices 22.7.11 G.S.B. 1992 Radium 5 yeirs F. H. Lackma'iu Goroke . . 9.8.11 G.S.B. 2015 Rubicon . . Aged M. Evans, juu. . . B?nalla . . 18.8.11 G.S.B. 1981 Sarifleld . . 5 years T. Long Mmvip . . 10.8.11 E.A.K. 2129 Sirdiu 5 years R. Reid . . Tallangatta 19.9.11 E.A.K. 2121 Spectator . . 6 years W. J. Trask Colic 15.9.11 E.A.K. 2091 Sunrise Aged F. Fountain Royal Show 4.9.U R.X.J. 2092 Trotting Railway Aged Mrs. D. T. Davie- Royal Show 4.9.11 E.A.K. 5080 2nd Tiie Doctor Aged H. Younger Wangaratta 28.8.11 R.G. 2031 Valve 6 years W. Younger Wangaratta 28.8.11 R.G. 1987 Welsh Flyer 5 years J. F. Beasley Birchip . . 9.8.11 R.G. 2021 Welshman 5 ye.irs — . Hanson Rochester 21.8.11 R.G. 1907 Whit is Wanted 5 years W. E. Rosling . . Agricultural Offices 25.3.11 G.S.B. 1971 Wilkes Jr. 5 years S. Armstrong Ararat . . 8.8.11 G.S.B. 2068 Young Comet Aged T. Bourke Seyni'iur 1.9.11 E.A.K. 1995 Youug Dandy Jr. . . 5 years G. Anderson Cobram 14.8.11 G.S.B. Journal of Agriculture , Victoria. [lo May, 191 2. LIST OF TERMINABLE CERTIFICATED STALLIONS. (Four-year-old Certificates expiring 30th June, 1912;. Cert. Xo. Jfame of Horse. Ownier. Parade. Date of Exami- Officer. nation. 1 DRAUGHTS. 270/4 Abbotsford A. Cameron N.Z. Govt. Cert. .. 23.5.11 254/4 Abbotsford's Pride H.J. Kortum Elmore . . 22.7.11 E.A.K. 376/4 Admiral Sperry H. S. Gibson Traralgon 13.9.11 R.N.J. 220/4 Agate J. Cafirey English E.vam. . . 4.3.11 340/4 Aladdin . . Geo. Muir Bacchus Marsh . . 28.8.11 E.A.K. 302/4 Albvn D. Scott Maryborough 16.8.11 R.N.J. 223/4 Aldfield Ben 0. WiUs Enghsh Exam. . . 20.4.11 349/4 Attraction's Pride . . W. Curtain Rutherglen 30.8.11 R.G. 244/4 Bardon Napoleon . . E. Jones English Parade . . 10.4.11 357/4 Baron Craven Bros. Tatura . . 31.8.11 r'.g. 360/4 Baron Bombay Shields Bros. Dookie . . 31.8.11 E.A.K. 416/4 Baron Bute Geo. Chirnside Scottish Exam. . . 5.8.11 284/4 Baron Irvine C. H. Perkins Rainbow 8.8.11 E.A.K. 382/4 Baron McLeod B. Kerr Lilvdale 15.8.11 R.N.J. 278/4 Baron McXair A. E. Bowman . . N.Z. Govt. Cert. . . 7.4.11 368/4 Baron's Best J. Glenn Royal Show 4.9.11 G.S.B. 213/4 Bellringer Caffrey and Murphv Melbourne (Special) 10.4.11 E.A.K. 422/4 Biddulph Bondsman M. J. Caffrey English Exam. . . 24.11.11 211/4 Birdsall Harold F. W. Griffin Melbourne (Special) 10.4.11 E.A.K. 288/4 Blue Bell . . H. Collins Minyip . . 10.8.11 E.A.K. 271/4 Bonnie Cliief J. Roberts, jun. . . Citv Horse Bazaar 28.7.11 G.S.B. 359/4 Bonnie Clyde S. Delvin Portland 31.8.11 G.S.B. 333/4 Bonnie Scott Miss Henty Castertou 23.8.11 R.N.J. 248/4 British Leader W. Under\\ood . . City Horse Bazaar 22.7.11 R.G. 285/4 Brown King A. G. Cust Rainbow 8.8.11 E.A.K. 309/4 Cairnbrogie Stamp . . J. Biuns Nhill 16.8.11 E.A.K. 338/4 Carlyon A. Kobinson Murchisou 24.8.11 R.G. 326/4 Cashman . . . . Burke Bros. Kerang . . 23.8.11 E.A.K. 411/4 Centrewood C. E. Gomm Frankston 23.9.11 G.S.B. 384/4 Channel Flight P. Eraser Ballarat 16.9.11 R.G. 286/4 Charmer Jun. Mackenzie Bros. Rainbow 8.8.11 E.A.K. 237/4 Chieftain . . Jno. McLean, jun. Horsham 12.7.11 R.N.J. 215/4 Clumber Baronet . . M. J. Caft'rey Melbourne (Special) 15.5.11 G.S.B. 279/4 Clyde Boy J. "Walder and Sons Hill Bros. Donald . . 8.8.11 R.G. 219/4 Coedy's Forest Hero English Exam. . . 23.2.11 249/4 Crown Derby W. S. Graham . . 22.7.11 E.A.K. 396/4 Crown Prince A. Simon Tallangatta 19.9.11 E.A.K. 257/4 Croydon . . R. H. Lanyon City Horse Bazaar 24.7.11 R.N.J. 319/4 Cundoden J. Crawford Rochester 21.8.11 R.G. 402/4 Dainty Davie J. Low . . Korumburra 20.9.11 R.G. 228/4 Dalmuir Prince 2nd A. Ross Horsham 11.7.11 R.N.J. 269/4 Defiance . . J. E. Small N.Z. Govt. Cert. . . 26.5.11 418/4 Dominion Cliief M. Rocks Preston (Special) 21.11.11 R.G. 247/4 Dougliis . . Mitchell and O'Brien City Horse Bazaar 22.7.11 R.N.J. 423/4 Dreadnought M. J. Caffrey English Exam. . . 20.10.11 364/4 Dreadnought F. Metherall Numurkah 29.8.11 E.A.K. 336/4 Drumflower's Bud . . Wm. Stokes Echuca . . 22.8.11 R.G. 252/4 Drum Laddie C. R. Roper Newmarket 22.7.11 E.A.K. 369/4 Drummer . . Anderson Bros. . . Royal Show 4.9.11 G.S.B. 394/4 Drummer Bov Jno. BaU Werribee 16.9.11 E.A.K. 335/4 F>nfield A. S. Brewis Hamilton 24.8.11 R.N.J. 273/4 Evelyn Lad J. Carter Bendigo 2.8.11 R.G. 24fl;4 Earl of Newton R. Ward Horsham 12.7.11 E.A.K. 424/4 Fairfield Dray King M. J. Caffrey English Exam. 20.10.11 283/4 Federal Laddie J. Kurtzmann Stawell 7.8.11 E.A.K. 343/4 Federal Star C. Gardner Wangaratta 28.8.11 E.G. 274/4 Fine View. . H. C. Hately Murtoa 2.8.11 E.A.K. 245/4 Finstall Forest Victor J. Archibald English Exam. . . 11.4.11 306/4 Gay Lad . . Phillips Bros. Geelong 17.8.11 G.S.B. 387/4 General Hunter R. E. MacArthur Camperdown 13.9.11 E.A.K. 232/4 Gentleman Chief Jno. Gifford Horsham 11.7.11 R.N.J. 289/4 Glenalbyn D. McGilp Minyip . . 10.8.11 E.A.K. 225/4 Glen Avon J. Patrick Melbourne (Special) 5.7.11 R.G. 421/4 Glen Donald J. Henderson Leongatha (Special) \ 27.2.12 .W.J.C. lo May, 191 -.] Ccrtificatio7i of Stallions. 303 List of Terminable Certificated Stallioxs — continued. Cert. No. Xame of Hokc. Parade. Date of E.xami- aation. 1)r.vught.s — continued. Officer. 212/4 Glengarry A. J. Donaldson . . Melbourne (Special) 10.4.11 E.A. 370/4 Gleiimore Again A. Aitken Royal Show 5.9.11 G.S.B. 221/4 Hawtou Burly T. McMillan English Exam. . . 23.2.11 216,4 Highland Boy P. Mingan Melbourne (Special) 15.5.11 E.A.K. 209/4 Highland Chief 3rd H. S. Ruddock . . Melbourne (Special) 10.4.11 E.A.K. 323/4 Howlet Andrew Scott Rochester 21.8.11 R.G. 280/4 Jack O'Connell Letcher Bros. Donald 8.8.11 R.G. 206/4 Joclv A. Colvin Nathalia (Special) 31.3.11 G.S.B. 239/4 Jolin Hamilton A. Mibus Horsham 12.7.11 E.A.K. 350/4 Jolly Native Wm. Wood Rutherglen 30.8.11 R.G. 412/4 Knight Ounuiore . . D. J. Kelleher Kilmore 28.9.11 G.S.B. 229/4 Kuottingley Presi- dent A. and J. H. Young Horsham 11.7.11 R.N.J. 403/4 King Jimmy C. N. Byriell Korumburra 20.9.11 R.G. 388/4 King of Clubs M. SkeyhiU Camperdown 13.9.11 E.A.K. 287/4 King of the Shep- W. Gould R ^.inbow 8.8.11 E.A.K. E herds 20^/4 Lavington King H. S. Ruddock . . Melbourne (Special) 10.4.11 E.A.K. 313/4 Link wood Robt. Calms Charlton 17.8.11 R.G. 281/4 Lion King J. Maloney Donald . . 8.8.11 R.G. 320/4 Locli Albyu T. Brown Elmore 21.8.11 R.G. 372/4 Lohvorth Premier . . P. Hart Royal Show 6.9.11 G.S.B. 361/4 Lorrymau W. Grattan Dookie . . 31.8.11 E.A.K. 400/4 Lord Galloway R. G. KieU Corryong 20.9.11 E.A.K. 267/4 Lord Garthlaud J. F. Nicholls . . Newmarket 22.7.11 E.A.K. 419/4 Lord Glenc.iirn R. Gilby Melton (Special) . . 18.12.11 G.S.B. 304/4 Lord Haldon N. Ramsay Inglewood 17.8.11 R.N.J. 282/4 Lord Hopetouu P. Sullivan Donald 8.8.11 R.G. 420/4 Lord Islington J. W. Wilson Tatura (Special) . . 14.2.12 E.A.K. 404/4 Lord Jock W. J. Wilson Korumburra 20.9.11 R.G. 299/4 Lord Leestou H. Doidge Agricultural Offices 12.8.11 W.J.C. 250/4 Lord Lindsay D. Lang Newmarket 22.7.11 E.A.K. 227/4 Lord Newton J. Patrick Melliourne 5.7.11 R.G. 264/4 Lord Roland J. S. W. Parker . . Newmarket 24.7.11 G.S.B. 236/4 Mac's Fancy G. W. Francis Horsham 11.7.11 E.A.K. 346/4 Mijor E. Walker Shepparton 25.8.11 R.G. 337/4 JiAjor Style C. Had Echuca . . 22.8.11 R.G. 218/4 Melbourne Prince . . J. Caffrey English E.\am. . . 23.2.11 314/4 Mick O'Shanter P. Glasheen Charlton 17.8.11 R.G. 251/4 Middlemxrch J. and M. J. Egau Newmarket 22.7.11 E.A.K. 347/4 Milton's Pride P. Downes Yarrawonga 29.8.11 R.G. 324/4 Moira Lad J. W. Barton Swan Hill 22.8.11 E.A.K. 231/4 Montgomery A. Robertson Horsham 11.7.11 E.A.K. 392/4 Montrave's Pride . . Geo. Crabbe Colac . . 15.9.11 E.A.K. 217/4 Mountain Chief D. White Melbourne (Special) 15.5.11 G.S.B. 266/4 Nambrok . . H. J. Nbcon Newmarket 22.7.11 E.A.K. 329/4 Napoleon . . C. Marfleet Pyramid Hdl 24.8.11 E.A.K. 365/4 Newton's Seusation J. Meiklejohn Numurkah 29.8.11 E.A.K. 303/4 Newton's Style Gordon and Wil- Maryborough 16.8.11 R.N.J. - ~T liamson 258/4 Oakburn . . A. C. Petrass City Horse Bazaar 24.7.11 R.G. 321/4 Oliver Twist Ingram Bros. Rochester 21.8.11 R.G. 253/4 Patrick's Pride E. L. Edwards . . Newmarket 22.7.11 E.A.K. 310/4 Percy's Hero J. Yennell Kaniva 17.8.11 E.A.K. ^94/4 Peter's Pride J. Cameron Warracknabeal . . 11.8.11 E.A.K. 328/4 Powisland Blue Blood 2nd D. J. Milne Kerang . . 23.8.11 E.A.K. 207/4 Primley Achilles R. A. Smales Melbourne (Special) 10.4.11 E.A.K. 393/4 Pride of Kelvern W. Phalp Colac 15.9.11 E.A.K. 315/4 Pride of Milton J. McKeuna Charlton 17.8.11 R.G. 300/4 Prince Charlie A. McClure and Sons H. F. Ogilvie Goroke . . 9.8.11 G.S.B. 268/4 Prm.ce Charlie N.Z. Govt. Cert. . . 29.5.11 272/4 Prince Harold Boy . . Love, Royle, and Thurgood Agricultural Offices 15.7.11 G.s'.B. 259/4 Prince Margam H. J. Bodev City Horse Bazaar 25.7.11 R.G. 362/4 Prince Newton W. G. DowTi Dookie . . 31.8.11 E.A.K. 265/4 Prince of Elderslie . . W. J. Baikie Newmarket 24.7.11 G.S.B. 366/4 Prince Robin E. W. Fowler Numurkah 29.8.11 E.A.K. 348/4 Ranfurly . . J. Blackwood Yarrawonga 29.8.11 R.G. 330'4 Red Ensign Jno. Er\nn, sen. . . Pyramid 24.8.11 E.A.K. 304 Journal of AgrtciiUurc , Victoria. [lo May, 19 12. List of Terminable Certificated Stallions — continued. Cert. No. Name of Horse. Owner. Parade. Date of Exami- nation. Officer. Draughts — continued. 417/4 Royal Charlie W. J. Black Benalla (Special) 19.10.11 Appeal Board 316/4 Royal Charlie Donaldson Bros. . . Charlton 17.8.11 R.G. 206/4 Royal Gift W. McKnight Agricultural Offices 8.4.11 G.S.B. 351/4 Royal Park T. Oliver Rutherglen 30.8.11 R.G. 380/4 Salisbury Hero A. and J. Rankin K>7ieton 12.9.11 R.G. 317/4 Sandy McNab H. S. McFarlane Wycheproof 17.8.11 R.G. 409/4 Searchlight W. J. Craig Lang Lang 22.9.11 G.S.B. 234/4 Shepherd Chief P. T. Gildea Horsham 11.7.11 E.A.K. 410/4 Signaller . . H. E. Mapleson . . Lang Lang 22.9.11 G.S.B. 399/4 Stirling Castle R. V. Colliver Bunyip . . 19.9.11 G.S.B. 263/4 Sunflower J. C. Wightman . . Newmarket 24.7.11 E.A.K. 390/4 Surprise . . J. Jenkins Warrnambool 14.9.11 E.A.K. 344/4 Sweet William Geo. Smith Wangaratta 28.8.11 R.G. 241/4 Sir Isaac . . McCann Bros. Horsham 12.7.11 E.A.K. 275/4 Sir Malcolm A. WoMers Murtoa 2.8.11 E.A.K. 243/4 Sir Patrick H. Hill Horsham 12.7.11 R.N.J. 260/4 Sir Percival Jun. G. Hicks City Horse Bazaar 25.7.11 R.N.J. 226/4 Sir William Mitchell and O'Brien Melbourne (Spec ial) 5.7.11 G.S.B. 353/4 Tam McKenzie V. C. Reid Agricultural Offices 2.9.11 E.A.K. 352/4 Tam 0' Again C. Hands Boort 15.8.11 R.G. 443/4 Til)berton Dray King Tom Walton C. W. Tindall . . English Exam. 28.12.11 210/4 F. W. Sallmann . . Melbourne (Special) 10.4.11 E.A.K. 386/4 Trafalgar . . R. H. Gibson Traralgon 13.9.11 R.N.J. 325/4 True Scott W. McKnaight . , Swan Hill 22.8.11 E.A.K. 406/4 The Colonel Jno. Wuchatsch Korumburra 20.9.11 R.G. 242/4 The Pirate MeCann Bros. Horsham 12.7.11 E.A.K. 222/4 The Bigg Fashion . . M. J. Dooley Agricultural Offices 24.6.11 G.S.B. 415/4 Udale H. A. Currie Scottish Exam. . . 28.7.11 261/4 IJxbridge Fyvie J. McCuUoch City Horse Ba/aar 25.7.11 E.A.K. 262/4 Victor's Pride G. Wright Newmarket 24.7.11 E.A.K. 230/4 Waikato . . G. H. Hill Horsham 11.7.11 R.N.J. 342/4 Wally W. E. Poulton . . Hopetoun 23.8.11 G.S.B. 233/4 Warkworth Haustorfer Bros. Horsham 11.7.11 R.N.J. 246/4 Western Herdsman . . H. McCaU N.Z. Govt. Cert. . . 25.4.11 341/4 Young Harrington , . J. P. Arandt Bacchus Marsh . . 28.8.11 E.A.K. 331/4 Young Hopetoun . . Fehring and Sons Pyramid 24.8.11 E.A.K. 236/4 Young Officer 0. Bodey Horsham 12.7.11 R.N.J. 377/4 Young Royal Stuart A. J. Jessop Maffra . . 14.9.11 R.N.J. 290/4 Young St. Albans . . G. R. Goods Minyip . . 10.8.11 E.A.K. THOROUGH BREDS. 391/4 Beau Brocade . . T. T. Mulder Colac 15.9.11 E.A.K. 356/4 Harmattan . . R. W. Storey Euroa . . 1.9.11 R.G. 354/4 Kerrisdale . . . . T. McKimmie LIGHT Seymour 1.9.11 E.A.K. 408/4 Almonfs Pride . . i Jas. Downie Lang Lang 22.9.11 G.S.B. 291/4 Almont S. . . F. W. Shickerling Warracknabeal 11.8.11 E.A.K. 383/4 Almont 2nd G. Bryant BaUarat 16.9.11 R.G. 301/4 Arrel Jno. Dempster ' Heathcote 14.8.11 R.N.J. 345/4 Ashville Boy Thos. Moore shepparton 25.8.11 R.G. 238/4 Black Tracker Giftord and Sons . Horsham 11.7.11 E.A.K. 298/4 Clarida O'Donnell Bros. . Birchip . . 9.8.11 R.G. 305/4 Decorator T. Jennings Inglewood 17.8.11 R.N.J. 292/4 Gerald Clive P. Seclander Warracknabeal . . 11.8.11 E.A.K. 395/4 Glynne Geo. Collis Yarram 18.9.11 R.N.J. 378/4 Honest Laddie Grant Bros. Kyueton 12.9.11 R.G. 323/4 Howlet A. Scotf Rochester 21.8.11 R.G. 385/4 Jack Huon P. Donoyan BaUarat 16.9.11 R.G. 327/4 Joy Bells . . M. Peacock Kerang 22.8.11 E.A.K. 358/4 Kent Cleve Jno. Devlin Tatura . . 31.8.11 R.G. 308/4 King Osterley 2nd . . Geo. Anderson . Geelong 17.8.11 G.S.B. 371/4 King Osterley D. Taylor Royal Show 4.9.11 G.S.B. 379/4 Kingspring W. McDonald Kyueton 12.9.11 R.G. 214/4 Lord McKinney G. H. Dunlevey . Agricultural Offices 29.4.11 G.S.B. 363/4 Middy Huon C. Baurchier Numurkah 29.8.11 E.A.K. 293/4 Millionaire J. Rossiter Warracknabeal . . 11.8.11 E.A.K. lo May, 1912,] Certification of Stallions. 305 List of Terminable Certificated Stallions — continued. Cert. No. Name of Horse. Date of Exami- nation. Lights — continued. 373/4 Oaliwootl . . J. T. FoUand Royal Show 9.4.11 E.A.K 256/4 Ostenvyuue W. R. Smith Horsham 12.7.11 R.N.J 311 '4 Owylii'e Chief Geo. Showell Castlemaine 18.8.11 R.N.J 277/4 Prince Ddu^jlas Mrs. C. White Agricultural Offices 5.8.11 G.S.B. ■n-2ii Prince Harold Boy Love, Royle, and Thurgood Agricultural Offices 15.7.11 G.S.B 322/4 Reality Rex S. O'Brien Rochester 21.8.11 R.G. 367/4 Sir Hampden J. H. Fraser Numurkah 29.8.11 E.A.K 332/4 S[»ort-; Huon J. T. Ovens Kyabram 22.8.11 R.G. 276/4 Verm McKinney M. MuUigaii Bendigo 2.8.11 R.G. 255/4 Victiir Direct J. Schrieber City Horse Bazaar 24.7.11. W.J.C 397/4 Weeho Jos. Park Taflangatta 19.9.11 E.A.K 296/4 Young Almont B. . . J. Mitchell Wari-acknabeal . . 11.8.11 E.A.K 297/4 Young Harold E. Wyatt PONIEf^ Warracknabeal . . 11.8.11 E.A.K 312/4 Billie Barlow Wm. Donaldson . . Charlton 17.8.11 R.G. 414/4 Bonnie Argyle Wm. Connors Myrtleford 11.10.11 G.S.B. 389/4 Brigham's Last Wm. Rodgers Warrnambool 14.9.11 E.A.K. 398/4 Chamberlain A. L. Hardie Warragul 19.9.11 G.S.B. 407/4 Dandy G'More L. Tatterson Daudenong 21.9.11 R.N.J. 307/4 General Gordon H. Dunn Geelong 17.8.11 G.S.B. 355/4 Little Tarn L. Moody Seymour 1.9.11 E.A.K. 401/4 Masher Bov T. Canty Leongatha 20.9.11 R.N.J. 374/4 Prince Taff Mrs. B. F. Saud- ford Royal Show 4.9.11 E.A.K. 322/4 Reality Rex S. O'Brien Rochester 21.8.11 R.G. 295/4 Rob Rov 2nd W. T. Clarke Warracknabeal . . 11.8.11 E.A.K. 318/4 Rysharold Hamble- tonian W. B. Metherall and Son Agricultural Offices 19.8.11 G.S.B. 405/4 Starlight . . J. M. Brown Korumburra 20.9.11 R.G. 381/4 Tich bourne A. E. Godden KjTieton 12.9.11 R.G. 334/4 The Hero . . D. G. Tomkins . . Co"leraine 22.8.11 R.N.J. 375/4 Wonderful W. H. D. McXal)h Royal Show 4.9.11 G.S.B. 339/4 Young Brighim R. W. Xichol Clunes . . 25.8.11 G.S.B. ( Three-year- 9ld Certificates expiring 30th June, 1912. DRAUGHTS. 598/3 Abbot McArthur . . J. Lawson N.Z. Govt. Cert. . . 5.7.11 536/4 Abbot's Fancy A. Robertson Melbourne (Special) 5.7.1] R.G. 535/3 Abbotsford Colvin Bros. Melbourne (Special) 5.7.11 G.S.B 669/3 Abbot Smith White Bros. N.Z Govt. Cert. . . 5.5.11 599/3 Abbot's Pride Jos. Johnson N.Z. Govt. Cert. . . 31,5.11 735/3 Abbot's Pride W. Haebich Tungamah 29.8.11 R.G. 587/3 Acorn W. Bodey Horsham 12.7.11 E.A.K 728/3 Admiral's Champion H. Cronk Wangaratta 28.8.11 R.G. 790/3 Admiral Sperry Jno. E. Coulthard Yarram 18.9.11 R.N.J. 463/3 Albion Oakes Bros. Nathalia (Special) 31.3.11 G.S.B. 755/3 Aldebarou . . Abbot Bros. Royal Show 4.9.11 E.A.K 725/3 Alexander's Best A. Robertson Agricultural Offices 26.8.11 R.N.J. 537/3 Alexander's Own A. Robertson Melbourne (Special) 5.7.11 G.S.B. 736/3 Attraction J.J. Mackay Tungamah 29.8.11 R.G. 740/3 Attraction's Cham- W. Morley Rutherglen 30.8.11 R.G. 782/3 pion Australia's Favourite M. Mahoney Terang . . 11.9.11 E.A.K 646/3 Avonmore . . J. Harper City Hor.se Bazaar 25.7.11 E.A.K 665/3 Ayrshire . . Jesse Stokes N.Z. Govt. Cert. . . 5.5.11 772/3 Balfour's Pride Jas. Anderson Maffra . . 14.9.11 B.N.J. 730/3 Balmoral . . E. S. Green and Son W. Hegartv Shepparton 25.8.11 R.G. 471/3 Baron Aravle Melbourne (Special) 15.5.11 G.S.B. 780/3 B.^^on Bold 2ud N. W. Quick Ballarat 16.9.11 R.G. 640/3 Baron Erskine E. Roberts City Horse Bazaar 24.7.11 R.G. 804/3 Baron Fenwick Jno. H. Sargood Raywood (Special) 25.10.11 E.G. 472/3 Baron Glaze brook . . Mitchell and O'Brien Melbourne (Special) 15.5.11 G.S.B. 664/3 Baron Gleniffer S. J. Ljnn N.Z. Govt. Cert. 28.4.11 538/3 Baron Grant Jas. Patrick Melbourne (Special) 5.7.11 R.G. 473/3 Baron Humber Mitchell and O'Brien Melbourne (Special) 15.5.11 G.S.B. Jo6 Journal of Agriculture. Victoria. [lo May, 1912-- LiST OF Terminable Certificated Stallions — continued. Cert. No. 568/3 509/3 474/3 747/3 783/3 775/3 464/3 671/3 693/3 622/3 539/3 567/3 753/3 600/3 721/3 675/3 617/3 732/3 581/3 475/3 545/3 639/3 532/3 533/3 534/3 528/3 642/3 578/3 508/3 808/3 524/3 540/3 737/3 476/3 738/3 733/3 758/3 601/3 478/3 511/3 627/3 479/3 723/3 791/3 647/3 756/3 580/3 541/3 574/3 480/3 796/3 624/3 542/3 481/3 666/3 482/3 517/3 748/3 722/3 569/3 461/3 602/3 573/3 809/3 Name of Horse. Baron Milton Barons Prince Baron Stuart Baron Woodlea Barrabool Bay Knight Bav Star . . Belted Ben Ben Hampton Ben Lomond Bit of Fashion Black Lion Black Mac Black Points Blue Royal Bold Baron Bold McGregor Bonaparte Bonnie Boy Bonnie Charlie Bonny Glen Border Lad Boro' Albert Victor Boro' Candidate Boro' Marmion Boro' Sportsman Boy Model Bramhope Paladin Braw Scot Bridge Hill King Brilliant Lad Britain's Flag British Heather British Pride Captain Grigg Camiichael Carolyn Carson's Fancy Champion Again Chatsworth Warrior Clan McArthur Clydesdale BiU Clyoesdale Prince Clydesdale Prince Colonel Keith Comet Coronation Cranbourne Stewart Creslow Kingmaker Crown Tenant Darnley's Pride of Rythesdale Defender . . Derby Royal Devondale Chief Diamond Crest Diamond King Dividend . . Dreadnought Drummer's Style Drummond King Duncraig Colt Dunmore . . Dunsby Menestral 3rd Eaton Charmer Parade. Date of Exami- nation. Draughts — continued. A. Slocum Ingram Bros. A. Robertson Wm. WlUiams Jas. Axford Jas. McRae J. and M. J. Egan A. Giddings W. F. Schiekerling G. Carey W. Kilpatrick Graham Bros. J. T. Peterson J. R. Henry Balkiu and Gerdts H. Jackman J. P. Belleville . . • — . McGregor Tucker Bros. A. Robertson H. HiU W. Foster and Son R. N. Scott Jno. Widdis Arthur Hart J. P. Belleville . . J. Mills F. Hickman Alex. Sands M. J. Caffrey Mitchell and O'Brien Mitchell and Brien S. H. WOson Mitchell and O'Brien J. Blackwood Jno. Gooden Jno. Wm. Dean . . Jas. Lawson A. Robertson J. Caffrey E. Roberts Hermann Sclineider E. and A. Breen . . R. C. Buchanan . . A. J. WiUiams . . Brock Bros. G. Oxley W. Abram Geelong Harbor Trust W. Langley Syme Bros. Hooper Bros. Jno. Grant A. Robertson Walter and Agar A. Robertson Mitchell and O'Brien J. C. Rockliffe . . Neil Anderson R. C. Pearse Alex. Robertson .Jas. Lawson Evan Jones M. J. Caffrey Newmarket Digger's Rest Melbourne (Special) Numurkah Teiang Kyneton Agricultural Offices Sea Lake Warracknabeal . . City Horse Bazaar Melbourne (Special) Ne^\-market Melbourne (Special) N.Z. Govt. Cert. . . Hamilton Bendigo Newmarket Pakenham (Special) Horsham Mellioume (Special) N.Z. Go^■t. Cert. . . City Horse Bazaar English Exam. English Exam. Enghsh Exam. English Exam. City Horse Bazaar Horsham Digger's Rest English Exam. Agricultural Offices Melbourne (Special) Tungamah Melbourne (Special) Yarrawonga Warmambool (Special) Royal Show N.Z. Govt. Cert. . . Melbourne (Special) English Exam. City Horse Bazaar Meiboume (Special) Kyabram Tallangatta City Horse Bazaar Royal Show Horsliam Jlelbounie (Special) English Exam. Meiboume (Special) Dandenong City Horse Bazaar Melbourne (Special) Melbourne (Special) N.Z. Govt. Cert. . . Melbourne (Special) Melbourne (Special) iS'umurkah Miirchison Xefliuarket .Asricultural Offices N.Z. Govt. Cert. .. English Exam. English Exam. 30.6.1 22.5.1 15.5.1 29.8.1 11.9.1 12.9.1 3.4.1 19.7.1 11.8.1 24.7.1 5.7.1 30.6.1 6.9.1 31.5.1 24.8.1 2.8.1 22.7.1 28.8.1 12.7.1 15.5.1 8.6.1 20.4.1 25.7.1 n.7.1 22.5.1 20.10.1 10.6.1 5.7.1 29.8.1 15.5.1 29.8.1 29.8.1 4.9.1 31.5.1 15.5.1 3.3.1 24.7.1 15.5.1 22.8.1 19.9.1 25.7.1 4.9.1 12.7.1 5.7.1 11.4.1 15.5.1 21.9.1 25.7.1 5.7.1 15.5.1 5.5.1 15.5.1 15.5.1 29.8.1 24.8.1 R.G. R.G. G.S.B. E.A.K. E.A.K. R.G. E.A.K. G.S.B. E.A.K. R.G. G.S.B. R.G. E.A.K. R.N.J. R.G. E.A.K. R.N.J. R.N.J. G.S.B. W.J.C. R.N.J. R.N.J. R.G. E.A.K. G.S.B. R.G. E.A.K. R.G. R.N.J. R.N.J. G.S.B. R.G. G.S.B. R.G. E.A.K. E.A.K. E.A.K. R.N.J. R.G. G.S.B. R.N.J. R.G. R.G. G.S.B. G.S.B. E.A.K. E.A.K. R.G. R.G. E.A.K. lo May, 1912.] Certification of Stallions. 307 List of Terminable Certificated Stallions- — continued. Cert. No. Name of Horse. Owner. 1 Parade. Date of E.xami- Officer. nation. Draughts — co ntinued. 591/3 Earl Erskine G. F. Meyers X.Z. Govt. Cert. . . 10.4.11 663/3 Erskine Yet H. Graham N.Z. Govt. Cert. . . 6.5.11 514/3 Earl of Daralev W. R. Smith Agricultural Offices 27.5.11 G.S.B. 759/3 Fairfield . . " Glenn Bros. Royal Sliow 4.9.11 G.S.B. 712/3 First Clioice R. H. Lanyon Boort 15.8.11 R.G. 777/3 Fitz Liou Mrs. Roberts Kyneton 12.9.11 R.G. 582/3 Fla5lilight Graham Bros. Horsham 12.7.11 R.N.J. 694/3 Flasliwood's Model . . Chas. Mason Warraclaiabeal . . 11.8.11 E.A.K. 543/3 Forest Kiug A. Chrystal Melbourne (Special) 5.7.11 R.G. 687/3 Fyvie Blacon R. C. Hannah Donald 8.8.11 R.G. 717/3 Gaer Coaqueror Jno. Archibald . . Kyabram 22.8.11 R.G. 577/3 Gamekeeper Hermann HLU Horsham 11.7.11 R.N.J. 629/3 Gay Gordon J. Ferguson City Horse Bazaar 24.7.11 R.G. 544/3 Gay Ife ivton Jas. Patrick Melbourne (Special) 5.7.11 G.S.B. 762/3 Geaeral Mac J. K. Marnm Royal Sliow 4.9.11 E.A.K. 786/3 Gleu Doaald Ale.^. Gibson, jun. Port Fairy 12.9.11 E.A.K. 631/3 Glenhope . . T. Standmg City Horse Bazaar 24.7.11 R.G. 603/3 Glea Lyon Jas. Lawson X.Z. Govt. Cert. . . 31.5.11 483/3 Glen Lyon A. Robertson Melbourne (Special) 15.5.11 E.A.K. 739/3 Gleamuick Jas. Clark I'^arrawonga 29.8.11 R.G. 661/3 Goldfiader A. E. Freshney . . N.Z. Govt. Cert. . . 6.5.11 670/3 Good Baough Jno. Mills N.Z. Govt. Cert. . . 8.4.11 606/3 Good Sliepherd D. McClure City Horse Bazaar 22.7.11 R.N.J. 546/3 Haldeii Sliepherd . . D. McClure Melbourne (Special) 5.7.11 G.S.B. 691/3 Halley's Comet C. Ruowldt Minyip . . 10.8.11 E.A.K. 727/3 Hampden Ben H. Allen Beuiah .. 22.8.11 G.S.B. 462/3 HaT-ry Herd A. Colvin Xathalia (Special) 31.3.11 G.S.B. 547/3 Harry Lauder Jas. Patrick Melbourne ( Special) 5.7.11 G.S.B. 469/3 Hatfield's Pride W. J. McKay Agricultural Offices 13.5.11 E.A.K. 46U/3 Heather Jock Mitchell and O'Brien Agricultural Offices 25.3.11 G.S.B. 649/3 Heather Lad Geo. Stokes City Horse Bazaar 25.7.11 R.G. 618/3 Hector Grant L. BagueU City Horse Bazaar 22.7.11 R.G. 792,3 Hiawatha A. L. Hamilton . . Corrj-ong 20.9.11 E.A.K. 570/3 Highland Fame C. McMickmg Xewmarket 30.6.11 R.G. 641/3 Highland Prince F. Mentha City Horse Bazaar 24.7.11 R.G. 484/3 His Excellency Mitchell and O'Brien Melbourne (Special) 15.5.11 E.A.K. 477/3 His Grace Mitchell and O'Brien Melbourne (Special) 15.5.11 G.S.B. 519/3 His Lordship R. Jack and Son . . Agricultural Offices 3.6.11 G.S.B. 492/3 His Majesty H. J. Whittingham Melbourne (Special) 15.5.11 E.A.K. 761/3 His Majesty E. J. Rickey Royal Show 4.9.11 R.N.J. 485/3 Ian Moore Mitchell and O'Brien P. F. D'Arcy Melbourne (Special) 15.5.11 E.A.K. 635/3 Innismore City Horse Bazaar 24.7.11 R.G. 614/3 Jack's the Lad H. Hart Xewmarket 22.7.11 E.A.K. 763/3 Kelm's Best L. W. Andrews . . Royal Sliow 4.9.11 R.N.J. 531/3 Kelvin's Fancy A. H. Reed Newmarket (Special) Melbourne (Special) 19.6.11 R.G. 548/3 Kia Ora . . Jno. Grant 5.7.11 R.G. 576/3 Kingfisher.. R. P. Y'oung Horsham 11.7.11 R.N.J. 773/3 Kingston . . Henebery and Hawkins Maffra .. 14.9.11 R.N.J. 584/3 Kinloch Agaui W. T. Bodey Horsham 12.7.11 E.A.K. 486/3 Knight Commander A. Robertson Melbourne (Special) 15.5.11 E.A.K. 487/3 Knight of the Garter A. and A. Kennedv Melbourne (Special) 15.5.11 G.S.B. 729/3 King George G. Docker \Yangaratta 28.8.11 R.G. 583/3 King Pippin 2ud A. and J. H. Y'oung Horsham 12.7.11 E.A.K. 549/3 Laird of Glengarry . . A. Chrystal Melbourne (Special) 5.7.11 G.S.B. 575/3 Laird of Glenkenich Geo. GiU S.Z. Govt. Cert. . . 25.5.11 781/3 Landlord . . D. McCallum Ballarat 16.9.11 R.G. 489/3 Laudevar A. Robertson Melbourne (Special) 15.5.11 E.A.K. 470/3 Llynely's First Lord J. Caffrev English Exam. . . 3.3.11 490/3 Lock Allen T. Smith" Melbourne (Special) 15.5.11 E.A.K. 579/3 Longford's Fashion Jas. Gildea Horsham 11.7.11 R.N.J. 512/3 Lymm Champion 2nd J. Caffrey Enghsh Exam. . . 3.3.11 513/3 Lymm Forest Boy . . J. Caffrev English Exam. . . 3.3.11 510/3 Lymm Raider J. CaflreV English Exam. 3.3.11 764/3 Lord Ashmore R. A. Ash Royal Show 4.9.11 E.A.K. 793/3 Lord Donald A. Harris Corn,-ong 20.9.11 E.A.K 529/3 Lord Garthland J. R. Henry Newmarket (Special) 19.6.11 R.G. 3o8 Journal of Agricitlliirc, Victoria. [lo May, 191 2. List op Terminable Certificated Stallions — continued. Cert. No. Name of Horse. Parade. Date of E.\:anii- Offlcer. nation. Draughts — continued. 491/3 Lord Hampden Pat. Mangan Melbourne (Special) 15.5.11 G.S.B. 653/3 Lord Islington R. Hornbuckle . . N.Z. Govt. Cert. . . 607/3 Lord Lindsay Caffrey and Murphy City Horse Bazaar 22.'7.n R.G. 571/3 Lord Mitchell H. McLaren Newmarket 30.6.11 R.G. 525/3 Lord Rose berry Mitchell and O'Brien Agricultural Offices 10.6.11 E.A.K. 649/3 McGregor . . J. Lawson City Horse Bazaar 25.7.11 E.A.K. 608/3 McKenzie's Pride . . A. Lawrie City Horse Bazaar 22.7.11 R.G. 700/3 Maironga Prince Wm. Blair Watchem 10.8.11 R.G. 768/3 Major's Pride Stuckey Bros. Traralgon 13.9.11 R.N.J. 493/3 Marlisman D. F. Hourigan . . Melbourne (Special) 15.5.11 G.S.B. 494/3 Mark Ward J. Schinnick Melbourne (Special) 15.5.11 E.A.K. 707/3 Marsliall . . Jno. Stafford Geelong.. 17.8.11 G.S.B. 672/3 Mataura . . W. Widdis N.Z. Govt. Cert. . . 23.5.11 495/3 Merry Maker Mitchell and O'Brien Melbourne (Special) 15.5.11 E.A.K. 749/3 Merton's Pride H. Rolls Numurkah 29.8.11 E.A.K. 658/3 Model Prince Jno. Gifford N.Z. Gov-t. Cert. . . 23.5.11 526/3 Monarch . . Mitchell and O'Brien Agricultural Offices 10.6.11 E.A.K. 1 636/3 Moravian . . Hugh Boyd City Horse Bazaar 24.7.11 R.N.J. 702/3 Murray King C. Milson Cobram 14.8.11 G.S.B. 465/3 Neil Marsliall T. Coogan Agricultural Offices 8.4.11 G.S.B. 551/3 Nelson Lyon 2nd Jno. Grant Melbourne (Special) 5.7.11 G.S.B. 696/3 Neotsfield Rufus . . Jno. Munro N.S.W. Exam. 23.6.11 552/3 Netherhall Jas. Patrick Melbourne (Special) 5.7.11 G.S.B. 637/3 Never Despair Thos. Kelly City Horse Bazaar 24.7.11 R.N.J. 554/3 Newton Moore Jas. Patrick Melbourne (Special; 5.7.11 R.G. 656/3 Newton's Best J. J. McCarron . . N.Z. Govt. Cert. . . 23.5.11 520/3 Nobleman Mitchell and O'Brien Agricultural Offices 3.6.11 G.'s.B 555/3 Perfection Jas. Patrick Melbourne (Special) 5.7.11 R.G. 609/3 Perfect Motion Peter Byrne City Horse Bazaar 22.7.11 R.G. 683/3 Powlett . . Hocking Bros. Bendigo 2.8.11 R.G. 515/3 Premier Geo. Smith Rosedale (Special) 26.5.11 W.J.C. 468/3 Premier Grey Mitchell and O'Brien Agricultural Offices 22.4.11 G.S.B. 596/3 Premier Lauder P. KeUeher N.Z. Govt. Cert. . . 9.6.11 673/3 Premier McNab Jno. Burns N.Z. Govt. Cert. . . 9.6.11 662/3 Premier Millar C. J. Coles N.Z. Govt. Cert. . . 9.6.11 674/3 Premier Montgomery of Willowbank A. Lummins N.Z. Govt. Cert. . . 9.6.11 690/3 Purves F. L. Mcintosh . . Jeparit . . 9.8.11 E.A.K. 556/3 Pride of Albury A. Chrvstal ' . . Melbourne (Special) 5.7.11 R.G. 676/3 Pride of Clifton W. T. Caldwell . . N.Z. Govt. Cert. . . 23.5.11 677/3 Pride of Cray A. E. Cockram . . N.Z. Govt. Cert. . . 23.5.11 557/3 Prince Albert A. Chrystal Melbourne (Special) 5.7.11 R.G. 750/3 Prince Cedric Joseph Jeffrey . . Numurkah 29.8.11 E.A.K. 724/3 Prince Edwin Jas. Dwyer Rushworth 24.8.11 R.G. 648/3 Prince Imperial Sir S. McCaughey City Horse Bazaar 25.7.11 E.A.K. 779/3 Prince Imperial J. Mansfield Kyncton 12.9.11 R.G. 496/3 Prince Thornley C. McFarlane Melbourne (Special) 15.5.11 G.S.B. 521/3 Quality Mitchell and O'Brien Agricultural Offices 3.6.11 G.S.B. 751/3 Quality Prince J. McMurray Numurkah 29 . 8 . 1 1 E.A.K. 704/3 Rantin Robin Jas. Galloway Maryborough 16.8.11 R.N.J. 610/3 Referendum J. F. Farrer City Horse Bazaar 22.7.11 R.G. 466/3 Right Royal Caffrey and Murphy Melbourne (Special) 10.4.11 E.A.K. 731/3 Robbin J. R. W. Powles Sliepparton 25.8.11 R.G. 621/3 Roseneath Clan W. G. NVilkinson City Horse Bazaar 24.7.11 R.G. 588/3 Russell Yet 2nd Graham Bros. Horsliam 12.7.11 E.A.K. 553/3 Royal Barclay A. Robertson MelliDurne (Special) 5.7.11 G.S.B. 497/3 Royal Ben Mitchell and O'Brien Melbourne (Special) 15.5.11 G.S.B. 795/3 Royal Carlyle R. H. Biggar Korumburra 20.9.11 R.G. 716/3 Royal Champion W. Hercus Pyramid 24.8.11 E.A.K. 572/3 Royal Edward Graliam Bros. Newmarket 30.6.11 R.G. 498/3 Royal Edward Mitchell and O'Brien Melbourne (Special) 15.5.11 G.S.B. 788/3 Royal Gartley Sydney Knight . . Warrnambool 14.9.11 E.A.K. lo May, 1912.] Certification of Stallions. 309 List of Termixabli-: Certificatku Stallioxs — continued. Cert. Xo. i Xaiue of Horse. Owner. Parade. Date of E.xami- Officer. nation. L 1 Dr.vcghts — continued. 597/3 Royal Gordon Philip Bolte X.Z. Govt. Cert. . . 30 . 5 . 1 1 558/3 Royal Gordon E. S. Bailliere Aielbourne (Special) 5.7.11 G.S.B. 499/3 Royal Hurry A. Roliertson Melbourne (Special) 15.5.11 E.A.K. 611/3 Roval Xewton A. G. Hildvard . . City Horse Bazaar 22.7.11 R.G. 550/3 Royal Oak J. D. Mitchell Agricultural Offices 8.7.11 G.S.B. 650/3 Royal Palmer McXabb Bros. Xewmarket 24.7.11 E.A.K. 566/3 Royal Review J. D. Mitchell Agricultural Offices 8.7.11 G.S.B. 500/3 Royal Review A. Robertson Melbourne (Special) 15.5.11 G.S.B. 744/3 Royal llobiii P. and R. Ferrari Xathalia 30.8.11 E.A.K. 626/3 Royal Saxon E. Roberts City Horse Bazaar 24.7.11 E.G. 657/3 Royal Signal P. Rogers X.Z. Govt. Cert. . . 6.5.11 518/3 Royalty Mitchell and O'Brien Melbourne (Special) 15.5.11 G.S.B. 501/3 Royal Willie Allan Boyd Melbourne (Special) 15.5.11 E.A.K. 645/3 Sandy McKeuzie Mitchell and O'Brien City Horse Bazaar 25.7.11 E.X.J. 530/3 Saxon Hall J.J. Murphy Xewmarket (Special) 19.6.11 E.G. 810/3 Scarcliffe Memento M. J. Caffrev English Exam. . . 20.10.11 742/3 Scottish Chief W. Ford Dookie . . 31.8.11 E.A.K. 585/3 Scottish Lad A. Hoff Horsham 12.7.11 E.X.J. 638/3 Scottish Premier ,Wm. Walter City Horse Bazaar 24.7.11 E.X.J. 805/3 Scottish Pride A. J. Tozer Blackwood Forest (Special) Xathalia 3.11.11 E.G. 745/3 Shepherd Boy J. H. Tuckett 30.8.11 E.A.K. 741/3 Shepherd Charlie E. P. BedweU . . Tatura . . 31.8.11 E.G. 619/3 Shepherd Signal J. O'Brien X.Z. Govt. Cert. . . 21.4.11 743/3 Shepherd's Pride W. Church Dookie 31.8.11 E.A.K. 746/3 Shepherd's Style Jas. Ross Xathalia 30.8.11 E.A.K. 811/3 Sherwood Royal Tom M. J. Caffrey English Exam. 20.10.11 604/3 Silver King James Lawson X.Z. Govt. Cert. . . 31.5.11 800/3 Son of Champion . . Turner Bros. Whittlesea 22.9.11 E.X.J. 697/3 Southern Star H. Green Birchip . . 9.8.11 E.G. 713/3 Spanish King R. Heywood Kerang . . 23.8.11 E.A.K. 559/3 St. Ambrose Jas. Patrick Melbourne (Special) 5.7.11 R.G. 516/3 Statesman X. C. Teychenne Melbourne ( Special) 15.5.11 E.A.K. 634/3 Sir Edwin R. H. Landale City Horse Bazaar 24.7.11 E.X.J. 502/3 Sir James P. Mangan Melbourne (Special) 15.5.11 E.A.K. 560/3 Sir John Small A. Chrvstal Melbourne (Special) 5.7.11 G.S.B. 678/3 Sir Xorman Ivanhoe H. J. Bodey X.Z. Govt. Cert. . . 20.6.11 705/3 Sir Regulus — . Howe Inglewood 17.8.11 E.X.J. 612/3 Sir Robin C. H. McCullocli . . Citv Horse Bazaar 22.7.11 E.X.J. 660/3 Sir Thomas Catfrey and Murphy X.Z. Govt. Cert. . . 6.6.11 561/3 Sir Walter Royal Bush Jno. Grant. Melbourne (Special) 5.7.11 E.G. 704/3 Rautin Robin Jas. Gallowav Maryborough 16.8.11 E.X.J. 586 '3 Sir Walter Scott S. H. Bleaklev . . Horsham 12.7.11 E.A.K. 659/3 Sir William Wm. McClelland . . Lara (Special) 29.7.11 G.S.B. 714/3 Tasman W. G. Hastie Kerang . . 23.8.11 E.A.K. 632/3 Time o'Day Anson Bros. City Horse Bazaar 24.7.11 E.G. 503/3 Top Sail . . Olseu and Ham- mond P. Mangan -Meiboume (Special) 15.5.11 G.S.B. 504/3 The Baron Melbourne (Special) 15.5.11 G.S.B. 505/3 The Bruce Mitchell and O'Brien Melbourne (Special) 15.5.11 G.S.B. 562/3 The Chief Jas. Patrick Melbourne (Special) 5.7.11 G.S.B. 563/3 The Earl . . Mitchell and O'Brien Melbourne (Special) 5.7.11 G.S.B. 652/3 The Gift . . T. Maddy Xewmarket 24.7.11 E.A.K. 488/3 The Laird of Craigie- burn P. Mangan Melbourne (Special) 15.5.11 G.S.B. 703/3 The Liberal A. Borland DunoUy . . 15.8.11 R.X.J. 620/3 The McDonald Jas. Hamilton City Horse Bazaar 24.7.11 R.G. 506/3 The Premier T. Halev. jun. . . Melbourne (Special) 15.5.11 E.A.K. 613/3 The Scout . . W. J. White City Horse Bazaar 22.7.11 R.G. 630-3 The Squatter J. H. Cornfoot . . City Horse Bazaar 24.7.11 E.G. 522'3 The Sta,r . . Jno. McLeod Agricultural Offices 3.6.11 G.S.B. 523/3 The Stockman Walter and Agar Agricultural Offices 3.6.11 G.S.B. 507/3 The Success Mitchell and O'Brien Melbourne (Special) 15.5.11 G.S.B. 3IO Journal of AgricuUnre, Victoria. [lo May, 191 2. List op Terminable Certificated Stallions — continued. Cert. No. 527/3 «15/3 679/3 593/3 561/3 651/3 605/3 668/3 643/3 565/3 628/3 784/3 698/3 655/3 710/3 699/3 715/3 692/3 594/3 633/3 802/3 807/3 467/3 686/3 754/3 684/3 a03/3 680/3 760/3 681/3 706/3 688/3 806/3 789/3 718/3 682/3 799/3 589/3 778/3 726/3 701/3 769/3 695/3 685/3 752/3 767/3 734/3 785/3 720/3 776/3 787/3 757/3 689/3 794/3 625/3 711/3 719/3 765/3 766/3 Name of Horse. Parade. Date of Exami- nation. Draughts — continued. The Thistle Mitchell and O'Brien Agricultural Oflacas 10.6.11 E.A.K The Vet. . . C. K. Peel Newmarket 22.7.11 E.A.K Undaunted Knight . . Hay and Thone- mann N.Z. Govt. Cert. . . 23.5.11 Union Jack G. W. Pickford . . Horsham 12.7.11 E.A.K. Urv Park . . Jno. Rousch Melbourne (Special) 5.7.11 G.S.B. Wallace . . H. J. Nixon Newmarket 24.7.11 E.A.K. Wallace 2nd Jas. Lawson N.Z. Govt. Cert. . . 31.5.11 Wee Laddie Andrew M. John- ston Sale (Special) 20.7.11 R.N.J. Welcome Boy J. MiUs City Horse Bazaar 25.7.11 R.N.J. Woodlands Jas. Patrick Melbourne (Special) 5.7.11 R.G. Wrangler . . P. S. Oppenheim. . City Horse Bazaar 24.7.11 R.N.J. Young Admiral D. H. James Terang . . 11.9.11 E.A.K. Young Ben King Bros. Birchip . . 9.8.11 R.G. Voung Clyde 0. G. Richaer City Horse Bazaar 26.7.11 E.A.K. Young Coronation . . W. J. Bennett . . Quambatook 15.8.11 R.G. Young Kelmscott . . Thos. BeUett Watcliem 10.8.11 R.G. Young King E. G. Denyer Kerang . . 23.8.11 E.A.K. Young Kinloch Jno. Maher Minyip . . 10.8.11 E.A.K. Young Laird of W. Johas Horsham 12.7.11 E.A.K. Lanark Young Timekeeper . . Anderson Bros. . . THOROUGHI City Horse Bazaar JREDS. 24.7.11 R.G. Brown Peer Geo. Nixon Orljost . . 3.10.11 R.N.J. The Bachelor J. Bird Ballarat Show 16.11.11 R.G. Warrough T. McKimmis LIGHT HOI Melbourne (Special) ISES. 10.4.11 E.A.K. Abbey Harricks Bros. . . Ararat . . 8.8.11 G.S.B. Admiral Sperry E. Batson Royal Show 4.9.11 R.N.J. Bonny McKinney . . R. Matchett Bendigo 2.8.11 R.G. Direction . . R. R. Corbould . . Mildura 5.10.11 G.S.B. First Voyage W. Greaves Bendigo 2.8.11 R.G. Game Boy E. Batson Royal Show 4.9.11 R.N.J. Harold Direct T. Cawsey Bendigo 2.8.11 R.G. Highland Clave T. Larcombe Geelong 17.8.11 G.S.B. Jack Christian R. C. Hannah . . Donald . . 8.8.11 R.G. King C. Bartlett Agricultural Offices 4.11.11 G.S.B. Lord Lincoln Geo. Trigg Co lac 15.9.11 E.A.K. Lord Lyndsey J. T. Ovens Kyabram 22.8.11 R.G. Oakwood King R. Matchett Bend igo 2.8.11 R.G. Odd Patch G. A. Finlay Lang Lang 22.9.11 G.S.B. Osterly Grange 0. Maroske Horsham 13.7.11 B.N.J. Preston Junior McLure and Sons . . Kjnieton 12.9.11 R.G. Prince Harold C. Darley Hopetoun 23.8.11 G.S.B. Quickshot J. Jackman Balmoral 11.8.11 R.N.J. Silver Bells W. Widdls Traralgon 13.9.11 R.N.J. Sir Carlaw J. Bunge Warracknabeal . . 11.8.11 E.A.K. Sir Hambletoniaa . . A. J. MitcheU Agricultural Offices 5.8.11 E.A.K. Triport Jno. Shinniek Numurkah 29.8.11 E.A.K. Walter Bell Boy . . Alf . West Royal Show 4.9.11 R.N.J. Yarpeet J. Fisher PONIES Hopetoun 23.8.11 G.S.B. Advance . . L. Harper Port Fairy 12.9.11 E.A.K. Bantam . . Brown Bros. Hamilton 24.8.11 R.N.J. Black Osterley H. Morris Kyneton 12.9.11 R.G. Bobs W. H. Podger . . Campordown 13.9.11 E.A.K. Coronation Jno. EUis Royal Show 4.9.11 R.N.J. Cutty Sark J. Oliver Jeparit . . 9.8.11 E.A.K. Dandy Boy Grieves Bros. Leongatha 20.9.11 R.N.J. Dandy Premier J. Meheron City Horse Bazaar 25.7.11 R.G. Little Wonder 2nd . . H. Burness Benalla 18.8.11 G.S.B. Lord Lonsdale W. Coe . . Coleraine 22.8.11 R.N.J. Nimble Boy R. Ridley Royal Show 4.9.11 E.A.K. Prince Leo 3rd J. R. Brian Royal Show 4.9.11 E.A.K. lo May, 191 2.] Certification of Stallions. 311 List of Terminable Certificated Stallions — continued. Cert. No. Name of Horse. Owner. Parade. Date of Exami- nation. Ponies — continued. 798/3 797/3 771/3 708/3 774/3 812/3 709/3 Robin Robin Roy Satan Wee MacGregor What's Wanted 3rd Young Ballygauley R. Masters L. Beazley C. F. Jenkins Wm. Day W. S. McCole Miss S. L. Robin- son C. Anderson Dandenong Dandenong Bairnfdale Geelong Maffra .. Agricultural Offices (Special) Geelong 21.9.1 21.9.1 13.9.1 17.8.1 14.9.1 23.3.1 17.8.11 R.N.J. R.N.J. R.N.J. G.S.B. R.N.J. R.N.J. G.S.B. (Two-year-old Certificates expiring 30th June, 1912.) DRAUGHTS. 123/2 127/2 146/2 136/2 122/2 128/2 147/2 140/2 130/2 116/2 117/2 157/2 115/2 134/2 118/2 133/2 139/2 148/2 150/2 158/2 144/2 114/2 119/2 124/2 126/2 142/2 129/2 151/2 152/2 135/2 131/2 121/2 138/2 154/2 132/2 14.3/2 153/2 120/2 Admiral Gun Altona Baron Again Blenheim . . Bonnie Carlyle Chile Cock of the North . . Coronation Defender's Pride Don McDonald Dunmore's Pride . . Eaton Ensign Federal Scot Gold Link.. Hampton Lad Hero's Pride Kelm's Champion . . Legislator Lord Ronald Lymm Prime Minister Major Calboume Masher Merry Hampton Morang Fashion Perfection Pride Prince Henry Prince of Albyn Roseneath King Royal Main Scottie Scottish Prince Sir Donald Sir Roger . . The Laird Upward Young St. Albans . . Young Tatton McNabb Bros. . . G. H. Lister R. Ralston C. F. Menzel H. McCue A. Ross L. McLeod C. Marshman Henry Buuge F. Mentha A. and J. H. Youiit; M. J. Caffrey A. W. Andrews . . C. Rhodes A. and J. H. Y'oung W. Dowling Wm. Luby C. W. Ludcmann E. J. Bickev M. J. Caffrey Chas. Heal W. R. Smith A. and J. H. Young D. McKenzie J. Poulton andSons J. M. Phillips A. Parish P. O'Dounell Jno. Jamicson Stock Bros. H. Schmidt Jesse Stokes J. R. Jackson J. Allison F. C. Thomas .!. y\. Phillips P. Mason P. Byrne Newmarket Kyabram Euroa . . Hamilton City Horse Bazaar Citv Horse Bazaar Tatura .. Beulah . . Minyip . . Horsham Horsham English Exam, Agricultural OflRces (Special) Casterton Horsham Kerang . . Ballan . . Dookie . . Royal Show English Exam. Tungamah Agricultural Office Horsham Newmarket City Horse Bazaar Shepparton City Horse Bazaar Kyneton Yarram Casterton Nhill . . City Horse Bazaar Hamilton Leongatha Nhill . . Shepparton Yarram City Horse Bazaar 24.7.11 26.7.11 1.9.11 24.8.11 25.7.11 26.7.11 31.8.11 22.8.11 10.8.11 11.7.11 11.7.11 24.11.11 6.7.11 23.8.11 11.7.11 23.8.11 26.8.11 31 8.11 4.9.11 24.11.11 29.8.11 27.5.11 11.7.11 24.7.11 26.7.11 25.8.11 26.7.11 12.9.11 18.9.11 23.8.11 16.8.11 24.7.11 24.8.11 20.9.11 16.8.11 25.8.11 18.9.11 22.7.11 E.A.K. G.S.B. R.G. R.N.J. G.S.B. G.S.B. R.G. G.S.B. E.A.K. R.N.J. R.N.J. r'.g. R.N.J. R.N.J. E.A.K. E.A.K. E.A.K. R.N.J. r'.g. G.S.B. R.N.J. G.S.B. R.N.J. R.G. G.S.B. R.G. R.N.J. R.N.J. E.A.K. R.N.J. R.N.J. R.N.J. E:A.K. R.G. B.N.J. R.N.J. THOROUGHBREDS. 137/2 1 Scotch Mixture . . | W. C. Bayley . . ! HamUton .. I 24.8.11 I B.N.J. 145/2 ' Dreadnought 156/2 149/2 155/2 141/2 Commodore Gentleman Charlie Major Melrose Scottie LIGHT HORSES. A. Hunter . . | Seymour PONIES. W. L. Webb F. Gunner W. Woodmason W. W. Vincent Narre Warren (Special) Royal Show Agricultural Offices Wangaratta 1.9.11 ! E.A.K. 4.9.11 2.12.11 28.8.11 R.G. R.N.J. G.S.B. R.G. 31-. ]onr7ial of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo May, 1912. STALLION PARADES, 1912. TIIVIE TABLE. District and Date. Place. Time. Officer Arrives. Officer Leaves. SPECIAL. 16th to 20tli July .. 22nd to 27th July . . City Horse Bazaar Newmarket Horse Ba- 10 a.m. 10 a.m. Every Saturday, 29th June to 14th Dec. zaar Agricultural Offices 10 a.m. to 12 noon WIMMERA No. 1. 2nd to 3rd July Horsham* . . 10 a.m. MALLEE No. 1. Wednesday. 17th July Thursday, 18th July Sea Lake* . . Charlton* . . 2 p.m. 2 p.m. 9.55 p.m. (16th) 12.3 p.m. 6.40 am. (18th) 12.23 p.m. (19th) MALLEE No. 2. Tuesday, 30th July . . Tuesday, 30th July . . Wednesday, 31st July Friday. 2nd Aug. Quamba- tookf Boort* Bendigo* . . Wycheprooff 10 a.m. . . 3 p.m. . . 3 p.m. 10.30 a.m. 6.35 p.m. (29th) 12.29 p.m. 11 a.m. 6.5 p.m. (1st Aug.) 11.5 a.m. 6.10 a.m. (31st) 12.15 p.m. (1st Aug.) 11.20a.m. WIMMERA No. 2. Tuesday, 30th July . . Wednesday, 31st July Thursday, 1st Aug. Friday, 2nd Aug. Hoi^etoun . . Murtoaf Beulah Warrackna- bealt 10.15 r.m. 2 p.m. 10.30 a.m. 1.30 p.m. 10.15 a.m. 4.50 p.m. (30th) 9.10 p.m. (31st) 2.25 p.m. (1st Aug.) 11.20 a.m. 6.20 p.m. 12.40 p.m. 2.55 p.m. WESTERN No. 1. Tuesday, 30th July . . Thursday. 1st Aug. . . Balmoral* . . Portland* . . 3 p.m. 3 p.m. 11.30 a.m. 1.2 p.m. 11 a.m. (31st) 8.10 a.m. (2nd) WIMMERA No. 3. Wednesday. 31st July Goroke* 3 p.m. 2.20 p.m. 6.30 a.m. (1st Aug.) 2.30 p.m. (2nd) Thursday, 1 st Aug. . . Edenliope* 3 p.m. 12 noon At places marked * a lecture can be arranged for the night of the Parade. At places marked t a lecture can be arranged for the night before the Parade. lo May, 19 1 2.] Certification of Stallions. Z'^?> Stallion Parades, Time Table — continued. District and Date. Place. Time. Officer Arrives. Officer Leaves. WIMMERA No. 4. Monday, oth Aug. . . Stavvell 3 p.m. . . 2.38 ]).m. 10.13 p.m. Tuesday, 6th Aug. . . Rainliow 2 p.m. 1.15 p.m. 8 p.m. Wednesday, 7th Aug. Jeparit 2 p.m. 9.13 p.m. (6th) 5.17 p.m. Thur-sday, 8th Aug. . . .Minyip 2 p.m. 6.53 a.m. 4.8 p.m. Friday, 9th Aug. Ararat 1.30 p.m. 9.25 p.m. (8th) 3.39 p.m. MALLEE No. 3. Monday, 5th Aug. . . Heathcote . . 2 p.m. 11.41 a.m. 8.17 p.m. Tuesday, 6th Aug. . . St. Arnaud 3.30 p.m. 3.22 p.m. 9.42 p.m. Wednesday, 7th Aug. Donald 2 p.m. '.0.52 p.m. (6th) 6 p.m. Tnursday, 8th Aug. . . WatehemI . . 2 p.m. 7.27 p.m. (7th) 7.20 p.m. Friday, 9th Aug. Birchipt 10 a.m. . . 8.5 p.m. (8th) 12.25 p.m. ^ULLEE No. 4. Monday, 5th Aug. . . Pyramid* . . 3 p.m. . . 2.36 p.m. 3.28 p.m. (6th) Wednesday, 7th Aug. Swan Hill* 2 p.m. 7.15 p.m. (Gth) 11 a.m. (8th) Thursday, 8th Aug. . . Kerang* 2 p.m. 12.39 p.m. 6 a.m. (9th) Friday, 9th Aug. Elmore 2 p.m. 1. 11 p.m. 4.55 p.m. CENTRAL No. 1. Monday, 12th Aug. . . Marybo- rough* 2 p.m. 12.32 p.m. 6.5 a.m. (13th) Tuesday, 13th Aug. . . Inglewood . . 11 a.m. . . 8.40 a.m. 2.10 p.m. Tuesday, 13th Aug. . . DunoUy* . . 4 p.m. 3.50 p.m. 9.17 a.m. (14th Wednesday, llth Aug. Chines 2 p.m. 1.43 p.m. 6.45 p.m. Thursday, 15th Aug. Ceelong 2 p.m. 12.10 p.m. 5.50 p.m. NORTH-EASTERN No. 1. Monday, 12th Aug. . . lienalla* 2 p.m. 11.15 a.m. 7.41 p.m. Tuesday. 13th Aug. . . Wangaratta* 2 p.m. 5.24 p.m. (12th) 12.34 a.m. (14th Wednesday, 14th Aug. Myrtlefoid* 3 p.m. 2.54 p.m. 7.17 a.m. (15th) Thursday, 15th Aug. p]uroa •3 p.m. . . 11.11 a.m. 6.32 p.m. Saturday, 17th Aug.. . ( "astlemaine 1 1 a.m. . . 0.20 a.m. 12.56 p.m. WIMMERA No. 5. Wednesday, 14th Aug. Xhill* 2 p.m '.31 a.m. 8.10 a.m. (loth) Thursday, 15th Aug. Kaniva* 2 p.m. t.30 a.m. 5.52 a.m. (16th) 2.18 a.m. (17th) Friday, 16th Aug. . . Dimboola* . . 2 p.m. ).14 a.m. WESTERN No. 3. Tuesday, 20th Aug. . . Colerainef . . 2 p.m. i).35 ]).m. (19th) 10 a.m. (21st (Driving) Wednesday, 21st Aug. Casterton* 2 p.m. 12 noon(D ri\-ing) 8.15 a.m. (22nd) Thursday, 22nd Aug. damilton . . 2 ]i.m. ' .50 a.m. 4.35 p.m. Friday, 23rd Aug. . . Penshurstf >.30 a.m. 7.33 p.m. ( 22ndV 10.17 a.m. Saturday, 24th Aug. Ballan 0 a.m. . . 8.18 a.m. 12.2 p.m. 3^4 Journal of Agriciiliiire, Victoria. [lo May, 1912. Stallion Parades, Time Table — continued. District and Dat«. GOULBURN VALLEY No. 1. Tuesday, 20tli Aug. . . Wednesday, 21st Aug. Wednesday, 2 1st Aug. Thursday, 22nd Aug. Thursday, 22nd Aug. Friday, 23rd Aug. . . GOULBURN VALLEY No. 2. Monday, 19th Aug. . . Tuesday, 20th Aug. . . Wednesday, 21st Aug. Thursday, 22nd Aug. Thursday, 22nd Aug. Friday, 23rd Aug. . . NORTH-EASTERN No. 2. Monday, 26th Aug. . . Tuesday, 27th Aug. . . Tuesday, 27th Aug. . . Wednesday, 28th Aug. Thursday. 29th Aug. Thursday. 29th Aug. Friday, 30th Aug. . . CENTRAL No. 2. Wednesday, 28th Aug. Saturday, 31st Aug. ROYAL SHOW. Tuesday, 3rd Sept. . . WESTERN No. 2. Monday, 9th Sept. . . Tuesday, 10th Sept. Wednesday, 11th Sept. Thursday, 12th Sept. Friday, 13th Sept. . . Saturday, 14th Sept. Daylesford Rochester Echuca* Murcliison Rushworth Cobram Dookie Nathalia Numurkahf Tatura Kyabram . Shepparton"! Rutherglen Yarrawonga Tungamah* Seymour Yea$ Mansfield . . Alexandra . , Beaufort Meiton Royal Show Grounds Terang* Port Fairy . . Camperdown* War r nam - bool* Colac Werribee Time. Officer Arrives. 2 p.m. 11 a.m. 3 p.m. 9.30 a.m. 2 p.m. 2 p.m. 2 p.m. 2 p.m. 2 p.m. 10 a.m. 2 p.m. 2 p.m. 2 p.m. 10 a.m. 4 p.m. 2 p.m. 9.30 a.m. 2 p.m. 2 p.m. 2 p.m. 11 a.m. a.m. to 10 a.m. 2 p.m. 10 a.m. 2 p.m. 2 p.m. 2 p.m. 10 a.m. Officer Leaves. 11.50 a.m. 10.58 p.m. (20th) 2.15 p.m. 8.30 a.m. 11.48 a.m. 1.57 p.m. 12.52 p.m. 1.40 p.m. 4.10 p.m. (20th) 8.30 p.m. (21st) 12.50 p.m. 8.23 p.m. (22nd) 1.48 p.m. 10.22 p.m. (26th) 3.28 p.m. 12.5 p.m. 10.20 p.m. (28th) 1.53 p.m. 12.35 p.m. 12.27 p.m. 8.35 a.m. 3.25 p.m. 1.36 p.m. 5 a.m. (22nd) 10.58 a.m. 5.20 p.m. 3.10 p.m. 4.11 p.m. 3.25 p.m. 4.43 p.m. 11.42 a.m. 4.20 p.m. 5.49 p,m. 3.22 p.m. 2.45 p.m. 7.45 a.m. (28th> 8.33 p.m. 10.40 a.m. 3.25 p.m. 4.40 p.m. 5.28 p.m. 1.21 p.m. 12.44 p.m. 1.4 a.m. 5.5 p.m. (10th) 11.55 p.m. (13th) 10.4 a.m. 7.17 a.m. 10.38 p.m. 1.30 p.m. 10.3 p.m. 7.11 a.m. (15th> 6.52 p.m. 1.25 p.m. X Lecture after. lo j\Iav, 1912.] Certification of Stallions. 315 Stalliox Parades, Time Table — continued. District and Date. GIPPSLAND No. 1. Monday, 9th Sept. . . Tuesday, 10th Sept. Wednesday, lltli Sept. Wednesday, 11th Sept. Thursday, 12th Sept. Friday, 13th Sept. . . Saturday, 14th Sept. CENTRAL No. 3. Tuesday, 10th Sept. Wednesday, 11th Sept. Wednesday, 11th Sept. Wednesday, 11th Sept. Thursday. 12th Sept. Friday, 13th Sept. . . GIPPSLAND, No. 2. Monday, 1 6th Sept. . . Monday, 1 6th Sept. . . Tuesday, 17th Sept. Wednesday. 1 8th Sept. Thursday ,"^19tli Sept. Saturday, 21st Sept. NORTH-EASTERN No. 3. Monday, 16th Sept. . . Tuesday, 17th Sept. Wednesday, 18th Sept. GIPPSLAND No. 3. Monday, 16th Sept. . . Tuesday, 17th Sept. Wednesday, 18th Sept. Thursday, 19th Sept. Saturday, 21st Sept. Thursday, 26tli Sept. Tuesday, 3rd Oct. . . Place. Morwell* Mirboo Traralgon . Bairnsdale* Sale Li 1yd ale Bacchus Marsh Whittlesea . Berwick Dandenong Cran bourne Smeaton Kyneton Foster Leongatha* Lang Lang . . Korumburra* Yarram* Frankston . . Wodonga . . Tallangatta* Corryong* . . Romsey Trafalgar Warragul* Bunyip Ballarat Kilmore Orbost* Time. 2 p.m. 2 p.m. 11 a.m. 3.30 p.m. 2 p.m. 2 p.m. 1 1 a.m. 2 p.m. 11 a.m. 2 p.m. 4.30 p.m. 3 p.m. 11 a.m. 12.45 p.m 4 p.m. 3 p.m. 3 p.m. 4 p.m. 11 a.m Z p.m. 2 p.m. 3.30 p.m. 2 p.m. 2 p.m. 3 p.m. 10 a.m. . 11.15 a.m. 2 p.m. 3 p.m. . Officer Arrives. 11.52 a.m. 2 p.m. 9.4 p.m. (10th) 3.25 p.m. 12.15 p.m. 1.34 p.m. 8.55 a.m. 12.50 p.m. 9.8 a.m. 12.35 p.m. 4.7 p.m, 3 p.m. 9.19 a.m. 12.38 p.m. 3.56 p.m. 9.25 a.m. 8.30 p.m. (17th) 3.45 p.m. 9.34 a.m. 1.39 p.m. 4.35 p.m. (16th) 3.30 p.m. 10.10 a.m. 11.16 a.m. 7.25 p.m. (17th) 6.46 a.m. 11.5 a.m. 9.30 a.m. 2 p.m. Officer Leaves. (10th) 12.20 p.m. 4.15 p.m. 12.20 p.m. 9.30 a.m. (12th) 4.33 p.m. 5.35 p.m. 12.59 p.m. 8 p.m. 12.16 p.m. 3.49 p.m. 7.19 p.m. 6.8 p.m. 2.9 p.m. 2.21 p.m. 7.25 a.m. (17th) 7.2(5 p.m. 10.42 a.m. (19th) 10.55 a.m. (20th) 1.1 p.m. 3.5 \>.m. 5 a.m. (18th) (19th) 7 a.m. 5.25 p.m. 6.51 p.m. 6.15 a.m. (19th) 11.25 a.m. 3.5 p.m. 8.40 p.m. 8.2 a.m. (4th) ,i6 Journal of Agnculiiirc. Victoria. [lo ^Jav, 1912. SMALL RURAL INDUSTRIES. A.— LAVENDER CULTIVATION. By Josef Ji Knight. The establishment of the essential oil industry, like many others of a similar nature, has been attempted in this State, but, from various causes, has not been followed up — notwithstanding that liberal assistance was offered by the State Government, and satisfactory results as to yields, &c., obtained. Things are now, however, becoming more satisfactory for the grower in this regard, and, with proper care and attention, it may well LAvtiNDii-R (i.A\ ENDERA VERA). take its place amongst the profitable minor industries of the rural popu- lation. The producer should be content to produce the flowers and dis- pose of them to the distiller, or where this is inconvenient, distill them and dispose of the oil to the wholesale chemist, and not try to manipulate it further by attempting the making up of perfumes. Such attempts have often been made heretofore and failed. Lavender {Lavendera Vera or Levendida Augusiifolia) is one of the hardiest of herbaceous plants, and thrives under a wide range of condi- tions of both soil and climate — even poor, sandy, or loamv soils are agreeable to it, and these conditions are recognised as resulting in the production of the finer class of essential oil. One condition of .soil is very necessary, and that is, it should be free from pos.sibility of lo May, 191^.] Lavender Cidi'ivaiiou. 317 water-logging. Excessive moisture at the roots soon causes the plant to p. rish. Low, wet land should, therefore, ht* avoiiled, unless it is well drained. Raising Plants. Plants may be obtained from either seed or cuttings, but the best method of propagating is by cuttings, and these should always be selected from the best plants available. Slips from 4 to 5 inches long — no matter how fine or .small — mav be planted out in a nursery bed, close in the rows, e\en touching. If the cuttuig be 4 or 5 inches long, i inch tO' lo inches abo\e the ground is sufficient. The nursery rows should be sufficiently far apart to pei'mit of the ground being kept loose and clean. The cuttings should be planted early in tiie autumn, when they will reach the stage in which they may be planted out in their permanent place in the following spring. A few blooms will show up sufficient to indicate what the plant is like. Planting Out. In planting out permanently the distance apart must be regulated by the class of labour to be subsequently employed. If horse labour is to be used in the after cultivation the distance between the rows should be from 4 to 5 feet. If manual labour only is available then the plants may be grown closer, say, 3 to^ 4 feet, or, if it can only be ploughed or worked one way with the aid of horse labour, then the plants may stand 4 feet x 5 feet or 3 feet 6 inches x 5 feet. The plant, when developed, will spread out to co-\'er ground from i foot 6 inches to 2 feet in diameter. There is no economy in close planting — the plant should have sufficient feeding ground, or it will become stunted, and the yield of flowers small and pinched. The securing of proper cuttings is important, and care should be taken in this respect. There are a number of mother patches available, and a limited quantity may be obtained from the Labour Colony, Leongatha, bv writing to the manager, who will supply them in bundles f.o.b. rail Leongatha at 3s. pd. per i.ooo cuttings. In commencing this business it is important that plants should be secured early. Cuttings may be planted out at any time in the autumn or spring, but, if too late in autumn, tbe growth will be retarded by the cold, wet bed, and, if late in spring, with drv, hot weather. In planting, little can be done by way of regulating the length of stem above or below, but deep planting should be avoided. The plant should stand the same depth as when in the nur.sery bed ; mistakes are made in this respect frequently, and the plant too much buried. Spread the roots well and tramp the soil firm. A\oid planting when soil is wet or otherwise out of condition. Preparation of Soil. As the profitable lifetime of the plant runs for seven or eight years the soil should be properly prepared prior to planting, as it is impossible to do much after, beyond cleaning and ploughing shallow betwixt the plants. The plant will repay the labour for subsoiling. as the roots will be enabled to penetrate to a depth that wdll enable it to withstand the changes of excessive drought and wet. Subsoiling is preferable to deep, single plough- ing, as the surface soil should be kept to the surface; and the cold, stub- born bottom soil should not be brought to the surface, as this soil is usually infertile and difficult to work. Whatever system is adopted, the .soil should be well worked and pulverized to a fair depth, so that the young plant mav 1:)e enabled to push its roots freelv. 3i8 Journal o] \gricultiirc . Victoria. \\o May, 1912. Cutting or Harvesting. The flower opens out on the stem somewhat irregularly, so care should be taken, when harvesting, to take them when the maximum amount of flower has opened out. The flowers are gathered in one hand and cut with a hook (see illustration here) or knife below the bloom and above the foliage, and laid out on sheets of hessian, but not exposed to the burning sun any more than can be helped, as the essential oil is apt to escape. If intended for sale in the green state, the cut flowers may be spread out for a few hours in the shade, but the quicker it is taken to the still the better for all con- cerned. A\oid placing in bags, as it heats readily, and damages. If sending it away any distance it should be sent in crates and packed in thin layers — not more than 2 or 3 inches thick, so as to avoid pres- sure. The present price for this form of produce is 3d. per lb. in the green state, delivered in Mel- bourne. If it is inconvenient to market it in this form the flower may be spread out on trays, boards, or hessian in the shade, and dried, when it may be packed carefully, so as to save the blooms, which separate freely from the stem. As the bloom is the most valuable portion of the product, care must be taken in this respect. The dried flowers, with stems, are valued at about 5d. per lb., but buds alone are also sold for a price much beyond that. The cutting of lavender commences about December, and arrangements should be made beforehand w^ith the distilleries, as their intake must be regulated by their capacity for treating same. Failure in this respect may mean the loss of the crop. Treatment of the Flower. As stated above, the flowers are gathered and laid out on hessian and taken to the still. If they are sold to the distiller they must reach him in a sound condition, and it would be advisable, where they cannot be delivered within twenty-four hours or so, to spread them on some kind of trays, in a thin layer, so as to avoid heating, which destroys the blooms. It is better to market in boxes, fitted with trays inside, to prevent the weight of flowers pressing on each other. The depth of these on the boards, or netting, should not be over 3 inches, and they should carry their own weight of flowers separately. By this means there would be little danger of it damaging by heating. It is frequently the case that flowers are gathered and put up in sacks and sent on; on arrival at the destination they are found heated and black, and, of course, valueless. It is desirable to market green if possible, but when this cannot be done then the flower may be spread out on any clean bottom and dried, and marketed dry, but the drying should be done in the shade, and not in the sun. The other alternative is distilling — particulars of which are given below — and, as but little skill is necessary, women and youths can be intrusted with the work, and, with proper appliances, should be light and pleasant employment lo May. 191 3.] Lavender Cultivation. 319 FIRST YEAR PLANTING. SECOND YEAR PLANTING. IHiRD YEAR PLANTING. 320 Journal of Agficulfurc, Victoria. [lo May, 19 12. After Treatment of Plant. The annual cutting back of this low, bushy plant forces out a super- abundance of branches, and the plant becomes so close and dense that it is readily attacked by fungoid and other diseases ; and, in order to avoid this, the plant should be thinned out during the dormant season, and the air let in. This will considerably improve its vigor and increase the yield of blooms, which is the object aimed at. The pruning should be done as low down as possible so as to avoid the production of superfluous buds, and much may be done by robbing the.se when going through the plants. Lavender, like most other plant-life, when employed for man's use. will repay for a little attention. Yield. It is somewhat ditificult to give actual yields, as much depends on the varying conditions under which they are produced. For instance, the Governor of Pentridge, Mr. Cody, planted out a small area, about half- an-acre or so, and the returns given from this were highly satisfactory, but, as portions were taken from one, two, and three year old plantings, the actual returns would be of little service. Suffice it to sav that, on his retirement from the Government .service, he is entering into la\'ender cul- tivation on a much larger scale. The yield of flowers per acre varies, but may be put down to about 3 to 4 tons. The price at present is 3d. per lb., and gives over ^^50 per acre. Mr. J. Blogg, of Messrs. Blogg Brothers, Melbourne, the well-known perfumers, estimates the yield of oil at 40 lbs. per acre. The late Mr. Slater, who was well up in this business, gave the vield at 56 lbs., but when we come to the price of this we are lost. Some time back I had a parcel of a few lbs. to dispose of on behalf of the Department, and I invited quotations from three or four firms. One offer was made to me at 7s. per lb., and another at 14s. per lb. The third said he would give me the market value, but could not say what that was until testing it, so, on the second offerer rising to 15s. per lb., his offer was accepted. The third man then complained, and said he was prepared to go to 20s., or 2 IS., had I given him a chance. Herein lies the difficulty in dealing with all such special products, viz., the want of an established market value to regulate the price j but this will remed^ itself when the trade becomes more established. Distilling. Where it is intended to extract the oil a still may be secured for about ^20 — sufficient for 4 or 5 acres. There is no licence or fee to be paid, but a permit mu.st be obtained from the Customs Department, and a guarantee furnished to the extent of ^100, that the Exci.se laws will not be violated. The skill necessary for this indu.stry is not beyond ordinary capacity, and instructions can be obtained by calling at my office, 581 Flinders -street, Melbourne. The following information is supplied by the Customs Department to those desiring to obtain a permit to hold a still : — Commonivealtli lnsirnctio)is re tlic use of Stills for purposes other thait for Distilling Spirits. 1. Any person making a still without the written permission of the collector is liable to a penalty of ^100. 2. Any person having a still in his possession or custody, without lawful authority, is liable to a penalty of ^500. lo May, Tpi^.] Basis Wiiics. 321 3. Anv pt-rson who intends to use a still for any purpose, other than the distilling ol spirits, must give notice in writing to the Collector of Customs, and furnish full details respecting the size or capacity of the still, the specific purpose for wh'ch it is to be used, and the place where it is to be used. Form of notice may be obtained on application to the collector. 4 Security in a sum not exceeding ^100 that the .still shall not be used for distilling spirits must be entered into. 5. When due notice has been given, and the .security has been dulv completed, the collector will furnish an acknowledg- ment of the receipt of the notice and security, and the acknowledgment must, at any time, on demand by an officer, be produced by the person using the stili. 6. If anv person intends to use more than one .still a notice and security must be given for each still. 7 The still, or stills, must not be sold or removed to an\ place without the written permission of the Collector of Customs. The penaltv for selling or removing a still, without written permission of the collector, is ^100. 8. When written permission is given to remove a still a fresh notice and security must be furnished. General Remarks. There are other species of lavender grown, but none other than the one under re\iew can be recommended for commercial purposes, as the class of oil produced is low in value. Lavendera Vera, or Lavendula AngustifoUa, is the only one worthy of consideration, and this, like many other plants or animals, may be improved by careful selection and other means. This should be the aim of all entering into its cultivation. W.th the aid of a small test still individual plants may be treated, and those of the best quality carefully .selected for propagation. No doubt, if this Were carried out systematically, the yield would be much improved. If we look over a field of la^•ender in bloom we cannot help noticing the great variation of colour of flower and form and quantity of bloom on each, and, no doubt, the oil that each contains would vary equally so. Some plants are much more robust than others, but the plant is hardy, and gi\es but little trouble if properly handled. If neglected, it suffers from an attack of fungus, which appears to kill out portions of the plant, but if kept open, as advised, and air admitted freely, there will be little ground for complaint on this score. BASIS WINES. By F. de Casiilla, Government Yitlcitltnrtst. Wines manufactured in England from such materials as dried grapes (currants, raisins, &c.), evaporated grape juice and sterilised must are known as basis wines, since they are mainly used as a basis in blends of various kinds. It has long been evident that such wines could be manufactured in Eng- land under far more favorable conditions than those under which it is possible for Australian wine-makers to operate, the raw material paying little or no duty, whilst fermented wines must pay a duty of is. 3d. per gallon, on entering the United Kingdom. Basis wine manufacturers enjoy a further advantage in the way of lesser freight charges, owing to the concentrated form in which the raw material is carried. 322 Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo May. 191: Seeing the evident unfairne.ss of such a state of affairs to our wine- growers, the attention of the Director of Agriculture was drawn to the ■matter by the Government ViticuUurist in October last, with the result that the Agent-General was asked to obtain information on the following points : — (i) Currants imported into England for manufacturing purposes. (2) Evaporated grape juice imported. (3) The quantity of wine manufactured in England. (4) The amount of duty payable on evaporated grape juice. (5) Any further information obtainable on the subject. A despatch was received from the Agent-General dated the 8th Decem- ber, accompanied by a return showing importations of grape juice or must as follows : — ■ Years. i^'iiantities. Value. Approximate value per Lialloii. 1906-7 1907-8 1908-9 ... 1909-10 ... 1910-11 ... Galls, 78,659 99,230 78,447 88,203 183,494 10,346 12,206 7,548 9,419 16,047 ■■2/74 •2,04 1/11 2/14 1,9 A recent very marked increase is here show'n, the figures for 1910-11 being more than double those for the previous twelve months, an increase for which the steady decline in value is, no doubt, largely responsible. Further information was promised by the Agent-General, and a de- spatch has recently been received by the Honorable the Minister for Agri- culture, dated 5th January, as follows: — " Following up my despatch of the 8th ultimo, the Customs Depart- ment inform me that they have no information as to the disposal of currants after the payment of duty. The quantities and value of currants imported are shown in the Annual Statement of Trade of the United Kingdom, and are as follows, namelv: — 1906. Quantity, cwts. .. 1,458,159 Value, £ ... 1,648,410 " Evaporated Grafe Juice. corded in the official statistics. 1907. 1908 1909. 1910. 1.18S,4S1 1,297,157 1,071,209 1,310,361 1,392,271 1,464,091 1,156,118 1,708,710 -This, I am advised, is not separately re- Any such imports will be classified under the general heading ' Grape Juice or Must,' the imports and value of which are given in the Annual Statement of Trade as follows, namely: — 1906. 1907. 1908. 1909. 1910. Quantity, gallons ... 43,510 109,831 85,601 67,090 163,838 Value, £ ... ... 5,422 15,047 8,527 7,967 16,513 " Wine Manufactured in England. — The Customs Department inform me that the quantity of wine made by licensed manufacturers of the United Kingdom was in the year ended 31st March, 1911, 1,234.512 gallons. " There is no duty chargeable on grape juice or must as such. " I am sending you a copy of the Finance Act passed in the last few days of the session. You will observe that section 10 of the Act imposes certain restrictions on the use of British wine for blending purposes. Regu- lations as to the registration of the sales of British w'ines by manufacturers have not yet been issued, but as soon as they are I will send you a copy. It is possible that under the new regulations we may be able to obtain further information to assist us in the matter. I o M A V . 1 Q I J . I Basis 1 T '/ // es . 323 ■■ I regard the registration of the sales of British wines by manufac- turers as being important. This will enable us to watch and report as to what is going on. "(Signed) J W. TAVERNER, " Agent -General." Though it has long been known that " Basis wine " was manufactured en a large scale the fact, that 1,234,513 gallons of wine were made in England last year will probably come as a surprise to many. In this is included, no doubt, a certain quantity of British fruit wines, such as Gooseberry. Blackberry. &c. To the manufacture of such bond fide pro- ducts no exception can be taken ; they have been made since time immemorial, from British-grown fruit ; but, that foreign-grown grape- ■ juice should be able to compete with our wine, over which it enjoys the advantage of a Customs duty of is. 3d. per gallon, must appear somewhat of an anomaly to Australian wine-growers. The quantity of bo/id fide British fruit wines made cannot be con- siderable, and it would appear that the production of " Basis wine " is at least equal to our annual shipments from the Commonwealth to the United Kingdom. Judging from the recent increase in the imports of " Grape Juice or Must" the industrv appears to be expanding. That the English wine trade is not in sympathy with such manipu- lations is evident. The London Wine Trade Rev-iew, of 15th February last, devotes a leading article to the question, referring to it as "The ' Basis wine ' evil, which has so much disturbed legitimate business for the past ten or fifteen years." It reproduces the official circular which was recently sent to the trade, as follows : — ■ The Commissioners of Customs and Excise desire to make known to all traders concerned that, in pursuance of the powers vested in the Commissioners by section 10 of the Finance Act 191 r, they are about to issue regulations, to come into force on ist April next : — (i) restricting within certain specified limits the mixing of British with foreign wine, and (2) prohibiting the sale of wine so mixed, except such as may be mixed under the conditions prescribed in the regulations. In order to avoid as far as possible inconvenience to traders, a period which the Commissioners, as at present advised, propose to fix at three months, will be allowed for the disposal of existing stocks of mixed W'ine remaining in hand on 1st April. It expresses the hope " That the contemplated regulations will not lack in definiteness " so that traffic may no longer continue "In a fabrication. . . . which can, by exemption from the full duty applic- able to imported wines, be used to cut into legitimate trade or to detri- mentally affect the revenue." It uses such expressions as " Those counter- feits of foreign wine which find their way as cheapening factors into blends with the imported article," and, further, states that there is reason for the suspicion that " The ' basis ' counterfeit " is used to mix with spirits. It concludes b}' noting with pleasure " That the opinion of the trade, as exemplified by the recent circulars of leading firms, is wholly in favour of the powers conferred on the Customs and Excise, and that the trade is already looking forward to a considerable revival in the demand for the cheaper classes of wine ; more especially as regards clarets and Tarragona. ' ' Further information as to the exact wording of the regulations should come to hand shortly. 324 Jounial of AgricuUiirc. Victoria. [lo May, 19 1 2. FINAL RESULT8 OF VICTORIAN EGG-LAYING COMPETITION, 1911-12, CONDUCTED AT BURNLEY HORTICULTURAL SCHOOL. {Concluded from page 200.) H. V. Hawkins, Poultry Expert. Eggs Laid during Competition. No. Position in of Breed. Name of Owner. April to Total to Competi- Pen. Feb. March. date (12mths) tion. 31 White Leghorn E. W. Pope 1,473 93 1,566 1 12 W. G. Swift 1,456 90 1,546 2 40 . A. J. Cosh (S.A.) 1,419 120 1,539 3 20 > H. McKenzie 1,360 69 1,429 4 37 E. Waldon 1,324 77 1,401 5 33 !! Range Poultry Farm (Qld.) 1,275 56 1,331 6 39 A. W. Hall 1,246 55 1,301 7 18 T. Brundrett 1,188 78 1,266 8 24 F. Hannaford 1,147 104 1,251 9 10 Black Orpington . . H. A. Langdoa 1,138 102 1,240 10 19 White Leghorn A. Jaques 1,155 73 1,228 11 13 Black Orpington . . D. Fisher 1,162 60 1,222 } - 50 White Leghorn C. H. Busst 1,137 85 1,222 21 )) R. L. Appleford 1,162 50 1,212 } " 9 )) J. O'Loughlin 1,137 75 1,212 28 „ John Campbell 1,118 93 1,211 16 2 )i E. P. Nash 1,139 60 1,199 ) ■' 3 K. G leghorn 1,117 82 1,199 11 Brown Leghorn F. Soncum 1,097 98 1,195 19 55 White Leghorn W. G. McLister 1,117 76 1,193 20 46 Minorca G. W. Chalmers 1,127 65 1,192 21 25 Wliite Leghorn B. Mitchell 1,121 68 1,189 22 32 Silver Wyandotte . . Mr.s. M. A. Jones 1,075 96 1,171 23 38 White Leghorn Mrs. C. R. Smee 1,111 51 1,162 24 62 » P. Hodson 1,091 63 1,154 25 45 .1 T. Kempster 1,098 55 1,153 26 67 » C. L. Sharman 1,035 112 1,147 27 49 . W. J. Tiiornton 1,089 57 1,146 28 22 Black Orpington . . P. S. Wood 1 ,043 95 1,138 29 44 ,. T. S. Goodisson 1,070 66 1,136 30 1 White Leghorn A. Brebner 1 ,099 34 1,133 31 65 ij H. Hammill(N.S.W.) 1 ,04>t 81 1,129 32 36 19 F. A. SiUitoe 1,097 25 1,122 33 57 i> G. B. Edwards 1,031 85 1,116 34 35 11 J. H. Brain 1,012 90 1,102 35 4 Golden Wyandotte H. Bell 1,037 63 1,100 36 60 White Leghorn J. J. Harrington 1,022 73 1,095 37 47 )» C. W.Spencer (N.8.W.) 1,040 49 1,089 38 66 White Wyandotte J. E. Bradlev 1.021 64 1,085 39 43 White Legliorn W. B. Crellin 1,015 59 1,074 40 5 )> L. C. Pavne 1,047 20 1,067 41 8 )i T. W. Coto 1,022 35 1,057 42 41 )) Morgan and Watson . . 994 56 1,050 43- 6 Silver Wyandotte Mrs. H. J. Richards 952 93 1,045 44 64 White Leghorn J. D. Read 964 78 1,042 45 51 ! J. B. McArthur 979 62 1,041- 46 34 » E. Dettman 965 75 1.040 47 58 FaveroUes K. Courtenay 971 59 1,030 48 59 White Leghorn W. H. Dunlop 972 56 1,028 49 30 Black Orpington . . Rodgers Bros. 932 81 1,013 50 53 White Leghorn A. Stringer 977 33 1,010 51 63 Black Orpington . . A. J. Treacev 94s; 48 996 52 42 Wliite Orpington . . P. Mitchell 929 66 995 53 52 White Leghorn W. J. McKeddie 955 3 6 991 64 27 )) Hill and Luckman . . 952 21 973 55 16 Silver Wyandotte . . Miss A. Cottani 862 74 936 56 56 White Leghorn Mrs. C. Thompson . . 896 36 932 57 23 Golden Wyandotte G. E. Brown 849 73 922 58 €1 Silver Wyandotte . . J. Reade 814 75 919 59 7 White Leghorn H. Stevenson 900 18 918 60 26 F. H. Seymour SM,5 31 916 61 54 .! F. Hodges 856 58 914 62 17 W. J. Eckershall 7.59 56 815 63 14 Black Orpington . . W. J. Macauley 723 72 795 64 15 Minorca H. R. McChesney 638 29 667 65 48 " G. James 578 39 4,327 617 66 68,998 73,325 1 lo May, 1912.] Orchard and Garden Noics. STATISTICS. Rainfall in Victoria.— First Quarter, 1912. Table showing average amount of rainfall in each of the 26 Basii5s or Regions con- stituting the State of Victoria for eaeii month and the quarter, with the corre- sponding monthly and quarterly averages for each Basin, deduced from all available record* to date. January. Febrinry. March. Quarter. Basin or District. •^ -t! a? ■*a a5 a a if. 8 be a it, 3 3 d 3 d 3 g O o o b O a > S CJ a t a > points. < < < < < points < < points. points. points. points. points. points. • Glenelg and Wannon Rivers 16 121 98 87 155 167 269 375 Fitzroy, Eumeralla, and Merri 36 145 111 158 178 179 325 482 Rivers Hopkins River and Mount 25 14.5 68 100 167 178 260 423 Emu Creek Mount Elephant and Lake 20 150 76 103 151 189 247 442 Corangamite ■Cape Otway Forest 57 210 82 142 155 268 294 620 Moorabool and Barwon Rivers 23 145 92 112 135 184 250 441 Werribee and Saltwater Rivers 28 142 142 128 85 188 255 458 Yarra River and Dandeuong 87 228 133 166 138 278 358 672 Creek • Koo-wee-rup Swamp 69 240 120 154 73 270 262 664 "South Gippsland 82 227 117 166 114 307 313 700 Latrobe and Thomson Rivers 118 233 113 162 118 280 349 675 Macallister and Avon Rivers 73 159 107 142 72 202 252 503 Mitchell River 84 248 110 210 70 214 264 672 Tambo and Nicholson Rivers 48 211 15t 155 73 269 275 635 Snowy River 63 26f> 152 209 117 265 332 743 Murray River 46 114 100 97 54 161 200 372 Mitta Mitta and Kiewa Rivers 68 170 143 135 121 305 332 610 Ovens River 127 173 78 •124 108 286 313 683 Goulburn River 89 135 70 97 70 180 229 412 Campaspe River 21 116 86 91 60 160 167 m: Loddon River 14 96 113 SO 62 126 189 302 Avon and Richardson Rivers 1 71 79 59 68 111 148 241 Avoca River 4 70 80 60 68 122 152 252 Eastern Wimmera ... 3 85 • 49 68 83 145 140 298 Western Wimmera ... 4 67 28 57 62 115 94 239 Mallee District 3 57 68 55 30 98 101 210 The whole State ... 48 133 91 107 86 179 225 419 100 points = 1 inch. 17th April, 1912. H. A. HUNT, Commonwealth Meteorologist. ORCHARD AND GARDEN NOTES. E. E. PcscofU Principal. School of Horticulture, Burnley. The Orchard. There are indications that the coming planting season will be one of •considerably increased activity. The prospects for the fruit trade were never so good, and it is anticipated that this industry will advance in many wavs in the near future. Such being the case, it will be wise not to unduly rush the planting of the trees, but to make every endeavour to have them planted in soil which has been well and truly prepared for :their reception. 326 Journal of Agriciiliid c . Victoria. [10 May, 1912. The niuiiths of June and July are the most favouraL u for planting in this State ; the warmer the climate, the earlier the planting season. Tfiere is thus ample time for preparing the land thoroughly before the planting is done. The land must be in a first class physical condi- tion for the planting of the young trees. The first and foremost necessity is good soil drainage; and this may be accomplished by a deep system of subsoiling, or by the laying down of tile, timber, or cinder drains. In the northern plain areas it is very often difficult to initiate a drain- age system, owing to the level condition of the country. In such districts it is certainly advisable to carry out a scheme of deep subsoiling. After clearing and ploughing, the subsoil should be well ploughed by following the furrows with the plough ha\ing the mould-hoard removed. This allows for the stirring of the clav without turning it over or bring- ing it to the surface. This breaking up of the clay serves the dual purpose of placing it in the condition that a good water percolation or soil drainage is allowed, and that the tree roots are able to work and travel better in the loose sub- soil. Where the subsoil is of a gravelly character or otherwise porous nature, the subsoiling work is not an urgent necessity. Should the drain- age be satisfactory under natural conditions, it would be superfluous to carry out this work. What is required is that the soil shall be loose and friable enough to admit of the drainage of all superfluous water, and that the roots shall be able to -travel with comparative ease. For the purpose of fruit culture, soil fertility is dependent to a far greater extent on the suitable physical soil condition than on the richness of the soil. The second factor in soil fertility is the richness or the quality of the soil. It is only fair to assume that whatever is removed from the soil by the trees should be replaced, if the soil is to maintain its original fertility. The most useful material for this purpose is stable or farmyard manure. Where this is not obtainable, leguminous green manures are certainly the best substitute. It is not advocated that solid masses of farmyard manure should be ploughed into the soil ; quite the reverse. Light dressings annually or even biennially are the most suitable. To plough into the soil heavy and compact masses of manure is wasteful, and is liable to set up sour and unhealthy soil conditions. It is the practice of many successful orchardists to manure their orchards every other year with either stable or green manure; and to use such artificial fertilizers as bonedust, sulphate of potash, and superphos- phate in the alternate years. Where it is not intended to manure this season, or even some time after manuring, a top dressing of lime will greatly improve soil conditions. Pests. It is now a favourable time to spray the trees where such pests as Bryobia mite, woolly aphis, scale species, and peach aphis have been or are prevalent. Any of the recognised sprays are suitable, these being red oil. crude petroleum, kerosene emulsion, or lime-sulphur wash. The latter wash is again becoming popular, partly owing to its effectiveness, and also to its possessing certain properties as a fungicide. Flower Garden. The month of May is a suitable one for the preparation of new flower beds. In starting on this important work; the first essential is good lo May, 1912.] Orchard and Garden Notes. 327 drainage. The fertility of the soil depends so much on its ability to free itself of all surplus and unnecessary water, by being in a good mechanical condition. This is of far greater importance than increasing the value of the soil by the addition of organic manures. The latter is by no means to be despised, but a correct condition, with good drainage is the first necessity. The new beds should be well trenched into the clay, or the subsoil. It is not advocated that the trenching shaU be excessively deep. Much labour has been lost in the past by deep trenching, and no very definite results have been produced. The subsoil surface should be trenched so that the soil moisture may soak into it, and so that the plant roots may be able to penetrate into the subsoil. Then the surface soil and loam should be thoroughly cultivated and broken up. These remarks apply especially to the preparation of rose beds. If new ground is being broken up, the addition of from 4 to 5 cwt. of lime will be a distinct advantage. The lime should be well worked into the soil. The addition of stable manures to the soil may now be carried out. Too heavy dressings are not advised, as an accumulation of manure in the soil is likely to set up sour and unhealthy conditions. The manure should be thoroughly mixed with the soil. It is not too late to sow sweet pea seeds, but the best results come from early planting. The planting of these seeds .should not be delayed. Sweet pea results are generally poor if the plants are over-crowded. The individual plants should be given ample room, planting the seeds at least an inch apart. The training of the young plant is also an important matter. It .should not be allowed to trail or to lie on the ground. As soon as the tendrils appear on the young plants, they should be given support so that they may be encouraged in the climbing habit at once. A good sap flow is necessary to good growth, and the stem of the plant should be trained as upright as possible to allow of this. Stable manure is one of the most useful of plant foods for' sweet peas ; but if a chemical manure is needed, sulphate of potash in very small quantities may be used. It must be understood that this manure is used to produce good and free growth in the plant itself. If this be obtained, good flowers will naturally follow. Several inquiries ha\e been received regarding the condition of the sweet pea .seeds. Some of the varieties produce very inferior looking, spotted and wrinkled seeds. These are not to be discarded, as they will produce good and free flowering plants. At the end of the month a start may be made with the autumn digging, pruning, and clearing up. Manure may be dug into the beds, well below the surface. All leaves and light litter should also be dug in. If neces- sary, a light top-dressing of lime may be given after the digging has been completed. As much garden litter as can be saved should be rotted down for future use ; the rough litter and strong stems should be burned and the ashes returned to the soil. Flowering shrubs should be pruned only after the flowering season foi each plant has passed. Vegetable Garden. The remarks in the Flower Garden notes referring to preparation of new beds also apply to the kitchen section ; this being the time for good soil work. Only, where deep rooting vegetables are to be grown, such as carrots, and turnips, tlie soil and subsoil should be deeply worked so as to allow a ready root run for these vegetables. 3^8 Joifnial of Agriculture. Victoria. [lo May. 1912.. A dressing of lime will be of great value in every section of the kitchen garden. This will especially help to minimize future attacks of insect and fungus pests. AH asparagus plots should be cleaned out, cut down, and kept in good order. A light dressing of stable manure may be given to the beds. Plantings may be made of all seedlings, such as cabbage, cauliflower, lettuce, onions, &c. ; and seeds of carrot, leek, lettuce, onion, peas, radish, turnip, parsnip, broad beans, &c., may be sown. REIVIINDEHS fOH JUNE. LIVE STOCK. Horses. — Those stabled can be fed liberalh'. Those doing fast or heavy work should be clipped ; if not wholl}-, then trace high. Those not rugged on coming into the stable at night should be wiped down and in half-an-hour's time rugged or covered with bags until the coat is dry. Old horses and weaned foals should be given crushed oats. Grass- fed working horses should be given hay or straw, if there is no old grass, to counteract the purging effects of the young growth. Old and badly-conditioned horses should be given some boiled barley. CATTLE. — Cows, if not housed, should be rugged. Rugs should be removed in the daytime when the shade temperature reaches 60 degrees. Give a ration of hay or straw, whole or chaffed, to counteract the ]jurging effects of voung grass. Cows about to calve, if over fat, should be put into a paddock in which the feed is not too abundant. Calves should be kept in warm dry shed. Cows and heifers for early autumn calving may be put to the bull. Pigs. — Supply plenty of bedding in warm, well-ventilaicQ =tyes. Keep styes clean and dry. Store pigs should be placed in fattening styes. .^uu b w fine weather should be given a grass run. Young pigs over two mCAlt]!^ fid should be removed from lucerne run. Sheep. — Wherever j)Ossible, castrate all ram lambs intended for export soon after they are a few days old. Leave tailing till later. Ewes should have succulent fresh feed. Class out all inferior-fleeced and ill-shaped ewes; ear-mark and dispose of these. Lamb-raising flocks should be classed similarly to merino flocks. Apply early to breeders for rams required for ne.xt season. Poultry. — Forward pullets should now be placed in winter scratching shed, fed liberally, and given fresh water daily. Supplies of shell, grit, and charcoal should always be available. Rest the breeding pens; dig them up and sprinkle lime throughout. Sow a mixture of English grass and clover ; this not only removes taint in soil, but provides excellent green fodder for stock. Where possible, lucerne shou'd now be sown for summer feed. Meat (cooked) and maize are aids to egg Ijroduction during cold weather. Feed hot mash at daybreak. Clean drains. CULTIVATION. Farms. — Plough potato land. Land to be sown later on with potatoes, mangolds, maize, and millet should be manured and well worked. Sow malting barley and hnish sowing of cereals. Lift and store mango'ds, turnips, &c. Clean out drains and water furrows. Clean up and stack manure in heaps protected from the weather. Orchard. — Finish ploughing ; plant young trees ; sprav with red oil or petroleum for scales, mites, ai)his, &c. ; carry out drainage system: clean out drains; con- tinue pruning. \^EGETABLE CtARIjen. — Pre])are beds for crops; cultivate deeply; practise rotation in ])lanting out; renovate asparagus beds; plant out all seedlings; sow radish, pe-AS, broad beans, leeks, spinach, lettuce, carrot, &c. ; plant rhubarb. I' r.owER (tARDEx. — Continue digging and manurin;^^; dig all weeds and leafy growths ; plant out shrubs, roses, &c. ; pl.ant rose cuttings ; prune deciduous trees and shrubs ; sow sweet peas and plant out seedlings. Vineyard. — Thoroughly prepare for plantation land already subsoiled for the I)Urpose. Remember that the freer it is kept from weeds from this forward, the less trouble will there be from cut-worms neM spring. Pruning and ])loughing should be actively proceeded with. In northern districts plough to a depth of seven or e^ght inches. Manures should be applied as early as possible. Cellar. — Rack all wines which have not been previously dealt with. Fortify sweet wines to full stren-'th. ioMay, 1912.] Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. ROYAL MEDAL" MILKING MACHINES. COMPLETE INDEMNITY. Statements have been made that users of ^^ ROYAL MEDAL^^ Milking Machines infringe a certain patent. We are proceeding to force an action to be brought against ourselves to settle this matter, because we are determined to put an end to this sort of thing. We have pleasure in letting you know that we gladly undertake to defend and indemify everyone who uses "ROYAL MEDAL" Milking Machines against the consequence of any such legal action. " ROYAL MEDAL" MILKING MACHINES, 34 Queen Street, MELBOURNE. LONDON OFFICE: Caxton House, Westminster, S.W. JACK H. DAVIES, Managing Director. POST FREE BOOKLET COUPON. " Boyal Medal" Milking Machines, 34 Queen Street, Melhonrne. Please forward a copy of your Free Book. It is to be understood that I consider myself _ under no obligation. Name- Address ^^■■™"ii^^^""i^ J8. Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo May, 1912. TifniyeiiiniiffiiriiirimirrriTr"™^^^-^^'"'^ 'Phone 4881 Central. The Australasian Mutual Live Stock Insupanee Society m, ROYAL BANK CHAMBERS, 70 Elizabeth St., Melbourne. HON. AGAR WYNNE, M.P. BENRY GARDNER, Esq. CHAS. YEO, Esq., J.P. WALTER G. HISCOCK, A.C.P.A., Manager. FARMERS AND BREEDERS- Has this simple truth ever struck you? Ours are the world's minimum rates. Our terms and conditions are equal to the best obtainable. Every pound of our money is invested in Australia. We pay promptly. We pay in full. INSURE WITH THIS SOCIETY, AND RECOMMEND IT TO YOUR NEIGHBOURS. A GOOD AUSTRALtAN ' Why didn't x/ou put your penny in tht plate thi» morning f" ' Becavje it mai a foretgn mittion. and dada say* tl't not right to lend capital out 0/ the country." r For ROOFS of all descriptions USE '1^' RUBEROID ROOFING. For OUTSIDE PAINTING of barns, stables, fences, &c., USE INDELIBLE GOLD WATER PAINT. For INSIDE PLASTERED WALLS USE '1^' OALCIMO IN ALL COLOURS. These Goods are UNEQUALLED by any others, and are obtainable from all Storekeepers. -SOLE AGENTS- BROOKS. ROBINSON & Co. Ltd., Melbourne. lo May, 1912.] Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. xix Dairy Science. The last word. Scientific men in the dairy centres of Europe have given close attention to the question of feeding for milk and feeding for butter fat. It has been laid down by one of the leading German Scientists that where a large quantity of very watery food is used for some time, a poor, thin milk is obtained : and he particularly recommends, when a milk rich in fat is wanted, to use a cake made exactly from the same material as Sunlight Oil Cake : stating that, by the use of such a cake, an increase of butter fat in the milk has been observed. Further, where the butter is inclined to be soft when the animal is fed on certain foods. Sunlight Oil Cake substituted in the ration will make the butter firmer. Every animal will not show the same corresponding result with Sunlight Oil Cake, but Sunlight Oil Cake will produce the highest milk flow and butter fat from a good milker and will increase the average from a poor milker. Sunlight Oil Cake is the last word in Dairy Science. For Post Free Book— 'MILK FLOW AND BUTTER FAT increased by Scientific Feeding," By H. M. SOMER, Royal Agricultural Society, Write to Lever Brotliers Limited (Dairy Department) Sydney. Guaranteed Pure. 5UNLIQHT Oil CAKE- See that tlie name "Sunliglit" is branded on every calce. XX Journal of A gri culture, Victoria. [lo May, 1912. Britain's BEST Oil Engine THE HORNSBY. The recognized essentials of Oil Engine Superiority are.... DESIGN QUALITY SIMPLICITY ECONOMY THESE the HORNSBY possesses, proved by the Fact Made in Two Types-Stationary and Portable. ^^^'^ '^ ^^^ Won all the Largest Prizes ever offered. WHY THE . . . HORNSBY 9 BINDERS It has the Best and Lowest Cutting Finger Bar. It is Lightest in Draught. It has Simplest Meclianism. It is Sirongest, Most Durable, and Most Reliable. "Hornsby " Mowers are Unequalled for CLEAN CUTTING. ^~^' '^ ^ -— ' ■-*■"-" ^'-^-- "'^'-' Hornsby Petrol Engines, Gas Engines and Suction Gas Plants are unequalled. R. HORNSBY & SONS LTD., MELBOURNE. SYDNEY. BRISBANE. No Smoke, No Smell. 100 Candle Power. INVERTED SPIRIT Viking Lamps For Shops, Butter Factories, Verandahs, &c. BENGALIA Spirit Burners For Table Lamps, 17/6 each. EROS Gas Burners Si Mantles. Sole Agents : Allen, Ferpsson & Seiell 508 COLLINS=ST., MELBOURNE. I lo May, 1912.] Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. xjci riRTlOflflli THUSTEES Z Executors & Agency Company Australasia, Ltd. . , . DIRECTORS : HON. WALTER MADDEN, Chairman and Managing Director. EDWARD FITZGERALD, Esq., L.L.D. MICHAEL MORNANE, Esd. HON. DUNCAN E. McBRYDE, M.L.C. HENRY MADDEN, E8 Three-fifths of Valuation), In sums from ^62,000 to ^25,000. Interest at 4h per cent. For 3 or 5 years, with option of paying ofi" part on any half-yearly pay-day. ON FARMS (CREDIT FONCIER) (Up to Two-thirds of Valuation), In sums from 5650 to 062,000. Interest at 4^ per cent. Loans Repayable by Instalments spread over 3H years, or may be paid off on any half-yearly payday, subject to a small charge if paid off during the first five years, but no penalty after five years. ADDRESS Inspector-General of Savings Banks^ 29 MARKET STREET, MELBOURNE. TREWHELLA ::= ' GRUBBING JACKS. Quick. Powerful. Simple. Mr. Chas. Hamilton, Molesworth, Vic, says:— "I would not be without one of these Jacks on the farm." Mr. O. C. R. Brown, Timber Merchant, Prances, S.A. :— "Have been using Trewhella Wallaby Jacks now nearly six years, and as long as I have anything to lift will never be without one." Write for Illustrated Catalogue to— TREWHELLA BROS., ENGINEERS, TRENTHAM, VICTORIA. Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo May, 1912. r DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, VICTORIA. JBupnley Jfortieultural School. E. E. I=E3COTT IPitiisrcn^-A-X., ANNOUNCEMENT. The curriculum and management of the Burnley Horticultural School have now been arranged so that greater advantages and facilities will be given to students of both sexes in Horticulture and allied subjects. The present course of Horticulture for male students includes a two years' course, students being charged a fee of £5 per annum. Classes have been formed at Burnley, whereby students of both sexes may receive instruction on two afternoons of each week — Tuesdays and Fridaj'S. Instruction includes theoretical and practical work, and will commence at 2 p.m. This will be a two years' course, and the fee chai-ged will be £2 per annum. It has also been arranged that several short lecture courses shall be given on subjects which are suitable adjuncts to Hoi'ticulture, such as Poultry Farming, Bee-keeping, and Fruit Preserving, and these courses will be open and free to the general public. The subjects and dates of the Short Course Lectures will be announced monthl}' in this Journal. STUDENTS SHOULD ENROLL WITHOUT DELAY, Application for admission should be made to The Director of Agriculture, Public Offices, Melbourne, OR. TO THE i=e,iitci:p.a.Xj. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, VICTORIA. RED POLL DAIRY HERD YOUNG BULLS FOR SALE TO VICTORIAN DAIRYMEN. DAM. Date of Birth. RECORD OF DAM. PRICE. Milk. Butter Fat. £ s. d. Pennsylvania Muria Aug. 12th, 1911 ,, 14th ,, 462 galls. 549 ,, 190 lbs. 240 ,, 9 9 0 12 0 0 Carolina ,, 16th ,, 570 ,, 253 ,, 12 12 0 Cuba ... ,, 25th ,, 526 „ 232 „ 11 11 0 Virginia Havana Sep. 1st ,, ,, 6th 636 „ 575 ,, 254 ,, 230 ,, 12 12 0 11 11 0 Manila Dec. 9 til 1st calf no record 3 3 0 Sire : TABAOUM," by 'ACTON AJAX" (imp. ) The prices are based approximately on the actual milk and butter fat record of the dam at the rate of Is. per lb. of butter fat yielded. {See Journal of Agricidture, November, 1911). Inspection by arrangement with Mr. E. STEER, Dairy Overseer, Boisdale, Gippsland. Application for purchase to DIRECTOR OF AGRICULTURE, MELBOURNE. lo May, 1912.] Journal of Agrfculture, Victoria. "VICTOR" RED OIL A CERTAI REMEDY FOR GUARANTEED PURE. ONLY ONE QUALITY. K PEACH APHIS, WOOLLY APHIS, SCALE, & RED SPIDER. Never Beaten for STRENGTH, QUALITY, or EFFICACY. SPRAY before Pruning if possible. Price, in 42-gal. Barrels, Is. lOd. per gal. "CARLTON" ARSENATE OF LEAD Grows more popular every year. Use onlj^ 4-lbs. to 100-gals. of water. Guaranteed 17% Arsenic Oxide, and very Finely Ground ; Therefore— SUSPENDS, STICKS, AND SUCCEEDS. "NEW CHAMPION" Power Sprayer SPECIAL FEATURES- " BOSCH" High Tension Magneto. "FRIEND" Nozzles, Double Pump, with (Renewable Plungers. Machine Cut Gears. Strong Transport, Light and Low Down. FD IVyiCI I ^D 440 ELIZABETH STREET, . n. lYIQLi^Vi^n, MELBOURNE. JARRAH. When you contemplate erecting fencing, buildings, dairies, woolsheds, &c., be sure you get the best of hardwoods. 1*^ JARRAH resists white ants, dry rot, &c. Write to T MILLAR'S KARRI & JARRAH CO. mmi QUEEN'S BRIDGE, MELBOURNE. ^DYAN, GOULDING, & 00."^ ^^\ (JOHN F. GOULDING). ' * WHOLESALE GRAIN & PRODUCE COMiVilSSIQN AGENTS & GENERAL BROKERS, 546-552 COLLINS STREET WEST (Near King-st.) FARMERS • Before Selling your Grain, Hay, Potatoes, Onions, consult or write us. It will pay you. CONSIGNMENTS Received and Sold Daily ex Rail or Wharf. Storage arranged on Liberal Terms and Advances made. All kinds of Seed Grain for Sale. Prompt Account Sales. Oats Specialists. New & Second-hand Bags for Sale at Lowest Rates. . When in the CITY Call In. — Short distance from Spencer-st. RIy. Station. . XXIV Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo May, 1912. "WATERLOO BOY" 4 h.p. PORTABLE OIL ENGINE. ABSOLUTELY THE SIMPLEST AND CHEAPEST EFFICIENT ENGINE IN THE WORLD. USES BENZINE OR KEROSENE. IGNITIONi — Is make and break style, charge tired by electric spark. Igniter, which in other Engines is difficult to get at, in the "Waterloo" can be completely removed by loosening two cap screws Both Magneto and Battery Ignition,— a very useful arrangement, as \vork ' can never be stopped. 3PEED LEVERi — Acts same as throttle of a steam engine. You can speed up or down, or stop altogether with it. Makes the Engine easy to start, prevents "kicking back," and saves fuel. IVIIXERi — Is a great idea, patented because it is worth patenting. Has an adjustable mixing cup that can, by a winged nut, be slipped up or down to give more or less air. No valve springs or pump to get out of order ; makes Engine easy to start; aids the governor and speed lever in getting more power out of the fuel. GOVERNOR^ — Centrifugal type, sure and sensitive. Allows a charge in the cylinder only when the work requires it. PUELi —Works on either benzine or kerosene, but benzine is better, as it is not so dirty. The speed-saving devices, Speed Lever, Patent Mixer, and Governor make tlie "Waterloo" consume the least fuel. Compare it for simplicity, fuel cost, and power with other engines, and you will send your order to us. HOPPER COOLEDi — That is, there are no Tank, Pipes, and Pump to cool the cylinder. Makes the Engine easy to move about ; less space, less weight, and no water pump troubles, as there is no Pump. Also lessens the fuel bill. TRANSPORT^ — is a very strong one. Through axles in both front and rear wheels. Turntable on front axle is simple and strong. |jgg~ SEND FOR CATALOGUES OF OUR OTHER FARM REQUISITES. MITCHELL & COMPANY PTY. LTD. FACTORY &. office: WEST FOOTSCRAY, MELBOURNE. SHOW ROOM 596 BOURKE ST., MELBOURNE. J^GfrigeFafing ^ ^ and IcG JVCakiixg JVCaehinery ^ ^ C$9 Made by HUMBLE & SONS, Geelongf, Victoria. Specially suitable for Butclicrs, Breweries, Squatters, Butter, Bacon, and Ice Factories, and all classes of Cold Storage, &c. The ^lachines can be supplied from 3 cwt. capacity upwards, and either belt-driven or fitted with En^^iiie A large number of these Machines are working in the Australian States, New Zealand, and South Africa, and aie giving universal satisfaction. All classes of Refrigeration work undertaken, including -coils. One of these Machines is installed at the Dookie Agricultural College. " Ferrier's " Woolpresses and Rabbit Poison Distributors, Epgines, Boilers, Horseworks, &c. Full Papticulaps on Application to— Httmble and Sons, General Eng'ineers, VULCAN FOUNDRY, GEE LONG. TO SUNNY QUEENSLAND HOWARD SMITH LINE OF MODERN STEAMSHIPS n I Hl^i" ^^^p, ^^9 %H^., I'm HINCHINBROOK PASSAGE, NEAR CARDWELL. Tliu .Scenes of lieauty reveriled ou the tri]) between To\vns\ille and Cairns— first Jlaynetii' Islaiiil, Palm Island, <&c., then the world-famed Hinchinbrook Channel, &c.— have to be seen to be appreciated, and those in the Southern ports who have not ha I the ffood fortune to make the trip, cannot realize the mag-nificenc e and splendoiu- of the scenery in North Queensland. The islands, clad with verdiu-e, ever-ureen and pleasing- to the eye, present a picture of beauty which to recall to mind is alwai s a pleasure. We arrive at Cairns on a Saturday, and decide to go on to tl e Barron Falls. The Railway from Cairns has been re-constructed, and one of the prettiest train rides through trojiical scenery is to be had on the tri]> to the Falls. As the f.are is very reasonable, no one .should miss the trip. The Barron Falls in flood has been described ty writers as amongst the grandest siglits in the World. S.S. "COOWIA," 4,000 TONS. A Short Description oi the Trip to CAIRNS. Leaving Melbourne on a Wednesday, we conuiience- a delightful tom% which invariably leaves plea.sant re- collections. After an enjoyable trip to S_\eed of 1.5 knots. Each State Room has an electric fan. and the ]iromenade deck, comliined with all the other modern appointments, provides one mth every comfort. The excellent cuisine of the Steamer from Meiliourne to Townsville is equalled on the " Mourilyan." The Artist, Tovuist, Health or Pleasure Seeker should not hesitate to take the trip to Cairns, for it has been truly said that North Queensland is the wonderland of Australasia. The trip is highly recommended by medical men from a health point of view. Excellent acconuuodation. can be oljtained at Cairns and Kuranda, near the falls. FARES To 1st Class. 2iid Class Single. 3rd Class CAIRNS From Singlfe. Return. Single. Melbourne II II 0 19 8 6 8 8 0 6 1 0 SPECIALLY MENTION THIS JOURNAL WHEN WRITING FOR LEAFLETS, ETC. Howard Sraitk CO. LTD., 35 MARKET-ST., MELBOURNE. BRANCHES ALL PORTS. S.S. BOMBALA," 4,000 TONS. Vol. X. WHEAT AND ITS CULTIVATION. Parte. " [He-.istered at the General Post Office, Melbourne, for transmission by I'ost as a Newspaper.] A V \ A PROLIFIC V F. BRUNNING PTY. LTD. GRASSES AND CLOVERS, RYE GRASS, COCKSFOOT, PRAIRIE, PHALARIS, DWARF ESSEX RAPE, PASPALUM, TIMOTHY, RIB GRASS, WHITE CLOVER, ALSIKE, COWGRASS, TREFOIL, BURR CLOVER, CRIMSON CLOVER, SUCKLING CLOVER, FESCUES, ETC. Samples and Prices of All Agricultural Seeds. Post Free. SEED & BULB MANUAL FOR 1912 Containing over 130 pp. of useful and instructive information. ■ — -JUST PUBLISHED. POST FREE ON APPLICATION TO THE BULB DEPARTMENT. SPRAY PUMPS. LEAD ARSENATE. SECATEURS. FRUIT TREE NETS. MANILLA TAGS. BIRD SCARERS. PLANET JR. DRILLS. AERATORS. CAHOON SOWERS. NIKOTEEN. FRENCH PROVENCE LUCERNE. Guaranteed dodder free by the French Government. Special Prime Seed. PRICE ON APPLICATION. INCOMPARABLE CORN SHELLER. Single Hole, £5. Double Hole, £9 1 ( HUNTER RIVER LUCERNE. Special True Seed. Not mixed with Cheap Seed. PRICE ON APPLICATION. PLANET JR. IMPLEMENT. (Write for Catalogue). 64 ELIZABETH-ST., MELBOURNE THE JOIJR]ST^\L OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, 'VICTOE.I.A., -A.XJSTE,A.LI^^. CONTENTS.— JUNE, 1912. PAGE. Wheat and its Cultivation... ... A. E. V. Rirhardson, M.A., B.Sc. {Agric.) .329 Yield of Reconstituted Vineyard, Rutherglen ... ... G. H, Adcoclc 3.S9 Propagation of Fruit Trees ... ... ... ... C. F. Cole .344 Water Requirements of Crops ... ... /. W. Pati-rmn, B.Sr., Ph.D. 349 Dairy Cow Test, Bunyip ... ... ... ... ... B. A. liarr 354 Bee-keeping in Victoria ... ... ... ... ... F. R. Bcuhne .355 Oeneral Notes ... ... ... ... ... ... . 35y "Weeds — Naturalized Aliens and Poison Plants of Victoria A. J. Eirart, D.Sc, Ph.D. S-IO Mint Cultivation ... ... ... .. ... ... J. Knight .361 Fumigation for the Destruction of Scale Insects ... ... A. A. Hcimmond 366 Review of Dairying Season ... ... ... ... i>^ Crave .375 Second Victorian Egg-laying Competition ... .,.• ... ... ^^o Statistics ... ... ... ... ... ... .3gg Wheat Harvest, Victoria ... ... ... ,.. .3g'7 Orchard and Garden Notes ... ... ... ... E. E. Pe^cott 387 Answers to Correspondents ... ... ... ... ._. •^oq Reminders for July ... ... ... ... .^. ^ ono COPYRIGHT PROVISIONS AND SUBSCRIPTION RATES. Tlie Articles in the .Jouriuil of the Department of Agriculture of Victoria are pi-otected by the provisions of the Copyright Act. Proprietors of newspapers wishing to lepublisli any matter are at liljerty to do so, procided the Journal and author are both arknou-led;/ed. Tiie Journal is issued monthly. The subscription, which is {)ayable in advance and includes postage, is 3s. per annum for the Commonwealth and New Zealand, and 5s. for the United Kingdom and Foreign Countries, Single copy, Threepence. Subscriptions should be forwarded to the Director of Agriculture, Melbourne. A complete list of the various publications issued by the Department of Acrrieultiii-e ^will ])e supplied by the latter. - journal of Agriculture , Victoria. [lo June, 191^. ^ A silent worker day & night No expense for power. Plenty of Water for Household & Stock* The "BILLABONQ" Mill is powerful and easy running. It \\-oiks in a remarkably light breeze, and maintains an even and well- governed motion in strong winds and gusts. A most reliable mill for supplying water for Household, Farm and Stock use. Costs you nothing for power, and except an occasional oiling needs no attention. This Mill is manufactured l)y us at our Melbourne Works. We hold Patent Rights. Send for Booklet. Stock Water Troughs. In " BILLABONQ " Troughing you have the latest. It is protected by recent patent rights, and has many advantages. Two are : — The corrugated or look joint at each end of sections, renders them im})Ossible of being pulled apart. The Trough is supported underneath by the semi-circular bed each standard provides. Body is of Galvanized Iron. Structure of Angle Steel. Send for Price List. Tools for the Farmer^ Carpenter & Engineer* In our vast assortment of modern tools and appliances there are, no dou])t, many labor- saving devices you re- quire. Send for our priced and illustrated Tool Catalogue now, and thus get in touch with our goods and their very moderate prices. & SON PROPTY. %^ M %■ li a ^'^h:^ LIMITED, 391-399 BOURKE STREET, MELBOURNE. J lo June, 1912.] Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. ui BARTRA CONSTELLAT Just as the Southern Cross is inseparably associated with Australia, so is the name "BARTRAM" closely allied with the dairying industry of Victoria. The introduction of improved methods, and the adoption of the most up-to date labor-saving machinery, has enabled those engaged in dairying pursuits to get out of their cows the maximum return at the least cost. The five "STARS" that have so materially helped to guide hundreds of dairy farmers to fortune and success, are :— ' "ALFA-LAVAL" CREAM SEPARATORS "LK-G." (( }) "FELIX" PETROL MOTORS IRRIGATION OUTFITS "ALFA" STEEL WINDMILLS In buying the above lines you run no risk whatever. Years of everyday use on liiuulrcds of farms in Victoria alone have demon- strated beyond doubt that they are as represented in our catalogues, and are easily the best manufactured. They carry our guarantee of efficiency and long service, and behind the guarantee is a reputa- tion of 40 years of unequalled service to Victorian dairymen. Write for our Illustrated Catalogue. It is Free, and gives much valuable advice. When in town come and see us. Our expert linowledge is fully and freely at your service. We give liberal terms and accept easy payments. J. BARTRAIVl h SON PTY. LTD., 19-23 KING ST., MELBOURNE. Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo June, 1912. ^ "* \' ' ' » '•* -^ > This is the Quick l^f^-l-'i^UJ^-KnggjrM and Easy Way ! Oiice get an Earth Scoop on the job making Irrigation Channels, Drains, and Dams, and you'll wonder how ever you did without it. No laborious pick and shovel wcrk. This Scoop of ours cuts its way quickly and cleanly. It enters Ploughed or Virgin Soil readily, and is extremely light on the horse. The body of the Scoop is pressed cold from a solid plate of hardened steel, which is the right way; hot pressed Scoops soon show their weakness, especially at the corners. This Scoop has steel runners and detachable handles. No. Capacity. Weiulit. Price. 0 10 cub. ft. 133 lb. 80/- 1 7 „ 105 lb. 37/6 2 5 „ 95 lb. 35/- 3 2 „ 80 lb. 32/6 IF WE KNEW YOUR ADDRESS We'd send a copy of our Book of Tools Post Free. It illustrates over 2,000 up-to-date Appliances at Money Saving Prices. ^Phcrso^ Machinery Merchants, 554=66 & 582=88 Conins=st., Melbourne. lo June, 1912.] Journal of Agriculture , Victoria. r" IT WILL PAY YOU - TO LEARN MODERN METHODS IN AGRICULTURE LIVE STOCK & FRUIT GROWING FOR PROFIT. STOTT'S CORRESPONDENCE COLLEGE can teach you AT YOUR OWN HOME how to MAKE MOKIC MOXEV b\- the employment of up-to-date methods. We teach all branches of Agriculture and Live Stock Hustoandry, including Drainage, Irrigation, Dairying and Practical Orchard Management. We also give instruction in the following subjects : — Electrical Engineering Steam Engineering Shire Engineering Mining Engineering Surveying Mechanical Drawing Architectural Drawing Building Construction and Estimating Timber Measurements Bookkeeping Arithmetic Shorthand Mathematics Accountancy Languages Commercial Law Drawing English Illustrating WE PREPARE CANDIDATES FOR ALL PUBLIC EXAMINATIONS. The instruction goes RIGHT TO YOUR HOME, no matter where you live. It is clear, concise, easily understood, and practical. Every student is handled privately and separately and receives individual attention according to his particular requirements. Our instructors are men of sound technical knowledge, combined with years of practical experience, and they are at the service of every student, to guide him with their valuable advice. Only spare time study is required, and our fees are exceedingly moderate and within the reach of everybody. We invite you to write at once for a free copy of our Handbook D. It explains our system and shows how we can teach any man who is willing to be taught and anxious to increase his earning power. It costs nothing to inquire. Don't put it off. Write tO-day. STOTT'S CORRESPONDENCE COLLEGE 54 MARKET STREET, MELBOURNE. t*«is?™!!!«' "TIP-TOP" SEE ■■&: Co.'s^ ESTABLISHED 62 YEARS. THREE VALUABLE GRASSES, PASPALUM DILATATUM OR GOLDEN CROWN GRASS. A valuable forajje grass for all kinds of stock. With- stands drought, and frost-will not kill it; particularly suitable for dairy cattle as it will stand any amount of grazing, and trampling of stock does not injure it. Makes a very etticierit tire-break when planted in strips throughout natural pastures, as it remains luxuriantly green when the surroundings are in a dry, parched, and itiHainmable condition. Sow 6 lbs. per "acre. First quality heavy hand-shaken seed, 1,6 per lb. PHALARIS COMMUTATA The King- of all Winter Grasses. Grows between 6 and 7 feet high. Resists frosts and droughts. This marvellous grass has been known to grow quite an inch a day on poor ground. Recom- mended to graziers and dairymen, as it remain.^ par- ticularly luxuriant in winter, and behaves remarkably well during the hot, dry months. It seems to like all kinds of weather. Sow .2 lbs. per acre in drills ; or 4 lbs. broadcast. 7/6 per lb. TIMOTHY GRASS. This well-known variety adapts itself to almost any soil. It is a capital grazing grass, and produces ex- cellent haj'. It is of strong growth and 3 ields abundant feed. Quantity required to sow an acre, 30 lbs. Price, 1/3 per lb. WRITE FOR OUR NEW FARMERS PRICE LIST. Si^NT POST FREE- Law, Somner, & Co.'s "TIP-TOP" Seeds, 139-141 SWANSTON-ST., MELBOURNE. Phone, Central 729. vi Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo June, 1912. "AUSTRAL" MILKING MACHINES. FIVE YEARS OF UNBROKEN SUCCESS Have established the AUSTRAL as the Premier MilkingT Machine, and have demonstrated that it does not belong to that class of appliances whose efficiency terminates after a few months of use. It has stood the t«at of time, and that under all sorts of conditions. IT IS SIMPLE, Complexity and intricacy are the bane of milking machinery. Both in principle and construction the Austral is strikingly simple. Minute pulsating mechanism on teat cups or buckets has been entirely dispensed with, its place being taken by a single pulsating pump, simple and strong in construction, which serves for the whole outfit, whether two cows or ten are to be milked at a time. The pulsating pump is placed in the engine room, remote from the cows. IT IS AN EASY MILKER. Fear of injury to cows was at one time the bogie of machine milking. The Austral has done away with all that. Its action on the cow is as gentle as that of the softest hand, and much easier than the average hired help. After three and four years' milking M-ith the machines, coms are funnd to be as sound in the quarters as when they started. Enquiry from any Austral user will confirm the correct- ness of this statement. IT IS THE LAST WORD IN ECQNOIVIICAL DAIRYING. The working parts are so few and the construction so simple and solid, that wear and tear, and consequently the cost of upkeep, are reduced to a minimum. An outstanding feature of the Austral is the Tank System, whereby the milk is conducted direct from cow to separator without any handling whatever. With this system, so great a saving is effected in time, labour, and trouble, that in ordinary circumstances its advantages are overwheln in^. A single bucket can be supplied for testing individual cows; or where spec al requirements render it pre- ferable, complete bucket plants can be installed. GLOBE CREAM SEPARATORS. , CROSSLEY OIL ENGINES. Embodies the famous Link-Blude Bowl I The world's standard Oil Engine. In all Structure. Official tests conducted by the [ sizes and for all descriptions of farm work. Swedish Government at Alnarp placed the 'f "Globe" in the very forefront for clean k VACCAR PETROL ENGINES. skimming and easy running, against all competitors British built. Low running speed. All sizes from 14 to 200 gallons. Economical on fuel. WINDMILLS, SAW-BENCHES, CHAFF-CUTTERS, and all Farrn and Dairy Machinery. When writing, please mention this Journal. W. H. BLflCKHflni: 59-Gl KING ST., MELBOURNE. i-o June, 191 ^-J Journal flf Agriculture , Vic/or/a. Herd of Prize Winnings and Heavy Milk ^ and Butter Pro- ducing Strains* YOUNG BULLS AND HEIFERS FOR SALE. "MYSTERY VI. OF MELROSE." INSPECT/ON BY APPOINTMENT. mmm wooDiwflsoii, """"'^" Dairy, MALVERN, MELBOURNE, Vic. VIU Journal of Agricidtiirc , Victoria. [to June, 1912. R. CLOSER SETTLEMENT LAND, Li>,t showiiio- nuinltei- of allotments on the various Estates availaljle for application : — Estate. lCovu<;a Swan Hill Cohuna Sheppavto Nanneellu Bamawiu Ton.i;ala Irrigation Areas. Area. 0 20 3S 107 40S •2,084 1-2 2,020 2,834 3,104 Dairying" and Mixed Farming-. liona Vista I )«•))( li'iie Eunieralla Allaiiibee . Morveii Werribee Keiiilwoitl Jlooralla Cremona Nuniurkah ^Vyu^la Diuirobin 4 3 8 10 13 1 1 totallin" 3S9 a- 811 3,075 1,578 4,40-2 4,121 601 1 624 61-2 234 102 2SJ Wheat Growing-. Estate. Area. Cornelia Creek Oaklands Hurst wood . . Mt. Widderin Nerrin Nerrin Pan n 00 JIarathon &\\'inow Grove 10 15 totalling 2,384 a( :es G 4,140 6 3,014 10 5,522 17 3,736 24 8,562 10 8,508 . Beet Growing- and Dairying-. 5 totalli 41 Clerks' Homes. Boisdale Kilnianv Park 5 totallin"- 256 arres 41 ,, ' 3,994 ,, . Tooroiua .. •• .. 36 allotments. Workmen's Homes. Pender's Grove .. .. .. 118 allotments. Allotments on these estates are sold under Conditional Purchase leasehold terms, extending- over 3U years, with payments at the rate of 6 per cent. ]ier annum. Advances of money can be obtained up to 60 per cent, of the value of l»-'rmanent improvements effected, repajiuents extending- over fifteen years bearing- 5 per cent, interest. Forfii/I information and fernis apply to THE SECRETARY, LANDS PURCHASE AND MANAGEMENT BOARD, MELBOURNE. AUSTRALIA'S WACON ;i.^'/S' PATENT STEEL WHEELS. Patent Felloes. Renewable Carron Boxes and Oil Caps. The only Steel Wheel that has stood the Test. Beware of Imitations. A. MAY, Esq., Meningie, South Australia, says:— Dear Sir,— I have received Spring Wagon. I am well pleased with same. I never thought it would run so well, and I think those who have Steel Wheels will never use the old style again. Two horses carried my first load of two tons of potatoes over a bad road of 30 miles, where the old style of wagon was bog:ged, and is still there. ^ August, 1903. ALBERT MAY, Esq., Meningie, S.A., says:— Dear Sir,— In answer to your letter wanting to know how the wheels of my wagon are, T am pleased to tell you I have had the wagon aboiit 6A years, and it has not cost me a shilling ; the wheels are like new, and I have done a lot of heavy carting. Onlj'being a 2-ton Wagon, I lent it to a man carting wheat, and he had some very rough roads, loads being about 50 bags. Your Wagons are worth their money, and I would not be witbMit one of them. I think this Wagon will last my life time. 40" and 36' Wheels. August 13th, 1010. iJiF" TABLE TOP— Truck body, and all classes of little Wagons for Farm and Station work. WRITE FOR CATALOG TO-DAY. Rl I Ull f^VADr^ QUEENS BRIDGE-ST., . U. 1-. niL-L^ T MnU', SOUTH MELBOURNE, V. Si lo June, 191 2.] Journal of Agriculture , Victoria. LIGHT, STBONS, PERFECTLY RIGID. c^tmJ', (r^/Qvj "CYCLONE" WOVEN GATE Q ft. -to 10 ft. Will hold anything, and can be made rabbit proof by putting rabbit proof intersection at the bottom. The wider gates have three stays. Cet our Catalogue of this and many other Cyclone Gates. " THEY'RE ALL GOOD." CYCLONE FENCE & GATE CO., B 459 SWANSTON ST., CORNER franklin ST., MELBOURNE. ^ KEMP'S PATENT SHEEP-BRANDING LIQUID AS USED BY LEADING PASTORALISTS OF AUSTRALIA. IN THREE COLOURS, BLACK, RED & BLUE. Sold in 8 gallon cases, 4 6 gallon. 1 gallon tins, 5- each. -AGENTS FOR VICTORIA AND RIVERINA- V DALGETY*°° LTD., ELBOURNE, Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo June, 191. "GLEN ELGIN'S PHILANTHROPIST" 299 A.H.B. of Aus. (^(^ Winner of Champion, Sydney Royal Show, 1909, 1910, 1911, 1912. Reserve Champion, Melbourne Royal Show, 1907, 1908, 1911. Also Winner of Bull and Progeny Prize of £10 for 5 females (the progeny of any one bull) producing the largest amount of commercial butter in 24 hours, Sydney Royal Show, 1912. Also holds the record of 150 Firsts, Cham])ions, Specials, and Gold Medals for Ayrshire and Daily Bull. The "Glengapnoek" Stud of Pium — ^ Aypshipe Cattle Has won innumerable prizes in the ring. The females in this herd are noted for deep and heavy milking and test well above the average, and are kind and quiet. CHOICE YOUNG HERDBOOK BULLS FOR SALE at from 5 to 25 guineas each. From Best Cows only, by Pure Herdbook Bulls. Full pedigrees and particulars, witn photographs of animal for sale, his sire and dam, will be forwarded on application. INSPECTION CORDIALLY INVITED. VISITORS MET AT LANG LANG RAILWAY STATION. Address- h T ODirOTI HV ♦ ;°f\- V'CLENGARNOCK," TelegSjYANNATHAN, Vic. op^ A. T. PRIESTLEY, t I o June, 1912.] Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. Gargoyle Prepared Red Sppaying Oil Needs no Soft Soap o? other ing-redient. Requires only Clean Soft Water. Vacuum Gargoyle Red Spray Oil now obtainable in prepared form is the same Oil as that originally introduced to Australia for fruit- tree spraying. Full particulars — Horticultural Department, Vacuum Oil Co. Pty. Ltd., 90 William Street, Melbourne. Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo June, 1912-. BEET & DAIRY FARMING THE IDEAL CLOSER SETTLEMENT COMBINATION. THE RICH BOISDALE ESTATE D THE FAR-FAMED^ KILMANY PARK. Both of these Estates have been specially selected, purchased, and subdivided for Beet Growing and Dairying combined, and to afford opportunity to THRIFTY, EXPERIENOEO MEN WITH SMALL CAPITAL to make a comfortable living while acquiring the freehold of the land. -1 l> For the possibilities and practical results read the article on "THE BEET IDSriDTJSTI?,"^^," in the March, 19 12, issue of The Journal of Agriculture of Victoria. I': 10 June, 1912.] Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. BOISDALE ESTATE Subdivided into 57 blocks, and already settled with the exception of Six Blocks of from 40 to 60 acres, to carry 10 acres of Beet annually. Price, £25 10s. to £27 10s. per acre. KILMANY PARK Now open for Application, Subdivided into 42 farm blocks from 56 to 195 acres, to carry 10 acres of Beet annually. Price, from £7 lOs. to £22 lOs. per acre. 14 Workmen's blocks from 20 to 46 acres, to carry 4 acres of Beet annually. Price, from £23 tO £25 per acre. For particulars and conditions of purchase and as to blocks available, apply to the Secretary, Closer Settlement Board, Melbourne. For information concerning the financial aid given to suitable Settlers to stock the farms, apply to The Director of Agriculture, Melbourne. 1^ TREES THAT CROW I^TREES THAT C. J. GOODMAN, Nurseryman, Picnic Point Nurseries, Bairnsdale, Victoria, Has for Sale one of the Largest and Most Varied Stoi'ks of Fruit Trees in Australia. All the Nurseries are under Government supervision, and every Tree sent to Planters is Clean, Healthy, Well-Cxrown and Shaped and True to Name. Nearly all Trees worked from Trees proved to be Good Bearers. Write for Catalogue. Post Free. JijKnial of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo June, 19 12. r THE STANDARD FOR FENCING. CC EPTUNE" UNRIVALLED PATENT STEEL FENCING WIRE. 5 0 % SAVED in your Wire Account, and then you have £9 8s. 6d. saved on 3 miles 6 Wire Fence ^ ^ by using "NEPTUNE," ■y as against Ordinary Wire. THE BEST POSSIBLE FENCE, [ MORRIS & MEEKS, agents, MELBOURNE. V ^ You cannot do better than purchase your requirements from THE VICTORIA VARNISH Coy. ^7- Who are Importers and Manufacturers of the undermentioned, namely : — Varnishes for all uses, Paints, Dry Colors, Stainer's Turpentine, Boiled and Raw Linseed Oil, Resin, Shellac, White Lead, &c. OUR MANUFACTURE IS OF ONE QUALITY— THE BEST. Note tbe Address— The VICTORIA VARNISH COY. Proprietary Ltd., Queen's Bridge, South Melb. Tel. Central 614-. Established 1853. A. J. BORTHWICK, WJANAGtR riBiu. BONEDUST, SUPERPHOSPHATE, AND OTHER HIGH-GRADE FERTILIZERS DELIVERED AT RAILWAY STATION, FOOTSCRAY, OR ON WHARF, MELBOURNE. Office :— 407 POST OFFICE PLACE, MELBOURNE. BONES BOUGHT. CONSIGN TO ME, FOOTSCRAY. Telephone 2098. lo June, 191 2.] Journal of Agriculture , Victoria. 5i ^ S s ^ •^ «s» ^ ^ «s 1 ^ 8 Ji 'o -0 '-K ^ <^- <5 ' fNi I^ 5. ^ ■Vi CQ c-» -^ S "^ ^^ - « ^ !s C) ^ ^ y> ? <^ .1" ^ '^ ^■1 1 -^ "o « So ■0 '^ ^i w ^ '■0 ^ OT bo c T3 3 W G fl) 1- (/) .rt D Uh 3 >_ n (U >^ J-^ 4-> '-♦— « 0 •-^ Ui c 0 0 T3 u m t! ^ a b/D c 3 ^^^ CJ u QJ dJ c/) J-, 1) ,_^ rH ^ >> n" CO «c LU C3 CO QC LU OS ■y C3 K- c:> *■ ^ 0 LU J5 1^ ^~ 0 CO CD C3 E H- -0 0 cd -c >* ^" ^^^ fVj cd CO 0 > '^ s fica cc t/3 a ? o K ^ O >- .2 s c a. s :: n o — « o E . B -a < CO >- CO _o "i EE QC o 9^ UJ 3= . c ^^ a a cS •a fi a> 0 ■a b ea A tn a en a> £> J3 0 tA N>xV-.W//i FWVWvVVN t/2 5 CQ ^ t/5 e< H 33 0 w -t 6/3 ^ ■-J zj Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo June, 1912. piston s Patent Windmills ■AT THE ROYAL SHOW.- At the recent Iloyal Show a fine collection of Windmills was exhibited by James Alston, of Queen's Bridge, Melbourne. Mills of all diameters, from 6 ft. to 25 ft. were shown at work, suitable to all requirements of farmers or stock raisers, the small Mills being suitable for lifting modei-ate supplies from shallow wells, while the larger sizes are capable of dealing with almost any depths. A splendid Mill, 25 feet diameter on a 50ft. Steel Tower, working an 18" pump, and throwing a stream of water of about 15,000 gallons per hour, attracted much attention. This, we believe, is the largest Mill ever shown on the Show Ground. Alston's Patent Steel Windmills have all the most up-to-date improve- ments in their construction. Pumps of many descriptions were shown, including the latest Draw Plunger Pumps for bore use, which admits of the plunger being drawn without disturbing the pipes in the bore. THe JOURNAI9 OF Yfie ©eparfment of Mi^rmMre LJ8HAU *^' NEW YOl VICTORIA. ZtZ Vol. X. Part 6. loth June, 1912. WHEAT AXD ITS CULTIVATION. (^Continued from, page 274.) No. 5.— METHODS OF CULTIVATION. By A. E. Y. Richardson, M.A., B.Sc. (Agric), Agricultural Superintendent. The nature of the Australian climate is such as to render thorough tillage a prime factor in successful wheat cropping. A glance at the rain- fall map of Australia will reveal the fact that the large wheat-growing areas of the Commonwealth are situated in districts with a limited annual precipitation. To make the fullest use of these areas, systems of cultiva- tion must be practised which aim at conserving as much of the scanty rain- fall as possible. More, however, is required than this. No system of cultivation can be permanently effective and adequate unless it makes provision for the maintenance of the fertility of the soil. The fact that fallowing is so largely practised in the drier areas is proof that the former aspect is appre- ciated. The fact that there are wheat lands in this young State which practical farmers and the press frequently describe as " worn-out," shows that the latter aspect is frequently ignored. No system of cropping can be complete and adequate under our con- ditions, unless it provides both for the conservation of soil moisture and for the conservation of soil fertility. Methods which lead to the conserva- tion of moisture, but not to the conservation of soil fertility, may be temporarily effective and profitable, but ultimately they must be disastrous both to the farmer and to the community. Two points, therefore, require consideration in discussing the merits or demerits of any system of cultivation for wheat growing under dry con difions, namely — - (i) Conservation of moisture, (2) Conservation of fertility. 6(X»4. >r 33° Journal of AgncuUurc. Y'lcior'ia. [lo June, 191: Attention will be directed to the former in considering the practice of fal- lowing, whilst the latter aspect will receive special consideration in con- sidering the question of crop rotation and soil fertilization. Wheat may be grown under three different systems of cropping — 1. Continuous cropping with wheat. 2. Wheat after bare fallow, 3. Wheat in rotation with other crops. We shall consider these seriatim. I. — Continuous Cropping. Continuous cropping with wheat is very general in countries where methods of cultivation are extensive rather than intensive. It is, therefore, very general in the Argentine, in parts of Canada, and the United States, and it is not uncommon in Australia. In the early stages of a new country, lands are cheap, and even free; capital and human labour comparatively scarce and dear. To suit these circumstances, large areas are sown under pioneer conditions of culture Large areas under crop and small average returns per acre are the rule. As population increases and land values in the settled districts rise, the margin of cultivation is gradually extended into new territory, the large holdings in process of time become subdivided, and an era of intensive culture in the more densely settled localities is gradually ushered in. In these localities the individual areas under crop are small, but the average yield is high, and the system of cultivation changes from continuous cropping to a highly developed rotation, in which far more labour and much better-directed labour is required. Such is the history of agriculture in every civilized country of the world, and such will be the progress of agriculture in Victoria. However expedient and profitable it may be in a new agricultural country where pioneer conditions prevail, the sowing of wheat year after }ear on the same land is condemned, by both theory and practice. While it may be said that continuous growing of wheat on the same land year after year is not good practice, the results obtained in the Broadbalk field at the Rothamsted Experiment Station show that it is possible. For example, wheat has been grown continuously in the Broadbalk field for over 60 years. The highest yield was obtained from Plot 8, viz., 37.1 bushels per acre; but in order to secure this result a liberal dressing of nitrogenous phosphatic and potassic manures was applied each year. The next best result was on Plot 2, which gave 35.5 bushels per acre; but to get this result 15.7 tons of farmyard manure per acre had to be annually applied. The unmanured plot gave an average for 55 years of 12.9 bushels, whilst the average of the last five years was but 10 bushels. While con- tinuous cropping with wheat has been practised at Rothamsted for upwards of 60 years for purely experimental purposes, it must not be supposed that such practices could be followed with profit in the drier areas of this State. In considering the results obtained at Rothamsted, it is necessary to bear in mind that the average annual rainfall is not only heavy, but is also well distributed throughout the year. Thus, for 51 years, the average is 28.21 inches, of which the fall from January to March is 5.94 inches, April- June, 6.47 inches; July-September, 7.76 inches; and October-De- cember, 8.04 inches. Continuous cropping has been practised at Ro.se- worthy College (South Australia) on seven d fferc^nt plots in the Permanent TO June, iqij.' \V//cat and its CiiltivaUoii. ?>2>^ Experimental P'ield. The results are highly interesting, and indicate what is likely to take place in districts with a similar rainfall (17 inches). Table I. — Showing average returns from Seven Plots continuously under Wheat (1905-7) compared with averages of plots under Wheat after Bare fallow. (Roseworthy College, S.A.). 1. 1904— {a) Average of seven plots (fallowed 1903) (h) Wheat after hire f-.Uow . . 2. 1905— («) (' v.itinuously cropped plots [b) Wheat after b.re fpllow 3. 1906— (a) Continuously cropped plot ^ (h) Wheat after" hve frJlow Rainfall. inches 1()-71 19' lo-O.- Grain per acre. bu'^h. lbs. •28 30 9 1.5 20 3 3 53 Ml 8 Total Produce per acre. tons cwts. lbs. 2 17 54 2 1 i 68 12 21 33 * Professor Perkins, in commenting en these plots, .says — " We see here clearly demonstrated the futility of attempting to grow wheat continuously under local conditions. The grain crop fell from over 29 bu.shels per acre to a little over 9 bushels in the second year, and to not quite 4 bushels in the third year. In the second year the yield of plots continuously under wheat was about 1 1 bushels below the a\-erage of the plots that had been treated as bare fallow the 'preceding season ; and in the third year about 12 bushels below. We shall not be blam.ed for having thrown up the experiment." n. — \\'heat after Bare Fallow. Bare fallowing is the most popular method of preparation for wheat in alL but the most humid portions of the State. According to the Year Book of Victoria, 1910-11, the ratio of bare fallow to the area under wheat in 1900 was 13.88 : 50, i.e, i acre of bare fallow to every 4^ acres of wheat. Ten years later the ratio had risen to 24.32 : 43.38. i.e., more than i acre of bare fallow for every 2 acres of wheat. The fact that the area under bare fallow in this State annually exceeds 1,000,000 acres is a silent testimony to the effectiveness of this mode of cultivation under the conditions prevailing in the wheat areas. Still the fact that there is such a large area of wheat in the drier portions of Victoria still sown on stubble land seems to indicate that the importance of fallowing in a dry climate is not vet fully appreciated. Advantages of Bare Fallowing. I. Bare Fallowing conserves the Soil Moisture. — The great advantage of liare fallowing in a dry climate is that it enables the cultivator t:) make the utmost use of a limited rainfall. In the drier districts the rainfall during the growing period is not sufficient -to ensure high yields but, by a good system of bare fallowing, a considerable proportion of the rainfall from the previous year is conserved and carried over to augment the supply which falls during the period of growth of the crop. Just how much moisture may thus be conserved under a given rainfall depends on the nature of the soil and the effidencv of cultivation. The * Fourth Report on the Permanent Exp. Field. Roseworthy College, Bulletin Xo. C5. Dept. of Agric, South Australia. 332 Journal of Agriculture. Victoria. [lo June, 1912. amount conserved and carried over is considerable when the land has been early fallowed, and the surface mulch maintained through the summer. Some idea of the amount conserved may be gained from some pre- liminary observations at Rutherglen and Longerenong this season. In both instances the land was not fallowed till late in the season September, so that the moisture contents are not nearly as high as what might have been expected had fallowing been commenced, say, in June. Table II. — Percentage of Moisture (in terms of dry soil) on Fallowed and Non-fallowed land prior to seeding, ist May, 191 2 (Rutherglen Viticultural College), Victoria. Depth of Sample. 0 to 12 inches 12 inche.s to 24 inches 24 inches to 36 inches 36 inches to 48 inches Average content of first 4 feet Fallowed. /o 7 •02 1(1-37 1(5-68 21-26 15-48 Ifoii-fallowed. Difference. 0/ /o 3-12 10-52 12 -28 19-68 0/ /o 4-50 5-85 4-40 1-58 11-40 4-08 Thus the fallowed land had 4.08 per cent, more moisture in the first 4 feet than the non-fallowed land. Assuming the weight of i acre foot of dry soil to be approximately 3,500,000 lbs., it follows that in the first 4 feet of the Rutherglen fallow there were 571,200 lbs. more water per acre in the fallowed than in the non-fallowed portion, i.e., an amount equal to approximately 2| inches of rain. Table III. summarizes the moisture content of fallowed and non- fallowed land at Longerenong Agricultural College at various depths dur- ing the summer and autumn of 191 2. Table III. — Moisture content of Fallowed and Non-fallowed land at Longerenong, 191 2. Depth of Sampling 5th January, 1912. 1. 0 to 12 inches 2. 12 inches to 24 inches 3. 24 inches to 36 inches 4. 36 inclies to 48 inches 5. 48 inches to 60 inches Averae;e first 5 feet Fallowed. 31-49 33-46 31 -46 31-34 33-14 32-18 Non-fal- lowed. /o 16-66 23-31 26-79 29-47 30-31 •25-31 25th March, 1912. Fallowed. /o ■25-84 34-41 33-69 33-18 35-67 32-56 1st May, 1912. Non-fal- Fallowed. lowed. 0/ /o 26-39 0/ /o 16-92 28-75 20-26 27-81 •25-16 28-65 32-07 33-78 34-27 29-07 25-74 It will be noted from the tables that, while there are considerable varia- tions at corresponding levels at different periods, the average moisture con- tent of the fallowed portions was considerably in e.vcess of that of the non-fallowed portions. The difference in favour of the fallowed portion immediately before seeding amounted to 3.33 per cent. ; this means that in the first 5 feet the fallowed portion has moisture equal to 2.6 inches of rain more than the non-fallowed portion. 10 June, 1912.] W/ieai and its Cultivation. ?>2>Z In connexion with these tables, the following figures dealing with the rainfall from ist July, 191 1. at ^utherglen and Longerenong will prove interesting : — Table IV. — Monthly rainfall, Rutherglen and Longerenong, from July, 191 1, till ist May, 1912. July. 1911 August September October November. . December January, 1912 February . . March April Total ■92 Rutherglen. Longerenong. iiu-hes inches. 1 -33 l-ol 1-27 •84 1 -32 3 •69 •29 •48 •40 •07 2 •OS 2^25 •44 •00 •19 •47 •49 •55 •14 •67 10-53 {b) Comparing the extra water saved by fallowing (Tables II. and III.) with rainfalls (Table IV.), it will be .seen that at both stations the water saved formed a considerable percentage of the rainfall for the preceding ten months, and this, too, although the fallowing commenced too late in the season. As moLsture conservation is one of the principal objects aimed at in bare fallowing, we shall now consider more closely the means whereby this object may be attained. In considering how to store and make effective the maximum quantit}" of moisture possible in the soil under any given rainfall, three points must be kept in mind. {a) Every facility must be given to allow the moisture that_ falls to penetrate the soil, and not run off the surface, collect in pools, or evaporate. Provision must be made to allow moisture to move freely within the body of the soil and sub-soil in all directions, i.e., the soil must be got into good capillary condition. {c) No moisture must be allowed to evaporate from the surface by injudicious or careless handling of the soil. These points are, of course, simple enough, but the question is how to make them materialize in practice. (a) So far as the penetration of moisture is concerned, it will be apparent that any hard, compact, unbroken surface of soil is not cal culated to admit moisture readily. In fact if heavy rains fall a large proportion runs rapidly off the surface, collects in pools, and much becomes lost by evaporation. On the other hand a loose broken surface allows moisture to penetrate readily, and, by acting as a mulch, conserves what ever moisture happens to be in the soil. Many farmers, realizing this, are beginning fallowing operations early in autumn by discing the land to catch the early rains as a preliminary to subsequent ploughing in June or July. The important point, however, is that ploughing .should begin, -more especially in a dry district, as soon as possible after seeding, so that ready penetration is afforded to the heavy winter rains. {b) The next essential is to get the .soil in such condition as to enable -the imprisoned moisture to move freely within the soil. It must be ■remembered that the soil particles are solid bodies, devoid of pores, and. 334 Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo June. 191. consequently, they cannot hold moisture interstitially, as a sponge. Moisture is held by the soil in the form of films surrounding the soil particles. The water holding capacity of a soil is dependent on its physical constitution, i.e., the amount of organic matter, clay, sand, &c., present, and also on the minuteness of subdivision of the soil particles, i.e., the tilth of the soil. A soil in a good state of tilth is not only capable of conserving a maximum of moisture, but it is also in the best possible capillary condition, i.e., the moisture from the subsoil is able to move up more freely than in a similar soil with a poor tilth, composed of large cloddy particles. Consolidation of the soil is an important factor, because the presence of large air spaces in the soil promotes evaporation and interferes with the movements of capillary water. The method of achieving this will be referred to later. A finely divided and firmly consolidated stratum of soil resting on the welbmoistened sub- soil is in the very best condition not only for the storage of moisture, but for the movement of that moisture upward by capillary action. {c) The moisture must be prevented from evaporating at the surface. A shower of rain readily causes the surface to run together and set. The hard surface then enables unbroken capillary connexion between the moisture-laden subsoil below and the dry crust at the top. By breaking the continuity of these capillary tubes by means of a cultivator the soil is effectively mulched, and evaporation is reduced to a minimum. In this connexion it may be mentioned that it is not neces- sary, from the point of view of moisture conservation, to have the surface of the soil finely pulverized. We often observe farmers harrowing away at the surface of the soil until the tilth is like an onion bed. The important po:nt is to have the finely divided and firmly consolidated soil below ; and it is not of great moment if the surface be rather rough and cloddy, provided only that it is loose. 2. Bare Fallowing Increases the Supply of Available Plant l-'ood. — One indirect result of the moisture cnn.served by the process (jf bare fallowing is that during the suimiier months many chemical and biological changes take place within the body of the soil, and result in the liberation of plant food. Just exactly what these changes are has not been completely demon- strated. There is no doubt, however, that the process of nitrification goes on rapidly in well-tilled bare fallows under Victorian conditions. By this process, nitrogenous organic matter is slowly converted by three stages into nitrates, and the action is brought about bv specific bacteria. It has been estimated that at Rothamsted 80 lbs. of nitrogen as nitric acid are formed in i acre of land during a year of bare fallow. Further, losses through drainage over a period of thirteen years v/as 37 lbs. per acre. The rate of nitrification under Victorian conditions has not yet been completely worked out, but, owing to the high-soil temperature during summer, it is fairly rapid in our well-tilled bare fallows. For example, in the fallowed land at Longerenong, on 7th December, 191 1, there were 57.75 lbs. per acre of nitrogen present as nitrate in the first 5 feet. On ist April, 191 2, this amount had increased to 105 lbs. in the same volume of soil. In addition to the increase in nitrates, there can be little doubt that other important plant foods, particularly potash and phosphoric acid, are converted from unavailable to available forms. 3. Bare Fallowing Distributes the Farm ^york evenly through the Year. -One of the great advantages of bare fallowing is in the fact that it enables the wheat-grower to have ready in autumn large areas in the best lo June. 1912.] W/ieai and its Cultivation. 335 state of tilth to receive the seed, as soon as the weather conditions are favorable for seeding. This is a matter of considerable importance in the drier portions of the State where the normal seeding season is so restricted. When favorable conditions for seeding exist, it is necessary for the Victorian farmer to concentrate his energy, not on the ploughs, but upon the drills. If ploughing has to be done at seed time, the subsequent seeding must be delayed, and danger arises from the ill effects of a non-consolidated seed bed. Those who relied this season on the early autumn rains to get their ploughing done, have had an experience they will not readily forget. Such an abnormally dry autumn as we have just experienced brings home very forciblv tne benefits obtained by having land ready for seeding when the rains fall, (4) Subsidiary advantages of bare fallowing are that it cleans the land of weeds, increases the amount of available plant food formed in the soil, and enables a consolidated seed bed to be formed. The experienced wheat-grower knows the value of a firm, consolidated seed bed for the wheat crop. The consolidation necessary for success is not effected in a week or a month. Time is a necessary factor of the process. The consolidation is effected by the packing action of the rain and frequent cultivation, and is one of the benefits accruing from early fallowing. A firm seed bed is an essential for the effective utilization of the subsoil moisture bv capillarity. Limitations of Bare Fallow under Australian Conditions. I. Unnecessary and Unprofitable in Humid Districts. It must be obvious, from the recital of the advantages of fallowing that it can only be completely successful in the drier portions of this State, and in a relatively dry climate. Obviously the most serious drawback to bare fallowing is that only one crop can be grown in two years, and the crop must be debited with two vears' rental value of the land. Wherever large areas of land are held, and land values are low, and the climate relativeh dry, this is not really a very serious matter, for the difference between the crop grown on fallow and that grown on stubble land may be so great as to make the two years' rental which the fallow crop bears an item of little importance. On the other hand, in districts where land values are high, the loss of a crop is a matter of great importance. High land values, however, are restricted to the relatively humid areas of the State, where considera- tions of moisture conservation are of secondary importance. In such cases, where the annual rainfall is sufficiently high to enable heavy crops to be taken off annually fallowing is unnecessary, and even unprofitable, and should be substituted by a skilled system of rotation and catch cropping, if the soil resources are to be fully utilized. What must be remembered in such cases is that the nitrates formed during the process of bare fallow- ing are, on the one hand, extremely soluble in water, and, on the other, the soil has no power to hold them. Unless bare fallow, therefore, is supplanted by a fallow crop, or by a catch crop, the practice must result in a loss of the soil nitrates. Evidence both of the extent to which bare fallowing is practised and the effectiveness in various districts may be gathered from figures collected from the Year-Book of Victoria. 33^ Journal of AgriciiUurc. Yictoria. [lo June, 1912^ Table V. — Wheat grown on fallowed and unfallowed land in Victoria, 1908. Wimmera Mallee Northern Western Manured Land. Fallowed. Area. Average Yield. Acres. 6i),834 31,963 41,110 ' 4,821 Bushels. 11-82 5-75 9-50 17-93 147.728 10-07 N" on-fallowed. Acres. 27,520 20,908 28,946 5,993 83,367 Average Yield. Bushels. 5-75 2*62 4-06 13-47 4-93 It will be noted that the three relatively dry districts in the Wimmera, Mallee, and Northern the yield of fallowed land was in all cases more than double that of the non-fallowed land. On the other hand, in the Western District, which as a whole is considerably more humid, the benefits of fallowing, though considerable, were relatively less marked than those of the three former districts. Unfortunately, these statistics were only taken in four districts, and for the one year, 1908. 2. Bare Fallowing Heads to Depletion of Organic Matter. A continual alternation of wheat and bare fallow must ultimately lead to the depletion of the organic content of the soil. As a permanent prac- tice it is, therefore, inadequate. To the natural depletion of the humus brought about by oxidation in well-tilled fallows must be added the further depletion caused by the burning of the straw. Any serious lessening of the organic content must inevitably result in a lowering of the crop-pro- ducing power of the soil. This depletion of organic matter is, to a large extent, counteracted by the practice of interposing a period of pasture between the wheat crop and the bare fallow. The merits of such simple rotations, however, lie outside the scope of the present article. When to Fallow. Early Late F alloiving. When it is considered that the success of a bare fallow depends mainly on the amount of moisture conserved, dt will be readily seen that, generally speaking, fallowing should commence as soon as other important operations- permit. Inasmuch as the whole team strength of the farm is usually concentrated on seeding operations, it is rarely possible to commence fal- lowing simultaneously with seeding. The general advantage of early fallow is that it exposes the soil to the ameliorating influences of the atmosphere for a longer period than late fallow, and that heavy winter rains readily penetrate the subsoil and are conserved. Moreover it is easier to effect a satisfactory consolidation of the .seed bed with early than with late fallowed land. so June, 191 2.] Wheat and its Cultivation. 337 As was remarked above, time is a most important factor in the con- -solidation of the seed bed, and the most effective consolidation results from -early fallowing. With late spring fallowing much of the winter rain may be lost by evaporation and surface drainage, and the main benefit accruing from fal- lowing thereby lost. Unfortunately, results of continued and exhaustive local experiments on this important subject are wanting. Those, however, who annually fallow large areas of land, know by experience how promi- nently early fallowed land shows up against late fallowed land, especially when the fallowing season happens to be at all dry. Though early fallow- ing is justified as a general principle in wheat-growing areas, it must be remembered that with some soils it is not always practicable. Heavy -clays, which tend to break down rapidly under the influence of winter rains, and set like a macadamized road with equal rapidity with the advent •of dry weather, should be better left till the lighter types of soil have Teceived attention. The practice of early autumn discing as a preparation for winter plough- ing is frequently adopted in the drier areas with very satisfactory results. The disc ds put over the land in February or March, and the ploughing done at leisure after seeding. This not only provides a satisfactorv mulrh early in the season, but it enables autumn rains to readily penetrate ihe subsoil. Ploughing operations are greatly facilitated, and the loose, finely divided mulch turned over by the plough to the bottom of the furrow slice greatly aids in establishing a satisfactory capillarv connexion between the subsurface soil and the moisture-laden subsoil. The practical difficulty in carrying out this process is that in many parts of the State the soil sets so hard in the dry summer weather that discing is precluded. Otherwise there is no reason why the operation should not be commenced as soon after harvest as possible. Depth of Working. In deciding the depth to which he should plough and work his land, the farmer must be guided mainly by the character and depth of the soil and subsoil. No arbitrary rules can be laid down, but each must decide for himself. Obviously deep working would be quite undesirable wherever the soil was shallow, or where is rested on an inferior type of subsoil. It is also very undesirable to bring a crude, raw clay subsoil to the surface. On soils that are naturally deep, however it is well to give, wiierever possible, a good stiff furrow. Provided that the soil is of sufficient depth, and the subsoil is satisfactory, deep working is better suited to the requirements of an arid climate than shallow working. Such working materially increases the storage capacitv of the soil for moisture, and provides for an inter-play of moisture and air at a greater depth than shallow working, and thus leads directly to the formation of a greater supply of available plant food. Of course the beneficial effects of such deep working are not always immediately apparent, and in conducting investigations into the relative merits of deep and shallow working the test should be continued for at least a number of years. Wherever deep working is practised it is neces- sary, if wheat is to be sown, that the ploughing should be done many months before seeding. No plant suffers more from the effects of a loose, open, non-consolidated seed bed than wheat, and if it is intended to give deep tillage, care must be taken to see that fallowing is started early in the 33^ Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo June, 191 2. season. The full benefit of the packing action of the rain, and of the settling of the seed bed by cultivation is thus secured. The question frequently arises as to whether the soil should be worked down immediately after ploughing, or left in the rough for some time. As a general principle, land should be left rough during the winter in a wet district, whilst in the very dry areas the sooner the land is worked down the better. Much, of course, depends on the area one has to fallow and the number and strength of the teams available. In most districts, and on most soils, it will generally be found best to plough a considerable area before working down, especially if an early start is made. With the approach of spring, however, the stores of moisture in the soil must be jealously guarded, and the soil should be worked down with a scarifier or cultivator to make a loose, but lumpy, surface mulch. Summer Cultivation. Under no circumstances should a hard crust be allowed to form on the suriace. A crusty top will, by aiding capillary action, rapidly drain the subsoil of its reserves of moisture A loose crumbly layer of soil will, how- ever, act as a mulch and reduce the losses by evaporation to a minimum. Such a .soil mulch is maintained by cultivating as often as the summer rains, bring about a consolidation of the surface. Frequently summer cultivation is over done. The soil may be reduced by continual cultivation to the condition of an onion bed. This is a source of trouble on fine clay soils^ and may assist rather than retard capillary activity. (To be continued .) The fattening ox spends about 77 per cent, of the food digested for heat and work, the sheep 74, and the pig 57. The pig is the most econo- mical meat producer, but it requires a ruminant to deal effectively with hay and fibrous crops. lo June, 1912.] Yield of Reconstituted Vineyard, Ruthcrglen. 339 YIELD OF RECONSTITUTED VINEYARD AT THE RUTHERGLEN VITICULTURAL COLLEGE. Vintage 19 12. By G. H. Adcock, F.L.S., Principal. Following the practice adopted during recent years the vintage returns for the Viticultural College vineyard, for the current season, are here sub- mitted for the information of readers of the Journal : — In justice to all concerned it will be necessary to remember that the vineyard is on the comparatively poor soil, typical of so many acres in this and other auriferous areas. \Vhile not specially suited for general agri- culture, yet it adapts itself to viticulture readily. The vines in the College vineyard are planted 10 feet x 3 feet, trellised, and pruned on the rod and spur system. The grafted rootlings were planted immediately on the spot where vines, dead and dying with phylloxera, were uprooted. All round them were phylloxerated vines. Hence, the test as to their re- sistance was as severe as could have been devised. This season has been the opposite extreme from last, and this has naturally influenced the yield very considerably. The 191 1 returns con- stitute a record, as far as this vineyard is concerned. Unlike the previous one, last winter brought frosts. Only those that come after the vine-shoots have started, are feared by vignerons. Unfortunately, last Spring, we had two of these late frosts that cut back the shoots of the vines in the vine- yard, and of the grafts in the nursery, entailing, in each case, serious losses. Some varieties suffered severely, much more than others, and, con- sequently, these returns are reduced very much. Nor were late frosts our only perplexity. The season, generally, has been as unfavorable as the preceding one was favorable. This has been one of the driest summers experienced here for some time. For months no appreciable quantity of rain has fallen. Our domestic water-supply ran out, and we had to cart from Rutherglen. Many of our well-established ornamental trees, have succumbed. Ind'genous trees, e.g., Grevilleas. Hakeas, Acacias, &c., have died, owing to the dry weather and the long- continued heat. Under such circumstances vintage and other yields have been greatly reduced. The adverse conditions prevailing here have ex- tended considerably beyond the limits of our own State, and the vintage is a short one almost everywhere. Again, we have suffered from the depredations of birds. This year, for the first time, the Starlings caused us trouble. Previously we had only had odd birds to contend with. As thev are rapidly increasing in the district it is likely, judging by the present season, that they will make their influence se\erely felt in the future. As usual, too, pilferers have caused us loss. Grapes are now freely purchased at high rates by several local wine- makers. Up to, and occasionally more than, jQ% per ton can be obtained. This is an immense advantage to the small, grower who may not have the experience necessary to turn out a marketable wine, nor the capital to pro- vide the plant for the purpo.se. It is also a distinct gain to the industry, for a product of uniform character and exactly suited to the requirements of the trade is assured. The thorough cultivation, which is a feature in the College vineyard, has been kept up. This has paid, as it always does. As far as possible 340 Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo June, 1912, lo June, 191:;.] Yield of Reconstituted Vineyard, Rutlierglen. 34r we also replenish the material removed by the crop, and we are strongly impressed with the efficiency of green manuring. As in the previous year we have carried out experiments with fertilizers, supplied by the manager of the Potash Syndicate, Sydney. The test plots, which are the same as those treated in 191 1, are each :|:-acre in extent. The results are as follow : — Plot. No. 1 No. 2 No. 3 Manure per Ac-re. Uninanured f Superphosphate, 2 cwt. \ Sulphate of Ammonia, f cwt. j Superphosphate, 2 cwt. -] Suli^hite of Ammonii, f cwt. I Sul])h '.te of Potash, 1 cwt. Yields II Acre. lbs. 4,680 4.724 y fi.360 This shows a gain of exactly three-quarters of a ten between the unmanured and plot No. 3. The value of this extra yield, at current rates, is jT^d. while the total value of the crop, from the fulh -manured acre, is worth £22 14s. 3d. In tabulated form are given the yields of the grapes from each stock. Once again a caution must be given against attributing the disparity in returns to the stocks. As previously ■ pointed out the crop recorded on Rupestris du Lot is not fair to that stcck, for, being next to the road, much of the produce does not reach our weighing machine. Growers will also note that some of the stocks, used when the College vineyard was re- planted to test their value, are now discarded as not quite satisfactory. Of the new varieties we have, as far as possible, made the wine separately. We have 16 lots of the.se varying from 5 to 10 gallons each. Wine- makers will realize the immense amount of trouble and labour the careful handling of so many small quantities has entailed, but will, we think, appreciate the results. Some of the newer table varieties of grapes are in cool storage to test their keeping qualities, and, consequently, their suit- ability for the export trade. Of the newer varieties, from which wine was made, we have the fol- lowing; : — Variety. Furmint Pinot Chardonnay Pinot Fin . . Semillon Melon Colomb''.rd . . Sauvignon . . Aramon Corbeau Aspiran Bouschet Chenii blanc FoUe blanche Picpoul Montils Rousette Terret Bourret Sp. Gr. of Must. 1-110 1-120 1-120 1-106 1-102 1-110 1 - 120 1-090 1-095 1-085 1-110 1-092 1-095 1-090 1-094 1-080 Quantit;, Made. 5 gallons 10 5 18 10 10 5 10 10 10 10 10 34- Joitrnal of Agriculture. Yicioria. [lo June, 1912. lo June. 191-'-] Yield of Rcconstiiuied Yhicyard, Ruthcrglen. The following are the yields for vintage. 191 2 : — Mi Variety, Date of Planting, and Stock. Shiraz (1903)— Hybrid, 3306 Rupestris Met llic:i (Cape) Hybrid, 3309 A.'R.G.I . . Rupestris du Lot Burgundy (1904)— Riparia Grrnd Glabre Hybrid, 3309 JVMbec (1904)— Riparia Grand Glabre A.R.G.l . . Hybrid, 3309 Rupestris Met Uica (Cape) Hybrid, 101" Rupestris du Lot . . Sp. Gr. of Must. 1-108 1-108 1112 1-110 1-117 1-114 1-113 1-113 1105 1-110 1110 1-114 1-108 Yielrl per \ ine. lb s. 1-2 1() 9 64 8 55 6 84 6 03 8 78 6 47 9 9 9 77 7 56 6 8 6 0 4 16 Yield per Acre. tonscwt. qrs. lbs. 2 19 0 7 2 6 2 1 3 8 2 4 1 13 0 24 19 14 2 2 2 16 1 11 1 21 2 8 0 10 2 7 1 23 1 16 2 27 1 13 0 3 I 9 0 16 1 0 0 23 Value per Acre at £8 a ton. £ s. 23 12 18 14 16 12 13 5 11 14 17 1 12 11 t> 19 4 9 18 19 8 14 13 10 13 4 3 11 13 2 8 1 8 The following table gives the yields from the various stocks for the years 1909-1912, inclusive: — Variety, Date of Plantin?, and Stock. Shiraz (1903)— Hybrid, 3306 . . Rupestris Metallica (Cape) Hybrid, 3309 . . A.R.G.l Rupestris du Lot Burgundy (1904)— Riparix Grind Glabre Hybrid. 3309 . . Malbec (1904)— A.R.G.l Riparia Grand Glabre Hybrid, 3309 . . Rupestris ^letallica (Cape) Hybrid, 101" . . Rupestris du Lot Yield per Acre 1909. t. cwt, 2 5 1 15 1 14 1 9 1 5 1 5 1 I q. lbs. 2 0 3 4 0 0 0 1 3 14 1 23 2 11 2 3 0 8 1 18 3 12 1 16 1 26 1 16 1 20 0 14 3 14 Yield per Acre 1910. t. cwt. q. lbs. 2 8 3 23 2 2 2 22 1 15 1 3 1 18 0 10 1 15 1 17 1 14 2 25 1 15 3 19 3 1 2 3 2 16 1 5 2 4 1 20 2 4 3 9 1 9 2 0 1 6 1 0 Yield per Acre 1911. t. cwt. q. lbs. 3 2 1 0 4 0 1 27 2 14 2 9 2 18 0 18 2 10 0 5 1 5 2 20 1 0 3 23 4 17 0 6 4 11 1 17 3 19 1 19 3 8 1 16 2 19 3 12 2 0 0 18 Y'ield per 4.cre 1912. t. cwt q- Ib^. 2 19 0 / 2 6 3 y 2 1 2 4 1 13 0 24 1 9 1 4 1 11 2 7 2 8 1 16 1 13 1 9 1 0 2 1(> 1 21 1 23 0 10 2 27 0 3 0 16 0 23 '-^^"^^^k^- 344 Journal of Agruiilturc. Y'lctona. [lo June. 1912. PROPAGATION OF FRUIT TREES. {Continued from -page 211.) C. F. Cole, Orchard Supervisor. Diseases. In compiling the diseases, both insect and fungi, to be found at times attacking the stocks and young trees during and after their development in the nursery, the writer wishes to strongly impress upon propagators the importance of keeping a sharp look-out for the first signs of attack, and •of taking immediate steps to check the spread or eradicate the disease. To do this, and be successful, it is essential to have a sufficient knowledge of the different diseases with regard both to their life history and their methods ot attack. As there are several illustrated and instructive works published dealing with destructive insects and fungus pests, and a special staff of experts attached to the Department of Agriculture, growers or those interested have no excuse for remaining ignorant of such subjects. To be fully conversant with the habits, the manner in which diseases obtain their food, and the season of attack, is to be forewarned, and if the propagator is intelligent, he will be prepared for an attack by being forearmed with the necessary appliances and chemicals needed, which, if used correctly, and at the right time, will give him the victory. The insect pests dealt with will be arranged according to the manner in which they attack the plants to obtain food, those that eat the foliage, twigs, or bark being called chewing, whilst those that puncture to obtain the sap being called suctorial. Upon classifying them as such will depend how they are to be attacked and destroyed. With chewing insects it will be necessary to control them by applying with a tine spray poison to their food, so that when taken internally it will cause death. With suctorial insects it is necessary to bring them in direct contact with a suitable insecticide which causes death by smothering, com- bined with its caustic action. By the enumeration of the following insect and fungus pests, the novice or those about to start propagation should not be frightened, as in a nursery conducted upon sound lines, and where care is exercised in securing the buds, scions, or rooted stocks from clean trees or localities there is very little likelihood of diseases giving serious trouble. Many of the diseases adapt themselves to certain localities where the weather and other conditions are more suitable for their development. But it should be borne in mind that if such diseases are transferred from one locality to another, and the conditions are favorable, there will be trouble, e.g., take the root-rot fungus {Armillaria mellea). Although it is commonly found in cool mountainous and timbered localities having a fair rainfall, yet, if transferred upon rooted stocks from such localities to a warm dry one, and the spring or summer following planting is suitable for its develop- ment, it will cause trouble if imjnediate steps are not taken when first noticed to check its spread. As most of our insect pests multiply with astonishing rapidity, delay in attacking them is dangerous ; by destroying the first brood whole days of toil will be saved. It is generally through neglecting this brood that future trouble is brought about, and instead of a few insects to fight in a few days or weeks there are thousands. A nurseryman should have a suitable spray pump, an 8 or 10 gallon hand-^ pump will answer the purpose, and also keep many of the necessary lo June, 191 2.] Propagation of Fruit Trees. 345 ■chemicals, &c., to combat diseases on iiand. Always keep the old adage well in mind — "A stitch in time saves nine." The few illustrations of -diseases are from original photographs. Chewing Insects. The Pear ami Cherrv Slug {Selandria Cerasi). — This small, dark-green or, at first sight, blackish-looking, slimy caterpillar usually makes its ap- pearance about the latter end of October or early in November, and attacks the foliage of the cherry and pear, and, later on, the cherry plum family, the quince, occasionally the plum. The eggs are readily discernible, being deposited upon the upper side of the leaves, and -are of a yellowish colour, about the size of a pin's head. The perfect insect is a glossy black small fly belonging to the saw fly order, Hymenoftera, readily seen upon the foliage. The William's Bon Chretien pear is generally the first to be attacked in the nursery row. If this pest is neglected, the larvse will quickly destroy the foliage by eating off all of the epidermis or upper surface of the leaves, thereby checking the growth, and bringing about debilitated conditions. Treat- ment.— Spray as soon as detected with any of the leading brands of arsenate of lead — strength i lb. to 25 gallons of water — or Hellebore powder, i lb. to 30 gallons of water. Moisten the powder with a little water to make a paste before adding the full quantity of water ; strain before using ; keep well agitated whilst applying. Spray upon a fine dry day. Pinara Apple Grub iPinara Nana). — The larvae of this pest are most voracious, stripping the young apple trees of their foliage in a very short while j also eating the tops of the growing shoots. The loss of the foliage gives the trees a serious check through interfering with the assimilation and elaboration of the sap and plant food. Upon noticing the first signs of attack the propagator should carefully examine along the stems of the young shoots and branches for the larvse, which, owing to their protective colour, resembling that of the bark, combined with their habit of lying close to the bark, make them hard to detect. The larvse when full grown are about 2 inches in length. From observations the writer finds chiefly at night, lying close to the bark during the day-time. Treat- rnent. — As a serious attack from this pest in the nursery is of rare occurrence, the destruction of the few larvse when first detected generally suffices to check its spread. If indications point to a severe attack, spray with arsenate of lead. If the well-known native bird, black-faced cuckoo shrike, Graucalus Melanops (Lath.) is in the locality, it should be rigidly protected, as the writer has upon many occasions watched these birds doing great service in a nursery eradicating this pest. Painted Apple Moth {Teia Anartoides) (Walk). — The small hairy cater- pillar " larvse " of this moth have an especial liking for the foliage of the apple, eating off the upper portion, or epidermis, very quickly, at times 346 Journal of AgriciiUurc. Vicioria. [lo June. 1912. leaving only the midrib of the leaves. Figure 69 shows the caterpillars- at work upon an apple stock. The loss of foliage seriously affects the elaboration of the sap. This pest does not confine its attack solely to the apple, but attacks the foliage of other kinds of fruit trees, and at times the skin of the fruit. Treatment. — Very often killing the first few caterpillars- with the thumb and finger will prevent a further attack. Spraying the foliage thoroughly with arsenate of lead will have the desired effect of getting rid of this pest. Cherry Green Beetle ( Diphucefhala Colosfidoides) (Gyll). — A visita- tion from these small, handsome green Vjeetles is to be taken seriously. If coming in swarms, they very soon strip the young cherry trees of their foliage, and cause great damage to the young growing trees and cherry stocks. When first noticed immediate action should be taken. The trees- and stocks should be thoroughly sprayed with arsenate of lead', strength I lb. to 25 or 30 gallons of water. Vine Moth (Agarista Glycine) (Lewis). — This common pest is very easily recognised and kept in check, but, if neglected, the caterpillars will very soon defoliate the vines. Spraying the young vines in early summer with arsenate of lead generally suffices to keep this pest in check for the whole vegetative period. Strength, i in 25 to 30 of water; or Hellebore powder at the same strength recommended for pear or cherry slugs. Silver Strifed Vine Moth {Chaerocamfa Celerio) ( Stephen). ^This- pretty but peculiar looking caterpillar rarely gives trouble, the writer once only having had occasion to spray the vines. Treatment. — Spray with arsenate of lead, or Hellebore powder. Slugs. — During the spring, and when the buds begin to move in the nursery row, slugs are one of the worst pests that the propagator has to deal with, destroying hundreds of buds in a single night, if neglected. Treatment. — If there are any signs of this pest during late autumn or the winter months, no time should be lost in clearing away any weed growths in the rows, particularly before the buds start to elaborate. One of the chief factors in combating this pest is to keep the nursery free from anything likely to harbor ihem. The soil should be kept well stirred between the rows, applying freshly slackened lime immediately after. Thi.'v will be the means of destroying large numbers that harbor and breed be- neath [he clods of earth. Slugs being nocturnal in habit, just after dark is- the best time to attack them,, particularly if rain has fallen during the day, and the evening turns in mild. Treatment of Lime. — Secure lump lime, slacken by sprinkling with water. If using any quantity place the lump lime in a hole or pit made in the earth for the purpose, half fill with lime, applying sufficient water to slacken. Lime should be prepared in the morning, using it the same even- ing. Bag the slackened lime during the afternoon, placing the bags in convenient positions in the nursery. Under no conditions _ allow the lime to get damp or wet, before or after slackening, or any time previous to being applied. Always use freshly slackened lime. Apply by placing sufficient slack lime in a piece of hessian or a 70 lb. sugar-bag. Walk be- tween the rows, jerking the bag up and down smartly, directing the dense lime dust caused by these actions chiefly over the buds. If a dark night, it will be necessary to carry a lantern whilst performing this operation. If help is available to carry the light, this work can be accelerated by using a dusting bag in each hand. Failing help, place the lantern in the centre, i.e., between two rows of buds, and walk whilst dusting straight towards the 'light. Stirring and dusting lime upon the soil during the day-time, and following up the dusting process after dark, has been found bv the writer lo June, 191 2.] Propagation of Fruit Trees. 347 to be the most effective method, particuhirly if the area to be treated is of ■any extent. Besides destroying this pest, the lime is very beneficial to the soil, especially if it is deficient in this constituent. To be effective the lime must fall direct upon the slugs. Once it becomes moist, its power of killing is gone. When liming wear old boots and clothes. Apply lime when the weather is fine and calm, if possible, but remember that delay is dangerous to the buds. Suctorial Insects. Some of the most difficult insects to eradicate coming under this heading are those known as scale, and belonging to the family Coccidae. Some species confine their attacks chiefly, if not solely, to deciduous trees and plants, whilst others only to evergreen ones. Some species attack many kinds of plant life both evergreen and deciduous. When treating evergreen trees, or any that are vegetative, the operator .should be very careful to use a wash at a strength that will not defoliate or injure the growth of the yojng trees. No wash should be used that is not correctly made and tested, nor applied unless the operator has had previous experience or secures prac- tical advice upon the particular wash to be used. One important factor that should not be o\"erlooked before applying a caustic wash is the physio- logical condition of the tree or plant a I the time it is to be sprayed, such condition varying according to the season, the weather, and the growth. Evergreen trees and plants when fully active and making growth cannot stand the same strength as when in a more dormant stage, or when the weather is cool and equable. With deciduous trees and plants, a far greater strength can be used in the late autumn, or when they have shed their foliage in the winter, than any time during their vegetative period. Two or three somewhat weaker ajjplications given at regular intervals are far more effective, and the risk of causing injury less, than if one application at the ordinary strength is given. Olive Scale (Lecaniurn Olcce). — This common scale insect, when fully developed, is hemispherical in shape (see Fig. 70), colour brownish black, is easily detected, and attacks the bark and foliage. Trees and plants badly attacked have a sooty appearance caused by the fungus known as sooty mould {Capnodium Citricolum). This fungus lives upon the sugary secretion from the scale insects. Another indication of attack is the appearance of ants and flies upon the trees or plnnis attacked, in quest of this sugary secretion. It is the commonest scale found attacking the citrus family, is very partial to the pear and quince, and is to be found attacking numerous species of plant life both evergreeii and deciduous. Treatment. — If attacking deciduous trees, seed and stone fruits in the nursery row during their vegetative period, spray with kerosene emulsion, strength, i in 10 or 12. If attacking citrus trees or other hard-foliaged evergreens, spray with resin wash. The best time to spray the citrus is the winter months, and after the spring growth has hardened, and before the 348 Journal of Agriculture. Vicforia. [10 June, 1912.. autumn growths start. Citrus and deciduous fruit trees standing in the nursery row during the winter months may be sprayed with red oil or crude petroleum oil emulsion, but great care should be taken to see that the emulsion is properly made, otherwise injury will be done to the trees. Strength, red oil, i in 40 ; crude petroleum oil, i in 30. Greater Vine Scale (Lecaiiium Berbcridis) — This large brown-coloured scale insect does not confine its attack to the vine, but is to be found severely attacking many kinds of our fruiting trees, chiefly the apricot, cherry plum, Japanese plums, mulberry, and persimmon, also many of our ornamental trees, shrubs, and creepers. Owing to its size is easy to detect, and attacks the bark of the branches and twigs. Spreads rapidly, but is the easiest of all the scale insects to destroy. Treatment. — Spray the vines or fruit trees if attacked during the vegetative period with kero- sene emulsion. Strength, i in 10 or 12, giving several applications, if necessary. When the trees or vines are dormant in the winter, spray with red oil or crude petroleum oil emulsion. Strength, red oil, i in 40 ; crude petroleum, i in 30. Red Orange Scale (Aspidiotus Coccincus). — Scale in.sects belonging to the genus Aspidiotus are probably the hardest of all scale insects to eradi- cate by spraying, fumigation by hydrocyanic acid gas is the most effective treatment where it is possible to carry it out. Although a small scale, it is easy to detect owing to its colour^^and attacks the bark, fruit, and foliage. When badly attacked, the foliage becomes sickly and yellowish in colour, the twigs and young growth die. If this pest should make its appearance upon the citrus trees in the nursery row, immediate steps should- be taken to thoroughly eradicate it. By exercising a little care when and where select- ing the buds and grafts, a nursery should be kept free from this pest. Treatment. — Spray thoroughly and often with resin wash until eradicated. If the scale is very bad, give one or two sprayings with red oil or crude petroleum oil emulsion during the winter months, or in January and Feb- ruary, continuing later on, if necessary, with the resin wash. Strength, red oil, i in 45 ; criide petroleum, i in 35. Black Flat Scale (Aspidtctus Rossi). — A \ery common scale. Attacks hard foliaged evergreen trees, &c. Once it is firmly established is hard to eradicate. From its shape and colour, it is readily detected upon the foliage, hence its name. In a nursery producing fruiting trees, this scale is not likely to- give serious trouble; to the writer's knowledge, the only species of fruit attacked belonged to the citrus family, viz., pomelo or grape fruit, the bitter-sweet and Seville variety. Treatment. — The same as Red Orange Scale. Wax Scale (Ceroplastes Ceriferus). — This scale is easy to detect by its re.semblance to small pieces of white wax, and sticks close to the bark up>n the boughs and twigs. The wax substance is secreted by the insects to protect and cover the body. Because of the waxy covering, the pest is difficult to destroy. This scale readily attacks the citrus family. Treat- ment.— Spray with i^ lbs. of washing soda dissolved in 2 gallons of water, or resin wash when the scale insects are young. Apply using high pressure. San Jose Scale (Aspidiotus Perniciosus). — This scale is one of the most difficult species to detect, owing to its small size and the closeness with which it sticks to the bark. To the propagator of deciduous fruiting trees this scale insect is to be feared most. Once it becomes established, it is hard to dislodge. The writer's observations are that when full grown this scale varies somewhat in colour. Where found attacking the plum and walnut, it is lighter, resembling more the colour of the bark than when lo June, 191 2.] Water Rcq^uircmeiits of Crops. 349 found upon the apple, pear, &c. Small rusty red-coloured spots upon the bark, the scale insect occupying the central position, are usually one of the first indications of attack upon the apple, pear, peach, and cherry plum. Description. — General colour, sooty black, with a yellowish-brown spot in the centre; shape, round. If the bark directly beneath these red spots is cut, it is generally a carmine shade down to the cambium. With badly in- fested trees the bark has a scurfy appearance, occasionally being pitted. This pest does not confine its attack to fruiting trees, but has a liking also for the hawthorn, &c. Treatment. — As there have been several outbreaks of this pest in different parts of the State, all buds or scions secured from an orchard should be thoroughly examined, particularly about and behind the buds, with a pocket magnifier. If there are any suspicious signs of attack or scale insects to be seen, destroy by burning. Trees or stocks badly infested should at once be destroyed by burning. If the trees are vegetative, spray thoroughly with kerosene emulsion, strength r in 10. Follow up with fur- ther applications at not more than ten days intervals. Further, treat in late autumn and the winter months with red oil or crude petroleum oil emul- sion. Strength, red oil. i in 30; crude petroleum, i in 25. No trees should' be sent out of the nursery until examined bv some person who has an expert knowledge of this disea.se. To he contimicd. WATER RECn IKEMENTS OF CROPS. By Jo/ni ir. Patcrson, B.Sc.. Ph.D., Exfcriiiu iitalist. Of the various requirements for the growth of a crop the most obvious is a sutificient supply of water. Ordinary experience points to the con- clusion that the quantity required must be large. Green-house plants require frequent watering or they shrivel and dry up. A crop of lucerne cut in the morning is soon withered, because it ceases to receive water from the roots. Year after year the yields from dry farming depend more upon rainfall than, practically speaking, upon anything else. In the drier wheat areas of Victoria the soil may not receive enough rainfall to grow a crop everv year, but, by fallowing in alternate vears the water mav suflficiently accumulate to grow a crop every second. To determine exactly how much water is required by growing crops, attemqjts have been made by different investigators in different countries of the world. In all such investigations, apart from those of botanical interest only, the method is the same. The amount of water evaporated or "transpired" by a crop during its entire growth is found by weighing. At harvest, the crop is cut off close to the ground and dried. When the weight of water transpired is now divided by the weight of crop, there is found what is called the ' ' transpiration ratio. ' ' This gives the number of pounds (parts) of water transpired by the crop during growth for each pound (part) of drv matter produced. In such investigations the water transpired is found by growing the plants in pots. A pot is filled with a certain standard weight of soil (usually from 20 to 120 lbs.) of a certain wetness, and the crop is planted or sown. The pot is watered, usually daily, or four times a week ; and ^5° Journal of Agriculture^ Victoria. [lo June, 1912. this is done on the scales. At watering, the loss of weight since the previous watering is noted down, and the pot is then brought up to its standard weight again by adding more water. The water lost from a cropped pot will include water transpired by the plant, also water evaporated directly from the soil. The latter is most simply discounted by setting up similar pots without a crop, and deducting the losses there from the losses on the cropped pot.x throughout the season. In transpira- tion experiments the pots must be protected from rain in order to reserve control of the water supply. This is usually done by placing the pots on low trolleys standing on rails, so that they can be run under cover at night and on wet days. Proceeding on the general lines of investigation indicated, the following results have been obtained by different workers : — Table I. Wheat Barley Oats . Rye . Maize . Beans . Peas ■Clover Buckwheat Rape . . Lawes (1) (England). 247 2.57 209 259 269 Hellriegel (2) (Germany). 338 37 (J 353 282 273 310 363 329 King (3) Leather (4) (United States). (India). 850 393 680 522 870 sio 477 830 453 (1) Jour. Horticultural Soc, V. (1850). (2) Grundlageu des Ackerbaues, p. 622, et seq. (3) Bep. Wisconsin, Expt. Stn., 1894, p. 248. (4) Mem. Dept. Agric, India. Chemical series. Vol. I., No. 8, p. 179. The figures state the transpiration ratios found by different observers. Before going on to discuss them, it is necessary to glance briefly at the uses of water to the plant. Water enters the plant body by tlie roots, passes upwards through the stem, and is evaporated by the leaves during transpiration. In its passage through the plant, the water performs certain useful work. It carries dissolved phosphates, nitrates, &c., from the soil into the plant; it is necessary for the life and growth of the protoplasm or living part of the plant, and for the action of ferments ; a small part of the water absorbed ■enters chemically into organic material in the process of carbon assimi- lation. Carbon assimilation is the process whereby green plants feed from the carbon dioxide gas of the air and from water. About 95 per cent, of the dry matter of crops is formed from air and water in this way. It is difficult to say in which of its uses to the plant it becomes neces- sary that so much water should pass through it during the period of growth. The inward passage of soil constituents probably does not alto- gether require it, as the water current and the soil nutrient movement are within inside limits independent. It is more likely that the partial parching of a crop restricts growth, in the first instance, by increasing the lo June. 191 -.] Wahr Rcq^uironents of Crop!,. 351 difficulty of carbon assimilation. This up-hill chemical change requires the presence of very much water in the plant leaf, in addition to the relatively small amount which is decomposed there. Transpiration of water takes place chiefly through little pores or openings called stomata,* which are most abundant on the under side of the leaf. These pores or stomata open and close automatically, according as the water supply is greater or less ; but sun and wind modify their control by tending to open them. With the pores open, transpiration proceeds apace, but is naturally more rapid with a dry than a humid- atmosphere. It is also very much greater in light than darkness, and plants wilted at night may appear fresh in the morning. Looking to the effect of sun, wind, and a dry atmosphere upon evapoia- tion from the leaves of plants, one would expect that the amount of water lost would in large measure be dependent upon the climate. It has been mentioned that much water is essential to carbon assimilation. This takes place in the green leaves, and only by day. As water is continually passing through the leaves on its way out by day, it follow's that the water is only available as an aid to assimilation in the course of its passage. Now, as transpiration from the leaves is more active in a dry sunny climate, it would seem that more w'ater must pass through the plant to maintain a suitable supply for carbon- assimilation in such a climate than in a dull humid one where it lingers longer in the leaf. In other words, a definite amount of water may be necessary fqr carbon-assimilation at its best, in a certain plant, under a certain intensity of light, and at a given instant, but as transpiration is more rapid in a dry climate, a larger amount of water must be absorbed there than in a humid one in order to maintain equally good water conditions in the leaf. Returning now to the figures of Table I., it will be seen that an attempt has been made in each case to fix the transpiration ratio as a specific character of the crop. If however as we have endeavoured to .show, the usefulness of water is dependent, in the first degree, upon the length of time the leaf is able to retain it, it becomes obvious that the transpiration ratio is less a factor depending upon the kind of crop than upon the climatic conditions of the country in which the experiments are carried out. Comparison of the results of the different workers bears in a rough way this theory out. The transpiration ration for production seems to be low'est in the country with the most humid climate, and differences due to crop are generally small as compared to differences due to country. While the rate of transpiration from plants is largely dependent upon the physical conditions of climate which determine rate of drying, it cannot be supposed to be altogether so. The cells of the stomata respond to sun and wind, but this response bears no relation to their drying effect. Consideration of the vigour or tone of the plant also comes in. Neverthe- less it is certain that the climatic conditions which cause drying have a very great influence upon the transpiration ratio of growing crops, and that by knowing the relative rates of evaporation from a free water surface at two places the transpiration requirements at one place could be approximately calculated for the other. * See Wheat and its Cultivation, by A. E. V. Richardson. Jour. Dept. Agric, Vic, 1912, p. 187, «t seq. 352 Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo June, 1912. As transpiration experiments of other countries seemed unlikely, for the reasons stated, to be of direct application to Australian conditions, some test pots were set out at Burnley Horticultural Gardens during the past season. Wheat and oats were selected, and the general method adopted was that already described. The pots, which were adapted to the Wagner pattern, contained 37 lbs. i oz. of dry soil, made up to contain i8.5 per cent, of water (equal to 50 per cent, of the total water-holding capacity reckoned on the soil volume). The pots were watered on the scales with a fine spray. The amount of water transpired by the plants was got by deducting the loss of weight in similar fallow pots. To avoid rain, the pots were placed under cover in the best position available; but, soon after starting, it was evident there was too little light, and the wheat pots were discarded. The "growing oats suffered less. The experiments lasted 159 days, starting from 6th September. Fig. i shows some of the pots at the time of harvesting, on 13th February. Fig. At harvest, the crops were cut off close to the ground, dried, and the transpiration ratios calculated out. The results were as follows: — Table II. Total Water Lost (159 days). Excess over Average of Fallow Pots. Weight of Dry Crop. Grams. 16 -32 11-76 Transpiration Ratio. Pot 4 (Fallow) . . Pot 4' (Fallow) . . Pot 29 (Oats) . . Pot 29' (Oats) . . Grams. 12,785 12,729 17,832 18,342 Gr.ims. 5.075 5,585 492 475 lo June, iqi-^-J WcUer Req/{irc///e//is of Crops. 355 On comparing the results with those given for other countries on Table I., it will be seen that the ratio is higher than those obtained for cereals in Europe, but lower than American and Indian results. It caniiot be said, however, that the comparison with the Burnley pots is quite satisfactory. In the earlier stages of growth the crops suffered from undue shading, and in the latter stage from the same influence at certain hours of the day. It has already been mentioned that transpiration is most active in bright light, and practically ceases at night. In connexion with this, it would be expected that the transpiration ratio would be higher for plants grown in the open air than in plants partially shaded most of the time. It has recently been shown by Dr. H. Brown that it would be about one-half greater. Accepting this figure instead of the average figure 483, we should then have a transpiration ratio of 725 for oat plants grown in the open. The Indian figure for oats is 870, and it appears likely that 725 more nearly expresses the ratio for the Australian climate than the results given in the table. In discussing the question of assimilation it has been pointed out that the transpiration ratio is chiefly dependent upon the climate, but that it is not altogether so. In this connexion an important practical point was recently established by Dr. J. W. Leaiher of the Agricultural Research Institute, Pusa. In the dry climate of India the transpiration ratio tends to be high. It was found, however, that crops grown with manures made a better use of the water than crops with no manure, as is seen by the decreased ratios in every case. Table III. — Unnianured. Manured. Wheat 850 550 Barley 680 480 Oats 870 550 Peas 830 530 Maize 450 330 The first four are cold weather crops, in which evaporation is rapid, the last a monsoon crop, during which season the atmosphere is humid and moist giving generally low ratios. In discussing the results the author points out that not only does superphosphate have effect in narrowing the ratio, but that nitrates also, if required for plant food, and as might not be anticipated, have a like effect. After an elaborate series of experi- ments lasting some years, it is stated that " the effect of a suitable manure in aiding the plant to economize water is the most important factor which has yet been noticed in relation to transpiration." In concluding consideration of this subject it should be pointed out that the provision of a pot-culture house, on lines similar to those erected in other countries, is essential if the influence of local conditions upon the water relations of plants in Victoria is to be successfully studied. At Burnley a large number of pot cultures failed owing to the want of suitable equipment, and the re.sults from those few which have completed have had to be discussed with reserve. The following conclusions have been arrived at : — I. In cold humid climates, from 200 to 300 tons of water is lost by transpiration for each ton of dry crop yield. 354 Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo June. 191 2. 2. Experiments in different countries indicate that this ratio is increased in drier climates. 3. In Victoria the ratio for crops of moderate development possibly lies somewhere about 700. 4. Suitable manures, by rendering the plants more vigorous, reduce the ■transpiration ratio, and enable them to make a better use of available moisture. 5. Local conditions indicate that about 600 tons of water (_ 6" rain) must pass through a 13-bushel crop of wheat during its period of growth. BUNYIP AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY. By B. A. Barr, Dairy Sufervisor. This society merits the keen appreciation of all progressive dairymen in having introduced and conducted a dairy cow test in the district. From such test much benefit must result. It has a very wide-spreading educa- tional influence. It amply demonstrates that the key to payable dairying is sufficient fodder of the proper kind, and careful attention, so that the activities of milk secretion may be maintained to the highest capacity 'dependent upon individual development ; also it shows a record of each cow's yield, and the earnings of the lactation period are known. The only way to determine the cash return of each cow is by the continued use of the scales and the Babcock tester. Such a contest as this acts as an incentive to others to emulate the achievements of the winner, and, consequently, is of great influence in improving the productivity of district herds. It aLso brushes aside the so-called records of incredible yields. The results of the competition are such as one would find in any ordinary herd. The tests for morning's milk — which is usually somewhat lower than evening's milk — are good. The deductions to be drawn from the results are consistent with known local dairying conditions. More feed and weigh the milk, so that the exact amount can be scheduled, are the lines to follow. The Bunyip Agricultural Society is to be congratulated for undertaking this dairy cow test, and it is hoped will continue to hold one yearly, when it is suggested that the milk of tw^o consecutive milkings be taken. The number of entries for a first occasion is encouraging. Results. Milk Name. m Morning. Test. Butter Fat. Order. Fleming. J. 21-5 5-1 1-09 1 Downes. J. 22 0 4-2 0-92 2 Mclvor, P. 25 0 .3-6 0-90 3 Jenkin, W. H. . . 23-5 3-6 0-84 Smethurst. J. H. 18-5 4-5 0-83 Strafford, T. 21 0 3-9 0-81 Greaves. F. 19-75 4-0 0-79 •Cook, T. M. 16-25 4-0 0-73 Greaves, F. 16-25 3-8 0-61 Field, M. 18-0 2-9 0 • 52 The winner is'a'cowllS years old. lo June, 1912.] Bee-keeping in Victoria. 35S BEE-KEEPING IN VICTORIA. {Coiiliiiued from page 228.) By F. R. BciiJiiie, Bee Expert. v.— HIVE FLOORS AND COVERS. Floors. The hive stand generally sold by manufacturers and dealers consists of a single board 22 inches long, i3|- inches wide, and |-inch thick, nailed or; to a piece of 3in. x 2in. at each end, as shown in Fig. 5 of the previous article. On the top of this board, along two sides are nailed strips of wood 19^ inches long, ^-inch wide, and 5-16-inch in thickness. A piece of like dimensions, but only 13^ inches long, is nailed across one end. These three cleats raise the hive body 5-16-inch, and- form a bee-space bet\yeen the bottom bars of the frames and the hive-stand, and, at the same time, constitute the entrance to the hive. This entrance is i2jin. x 5-16-in., and may be contracted in winter by blocking it for one-half or two-thirds with pieces of ^in. x 5-i6in. wood. It is not advisable to have entrances larger than 5-16-inch., as mice may enter and destroy any combs not occupied by bees. This hive stand is fairly satisfactory, but rather expensive. The projection, which serves as an alighting board at the entrance, is also a somewhat objectionable feature, as it prevents close packing of hives in shifting colonies by road or rail. A hive stand can be made of half the weight, and at only two-thirds the cost, by substituting \-m. x 6-in. white Baltic lining boards for the J-in. shelving, and a frame of |-in. x 6-in. white Baltic flooring for the pieces of 3in. x 2in. This frame should be made the length and width of the hive, and 2 inches high, the lining boards being nailed on top, and the three cleats on top again. A detachable alighting board, sloping down to the level of the ground, takes the place of the projection. This stand rests on the ground all round, and the exclusion of draught underneath compensates for less thickness of the floor. If pressed down tight on to levelled ground, it affords no harbor for spiders and other vermin, nor a hiding place for queens (where queens are clipped) at swarming time. In some districts, particularly in forest country, trouble occurs with hive stands, and even hives, through white ants entering the wood of the stand where it touches the ground, and destroying it, and unless checked, eventually the hive. At a trifling expense in the first instance, this risk may be entirely avoided, by saturating those pieces of the stands which come into contact with the ground with a solution of sulphate of Copper, generally known as Bluestone. In a box i-inch longer, inside, than the longest pieces to be treated, and made water-tight by running boiling wax over all the joints, dissolve sufficient Bluestone in water to make a saturated solution, so that in about a day, with occasional stirring, .some of the cry- stals remain undissolved. The wood to be saturated should be thoroughly dry, and be packed into the box of solution, with bits of stick between the pieces to keep them apart, and a weight on the top to keep them under. Immersion for 24 hours will be sufficient, when the wood mav be exposed- to air and sun to dry. After the stands are made up the pieces impregnated should be painted or tarred to prevent the bluestone being soaked out by rain water. 356 Journal of Agriculture. Y'lcloria. [10 June. 191 2. Covers. In the matter of hive covers there is perliaps more neglect on the part of beekeepers than in anything else ; and vet upon the cover depends in a great measure, not only the prosperity and health of the colony, but the durability of the hive itself. When hives, however well made, are covered with bags, palings, bark, or pieces of tin and iron, which materials either absorb the rain or conduct it into the hive by soakage around the edges, one need not wonder to find hives gaping open at the joints with boards warped or cracked, and mouldy combs inside. A hive cover should be watertight above all things, but it should also be constructed so that it will throw the water clear of the hive walls, and prevent the fierce heat of summer and the frost of the winter penetrating from the top. A flat, single board cover cannot fulfil these requirements. Even when kept well painted on the outside and strongly cleated at the ends it will warp, twist, or crack in. the heat of summer, and will then not fit down close on to the hive all round. This will give rain water entrance to the interior of the hive and robber bees an opening to hover round during a dearth of nectar. A gable cover with base board resting flat on the hive surmounted by a pitched roof with eaves projecting down a little below the top of the hive, is most effective, and keeps the hive dry and cool in summer, and warm' in winter. This cover, is however, somewhat troublesome to con- struct, and not suitable for migratory beekeeping, being bulky and of an awkward shape for transporting. After using extensively for a number of years about six different patterns of hive covers, I find that a flat one covered with plain galvanized iron is the best all round. This is made of two layers of boards such as may be got from kerosene and jam cases. The boards of one layer run crosswise to the other, and are nailed together to form an oblong of 2o|in. x i4|in.. that is % inch longer and wider than the hive. Strips of board wide enough to project \ inch all round on the lower side of the cover are nailed to the edge of it. The whole is then covered with a piece of galvanized (plain) iron, No. 26 gauge, measuring 28in. x i8in., and cut in at the corners to allow of it being turned down at right angles and secured at the eaves. A sheet of 26-gauge plain galvanized iron 72in. x 36in., which is a trade size, will thus cover six hive roofs. A hive cover of this description will outlast any other kind. It requires no paint, as the wood is not exposed. There is no warping, as one layer of boards checks the other ; it is water and fire-proof ; and if layers of non-conducting material, such as paper, are inserted between ir ;n and wood, it is also heat and frost-proof. {To he conliiiued.) Fat occurs in milk as little globules measuring from .0006 inches in <]iameter downwards. Fleischmann reckons their number at about 50.000 iriillions in a pint of milk. lo June, 19 12.] General Notes. 357 GENERAL NOTES. PIG FEEDING— In the last Annual Report of the Secretary of Agriculture, U.S.A., reference is made to feeding tests recently concluded at the North Dakota Station. It was found that barley produced a better quality of pork than maize corn, but it required 18 per cent, more of barley than of corn to produce a given gain in weight. Another test showed that ground rejected wheat produced good gains when fed to swine with shorts. In comparison with maize corn it required 8.9 per cent, more rejected wheat than corn to produce the same gains, but the quality of pork produced was better than that produced on corn. IRISH BLIGHT— There is pretty general agreement among potato growers that the injury to be expected from Irish blight, once it has established itself in a country, will depend in large measure upon the wetness of the season. For the last 20 years experiments on spraying for the control of potato diseases have been carried out at the Vermont Experiment Station, U.S.A. ; and in Bulletin ijg of that institution the relation of rainfall to blight is dis- cussed. There is said to be a close connexion between the two, and in general a rainy season is likely to be accompanied by an epidemic of blight and rot. However in 1901 the raiixfall was small, and it was one of the worst seasons on record both as to the damage done to the foliage and to the tubers. Looking to this report one i ould wish that other weather observations besides rainfall had been included in the discussion. Absence of bright sunshine and a humid atmosphere would probably come next to excessive rainfall in encouraging a spread of the disease, but the data for these in 1901 are lacking. Altogether from the records, one seems warranted in believing that conditions of moderate rainfall and plenty of sun, are likely to act as powerful checks to the blight, while dull muggy, and wet weather will encourag-e it. THE FERTILITY OF HEN EGGS— How long after the removal frcm the pen of the male bird will the ^ggs laid by the hens prove fertile? The subject was essentially one for experiment, and the results of some tests at the Roseworthy Poultry Station are reported in the Journal of Agriculture of South Australia. The male bird was removed on 12th December, and each day's eggs were dated as gathered. It was intended to test 10 eggs each day, but the moulting season caused irregular laying. The eggs laid on 24 successive days were used in the tests. For the first week after the removal of the male bird the results were good, nearly all the eggs proving fertile. Thereafter there was a gradual falling off, the eggs of the tenth day hatching just 50 per cent. From the 14th day there were no fertile eggs, but the 15th yfelded two and the i6th one. Thereafter none of the eggs proved fertile. The general rule is to allow seven days as the extreme limit up to which eggs may be set. In this test the fertility was high. CARE OF CALVES— Take a little better care of those humped-up discouraged-looking young calves that stand shivering in the yard all day. The first winter is the cheapest and easiest time to make substantial gains. Calf fat once lost is rarely made up, even though extra care be given later in life. A stunted calf means a dwarfed cow. A mossy-coated, thick-fleshed calf is a pleasure and a money maker, while the hat-rack type is a reproach to the farm and farmer. — The Practical Farmer, Philadelphia. 358 Journal of Agriculture. Yichnia. [10 June, I9I2_ BREEDING CROP PLANTS— The time has gone by when any kind of seed will do in farming, and if the industry is to hold its own it must procure the best for each purpose. The difference in yield from good and from indifferent seed often amounts- to more than the annual value of the land. Much can be done by grading and selection from existing types, but in many cases the selective process- must be preceded by artificial crossing in order to obtain the characters desired. The cross-breeding of plants follows the same laws as the cross- breeding of animals, but it is a more tedious affair, and it has another drawback in the eyes of the farmer. A good breeder of live-stock can obtain high prices for his annual drafts for stud purposes, and hope to do as well again next year, but the plant breeder when he begins to sell, ruins his market. The difference lies in th'e nature of the case. It seems- to be for this reason that improvement in live-stock has progressed under private enterprise, while a corresponding improvement in crop plants must be sought for under public control. \n the Arb. Deut. Landw. GeselU 1910, appears a history of German plant breeding, including a description of the work carried on at the present time in both public and private insti- tutions. As pointed out in this work, Germany has to-day 43 breeders of winter rye, 3 of spring rye, 61 of winter wheat, 23 of spring wheat, 5 of winter barley, 60 of spring barley, 53 of oats, 23 of fodder beets, 21 of sugar beets. 17 of potatoes, 4 of kale, carrots, and similar crops. 8 of clover.<% and grasses, and 28 of leguminous plants. As the best variety of any crop for one country is rarely the best for the conditions of another^ there is an immense field for the breeder of Australian types. COLD STORAGE— The United States Department of Agriculture {Annual Report, igii), has just concluded a special investigation into the economic results of cold storage. The business has assumed large proportions. Of the total pro- duction during the last year 13I per cent, of the eggs were placed in cold storage; fresh beef over 3 per cent. ; mutton over 4 per cent. ; fresh pork ii| per cent. ; creamery butter 25 per cent. The cost of storage includes charge for space (either by month or season), interest on the value of_ the stored produce, and lastly insurance. When these three costs are combined they amount per month to 0.437 of ^ cent for fresh beef; for mutton- C.352; for pork 0.398; poultry 0.446; and for butter 0.571. all per lb. For eggs the costs are 0.593 of i cent per dozen per month. Cold storage has with certain commodities shown a strong tendency to equalize the monthly prices throughout the year particularly in regard to butter, eggs, poultry, and fresh mutton. This fact was established b\ converting the mean price of each commodity for each month into a percentage of the mean price for the whole year, and then comparing the monthly variations in 1902-11 with the variations before 1893 when cold storage first became able to affect prices. For butter and eggs, besides equalizing prices from month to month, cold storage has raised the average prices for the whole year ; the calculations involved here were complicated and were not applied to the other commodities. An aspect of cold storage referred to is the facility which it affords for speculation in perishable goods by wholesale dealers holding for a rise, and it is concluded that " this business of stor- ing goods has grown to such proportions that consumers have a rightful concern with its management for economic as well as sanitary reasons." lo June, 191 2.] Weeds, Aliens, and Poison Plants. 359 THE WEEDS, XATLIRALIZED ALIENS AND POISON PLANTS OF VICTORIA. By Alfred J. Eivart, D.Sc, Ph.D., F.L.S., Government Botanist and Professor of Botany and Plant Physiology in the Melbourne University. Watsinia Meriana, Mill. Var. Iridifolia (iridese). This plant, often known as Merian's Bugle Lily, is a native of South Africa, which was first recorded as a permanent naturalized alien in 1907 (Victorian Naturalist, vol. 24, page 16). The plant is a rather handsome ■one, and was cultivated in gardens long before this, thence spreading and running wild, until in some parts it is quite a troublesome weed, particularly in neglected pastures which are moist or somewhat swampy during a portion of the year. It also shows a special predilection for growing along the banks of small water-courses, even where these are dry for the greater part of the year. Although it likes moisture, it is able lo remain green over prolonged periods of dry weather, and at such times the green colour appears sometimes to attract stock and lead to their eating the plant, although it is surprising how little of it is usually eaten, in spite of its externally attractive and succulent appearance. The plant is often reported as having exercLsed an injurious or poisonous action upon stock, and since it belongs to an ordei which includes such poison plants as the Cape Tulip {Homeria collina), as well as many which are injurious without being strictly poisonous, all such cases are worthy ■of critical experimental investigation. The Iris itself, for instance, con- tains, particularly in the rhizome, a peculiar acrid oleo-resin, sometimes known as Irisin, which, apparently, consists of a mixture of a bitter acrid fixed oil or soft resin, a volatile crystallizable oil, and other extractives. This oleo-resin of Iris appears to exercise an irritant action on the mucous membrane of the alimentary canal, and, hence, acts as a purgative, as well as a powerful stimulant to the liver. It also has emetic and diuretic properties, such as are possessed by the extracts from many other plants belonging to the same order. In the case of the Cape Tulip, it is pro- bable that the plant contains a similar oleo-resin to that present in Iris, but that it is either more intense in its action or more abundant. It is evident, therefore, that the reports as to Watsonia being poisonous could not be dismissed without full investigation. Accordingly, Dr. Rothera undertook to investigate the supposed poisonous character of this plant, and his results are published in brief in the Journal for November, 1 9 10. He found that sheep, goats, and rabbits eat it readily, and that no harmful after-effects were noticeable. He could detect no alkaloid either in the bulbs or in the green parts, while injections of extracts •designed to contain active principles if present, produced no apparent poisonous action. One possibility still, how^ever, remained open. In some cases, as, for instance, in the case of the Darling Pea {Szvainsona ^alegi folia), a poisonous action may be exercised in the course of time by plants from which it is exceedingly difficult or impossible to extract any poisonous principle, and if such plants are only eaten for a short period of time, no evil effects may result. In the case of the Swainsona, four to six weeks are required to produce serious svmptoms, when the plant is eaten in moderate amount mixed with other food, and the effects are 360 Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [10 June, i9I2> similar to those produced by slow poisoning with alcohol and certain toxic proteids, namely, peripheral neuritis and degeneration of the nerve endings, accompanied by a loss of muscular control. In addition, Profes- sor Gilruth showed that after one to two months' continuous grazing on Ragwort, cattle and horses, and, to a less extent, sheep may develop- cirrhosis of the liver, and ultimately die as the result of it. Experiments on another Senecio in South Africa showed that four to eight ounces a day caused death in oxen in a few days to a month, the action being usually a little slower on hoi'ses, and one result being the production of cirrhosis of the liver. Accordingly, an experiment was tried to determine whether with pro- longed feeding, any general poisonous action was exercised by Watsonia. Owing to the quantity of material required, small animals, namely guinea pigs, were used for the test, which was begun on June 30th, and extended to the 7th of September ; that is, nearly eleven weeks. During the first half of this period, each guinea pig received mixed bran and pollard, and as green food an average of 18 grams a day of the green leaves of Watsonia. These were taken fresh as required from a large bed of the plants grown for this purpose in the Herbarium garden. The controls received ordinary green feed, together with bran and pollard. At first, the guinea pigs did not eat the Watsonia very readily, and hence were not given more than 10 to 12 grams a day apiece. By the end of the first week, however, they eat it readily, and received from 15 to 18 grams per day during the first five weeks. During the latter half of the experiment they were fed with as much as they would eat, which, varied from 20 to 40 grams a day apiece. The average amount consumed by each animal during the whole period was 1326 grams ; that is, more than the total body weight. The animals remained healthy and normal during the whole period of the experiment, showed no signs of any poisonous action whatever, and one pair produced a batch of young towards the latter part of the experiment, which were apparently normal, but were destroyed and partially devoured by the parents, probably as the result of confinement or of fright, and not as the result of any nutritive hunger. In any case, the experiment is sufficient to show that Watsonia does not contain any poisonous principle capable of exercising any general, slow, accumulative poisonous action. In order that those unfamiliar with the plant may be able to recognise it, the following brief description is appended : — ■ It is a tall erect plant, usually 2 to 3 feet high, but sometimes- reaching a height of 5 feet on rich moist soils. The underground base of the stem is swollen into a hard bulb (corm), i to 2 inches in diameter, covered with brown fibrous coats. The leaves are somewhat like those of an Iris, and arise at the base of the stem. There is a single erect flowering stem, sometimes slightly branched at the upper end, bearing numerous rather large pink, red, or very occasionally white flowers, which are sometimes partly or entirely replaced by clusters of small, fleshy, pointed bulbils. The bulbils when they fall -off are able to strike root and produce new plants. The plant has no special smell or taste by which it can be recognised, but once seen, it is not likely to be mistaken fot an} othei plant. The flowers are much like those of a Gladiolus, with a curved tube and the stamens all just falling short of the tips of its segments. loTH June, 19 12.] M'nit Cultivation. 36; SMALL RURAL INDUSTRIES. B.— MINT CULTIVATION. {By Jostfli KnigJit.) Mint {MciifJia) includes the Penny-royal {Mciitlia Puleghim), also Spearmint {Mentha vi/idis), which is cultivated for culinary purpos<:S, be- sides other species. Our business here is with the plant commonly known as Black Mint {Mentha fiferita). Fnaii this is produced the weU-known Oil of Peppermint, which is largely used in medicine, confectionery, and in the manufac- ture of cordials. Black Mint is cultivated largely in England and other countries for the extraction of oil, it is a hardy plant, loving a cool moist climate and a free soil. It thrives well on the hillsides in Gippsland and similar situations, is easily managed, and gives good return for labour be- stowed on it. The following is a brief descrip- tion of its cultivation and treat- ment : — - Planting and Cultivation. The plant used to establish a crop consists of pieces of the stolons or runners taken from the parent plant ; like most of the " Mint " tribe, it is very prolific in producing these ^lack mint (mentha piperita). runners. Slips with three or four joints are sufficient — they should be well rooted, and the stronger they are the more prolific the first year's crop will be. The runners V \1 ^ /^ ^^M^'gJ^JB'MJI^^ ' J0^ ^BkB^^ f^c^J^^^^^^ 0^ are planted -out in well pre- pared soil, and should stand about 15 to 18 inches apart from plant to plant each way. The land should be clean and free from weeds, as the dis- tillation afterwards of the produce renders foreign matters undesirable. Care with the first crop will save much trouble in future working, as the plant, when once established, will, to a large extent, protect itself from any intrusion of weeds. Fairly deep cultivation is necessary. The plant is chiefly a surface feeder, but requires some depth of soil in order to obtain the best results. The land should be well worked to a fine tilth 6004. X stolons or runners. .362 Journal of Agriculture , Victoria. [ioth June, 1912. and smooth surface, otherwise the cutting is difficult. Little, in the way of cultivation can be done after planting, but the soil round the crop may be kept stirred with a fork, so as to give the young plant freedom in pushing out its runners for the summer cutting. In some cases, in fairly level land and dry situations, furrows are run between the rows and water run down; but where there is danger of " scour," this must be avoided. Light forking will materially assist the plant in its development prior to cutting. The sets may be dropped in a shallow furrow and the soil turned down with a plough at the distance decided upon, but the land must be left with a level surface for the reason stated above. The time of planting must depend largely on the parent plant, as the runners have to be taken from the season's growth, and it is undesirable to rob i't to the extent of impairing its yield for the coming harvest. Li Gippsland, and other timbered localities, ear'ly in November would be time enough, in ordinary seasons. If the treatment of the soil has been suitable, there should be a fair cutting in March, and this may be treated for oil extraction straight away. The yield should then be sufficient to meet the expenses of labour for the first year's working. After cutting the first year, the plants are, in .son^e cases, covered up with a little loose earth, which gives them a start in making runners for producing the second crop. When the plants have been set out at a sufficient distance apart a cultivator should be worked between the rows. It will be found more economical to arrange this distance and employ horse labour, than to work by hand. After the second cutting, the land may be ploughed and the plants covered, and being well established they will stand rough treatment as far as the cultivation is concerned ; this applies to all subsequent seasons. It may be found advantageous to renew the [ilantation every five or six vears, as new fields will be found to give better results. Harvesting. The time of harvesting caraiot be definitely stated but the crop should be taken in full bloom. This is usually late in spring or early in autumn. The crop is usually cut with a hook, .sometimes with a short-bladed scythe, frequently with a nipping machine ; it is gathered in rows, then placed on sheets of hessian, and carried direct to the still. While many allow it to dry somewhat, asserting that there is no loss of oil, but only moisture, in the evaporation, others again claim that this is a mistake. It may not always be convenient to distill the whole crop in the green state; but there is no doubt that, where this can be done, it is advisable to do so. What- ever is done, care must be taken to prevent self heating of the produce, which readily occurs if it is kept in heaps while green ; and it must not be permitted to get wet by rain and become mouldy, as the oil is affected thereby, both in quantity and quality. After Treatment. The bulky nature of the mint crop necessitates the treatment of it on or near the place at which it is produced. For this purpose, a fair- sized still is necessary — the size must be regulated by the amount of crop. lOTH June, 1912.] Mint Cultivation. 363 A 400-gallon still will be sufficient for 20 acres or so. The cost of the still depends on the nature of the material employed, and other such conditions. The late Mr. Slater, of Mitcham, Victoria, who was a suc- cessful grower of i)lants for essential oils, and who had con- siderable experience of these in England, carried out his dis- tillation work with the ordinary iron malt tanks — 400 gallons each— which he found to answer the purpose well. A tank was set iin on bricks (roughly) in such a way as to admit of a fire being placed underneath. The whole of the top of this tank was movable, and in it was fitted a cage lined with wire netting to hold the material. This cage was let down into the tank, which was filled with water. The lid had a goose-necked cone to convey the steam and oil to another tank holding the condenser, which PERFUME STILL MADE BY DONDEY AND TESTRO. was simplv a spiral of tin-lined copper piping. The lid of the first tank was made to screw down tightly on a rubber ring, in order to prevent any escape of steam, except through the condenser. The second tank was open, and contained the condenser only ; and as a stream of water was not available to run into this, a third tank was employed to supply a current of cold water to keep the condenser cool. A steady stream of water was delivered to the bottom of the condensing tank, which, of course, as it heated, rose to the top and found its way to the overflow . These simple and inexpensive appliances answered the purpose, but where a more elaborate outfit is desired, many of our coppersmiths can supply it. Messrs. Dondey and Testro. South Melbourne, have a very convenient still, made of the latest pattern, and no doubt will be reasonable in their charges. Their experience in still-making should be a warranty N 2 364 Journal of Agriculture , Victoria. [ioth June, 1912. that a suitable article will be supplied. The illustration given here is for a small still about twenty-five (25) gallons. The design can be made to kny size required. The treatment of the various plants from wh'ch oil is extracted by dis- tillation is carried out in the same manner as the product now under consideration. There is one thing very necessary when changing from one product to another — a thorough deodorizing and cleaning must take place, otherwise much of the product will be destroyed. DiSTiLLING. This operation is looked upon as being .somewhat difficult, but it only requires a little practice to get good results. It may be mastered by the most inexperienced person with a few trials. The oil contained in the leaves and stems is lighter than water, and it has also a lower boiling point. When heat is applied the oil rises and passes off with a little steam before the boiling point of the water is reached. The finer and better part of the oil escapes first, and here it is that care and skill is required to make the most of the product, and to secure a first and second quality of oil. The steam, water, and oil which passes through the condenser referred to, passes out through the lower portion of the cooling tank into a receiver known as the " Florentine." This somewhat resembles a teapot without a handle. The oil and water dropping into the top of the receiver separate, the oil floating on the top whilst the water escapes slowly at the spout. As the outlet is at the bottom of this receiver and the top of the spout a little below the mouth or level of the receiving portion of the " Florentine," the water and oil are separated. One mistake frequently made is in forcing the distillation. The boiling should be .slow, so as to avoid forcing over objectionable matter. A tank of 400 gallons should be allowed four or five hours to boil ; after the first two hours the receiver should be changed, as the oil to follow is of secondary quality, and should be marketed separately. It is said that whatever oil the stalks contain is inferior in quality, and, being the last to be driven off, the heat must be regulated and the boiling a simmer only. In distilling, it is much preferable to heat the water in the boiling tank with superheated steam, as it is more under control. This is done by having a steam generator close by, and running steam through a per- forated coil placed in the bottom of the still. The heat can then be regu- lated to a nicety. Some eucalyptus distillers run hot steam through their leaves without water, but this does not meet with general approval for the finer essential oil plants. When applying direct heat greater attention is required than in using steam. Yields and Prices. A good crop of well-established mint will yield from five to six tons per imperial acre. As to the yield of oil, some growers give 3 to 4 lb.;, per ton, whilst others state 5 to 6 lbs. ; nothing definite can be given in this respect. At the DunoPly and Leongatha Government Scent Farm mint was the last crop to receive attention, and it was riot sufficiently estab- lished to give any reliable data to quote from. aoTH June, 191^-] Mint Ctdtivation. 365 Extract from the Royai Commission's Report on Vegetable Products. (Evidence given \)y the late Joseph Bosisto, Esq., C.M.G., M.P.) Now peppermint will grow on loamy and moi.st lands, and grow in abundance ; but, like everything else, it wants proper gardening, taking care of, and keeping free from weeds. Its habitat is in loamy and moist lands. If this be neglected, it will scon lose its fragrance and flavour. The districts of Melbourne, Mount iNIacedon, and North Gippsland were tried, and that from North Gippsland was the best. Even in England the qualities vary in value; thus Mitcham oil realizes 40s. per lb., while Cambridge brings only 33s. per lb., American i6s. per lb., and French 10s. per lb. I sent home to London a large quantity that I myself dis- tilled, but other persons grew. I offered to distil it free, provided thev would supply me with the material, and many of them did so — four or five — and here are the reports which I received from home relative to the peppermint. I forwarded several samples, together with the followinj\ letter : — " I lierewith semi you a s;imj)le of .m cssenti:il oil of peppermint, distilled from the green and cultivated jjlant grown in the mountainous districts cf Victoria, with a request that you will favour mc= ^vith an opinion as ta its quality and marketable value if forwarded in large quantities." Here are the reports. One is from W. J. Busii and Company, one of the largest essential oil buyers in England : — " We consider it very good quality — about enual to our Cambridge mint. We had submitted to us lozenges (Meggeson and Company), three kinds : one lot con- taining Mitcham oil, another lot con'taining Australian, and another containing Hatchkiss' (America). We picked out those made with the American at once as the worst, but were wrong with the other two, for we judged the Australian oil-made lozenges to be the Mitcham and vice versa. We think 2i;s. to be an outside price tj be expected at first, but will afterwards improve in price. There is a herby flavour about it that ma}' be got over by cultivation." Messrs. Price and Hickman report : — " We have examined the Australian oil of peppermint, and consiiler it to be of ■excellent quality, and but little inferior to Mitcham oil. If it could be produced a trifle less yellow in colour, we have no doubt we could dispose of it in this markiit at about 27s. 6d. per lb. In its present state, we think it would be worth 25s." Another firm report : — " It certainly is the best foreign oil we hove seen ; but still it is foreign, and '.ve ■doubt if at first it can compete with the English. We think it will soon take a high place." Now Cambridge mint is the second quality, onl} second to the best Mitcliam ^0^^flf^^ ^66 Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [ioth June, 1912. FUMIGATION FOR THE DESTRUCTION OF SCALE INSECTS. By A. A. Hammond, Orchard Supervisor. For many years the Red Scale {Aspidiotus Coccineus) was known to be present in the Doncaster district. When first noted, only a few trees- in one large plantation were infected. For a long time, the scale made no headway, and consequently growers took but little notice of its presence. About five years ago, however, the pest began to multiply and spread to an alarming extent, notwithstanding that every effort was made to destroy it by spraying. Emulsions of kerosene, crude petroleum and red oil were used, as well as several patent spraying mixtures ; but it was found that, although spraying checked the pest for a time, it soon became as bad or worse than ever, and continued to spread. No matter how carefully spraying is done, only about 80 to 90 per cent, of the scale is destroyed on evergreen trees, because it is practically impossible to spray the under- side of every leaf and fruit. It may be well to state here that red oil emulsion, i in 30, properly prepared, gave the best results. Scalecide also gave fair results, but is- more expensive than fumigation, to be equallv effective. In 1909, scon after I had taken charge of the Doncaster district, the Red Scale was found in most of the citrus plantations. The Olive Scale was also causing a good deal of trouble. When it was deironstrated to the Doncaster growers that fumigation was a thoroughly effective means of destroying scale insects, and the cost, in the long run, less than spraying, the leading citrus-growers adopted it. To Mr. Ferdinand Finger is due the credit of being the first in the Doncaster district to demonstrate the efficiency and practicabilitv of fumigation. Mr. Finger had five sheets made from strong unbleached calico selected by me. I supervised and assisted in the fumigation of several orange and lemon trees, on 26th March, 1909. These trees were infected with Red Scale, and, on examining the trees a few days later, ail the scale were found to be dead. The charge used was i ounce each of cyanide and sulphuric acid to every 180 cubic feet of inclosed space. Mr. Finger and his son continued the fumigation at intervals during April and May. The Red Scale, on all trees treated, was destroyed ; but the charge was insufficient to kill Olive Scale fumigated earlv in May. Tn all subsequent dem.onstrations, i ounce each of cvanide and sulphuric acid" to 160 cubic feet was used, and was found to be effective against both the Red and the Olive Scales, as well as the eggs of the latter. It is inadvisable, however, to use the stronger charge when treating orange trees, unless they are treated on cloudy days, or at night, as they are much more susceptible to injury than lemons or mandarins. The value of fumigation was further demonstrated in July, 1909. In the latter end of June of that year, T discovered the San Jo.se Scale in a Doncaster orchard. As this dreaded pest had net previously been found in the district, and'" was confined to one orchard, it was decided to have the infected trees- fumigated. aoTH June, 1912.] Fumigation for ihc Destruction of Scale Insects. 367 368 Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [ioth June, 1912. The work was carried out in July. One ounce each of cyanide and acid to 120 cubic feet was used, i.e., about a quarter strona;er than that used on evergreen trees. The scale was completely stamped out. It is now nearly three years since the trees were treated, and, although a careful inspection of the orchard where the outbreak occurred has been frequently made, no trace of the scale could be found. Fumigation for Woolly Aphis was also tried in Mr. Finger's orchard in May, 1909. A charge of the same strength as that used for citrus trees was given. On examining the trees a month later, live aphis were found in the knots and excrescences, though examination immediately after treat- ment revealed no living aphis. These were, no doubt, protected in the interstices of the bark from the action of the gas. Fumigation Outfit. Sheets, either octagonal or square, made of strong closely woven- unbleachtd calico, are recommended. The octagonal sheets require less material to cover a tree of a given- size than a square sheet, but there is more trouble in making them up, and, consequently, the square sheets are more favored. A tree 13 feet high can be covered by a sheet 36 feet square, and one n feet high by a 30-ft. square sheet. It requires 72 yards of calico, double width, fo make the form.er, and 50 yards the latter. The cost of the calico is about is. 3d. per yard. Before making up the sheets, growers should measure the height of their trees, and the height multiplied by 2| gives, roughly, the size of the sheets required. Loops of rope or rings should be attached to two sides of the sheet, about 15 feet apart, and equal distances from the corners. These are required in which to insert the poles when placing the sheet over the tree. Chemicals Required. Cyanide of potassium (the best quality) and sulphuric acid, are the chemicals used for generating the gas. Both are sold by avoirdupois weight, but the quantities given in the fumigation table are ounces avoir- dupois and fluid ounces respectively. This has to be taken into account when ordering the chemicals. There are but 9 fluid ounces of sulphuric acid in i lb- avoirdupois, so, in order- ing, it is required to get 16 lbs. of acid for every 9 lbs. of cyanide. The cost of the cyanide is 9d. to lod. per lb., and sulphuric acid i|d. per lb. The cost of a charge for a tree 11 feet high by 11 feet in diameter is about 4d. A pair of scales is required to weigh the cyanide, and a measuring glass for the sulphuric acid and water. The scales should be accurate and in good order. Placing Sheets over Trees, Charging, etc. Two light strong poles 12 to 15 feet long, according to the height of the trees, are required. These should be pointed at one end, and have a fork at the other. The forked end is wanted to insert in the loop or ring attached to the sheet, and the pointed end prevents the poles from slipping on the ground. Two men can with the.se easily rai.se the sheet and draw it over the tree. The operators should, if there is a breeze, work towards it, when the lOTH June, 191 -■] Fumigation for the Destruction of Scale Insects. 369 sheet will float over the tree without danger of being damaged. The sheet should be sufficiently large to allow of a foot or so to lie on the ground all round the tree. Soil is then thrown over this to prevent the escape of gas, except a few feet, which is left for the purpose of placing in the ■charge. When branches of the tree lie on the ground, care must be taken not to cover them up when tucking the sheet around the tree, otherwise, scale occurring on these parts will not be destroyed, owing to the protection afforded by the tent and soil. To ascertain the charge required, measure the height and diameter of the tree after the sheet is on. A rod marked plainly off in feet is used for this purpose. PLACING SilEEl OVER TRIlL. Should the tree be very irregular in shape, it is advisable to take the -diameter two ways, and then take the mean diameter. This also applies in measuring the height. It is usually sufficient to take the extreme height and diameter, but when the margin of safetv is small, as is the case when treating orange trees in the day time, particularly large ones, a good deal must always be left to the judgment of tlie operator. After the height and diameter have been taken, a reference to the fumigation table will show the charge required. In preparing the charge, the water is first placed in an enamel or earthenware vessel large enough to hold the liquid without danger of boiling over. The sulphuric acid is then slowly added to the water, and the vessel placed w^ell under the tree. When all rs ready, and the tent ■closed down, with the exception of the place where the charge is put in, the cyanide is dropped gently into the vessel. 37° Journal of Agriculfiirc, 1 u [lOTH June, 19 12, The operator should not put his head inside the tent when placing the- c\anide in the acid, as the fumes are very deadly. As soon as the cyanide is dropped in, the sheet should be quickly closed down and covered. The sheet should be left on for 45 minutes. As a certain amount of gas escapes through the sheets, it is advisable when fumigating for the operators to work towards the wind, so that the gas fumes are blown away from them. It is inadvisable to fumigate when it is very windv, or when the sun is hot. There is also a danger of burning if the foliage is wet. Time for Fumigation. The best time to fumigate is in March. I have found that both the Red and Olive Scales are much more easily destroyed at this time of the- year than when the cold weather sets in. This applies particularly to the- CHARGING. Olive Scale, as in jNIarch and early April the majority of the scales are- young, and easily destroyed. The foliage, too, at this season is tougher, and not so liable to injury. On the other hand, in Spring and early Summer, the foliage is tender, the insects more difficult to- destroy, and if a few escape destruction, they multiply during the late Summer and Autumn. The Red Scale can be effectively treated in Winter, but the ground is then sloppy, and the weather usually unfavorable. Another objection to winter treatment is that, although the scale on the fruit is killed, it will not fall off, whereas, if done in early Autumn, the expanding fruit throws it off before picking time. The tables which have been prepared will probably be sufficient for all requirements, but the required charge for larger trees will be found bv .•squaring the diameter, multiplying by \\, then by -i% of the height, and dividing bv 160 for the stronger charge as given in No. i table, or by lOTH June, 19 12.] Fu)tiigation for the Destruction of Scale Insects. 371 180 as given in N'o. 2 table. For example, if a tree is 20 feet high by 1 8 feet in diameter, theformulais 18 x 18 x \\ x 20 x ^"^5- x -^\^ = 2 8| nearly. The charge therefore is 28^ ounces of cyanide, 29 ounces of sulphuric .acid, and 87 ounces of water. It will be noticed that i-oz. weights are often required in weighing the cyanide. As these are not always obtainable, a penny can be used, which weighs exactly \ ounce. Observation of the result of fumigating trees varying considerably in size, show that small trees are rarely overcharged, whilst with large trees this often happens when the margin of safety is small. Great care, there- fore, must be taken with the measurements in treating large trees, especially •oranges, during the day. It has been noted that, when the sheet has been taken off a small tree .after being on for 45 minutes, the odour of the gas has been scarcely FUMIGATING FOR RED SCALE MR. RIESCHIECK S PLANTATION, DONCASTER, VICTORIA. perceptible ; whereas, in the case of large trees, the odour of the gas was strong. The reason of this is that the area of the sheet enveloping a large tree is, in relation to the .space enclosed, less than the' area of the sheet enclosing a small tree. As there is an escape of gas through the undres.sed calico, the wastage of gas is relatively greater in small than in large trees. In fumigating deciduous trees during winter for San Jose Scale, a charge one quarter stronger is necessary. This is found by multiplying the quantity of cyanide given in No. i table by 4, and dividing by 3. Sulphuric acid and water are increased proportionately. The cyanide should always be carefully weighed, and the exact charge given. A little more than the prescribed quantity of sulphuric acid can be given withouf harm, and this is done when small fractions are involved. Cyanide is a deadly poison, and should be handled with great care. It should be kept in a secure place, and air-tight, when not in use. Sulphuric acid is dangerous also, and care should be taken not to allow it ^73 ■' Journal of Agriculture, Yicioria. [ioth June, 191 j. to come in contact with the clothing or the sheets. After handling the acid bottle, the operator should wipe or rinse his hands before touching the sheets. When breaking the cyanide, which is in lumps, be careful that none- gets into the eyes. Always place the water in the vessel first, then slowly add the acid. When the vessel is in pO'sition under the sheet, gently drop the cyanide in. Hold the breath till the tent is closed down. Should the cyanide- be very fine, it should be wrapped in paper, and paper and all put in. This prevents the too rapid generation of the gas. When large charges are given, it is advisable to place a board a few inches above the generator for the purpose of spreading the gas. The foliage immediately above the- generator is sometimes damaged when this is not done. Avoid treating orange trees on a warm sunny day, and never fumigate when the foliage is wet. Always dry the sheets well before storing them away. Fumigation can be done at any time of the year, but is safer and more effective in autumn. There is no doubt that fumigation is superseding spraying as a means of destroying the scale in citrus trees. It is, in the long run, cheaper than? spraving, and is thoroughly effective if properly done. Trees arc invigorated by fumigation, but continual spraying injures tnem, more c» less. As has been stated, the San Jose Scale was stamped out in the Doncaster district by fumigation. There is no reason why the Red Scale could not also be stamped out if the fumigation is as carefull) and as thoroughly carried out. Reinfection is often caused through leaving a few trees in the planta- tion untreated which were thought to be clean. It should be remembered, also, that pear trees will harbor both the Red and the Olive Scales, and these should, when growing near citrus trees, be either fumigated or well sprayed with red oil, i in 25, in the winter. Citrus trees have been reinfected through neglecting to treat infected pear trees which were growing among them. Herewith, the opinions and experiences of the leading citrus-growers of the Doncaster district, who have adopted fumigation for the destruction of scale insects in citrus trees, are given : — C. Gill writes : — "Besides getting rid of the scale, it improved the trees, also the fruit was far superior, commanding a better price on the market, and a readier sale. I may state that I am not quite free from it yet ; but it was not the fault of the fumigation. I discovered that some of the branches that were on the ground got covered up with the dirt when packing round the tent j therefore, the fumes did not get at them. I may state that one tree in the badly affected part got missed, and it was marvellous the difference in that tree and the ones around it." Mr. Wm. Rie.'^chieck, Doncaster, writes : — " I found the fumigation tables, which you supplied me with, quite satisfactory. The ' No. i ' table was quite right for lemons, destroying both the Olive and tlie Red Scale. I tried the ' No. i ' table for oranges in the day time, but found it too strong. The ' No. 2 ' table, however, did no harm, and was, as far as I can see, effective. A lad and myself did 60 trees per day com- fortably, using five sheets. The largest sheet used was 30 feet by- lOTH June, 1912.] Fumigation for tJic Dcsiniciiou of Scale Insects. 373 30 feet, which will cover a tree 12 feet hij^h hy 14 feet in diameter. And now accept my best thanks for heli)ing me with the fumigation, as I knew nothing about it at the start." Other orchardists have written in appre(iati. (S 0. 6 "3. "a 1 •- £'.'2 i .2' 2 B o3 1 S ^ c w •s 0 a 0 ^ w (5 ^cS >^ ^-^ ^ ft. ft. cub. ft. ozs. av fl. ozs. ! fl. ozs. ft. i ft. cub. ft. ozs. av fl. ozs. fl. ozs. 4 5 71 I 2 * 9 1 12 916 5f 6 17 4 6 102 i ' 2 10 12 1,018 6i 7 19 5 4 57 f 2 ; 11 12 1,120 7 7 21 6 4 68 i 2 12 12 ].221 7^ 8 22 7 4 79 3 4 2 13 i 12 1,323 8i 9 25 5 5 88 f 2 14 12 1,425 ' 8f 9 26 6 5 106 2 15 t 12 1,527 91 9* 28 7 5 124 1 2 16 12 1,629 101 101 31 8 5 141 1 3 9 13 1,075 6| 7 ! 20 5 6 127 1 3 10 13 1,195 7* n 23 6 6 153 1 3 11 13 1,314 8j H 25 7 6 178 H H 4 12 13 1,433 9 9 27 8 6 204 H H 4 13 13 1,553 9| 10 29 9 6 229 H H 4 14 13 1,672 lOi 101 31 6 7 208 U n 4 15 13 1,792 Hi 111 34 7 7 242 H n 5 16 13 1,911 12 12 36 8 7 277 If 2 5 17 13 2,031 12f 13 38 9 7 312 2 2 6 10 14 1,385 8f 9 26 10 7 346 2i H 6 11 14 1,524 9i H 28 6 8 271 If 2 5 12 14 1,663 lOi 101 31 7 8 317 2 2 6 13 14 1,801 lU Hi 34 8 8 362 2* 2* 7 14 14 1,940 121 m 37 9 8 407 2i 2i 7 i 15 14 2,078 13 13 39 10 8 452 3 3 9 1 16 14 2,217 13| 14 41 11 8 498 H 31 10 1 17 14 2,355 14f 15 44 12 8 543 H 3i 10 18 14 2,494 Ui 151 46 6 9 344 H 2i 7 10 15 1,590 10 10 £0 7 9 401 2i H 8 11 15 1,749 11 1 11 33 8 9 458 3 3 9 12 15 1,909 12 12 36 9 9 515 H 3* 1 10 13 15 2,068 13 1 13 39 10 9 573 H 31 1 11 ! 14 15 2,227 14 14 42 11 9 630 4 4" 12 ! 15 15 2,386 15 15 45 12 9 687 4i 4^ i 13 16 15 2,545 16 16 48 7 10 495 H 31 : 10 17 15 2,704 17 17 51 8 10 565 H 3| 11 18 15 2,863 18 18 54 9 10 636 4 4 12 11 16 1,991 121 m 37 10 10 707 4J 4* 13 12 16 2,171 131 131 1 40 11 10 778 4f 5 14 13 16 2,352 14f j 15 i 45 12 10 848 5* 51 16 14 16 ! 2,533 15f 16 47 13 10 919 5f 6' 17 15 1 16 1 2,714 16| 17 50 14 10 990 6i 6* 19 16 16 2,895 : 18 18 54 • 8 11 684 4* 5 13 17 16 3,076 19 19 57 9 11 770 4| 5 14 18 16 1 3,257 t 20 ' £0 eo 10 11 855 5* 6 16 13 17 2,656 15f 16 47 11 11 941 5| 6 17 14 17 2,860 17i 18 53 12 11 1,026 ^ 7 20 15 17 3.064 19 19 57 13 11 1,112 7 7 21 16 17 3,269 19| 20 ! 59 14 ! 11 1,197 7* 8 22 17 17 3,473 211 211 64 374 Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [ioth June, 19 12. Fumigation Table No. 2. J3 .2 a. 5 1 0 1 ft. ft. cub. ft. ozs. av. fl. OZS. fl. ozs. 4 0 71 f 2 4 6 102 1 2 5 4 57 \ 4 2 6 4 68 1 2 7 4 79 2 5 5 88 1 2 6 5 106 i 2 7 5 124 3 4 2 8 5 141 3 5 6 127 3 6 6 153 3 7 6 178 3 8 6 204 3 9 6 229 U H 4 6 7 208 3 7 7 242 H 1 1 4 8 7 277 1 1 ^2 U 5 9 7 312 If 2 6 10 7 346 If 2 6 6 8 271 u 14 5 7 8 317 If 2 6 8 8 362 2 2 6 9 8 407 2J 24 7 10 8 542 2i 24 7 11 8 498 2i 3 9 12 8 543 3 3 9 6 9 344 ^4 2 6 7 9 401 2i 24 7 8 9 458 2^ 2i 7 9 9 515 2| 3 9 10 9 573 3i 34 10 11 9 630 3i 34 10 12 9 687 31 4 12 7 10 495 2f 3 9 8 10 565 3i 34 9 9 10 636 3i 34 10 10 10 707 4 4 12 11 10 778 4J 44 13 12 10 848 4i 5 15 13 10 919 5 5 15 14 10 990 5i 6 18 8 11 684 3i 4 12 9 11 770 4i 44 13 10 11 855 4i 5 15 11 11 941 5i 54 16 12 11 1,026 5f 6 18 13 11 1,112 6i 64 19 14 11 1,197 6f 7 21 . >. 4 3 .SP 1 s 1 1 J3 . 1 w « ■ S3 0 0 CO -5 ^ ft. ft. Cub. ft. ozs. av. fl. ozs. fl. ozs. 9 12 916 5 5 15 10 12 1,018 5| 6 18 11 12 1,120 6i 64 19 12 12 1,221 6f 7 21 13 12 1,323 74 74 22 14 12 1,425 8 8 24 15 12 1,527 84 84 25 16 12 1,629 9 9 27 9 13 1,075 6 6 18 10 13 1,195 6f 7 21 11 13 1,314 74 74 22 12 13 1,433 8 8 24 13 13 1,553 8f 9 27 14 13 1,672 94 94 28 15 13 1,792 10 10 30 16 13 1,911 lOf 11 33 17 13 2,031 111 114 34 10 14 1,385 7f 8 24 11 14 1,524 84 9 27 12 14 1,663 H 94 28 13 14 1,801 10 10 30 14 14 1,940 114 114 34 15 14 2,078 114 12 36 16 14 2,217 124 124 37 17 14 2,355 13 13 39 18 14 2,494 13f 14 42 10 15 1,590 8i 9 27 11 15 1,749 9| 10 30 12 15 1,909 10* m 32 13 15 2,068 114 114 34 14 15 2,227 124 124 37 15 15 2,386 m iH 40 16 15 2,545 144 144 43 17 15 2,704 15 15 45 18 15 2,863 16 16 48 11 16 1,991 11 11 33 12 16 2,171 12 12 36 13 16 2,352 13 13 39 14 16 2,533 14 14 42 15 16 2,714 15 15 45 16 16 2,895 16 16 48 17 16 3,076 17 17 51 18 16 3,257 18 18 54 13 17 2,656 14| 15 45 14 17 2,860 16 16 48 15 17 3,064 17 17 51 16 17 3,269 18 18 54 17 17 3,473 194 19J 57 lOTH June, 1912.] Rcvietu of Dairying Season, igii-12. 375 REVIEW OF THE VICTORIAN DAIRYING SEASON AND BUTTER EXPORT TRADE, 11)11-12. By R. Crowe, Exports Superintendent. Another record has been broken. The prices realized for export butter during the season 1911-1912 have far exceeded any enjoyed during the history of the trade. The highest average comes out in the neighbourhood' of 125s. per cwt., against iios. for the previous season, and the mean average may be placed at 120s., against 105s. for the year before. It is to be regretted that the same cannot be asserted in regard to production. This years exports from Victoria to all destinations total 20,082 tons, worth ^2.409.840. Included in this, however, are 805 tons of butter from Tasmania, so that Victoria can be credited with 19,277 tons, valued at ^2,313,240. against 25,793 tons for the year before, worth ^2,666,265. The butter exjjorted from Victoria this season represents more than half the total shipped from Australia. In the previous season two springs were encountered, and it was more than could be reasonably expected that the present season's output would reach the previous phenomenal record. At the moment, however, grave results are being experienced in the northern districts of the State which tend to discount next year's prospects. There are two causes responsible for this — a scarcity of food due to want of rain, and overstocking. There were more stock in Victoria this year than in the previous one, which was so bountiful, by 1,125,218 head, made up of 975.139 sheep, 99.558 cattle, 35,733 horses, and 14,788 pigs. Most stock-owners have yet to learn that it is essential to provide fodder to carry them over the dry months. Horses are never expected to work the year round without hand-feeding, and it is strange indeed that the great majority of dairymen expect cows to continue giving milk and keep alive without any assistance whatever. In an average season, the grass dries up in January, and no new natural growth can be relied upon until the month of May or later. It should therefore be regarded as essential to provide and conserve fodder during that period at least ; stock should also be cared for during the winter months. For- tunately, two-thirds of the State is not so badly off, and everything is fairly prosperous in the Western and Gippsland districts. Grading. The amended Commerce Regulations came into operation at the com- mencement of last season, and these provided for an altered standard — a reduction in the maximum for moisture from 16 per cent, to 15 per cent., and the packing of 56^ lbs. of butter in boxes marked 56 lbs., together with compulsory grade-stamping. In previous years, " Superfine " and " First Grade " butters were stamped as such, when exporters made special request to have it done. During the present year all butters submitted for export were graded, and the " Superfine " and " First Grades " were stamped accordingly. Grave and serious results were anticipated by a number who objected to the innovation, but after the season's experience it is found that grade-stamping did not produce the dreadful results apprehended by the opponents to its introduction. The system is running well and smoothly. 37^ " ] ouriial of Agriculture , Victoria. [ioth June, 19x2. Shortly after it came into force some exporters, whose output was wanting in uniformity, with some justification pointed out that when different grades were found in one consignment it was unfair to place the whole parcel in accordance with the lowest one. It was agreed that in such cases shippers should be notified and given an opportunity of separating the chury marks of different grades. It was held that one of the objects of grading and grade stamping was to secure uniformity of quality and encourage the grading of cream in line with the standards recognised under the Commerce Act. It was certainly unreasonable to expect the Department to perform work which should have been done in the factory when the produce was in the cream stage. Already a great step in advance has been achieved under this heading. Factories which previously put all qualities under one brand are now grading their cream and covering each grade with a different brand corresponding in quality with the Government grades. Naturally the outcome will be the adoption of a differential rate of payment for cream, so that the suppliers of best-conditioned cream will not have to carrj on their shoulders the product from careless producers. Payment for cream according to its suitability for making a good or bad butter will have a strong tendency to make all dairymen improve the care and treatment of the milk and cream. Churn Marks. Unfortunately, makers were left to employ their own system of chum- marking, and at the height of the season the method became most complex and difficult to follow. It was found necessary to issue a circular recom- mending the adoption of a uniform method, and quite a long time elapsed before much headway in that direction was achieved. Towards the end of the season, however, uniformity was reached with the great majority, to the relief of all concerned. It is to be hoped that managers will see the necessity for carefully applying the churn marks in the prescribed place on both ends of the boxes. It will be to the advantage of every one connected with this work if the requirements be fully complied with. In a few instances it was discovered that the same churn mark covered different grades. This result indicated that the application of the mark was either loose or intended to mislead. No points are gained by such a practice, as it is patent that the manufacturer has everything to gain by the applica- tion of identification marks. The graders' reports on each mark enable him to discover weaknesses and promptly apply remedies to eradicate same. Brands and Marks. It is becoming more apparent that something will have to be done to distinguish unsalted butters from salted. The consignments reach the Stores bearing the same brand, portion of which is marked " U.S.", indicating unsalted. The Department cannot be expected to separate the " U.S." portion from the rest, and it is taken for granted that the numbers indicated on the advice note under each heading are correct. When shipped, the shipping companies specifically exonerate themselves in the bill of lading from all responsibility regarding sub-marks, and accept the goods here, and deliver them in London under the leading brand alone. Everything comes out all right when the factory engages one agent only, but if the unsalted portion be consigned to one agent and the salted to another, trouble is encountered at every stage. Complaints from London are referred to me for investigation in consequence of firms getting salted butter when they lOTH June, 191 2.] Review of Dairying Season. 377 bargained for unsalted. and vice versa. It will therefore be seen that some better method of distinguishing salted butter from unsalted will have to be adopted. The word unsalted indelibly impressed on each end of the boxes is the least effective method that might be employed. A better plan would be to have a separate brand covering the unsalted butter; 57.52 per Cent, of the buttej exported from the State to oversea destinations was salted, whilst 42.48 per cent, of the butter was unsalted. Mould in Butter. Mould was discovered on some butters upon opening for examination. Certain consignments were so bad that every box had to be re-papered and packed after scraping about \ inch off the surface through which the mould had penetrated, and making good the consequent shortage in weight. In no case did the managers fail to overcome the trouble upon their attention being drawn to it, and instructions given as to the proper care of butter paper. The proprietor of a certain factory was greatly concerned about the mould reported on consignments from his factory. One day an officer ot the Department, when speaking to him, saw the paper over the office ■stool fronting a desk for the buttermaker's use. Presently the butter-maker, whose garments were not too clean, came and sat on the paper to make an ■entry at the desk. A few minutes afterwards the same paper was utilized for lining the butter boxes, and although this action may not have been (Urectly responsible for the contamination of the butter paper, yet it clearly showed that the user did not appreciate the necessity for keeping it away from dust pending its being brought into requisition. Butter Fat. Only one consignment, representing nine boxes, was re-worked under supervision to comply with the standard before shipm_ent. In the previous season there were 45 contraventions, representing 1,697 boxes. Short Weight. Fifty-six consignments, representing 1.9 15 boxes, were intercejoted from shipment on account of short weight. By checking these packages, 1,479 were passed as correct and released, the remaining 436 having had their contents amended under supervision before export. In the previous year, 62 consignments, representing 3,276 boxes, were intercepted from shipment, out of which 947 were found short weight. It will be seen, therefore, that less than half the contraventions under this heading were encountered during the present season. Under the new regulations it is necessaiv to brand any butter weighing less than 56 J lbs. at time of checking with the words '' Bare ^Veight." Thirty-nine consignments, representing 1,649 boxes, were intercepted from shipment under this heading, 1,072 of which were passed on checking and released. Of the remainder, 372 boxes had their contents amended under supervision, and one consignment only of 205 boxes had the words ''Bare Weight" indelibly impressed on the outside covering. The amended regulations under the Commerce Act have undoubtedly brought about a better condition of affairs in regard to weights. A margin is essential to insure the butter turning out satisfactorily at the port of destination. This matter is furdier dealt with later on. 378 Journal of Agriculture , Victoria. [ioth June, 1912. Moisture Contents. The average moisture contents of all samples analyzed is 13.91 per cent., against 13.82 per cent, for 1910-11. District. Western District Gippsland North and North-east City Average. % 14-12 14 06 1401 13-74 Co-(ipen.t:ve. 0/ 14-09 1412 13-96 Proprittary. 0/ 0 14-15 13-89 14-16 One hundred and thirty-one consignments, representing 5,008 boxes, con- tained over 15 per cent. The following is a summary of the 3.394 sample'^, analyzed : — Over 16 per cent., 45 samples, 1.33 per cent. Over 15 per cent., 154 samples, 4.53 per cent. Over 14 per cent., 1,458 samples, 42.96 per cent. Over 13 per cent., 1,231 samples, 36.27 per cent. Under 13 per cent., 506 samples, 14.91 per cent. It was forecasted by many that with the reduction in the maximum provided under the amended Commerce Regulations which came into force at the commencement of the season, the dairymen of the State would be greatly handicapped in consequence. Increased buildings, refrigerating machinery and plant were recommended in some quarters. It was pointed out by me at the time that a little more care and attention would enable manufacturers to comply with the new order of things without any sacrifice. Their average- percentage was sufficiently below the proposed reduced maximum to leave them a safe working margin, . and this proved to be the case. The butter submitted for export was found to contain more moisture than that for the- p-revious season, when the maximum allowed was i per cent, higher. Boric Acid. Only ;^~) results of analyses were received regarding boric acid, the- average of which comes out at 0.46 per cent. These, of course, do not ijiclude butters analyzed for freedom from boric acid. Eleven consign- ments, representing 247 boxes, were found to contain more than the- maximum 0.5 per cent., and withheld from shipment until the percentage- was reduced. Investigation Regarding the Efficiency of Boric Acid as a Preservative. During the season it was intimated that the State Pure Foods- Committee intended recommending the abolition of boric acid in butter, and the authorities were induced by the trade to defer action in regard to- the matter. Every butter-factory manager in Victoria at some time or other carried out tests to ascertain the effect of different preservatives in varying proportions. Without exception, the butter to which boric acid preservative v.'as added in the process of manufacture to an extent not exceeding 0.5 per cent., was found to be more palatable at the end of six or eight weeks than the control samples in which none was used. Some years back the belief was entertained by the most advanced managers that a set of conditions could be created which would obviate the necessity for the use of preser- vatives— sanitary conditions on the farms, cleanliness, low temperatures, and prompt delivery of the milk at the skimming stations, would enable the product to come within expert control under the most favorable conditions. lOTH June, 19 12.] Review of Dairying Season. 379 Extreme care in manufacturing and low temperatures immediately after- wards were expected to complete the precautions. The butter so made was exported as well as being i)laced on the local market, but it never at any time gave the same satisfaction to retailers, and lower prices had to be accepted. The result of these experiments was so scattered and difficult t(j collect to put in convincing form, that it was arranged to carry out a iiew series on the widest lines. A circular was issued to all butter factories asking them to make up from one churning two boxes of butter containing lioric acid within the limit allowed under the Commerce Regulations and by the authorities in Great Britain, and two boxes without any. One of each set was shipped per R.M.S. Orama on the loth January last, and examined in London on the 26th February. A cable was received reporting the market value up to 8s. per cwt. in favour of butter with preservative. Table A shows the difference in results between the butter containing boric acid and butter without any, together with the composition of each. The jiverage points scored by all the butters containing boric acid was 90, and the average of the control samples 87.4, giving a difference of 2.6 points in favour of the use of boric acid. The average boric acid contents was 0.183 per cent., and 0.003 per cent., in the control samples, due to a number having been found to contain a small percentage. The average fat content of the boric acid samples was 84.92 per cent., and of the control samples 85.65 per cent. ; moisture contents, 12.88 per cent, in the boric acid samples, and 12.19 psr cent, in the control samples; salt, 1,16 per cent, in the boric ocid samples, and 1.27 per cent, in the control samples; curd, 0.92 per cent, in the boric acid samples, and 0.85 per cent, in the control samples. A study of the.se results, which relate to 100 boxes of butter, besides proving interesting, will provide food for reflection to those so inclined for months, if not years, to come. All my spare time for the last month has been devoted to it, and tables were taken out bearing on different aspects of the subject, to see if any definite result or principle could be deduced other than the jirimary one for which the test was made. For instance, the fourteen brands showing the least average difference between the grading of B and C, and the fourteen showing the greatest average difference. This table involved the taking out and re-arranging of the full details of 56 of the 100 returns, and it was found that the butter to which the greatest per- centage of boric acid was added showed least deterioration ; in other words, the greatest difference between the scoring of the boric acid samples and control samples. The butters showing the least difference contained rela- tively a small percentage of boric acid, that is to say, butters which had comparatively a small percentage of boric acid added to them deteriorated to nearly the same extent as the control samples. Ten butters containing the highest fat content were compared wdth ten showing the least fat content. This involved taking out all details of 40 of the samples. Likewise, ten with the highest moisture content and ten with the lowest moisture content were compared. The same was done from a salt point of view, without, however, eliciting data of much value. The curd, on the other hand, gave positive results. The butters containing the highest percentage of curd showed the largest variation in the score ; in other words, the control sample deteriorated more in the case of butters found to contain a high percentage of curd than they did with those having lower percentages. Finally, the ten brands showing the highest boric acid content and ten showing the least boric acid content were tabulated, and gave results confirming the first extract relating to scores, viz., that there was less difference in the score between the boric acid and control samples with those containing a low percentage of boric acid than w\as the case with those containing the higher percentage. {Concluded on fage 384.) 58o Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [ioth June, 1912.. BUTTER ANALYSIS. TABLE A— SHOWING DIFFERENCE IN RESULTS BETWEEN BUTTER CONTAINING BORIC ACID AND BUTTER WITHOUT ANY, TOGETHER WITH THE COMPOSITION OF EACH. AN.iLTSES. PniTi^-c? K ttTnfAa.A No. and Fat. MoUture. % 13 88 11 65 Salt, Curd. Boric Acid.% JTUII Mark. B. C. Dif- ference. B C 85 Dif- ference.- 1 B C % 83- 85- 74 77 % 143 171 % •90 •87 •047 ■047 86 i' 2 B C 89- 84- 02 30 9 62 14^46 •47 •37 •75 ■87 •142 •142 91 90 i' 3 B C 85- ■84- 13 12 12^10 1318 1 55 2^03 107 •67 •153 •153 89 86 3' 4 B C 84- 84- 73 25 13^18 1339 125 175 •80 •61 ■035 •035 91 89 2 5 B C 84- 85- 47 81 14 05 13 00 ■60 ■43 •72 •75 •167 ■008 •159 88 87 1' 6 B C 85- 83- 45 18 11 -34 13 25 1-38 2 07 1 62 1 50 ■210 •2io 90 85 5 7 B C 82 83 29 90 1419 1347 182 1 79 1-62 •83 ■078 •Oil •067 88 87 1 8 B C 84 87 97 00 12 93 11 20 1 37 1 30 •63 •50 •103 004 •099 90 86 4' 9 B C 82 83 82 03 13 53 13 95 2 33 £•10 1 00 ■92 ■319 •319 88 84 4 10 B C 84 85 35 37 12 65 1147 166 215 112 1^00 •220 007 ■213 90 88 2 11 B C 85 84 89 40 1122 12 72 1 55 190 1 23 •98 •107 •107 88 86 2' 12 B C 84 87 94 54 13 62 11 42 •49 ■40 •66 •63 •293 •667 •286 94 92 2 13 B C 85 86 21 95 13 08 11 93 •33 •32 1-0-2 •80 ■361 •361 95 92 3' 14 B C 84 85 78 85 14 05 1335 •45 •25 •60 •55 •lis •118 86 86 6' 15 B C 85 86 94 86 11^85 11 06 121 149 •87 •59 •132 •i32 88 87 i' 16 B C 84 84 •41 •94 14^10 14^18 ■49 •28 •68 •60 ■319 •3i9 95 93 2 17 B C 84 86 00 •98 1215 10 40 \-70 2 07 r80 •55 •347 ■347 92 96 2- 18 B C 86 87 •49 •48 11 93 10 32 •36 1^47 r08 •73 •142 •142 88 86 2 19 B C 83 86 •92 •62 14^50 11 95 •43 •90 1^06 •53 ■092 ■092 90 90 6' 20 B C 84 87 ■27 ■06 1407 11 93 •74 •30 •63 •70 •293 •007 ■286 91 89 2' 21 B 0 86 87 •27 •92 11 02 9^48 1 64 1 42 •86 118 •213 •2i3 93 88 5' 22 B C 83 84 •93 •90 14 28 13 97 •52 •35 1^02 •78 •252 •252 87 85 2 23 B C 85 86 •02 ■25 1253 10^44 1^59 237 •73 •94 •128 •i28 89 86 3' 24 B C 84 1 86 •82 ■71 13^70 12 57 •53 •20 •73 ( ^52 •224 •224 92 88 4 lOTH June, 191 2.] Revietv of Dairyhig Season. 381 Table A. — Showinq Difference in Results of BuTiEit, Ere. — continued. Analyses. Points Awa . No. and Mark-. Fat. Moisture. Salt. Curd. Boric Acid 0/ . 'Q-GQ. B. C. Dif- ference. B C Dif- ference. 25 B C 0/ 82^29 83-37 % 13-97 12-82 % 2 36 2-48 1 1 26 33 -125 •125 90 86 26 B C 85-59 82-48 11 -83 14-48 1 -71 2 06 66 98 ■206 -206 91 87 27 B C 84-02 85-68 12-48 11-49 2 02 1 -94 1 21 87 •276 021 -255 89 88 28 B C 85-77 88-11 13-13 10-70 -33 -73 65 45 -107 -007 ■100 92 gi 29 B C 84-32 85-74 14-55 13-33 •40 •33 66 60 -128 -128 91 90 30 B C 84 21 86 21 14 35 12-83 -55 •46 60 50 •296 ■296 95 92 31 B C 83-44 87-47 15 23 11-61 •50 -32 67 60 ■160 ■160 95 94 32 B C 83-24 84-58 13 43 12-41 2-17 1 -62 1 88 37 ■286 -018 -268 88 84 33 B C 86-94 8612 11 -57 12 80 •47 •35 80 72 -2-;o -220 90 89 34 B C 81-65 85-01 14-50 11-92 2-55 2-20 1 05 87 -251 ■251 92 90 35 B C 81-62 84-68 14-55 12-52 2-65 1-97 1 05 83 -135 ■135 88 84 36 B C 83-68 85-30 13-33 11-35 2-05 1-66 1 85 68 -092 -007 ■085 92 85 37 B C 88-10 88-68 9-87 9-00 1-15 1 •aS 87 77 ■007 ■007 87 87 6' 38 B C 87-86 86-4 11-33 12-93 •15 •17 51 50 ■146 ■146 87 85 2 39 B 84-94 86-55 13-63 12-63 •23 •24 92 58 ■286 •286 89 85 40 B C 87-74 87-22 9 53 9-85 1-82 215 70 78 -213 -oio •203 86 82 41 B C 85-45 85-40 13-37 13-78 ■33 -20 70 62 -149 ■149 90 89 42 B C 88-54 86-50 10-67 12-83 -22 -30 50 37 -074 -O'i-4 89 86 3' 43 B C 82-07 83 -16 12-70 13-45 2-26 1-88 1 73 51 -238 -238 87 80 7' 44 B C 85-92 85-25 12-90 13-75 -38 •44 55 55 ■255 ■oil -244 91 89 2 45 B € 83-80 84-63 13-07 12-58 2 22 2-08 65 70 ■262 ■007 -255 89 86 3' 46 B C 82-07 84-83 13 90 10-87 2-30 2-62 1 1 60 68 -132 -132 89 86 3' 47 B C 83-95 86-54 14-47 10-00 •47 2-38 68 85 -231 ■046 -185 93 92 48 B C 85-74 83-51 13-37 13-63 ■24 1-63 1 65 18 -231 -231 90 86 49 B C 88-58 86-23 10-13 9-97 -44 1 85 53 90 89 50 B C 85-61 86-06 12-83 12-90 -41 -21 93 83 •217 •183 •003 •217 •18 91 83 8' Average B C 84-92 85-65 12-88 12-19 1-16 1-27 92 •85 90 87 ^4 2-6 382 Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [ioth June, 191 2. TABLE B.— SHOWING MELBOURNE AND LONDON WEIGHTS OF 98 BOXES OF BUTTER FROM 49 DIFFERENT FACTORIES LOCATED IN VARIOUS PARTS OF THE STATE, TOGETHER WITH THE DISCREPANCY, AND MOISTURE AND SALT CONTENTS IN EACH. No. and Mark. Melbourne Weights. London Weights. Loss in Transit. Moisture Contents. Salt Contents. Lbs. ozs. Lbs. ozs. Ozs. % % 1 B C 56 10 56 11 56 4 56 5 6 6 13 11 •88 •65 1-43 1^71 2 B C 56 15 56 14 56 10 56 11 5 3 9 14 •62 •46 0-47 0-37 3 B C . 56 14 56 11 56 9 56 5 5 6 12 13 •1 •18 1 55 2 03 4 B C 56 13 56 15 56 7 56 7 6 8 13 13 •18 39 1 -25 1-75 5 B C 56 9 56 5 56 5 56 1 4 4 14 13 05 0 0-6 0 43 6 B C 56 15 56 13 56 6 56 11 9 2 11 13 34 25 1-38 2 07 7 B C 57 9 57 9 57 5 57 6 4 3 14 13 19 47 1^82 1-79 8 B C 56 13 56 15 56 9 56 10 4 5 12 11 93 20 1 37 1-30 9 B C 56 12 56 10 56 8 56 5 4 5 13 13 53 95 2 33 210 10 B C 56 8 56 2 56 5 56 0 3 12 11 65 47 1^66 2 15 11 B C 56 11 57 0 56 5 56 9 6 7 11 12 22 72 1-55 1-90 12 B C 56 12 56 14 56 4 56 4 8 10 13 11 62 42 0 49 0-40 13 B C 56 10 56 14 56 4 56 9 6 6 13 11 08 92 0-33 0-32 14 B C 56 13 56 13 56 4 56 6 9 7 14 13 05 35 0 45 0-25 15 J B C 57 6 57 0 56 13 56 7 9 9 11 11 85 06 1-21 149 16 B C 56 12 56 10 56 5 56 5 7 5 14 14 10 18 0^49 0-28 17 B C 57 0 57 2 56 10 56 13 6 5 12 10 15 40 1^70 2-07 18 B C 57 5 56 15 56 15 56 8 6 7 11 10 93 32 0-36 1-47 19 B C 58 9 57 10 58 2 57 4 7 6 14 11 50 95 0-43 0-90 20 B C 56 9 56 10 56 3 56 4 6 6 14 11 07 93 0-74 0 30 21 B C 56 15 56 15 56 6 56 7 9 8 11 9 02 48 1-64 1^42 22 B C 57 3 57 6 56 13 57 2 6 4 14 13- 28 97 0^52 0-95 23 B C 56 7 56 8 56 3 56 4 4 4 12- 10- 52 44 1-59 2 37 24 B C 56 12 67 1 56 5 56 11 7 6 13- 12- 70 57 0-53 0-20 lOTH June, 1912.] Reviciv of Dairying Season. 385 Table B. — Showixg Melbourne and London Weights of Butter, etc. — continued. Xo. and Mark. Melltourne Weights. London Weiglits. Loss in Transit. Moisture Contents. Salt Contents. 25 B C Lbs. ozs. 56 12 56 12 Lbs. ozs. 56 6 56 7 Ozs. 6 5 % 13 95 12-82 % 2-36 2-48 26 B C 56 10 56 5 56 2 55 13 8 8 11-83 14-48 1-71 2-06 27 B C 56 8 56 8 56 3 56 3 5 5 12-48 11-49 2 02 1-94 28 B C 57 9 57 8 57 1 57 1 8 7 13-13 10-70 0-33 o-7a 29 B C 56 11 56 14 56 6 56 8 5 6 14-55 11-33 0-40' 0-33 30 B C 56 12 56 6 56 6 56 2 6 4 14-35 12 -83 0-55 0-45- 31 B C 56 6 56 5 56 3 56 3 3 2 15-28 11-61 0-50- 0-32 32 B C 56 11 57 0 56 3 56 9 8 7 13-43 12-41 2-17 1-62 33 B C 56 7 56 10 56 2 56 3 5 7 11-57 12-80 0-47 0 35- 34 B C 57 1 57 2 56 5 56 8 12 10 14-50 11 -2 2-55- 2-20 35 B C 57 0 57 0 56 12 56 13 4 3 14-55 12-52 2-65- 1 97 36 B C 57 0 57 1 56 11 56 11 5 6 13-33 11-35 2-05 1-66- 38 B C 56 8 56 8 56 5 56 5 3 11-33 12 -93 0-15 017 39 B C 56 3 56 7 55 14 56 1 5 6 13-63 12-63 0-23 0-24 40 B C 57 4 57 4 56 14 56 12 6 8 9-53 9-85 1-82 2 15 41 B C 56 10 50 9 56 6 56 5 4 4 13-37 13-78 0-33 0-20 42 B C 57 2 57 5 56 12 56 12 6 9 10-67 12-33 0-22 0-30 43 B C 56 12 57 7 56 7 57 3 5 4 12-90 13-45 2-26 1-88 44 B C 56 15 56 11 56 11 56 7 4 4 12-90 13-75 0-38 0-44 45 B C 56 10 56 10 56 6 56 6 4 4 13-07 12-58 2-22 2-08 46 B C 56 11 56 1 56 6 56 11 5 6 13-90 10-87 2-30 2-62 47 B C 56 14 56 10 56 6 56 6 8 4 14-47 10 00 0-47 2-38 48 B C 56 12 56 14 56 8 56 9 4 5 13 37 13-63 0-24 113 49 B C 56 10 56 12 56 3 56 3 7 9 10-13 9-97 0-44 2-27 50 B C 56 11 56 11 56 3 56 3 Average 8 8 12-83 12-90 0-41 0-21 5 705 12 59 1-20 384 Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [ioth June, 1912. Loss OF Weight in Transit. Advantage was taken to have the matter of weights investigated. The question of loss in transit had never been satisfactorily determined. The weight of each box was carefully recorded before shipment, and a request made that the Agent-General should have the same done in London before they were examined. Table B gives all the particulars of 98 boxes. The average loss in weight encountered during transit was 5.765 ozs. Li this table are included the moisture and salt contents of each, as it might reasonably be expected that these would have some influence on the loss. The average loss in weight during transit comes to 5.765 ozs. per box, the maximum being 12 ozs. and the minimum 2. The average moisture con- tents was 12.59 per cent., and salt 1.2 per cent. By taking out the ten showing the greatest loss in weight during transit, Nos. 67, 24, 68, II, 27, 29, 30, 41, 82, and 96, the average loss amounts to 9.5 ozs., the average moisture contents of which are 11.87 per cent., and salt contents 1.38 per cent. The ten showing the smallest loss in weight, Nos. 62, 12, 20, 4, 14, 61, 70, 73, 74, and 19, give an average discrepancy of 2.7 ozs. per box, whilst the average moisture contents are 12.89, and salt 7. 1 1 per cent. From these results it appears that no inference can be drawn as to the cause of the marked difference in losses in weight. Those encountering the least loss contained i per cent, more moisture than the ones which gave the greatest loss, whilst the salt contents were only 0.27 per cent, more in the case of butters which showed the most pronounced discrepancy. The ten boxes showing the highest percentage of moisture, Nos. 61, 69, 575 37) 67, 52, 91, 4, 59, and 43, show the average loss of 6.2 ozs., whilst the average moisture contents were 14.54 per cent., and salt 1.5 per cent. The ten containing the lowest percentage of moisture, Nos. 42, 77, 3, 78, 96, 92, 95, 36, 34, and 46, indicate an average loss of 6.2, ozs. per box, whilst the average moisture contents are 9.97 per cent., and salt 1.68 per cent. It appears from this comparison that butter containing a high per- centage of moisture is not more subject to loss in weight during transit than butter containing a low percentage. The ten boxes containing the highest percentage of salt, Nos. 69, 90, 97, 50, 92, 46, 49, 17, 89, and 96 contained an average of 2.43 per cent, salt, the loss in weight during transit averaging 5.9 ozs. per box, whilst the moisture contents averaged 12.45 per cent. The ten boxes with the lowest percentages of salt, Nos. 9, 73, 74, 80, 48, 98, 81, 75, 76, and 93 show an average salt content of 0.19 per cent. ; the average loss in weight per box Avas 4.9 ozs., whilst the moisture contents are 12.78 per cent. The ten butters containing the highest percentages of salt held 0.33 per cent, less moisture and lost i oz. per box more during transit than the boxes showing the lowest percentages of salt. Conclusion. From this review, it will be seen that the dairy produce export trade is now well organized, and the elimination of the various faults found is quite an easy matter if managers concerned direct their attention to them. They can rest assured that departmental ofiicers, all of whom are enthusiastic, and have their heart in their work, will report faithfully on every churn- mark, and all details. It therefore only requires the mutual co-operation of producers, manufacturers, and others concerned, to lift the reputation of Victorian butter on to the highest possible plane. A greater need than this, however, is that the producers should profit by repeated sad experiences, and provide fodder in the season of plenty to carry them safely through the time of scarcity. loTH Junk, 1912.] E^i^i^-layi/ii^ C omfctition, i()i2-ij. 38: SECOND VICTORIAN EGC-LAYING COMPETITION, 1912-1:3, Commencing 15th April, 1912. CONDUCTED AT BURNLEY HORTICULTURAL SCHOOL. //. V. Hawkins, Poultry Expert. Eggs laid April 15 Po sition in No. Pen. Breed. Name of Owner. to C 3nipeti- May 14. tion. 40 White Leghorns . . Brown, S. . . Ill 1 47 J5 Bradley, J. E. 109 2 8 Black Orpingtons . . Fisher, D. . . 107 3 44 Wliite Leghorns . . Hall, A. W. 103 4 70 jj • • Beatty, C. J. 101 5 23 i> McLister, Wm. 99 6 30 )j Stevenson, Mrs. H. . . 93 7 31 )) Edwards, G. 91 8 1 ,, Campbell, J. 88 9 7 „ Padman, A. H. 87 10 48 )» Cant. Griffin 86 11 46 Black Orpingtons . . Langdon, H. A. 85 12 20 White Leghorns . . Waldon, E. 84 13 9 ,, Spotswood, J. S. 83 14 62 ., Pope, R. W. 80 15 28 „ Eagleton, F. G. 77 16 42 Kempster, Mrs. T. E. 76 17 3 Black Orpingtons . . King and Watson 75 18 29 Wliite Leghorns . . Brigden, J. B. 71 } 45 ,, Wooldridge Bros. 71 19 39 ,, Switt, W. G. 69 21 88 ,, Moy, Richard 67 58 ,, Stock, W. J. 67 -" 64 ,j Merrick, H. 65 24 24 >) Sargentri Poultry Yards 63 25 6 )> Macarthur, J. B. 58 26 33 a McKenzie, H. 58 50 i. Ahpee, A. . . 53 28 35 ,, Bilsst, C. H. 52 29 53 ,, Hodges, H. . . 49 30 15 J) • • Steer, Mrs. W. H. . . 47 31 14 ,, Wright, J. H. 47 56 )) Monk, M. A. 46 33 ■2 >> Rowlinson, B. 44 34 12 yt • • Stafford, T. H. C. .. 44 37 ,j Bertelsmeier, C. B. . . 41 36 63 ,, Walker, Percy 41 41 ,, Stringer, A. 39 38 21 ,, . , O'Loughlin, J. 38 39 25 ,, Appleiord, E,. L. 35 40 4 ,, Blackburn, J. 35 13 CreUin, W. B. 32 42 61 Black Orpingtons . . Ogdeu, Jas. 29 43 49 White Leghorns Purvis, W. 27 44 59 Seabridge, W. 25 45 52 Black Minorcas Chalmer Bros. 23 46 19 White Leghorns Cowan Bros. 23 43 )) Purton, G. . . 21 48 54 '» DeGaris, F. R. 20 16 Silver Wyandottes Jobling, R. 20 49 68 White Leghorns . . McKeddie, W. J. 20 69 11 Morgan and Watson . . 19 52 36 Old B. Game Barrett, K. J. 18 53 27 White Leghorns . . Nash, E. . . 18 65 ,> Thompson, A. H. 17 55 66 ,, Moloney, J. 14 56 5 ,, Brain, J. H. 13 57 18 )j Mitchell, B. 13 22 1, Ling, W. N. 11 59 60 „ Rvan, Miss B. E. 11 57 ,, Walker, B. 7 61 32 Brundrett, S. 6 62 10 R.C. Brown Leg- horns Giles, S. P 4 63 17 White Leghorns . . Childs, S. . . 1 64 11 Black Orpingtons . . Goodisson, T. S. >L 51 White Leghorns . . Hammill, H. 1 67 Anconas . . Manning, A. E. Y 65 55 Brown Leghorns . . Matheson, J. \ 34 White Leghorns . . Moore, Reg. F. B. . . } 26 (Reserved) Tnt-.l . . 3.227 386 Journal of Agriculture , Victoria. [lOTH June, 1912. STATISTICS. Fruit, Plants, Bulbs, Grain, &c. Imports and Exports Inspected for Quarter ending 31st Mxrcli, 1912. Imports. Exports. Imports. Exports. L'fscription of Produce. Des/ripti in of Produce. Inter- state. Oversea. Oversea. Inter- state. Oversea. Oversea. Apples and Tears ... 1,171 1 269,979 M ace 91 iJananas, bunches .. 98,014 30,773 — .Maize 53 — Bananas, cases 2,222 11,111 — Mangoes 9 — — liarley ... 60,626 6,066 — Melons ... 9 — — Beans — 260 — Nutmegs — 253 — Blackberries 763 — Xuts 56 4,107 — Black Currants 293 — — Oats 49,382 18,739 — Bulbs 28 200 — Oranges ... 510 2,771 — •Cherries... 1 — — I'assion ... 1,0S5 — — Chillies ... 468 — ' Pe iches ... 0 — — Cocoa beans — 1,058 — Pepper ... 34 — Cocoanuts ».. — 6 — Peas, dried 0,49(3 66 — •Coffee beans — 432 — Persimmons 136 — — Copra _ 317 — Pineapples 15,786 29 166 Cucumbers 5 — Plants, Trees, &c. 64 296 45 DHes ... — 4,953 Plums 7,598 — 515 Egg Fr ait 1 — 1 Pomelos ... — 18 — Figs 601 — Potatoes 137 1 750 Fruit- Prunes .. — 939 — Canned — — 7,524 Quinces ... — — 50 iJricd — 115 4,728 Rice 3,559 75,473 — Mixed 2 152 — Seeds 1,149 9,536 55 •Grapes ... 32 — 437 Spice — 128 — Green ginger • — 695 — Strawberries 2 — — ]Io]>s — 2j7 — Tomatoes 332 — 4 Jams, Sauces, &c — — 631 Vegetables 774 347 — Lemons 402 2,900 _ Wheat, Grain, &c. 3,215 — — Lentils ... — ' 23 462 — Linseed Logs 327 — - Totals 254,198 173,711 •284,885 Total number of packages inspected for quarter ending 31st March, 1912 = 712,794. E. MEEKING, Sznior Fruit In.ym-tor. Perishable and Frozen Produce. Exports from State Deliveries from (Oversea). Government Cool Stores. Quarter ended Quarter ended Quarter ended Quarter ended 31.3.12. 31.3.11. 31.3.12. 31.3.U. Butter lbs. 12,066,660 15,304,656 13,309,016 13,499,416 Milk and Cream cases 2,899 1,.325 10 21 Milk and Cream (d ried) n 1,203 Cheese ... lbs. .34,440 127,080 17,850 135,529 Ham and Bacon « 102,720 78,240 Poultry head 4,170 2,850 2,923 2,51 1 I^'^gs . . . dozen 8,182 12,276 Mutton and Lamb carcases 438,564 247,045 13,078 18, 96 J Beef ... quarters 8,041 4,039 232 Teal... carcases 1,075 1,304 13 35 Pork II 2,319 1,942 1,1,34 1,373 Rabbits and Hares pairs 155,676 34,464 86,984 21,936 Sundries lbs. 24,393 77,225 R. CROWE, Superintendent oj Exports. lOTH June, 1912.] Yktorian Wheat Harvest. 387 THE VICTORIAN WHEAT HARVEST. Tne fol'.owin-^ return, showing the actual area and yield of wheat for the seasons 1911-12 and 1910-11, has bsen issued by the Government Statist (Mr. A. M. Laughton) : — - Area ir Acres. Produce in Bushels. Average per Acre Counties Geographically in Bushels. Arranged. ■ 1911-12. 1911-12. 1910-11. 1 1910-11. 1911-12. 1910-11. Grant 17,565 38,747 183,982 695,526 10-47 17-95 Talbot 14,751 29,500 162,168 471,586 10-99 15-99 Grenville 43,657 41,036 516,402 774,856 11-83 18-88 Hampden . . 20,333 18,993 195,258 322,585 9-60 16-98 Ripon 68,162 98,446 554,715 i 1,571,914 8-14 15-97 Lowan 160,384 180,275 1,592,602 1,766,688 9-93 9-80 Borung 315,468 336,633 3,760,294 5,314,410 11-92 15-79 Ka^rp. Kara 127,289 127,104 1,541,418 1,880,603 12-11 14-80 Weeah 66,332 46,515 328,113 582,394 4-95 12-52 Karkarooc . . 332,984 351,509 1,943,436 4,011,903 5-84 11-41 Ta telle ra . . 217,603 261,972 1,410,192 3,259,777 6-48 12-44 Gun bower . . 38,351 40,716 380,245 656.148 9-91 16-12 Gladstone . . 122,830 124,462 1,428,613 1,760,662 11-63 14-1^ Bendigo 128,601 135,897 1,571,500 2,571,624 12-22 18-92 Rodney 124,905 152,827 1,436,022 2,3£6,845 11-50 15-23 Moira 279,761 290,409 3,028,612 4,718,602 10-83 16-25 Delatite 12,316 18,101 123.713 296,963 10-04 16-41 Bogong 41,714 46,209 400,242 826,578 9-59 17-89 Remainhig Counties 31,060 58,738 334,350 1,003,355 10-76 17-08 Cut for Gram 2,164,066 2,398,089 Cut for Hay 304,388 240,026 Total 2,468,454 1 2,638,115 20,891,877 34,813,019 9-65 14-52 1j^. Note. — The requirements for seed and consumption in 1912 are estimated at 9,000,000 bushels. ORCHARD AND GARDEX XOTES. E. E. P CSC oft, Principal, ScJiool of Horticulture, Burnley. The Orchard. Planting. The time has now arrived \vlien the general planting of deciduous fruit trees will take place. The soil should have previously been well ploughed and subsoiled, and, as far as possible, drained. Certainly, to insure satis- factory results, the orchard must be subsoiled. Where expense is a con- sideration, drainage may be left for subsequent years; but once the orchard has been planted, it will be impossible to subsoil. When planting out, the distance between the trees will be determined by the kinds to be planted. For ordinary deciduous fruiting trees it is. the custom in this State to plant them 20 feet apart in the rows, the rows, also being 20 feet apart. Results have proved this to be a satis- factory practice. Almond trees may be planted 15 or 16 feet apart each way ; while walnuts, owing to their spreading habit, require a distance of 30 feet each wav. 388 Journal of Agriculture , Victoria. [ioth June, 191 2. Deep planting is not advocaied, the general practice being that the depth of planting in the nursery should be followed. If holes are dug, they should be shallow, the bottom being merely loosened to allow a com- fortable friable bed for the tree roots. A good practice is to dig the whole strip along which the trees are to be planted, merely removing sufficient soil when afterwards planting. Another satisfactory custom is to plough furrows 20 feet apart, and to plant the trees in the furrows, filling in the soil over the roots and trampling well down. Before planting, the roots of the young tree should be well trimmed, shaped to an even form, and cleanly cut. As a result of their removal from the nursery beds, the roots are generally more or less damaged ; and numbers of the fibrous roots, becoming dry, shrivel and die. These all require a clean trimming. Then it is often desirable to remove some of the roots so as to balance the root system. The trimming of the roots gives the young tree a clean root system, and it is enabled to establish itself with young vigorous roots After planting the top should be well cut l^ack, so as to leave three 01 four arms, with there or four buds on each. Where it is not possible to have this number of arms or limbs it is frequently advisable to cut back to one stem, allowing the buds to break out strongly and frame the tree after planting. In some localities, the custom of not cutting back the trees the first year is favoured. Local experience has not resulted in favour of this practice, as it is found to be inadvisable to unduly strain the young tree by leaving a heavy top to be sup})orted by the weak-growing root system. A selection of varieties will be dt-termined bv the district, some fruits thriving better in one locality than in others. For a gcod general list, re- ference may be made to the Journal for June, 191 1. It is unwise to plant a large number of varieties in a commercial orchard, but due consideration should be given to planting varieties that have a favorable influence on each other for cross-fertilization purposes, A number of good commercial fruits have been found to be either wholly or partially self-sterile, requiring other varieties near them to enable them to set their fruit. For this purpose it is necessary that the bloom periods should be somewhat coincident. Spraying. The dry suimuer and autumn have been favorable to the increase of certain scale insects, woolly aphis, and the bryobia mite in some localities. The use of red oil has been advocated for these pests ; and, as well, crude petroleum, kerosene, and other oil emulsions have proved satisfactory. Some years ago the u.se of the lime, sulphur, and salt spray was much in vogue as a winter spray. Owing, however, to the diificulty of preparing the spray, and to its caustic effects! on the skin, it was practically aban- doned as an insecticide. Even then it was claimed, and rightly so, that this spray was, to a certain extent, a very good fungicide. The u.se of this mixture as a winter wash, with the omission of the salt, which has been found to be an unnecessary ingredient, is now being revived ; and as the lime-sulphur wash is now on the market in the form of proprietary mixtures, it is likely that this spray will again become popular. It i> searching in its action, very adhesive, and certainly very effective. Its claims too, as a fungicide, are not without foundation, as some years ago, when used in orchards on peach trees for scale insect troubles, it was subsequently found that the trees were verv much more free from leaf curl and shot hole than during previous seasons. TOTH June, 191--] Orchard and Garden Notes. 389 It possesses objectionable features in its corroiive effects upon any iron or steel on pumps and harness ; and in its caustic effects on exposed parts of the bodv. These may be somewhat obviated by greasing the metal, and 1)\- rubbing tlie hands and face with olive oil or vaseline prior to spraying. The hindquarters of the horse, too, should be covered with a sack. I'^xperiments carried out in Pennsylvania in 1909 proved conclusively that in addition to being an excellent insecti^^^ide, it was considerably help- ful in reducing the effects of fungus diseases on apples, pears, cherries, peaches, and plums. General Work. All ploughing should now be completed ; if not, it should be finished before spraying and pruning operations are proceeded with. Any autumn manuring or liming should also be now carried out. This, too, should be finished before spraying and pruning. Before spraying with oils or with lime-sulphur w'ash, all rough bark on apple and pear trees should be scraped off"; this will mean the certain destruction of any codlin moth larvse hiding underneath. Flower Garden. General cleaning up and digging will be the work for this month in the flower section and shrubbery. Where the soil is heavy or sour, or where sorrel is plentiful, the garden should be given a heavy dressing of fresh lime, giving a fair dusting all over the surface. Lime should not be used in conjunction with leaves, garden debris, leaf mould, stable manure, or any other organic matter used for humus. These should be first dis- posed of by digging well into the soil ; then shortly afterwards a top- dressing of lime may be given. Should no humic material Ije used, the lime may be dug in with the autumn digging. In cleaning up the gardens, all light litter and dead foliage should either be dug in, or, better still, it should be placed in an out of the way corner to form a compost heap. Leaf mould is especially useful in any .garden, and where such plants as Azaleas, Rhododendrons, Liliums, &c., are grown, or for pot plant work, it is exceedingly valuable. In forming the compost heap, no medium whatever should be added to help the rotting down of the lea\es, unless it be a little sand. Any chemical added will render the mould unsuitable for its special objects. Any hardv annuals may be planted out, such as stocks, pansies, wall- flowers, &'c., and cuttings of roses and hard-wooded shrubs may also be ■planted. In planting out cuttings, it is very important that all the eyes should be remo\'ed from the part of the cutting which is. to be below the ground. If this be not done, there will always be the subsequent danger of the plant suckering. Roses and any summer and autumn flowering shrubs that have finished flowering may be pruned. If the spring flowering shrubs have not pre- viously been pruned, they should be allowed to remain until after the next flowering season. This especiallv applies to such plants as Spireas, Phila- delphus (Mock Orange), Deutzia, Prumus Mume, and other early flower- ing shrubs. To prune these now would mean the certain loss of a great proportion of their flowers. In pruning, the shrubs may be well thinned out, especially removing any weak upright, or old flowering growths; keep the shrub always at an •outward growth, inclining to a broad bushy type, instead of to an upright •habit. By this means, the lower regions will always be furnished with good growth. Shrubs and trees of all descriptions should never be allowed 'to become too crowded ; they require to be opened, so as to allow sunlight 39° Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [ioth June, 1912. and air into the interior, Aviiere it is most needed. Thisi is one means by which this class of plants may be kept healthy and free from disease. Very few shrubs resent pruning, and the majority of them, including Aus- tralian shrubs, such as Acacias, are very amenable to the pruning knife. In rose pruning, the rule is that strong growing plants require less^ severe cutting than weak-growing ones. As roses always flower on new wood, it is essential that tO' have good blooms the bushes must be pruned regularly. All weak growths, exhausted and worn-out wood, must be removed, retaining only the vigorous growths. It is generally advisable to always prune to four or five eyes or buds, so as to have subsequent strong growths, always pruning into the previous season's wood. Spindly growths, especially in the centres of the bushes, should te removed, the plants being trained with an open and angular habit. To prevent loss, by decay, it will be advisable to lift and store such herbaceous plants as delphiniums, perennial phlox, rudbeckias, &c., also dahlia tubers, chrysanthemums, cannas, and perennial sunflowers and asters. Failing the possibility of dohig this, they should be lifted gently with a fork, so as to allow of a slight air space under the crown. "Vegetable Garden. If not previously done, asparagus beds should be well cleaned out, and a top-dressing of manure given. To insure good drainage, the soil from the paths, or between the beds, may be thrown up on to the beds, so as to deepen the stirface drainage, and to consequently warm the beds. This- will mean earlier growths. A heavy dressing of manure should be given, and the beds well and roughly dug over. Plant out seeds of tomatoes, and the pumpkin family in the frames ; and sow in the open, .seeds of peas, lettuce, spinach, broad beans, raddish,. onion, carrot, and leek. Asparagus crowns, rhubarb roots, tubers of Jeru- salem artichokes, shallots, and onions may now be planted out. Celery should still be earthed up, taking care not to have the beds too wet. ANSWERS TO CORRESPONDENTS. The Staff of the Depn-tiiient has been orj^'aiiized to a lars'e extent for the inirpose of j^iving information to farmers. Question" in every branch of ayrieulture are >;la(lly answered. Write a short letter, giving as full pi'ti<'n1ars as possible, of 3'our local conditions, and state precisely what it is that yon want to know. All inquifi.es forwanied to the Kditor ■mu.- IVIEll.L.V^n, MELBOURNE. JARRAH. Write to When you contemplate erecting fencing, buildings, dairies, woolsheds, &c., be sure you get the best of hardwoods. i^^ JARRAH resists white ants, dry rot, &c. MILLAR'S KARRI & JARRAH CO, 0902) Ltd. QUEEN'S BRIDGE, MELBOURNE. ^DYAN, GOULDING, & CO. "^ ^^\ (JOHN F. GOULDING). ■ • WHOLESALE GRAIN & PRODUCE COMMISSION AGENTS & GENERAL BROKERS. 546-552 COLLINS STREET WEST (Near King-st.) FARMERS . Before Selling your Grain, Hay, Potatoes, Onions, consult or write us. It will pay you. CONSIGNMENTS Received and Sold Daily ex Rail or Wharf. Storage arranged on Liberal Terms and Advances made. All kinds of Seed Grain for Sale. Prompt Account Sales. Oats Specialists. New & Second-hand Bag3 for Sale at Lowest Rates. When in the CITY Call In. — Short distance from Spencer-st. RIy. Station. Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo June, 1912. "WATERLOO BOY" 4 h.p. PORTABLE OIL ENGINE. ABSOLUTELY THE SIMPLEST AND CHEAPEST EFFICIENT ENGINE IN THE WORLD. USES BENZINE OR KEROSENE. IGNITIONi — Is make and break style, charge fired by electric spark. Igniter, which in other Engines is difficult to get at, in the " Waterloo " can be completely removed by loosening two cap screws Both Magneto and Battery Ignition, — a very useful arrangement, as work can never be stopped. SPEED LEVERi — Acts same as throttle of a steam engine. You can speed up or down, or stop altogether with it. Makes the Engine easj' to start, prevents "kicking back," and saves f.iel. IVIIXERi — Is a great idea, patented because it is worth patenting. Has an adjustable mixing cup that can, by a winged nut, be slipped up or down to give more or less air. No valve springs or pump to get out of order ; makes Engine easy to start ; aids the governor and speed lever in getting more power out of the fuel. GOVERNOR. — Centrifugal type, sure and sensitive. Allows a charge in the cylinder only when the work requires it. FUEL. -Works on either benzine or kerosene, but benzine is better, as it is not so dirty. The speed-saving devices. Speed Lever, Patent Mixer, and Governor make the "Waterloo" consume the least fuel. Compare it for simplicity, fuel cost, and power with other engines, and you will send your order to us. HOPPER COOLED.— That is, there are no Tank, Pipes, and Pump to cool the cylinder. Makes the Engine easy to move about ; less space, less weight, and no water pump troubles, as there is no Pump. Also lessens the fuel bill. TRANSPORT. — is a very strong one. Through axles in both front and rear wheels. Turntable on front axle is simple and strong. lag- SEND FOR CATALOGUES OF OUR OTHER FARM REQUISITES. MITCHELL & COMPANY PTY. LTD. FACTORY 4. OFFICE: WEST FOOTSCRAY, MELBOURNE. SHOW ROOM 596 BOURKE ST., MELBOURNE. U^efFigeratiug e^ ^ and lee JYCakirig JVCaehineFY ^ e^ Made by HUMBLE & SONS, Geelong, Victoria. Specially suitable for Butchers, Breweries, Squatters, Butter, Bacon, and Ice Factories, and all classes of Cold Storage, &c. The Machines can be supplied from 3 cwt. capacity upwards, and either belt-driven or fitted with Engine. A large number of these Machines are working in the Australian States, New Zealand, and South Africa, and are giving universal satisfaction. All classes of Refrigeration work undertaken, including coils. One of these Machines is installed at the Dookie Agricultural College. '' Ferrier's '' Woolpresses and Rabbit Poison Distributors, Engines, Boilers, Horseworts, &c. Full Papticulaps on Application to— Humble and Sons, General Eng'ineers, VULCAN FOUNDRY, GEELONG. PLAN AND SPECIFICATION OF SHEEP-SHEARING SHED. 2s. 6d. PosHue, Id. jMILK CHARTS (Monthly and Weekly), 6d, per dozen, post free. Wlien ordering, dairy farmers sliould mention " Monthly " or "Weekly." By Professor A. J. Eurirf. Government Botanist. WEEDS. POISON PLANTS, AND NATUEALIZED ALIENS OF VICTORIA. 2s. 6d. Postrtr/e : Commonwealth, I|-d. ; N.Z., 5d. ; British and Foreign, lOd. PLANTS INDIGENOUS TO VICTORIA. Vol. II., 10s. Postage : Com., 2d. ; N.Z.. 8d. ; Brit. & For., Is. 4d. By G. French, F.E.S., Government Entomologist. DESTRUCTIVE INSECTS OF VICTORIA. Parts I., II., IIL, IV., V. 2s. fid. each. Postage: Parts I. and III.. C, Id. ; N.Z.. 3d.; B. & P.. fid. each. Parts II. and IV., C, lid. ; N.Z., 4d. ; B. & F., 8d. each. Part V., C, Id. ; N.Z., 4d. ; B. & F., 7d. By D. Mc Alpine. Government Vegetable Pathologist. RUSTS OF AUSTRALIA. 5s. Postage : C. 2d. ; N.Z., 8d. ; B. & F.. Is. 4d. SMUTS OF AUSTRALIA. 4s. Postage : C, 2|d. ; N.Z., 9d. ; B. & F., Is. 6d. FUNGUS DISEASES OF CITRUS TREES IN AUSTRALIA. 2s. Postage : C, Id. ; N.Z., 3d. ; B. & F.. fid. FUNGUS DISEASES OF STONE FRUIT TREES IN AUSTRALIA. 2s. fid. Postage: C. Ikl. ; N.Z., 3d.; B. & F., lOd. SYSTEMATIC ARRANGEMENT OF AUSTRALIAN FUN( JI. 3s. Postage : C, 2d. ; N.Z., 8d. ; B. & F., Is. 4d. THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, MELBOURNE, VICTORIA. Remittances from places outside tlie Commonwealtli to be by Money Order only. Pamphlets obtamable from, the Director of Agriculture, Melbourne, Free on Application. NEW SERIES. 1. SILO CONSTRUCTION. A. S. Kemjor,. C.E. 2. HINTS FOR NEW SETTLERS. T. A. J. Smith. * 3. APPLE GROWING FOR EXPORT. P. J. Garmody. * 4. BOOKKEEPING FOR FARMERS. W. Mclver, A.I.A.V., A.S.A.A., Eng. * 5. CIDER MAKING. J. Knight. * G. FARM PLUMBING. G. H. Wright. 7. CITRUS FRUIT CULTURE. E. E. Pescott. * 8. BUILDING HINTS FOR SETTLERS. A. S. Kenyan, G.E., and others. 9. TOBACCO CULTURE. T. A. J. Smith. *10. SILOS AND SILAGE. G. H. F. Baker. 11. THE BEET SUGAR INDUSTRY AND CLOSER SETTLEIMENT. H. T. Easterby. * Not ^ et available. REPORT ON EGG-LAYING ol. X. COMPETITION, 1911-12. [Reai'tered at the General Post Office, Melbourne, for transmission by Post as a Newspaper. 1 Part 7. :« I 111* ftf .^f^-' — .^^ _i-- - t- ^ r^Tl i sit ' - e ■'■■■I.''.' OUR GREAT SPECIALTY OUR GREAT SPECIALT LUCERNE HUNTER RIVER. PERUVIAN. FRENCH PROVENCE. TURKESTAN. All our Lucerne Seed is pure, free from dodder and true to name. Our Hunter River is true N.S.W. grown, not half French seed. New crop seed of the celebrated 'SI. and V. Lucerne just to hand. SAMPLES AND PRICES. POST FREE ON APPLICATION. fBRUNMINGB'^ iNCDHPAliBlE V SEEDS J 1^ rff^P£^'^\ MPRH ■ VEGETABLE SEEDS ALL VARIETIES. NEW SEED MANUAL FOR 1912 Containinq: over 130 pa;;cs. Post Free on application. SEEDS ALL VARIETIES. RYE GRASS, COCKSFOOT, S, DWARF ESSEX RAPE, PHALARIS, PASPALUM. Samples and Price.s on application. Correspondence invited. VICTORIA SEED WAREHOUSE, 64 ELIZABETH ST., MELBOURNE. THE JOUl^:\AL OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, CONTENTS.— JULY, 1912. HAljE. Influence of Certain Soil Constituents upon Xitrification John W. Farer.<j "CYCLONE" WOVEN GATE 9 f-fc. -to 16 ft. Will hold anything, and can be made rabbit proof by putting rabbit proof intersection at the bottom. T'.ie wider gates have three stays. Get our Catalogue of this and many other Cyclone Gates. " THEY'RE ALL GOOD." CYCLONE FENCE & GATE CO., ^ 459 SWANSTON ST., corner franklin ST., MELBOURNE. ^ ]^^s*i^i,ii^stNmmMamm.^^ai KEMP'S PATENT SHEEP-BRANDING LIQUID AS USED BY LEADING PASTORALISTS OF AUSTRALIA. IN THREE COLOURS, BLACK, RED & BLUE. Sold in 8 gallon cases, 4 6 grallon. 1 gallon tins, 5" each. -AGENTS FOR VICTORIA AND RIVERINA" V DALGETYeTg°; MELBOURNE Journal of Agriculture , Victoria. [lo July, 1912. "GLEN ELGIN'S PHILANTHROPIST" 299 A.H.B. of Aus. Winner of Champion, Sydney Royal Shew, 1909, 1910, 1911, 1912. Reserve Champion, Melbourne Royal Show, 1907, 1908, 1911. Also Winner of Bull and Progeny Prize of £10 for 5 females (the progeny of any one bull) producing the largest amount of commercial butter in 24 hours, Sydney Royal Show, 1912. Also holds the record of 150 Firsts, Champions, Specials, and Gold Medals for Ayrshire and Dairy Bull. The "Glengarnoek" Stad of Puf^- flypshipe Cattle Has won innumerable prizes in the ring. The females in this herd are noted for deep and heavy milking and test well above the average, and are kind and quiet. CHOICE YOUNG HERDBOOK BULLS FOR SALE at from 5 to 25 guineas each. From Best Cows only, by Pure Herdbook Bulls. Full pedigrees and particulars, with photographs of animal for sale, his sire and dam, will be forwarded on application. INSPECTION CORDIALLY INVITED. VISITORS MET AT UNC LANG RAILWAY STATION. Address A. T. PRIESTLEY, i Pest O^CLENCARNOCK," Kl^gJa^SjYANNATHAN, Vic. lo July, 191 2.] Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. xi Vaeuum Gapg*oyle Prepared Red Sppaying* Oil Needs no Soft Soap OP other ingredient. Requires only Clean Soft Water. Vacuum Gargoyle Red Spray Oil now obtainable in prepared form is the same Oil as that originally introduced to Australia for fruit- tree spraying. Full particulars — Horticultural Department, Vacuum Oil Co. Pty. Ltd., 90 William Street, Melbourne. JoaniaJ of .\i^r/cNl///n\ Victoria. [lo July, 1912. BOISDALE & KILMANY PARK THE IDEAL CLOSER SETTLEMENT COMBINATION. BOTH di OTH these Estates luive been specially selected, purchased, and sub- hided, for BEET GROWING AND DAIRYING combined. THRIFTY, EXPERIENCED MEN ^ with small capital afforded an opportunity of making a comfortable living while acquiring- the freehold. Particulars from Secretary, Closer Settlement Board, Melbourne. The New Automatic Cream Separator Separating Finished same time as MilkinJ THE AUTOMATIC CREAM SEPARATOR introduced into the Dairy means lessening the work wonderfully — saves time and expense. At last we have got the self-contained Cream Separator, automatic in action, simple enough for a child to work. It is an i -genious combination of a powerful, perfectly balanced motor, with a special Separator, and will keep running continuously for 6 hours. Cost of upk'ep isridicuously sma'l, and separates as fast as seven or eight mill;ers can supply. No intricate gears. You have only to pull the cord on the side, and the machine ke :pj going, producing a smooth cream, SKimming to .01. Know more about this great boon to dairymen. I will be an excellent investment for you. One size machine for any siie dairy. Write ror particulars. Sole A,gents : NEWELL 43-45 KING STREET, TREES THAT TREES THAT CROW! C. J= GOODMAN, Nurseryman, Picnic Point Nurseries, Bairnsdale, Victoria, Has for Sale one of the Lai-gest and Most Varied Stocks of Fruit Trees iu Australia. All the Nurseries are under Government supr'-vision, and every Tree sent to Planters is Clean, Healthy, Well-Grown and Shaped and True to Name. Nearly all Trees ■worked from Trees proved to be Good Bearers. Write for Catalogue. Post Free. =il| 10 July. 19 12 ] Journal of Agriculture . Victoria. "BARTRAM AUTOMATIC GAS PRODUCER Cheaper than COAL GAS at 3/" Per 1,000 cubic feet. For LIGHTING, COOKING, and HEATING. MANUFACTURED UNDER LICENCE BOOTY- LOFTH O US E PATENTS. SYSTEM ADOPTED BY STATE AND FEDERAL GOVERNMENTS. Further particulars and prices apply J. BARTRAM & SON pty. ltd., 19, 21, 23 King-st.; and Bourke-st., Melbourne. SHIFT THOSE STUMPS ! EFFECTIVELY, SAFELY, AND SATISFACTORILY. ""■" RACKAROCK FOR STUMP LIFTING, TREE FELLING, LOG SPLITTING & LAND CLEARING GENERALLY, SUB-SOILING & TREE PLANTING. STANDING TREE. SNAPSHOT OF EXPLOSION. It is absolutely without a rival. This is owing to its Great Rending Power. RACKAROCK is comprised of two ingredients — a solid anil .1 liquid —which are not explosive until mixed. The ingredients can therefore be transported and stored like candles and oil. This characteristic makes it invaluable for out-of-waj' places. CHEAPER THAN NITRO -COMPOUNDS. ^s. INT. C3-TJTIH^roC3-E3 3L.tca.. PROPRIETORS AND MANUFACTURERS. 525 COLLINS STREET, MELBOURNE. xiv Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lO July, 1912. 7- > THE STANDARD FOR FENCING. "NEPTUNE" UNRIVALLED PATENT STEEL FENCING WIRE. 5 0 % SAVED in your Wire Account, and then you have £9 8s. 6d. saved on 3 miles 6 Wire Fence ^ ^ by using "NEPTUNE," THE BEST POSSIBLE FENCE. Y ^s against Ordinary Wire. MORRIS & MEEKS, agents, MELBOURNE. To GRAZIERS, FARMERS, and DAIRYMEN. You cannot do better than purchase your requirements from Pro Ltd. THE VICTORIA VARNISH Coy. '— Who are Importers and Manufacturers of the undermentioned, namely : — Varnishes for all uses, Paints, Dry Colors, Stainer's Turpentine, Boiled and Raw Linseed Oil, Resin, Shellac, White Lead, &c. OUR MANUFACTURE IS OF ONE QUALITY— THE BEST. Note the Address— The VICTORIA VARNISH COY. Proprietary Ltd., Queen's Bridge, South Meib. Tel. Central 614. Established 1853. A. J. BORTHWICK, Manager. BONEDUST, SUPERPHOSPHATE, AND OTHER HIGH-GRADE FERTILIZERS DELIVERED AT RAILWAY STATION, FOOTSCRAY, OR ON WHARF, MELBOURNE. J. COOI5;:i3IlL.IL., Office :— 407 POST OFFICE PLACE, MELBOURNE. BONES BOUGHT. CONSIGN TO ME, FOOTSCRAY. Telephone 2098 lo Jlxv. 19 1 3.] Journal of A^^^riciilturc . Yicfona. XV < ^ u — >i ."t; P3 -yi 4) *- .5 E S O *^ t« © _ '^ 5 « O — o o <^ — c cu — ■,^ — ^c ,^ C3 '^ , \-~ cc CO QC uu CQ C3 LU r-t ;e UJ J— 1^ — 32 g 1 ^ 0 C5 -a H— Od 0 H-J -»-» -0 £ cd "O &. 03 OQ 5^ »^ ^^^ '^ C^ CQ CO QC &. ^^ 0 > ^* ^* s 0) 3 ■\ CO 1- X 0 0 ££ < cs CO >- ul CC t/5 a o 9m M if w o E Z ■00 U c •« n M "CO ^ s — s. Z Si s. — CS -j; i- "g Journal of Agriciilfi(rc, Victoria. [lo July, 191: DON'T WASTE YOUR TIME AT THE PUMP HANDLE. FOR foolish it is for a man to try to raise water for stock or garden by means of a hand pump. Windmills are to be obtained now so cheap that it is a folly, rank folly, to waste one's time at the pump handle ; the windmill will not only do the work better, but do it cheaper than any other method of raising water. The farmer, or the farmer's man's time would be much better employed about the farm. The first cost of a windmill is practically its only cost. All that is re- quired to keep it in order for years is simply to lubricate it occasionally, and this, with recent improvements, needs only to be done about once a month. For many years the ALSTON Windmill has become a household word. The fame of the ALSTON mill has spread far and wide. They have made their reputation by actual merit on actual service, by their simplicity and superior construction. They have stood the test of years. They have been erected in the most exposed sites with impunity. Tliey have been used successfully on wells and bores three and four hundred feet deep. They have been used for pumping through miles of piping to higher levels. They have been used for pumping for stock ; for irrigation ; for drainage ; for house and for garden, and almost everything that a pump is used for. They have been imitated and envied by rival makers but have never been ex- celled. Every ALSTON mill that has been sold has been an advertisement for its maker, and the demand for the ALSTON mill has increased year after year, and still preserves its premier position in the Commonwealth. Thousands of the ALSTON Windmills are made annually, and thousands of the ALSTON mills have been in constant use for nearly a quarter of a century, faithfully doing the work of water-lifting, to the satisfaction and delight of the foresighted and enterprising stock-owners who installed them ; now, seeing the advantages of their use, thousands of others are following their example. The windmill is, beyond dispute, the simplest, most reliable, and at the same time the cheapest method of raising water for stock. If you are interested further, write for a full and descriptive catalogue from the maker. The address is JAMES ALSTON, QUEEN'S Bridge, South Melbourne. This will give you a full and fair description of all different size mills that he makes, from the six to the twenty-five foot diameter wheel ; what each size will do, and what they will cost. IT WILL PAY YOU TO DO SO. TH6 JOUHNAb or T^Iie department of Mgricuffure OF LIBRA NEW Y VICTORIA. ^^^'^^i Vol. X. PaPt 7. loth July, 1912. IiNFLUENCE OF CERTAIN SOiL CONSTITUENTS UPON NITIUFICATION. By John W. t'atcrscni, B.Sc, Ph.D.. Experimentalist, and P. K. Scott, Chemist for Agriculture. Nitrification is the process whereby nitrates are formed in soils. Some other forms of nitrogen can be used by crops, but the nitrate form is re- quired in order to get a paying crop. The nature and conditions of nitri- fication were described in the May issue of this Journal. Experiments were quoted showing how the moisture conditions of the soil affected the change. In one of the soils used in the moisture experiments there appeared to be a deficiency of lime as revealed bv chemical analysis, and on this soil nitrification was somewhat slow even under the best moisture condi- tions. It seemed desirable, therefore, to set up a new set of experiments with the soil in (juestion in order to find whether an addition of lime would accelerate matters. The results form the principal subject of this report. Lime is usually applied to land in one of two forms. It is applied as burnt, hot, or caustic lime — lime proper — and this is the most active form in which to appFv lime. Again, it may be applied as chalk or ground limestone — carbonate of lime — and this form of lime is milder in its action. Slaked lime is a third chemical form of I'me, but it acts just like hot lime, and is orie-third heavier than hot lime, without containing more lime. In these experiments, hot lime has been tried on the soil in two different quantities. Mild, lime has also been tried in two quantities, equivalent in each case to an application of hot lime. With pure materials 56 parts of hot lime contain the same lime as 100 of mild lime. 7431. o 394 Journal of Agriculture, Yictoria. [lo July, 1912. Besides hot and mild lime, a number of other substances have alsa been tried to find their effect upon nitrification. These include gypsum (sulphate of lime) and superphosphate (phosphate of lime), both of which are generally available for application to land. Then magnesium car- bonate, which often occurs as impurity in limestone, has been tested. Ferric hydrate or iron rust is present more or less in practically all soils, and it has been tried as to its effect upon nitrification. It can neutralize some acids as lime does, but is altogether less active. Common salt, excess of which is injurious to crops, has been included. Citric acid was used in order to imitate the acidity of sour land, which lime can be applied to sweeten. Finally, sugar and starch were used to find the effect of too much fresh humus in soil, and also when the soil is badly aerated. The scheme of experiments is set forth in Table I, Table I. Test STumber 1 Constituent .added to Soil. Percentage Present in Soil. Chemical Equivalents. Character of Materials. 1 Nothing 2 Garb, of Lime 2-00 Commercial ^\hitening, 99 per cent. 3 0-50 ,, ,, ,, 4 Garb, of magnesia . . l'C8 = Test 2 C'arbonate and Hydrate, MgO = 40 ■ {J2 per cent. 5 „ 0-42 = » 3 !, 6 Gypisum . . 3-44 = „ 2 Gheiuically pure 7 0-86 = „ 3 „ 8 Lime 1-12 = ., 2 Freshly ignited, 99 per cent. 9 0-28 = ., 3 .» >r 10 Ferric hydrate 1-43 = „ 2 Precipitated, washed, and dried 11 Gommon salt 0-125 t'hemically pure 12 „ 0-25 = 2 X Test 11 13 Citric acid 0-104 = Garbte. in soil (Commercial crystals 14 " 0-213 = Garbte. in soil plus ,!(, psr cent. 15 Starch 114 Specially prepared — water, 12-1 per cent. 16 Sugar 1-00 Org. matter in 15 Castor sugar, 99-5 per cent. 17 1-00 (Sealed) ,, „ ., 18 Superphospliate 0-0025 = 100 lb. plus acic per acre Phos. acid, 20 per cent. (17.1.2) foot The first ten tests supply equivalent amounts of lime, magnesia, or iron in large or moderate doses. Regarding the use of magnesia, which in amount here is about one-sixth too little, reference is made later on. The amount of citric acid in 13 was estimated from the combined carbonic acid found on an analysis of the soil, and to 14 was applied o.i per cent, over and above the amount required for neutralizing. Each of the mate- rials was used in a finely powdered condition. lo July, 1Q12.] Iiifiuciicc of Certain Soil Coiistiliicnts. &c. 395 The soil used was that described as "sandy" in the previous article, and was taken from the same bulk. The chemical and mechanical analysis of this soil has already been published. The method of experiment was essentially the same as that adopted in the earlier investigations. Air-dry soil, equal to 300 grams of dry soil, includ ng the added substance, if any, was wetted up to 60 per cent, of its water-holding capacity, and 5 c.c. ammonium sulphate solution con- taining 0.1 gram nitrogen was mixed with the wetted soil. This nitrogen equalled SSS-^S P''irts per million of dry soil. After adding the ammonia the soil was transferred to a bottle, and compacted by tapping to a uniform volume in each case. With any substance, there were always two bottles, one getting ammDnia, and one getting no ammonia (control). Where am- monia was given, the water of solution was part of the water required to ASPIRATl?vIG THli LOTTLES. give the desired moisture. The bottles were corked during the incuba- tion period, and were placed in a dark cupboard where the temperature was read daily at 9 a.m. and 5 p.m. Twice weekly the bottles were uncorked, and aspirated for five seconds with a suction pump in order to maintain fresh air. Number 17, however, was sealed, and kept closed throughout the whole course of the exper'ments. The eighteen tests, with their controls, required thirty-six bottles. An- other set was filled similar to these, making seventy-two bottles. In addi- tion, four extra bottles of Nos. i and 2 were placed aside in order to get some idea when the tim-e had arrived to begin the full analyses. The methods of analys's adopted have already been described. The work was performed by Mr. W. C. Robertson, chief deputy chemist, who also attended to the filling of bottles and keeping of records. o 2 396 Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo July, 1912. The four extra bottles of Xos. i and 2 were filled on 22nd February, and tested on 8th March. Period of incubation, fifteen days ; average temperature, 72.9 degrees F. The results are stated in Table IL Table II. Test Constituent Added. Nothing Carb. of lime Xitrate Xitrogeu per 1,000,000 p;irts Dry Soil. Percentage of added N'umber 1 2 Control Blanks. 29-40 42-62 Ammonia Bottles. 75-72 352-67 Excess with Ammonia. 46-32 310-05 Ammonua Nitrified. 13-89 93-01 It was seen from these observation bottles that the addition of mild lime had verv greatly increased the rate of nitrification, and it was decided therefore to commence one of the main series as soon as possible. Table III. gives the results. The period of incubation here was twenty-one days ; average temperature, 72.1 degrees F. Table III. Test Constituent Added. Nitrate Nitrogen per 1,000,000 parts Dry Soil. Percentage of added Xumber Control Blanks. Ammonia Bottles. Excess with Ammonia. Ammonia Nitrified. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 Nothing Carb. of lime Carb. of magne.sia Gypsum Lime Ferric hydrate Common salt Citric acid Starch . . Sugar . . Superphosphate 22-01 38-02 33-26 22-01 26-40 16-51 13-20 3-27 14-61 14-61 16-50 13-20 6-53 3-92 Nil N'-l Nil 19-01 94-33 347-37 299-38 55-12 52-75 94-33 82-45 4-04 4-39 94-33 26-37 4-40 73-20 33-02 Nil Nil Nil 94-33 72-32 309-35 266-12 33-11 26-35 77-82 69-25 79-72 9-87 66-67 29-10 75-32 21-69 92-86 79-83 9-93 7-90 23-34 20-77 23-91 2-96 26-00 8-73 22-59 Referring to the figures, it was apparent that the acceleration of nitri- fication found in twenty-one days scarcely extended beyond the carbonate of lime, consequently it was decided to leave the duplicate set for another month. The figures of Table III. stand in an interesting relation to the final results, and will be referred to later. At the end of fifty-one days, the remainder of the bottles were analvzed. Mean temperature of periods, 69.98 degrees F. The results were as shown on the following page. lo July, 191^.] Influcucc of Certain Soil Coi/siititciits. &c. 39/ Tabu: JV. Test Number Constituent Added. Xitrate Nitrogen per 1,000,000 parts Dry Soil. Control Blanks. Ammonia Bottles. E.xcess with Ammonia. Percentage of added Ammouia Nil rifled. 3 4 5 (j 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 U 15 16 17 18 Nothing Carb. of lime Carb. of magnesia Gypsiiim Lime Ferric hydrate Common .salt Citric acid Starch . . Sugar Su]ierphosphate Tlie soil (.f tliese 4 Lotties was 33-03 54 -00* 39-92* 38 -02 (if) -53 33-02 29-35 3-92 38-02 2(5-37 26-37 26-37 10-93 Ml 10-93 2-85 Nil 29-35 108-99 412-83* 329-97* 329-97 299-97 139-59 131-97 4-37 13-09 188-89 (58 -90 29-94 70-09 59-99 55-84 92-66 Nil 136-62 75-96 358-83 2G0-G5 291-95 233-44 106-57 102-62 162-52 42-53 3-57 59-16 59-99 44-91 89-81 Nil 107-27 22-79 100-00 87 -01 87-60 70-03 31 -97 30-78 48-75 1L"75 1-07 17-74 17-99 13 -47 26-94 32-18 nadvertently missed, and refilled alter 21 davs. 1 3 i^^K ,i- --1 itlTrt iS^L s %^ 1- I . 9 . 1 ^IH( 'ffi ,- ■ -■ — 14 r-^W^ «Mi.- --^ ' ^ ■^^"^^fcl^fc. ->5^^^ i-"^ ^^49 iLiMMta WiilGHING THE MATERIALS. We may now procetd to consider the practical lessons of the.se experi- ments. Carbonate of Lime. — This material had the best effect on nitrification of all the substances tried. Xot only did it give the best result ulti- mately, but its action was also the sDonest felt. It gave a better result in fifteen days (Table TI.) than any other application in fifty-one days. The quantity applied — 2 per cent. — is larger than would be' applied in 398 Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [10 July, 191 2. practice, yet there is no danger of giving foo mucli of tlie substance at one time. Indeed, tlie lieavier application (No. 2) was better than the lighter (No. 3), which, however, was also, good. The beneficial action of mild lime on nitrification is not new, but it is very clearly demonstrated in these results. Tables 11. and III. show that about 93 per cent, of the ammonia nitrogen given was nitrified after using carbonate of lime within three weeks. This is probably as large an amount as will ever be recovered in practice.* The final analysis shows a higher figure, but the bottles of Nos. 2 and 3 were emptied by mistake, and refilled at the t"me of the second analvsis, and these particular results are therefore nitrated. Increased production of nitrates following upon the use of carbonate- of lime is one of the chief, if not the chief, reason for its beneficial effect on crops. The results obtained in this experiment may be confidently expected in the field where the land is deficient in lime, and sufficiently dry. When two soils in Trinidad were limed, and subsequently examined, a striking increase in the percentage of nitrates was shown over similar unlimed land.f Caustic Lime (Nos. 8 and 9) had a bad effect in the fresh state, and practically stopped all nitrification. The larger application did most harm. There was some unavoidable loss of ammonia in filling and aerating these bottles, but as care was taken to wet the .soil before adding the ammonia, the loss was only partial, and cannot be held to explain the result. Table III. shows clearly the folly of applying hot lime with, or .shortly before, the seed of any crop, as thereby the nitrate factory is effectively closed down. Table IV. indicates that the smaller application was beginning to recover at the end of fifty-one days, but the large one was not. The lesson is that hot lime should be appled some months before seeding, and the heavier the dressing the longer the time should be. When hot lime lies a few months in the soil, it unites with carbonic acid, and is then present as carbonate of lime. The beneficial effects of carbonate of lime- have already been noted. Any injurious effect of applying hot lime at the wrong t'me may be expected to disappear by the second year. Hot lime eventually will stimulate nitrification just like mild lime, because it will be converted into mild lime. Using small quantities, it may indeed give a better re.sult the second year, because it will be better dis- tributed over the soil particles. For the same reason, its effect would be sooner expended. Gypsum hadi a moderate effect in encouraging nitrification, but was not at all equal to carbonate of lime. The heavier application (No. 6) was a trifle better than the smaller (No. 7), but nothing to abide by. It is suflficient to group the results, and note that gypsum has certainly been of benefit, but that it was slow (Table III.) in beginning to act. Gypsum contains lime, but in union with sulphuric acid, and on this account gypsmia will not generally repair the defic'encies of a soil requiring lime as quickly as the other forms, hot or mild. Carbonate of Magnesia (Nos. 4 and 5) seems to behave in a curious manner. It was intended to apply the neutral carbonate, but by mistake the " magnesii carbonas levis " of the pharmacopceia was used. This con- tains hydrate as well as carbonate of magnesia, and is weakly alkaline. At the first period, therefore (Table III.), this material delayed nitrification * Die Stick-stoffd'imun'j cler Ir-nduK. Kulturpflamyen, by Dr. Paul Wagner, Berlin, 1892. t Bui. Depl. Aji-lc. Trinadad 9 (1910), No. 66, pp. 239, 240. ao July, 191 2.] Influetice of Certain Soil Constituents^ &^c. 399 somewhat after the manner of hot lime, which is strongly alkaline. After -a longer period (Table IV.) apparently it had all become converted into the neutral carbonate, and it then exercised, a fine effect somewhat resembling mild lime. Excess of magnesium carbonate may be harmful to crop plants, but apparently this eftect will nut be exercised through its influence on nitrification. SuperpJiosphatc has ap[)reciably increased the nitrification of added ammonia as compared to the soil receiving no application (No. i), and on referring to the chemical analysis of the soil, it is seen to be very poor in phosphoric acid (-032 per cent.). The result is interesting as showing that phosphates may help to nourish the nitrifying organisms as well as the crop. Still the nitrate production is very far behind that of .several other materials which have been considered. Where it is not required to nourish the organisms, superphosphate being acid will probably do hann. This particular subject has been investigated by Dr. Fraps in America.* Working with ten different soils, he found that phosphatic acid decreased the nitrate supply from 100 tO' 70 on the average of five soils, and in- creased it from 100 to 196 on the average of the five others. Ferric Hydrate (No. 10) has been distinctly favorable to nitrification, although it was slow, and the effect was chiefly noticeable at the later date. Some recent inve.stigations at Rothamsted, by Ashby, indicate a similar beneficial effect of iron rust (ferric hydrate) on nitrification, f The.se experiments were conducted in water cultures, and it is Interesting to con- firm the result here under .soil conditions. Red and chocolate soils con- tain most ferric hydrate, and this may contribute to their fertility. Comiuoii Salt had a bad, eftect all round, and the larger application {\ per cent.) Avas worse than the smaller (| per cent.). Crops fail on salt or alkali soils, and no doubt the effect is produced in part by the influence of this constituent in checking nitrification. Citric Acid (Nos. 13 and 14) hindered nitrification very .seriously, and the heavier application had a bad effect on the nitrate production through- 'Out. It is noticeable with these sour soils that the nitrate production in the controls was reduced in an exceptional degree. These controls received no ammoniacal manure. Looking to the bad effect of acidity, and com- paring it with the effect of mild lime, the advantage of liming sour land and neutralizing its acid becomes manifest. Starch and. Sugar in the aerated bottles (Nos. 15 and 16) did not help nitrification at the first (Table III.), but they destroyed the nitrates already present — denitrification. This may happen at times after ploughing in green or fresh stable manure, especially on stiff' wet soils. At the close of the experiments, the soils" showed no trace of either starch or sugar by chemical tests. These had apparently rotted away, and the sugar would rot fastest. If that were so. then the sugar bottle would soonest be able to re-start nitrification, and at the close indeed it contained considerably more than the other. The sugar bottle kept sealed (No. 17) never showed nitrates anywhere, and one may conclude that working and tillage to admit air will stimulate -nitrification. This will be particularly useful when green or stable manure has been applied .some time before. While conducting these experiments, an interesting point arose as to the probable effect of dry storage of .soil upon the vigour of the nitrifying -organisms contained in it. Four bottles were set up with a special soil, * Bui. Texas Airic. Exp. St. 159 (1908), pp. 15, 16. t Joiii-. Ajrlc. Sci., Vol. II. (1907-8), pp. 52 et. seg. 400 Journal of AgriculiKrc, \ ictona. [lo July, 191 2. which had been air-dried, and stored at the laboratory for three months. Two of those bottles marked A were put away dry on 23rd February, while other two marked B were wetted to 60 per cent, of the saturation capacity, and put away on the same day. After fifty days (13th April), the contents of both A bottles were also wetted, and at the same time one of A and one of B received o.i gram ammonia nitrogen as sulphate. The bottles were again set aside, and after twenty-three days (6th May), the progress of nitrification was determined with the following results: — * Table V. Test Constituent Added. Nitrate Nitrogen per 1,000,000 parts Dry Soil. Percentage of added Mark. Control Blanlis. Ammonia Bottles. Excess with Ammonia. Ammonia Nitrified. A B Wetted 13th April 23rd Februray . . 33 50 41 -.50 90-75 307 - 50 57-25 266- 00 17-17 79-80 The soil was a poor one, and there v\as little difference in the unmanured blanks. Where ammonia was given, nitrification, however, went on much more quickly on the soil previously kept wet, showing that continued existence in a dry soil impairs the vigour of the germs, but that under moister conditions, they recover. This question does not affect the influence of added substances, where the same soil is used throughout. What it shows is that after a long dry spell, nitrifving activity will not im- mediately revive with the rain because the organisms require some time to recover their normal vigour. Summary. 1. Mild lime is an effective means of promoting nitrification, and its action begins at once. 2. It is a safe dessing both as regards quantity and time of applica- tion. 3. Caustic lime requires greater caution in its use. 4. It should not be applied too near the time of seeding. 5. It should not be applied during the growth of any crop. 6. It should be used in smaller quantities than mild lime. 7. It will probably have a similar action to mild lime eventually. 8. Magnesium carbonate in a limestone may or may not damage crops, hut it appears to favour nitrification. 9. Red and brown soils, other things being equal, favour nitrification, as they contain a slow-acting liase in the form of iron rust. 10. Gypsum is a slow form in which to apply lime. Superphosphate may prove a useful aid to nitrification on some II soils. 12 13 14 Salt delays nitrification. Sour soils are verv unfavorable to nitrification. Ploughing in of green or fresh stable manure may cause a tempo- rary shortage of nitrates, particularly on damp soil. 15. The nitrifying organisms are weakened by continued drought, and where the surface soil becomes unduly parched in a drv spell, nitrification will begin slowly after rain comes. lo July, 191--] " E.xanthcma" of Orange Trees i)i Australia. 401 ERUPTIVE DISEASE, OR "EXANTHEMA" OF ORANGE TREES IN AUSTRALIA. By C. C. Brittlehank, Vegetable Pathologisf s OifLce. From time to time specimens of diseased oranges, together witli their leaves and branches, have been forwarded to the office of the Vegetable Pathologist, with a request that a determination of the disease be made, and, if possible, a remedy suggested. When on a recent visit to the capital of a sister State, a request was made by several fruit-growers that T should visit a number of orange groves in which an unknown disease, had appeared. As this was causing .serious trouble to the growers, so much .so that they intended to grub out their trees if relief could not be obtained. During this in'ierview I was informed that they could not obtain anv in- formation as to the cause or control cf the disease. A visit was paid to the district and an examination of the (lisea.sed trees made. This, together with the knowledge gained from specimens forwarded to Melbourne, soon convinced me that the trouble was physiological, and not due to anv special fungi. Description of the Disease. A most striking feature of this disease is the general healthy appear- ance of the trees, the leaves of which are of a beautiful dark-green, and frequently nearly twice the normal si/e. This apparent symptom of health is followed by a yellowing of the young tender shoots, from which the leaves fall. Soon after, or concurrent with the fall of the leaves, the shoots turn reddish-brown, owing to the middle layers of the bark becoming en- gorged with a resin-like substance. Twigs affected as described die back for a length of from 6 to 12 inches. Numerous bushy twigs arise from the smaller branches, these however .••oon die away. gi\ing the characteristic appearance to diseased trees. When a number of affected shoots are borne on a larger branch the bark of the latter is often blistered, split, and ruptured to such an extent that the injured portions become almost con- fluent. (Plate I., Fig. i.) From the.se injuries a hard rusty-coloured resin- bke gum exudes; this granulates on the edges of the injuries and does not run or collect in tears, as in some other citrus diseases. (Plate I., Fig. n.) An examination nf the bark shows that the actual ruptures do not extend into the cambium or sapwood, but generally only affect the middle laver of the bark outwards. Howe\er, beneath the ruptures numerous minute gum pockets are formed in the sapwood directlv beneath the ruptures These appear as clear glass-like specks, if a shaving be removed and held against the light. (Plate II.. Fig. IV.) Sometimes even before the tree shows any sign of disease in leaf or shoot, it can be detected by the pale unhealthy colour of the fruit, which often falls before becoming mature. Oranges borne on affected branches are frequently stained by the reddish- brown exudation which hardens the skin, causing them to split or crack. (Plate II.. Fig. II Ia.) In some instances the diseased fruit becomes quite hard, and in others it falls early. Eveai those which remain ripen pre- maturelv, and are of a pale-greenish -lemon yellow, and quite insipid to taste, as are also the green immature oranges. Nature of Soil in Affected Areas. As nearly all soils ar- determined by the nature of the underlying jreological formation, and as the main mass is composed almost entirely of 402 Journal of Agriculture , Victoria. [lo July, 191 2. I. Orange branch showing ruptured bark. II. Confluent blisters on small twig. io July, 1912.] '• ExaiitJiema' of Orange Trees in Australia. 403 FJflY.. III. Oranges showing (a) splitting, (b) woodiness. IV. Transverse section of twig gum pockets at (c), normal tissue at (d). 404 Journal of Agriculture, \ktoria. [10 July, 1912. siliceous sandstone, this is broken down and is tlien washed from the higher levels a.nd deposited on the lower slopes at the f(X>t of the hills. From the nature of its source and depositioir ii: is, as would be expected, of a light porous nature. As this soil was being formed, more or less vegetable matter was brought down adid mixed through it, but this would be, com- paratively speaking, quickly removed, more especially if the surface soil be kept free from plant growth. Several of the orange groxes are on this type of soil, some of these were planted many years ago, and as a consequence they have withdrawn a large qua^ntity of the available plant food within their reach. Even in the area of a single plantation the deficiencies of plant food in the soil \ary to a considerable extent, affecting both the growth and yield of the trees. Generally speaking this is perhaps one of the most fertile sources of trouble as the weakened vitality and starved condition of the trees lay them open to attack from various citrus diseases. So far as I could ascertaija no manure, with the exception of bone-dust, had been used in the affected area. That this disease is more prevalent in those areas which are of a dry porous nature and in which there is a lack of organic matter is easily seen. Trees growing in a more retentive soil are in this case not affected with " Exanthema," although they may be, and often are, attacked by collar-rot and other diseases. All the evidence collected in the field points to the lack of organic miatter a'nd an open porous sandy soil bei'io- the chief factors in causing this trouble. Methods Suggested for the Control of the Disease. Such being the case methods must be adopted which will render the soil more retentive of moisture and at the same time supply food for the trees. Ploughing in green crops of oats, barley, rye, or wheat, which have been previously manured with superphosphates would be the easiest and best method to adopt. Nitrogenous manures should be used sparingly, if at all, on the diseased areas, as they appear to have a deleterious effect upon the trees. Discretion must be left to the growers as to the best method of cultivation and crop suited to the district. Care shoulrl also be taken that no bud wood be taken from trees which havi_ i)een affected, as they might possibly l:)e more susceptible if placed under fa\orable conditions for the development of the trouble. The conditions favouring the development of the disease are — i. Porous light deep, coarse or sandy soil, lacking organic matter, and which quickly dries out after rain. 1. Continued drought followed by heavy rain. 3. Large amounts of nitrogenous manures. THE OLIVE. Z. MacdoiialiL Horticulturist, Doohic Agricultural College. (Continued from page 217.) Pests. The Olive in the older European countries is subject to the attack of a number of enemies; fortunately, however, it is endowed with a constitu- tion specially fitted for the resistance of such attacks, otherwise it would not to-day be in its proud position in the forefront of economic trees. lo July, 191 2.] TJie Olive. 405 ]'robably the worst pest in the countries referred to is the Olive Fly {Dacus oleae). This insert attacks the matured and partially matured fruit. In some years it works enormous damage. The Olives in Aus- tralia appear, so far, to be free from its attack ; yet it is possible, nay [probable, that in the warmer districts one or the other of the fruit flies will take its place. Plantation owners and prospective growers must look with serious concern at the possibilitv of the introduction of this fly. For when once established under genial conditions, it is one of the most diffi- cult to suppress. A closely related species, " The (Queensland Fruit Fly '' {Dacus {Tephritis) Tryoni Frogg), is one of the most formidable pests with which the fruitgrower in the Northern States has to contend. Any insect such as this little fly, that directs its attack towards the matured or nearly matured fruit, is usually most difficult to suppress. Its presence is usually not suspected until it is so well established that it is difficult to cope with. Although the presence of the " The Queensland Fruit Fly " {Dacus {Tephritis) Tryoni Frogg.), " The Mediterranean Fruit Fly " {Halterophora {Ceratitis) capitata^ Wied.), and " The Guava Fruit Fly'" {Tephritis psidii) may cause serious forebodings in the Northern States they are not be feared so much in Victoria. Our climatic conditions do not appear to be entirely suited to their development. Doubtless many of the larve were imported into Victoria in oranges and Ijananas before the present system of inspection was instituted, but they do not appear to have survived and multiplied. Although the Mediterranean Fruit Fly has been found in several places in the Goulburn Vulle\ during the last five or six years, it seems to have had a somewhat precarious existence and to have done comparatively little damage. It would seem that it is only in those years when the summer and autumn are especially dry that its attack is to be feared. As a rule, the zone of its activity does not reach so far south. The vigilance of growers should not, however, be relaxed on that account, as it is possible that it may in time become acclimatised. The three worst pests attacking the 01i\e in Australia at the presenlt time are, " The Curculio Beetle." " The Olive Scale," and " The Red Scale." This being so, the prospective planter has not very serious cause for alarm. Providing he takes care in obtaining trees or cuttings that are free from any of these pests, he is not likely to have any trouble for years, unless he is adjoining an infected area. It may be mentioned here, that it is the writer's intention to deal chiefly with tho.sc diseases that are at present infesting the Olive groves in Australia, on'y slight reference being made to those pests that have not, so far, gained a foothold here. These will be dealt with separately, as they represent different classes of pests and call for different methods of treatment. The Curculio Beetle {Ofiorhynchus crihricollis) : — This pest is undoubtedly becoming one of the most serious of those attacking the Olive in this country. Of late years it has been doing a considerable amount of damage in the olive plantations, nurseries, and gardens of South Australia. The writer has not so far met with it in the olive groves of this State, although it is possible that it may be present in some places. It is to be hoped that every precaution will be used against its introduction, and if it gains admittance, towards its suppression, beca'.se it appears to be almost omnivorous, and when once established is most difficult to sup- press. When one food is not present it appears to turn its attention with equal zest to another, attacking practically all kinds of fruit trees 4o6 Journal of Agricidtiire , Victoria. [lo July, 191 2. to a greater or lesser degree as well as a number of garden plants. It is, however, probable that on the whole the trees that suffer most from its attack at the present time are Olives, Almonds, and Figs. Owing to its shyness and nocturnal habits this insect is particularly hard to cope with. In many places its ravages were observed long before the real cause of the trouble was discovered. Growers, being at a loss to understand the cause of the damage done to their trees, attributed the mischief, in some cases, to innocent, inoffensive insects that happened to ■be present at the time. The gnawed and ragged edges of the leaves, noticeable where it has attacked, are unfailing indications of the presence 'of a chewing or mandibulate pest. Nevertheless, its extreme shyness in hastily dropping to the ground, its precipitate efforts at concealment, and its cunning instinct in feigning death in the presence of danger, have often robbed the grower of any suspicion that he may have had regarding FIG. 19. TERMINALS OF OLIVE SHOOTS ATTACKED BY CURCULIO BEETLE its destructive work, and he has allowed it \o go unharmed. This power of simulating death, the natural colour of the adult insect, and its tend- ency to seek a hiding place in the darkened interstices of the soil or among decaying vegetable matter similar in colour to itself, have often aided it in escaping detection. " The Curculio' Beetle" belongs to the great family {curculionida) or weevils, which comprises some of the worst pests with which the horticul- turist has to contend, such as the apple root borer {Le flops hofei) ; the plum curculio (conotrachelus nemipJiar), etc. With seed of various kinds, and trees and plants, both indigenous and exotic, the members of this family have done incalculable damage, and are likely to continue their destructive work for some time to come owing to the many difficulties in the way of their suppression. The adult insect usually measures about 5-1 6th of an inch in length. That is from the tip of the snout to the posterior end of the wing cases. TO July, 191 2.] The Olive 407 and about an inch across the back or dorsal surface of the wing cases. The beetles are of a reddish-black or brownish-black colour, varying to almost solid black in some of the older insects. They usually appear about November and continue their ra\-ages through the summer months, disappearing again about March. As far as the writer can ascertain, it appears that little information is available regarding the life history of this particular pest under our conditions. In all probability its life history is similar in many respects to that of some other members of the same family with which we are more familiar. That is, the eggs are laid close to the surface in sheltered parts of the soil, chiefly around the base of those trees or plants that provide the food of the mature insect. The larvae hatch out and live on adjacent roots, pupating in early spring, after which the beetles soon make their appearance. In some cases the adult insects have beeri found hibernating in crevices around trees or other hiding places during winter. Owing to the meagreness of the information regarding the habits of this insect, there is not sufficient evidence to show whether the larvae live on the roots of the plants attacked by the beetle. or on decaying vegetable matter, or on the roots of weeds and' grasses. This lack of definite know- ledge regarding the habits of this pest is a disad- vantage in undertaking any means of combating its destructive work. It appears to be fairly certain though, from the habits of the aduft insects, that a portion of its life has been a subterranean one. ^____^ The nocturnal habits, the strong aversion to bright ^^^ ,q ^^^ curculio daylight, and the instinct in seeking a hiding place beetle (magniiicd). in the soil, seem to point that way. This insect cannot fly. In consequence its distribution has been somewhat restricted. In some of the Olive groves where it is present its attack is confined to limited patches, but there is always a tendency to spread, even if slowlv. • , , u In Fig. 19 is depicted a few terminals of twigs picked by the writer at random, in one of the largest South Australian plantations._ They give a fair idea of the u^ual nature of this insect's attack on olive trees. The beetles crawl up the trees when darkness arrives and, reaching the terminals of the branches, usually cling from the underside or edge of the leaves and eat into them from the margin, giving them a jagged, irregular appearance somewhat similar to that due to the attack of the leaf cutting bee The attack depicted on the above plate is not a very bad one. In extreme cases all the green fleshv cellular tissue of the leaves is consumed and nothing but the stalk and ribs are left. The remnant of the leaves left in such cases on such trees as figs presents an appearance somewhat like those of melons that have been badly attacked by the black banded pumpkin beetle. r u 1 u-^ Treatme7it:—i:\xh should be based on what we know of the habits of the insect and .should be carried out in the most economical and eftective way possible. It should be borne in mind that the beetles do their work at night, that they are chewing insects, that they cannot fly, and that they take shelter during the day under any cover adjacent to their host. The fact that they are nocturnal feeders present some difficulties in the way of treatment. It .seems like hitting in the dark trying to combat a jest that makes its attack at night. This disadvantage is, however, 4o8 Journal of Agriculture , Ticioria. [lo July, 191^. counterbalanced by the inability of the insects to make their escape in flight and by their natural inclination to find a refuge during the day somewhere close to the trees. Since they are unable to fly they must find their wav on foot to the trunk of the trees and climb up to get at their food supplies. The return journey is made before the next day. Hence the use of a bandage around the trunk of each tree is a means of diminishing the pest. Crino- line bands of plate tin in conjunction with bagging will be found useful in this respect. The tin bands are cut about 3 to 4 inches in width and sufficiently long to go around the trees and provide for a little lap. In putting on such bands the uppermost erlge is fitted as close as possible to the bark all around the trunk, thus pre\enting any beetle from squeez- ing between it and the bark in going up. The lower edge is spread out at some distance from the main stem. If the bandages are put on cor- rectly and are of the right class of material, the beetles will fail to negotiate them during the night, and numbers will be found in the early morning underneath the bands. These should be collected and destroyed. Bandages of bagging may also be used lower down than the tin bands as a trap. Tanglefoot papers, strips of cloth or paper smeared with a strong adhesive will often serve well, although it should be remembered that all forms of adhesive bandages should be carefully tended and frequently renewed as they are somewhat troublesome to keep in a proper state of efficiency. Frequent cultivation close to the trees will also kill out numbers of the pest, especially when in the larvae or pupa stages. Many of the adult insects will also be injured and dislodged in this way. In conjunction with bandaging of the trunks and frequent cultivation, spraying with arsenical compounds should be carried out. This latter operation is probably the most effective and economic way of dealing with this class of pest, and I would recommend the use of arsenate of lead for the pur[oose. This may be obtained in prepared form, there being quite a number of good brands on the market. In everv case, however, the spray should be applied at high pressure and through a fine nozzle ; care being taken to strike e\-erv part of the foliage. It is also ad\'amageous to use strong solutions. If the grower is making up his own materials they should be pre- pared in the following quantities : — 12 ozs. acetate of lead, 5 ozs. arsenate of .soda, 50 gallons of water. Prepare in the following way: — Dis.solve the 12 ozs. of acetate of lead in 2 quarts of water and the 5 ozs. of arsenate of soda in 3 pints of water in .separate vessels, wooden or earthenware, for preference. Then pour the separate solutions into 50 gallons of water. This formula may ])e increased in strength up to double quantities. I.e., 24 by 10 by 50 and used without fear of scorching the foliage. In cases where the pest is verv bad it is advisable to use a strong solution. {To be continued .) One inch of rain over i acre equals loi tons of water. Therefore, the weight of T point of rain to the acre is approximately i ton. At Rothamsted a soil growing barley lost 9 inches more water from the top 54 inches than a corresponding bare fallow. 10 Jl'LV. 191-'-] General Notes. 409 GEXERAL NOTES. EXPORT OF GRAPES FROM SPAIN— The official bulletin of the Algerian (jovernment. in its issue of ist February last, gives the following information concerning the exportation of fresh grapes from Almeria (Spain) during 191 1: — 2,450,593 barrels in all were shipped, or 422,625 more than in 1910. The (juality of the fruit was superior, but growers appear to have been ui^able to regulate supply and demand, so that excessive 'juantities were shipped to certain markets with the usual disastrous results. Prices were as follows : — In England . . . . 88. to lO.'^. per barrel (40 lbs. nett). (Special lots up to 22s. per barrel.) In .America . . . . $3 to $4 (12s. to 16s.) In Germany .. .. floOM to lOoOM. (9s. (kl. to 10s. Od.) The shipments were as follows : — United Kingdom — barrels. Ijarrels Liverpool . . . . . . . . . . 537,710 London . . . . . . . . . . 358,158 Glasgow .. .. .. .. .. 125,379 Hull, Newcastle Bristol, Cardiff, and Manchester . . 159,504 United Strifes — New York .. .. .. .. .. 808,717 Philadelphia and Co-^ton .. .. .. .. 11,837 1,180,757 820.554 (Jermani/ — Hamburs . . • • • • • • • • 3<)4,665 Bremen^ .. .. .. .. .. 23,288 Other Ports .. .. .. .. ,.. 01.329 449.282 Total .. .. .. .. .. .. 2.450,593 In addition to the above, 17.948 half-barrels were exported to different ports. Rice husks were experimented with as a substitute for granulated cork by some shippers, but the results were disastrous. CATTLE BREEDING AND DAIRY RECORDS— It is absolutelv impossible for a cow, which is yielding large quantities of solid matter in her milk up to wdthin the or six weeks of calving, to do full justice to the reproduction of her own species, and thus it is that so manv bulls obtained from high-vielding cows are a failure at the stud. The practice on the Government Stud Farm has been to subordinate milk yields to the production of the species in a high order. In other words, once a cow has shown herself to be first-class there is no effort to continue to obtain from her a large quantitv of milk and butter per year. Agriciil- tiiral Gazette. New South Wales. Ripe seeds contain about 12, felled timber 40, grass 75. potatoes 75, and turnips 90 per cent, of water. There is 3 per cent, more water in turnips than in milk. Animals give out carbonic acid when they breathe, and plants form the greater part of their substance from this gas. It has been estimated that an acre of fore.st producing 2 tons of dry matter annually will consume the carbonic acid produced bv 12 men. 4IO Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo July, 1912^ A LAND OF SMALL HOLDIKGS— Japan is a country of which the agricultural system consists chiefly of small holdings. As many as 55 per cent, of those who make a living out of the soil cultivate less than 2 acres each, 30 per cent, less than 3 acres, and 15 per cent. 4 acres or more. Few of the small farmers own horses or other traction animals, and their implements are of a very primitive description, but as large quantities of manure are used, and the soil is cultivated to a good depth and frequently, the yield obtained is very- abundant. Usually two or three crops are taken off in the course of twelve months. Rice is the principal crop, and occupies about two'-fifths of the arable land of the country, although the mulberry and tea are also largely grown. Most of the farmers have some subsidiary occupation, such as breeding silkworms and weaving silk. They are a hardy, contented people, and do well except in times of severe drought, which in some seasons causes great suffering. — Mark Lane Express. EFFECT OF DROUGHT ON THE QUALITY OF STRAW— In Europe cereal straw, especially oat straw, forms a considerable and useful part of the winter rations for cattle. Last year owing to a remarkably dry summ.er the straw in many districts took on a peculiar- violet tinge, and farmers were anxious to know whether it could be fed to animals without danger. The matter was investigated by Professoi Menard, who has communicated his views to the Journal d^ Agriculture Pratique. He says that the discoloration of the stalks is due to gro\vth having been suddenly checked by drought, and that the organic matter formed in the foliage, instead of passing as usual into the heads to fill the grain, has remained in some measure in the stalks. From this it appears that not only is the straw safe, but that it is of better quality than the straw of normal seasons. Analyses showed that the albuminoids, which normally formed about 3 per cent, of the straw, were nearly doubled (5.8 per cent.) by the dry weather. This finding arouses speculation as to the possible value of Victorian straws compared to those of wetter countries where threshed straw forms a staple article of fodder. The matter is worthy of investigation, and has possibilities of application in a greater use of mixed rations and the sacrifice of a smaller part of the cereal area for hay purposes than is at present the fashion. EARLY FALLOWING— Speaking at the Annual Conference of the Northern Branches of the Agricultural Bureau of South Australia, the Director of Agriculture (Pro- fessor Lowrie) gave good advice, which is equally applicable to the drier districts of this State: — "A subject round which tliere had been con- siderable controversy was the time of the year at which to begin working the fallow. If year after year farmers would note the returns per acre from the land that they fallowed in June, and compared the results with those from land which they fallowed in late August or September, it would very nearly convince them that it would pay to procure an extra team in order to'get the fallowing done in good time. It was also neces- sary for the benefit of the next year's crop to get on to the fallow as early as possible, and so gather the moisture and get it down into the land." lo July, 1912.] Bcc Moths. 411 BEE MOTHS. By C. French, Junior , Acting Government Entomologist, and F. R. BeuJine, Bee Expert. Bee or Wax Moths are undoul>tedly one of the worst pests beekeepers Jiave to contend with in Victoria. There are two species, the " Larger Bee Moth " {G alter ia niellonella) and the " Lesser Bee Moth " {AcJirceca griselld) ; both species are frequently found in the same apiary ; and these pests are present in most parts of the world where bee-keeping is carried on. The larvae of both moths are great enemies to bees, and may become very destructive. They perforate the comb with burrows, thereby destroy- ing the cells, and often cover it with a network of silken threads. The destruction of the cells, and the impediments caused by the silken network, partly smother the larvae, and, as the adult bees are greatly hampered by the threads in feeding them, the larvae are liable to be starved. The " Larger Bee Moth," which measures about i inch in length, is of a dark brown colour, and the under wings are a light grey on the margin, with a lighter colour towards the centre. When young, the caterpillars are yellowish in colour, and when fully grown, are a dull greyish colour. The " Lesser Bee Moth " is a uniform coloured drab-grey moth, with a yellow head. The larvae are whitish, with a brown head. They are usually found in Spring, on the floor of hives, amongst the waste wax, which consists chiefly of the caps of the honey cells, emptied by the bees during the Winter. The floor of the hive should, therefore, be scraped clean at the first examination of hives in Spring, and the debris removed and burnt. When quilts or mats are used over the frames the larvae and cocoons of the lesser wax moths are often found between the top bars and the quilt. In Victoria there are least four broods in a season ; the first, appearing in early Spring from caterpillars that have passed the Winter in a semi- dormant condition, is not so destructive as the others appearing later, be- cause the larvae, being smaller, eat less than those of the larger sort, and also because they do not spin quite so profusely. Italian or Ligurian bees are not attacked to any extent. Prevention and Remedies. A good hive, filled with a strong colony of Italian bees, is the besi: preventative against these pests. Cleanliness is of the greatest importance, and to obtain this use frame hives. All moths, cocoons, and larvae should l)e destroyed when found. All hives should be made of timber sufficiently thick to prevent splitting or warping, and the boxes should fit closely to the bottom board. If the timber is cracked it will enable the moths to -enter, and deposit their eggs near the honeycomb. Empty, or partly filled, combs, removed from the hives at the end of the season, should be at once put beyond the reach of the wax moth. If left standing about, even for a few hours, the odour of the combs attracts ■the female moths, who deposit their eggs on the combs. The eggs hatch in the following Spring to the surprise of the beekeeper, who carefully secured his combs against moths, and probably only left them about for -a little time. The cocoons are attacked by a small spec'es of parasitic ■wasp which helps to keep them in check. 412 Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo July, 1912. t. >o ^'sIX- C C/\aJ-H,J^m C, ?^r-e:>7 r A T.Z7x> -?xX^-. BEE HOTHS. lo July, 191^-] Bn-kccpiiig ui Victoria. 413 It is assumed 1j\ manv bee-keepers that wax moths do some good by destroying the combs of bees in trees or neglected hives which had suc- cumbed to foul brood. Experiments made by Dr. E. F. Phillips, of the United States of America Department of Agriculture have proved, how- ever, that the spores of foul brood still remain callable of producing disease after the combs have been totally destroyed by wax moths, and the only point in fa\'our of these moths from the bee-keeper's point of view is there" fore disproved. KXPLANATION OF Pl.ATl.. Bee Moths. " The Larger Bee Moth." (Galleria inellonella, Linn.) " The Lesser Bee Moth." [Achraca grisella. Fab.) Fig. I. Honeycomb showing appearance when attacked. Natural size. From Nature Fig. II. Cocoons of GaUeria melloncUa. Natural size. From Nature Fig. III. Perfect Insect. Male. Magnified. From Nature. Fig. IV. Perfect Insect. Female. Natural size. From Nature. Fig. V. Larvae of GaUeria mellonella. Natural size. From Nature. Fig. VI. Pupa of GaUeria meUoneUa. Enlarged. From Nature. Fig. VII. Perfect Insect of Achrceca griseUa. Natural size. From Nature. Fig. VII. .4. Perfect Insect of Achrceca griseUa. Magnified. From Nature. Fig. VIII. Pupa of GaUeria meUoneUa. Natural size. From Nature. Fig. IX. Cocoons of GaUeria meUcneUa. Natural size. From Nature. BEE-KEEPL\G IN VICTORIA. F . R. Beuline, Bee Expert. {Continued from page 356.) PART VI. WATER FOR BEES. Few bt^ekeepers are aware what amount of water is required by a colony of bees during the summer months, and how important it is that a i:)ermanent supply should be a\'ailable within a reasonablv short distance of an apiary. As a general rule, bees are left to themselves to get their supply of water wherever they can. There is usually a natural water- course, dam, or waterhole somewhere in the neighbourhood, and if per- manent and within a few hundred yards of the apiarv, such sources answer well enough. When, however, water is not permanentlv avail- able within a quarter of a mile, it is greatly to the advantage of the apiarist to provide an artificial supply as near the apiary as convenient. I do not think that the time occupied by the bees in carrying water over a longer distance need be seriously considered, but the greater liability of being caught by birds and insects, blown down during strong winds, or caught in rain-squalls during the longer journey is a serious matter. At the margins of dams and water-holes hundreds of bees are often destroyed within a few minutes by cattle or hor.ses stamping them, into the mud or swamping them through the plunging of the animals into the water. Where many bees are kept, and the water supply is limited, they become a nuisance to stock, and sometimes a source of ill-feeling between neighbours in consequence. Bees are also very annoving about the 414 Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [10 July, 191 2. apiarist's own hiome, round water-taps, tanks, and tlie drinking dishes of poultry, wlien tiie weatlier is liot, and any other supply of water rather far from the apiary. The writer was confronted with all the troubles enumer- ated when first establishing his apiary in its present location ; an automatic artificial supply close to the apiary has overcome these difficulties, and has now been working continuously for fourteen years without a hitch. The water is obtained from the roof of the honey house and stored in two tanks of 1,000 gallons each. An iron water-pipe, laid underground (18 inches deep) so as to keep it cool in summer, conducts the water to the drinking troughs, which are at a distance of about 100 feet from the building, and the same distance from the nearest hives. This distance is necessary, otherwise the bee5, when flying to and from the water, interfere with work in the apiaiy, and also cause confusion at swarming time. There are two drinking troughs ; they are placed on a stand at a height of 3 feet from the grou/id, in order to prevent poultry going to them, and to keep drifting leaves and other material out as much as possible. Each trough measures 36 inches x 24 inches insid?, with a depth of 6 inches, and consists of a frame made of 6 x f white Baltic flooring boards, with a bottom of 6 x | lining boards. It is lined with plain galvanized iron, No. 26 gauge, neatly fitted inside the wooden casing, to which it is secured at the top with fine tacks. It is better to have two or even three of such troughs instead of a large one of the same surface area as the two or three combined. If only one large trough i.^ used the bees are too much concentrated, and a good deal of fighting and stinging takes place occasionally. It is, therefore, better to have several troughs a little distance apart, and if they are placed on the same level and connected by means of a piece of garden hose attached to a stud at the bottom of each, one stand pipe, with automatic tap, will supply them all. On the top of each trough floats a raft, upon which the bees alight to drink, and it is so constructed that they cannot drown, and even dead bees cannot drop into the water and thus pollute it. The raft is made of slats of |-in. lining boards, 35I inches long, i5-i6th inch wide, ^ind J inch thick. The edges on the upper side are planed away at an angle of 45 degrees, so that when the slats are placed side by side they form V-shaped gutters, with an opening i-i6th inch, wide at the bottom. Twenty-four of these slats are nailed on to three cross-pieces of |-inch flooring board 23^ inches long and 2 inches wide, in such a way that the thin bottom edges of the slats are 1-15 inch apart. The raft is then fitted into the trough and dressed till a space of not more than \ inch remaims all around between the raft and the lining of the trough. _ To keep the raft always at the proper level, that is, with the water not highei than about | inch between the slats, air-cushions are fastened under- neath the raft, one at each end. They are made of light zinc, such as the lining of piano or drapery cases. Fold a piece of this material, cut to the correct dimensions, over a piece of wood 35 inches x 5 inches x i inch, solder the joints, and, after withdrawing the board, also the end. It may be tested as to being air-tight by pressing it under water to see whether air-bubbles escape; if so, there is a leak which has to be re-soldered. In soldering zinc, raw spirits of salt, diluted somewhat with water, should be used, not killed spirits (chloride of zinc); this rule also applies to galvanized iron. The solder-iron should be clean, well faced with solder, and only just hot enough to melt the solder, but not the zinc; this is only possible if the solder is of good quality. If the air-cushions raise the raft too high at first the latter should be weighted down to the proper lo July, 19 12.] Rearing of Calves. 415 level by means of small stones evenly distributed, and as the wood be- comes saturated with water they may be removed as required. The raft of the trough, which is under the stand-pipe, has an upright, iron rod pivoted to it in the centre. This rod connects by means of a hinge-joint with a lever fastened to the head of the w"ater tap, which is screwed into the .stand-pipe, so that the cone of the tap is in a horizontal position, and, therefore, lowering the lever will open the tap, and raising close it. No dimensions for rod and lever can be given, as these depend upon the height of the tap above the raft, its distance from the centre of it, and the size and passageway of the tap itself. The measurements and the angle of bend in the tap lever can, however, be easily ascertained. The tap should be completely shut when the raft is within an inch of the top of the trough, but should begin to run as soon as the raft sinks and draws down the lever, when the water level is reduced by the bees drinking. *The accompanying illustration will give a general idea of the arrange- ment. The troughs shown are of the dimensions stated, and give drinking accommodation for 150 colonies. When the season is very hot and dry, and the colonies strong, a third trough is added by means of a hose con- nexion, as stated before. The roof of the honey house, with a ground measurement of 21 feet by 18, collects with a rainfall of 20 inches suffi- cient water for the bees and the ordinary requirement of extracting, &:c. There are many well-timbered areas in Northern Victoria where bee- keeping could be carried on successfully, but which remain vacant owing to the absence of a water supply for the bees. Every beekeeper requires- a dwelling and a building for the requirements of his business ; if these are constructed in time to get a supply of water for the following season, and if the roof area is sufficient to give the required quantity with the rainfall of the locality selected, there is nothing to prevent some of the waterless,, but for beekeeping, odierwise excellent country, being utilized. To be continued. REARING OF CALVES. A. Kyle, Dairy Supervisor. In building up a good dairy herd, there are other things to be considered besides the dam and sire. Provided there are cows and bulls with all the breeding and quality necessary for the foundation of a good dairy herd, great attention must be paid to the offspring if the herd of the future is to be improved. If a heifer when born was ready for milking, perhaps every attention would be shown; but, as she is not profit- able for about three years, she is oftentimes neglected, or even subjected to very bad treatment, it is always well to bear in mind that from poor, half-starved, pot-bellied creatures the dairy herds of the country can- not be raised successfully. Few dairy farmers have enough land to enable them to rear all the calves dropped on a place, and the males are generally sold for veal, or killed and fed to pigs. Many heifers born should share the same fate, as; they will never make good dairy cows, and only take the milk from those which have all the milking qualities desirable.' Each heifer calf should be examined as soon as possible after its birth, and it is a sign of future inferiority if the teats are small and huddled together. If, on the other * Illustration will appear in August issue of Journal. 4i6 Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo July, 1912. hand, the teats are a nice length, good colour and shape, and well sepa- rated, it is indicative of milking capacity, and she may be depended on to come into the bail on calving with a nice-shaped udder and teats. The newly-born calf is usually straightway introduced to the poddy pen, and it is here, in most cases, that trouble arises. It should first be allowed to suck the mother dry. This not only provides the calf with a laxative to clear the digestive organs, but eases the cow, often preventing after troubles. Care and patience should be exercised m giving the calf its first drink from the bucket ; if taken quietly, it can nearly always be induced to drink without even giving it the finger. After allowing it to suck the mother dry, leave it in the pen for twenty-four hours, then, with a little patience, the calf can readilv lie made to drink, especially if the mouth is wetted with milk, or a little milk dropped from the fingers into the mouth. New milk should be fed to the calf for the first two weeks in small quantities at frequent intervals ; for the next two weeks, half new and half skim ; then skim, with the addition of some recognised food. The HERKES CALF-FEEDER. best calves the writer ever saw were fed according to this plan, and after- wards on skim-milk and boiled linseed. The linseed was boiled in a kero- sene tin, and when cool it thickened to a jelly. A cupful of the jelly was added to the skim-milk for each -calf. These calves were pictures of health, and the cost of feeding was very small ; there were no signs of scouring, and their coats were sleek and glossy. One of the most important things in the rearing of calves is to keep them going, and not alloAV them to get a check, for every time the calf is thrown back, through scours or other causes, it is a drag on_ the system, which is hard to make up ere thev are introduced into the milking yard ; therefore, everv attention should be gi\-en to the avoidance of scours and the like set-backs. A calf, that is bred for the dairy herd, is bv-and-by going to have a big strain on the system, and that system should be well nourished from the verv first, so that all the organs of the body may grow and develop. In serving the feed out, it should be seen that each calf gets its proper allowance, for, if all are allowed to rush the feed together, the strongest calves get the mo.st ; then, again, some calves stand sucking another's lo July, 19 i:;-] lii-jiiiciice of Radio- Aclivc Miinral, cr-"f. 417 ear instead (jf drinking, and in tlie end are left witlujut a drink at all. Each calf, then, should get its proper allowance, which should always be out of clean, sweet vessels. The best method of feeding is to construct a set of small bails, and arrange by means of rubber teat attached to stout piping, a system whereby the calf has to suck up its m.ilk, this insures more certain digestion, and the accompanying illustration shows the " Herkes " calf -feeder in operation. Failing this, a tin should be provided for each calf (kerosene tins, cut in half, make good buckets for this purpose). The attendant can then see that each gets its proper allow- ance, and there will be nO' ear-sucking ; if ear-sucking is resorted to after they are allowed out of the bails, the ears may be smeared with a solution of aloes. Good, warm sheds, wdth clean straw bedding, should be provided at night. Even if straw has to be purcha.sed clean, it will pay, as there is a return for the money in manure, in the value put on the calves, in the prevention of the onset of scour and other filth-induced ailments. The straw should be thrown into the pens about three times a week, and the whole cleaned out once a week, and stacked for manure. When a calf, properly reared, comes into the bail, it comes in robust fully grown, and ready to stand the years of milking that are before it; therefore, all the time that is devoted to^ calves is time well spent, and a herd of long-milking, strong, and healthy cows may be established. A half-nourished calf will grow into a weedy cow, and in turn bear a weedy calf, hence the great necessity of plenty of attention and proper feeding during the growing period. THE INFLUENCE OF RADIO-ACTIVE MINERAL ON THE GERMINATION AND ON THE GROWTH OF WHEAT. By Alfred J. Eivart, Ph.D., D.Sc, &rc. (Professor of Botany and Plant Physiology in the fdelbonrne University). A long series of experiments carried out by Victor Nightingall, Govern- ment Research Scholar in the Botanical Laboratory of the Melbourne Uni- versity, have shown that, under suitable conditions, a distinct accelerating nction is exercised upon the germination of wheat and other cereals when exposed to the rays emanating from a sitronglv radio-acti\e mineral.* The details of these experiments are not yet ready for publication, but the accelerating action was, in some cases, so pronounced that it was considered worth while to proceed without delav to field trials. The results of plot experiments on a small scale are published in the Journal for 191 1. page 155. Though somewhat indecisive, they indicated that there was a possi- bility that field trials might give a beneficial result. It must, however, be lemembered that the results obtained in the laboratory were, for the most part, obtained by the use of quantities of radio-active mineral, which it would be impossible to apply on the same relative scale in a field trial. In addition, it does not always follow that a substance which accelerates germmation will necessarilv benefit the plant during its whole development, or even give it anv permanent advantage. Furthermore, if the presence * The mineral in question came frnni the Olarv HUl mine. South Australia, and it contained 0"il8per cent, of phosphoric acid (PjO.-J, 0-40 of potash (K2O), 0-400 of calcium (CaO). and 214 per cent, of magnesia (MgO). 41 8 Journal of Agriculture , Victoria. [lo July, 191 2. of radio-active mineral in tlie soil injuriously affected the development of useful soil bacteria, it might, on the whole, injure the final harvest, although it favoured the early stages of germination. In order that these questions might be answered by a trial in the field, the Council of Agricultural Education consented to the establishment of test plots at Longerenong, and the Lirector of Agriculture to a series of similar plots being used for the tests at Rutherglen. I have to thank Mr. Sinclair, the late Principal of the Longerenong Agricultural College, and Mr. Adcock, Principal of the Viticultural College, Rutherglen, for the interest they have taken in these experimental plots. The Influence of Radio-Active Mineral on the Development OF Bacteria. The first point to be determined was the amount of radio-active mineral required to influence the development of soil and other bacteria, or if any action at all was exercised. To determine this, a series of flasks each con- taining 100 c.c. of nutrient bouillon were each infected with i c.c. of a watery extract from garden soil, and kept at a temperature of approxi- mately 15 degrees centigrade. At the end of fourteen days -Jq of a c.c. was withdrawn from each, and added to 50 c.c. of sterilized water. The same quantity of this mixture was then transferred to a gelatine plate culture, and from the number of organisms developed upon the plate, the number per c.c. of the culture fluid was estimated. The results were as follow : — Number of Quantity of Organisms Radio-Active Mineral. In F ivc Days. In Fourteen Days. per c.c. of Culture Fluid. A. 60 grams Bacteria abundant . . Liquid very nearly clear . . 115.000 B. 10 grams ,, ,. . . Liquid nearly clear 375,000 C. 1 gram Bacteria dant very abun- Fairly clear 1,610,000 D. 0 • 1 gram ,, j, 1 About equally turbid 1 11,200,000 E. 0*05 grams ,, ,, 17,250,000 F. 0-005 grams .. ,, ,, ) ■ 1 18,500,000 G. 10 grams for one J, ,j 12,600,000 day and then the liquid « poured off These results show that bacteria are able to develop even in the presence of large quantities of radio-active mineral, but that, nevertheless, a distinct retarding action is exercised which becomes more pronounced with longer exposures. Liquefying organisms were relatively more abundant in A, B, and C, in the order given than in the other cultures. Possibly organisms of the ■bacillus subtilis type may be more resistant to the rays of radio-active mineral than are other bacteria. That the retarding influence was really due to the rays of the mineral and not to any poisonous substance dissolved from it is shown by experi- ment G. The flasks were then sealed, and opened after two months. The liquid •contents were distilled, and the distillate tested for formaldehyde. Faint 7 0 July, 19 t 2.] lufiioicc of Radio- Active Mineral, ^'c. 4rc^ traces were detected in A and B, there were doubtful traces of formaldehyde in the distillate from C and G, and none at all in those from E', E, and F. Apparently, however, in the presence of bacteria, carbon dioxide and water, the rays from a radio-active mineral present in sufficient quantity are able to cause a formation of small amounts of formaldehyde. The cultures were in darkness during the whole of the time, so that the action could not be due to the influence of ordinary light energy. Whether the retarding action is a direct one, or is due to the formation- of traces of formaldehyde is not quite certain, but the amount producedof the latter seems to be altogether too small to wholly explain the retarding action. In any case, however, a strong retarding action is exercised, but onlv if a relatively large amount of the mineral is used, and it remainedto be determined whether any pronounced action was exercised in the field with dressings of radio-active mineral applied in the quantities customary for other mineral manures. Accordingly, samples of the soil were collected from the field plots, three months after sowing, and the numbers of the bacteria present determined. From each o"f the quarter-acre plots forty- samples of soil were taken, and thoroughly mixed together. Five grams of the mixture were then shaken up with 40 c.c. of sterilized water, allowed to settle for five minutes, and then ^V of a c.c. of the water inoculated on to gelatine plates. The number of organisms developing on the plates at 20 degrees centigrade was counted, and hence the number of the organ- isms present in a c.c. of the .soil was calculated. These tests were carried out bv Dr. Bull in the Bacteriological Laboratory at the Melbourne University. The following are the results: — Number of Organisms, one c.c. 01' Soil. Small plot, 9 square yards — A. i lb. radio-active mineral per square foot* One-third acre plots — B. No manure C. 1 cwt. radio-active mineral per acref D. .56 lbs. superpliosphate per acrej LONGERENONG PlOTS. 17,250,000 750,000 900,000 1,800,000 Many liquefying organisms Fewer liquefying than non-liquefy- ing organisms Numerous Uquefying organisms Bacillus coli-communis present, very numerous liquefying or- ganisms Small plot, 9 square yards — A. J lb. of radio-active mineral per square yard* Quarter- acre plots — B. 59 lbs. superphosphate and 56 lbs. radio-active mineral per acref C. 1 cwt. radio-active mineral per acre-j- D. 59 lbs. superphosphate per acrel RUTHERGLEN PlOTS 450,000 1,125,000 1,800,000 1,800,000 Liquefying and non-liquefying: organisms and ten moulds Less liquefving organisms than- on D. More liquefymg organisms than on D. Applied as top dressing. t Drilled in with the seed. 420 Joiinial of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo July, 1912. In the case of the two plots A, owing to the smaUness of them, only a few samples could be taken. A subsequent microscopic examination from the Longerenong plot A showed the presence of an unusual amount of decaying \egetable n:atter, which is probably the explanation of the un- usually high number of organisms. The Longerenong samples were also tested on agar at body temperature. The sample A then appeared to con- tain fewer organisms than B, C, and D, and they consisted mainly of Bacillus subtilis, which is commonly associated with rotting hay or straw. Assuming this to be the correct explanation, the other figures would show that an enormously heavy dressing such as | lb. per foot does reduce the number of .soil organisms, but to nothing like the extent that might be expected, while ordinary dressings do not appear to produce anv distinct action that can be separated from the normal range of fluctuation. The Rutherglen samples contained more mould spores than those from Longerenong, possibly owing to their proximity to an orchard and vineyard with deciduous trees. Field Test with Radio-Active Mineral as a Manure. Longerenong Plots. Four drill width strips were used for this experiment, each with a total area oi approximately ^ of an acre. The wheat used was " Yandilla King," and the manure and wheat were drilled in together. Plot i received I cwt. of superphosphate per acre; plot 2 received | cwt. of superphos- phate and I cwt. of finally divivded radio-active mineral per acre; plot 3 received \ cwt. of radio-active mineral per acre, and plot 4 was unmanured. No distinct sign was shown of any acceleration of germination by the radio-active mineral at any of the early stages of growth. A month after planting the plots i and 2 appeared to be about equal. Thev were much ahead of plots 3 and 4, were a darker green, and had generally a more healthy appearance. Two months after planting, the same differences were noticeable. Plots i and 2 were about equal, and far ahead of plots 3 and 4, which were about equally backward, and a lighter green than plots i_ and 2. Apparently, therefore, in quantities capable of practical applica- tion, the radio-active mineral does not appreciably affect the earlv stages of germination of wheat. Unfortunately, the season was a bad one for wild oats, and these developed to such an extent on the plots as to spoil them for harvesting. As far as could be judged, however, the plots i and 2 remained ahead right up to har\esting, and tliese two plots with equal amounts of superphosphate, and one with and one without radio- active mineral were about equal. Rutherglen Plots. A similar series of four plots was used in this case, each 4 yards 2 feet broad (tw'o drill-widths), and approximately \ of an acre in area. Plot I received 59 lbs. of superphosphate per acre; plot 2 received 59 lbs. of superphosphate, and 59 lbs. of radio-active mineral per acre ; plot 3 re- ceived I cwt. of radio-active mineral per acre; plot 4 was unmanured. In addition, one small square plot received | lb. of radio-active mineral per square foot as a top dressing. On the large plots the mineral and manure were drilled in with the seed, using the single drill which deposits manure and seed together. In this case, "Federation Wheat" was used, and was planted on 5th May, 191 1. Six weeks afterwards, plots i and 2 were much ahead of ]-lots 3 and 4, were greener, stooleB better, and were slightlv taller. The small plot was best of all, Init weeds were thriving better on it than on lo July, 1912.] 'Mctallica Cape.'' 421 the other plots. Just before harvesting, it could be seen that on the small, very heavily dressed plot, the wheat averaged 4 to 6 inches more in height than on the large plots, the straw was paler and stouter than is usual for " Federation Wheat," but on all the large plots the straw was normal in colour except in the case of a few odd plants. The harvesting results from the large plots are given beneath : — Plot. Manure. Wlieat. Straw. 1 2 3 4 59 lbs. superphosphate per aci'e 59 lbs. superphosphate and 59 lb.';, radio-active mineral per acre 1 cwt. radio-active mineral ])er acre Unmanured 257 lbs. 2.34 ., 76 . 121 .. 495 lbs. 330 .. 165 „ .330 ., There is no evidence here to indicate any beneficial action of the radio- active mineral upon the growth and germination of wheat, when quanti- ties wh'ch could be used in agricultural practice are employed. Any stimu- lating action which it might exercise when first applied, .seems, if anvthing, to be converted into an injurious action when in prolonged contact. There is nothing, therefore, in these results to show that radio-active mineral is of the least benefit to wheat when applied in the same manner as manure, and the hopes that had been raised by the stimulating action of large quantities upon the early stages of germination, that this sub.stance might he of use in the field, have failed to be established by experiment as regards wheat, at least. Whether results of value may be obtained with other plants is, of course, another question, but the radio-active mineral does not appear to have anv direct value for the growth of wheat. "METALLICA CAPE." The following is an extract from the Preliminary Report of the Com- mittee appointed by the Department of Agriculture of the South African Union to inquire into the suitabilitv of the American stocks thus far used to reconstitute the vineyards in the Cape Province. This report appeared in the South African Agricultural Jourfial of 12th April last. Though " Metallica Cape " has not been very extensively used in Victoria, manv growers are well satisfied with it — perhaps after too short a trial. Such an authoritative expression of oi)inion from South Africa — the only viticultural country where this stock is well known — should serve as a warning to our growers. " Metallica rupestris, also called Constantia metallica, is a stock that cannot stand much moisture in the soil, and that suflfers easily from drought. It, therefore, does well in fairlv deep, loose, cool soils that have never too much and never too little moisture. As such soils are rather rare to find, the result is that many thousands of vines grafted on this stock are suffering visibly and gradually dying. Thds in the reddish Karroo soils in the Robertson and Worcester districts, in clay soils near Darling, Tulbagh, and at Bosjesmansvlei, near Botha's Halt in the Breede River Valley, grafted vines on Metallica are ^vorthless. In many instances the roots are infested with phylloxera, and the vines are dying off in patches. In a fairly deep, coarse, sandy soil in Dal Josaphat (Paarl district) these vines have done so badlv that they will be taken out this vear. In most of the Goudini and similar soils, Metallica can be safely used : but in most soils it is .t bad stock, and hence grafting on Metallica ought not to be con- tinued in future." Ad- journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo July, 1912- H O O < o P4 !^ ■al P5 O H ^P5 o^ hq w a -i:-^ S 2 .2M 0-0 ■Eh 2f O CO o 10 lO m lO "-I aj ce C jj g .S: a--_2 o M c-1 TiH " -"^ 0^ ai ■S3 ^_3 0 0 0 !D 0 ^00 0 0 «o >o s,-^ c- 0 u^ t^ c> -£.0 s? : ca 7i &o -C •2 0, «3 a 0 il •o*^ - 7i T ti 03 m 0 mot. ^^ t. CQ t« N 0 Price asked for the Manure per ton. 5 10 0 5 15 0 6 0 0 h5 . a 0 0 0/ 76 -'OO 34-50 73-00 s % 24 00 65-50 27-00 in ;o 0 CO --t 0 c^oi 0 00 i-H !M rH a 0 vpOTfio CO « (M 73 A.D.B. H.B. Brown Hill a c 3 > Containing Phosphoric Acid and Nitrogen, Phosphoric Acid moderately Soluble. Bonedust C»OQ <■ ■^-s >.s a. r^ 0 0 54 ® d 0 ts ^1 0 vs 0 CJ sfi 0 ic July, 191 2.] Snpplcmoitary List of Manures. 423 03 u 13 05 0 0 « » ■■0 0 0 = --O 0 = 3 Q a; <4 ~5 S in t- -M 11 -* lO « -* ■* 0 lO 0 in t- in in 0 in in in in •♦® P ea ino < M 03 to m -<1 •paa^uBj^no S5 . . . • t~o 0 0 P4 •pnnoj[ 3? OrH > 0 000000 in in in 0 in in 0 ^ •paa^uBJuno r-4 X 05 0 Oi 0 •* C5 01 0 t^35 -* J '— ' in (M 0 :0 X CO CT> 0 . H •punoj ?jS t- CO X X ■^' r-l X r^ X 10 0 XO ^SSS?,2 c 0 0 0 0 in fa < d 5? • t> 0 0 •* ^ in G 3 "* CO c-i 0 "^ in in OS 05 in (N i-t ■'! 3 0 »-< •-^ in 0 05 X Cl eo 0 Pi 0 W •punoj 5? • X 0 eo (M OJ !M <35 i-H 0 ^ •* -* .-1 33 X CO i-i 0 inooooin 11 55 (M 0 in 0 0 oa 0 a li •paa^uBiBno 0 0 0 CO ;o CO •*(>) u3 5? CO 0 i> 0 i-iOX J5 J 000 (M i-H CO in f-t 0 f. •-I 0 in 00000 u 6 <3 a •paa^nBJ^no 55 • • ;9 X 0 ' i> 0 0 X ^-o ino ino (M Ol X X eo rH <^ M ■•* f>l X IM eo CO t~ 2d3 ^0 •pnnoj 0? ■ • ■ in X M X ffl !M 0 0 r-( t-X Xt--* jv^ -< f-H 1— 1 T-H Ol c 000 0 HH ^, 0 0 X in in in • o •paa^nweno t^ CO »n 1-1 M 0 1-1 »-< •-< CO 0 CO 0 CO rH e-i 01 CO CO 0 •pnnoj 55 ] • -OS <35 CO in 0 OS t^ X in • (M 0>-l --I S^ CO 00 , . in 0 CO t- ^eo m 'Ji S? r-i in 33 X X-* 32 ■puuoj; o> in in in 3i eo X (M OJ ■* CO •* « 0 hi m 0 t 3 1 :3 0 0 0 cj u d J^ d .0 .50 ^3 3-2 'd - ^2; "8 2 <: 551 =^| W ^^^^ 0 iS ■ ^ .3 -< Sf^:■ Cemsi (Fal)r. ) Green Peach Aphis, Myzm sp. The black and green peach aphis are two of the worst insect pests the propagator of the peach and other stone fruits has to contend with. Insects belonging to the family Apludidoe multiply very rapidly by deposit- ing living young ; under certain conditions they propagate by means of eggs. If immediate action is not taken to check their spread when first noticed, they will give trouble, causing serious damage to the seedlings, budded stocks, and growing buds. Like most aphides, these two species (black and green) usuallv attack the under parts of the twigs and shoots first, finallv covering all parts as they multiply. The earliest to make its api)earancp is the black species, which arrivt-s in the autumn or earlv winter, during mild weather. The ('eriod of attack, if uncliecked. t-xtt-iids into the spring, or eaily summer. These in.sects disapi)ear after the first few hot days. The waiter made careful observations during November. 1908, on the habits nf the black aphis. The females of the last spring brood become oviporous. depositing small oval glossy-black eggs behind the buds, in cracks and crevices upon the trees, and upon the roots. The eggs remaining unhatchele explana- tion to this is that the insects exist upon those parts of the roots left be- hind in the soil when removing the young trees. The following will bear out this statement : — During the month of July, 191 1, a prepared bed was planted with selected almond nuts. During early November, and wheii the seedlings had attained an average iieight of 6 inches, numbers of them started to die back from the tips, the -foliage becoming yellow, in coloui and drooping. There being no signs of insect or fungoid disease above ground, and indications pointing to root trouble, several of tTie seedlings were carefully removed ; and, upon examination, the roots were found to be badly attacked by the black peach aphis. The crop pre\ious to the seedling almonds were peaches. Soil that is going to be replanted with stone fruit should be allowed, to remain in fallow through the summer, should receive a good dressing of lime, and be kept stirred in the autumn. Use a suit- able chemical fertilizer when planting. Before planting peach or other stocks liable to attack from aphis, it is advisable to dip them whoHv into a decoction of strong t>bacco water, or tobacco and soft soap mixture. Orange Aphis {SiplioiiopJioraf Sp.). — This pest usually makes its ap pearance in early autumn, but it is not unusual to find trees attacked dur ing the summer months particularly if the weather be cool and unseason able. Standard or established citrus trees in an orchard should not receive any great hurt from an attack by these aphides, as they are so easily con trolled ; one application, if thoroughlv applied, generally is sufficient to arrest their spread. With growing buds or young and tender autumn growths upon citrus trees in the nursery, this aphis can do severe damage. lo July. 1912. Pro pagaiio}! of I'niit Trees. 427 Their method of attack is similar to that of the grten peach aphis. The insects concentrate at the ends of the young and tender growths which curl, wilt, and die hack. This pest is easily recogni.sed. The majority of the insects are of a blackish colour, whilst some are brownish and others are green. Treatment. — The methods recommended fcr peach aph's attacking seed- lings, growing buds, &c., should be followed. p 2 4::8 Journal of Agriciillnrc, Yiciorla. [lo July. 191 2. Woolly Aphis or American Blight — Schizoneura lanigera {^Hausman). - — ^This aphis is one of the greatest pests the apple-grower has to contend with. If detected in the nursery, no time should be lost in dealing with it. 'J'he presence of woollv aphis is easily detected by the white woolly matter produced by the insects, such matter forming a protective covering, beneath which the aphides cluster and, carry on their work. When com- mencing operations, thev usually choose the under or sheltered side of the branches or twigs close to or around the buds, gradually extending along the whole branch or twig. By forcing a beak or sucker intj the bark, they are enabled to live upon the plant sap. The irritation produced by this piercing operation causes swellings or excrescences to form, eventually spoiling the tree. Fig. (71) shows the result of a neglected attack. Under and upper view of growths. Treatment. — In a well-conducted nursery this pest should give little or no trouble. If its presence should be detected during the vegetative period of .the young trees, first paint the parts attacked with a brush dipped into kerosene emulsion, and then spray thoroughly, using the emul- sion I part to 10 of water. Place the nozzle of the sprayer close up to the disease, driving the emulsion on with force so as to break down the woolly barrier, and get the emulsion well into the insects ; follow up the first application l)y another the same day. If any trees should be badiv attacked, cut them out, and burn and spray those in the immediate vicinity. If attacked in late autumn, or during the winter, use red oil or crude petroleum oil emulsion instead — strength, red oil, i in 25 ; crude petroleum, I in 20. This pest should be practically unknown in a nursery during the winter, and no trees should leave the nursery affected by it. Anv grower or propagator who fails to treat it during the summer, or when the trees are vegetating, has very little chance of keeping it in check. Upon rare occasions, the woolly aphis has been found attacking the peai Bryobia Mite {Red Spider). — Usually, the propagator of fruit trees gives this insect but litle thought, owing, no doubt, to. the fact that it causes little or no check to growth, and to all appearance does no harm. Therefore, why worry? But the orchardist has a different tale to tell. The life history of this spider is simple. Small round red eggs are de- posited in thousands around the collars of the branches, buds, and in cracks and crevices of the trees during the late spring and summer months. These hatch in early spring, the hatching beling largely influenced by the weather and the sap flow. The eggs deposited upon trees that vegetate early hatch sooner than those upon the later varieties. On emerging from the eggs, small reddish- coloured mites swarm upon the young and tender foliage, and the ex- panding blooms. They suck up the natural juices, thus causing the foliage to become sickly, yellowi-sh in colour, and the edges of the leaves to dry and curl. Instead of the trees producing strong, bold blooms, the organs of the blossoms are weakened, and the setting of the fruit is interfered with. When badly attacked in the spring or early summer, the foliage has a scorched look. If trees in the nursery rows are attacked, and no steps be taken to eradicate "this pest, it simply means that the onus of fight- ing it will eventuallv fall on the grower. Treatment. — The best time to attack is when the insects are hatched and moving about. Use soft soap and tobacco water, or tobacco water by it.self, or kerosene emulsion — the latter i in 15 of water. Drive the spray well into the insects, following up the application at weekly intervals if necessarv. For a winter application use red oil or crude petroleum oil lo July. 191--] I'ropui^a/ioii of h'ruil Trees. 429 emulsion ; strength, red (jil. i in 30. rrude petroleum, i in 25. applying the final application just before the l)uds start growth in early spring. The following directions will enable growers to prepare the insect washes which have been recommended : — Red Oil and Crude Petroleum Oil Emuhiou. — Slice and boil i lb. of Lotus soap in i gallon of watrr until dissolved, remove from fire, add i gallon of oil, stir, and replace on the fire until it comes to the boil. Re- move from fire again, and work up thoroughly with a hand syringe or force pump until thoroughlv enuilsified. and no signs of loo.se oil appear on the surface. To- test whether the emulsion is properly made, take a small quantitv of the emulsion and add to it five times the quantity of cold water ; if properly emulsifiei], the effect will be similar to pouring milk into' tea, if otherwise, the oil will separate and float on the surface. Soft or any other hard soap may be used in making an emulsion. Lotus soap is cheap, and contains a lot of soda, which assists emulsifying. A properly made and diluted emulsion mav be kept some time before using, but it is always better to apply when freshly diluted. When diluting, take i part of the emulsion and add the required quantity of cold water, e.g., i pint emulsion to 20 pints of water. Kerosene Emulsion. — This is made in the same manner as red oil or crude petroleum oil emulsion, except that it is not rejilaced on the fire after the oil is added. If diluting with cold water, agitate well with a syringe or force pump while gradual! v ailding the first of the water. If the standard or undiluted oil emulsion is allowed to get cold, boil and work it up again before diluting. Resin Wash (No. 1). — Pulverised resin 2 lbs., washing soda 2 lbs., soft soap I lb. Boil i or 2 gallons of water and add the soda ; when dissolved add graduallv the resin, stirring and boiling until dissohed. Add soft soap when dissolved ; make up to 10 gallons. Resin Wash (No. 2). — Pulverised resin 16 lbs., caustic soda 8 lbs., fish oil 3 pints (raw linseed oil mav be used as a substitute). Boil the caustic soda in 10 gallons of water, then add gradually the resin, stirring and boiling until dissolved. Add the oil, and keep boiling for another ten minutes ; then make up to 100 gallons. Warm water is only to be used. After using resin wa.sh, all vessels used in mixing, including the spray pump and nozzle, should l>e thoroughly washed out with boiling water, otherwise the resin will clog the nozzle, &c., when dry. Soft Soap and Tobacco. — Boil 1 lb. of soft .soap in i gallon of tobacco water; when dissolved make tip to 10 gallons with tobacco water; soak tobacco in cold water and let it infuse; use at the strength of strong tea, and strain before adding to soap water. Arsenate of Lead. — Dissolve 11 ozs. acetate of lead in half a gallon of water. In another ves.sel dissolve 4 ozs. arsenate of soda in half a gallon of water. Pour the soda solution into the lead solution, stir, and add from 40 to 50 gallons of water. Hot water dissolves these chemicals more rapidly and completely than cold water. Wooden pails should be used. This wash has a distinct advantage over all other arsenical prepara- tions. It is practically harmless to foliage, remains longer in suspension, and is more adhesive. The process of manufacture is simple enough, but as there is often a difficulty in getting chemicals of proper purity, it is possible that the grower ma\- prefer some of the leading brands of arsenate of lead now on the market in paste frirm. To be continued. 430 Journal of Agriculture. Victoria. [lo July. 1912. REPORT 0^ FIRST ECICtLAYING COMPETITION AT BURNLEY, 1011-12. By H. \ . Hawkins, Poultry Expert. On Sunday, the 31st March, the first Burnley Egg-laying Competitioni came to a close, and the result, both as to the high standard of egg- production attained, and the general health of the birds engaged in the test, was in every way satisfactory. The Egg-laving Competition has proved beyond doubt that Victorian fowls are second to none in Australia for productiveness, and this is also tantamount to saying that in utility they are equal, if not superior, to anything in the poultry world. That this should be so is only a reason- able outcome of the efforts that have been made for years past by poultry- keepers to obtain breeds, and strains of such breeds, whose powers in relation to egg-production were above the common. The recent competition was not the first inst'tuted in this State. Some few years since two very successful egg-laying trials were held at the Dookie Agricultural College. The work done there was of an interesting. and educative nature. The experience gained showed that poultry to pay must be carefully bred for the purpose, and attended tO' in an intelligent manner and by proper methods. I'here were 396 birds entered for ttie competition, all. or nearly all, the leading breeds being repre.sented, as. will 1)6 seen by the following table: — Breed. Pen*. White Legnorns ... ... ... ... ... 46 Brown Leghorns ... ... ... ... ... i Black Orpingtons ... ... ... ... ... 7 White Orpingtons ... ... ... ... .. i Silver W'yandottes ... ... ... ... ... 4 Golden Wyandottes ... ... ... ... 2 White Wyandottes ... ... ... ... ... i Minorcas ... ... ... ... ... ... 3 FaveroUes ... ... ... ... ... i 66 White Leghorns. The great number of White Leghorns entered indicates the i)opularit7 of the breed. A note of warning should, however, be sounded in respect to them. It has been found that they are far more difficult to handle than many of the heavier types. This is largelv due to a considerable amount of in-breeding which has been going on for some time ; whilst the system of housing in small sheds the whole year round has, no doubt. a tendency to .soften the birds — resulting in loss of stamina, and rendering them liable to catarrhal troubles and diarrhoea. Many pullets were brought into the competition that had never tasted green grass, nor had any of nature's favours, such as insect life, and the many varieties of seeds which usually abound during the breeding season. In nearly every case those birds raised by the shedding system were only moderately successful, and were the cause of much anxiety. Some of them broke down, and most of the deaths that occurred were amongst these. This grand breed runs a great risk of falling in public favour if the system referred to is carried io J^L^■. ii;!-'.] Report on /-l^i^'lavii!^^ C o)npciiliou . nj/i-ij. 431 to further extreme. Many of these birds were delicate feeders. Some of them refused maize, otliers oats; some would not look at soft food; and so on ; whilst some had never even been on a perch. The result of ths was that, in some cases, the hens did not settle down to work for from four to six weeks. Breeders would be wise to develop stronger con- .-.titutions in the young birds by giving them absolute liberty to pick up insects, seeds. &:c.. in the natural way — thus building up frame work with plenty of stamina to hack them up when thev are required for the 'aying shed or pen. Orpingtons. Xext to the White Leghorns in numbers come the Orpingtons, and with the.se no trouble was experienced. They were docile, blocky, good feeders'; and in no case was it necessary to handle a bird, save putting the leg bands ■on their shanks when they arrived. Not a single death or replacement took place, and they showed a better margin of profit on the market price of •eggs from time to time than any other breed in the competition ; the average gross return per hen among the Black Orpingtons being shown in the following table: — Table sJuming Average Gross Return from Different Breeds. Black Orpingtons ... ... ••■ iqs. -d. per hen. White Leghorns ... ... ... i8s. od. per hen. Wvaudottes and Faverolles ... ... 15s. id. per hen. Mi'nnrcas ... ... •■• •■■ ns. 5d. per hen. .Another point to l^ar in mind is that, after their season of usefulness for laving has passed, this breed commands good prices as boilers ; and the cockerels double the returns one may receive when marketing White Leghorns. Orpingtons lay a large, rich, brown egg, and are, on an .itverage, the best winter layers. They make good mothers, and are not ■so liable to disea.se. Wyandottes. Xe.xt in importance to the White Leghorns and Orpingtons come the ^^'yandottes — at one time not long since the most favoured breed, not ■oniv as an all-round fowl, but one much sought after on account of its nice plump size and beautiful marking. Three varieties of this breed were represented, i.e., Silver, White, and Golden — the former holding pr.de of place. They gave little trouble ; and during the cold weather, and again in the autumn, they produced good results. They are found a useful utility fowl — cockerels at seven months weighing up to 7 lbs. — and sickness amongst them is scarcely known. Wyandottes in pen No. 32 did the breed credit, going through the twelve months' test without an ail- ment, and with no replacement, producing the bulk of eggs at a time of the greatest scarcity ; and it is interesting to compare in the table here- with the market value of eggs laid by this pen. Some others, which, though laying more eggs, were of less value by some shillings — as example in pens Nos. 3, 11, 28, and 50. MlNORCAS. There were onlv three pens of Minorca s in the competition — two of them being positive failures, due probably to the desire to obtain high, upstanding birds with large bodies, heavy combs, and coarse heads for the show bench ; characteristics which have a tendency to make the breed 43- Jounial of Agriculture. Yictoria. [lo July. 1912. lo July, 191--] Kcpart au l-.^^g-laynig Com petition, 1011-12. 43.3 lazy, and. consequently, not so fertile. It is regrettable that the old type Minorca with lighter head gear, which used to produce an egg averaging 2\ ozs. in weight, has almost ceased to exist. Size of egg is a matter of heredity, and should he caiefullx considered when mating up the breeding pens; it is of quite equal importance as numbers. It i.s not uncommon to get a lid. dozen more for a guaranteed 2-oz. egg than for those mixed lots too often seen in the sale rooms. A few years back Denmark was threatened by the English buyer, that unless the eggs improved in size, the firitish ])ublic would look elsewhere for the hen product. The Danes set to work to remedy the complaint; and in a few seasons produced what is known at the present time as [9 lbs. weight for long hundreds (120). and her cash receipts for hen eggs from England is e.stimated at nearly ^3,000,000 per annum. Australian poultrv breeders would be wise to carry this fact in mind. Method of Housing. To accommodate the competing birds commodious pens were built. The ground on which thev were placed was cleared and drained. They RESERVE PEN SHOWING CONSTRUCTION SHELTER FRAME AND YOUNG TREE BUDDLEIA FORMOSA. were built under the supervision of the Public ^\ orks Department ; the dimension of each pen was 30 feet by 12 feet. The pens are separated by plain sheet iron, 3 feet high, and this is again surmounted by wire netting (4 feet by 2% mesh inches). Xo to]i rail finishes off these partitions, and consequentlv there is no inducement for the fowls to reach obstacles that afford no footholil. The plain sheet iron which surrounds the runs gives excellent shelter from winds, and induces (]uietude amongst the birds. In a corner of each pen is a gahanized iron house 8 feet by 4 feet — the frame work being outside. The onlv wood seen in the inside of ihe house are two pieces of jarrah 15 inches high and a 4-ft. length which drops into slots in the uprights and forms a perch. The-e can be easily removed 434 JouDial of Agriculture. Victoria. [lo July, 1912- for cleansing and [)eriodical soaking with kerosene to prevent vermin. On tile floor is 6 inclies of sand, which goes to produce both cleanliness, and comfort to the birds. It is also a safeguard against dirty or broken' eggs. Outside each shed a triangular sand bath was provided which, during the hot weather, was kept damp. A tin is kept full of fresh water, and vessels are also placed conveniently for charcoal, shell and' earthenware grit. It is amazing the quantities of these aids to digestion which the birds consume. Oaten hay is placed in each pen, and feed is. scattered amongst this to induce exercise. Young trees (Buddleia formosa) were planted in the centre of each pen ; and as it could not be expected' they would provide any shade during the first year, collapsible frames of light timber were made and covered by hessian. These frames, standing. like an inverted V (see plate) provided excellent shelter from the blazing sun during summer, and allowed free circulation of air ; and it is pleasing. 10 note that no deaths occurred from heat apoplexy during the whole com- petition. The general health of the birds has been good throughout, with, the exception of an outbreak of chicken pox during the early period. SHOWING TRAYS USED IN COI.LKCTING AND KGG BOXES FOR DESPATCH. Twelve deaths occurred throughout the competition, principally on account of troubles of the reproductive organs ; and a few replacements of birds- took place owing to other causes incapacitating them. Of the three lead- ing pens, Mr. Pope's passed through without sickness or replacement;. Mr. Cosh had to replace one — a wing of one of the hens having been broken ; and Mr. Swift had also to replace one, owing to rupture of the- oviduct. Egg Production. During the year the total number of eggs produced was 73^325 , and these were sold to the Victorian Railways at is. per dozen — the average- market price for the term being is. 2.38d. per dozen. This value is basecE on the figures supplied bv the Western District Co-operative Association^, and ranges from 8fd. on 17th October, to is. iid. en iith May. so July. 191J.] Report on ligg-laying Com pctiiioii , n) 11-12. 435 Feeding. The principal constituents of all food are proteids, fats, and carbo- Jivdrates — each of which plays an important part in the ration. They ail assist in producing heat to the animal body, though fats have more than double the heat power of either the other two. Proicin is mainly for the repair of tissue, and is considered the most essential part of a ration. Carbo-hydrates are mainlv responsible for the maintenance of body beat. To obtain the best results, these substances must be present in a well-balanced proportion. An excess of any one of them, besides being a waste of food, becomes a danger to the birds consuming. The proportion ii^. which they should exist in a food is found by di\'iding the proteids present into the sum of the fats multiplied by 2^, plus carbo-hydrates; The result is known as the albumenoid ratio. Just as this ratio is narrow (i to 3) or wide (i to 12), so we have a rich or poor food. If too rich, the organs of digestion become weak and the system over-laden ; whilst if too poor, the organs are over-taxed in an endeavour to obtain sufficient nourish- ment for the system. When the hen is required to yield a large number of eggs, the ratio should be narrow ; whilst when eggs are not required, she may be fed on a wider ratio. A certain amount of moisture is re- quired, which, if in excess, and the food sloppy, has a tendency to pass through the system too rapidly, and even to induce scouring — this should be avoided at all costs. The system of feeding mash in the evening and grain in the morning — followed by some poultry-keepers in order to save a little time — is one which does not induce the best results. The hot meal in the morning has a more stimulating effect, carrying the bird through the day in good fettle ; and the grain fed at night, being .somewhat slow^er of digestion, keeps up the body temperature for a longer period through the night. Analyses of Food Used. Digestible Constituents in 100 lbs. Pollard Bran (Wheat) Branning (Oats) ... Rye Oats Maize Wheat Lucerne chaff Bullock's liver The feeding of the birds was conducted along common-sense lines, guided in all cases by scientific principles, and using only those foods which breeders in any part of the State could obtain. There has been no forced feeding of the birds by means of spices or expensive ingredients at any time. The regime of feeding throughout the competition has been as follows :- — • At 7 a.m. a hot mash was fed, 'consisting of two parts pollard (20 lbs.), one part of oat-branning (6 lbs.), and one part of lucerne chaff (4 lbs.), which was scalded over night. To this w^as added 25 lbs. of boiled bullock's liver finely chopped— the whole then being mixed together to a crumbly consistency by adding sufficient of the liquid in which the livers yvere boiled. Care is" necessary, in order to have the n^;^sh as friable as possible. The ratio of such a mixture is i :2.36, which is a narrow one. •otein. Cai •boh\(lrates. Fat. 12.2 53-4 3.8 12.2 39-2 2.7 14. q S1.8 7.9 9-9 67.6 I . I 9.2 47-3 4.2 7-9 66.7 4-3 10.2 69.2 1.7 II. 0 39.6 1.2 20.7 1.5 4-5 436 Jonnial of AgriciiUiirc. Vutflna. [lo July. 19 12. Each pen rfceixed, approximately. 15 ozs. of this mash. Two or three times a week lo per cent, of raw onion was added, and this was found to be highly beneficial. PEN NO. 31. R. W. pope's WHITE LEGHORNS. ist in competition, greatest number of eggs, viz., 1,566 Value, £j'j 6s. 2d. Net profit per hen, 17s. lOgd. ist [irize, ^neatest weight of eggs, 1933 lbs. At mid-da V green feed in the form of lucerne, chick-weed, thistles, and clo\er mowings, &c., from the lawns in the Burnley Gardens were given; pv VI ■ ^Md ^^^^^^^B A .^^^^^^1 H -.^H ^H'v^ i^^^^^^^^^^H " " ^H^^^^^^^^^^ ^^m ^B ^^^H wU^ t < ^I^^^^^^^H ^IH v^ ^^K^r "^ tJT ^^^^1^9 ■i^_ -j^^B^^^HH Ktfnn| ^3 IHEftdflr y^'..- ^L VH HH^^^HH HI H ^^^^^^Q|Lk^ ^.^^.^_^ PEN NO. \2. W. G. SWIFT S WHITE LEGHORNS. ■Winners of Winter Test, zwd in com]ietition, 1,546 eggs laid. Value £-; 3s. q^d. Cost of feed, £.\ i8s. io^ N <£) ■* in c l"-Oi 'M-*cOt^':DXXC0:C' iftXOl-tl^ •-' OvO-M as CO in G^ w CO • :o CO ■* in 00 in 5 ® g C4 ® cf C'f im" 'm' ■?] e-i "m' "m" ■>! oi r?! co ■>]' « ^' ^ •^ ■>)' "m' 'm' iji "m' -4 c-f ci 'if'M "m' im' « im' oJc-f im' O O Q O p1 CO O i-H 1-* O G-l • .-H :D t> CO '^ C: ;^ ;l, ;i; ^ o o as o n oi --' m oi t^ --o as x oi oi -* oi -— o: oi i-h as as oi • o m »-i co o f- I '^ooico asC5X»nin'MXi>0'Mi-<-+oxcoo:omco -i^x.-iaii-i ■i-icO'*o»oo 'liOJ'B'Hr cocox'^ .— tos-— cot--int>-x:oinoii> ooco-+as *xasasini>as I ■^oosi-H oast^i-HcocoiniC'i^cO'-Hr^.— (.— fO'+t^o-iOi ocooojt^ -incoas.— it*o ' V.IUUJQ9 ►Tl Oi ^ "O Oi t-x-ft-oooixx^cor^toxc-ii-tt^asiv oxt^^rt*© -tooit^t^aico -fvnI^OiTt -)> -f t~ oi ^ CO in X X CO -t oi ro CO lO CO -* -l> CO CO 35 OI C -M ^ 01 CO Ol CO lO -H O CO X 05 .n X Ol CO .-H 01 -f • X X -t oi CO in • 01 CO 01 in CO -t ■.iai|Ui9jd8y CO .-H .-H >n CO ■* CO CO X in CO t^ ^ ^ CO oi -1^ -*■ «n in 01 ^ CO ^ C5 1^ O' oi CO oi c: CO 01 CO ffl 01 — = CO ^ CO CO in CO— H -M Gl CO t^ t~ .- rH ^ ^ Ol -f ■ -p in X CO .-1 m ■ -f •+ oi -r oi eo ■:(snguv O ^ CO CO ooico-Hcoosoicor^c^ocrocooixcot- oi oi cs ^ -f • CO X CO X CO l- ■ 01 CO OlOl O'- ■Alllf OCO 05C1 in in »n --C a: o CO CO oi c: c: 01 a; oi oi in CO o t^ CTiinin-fX — X'^oiinoi-tin^:oci'*"in -f ^ t^ CO t^ X Ol t~ t^ X Ol X CO -* CO CO CO .-^ w rt ^ X CO t^ annp CO f' in lO t^ CO Oi 05 »-HXoixc:Xc;oic:5 0icox-*inoieoOi^x t^t^-Moiinxcoccrco^co^osoxcococo COt^OX01COOCOX05.-llO xoicoincococooa:05co ■A«H ift vO »0 CO U^CO OI .-H T-H '^1 1^ CO CO t^ oi t^ — ^ • ■ X r^ t^ in in in in '^ in CO t^ t^ CO oi oi in ■ -co co i> i> oi oi co -l-rtXXrHr-inr^COTt't^CO coxrt-*oicoo;iTHt~wco •[udV tn 0-- Ti • oi • CO oi in X o c^ CO • oi oi CO oi oi o o 01 -f 01 ■ — x-foioicoco ■ 01 r-1-f.-HXinco I- Ol -P CO X oi -t- in ::! S oi s = " '~ . ;2 £ -S ^ "^ *i t< r; *^ a o S ' ''=^%'% ■ 2 S M 5 " - 5 iS ^ '^ V p o ^ j> t^ » : ce o — _« :^ X -C 3 cq ^ 3 S :-^ &: ?^ I n o "^ o •o 442 Journal of Agriculture. Victoria. [lo July. 191 2. .^C0r-iQ0u:>G0l:^:0-ti'MO«3--itHC0n-<:0O-^OOr-lCDC0c0O0SQ0»«OO-^'li O C^ C^ (M iM "?] Tl 'M (M CI ->! 171 <>] C-] -?] f?! C-l -M CJ C^I iM (M (M l-*-^C00S'MOi:DQ0Q0Or-ir-(M(^1C0 N '^^QO '*^?D_O^^^.-H_C0_'*^l> «C'l'*MiOfMi-l^OOMOtM'-Hi-(COOiCOOiCCCCr-*Tj< ■-* GOO^OOD^OaO^«000ox>ccco^Ht^05coQOC5t^:Da5iOf— J ■jgqnia^jdag •jsnSnv ■.iinr lOO'-tOSCOi-HCOOOCO.-iGCiftr-HX'OOOOOGOGJCCiOXt^^OQOtMCM-MtftOOD "^— t-^sooococoo-^*— 'O'M •or-'M-^-HOOao •■-t-^0'-Hi>< ?D 00 00 GO O -^ 00 tM I> lO O O ■ Tt< CO 00 CC CO i ■■^LOt^fMi-HOS •'*OS' OOOi'MCOt-ai-^ift^CO-^'* ■OOO-^rHGO^'-H-rt^NOlOiO '(MOt-HOOC C'lOCO'^O"^ COOSI>-tO-* ■•^^■■ ■^'^rMi-iiO'-**(>j -lOTf 0^*00 [udy OOOOWCOCCOO -COOOOO^H -lOO-^ •^'-H(r?SI>-HO •!- cot* lOfMr-* -COOiOOOiO -iflTjiiA < CO ■^ O t* (M t'-ift •»-« •■X'-^rHr-tOCC' to tH bc t." t" t- c3 o d o o c Q. bo ^ be be bJO tH (D Jr 0^ r/; a> rx a:' g 5S-Sj2 bH • fl ^ -5 j= ;flj= m M CC bD Cl. Ml cS be 0 ., ^^0^ ^^ £^ 5 -s "3 .t; -t; -s "i; S _ce 5 -!c S S ^ PQ ^ ^ ^ ■A 9r, a 0 Utoe . . aldoa C. R. Sniee . Hall Cosh .. in and Wat tohell . Crellin Goodi^son jnipster . Chalmer* . Spencer mes . . Thornton Busst McArthur McKeddie ringer odges . . . MnLister C. Thompso Edwards jurtenay . Dunlop Harriugti^n ade . . odson . . Treacey Read ammill Bradley Sharman 0 •^^.,;^^EfS«aiW^^>?^Ws:^SW^.^ao«^pSWKiQMH^ PE;KJgA11 are worthy of cultivation in gardci; The leaves of all the species capture and digest insects. Sometimes stated to be dangerous to stock, but Qu unsatisfactory evidence. Of no known economic value. A useless weed. Of no known economic value. Possibly worthy of garden cultivation. A hardy evergreen twiner. 1 Some are possibly worth growing gardens. Among the be.st known and most admired plants of our bush. \ Might be worth adding to tli'' list of 1 our garden plants. The yellow inner bark of this species is suitable for dyeing. I Well worth adding to the list of our j garden plants. 448 Journal of Agriculture. \'ictoria. [lo July. 191 2. Vernacular Names of Victorian Plants — continued. Botanical Name. Popular Xaine. Use or Character. DicOTYLEDONE.E — Choripetale.e Hypogyn.e — Continued. RriACE/E — continued. Boronia — algida. F.v.M. . . *pinuata. Smith . . pilosa, Labill. coerulescens, F.v.M. polygalifolia, Smith anemonlfolia. A.C'unn. parviflora. Smith fllifolia, F.v.M. . . clavellilolia, F.v.M. Alpine Boronia . . Pinnate Boronia Hairy Boronia . . Blueish Boronia Waxy Boronia . . Anemone Boronia Swamp Boronia . . Tliread Boronia Desert Boronia . . The borouias are well known lor their beauty or fragrance, and although the best come from West .\ustralia, some of our species such as B. pinnata, B. pilosa, and B. cknielli/nHd. are verv well worth cultivation. * Plants marked thus are listed either as growing plants o ras seeds by one or more of our Horists SECOND VICTORIAN EGG-LAYING COMPETITION, 191-M3. The Second Burnley Egg-laying Competition was commenced on 15th April, J9I2. The decision to tar-pave the houses was responsible lor this delay. The houses are now perfectly dry; and as the floor has been raised by means of ashes, well above the level of the surrounding ground, it will remain dry and increase the comfort of the birds. Sixty-nine pens were allotted ; and in the majority of cases the birds arrived in excellent con- dition. One or two that showed symptoms of chicken pox and roup were immediately isolated, and not placed in pens until after the infection had passed. One Inter-State pen arrived in bad condition; one of the birds died soon after arrival. It was considered this was caused by the kindly but mistaken action of .some individual feeding them with large whole white maize while on the journey. As regards type, the birds apjjear on the a\erage to be superior 10 tho.se of last year. Some of the birds have gone into a false mnult, due, no doubt, to the removal from the sandy soil of their homes to tht- heavv clay at Burnley ; whilst the leading pen, bred in a cold climate with a heavy soil, has received no set-back. All things taken into consideration, tlie number of eggs laid uj) to the present can be considered entirely satisfactorv. FEEDINf-- The morning mash, given at daylight, is prepared by mixing two pan?? pollard, one of oatmeal branning, and one of lucerne chaff, scalded over night; three or four mornings of a week 25 lbs. of bullock's liver finely chopped is added to this — 2| ozs. approximately being given to each bird. At mid-day equal parts of pollard and wheat bran mash is prepared, 5 ozs. being allowed each pen, followed by a handful of green food — grass, clover. &c. The evening meal consists of four parts wheat, three of broken maize, and two of white oats. 2 ozs. approximately being given to each bird. Occasionally, wheat only is given in the evening. Weathep. The weather has been mild, isolated showers having of the birds of heavier breeds have .shown broodiness fallen. A few lo July, 19 12] Second Egg-laying Competition, 1912-1^ 449 SECOND VICTORIAN EGG-LAYING COMPETITION, 1912-13. CommenciiKj I5th April, 1912. CONDUCTED AT BURNLEY HORTICULTURAL SCHOOL. H. V. Hawkins, Poultry Expert. Eggs laid during competition. Po 'ition in Ncj. Pen. Breed. Xame of Owner. April 15 May 15 Total to Competi- to to Date (2 tion. May 14. June 14- months). 247 40 White Leghorns . . (5. Brown . . Ill 136 1 70 C. J. Beatty 101 121 222 2 47 J. E. Bradley 109 105 214 3 23 W. McLister 99 113 212 4 31 Geo. Edwards 91 114 205 5 9 J. S. Spotswood 83 119 202 6 20 E. Waldon 84 117 201 7 28 F. G. Eagleton 77 123 200 8 3 Black Orpingtons . . King and Watson 75 118 193 9 7 White Leghorns . . A. H. Padnian 87 105 192 } 10 30 Mrs. Stevenson 93 99 192 48 Griffin Cant 86 103 189 "1 12 62 R. W. Pope 80 109 189 / 1 J. Campbell 88 100 188 14 44 A. W. Hall 103 83 186 15 8 Black Orpingtons . . D. Fisher . . 107 63 170 16 46 H. A. Langdon 85 84 l69 17 38 White Leghorns . . R. Moy 67 100 167 18 24 I Sargenf ri Poultrv Yard 63 99 162 19 6 J. B. Macarthur 5.S 103 161 20 39 W. G. Swift 69 90 159 21 29 J. B. Brigden 71 85 156 } 22 45 Wodldridge Bros. 71 85 156 25 R. L. Appleford 35 112 147 24 37 " C. B. Bertelsmeier . . 41 105 146 1 / 25 42 Mrs. T. Kempster . . 76 70 146 27 50 >! A. Alipee . . 53 99 143 2 B. Rowlinson 44 96 140 28 35 C. H. Busst 52 78 130 ) 29 33 H. McKenzie 58 72 130 63 Percv Walker 41 8S 129 1 3 14 J. H. Wright 47 82 129 / 64 H. Merrick 65 55 120 33 49 W. Purvis 27 88 115 34 58 W. J. Stock 67 47 lU 35 13 W. B. CreUin 32 74 106 36 56 M. A. Monk 46 59 105 37 15 Mrs. W. H. Steer 47 56 103 38 53 H. Hodges . . 49 51 100 39 27 1 E. Xash .. 18 80 98 40 19 > Cowan Bros. 23 74 97 41 61 Black Orpingtons . . Jas. Ogden 29 64 93 42 12 White Leghorns . . T. H. Stafford 44 48 92 43 41 !> A. Stringer 39 51 90 44 5 I. J. H. Brain 13 69 82 1 45 43 G. Purton . . 21 61 82 J 4 » J. Blackbunie 35 43 78 47 54 >> F. R. DeGaris 20 52 72 48 51 H. HammiU 71 71 1 49 65 A. H. Thomson 17 54 71 / 52 Black Jlinorcas Chalmers Bros. 23 40 63 1 51 57 White Leghorns . . B. Walker 7 56 63 / 22 >i W. X. Ling 11 51 62 53 21 >> J. O'Loughlin 38 19 57 54 32 S. Bniudrett 6 50 56 1 ,. 59 »» W. J. Seabridge 25 31 56 / 30 10 R.C. Brow-n Leg- horns S. P. Giles . . 4 51 55 ] 57 60 White Leghorns . . Miss B. E. Ryan 11 44 55 1 69 ., Morgan and Watson . . 19 33 52 59 68 W. J. McKeddie 20 30 50 60 16 Silver Wyandottes R. Jobling 20 29 49 1 61 18 White Legliorns B. Mitchell 13 36 49 f 36 Old English Game K. J. Barrett 1; 22 40 1 63 66 White Leghorns J. Molonev 14 26 40 1 11 Black Orpingtons . . T. S. Goodisson 31 31 65 55 Brown Leghorns . . J. Matheson 18 18 66 17 White Leghorns . . S. Childs . . "l 10 11 67 34 >? Reg. F. B. Yioore . . 3 3 68 67 Ancouas . . A. E. Manning 69 26 1 (Reserved) Totals .. 4.844 8,071 3 227 45° Journal of Agriculfiirc. Victoria. [lo July. 1912. A NEW PEST TO MAIZE. HARLEQUIN FRUIT BUG. {Dindymus versicolor.) C. Frencli, jun.^ Acting Govertuuoit Eiito)}iologisi. During the last few weeks letters have lieen received by the Entomolo- gical Branch from Mr. J. A. Bayford, State School. Omeo, Gippsland, in reference to insects causing damage to maize cobs. On asking for specimens he kindly forwarded me a supply, to- gether with a damaged maize cob. On examination I found the insects were the well-known Harlequin Rugs, which are natives of Australia. They are occasionally destructive to apples, &c., as they insert their rostrum or beak into the fruit, causing it to become spotted. The markings re- semble the disease known as " Bitter Pit." Mr. Bayford says: — '' I am sending a specimen known here as the Soldier Beetle, which is doing much damage. To-day the local surveyor showed me how they were destroying his maize cobs wherever the out- side covering had been loosened in any way that gave them a chance to get at the maize in- side. The maize cobs were covered with the.se insects.'' " I am forwarding with this a maize cob from the patch I mentiofled to you. You will notice that the bugs have damaged the end of the cob, and if I have succeeded in im- prisoning anything like the number that was on the cob when I picked it, you will be able to realize how they are svvarming in the garden. Huite a large percentage of the cobs are damaged in the same manner as the one I am for- warding. They have done very much damage in this particular garden, attacking tomatoes, strawberries, raspberries, and MAIZE COB SHOWING UPPER PORTION other plants. Another garden- DAMAGED BY HARLEQUIN BUG. owner tells me that they ic July, 1913.] Statistics. 451 caused almost all his peai hes to fall off before they were ripe by itta:king the fruit near the stem.'' The maize cob submitted to me was attacked towards the top, the damaged grain being of a dirty white coloui, cau.sed by the bugs sucking its juice. Prevention and Remedies. Should the insects obtain a footing in the maize-growing districts of Victoria, they will cause losses to growers; therefore, when the bugs are first noticed, means should fe at once taken to prevent their spread. As the insects deposit their eggs amongst rubbish, and under logs, stones, old posts, &c., it is advisable that the maize field be kept as clean as possible. All weeds should be destroyed by burning. They should not be heaped round the maize field, as they foim favourite breeding places for these pests. Benzole emulsion spray, being particularly deadly to all bugs, is strongly recommended. As a deterrent coal tar water is useful. Boil i lb. of coal tar in 2 gallons of water, and while hot add from 50 to 100 gallons of water. HARLEQUIN FRUIT BUG. STATISTICS. LIVE STOCK. The following return of the live stock in Victoria at the end of March, 1912, has been issued by the Government Statist (Mr. A. M. Laughton) : — Horses. Cattle. Sheep. Districts. Dairy Cows (milking and dry). other Cattle. Total. Pigs. Central . . North-Central Western . . Whnmera Mai lee Northern . . North- Eastern Gippsland lOO.lofi 30,848 75,057 70,05( 41.30.1 100.005 40,13? 50,254 507,813 472,08C 133.973 44.886 170,054 24.253 18.254 89,001! 65,054 154,072 699,555 668.777 30,778 128,922 57,931 181,370 32,237 31,38.: 121,984 157,929 235,814 262.895 102,817 351.424 56,490 49,639 210,993 222,983 3£9,886 1,191,787 1,109,763 4,399,158 2,264,108 809,654 2,027,841 880.024 1,175,469 60,881 19,809 75,044 11,962 12,063 44,832 27,624 95,854 Total March, 1912 Total March, 1911 947,57^ 878,792 68,78C 1.647.127 1.547,56f. 13.857,804 12,882,665 348,069 333,281 Increase 35,733 1 99,558 975,13! 14,788 452 Journal of AgricitUiire. Victoria. [lo July. 191. AGRICULTURE IN VICTORIA. ACREAGE AND CROP. AREA AND PRODUCE, 1911-12 AND 1910-11. The following agricultural statistics for the State of Victoria have been issuetl by tlie (lOvernnient Statist (Mr. A. M. Laughton) : — Area. Produce. Average per Acre. Name of Crop. 1911-12. 1 1910-11. 1911-12. 1910-11. 1911-12. 1910-11. acres. acres. bushels. ) ushels. bushels. bushels. Wheat 2,164,066 2,398,089 20,891.877 34,813,019 9-65 14-52 Oats 302,238 392,681 4.585.326 9.699,127 15-17 24-70 Barley (malting; 36,748 30,609 725.803 804,893 19-75 26-30 Barley (other) 16,793 22,078 298.781 535,494 17-79 24-25 Maize 18,223 20,151 * 982,103 * 48-74 Rye 1,098 2,640 9,981 32,647 9-09 12-37 Peas and Beans 11.535 11,068 181,113 223,284 15-70 20-17 tons. tons. tons. tons. Potatoes (early crop) to. 142 5,606 17,498 21.140 3-40 3-77 Potatoes (general crop) 42.550 57,298 * 142,172 * 2-48 Mangel-wurzel 797 1,254 9,568 17.654 12-01 14-08 Beet, carrots, parsnips. turnips for fodder 658 872 4.953 7,481 7-53 8-58 Onions 3.652 6,161 20,911 37,484 5-73 6-08 Hay (wheaten) 304,388 240,026 357,379 333,711 1-17 1-39 Hay (oaten) 535,146 575,791 648,846 929,781 1-21 1-61 Hay (lucerne, &c.) .. 20,671 16,852 26,072 28,918 1-26 1-72 cwt. cwt. cwt. cwt. Grass cut for seed 1.188 1,295 1,697 2,904 1-43 2-24 Green fodder 75,177 71,826 Vines 24,193 23,412 Orchards and gardens 59,985 57,375 Market-gardens 10,331 10,778 Other tillage 5.662 6,208 1 Total Area inider Crop .. 3,640.241 3.952,070 Land in Fallow 1,469.608 1,434,177 Total Cultivation 5,109,849 5.386,247 * Not yet available. t The early crop relates to potatoes dug before 1st March. AREA UNDER POTATOES IN PRINCIPAL COUNTIES. 1911-12 AND 1910 11. Principal Counties. Area in Acres. 1911-12. 1910-11. 5,228 7,230 8,205 9.451 5,618 6,877 2,687 3,891 6,870 8,590 3,758 7,256 3,612 6,371 11,714 13,238 47,692 62,904 Bourke Grant Mornington Dalhousie Talbot VUliers Buln Buln Remainder of State Total lo JijLV. 1912.] Orchard ami Garden Notes. 453 ORCHARD AND GARDEN NOTES. E. E. Fcscott, Friucipal, Scliool of Horticulture , Burnley. The Orchard. Planting. The planting of deciduous fruit trees will still be continued on the lines laid down in last month's notes. Care should be taken to have the soil thoroughly sweetened and aerated, the roots should be well trimmed, and the young tree firmly planted. Owing to the time that elapses between the removal of the tree from the nursery row and the planting of the tree in its permanent situation, practically the whole of the fibrous and feeding root system has been destroved. Tt will be well to remove all of the finer roots, and to thoroughly trim Itack the stronger ones ; this will allow the tree to make a new root system for itself. Stringfellow's method of removing the whole of the roots, leaving only a stub, as referred to in the Journal for July, 1909, is not advocated, but a modification of this might be adopted, whereby the root system of the young tree will be vigorously pruned, in order that no detrimental effect will remain as a result of the transplanting of the tree. It should be borne in mind that a vigorous root trimming will require a corresponding sewre pruning of the head. In trimming or cutting the roots, all cuts should have a downward face ; this will allow, when the wound callu.ses, of a downward growth of roots from the callus. If the wound or cut be on the upper side of the root, in all probability suckering will result. In planting a commercial orchard, it has been previously advised that the number of varieties should be limited, and that, as far as possible, these varieties should have a corresponding bloom period. The necessity for cross-fertilization is becoming more apparent each year, and it is now definitely known that cross-fertilization results in greatly increased crops, and also in fruit of an increased size. In the experiments of Waite on the " Pollination of Pear Floweis," and of Lewis and Vincent on '' The Pollination of the Apple," their results were invariably that the largest fruits were crosses. Fruit-growers in this State have observed that where blocks of different varieties of the same kind of fruit have been planted alongside of each other, the adjoining rows of the two varieties have always carried the heaviest crops. Experience is thus against the planting of large blocks of any one \-arietv ; at the same time, the varieties must not be multiplied indefinitely. The Jonathan apple is generally considered to be a consistent bearei and self-fertile; but even this prolific variety may be made to largely increase its yield by intermingling with another variety having a similar bloom period ; and it has been found that the Sturmer Pippin is one of the best for the purpo.se. Dumeiow's Seedling, Reinette du Canada, and Stone Pippin also flowei at the same time. For fuller information on this subject reference may be made to the articles in the Journal for January, 191 1. Pruning. Pruning operations will now be in full swing. In pruning the \oung trees, heavy pruning will be required in order to produce strong growth and a good frame 3 but as the tree advances in age. the pruning will be 454 Journal of Agriculture. Victoria. [lo July, 191 2. reduced considerably. It should be remembered that strong, heavy prun- uig results in wood growth, and that weak pruning steadies the tree, and promotes an even growth. When framing and building a tree, the former consideration is observed, and when the tree is coming into fruit bearing or is mature, it will be pruned according to the latter. Any operation that will cause the tree to produce less wood growth will induce the tree to become more fruitful, provided the tree be in a healthy condition ; so that when trees are mature, pruning operations, as a rule, should not be severe, lut rather the reverse. Old fruiting wood, and dead and dying wood should always be re- moved, and aged spurs should be considerablv reduced, in order to make them produce new growths ; crowded and overlapping laterals should be shortened back; fruit bearing in the higher portions of the tree should not be encouraged ; and due consideration should be given to the admission cf light and air to all parts of the tree. Where varieties of fruit trees are prone to bearing crops every second year, their lateral system .should be pruned so that they will not produce too heavy a crop in the fruiting year ; and at the same time they will pro- duce wood in their fruiting year to give a crop the subsequent season. A model tree will always be light on its topmost leaders, bearing the major portion of the crop in the lower regions of the tree. The main pomt to be noted is that a heavy wood growth in the upper portion of the tree tends to reduce the bearing capalnlities of the tree in its most useful parts. Sprayinc Spraying should be carried out on the lines indicated in last month's notes, and it should be completed by the eml of the month. Fio^wer Garden. The cleaning up and digging will be continued this month. A good top dressing of stable manure may be given before digging, and all leaves and litter should be dug into the beds. Herbaceous plants may be lifted and stored till springtime 3 they should not be allowed to become too drv. Shrubs and small perennial plants may now be removed if necessarv. lifting evergreen ones with a good ball of earth. The planting of roses will now be carried out. The soil should have been well sweetened and seasoned beforehand. The plants require to be firmly planted in the soil, and after planting, a vigorous pruning should be given to each. ■Gladioli corms for early blooming may be planted ; and. as well, plants of the Japanese Iris, /. Kccrnfferi, and the German and English " Flag" Irises. Hardy annuals may be transplanted, and where these have been sown in the open, the clumps should be considerablv thinned out. The young plants should be given ample room ; better flowers will result if fewer plants are grown, so as to give the individual plants more room, and to prevent overcrowding of roots. In cool districts, a few seeds of late sweet peas may still be sown, and seedlings of this class of plant may be trans- planted. Roses will now require pruning. In rose pruning, the rule is that strong-growing plants require less severe cutting than weak-growing ones. lo JuLV. 191-.] Orcl'.ard and Gardoi Notes. 455 As roses always flower on new wood, it is essential that to have good blooms the bushes must be pruned regularly. All weak growths, exhausted and worn-out wood, must be removed, retaining only the vigorous growths. Tt is generallv advisable to prune to four or five eyes or buds, so as to have subsequent strong growths, always prunuig into the previous season's wood. Spindly growths, especially in the centre of the bushes, should be removed, the plants being trained with an open and angular habit. Vegetable Garden. The addition of gypsum to the vegetable plots prior to digging will rid the soil of a large number of insects that infest the vegetables in spring ; and thus numbers of vegetable pe.sts, such as caterpillars, aphis, ' &-C., will be killed. The gypsum may be dug into the soil, at the rate of about 2 ozs. per square yard. Another trouble in the vegetable garden at this season of the year is the snail and slug pest. The article on .slugs and snails in the December. 1910, Journal may be consulted, but one means of reducing this pe.st is to keep the plots free of weeds. As hoeing is generally out of the question in winter, the weeds should be hand pulled. Where any foliage is in direct contact with the ground, it should be lifted occasionally, and a light dusting of lime sprinkled underneath. All seedlings of sufficient size should now te planted out ; this includes onions, asparagus, lettuce, cabbage, cauliflower, &c. A planting of broad beans may be made, and also all varieties of peas. Seeds of summer cabbage, lettuce, leek, onion, radish, parsnip, may now be sown. Tubers of Jerusalem artichokes .should be planted out, and also a few early potatoes. Seeds of tomatoes may be planted in the frames ; and also, tow'ards the end of the month, seeds of melons, cucumt)ers, marrows, pumpkins, may be sown under irlass on the hot-bed. 456 Journal of A ^^nailtitrc. \ ictoria. [to July. 1912. REMINDERS FOR AUGUST. LIVE STOCK. Horses. — Those stabletl can be fed liberally. Those doing fa^i or heav\- work should be clipped; if not wholly, then trace hij^h. Those not rugged on coming into the stable at night should be wiped down and in half-an-hour's time rugged or covered with bags until the coat is dry. Old horses and weaned foals should be given crushed oats. Grass-fed working horses should be given hay or straw, if there is no old grass, to counteract the purging effects of the young growtli. Old and badly-conditioned horses should be given some boiled barley. C.ATTLE. — Cows, if not housed, should be rugged. Rugs should be removed in the davtime when the shade temperature reaches 60 degrees. Give a ration of hay or straw, whole or chaffed, to counteract the purging effects of voung grass. Calves should be kept in warm, dry shed. Those on the bucket should be given their milk warm. The bull may now run with the cows. Pigs. — Supply plenty of bedding in warm, well-ventilated styes. Keep styes clean and dry, and the feeding troughs clean and wholesome. Store pigs should be placed in fattening styes. Sows in fine weather should be given a grass run. Sheep. — Applv to breeders for rams needed. Ask for good backed sheep, both in flesh and fleece, whether British breeds or merinos. Fat lambs weighing 60 lbs. live weight will sell best now — avoid the rush of the season. Stud ewe flocks should be gone through carefully ; put out second-rate ewes, and enter approved ycung ewes in stud books. Poultry. — When yards become damp and difficult to clean a little lime sprinkled on surface will sweeten soil, and also act as a germicide. Keep the breeders busy — oaten hay scattered about will make them exercise. As the hens eat twice as quickly as the male bird, feed the latter bv himself; tack a piece of wire netting on a light frame, and jilace it across an angle to make a small enclosure for him whilst he is eating. Overhaul incubators ; see that the capsule or thermostat acts properly ; thoroughly clean lamps, egg drawers, and chimneys. Test machine for two days before putting valuable eggs in. It is also advisable to have thermometer tested.' When additional incubators are required, it is more satisfactory to keep to the one make. CULTIVATION. F.ARM. — Second fallow where necessir\ for summer crops. If rei|iiired, roll or harrow crops. Plant very early potatoes in forward districts. Sow mangolds. Apply slow-acting fertilizers, such as blood and bone manures, for maize. Orch.ard. — Complete planting and prmiing of deciduous trees. Watch for peach aphis, and spray with tobacco solution, if present. Prepare for planting citrus trees. Spray for woolly aphis with strong tobacco solution. Flower G.arden. — Finish digging and ])runing of roses, &c. Leave pruning of shrubs till after flowering. Keep weeds in check ; weed out seed beds. Divide and plant out all herbaceous plants, such as phlox, delphiniums, rudbeckia, &c. Plant out gladior. Complete planting of shrubs. Mulch young plants. Vegetable Garden. — Top-dress asparagus beds ; plant new asparagus plots. Plant herb divisions, and potatoes. Sow cabbage, cauliflower, peas, carrots, beans, radish, and lettuce seeds. Sow tomato seeds in a hot frame. Finish digging. Vineyard. — August is the best month for planting vines (grafted or ungrafted). This should be actively proceeded with and completed before end of month. Scions for field grafting may still be preserved as detailed last month, or belter still by placing them in tool storage. They should all be removed from vines before end of month, at latest. Conclude prunrng and tie down rods. Where black spot has been very prevalent, applv ist acid iron sulphate treatment (see Journal for July, igii). Apply readily soluble rilrogenous manures (soda nitrate or ammonium sulphate) towards end of month. Cellar —Rack again, towards end of month, wines which have as yet only been once racked (spring racking). Fill up regularly all unfortified wines. t lean up "enerallv in cellar and whitewash walls, woodwork, &c. July, 1912.] Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. xvn To the Dairyman. TF you knew of a machine which was entirely perfect, ■'• would you still suffer the much heavier expense and greater trouble and inconvenience attached to hand milking ? There IS a perfect milker — a machine which has been awarded the medal of the Royal Agricultural Society of England. ^ ^ ff THE "ROYAL MEDAL MILKING MACHINE. Investigate it. Write to-day for the ^^ ROYAL MEDAU^ Booklet. SOME IMPORTANT FEATURES. 1. The "ROYAL MEDAL" has less than half the overhead gear that man\ others have. ■2. The "ROYAL MEDAL" has half the rubber tubing that others have, and less than a quarter of what some have. ;;. The "ROYAL MEDAL" cannot injure the cows if left on after the milk is drawn. 4. The "ROYAL MEDAL" strips the cows light out. 5. The " ROYAL JIEDAL" Pulsator is sim- plicity itself. 6. The "ROYAL MEDAL" Pulsator is right on the teat cup, which means a great saving in eni;ine power required. 7. Tlie "ROYAL MEDAL" has not a bolt or screw-thread about the teat cup. You can very quickly take the "ROYAL MEDAL" teat cup to pieces with your fingers. 8. The "ROYAL MEDAL" has not a corner or a crevice in the teat cup. Brushes go through every tube without taking them asunder. 9. The "ROYAL MEDAL" cups pulsate in- dependently. That is why the " ROYAL MEDAL" is the machine that does not fall off. 10. The "ROYAL MEDAL" milks cows that are drying off perfectly, because it strips the cows. ROYAL MEDAL" MILKING MACHINES 34 QUEEN STREET, MELBOURNE. London Office : Caxton House, Westminster, S.W, J. H. DAVIES, Managing Director. POST FREE BOOKLET COUPON. "Boyal Medal" Milking Machi7ies, 34 Queen Street, Melbourne. Please forward a copy of your Fret Book. It i-i to be understood that I consider myself under no obligation. Name ; Address J. 10 XVI u Journal of Agriculture. Victoria. [lo July. 1912. 'Phone 4881 Central. -^k- The Australasian Mutual Live Stock Insupanee Society m., ROYAL BANK CHAMBERS, 70 Elizabeth St., Melbourne. HON. AGAR WYNNE, M.P. HENRY GARDNER, Esq. CHAS. YEO, Esq., J.P. WALTER G. HISCOCK, A.C.P.A., Manager. FARMERS AND BREEDERS- Has this simple truth ever struck you ? Ours are the world's minimum rates. Our terms and conditions are equal to the best obtainable. Every pound of our money is invested in Australia. We pay promptly. We pay in full. INSURE WITH THIS SOCIETY, AND RECOMMEND IT TO YOUR NEIGHBOURS. A GOOD AUSTRALIAN ' Why tfufn'l you pul your penny in the plate (^u tnoming T' ' Beeaute it xittiajvrtxgn mutton, and dada sayt it'$ not right lo lend capital out of the country." For ROOFS of all descriptions USE 's^' RUBEROID ROOFING. For OUTSIDE PAINTING of barns, stables, fences, &c., USE INDELIBLE COLD WATER PAINT. For INSIDE PLASTERED WALLS i^ O A LCI MO c'olo'il ALL RS. These Goods are UNEQUALLED by any others, and are obtainable from all Storekeepers. SOLE AGENTS BROOKS, ROBINSON & Co. Ltd., Melbourne. lo juLV. 19 r J.] Journal of Agriculture , Victoria, Dairy Science. The last word. Scientific men in the dairy centres of Europe have given close attention to the question of feeding for milk and feeding for butter fat. It has been laid down by one of the leading German Scientists that where a large quantity of very watery food is used for some time, a poor, thin milk is obtained : and he particularly recommends, when a milk rich in fat is wanted, to use a cake made exactly from the same material as Sunlight Oil Cake : stating that, by the use of such a cake, an increase of butter fat in the milk has been observed. Further, where the butter is inclined to be soft when the animal is fed on certain foods, Sunlight Oil Cake substituted in the ration will make the butter firmer. Every animal will not show the same corresponding result with Sunlight Oil Cake, but Sunlight Oil Cake will produce the highest milk flow and butter fat from a good milker and will increase the average from a poor milker. Sunlight Oil Cake is the last word in Dairy Science. For Post Free Book— "MILK FLOW AND BUTTER FAT increased by Scientific Feeding," By H. M. SOMER, Royal Agricultural Society, Write to Lever Brothers Limited (Dairy Department) Sydney. SUNLIGHT ' Guaranteed Pure OlLCAKfi See tiiat tlie name "Sunlight" is branded on every cake. XJC Journal of Agriculture , Victoria. [lo July, 1912. "HORNSBY" Petrol Engines (STATIONARY AND PORTABLE) T-JAVE a World-wide Reputation for all round Superiority. There is nothing Equal to them. Just as suitable for Motive Power as the well-known HORNSBY OIL ENGINE. Made by OTMBLE&SONS. -^jff) Geelong, ^ ^^^^^^^^^ ^^^^^ Specially suitable for Butchers, Breweries, Squatters, Butter, Bacon, and Ice Factories, and all classes of Cold Storage, &c. The Machines can be supplied from 3 cwt. capacity upwards, and either belt-driven or fitted with Engine. A large number of these Machines are working in the Australian States, New Zealand, and South Africa, and are giving universal satisfaction. All classes of Refrigeration work undertaken, including coils. One of these Machines is installed at the Dookie Agricultural College. " Ferrier's " Woolpresses and Rabbit Poison Distribntors, Engines, Boilers, Horseworks, &c. Full Papticulaps on Application to— Humble and Sons, General Eng'ineeps, VULCAN FOUNDRY, GEE LONG. LITEBATUBE FOB AKBICULTUBISTS. PLAN AND SPECIFICATION OF SHEEP-SHEARING SHED. 2s. 6d. Podcu.e, Id. MILK CHARTS (Monthly and Weekly), 6d, per dozen, post free. Wlien ordering, dairy farmers should mention "Monthly" or "Weekly." By Professor A. ./. Ewart, Government Botanist. WEEDS, POISON PLANTS, AND NATURALIZED ALIENS OF VICTORIA. 2s. 6d. Postage : Commonwealth, l^d. ; N.Z., 5d. ; British and Foreign, lOd. PLANTS INDIGENOUS TO VICTORIA. Vol. IL, 10,s. Postage: Com., 2d. ; N.Z., 8d. ; Brit. & For., is. 4d. By G. French, F.E.8., Government Entomologist. DESTRUCTIVE INSECTS OF VICTORIA. Parts L, IL. III., IV., V. 2s. 6d. each. Postage: Parts I. and III., C, Id. ; N.Z.. .3d.: B. & F.. fid. each. Parts IL and IV., C, Ud. ; N.Z., 4d. ; B. & F., 8d. each. Part V., C, Id. ; N.Z., 4d. ; B. & P., 7d. By D. McAlpine, Government Vegetable Pathologist. RUSTS OF AUSTRALIA. 5s. Postage : C, 2d. ; N.Z., 8d. ; B. & P., Is. 4d. SMUTS OF AUSTRALIA. 4s. Postage : C, 2id. ; N.Z., 9d. ; B. & F., Is. 6d. FUNGUS DISEASES OF CITRUS TREES IN AUSTRALIA. 2s. Postage : C, Id. ; N.Z., 3d. ; B. & F., (3d. FUNGUS DISEASES OF STONE FRUIT TREES IN AUSTRALIA. 2s. 6d. Postage: C, Ud. ; N.Z., 5d. ; B. & F., lOd. SYSTEMATIC ARRANGEMENT OP AUSTRALIAN FUNGI. 3s. Postage: C, 2d.; N.Z., 8d. ; B. & F.. Is. 4d. THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, MELBOURNE, VICTORIA. Remittances from places outside the Commonwealth to be by Money Order only. Pamphlets obtainable from the Director of Agfriculture, Melbourne, Free on Application. NEW SERIES. 1. SILO CONSTRUCTION. A. S. Kenyon, C.E. 2. HINTS FOR NEW SETTLERS. T. A.J. Smith. * 3. APPLE GROWING FOR EXPORT. P. J. Carmody. * 4. BOOKKEEPING FOR FARMERS. W. Mclver, A.I.A.V., A.S.A.A., Eng. * 5. CIDER IMAKING. J. Kiiight. * 6. FARM PLUMBING. C. H. Wright. 7. CITRUS FRUIT CULTURE. E. E. Pescott. * 8. BUILDING HINTS FOR SETTLERS. A. 8. Kenyon, C.E., arid others. 9. TOBACCO CULTURE. T. A. J. Smith. *10. SILOS AND SILAGE. G. H. F. Baker. U. THE BEET SUGAR INDUSTRY AND CLOSER SETTLEMENT. H. T. Easterly. 12. WORMS IN SHEEP. S. S. Cameron, D.V. Sc, M.B.C.V.S. . * Xot vet available. ROSE CULTIVATION FOR Vol. X. ESSENTIAL OIL PRODUCTION. [Registered at the General Post Office, Melbourne, for transmission by Post as a Newspaper. Part 8. F. H. BRUNNING PTY. LTD. J RYE GRASS. COCKSFOOT. PHALARIS. PASPALUM. PRAIRIE. TIMOTHY. WHITE CLOVER. ALSIKE. COWGRASS. TREFOIL. LOTUS MAJOR. LUCERNE. BURR CLOVER. CREEPING BENT. FESCUES. KENTUCKY BLUE GRASS. Samples and Quotations Post Free. Specialists m AUSTRALASIAN TREE & SHRUB SEEDS. Eucalypti, Acacias, Boronias, Pittosporums, etc. FOR FULL PARTICULARS WRITE FOR GUM AND ACACIA CIRCULAR. 1912 SEED MANUAL ; ] POST FREE ON APPLICATION. We can supply Plants of all the leading varieties in small and large quantities. (Write us for particulars.) PLANET JR. IMPLEMENTS. CORN SHELLERS. SPRAY PUMPS. ARSENATE OF LEAD. LIME SULPHUR SPRAY AERATORS. (See Catalogue for descriptions.) MURCHISON'S SCRUB DESTROYER Write for Pamphlet (post free) giving directions and particulars. 64 ELIZABETH ST., MELBOURNE. THE JOURNAL OF THE DEl^ARTMENT OF AGR[CULTURE, ■VIOTOI?.I^A., .A.XJSTI?.^^I-.I-A.. CONTENTS.— AUGUST, 1912. PAQB. AVheat and its Cultivation... ... A. E. V. Uichfurhon, M.A., B.Sc. [Agric.) 457 "i he Olive ... ... ... ... ... ... L. Macdonald 465 Bee-keeping in Victoria ... ... ... ... ... F. R. Beuhne 472 Rose Cultivation... ... ... ... ... ... Joseph Knkiht 478 (General Notes ... ... .. ... ... ... ••• .•• 483 Destructive Scale Insects .. . ... ... ... .. 0 f >-aich, Jnr. 485 ^Arsenate of Lead... ... ... ... ... ... P. R.Scott 486 Basis Wines ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 488 "1 he Etiology of Contagious Diseases ... W. A. X. J'oherison, B.V.Sc. 489 Unprofitable Orchards ... ... ... ... ... E. Wallig 504 'Herd Testing ... ... ... ... W. A. X. Jiobertson, B.V.Sc. 511 •Orchard and Garden Notes ... ... ... ... E. E. Pescott 513 Second Victorian Egg-laying Competition ... ... H. V. Hau-hins 515 Victorian Produce ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 517 Import and Export of Perishable Products ... ... ... ... ... 518 Kainfall ... ... .. ... .. ... ... ... 519 Reminders ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 520 COPYRIGHT PROVISIONS AND SUBSCRIPTION RATES. The Articles in the .Journal of the Department of Agriculture of Victoria are protected bj' the provisions of the Copyrig-ht Act. Proprietors of newspapers wishing to republish any matter are at liberty to do so, prorl'led the Journal and author are both acknowledged. '"^ The Journal is issued monthly. The sub.scription, which is payable in advance And includes postage, is 3s. per annum for the Commonwealth and New Zealand, and 5s. for the United Kingdom and Foreign Countries. Single copy, Threepence. Subscriptions should be forwarded to the Director of Agriculture, Melbourne. A comi)lete list of the various publications issued by the Department of Agriculture will be supplied by the latter. Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo Aug., 1912. C[^l^ £\^'Wr "\^l5 O'l "4'^\"1^0 T ^ hearty- invitation is extended you J^iCXwVv V JLO J. VWIX C!> • to in.specl our great display at the loitlieotiiiiig Meliiourue Agricfiltural Show to be held in September. It will pay .\n;i to closely investigate tlie many appliances and goods shown. The List iv'low will serve to Ijrini;- li.fore voiii notice a few of the more important items. Leak Proof Troughing. A strong- rifjid steel trough of patented desi^ni. The sections -wliir-h are of tcalvanized steel— cannot pull apart when bolted in position. The ends are grooved, and the groove of one section rests within that of the other, form- ing a lock joint. Those in- terested should not fail to inspect before finally deciding. The Wind a Worker —no wages to pay Economical water supply is solved by tlii' " Billabong: " It will cover your land with streams of Gold ; You shall gather its wealth a hundred fold. 'Billabong" Centrifugal Pumps nuub ire raising- water witli tticiency from niuii\ throughout Auslrulia. commendable money-making a creek, dam, or billabong- A well made, strong, and Liri-uvatily bal- anced pump with a depend- able lubricating system and an improved swivel- ling device. Sizes from IJ' up wards. One of these pumps will be belching forth large streams of water. Don't fail to see it. Windmill and pumping plant These Mills have specia features. We are the manu- facturers and patentees. A full inipiiry will be most profitable to you. great variety. House for<3e and lift. Spray. Centri- fugal, Windmill, and other power pumps. Working Barrels, Bore Cylinders, Hydraulic Rams, &c. It isn"t necessary that you have a knowledge of water supply. Call on US, state your needs as clearly as possible, and get our suggestion and price for a iimnji most suited to your re<|uirements. Tools for the Farm and Garden. Forks, noes. Rakes, Implements, Forges, and general Engineering, Farming, and Carpentering Tools. Come and handle them— look them over. The low prices will come as a surprise to you. A British made Engine. It's waste of energy to depend upon muscular labour when it is possible to procure a re- liable, well built, low priced mach- ine which will do the work. The "Vic = t oria " will commend it- self to you. It does a vast aiiiiiuiil ijf work oi] a niiniiiuni Come and see how smoothly it runs and how powerful it is of fuel T^ -^j,"^,^-^ t Should you not be able to attend the Show, we will gladly, at your X^ KJ B^l^U • request, forward information, prices, &c., of items you are interested in. IV^ANUFACTURERS AN'O IMPORTERS. ROPTY. UAiNlVO LI J PROPTY SON M'TD. ESTABLISHED OVER 50 YEARS. 391 to 399 Boupke Street, Melbourne. Journal oj Agriculture , Victoria. Sooner or Later every dairyman, producing niilU tor [irorit, \s ill iii'-tali an up-to-date milking outfit which compiiM's the following time-tested machines :--- "FELIX" FARM ENGINE "L.K.G." MILKING MACHINE "ALFA-LAVAL" SEPARATOR The above labor-saving machines are without doubt the best of their kind manufactured, and so satisfied are we of their absolute superiority over all other makes, that we will cheerfully send them out on trial, and should tliey fail to do what is claimed of them, we will take them back at our own expense. Dairymen contemplating the purchase of a modem milking plant, have everything to gain and nothing to lose by ordering the plant on the above terms. LIBERAL TERMS. EASY PAYMENTS. Write for full-line Cataln-ue i\o. 350 S.— Mailed Free. J. BARTRAM & SON Z.. 19. 21, 23 KING STREET, MELBOURNE. Sole Agents : — All Steel Portable Silos, and '• Prairie-State " Incubatora. Every Farmer and Grazier should have a Telephone Service con- necting with the nearest Post Office. Tht)usands of Australian farmers have already installed Telephones, the ad- vati'ages of wliich are so numerous and valuable that it is impossible to measure or appreciate their worth until vou have one. A well-known Victorian Crazier, Mr. W. Gardiner, writes regarding The ERICSSON Telephone: — " I tiud tlie tele))lione the mcst useful inven- tion I lia\ c on the faini, both in labour and time .saving, also for business {jurposes. It has often .saved nie the price of itself in one transaction, and has paid for itself oU times over in two cases of calling medical aid when no one could go for it. The ERICSSON gives satisfaction in every way." Prices, eMimates, and full particulars. on application tc J. BARTRAIVI & SON [ PTY. D., Suppliers of Telephones to tie Postmaster-Ceneral. Representing the L. M. ERICSSON Telephone Coy. p.9-23 is:inxrc3- st:ei:e3e:t, jvet^t .:^c3XJ'n:3>r:E3. »M,^--.,v.m,«■-. _ -^^>-^^-^-■»-.■J^«u Ji)ii;iud of AgricultKrc , ]'ic!i-//.?. lo AbG., 1912. 120 POST nOL^ 1/1 A MY '-'*U;£t, Making a Fence 72 Chains long, you can save 12 days by using an "IWAN" Post Hole Dig'g'ep B^feMM^mikAdf Reckoning that posts are 10 ft. apart, you couldn't sink moie than 30 holes (about 4^ chains), in a day with crowbar and spade, but — you can sink 120 holes (about 18 chains) in a day with an I WAN DIGGER. In fact, a user wrote us from Yarck (Victoiia) saying he had put down 200 post holes in a day. In addition to the speed, an IWAN POST HOLE DIGGER cuts the hole just the size for the post, which means little ramming and a firmer' fence. Farmers use small sizes, in boring for water, by adding lengths of pipe to the bar. Every Post Hole Digger is a Post Hole Digger, but THERE IS ONLY ONE IWAN, and it has no adjustable parts to wobble about or stick. 3 4 5 7/- 7/- 11- 6 7/- 7 8 9 7 6 8/6 9/6 10 10/- 12 14 inch. 27/- 34/- each. The ^'IWAN'' is sold only by MS^PIiersoit " Tool Merchants," 554=66 & 582=88 Collins Street, Melbourne. 'jioAuG.. iQi-.i Journal oj A^:^/ icultn/ c . Victoria. — IT WILL PAY YOU -^ TO LEARN MODERN METHODS IN AGRICULTURE LIVE STOCK & FRUIT GROWING FOR PROFIT. STOTT'S CORRESPONDENCE COLLEGE fan teach you AT YOUR OWN HOMK how to MAKE MoKK M()^^:^■ hy tiie emplo3nient of up-to-date methods We teanh all branches of Agriculture and Live Stock Husbandry, including Drainage, Irrigation, Dairying and Practical Orchard Management. We abo give instruction in the oUouin;.;' suljjt'c-t> ; — Bookkeeping Arithmetic Electrical Engineering Mechanical Drawing Shorthand Mathematics Steam Engineering Architectural Drawing Accountancy Languages Shire Engineering Building Construction Commercial Law Drawing Mining Engineering and Estimating English Illustrating Surveying Timber Measurements WE PREPARE CANDIDATES FOR ALL PUBLIC EXAMINATIONS. The instruction i;oes RIGHT TO YOUR HOME, no matter where you live. It is clear, concise, easily understood, and practical. Every student is handled privately and separately and receives individual attention according to his particular requirements. Our instructors are men of sound technical knowledge, <'onihiiied with years of practical experience, and they are at the service of every student, to guide him with their valuable advice. Only spare time study is required, and our fees are exceedingly moderate and within the reach of everybody. We invite you to write at once for a fr^e copy of our Handbook D. It ex]ilains our system and shows how we can teach anj' man who is willing to be taught aiid anxious to increase his earning power. It costs nothing to inquire. Don't put it off. Write tO-day. STOTT'S CORRESPONDENCE COLLEGE 56b MARKET STREET, MELBOURNE. r LAW, SOMNER & GO.'S ^ SPEOCAL GRADED AND SCREENED SEED POTATOES (Pedigree Seed). Prices on Application. HUNTER RIVER. ■ ■ ■ ^-^ ^m h^ ^ ■ ^mt FRENCH PROVENCE. ARABIAN. BIB r^ ^ ^3 ^ B ^ AMERICAN. PERUVIAN. I U 1_# r r^ BAB r HUNGARIAN. TURKESTAN. ^™ ^^ ^^ «■ ■ » ■ ^ A^ SPANISH (New). All our Lucernes are Specially Machine-dressad, Hand-sieved, Free from Dodder, and True to Name. CRAIG MITCHELL |ii| A I "7 C and other MAMMOTH WHITE lYIMI^El leading VARIETIES. Write for Maize and Potato Circular. LAW, SOMNER & CO., TS^cVi^l 139-141 Sw^anston-st., Melbourne. ESTABLISHED 1850. TELEPHONE 729 CENTRAL. BULK STORES— MASON LANE. OFF LITTLE COLLINS STREET. Journal of Agriculture^ Victoria. [to Aug., 191 2. \ "AUSTRAL" MILKING MACHINES. FIVE YEARS OF UNBROKEN SUCCESS Have established the AUSTRAL as the Premier Milking: Machine, and have demonstrated that it does not belong to that class of appliances whose efficiency terminates after a few months of use. It has stood tb« tMt of time, aod that under all sorts of conditions. IT IS SIMPLE. Complexity and intricacy are the bane of milking machinery. Both in principle and construction the Austral is strikingly simple. Minute pulsating mechanism on teat cups or buckets lias been entirely dispensed with, its place being taken by a single pulsating pump, simple and strong in construction, which serves for the whole outfit, whetlier two cows or ten are to be milked at a time. The pulsating pump is placed in the engine room, remote from the cows. IT IS AN EASY MILKER. Fear of injury to cows was at one time the bogie of machine milking. The Austrfbl has done away with all that. Its action on the cow is as gentle as that of the softest hand, and much easier than the average hired help. After three and four years' milking with the machines, cows are found to be as sound in the quarters as when they started. Enquiry from any Austral user will confirm the correct- ness of this statement. IT IS THE LAST WORD IN ECONOMICAL DAIRYING. The working parts are so few and the construction so simple and solid, that wear and tear, and consequently the cost of u|)keef), are re()uced to a minimum. An outstanding feature of the Austral is the Tank System, whereby the milk is conducted direct from cow to separator without any handling whatever. With this system, so great a saving is efiFected in time, labour, and trouble, that in ordinary circumstances its advantages are overwhelii in?. A single bucket car be flufiplied for testing individual cows; or wliere spec al requirements render it pre- ferable, complete bucket plants can be installed. GLOBE CREAM SEPARATORS. . CROSSLEY OIL ENGINES. Embodies the famous Link-Blade Bowl 1 The world's standard Oil Engine. In all Structure. Official tests conducted by the [ sizes and for all descriptions of farm work. Swedish Government at Alnarp placed the f "Globe" in the very forefront for clean (^ VACCAR PETROL ENGINES. skimming and easy running, against all T competitors. \ British built. Low running speed. All sizes from 1 4 to 200 gallons. Economical on fuel. WINDMILLS, SAW-BENCHES, CH/^FF-CUTTERS, aqd all Farrn arid Dairy Machinery. Wnen writing, plestse mention this Journal. W. H. BLflCKHflni: "^ "'"^ "•■ ^ MELBOURNE. lo Aug., I 91 -.] JdiiDuil Of Agriculture ^ Victoria. Herd of Prize Winning, and Heavy Milk ^ and Butter Pro- ducing Strains. YOUNG BULLS AND HEIFERS FOR SALE. MYSTERY VI. OF MELROSE. INSPECTION BY APPOINTMENT. WILLIfllfl WCODiWflSOU, ""olT" MALVERN, MELBOURNE, V.c. Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo Aug., 1912. G. CLOSER SETTLEMENT LAND, Li^t showing iiunil)e • of allotments on the various Estates available for application : — Estate. Irrigration Areas. Area. Estate. Wheat Growing-. Area. Swan Hill :; totalliui; 217 ari-es. Cornelia Creek .. 15 totalling- 2,384 acres Cohnna -1' 2,052 ,, Oaklands .. ..6 ,, 4,140 „ Sht'iipartoii .. 11:4 5,014 „ Hur.stvvo^ 1,000 cubic feet. For LIGHTING, COOKING, and HEATING. MANUFACTURED UNDER LICENCE BOOTY- LOFTHOUSE PATENTS. SYSTEM ADOPTED BY STATE AND FEDERAL GOVERNMENTS. Further particulars and prices apply J. BARTRAM & SON pty. ltd., 19, 21, 23 King-st.; and Bourke-st., Melbourne. SHIFT THOSE STUMPS I EFFECTIVELY, SAFELY, AND SATISFACTORILY. ^^ RACKAROCK FOR STUMP LIFTING, TREE FELLING, LOG SPLITTING & LAND CLEARING GENERALLY, SUB-SOILING & TREE PLANTING. STANDING TREE. SNAPSHOT OF EXPLOSION. It is absolutely without a rival. TMs is owing to its Great Rending Power. 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"— Who are Imyiorters and Manufacturers of the undermentioned, namely : — Varnishes for all ufes, Paints, Dry Colors, Stainer's Turpentine, Boiled and Raw Linseed Oil, Resin, Shellac, White Lead, &c. OUR MANUFACTURE IS OF ONE QUALITY— THE BEST. Note the Address— The VICTORIA VARNISH COY. Proprietary Ltd., Queen's Bridge, South Melb. Established 1853. A. J. BORTHWICK. IVlAN»GtR. SOPERPHOSPHATE, AND OTHER HIGH-GRADE FERTILIZERS DELIVERED AT RAILWAY STATION, POOTSCRAY, OR ON WHARF, MELBOURNE. Office:— 407 POST OFFICE PLACE, MELBOURNE. BONES BOUGHT. CONSIGN TO ME, FOOTSCRAY. Telephone 2098. lo Aug., 191 2.] Journal of Agriculture , Victoria. XV ^ > g ^ tf) biS c ID • .— . D CQ E <1) CT) n; -1 u. :d !— 0 c >, ^^-t <— c u c c 0 TD c; n1 rrt t/j lU n1 fc C/3 c L. CL, 3 F: 0 0 u biO u ._ 0 CJ (]j a; C/2 1- <; , , c ^ ^ E ^^— «J cd &_ CO OQ > ** s CO cc ^ .S2 — _E CO _o H ^ X c? 0 GC < C3 CO >- ^ cc t/J a •» 0 E- u. 3= ■^ 0 -a: -o t/3 a» >- NJ ^ a > t/5 OJ cS t/3 0 0 &. b. 3 a O. C3 • a« O. 3 ~ «« 0 C -a: .:£ UJ © s • a» C/5 "rt >!: > ~ UJ i^ :« u c ;^ 3 0 O' ,22 ^^y'x^.^y^.^vM-1 ^^fc-^ ^ r^ .W!^ ^ < ■^ iv') >^ v -O s \ »tv ^ ^$ -» WWWVNojl B C3 :« c « 4> J3 j; 0 C/3 journal of Agriculture. Victoria. [lo Aug., 1912 ALSTON'S Patent '""'■le crank s**^i WINDMILL 1910 Pattern. Grease Lubricated. Most Perfect Windmill Motion in Existence. Gives II diri'i't and central lift nf tlir junnp roil, and an e\eu wearinj;- of the liearinj;s. FITTED WITH STEEL ROLLER AND BALL BEARINGS. No Overhanging- or Twisting Strains COMMON TO ALL OTHER MAKES. Do not buy a mil! till you have inspected tliis late.st invention. RUNS in the LIGHTEST WIND. STANDS the STRONGEST STORM Cheapest and Strongest Mill ever offered, Patented thrtjvghout Australia. Sold for Catalvgue. Alston's Improved Patent Portable Steel Framed Galvanized Stock The Best Trough ever invented Trough WILL NOT CRACK, LEAK, RUST, OR ROT. Packs in Small Space. Supplied In All Lengths. The Cheapest and Most Durable Trough Ever Invented. Send for I'ric-f List. JAMES ALSTON, Patentee and Manufacturer. "^ WINDMILL FACTORY, Queen's-bridge, Melbourne. THe JOURNAL Tfie department of M^nculture VICTORIA. Vol. X. Part 8. lOth August, 1912. WHEAT AND ITS CULTIVATION, {Continued from page JjS.) New vn Xo. 6.— METHODS OF CrLTIVATIOX. By A. E. V. Ricliardson, M.A.. B.Sc. {Agric), AgrieuliKral Superintendent. In the preceding article, consideration was given to the practice of continuous crojjping with wheat, and to the practice of baref allowing. L'ontinuous cropping with wheat year after year stands condemned, both by theory and by practice. Under pioneering conditions it may be justi- fiable as a temporary expedient, but under normal conditions of cultivation it should be abandoned. Under pioneering conditions, land is usually cheap, whilst capital and labour are comparatively dear, and the pioneer, therefore, substitutes the cheaper factors of production for the more costly. Hence the initial system of farming is invariably extensive, for as much land and as little labour and capital as possible are used in production. The individual areas are relativelv large, and the average yield relatively small. Continuous cropping is commonly resorted to. and the soil is of isuch virgin richness that it will produce large crops in spite of the com- paratively crude methods of cultivation. When the soil begins to show signs of diminished fertility and production, the pioneer frequently wanders further afield, and leaves the problem of soil improvement to others than himself. The Hill River Estate, in 1875, as shown in the accompanying illus- trations, is a typical example of the extensive methods of cultivation Tira'tised in the pioneering days. In 1875. the estate was 60,000 acres in exte:.:. and carried 50,000 sheep. The cultivated land was in large fields, ^one of which was 3 miles long, and contained, in 1873, no less than '4,250 acres of wheat in one block. According to Harcus" " History of South Australia (1876).'' the ploughing was ])erformed. in 1874, by "Thirty f'^ur-horse teams drawing a double plough, and five single ploughs striking cut. The seed, which was of several kinds, to ascertain the best, was sown 8805. I' 458 ]oiir)tal of A.gricuUiirc. Xiclt [lo Aug., 1912. the first week in June with six of Adamson's 22-ft. broadcast machines, sowing 40 acres a day each. The pickling used is bluestone, and an in- genious dipping apparatus is used by which a bag at a time can be done with great rapidity. The lands are ploughed in I -chain widths, and harrowed by fifteen sets of six-leaved harrows, doing a land in two turns. The harrowing is done at the rate of 500 acres a day. As harvest approaches, 2-chain wide strips are cut by mowing machines, at intervals, cutting the wheat into 200-acre blocks, and then the strips are ploughed, for the prevention of fi.re. Thirty-seven strippers are u.sed to take off the crop (1874). Three crops were taken off in succession, and then the land was laid down to pasture.'' Four years later, there were 850 working horses fed under cover every day; the amount of land under crop was 11,000 acres per annum; and 65 strippers were used in taking it off. I am indebted to Mr. John Emery, of Adelaide, formely Resident Manager of the estate, for the photographs illus- trating the teams at work. From continuous cropping to bare- fallowing is a natural transition, especially in a relativelv drv district. Continual cropping with the same crop encourages weeds to such an extent as to ultimately render a period of rest and cleaning absolutely necessary. The marked advantages of this period of rest and cleaning must have appealed \ery strongly to the early pioneers. So far as barefallowing is concerned, we have already seen that it is an indis- pensable preparation for a maximum crop in all districts where the rainfall is relatively low, and that it enables the wheat crop to make the \ery utmost use of a limited rainfall. It was noted, too, that in the more humid districts ]iroblems relating to moisture con- serxation are of minor importance, and that barefallowing is unnecessary, and should be replaced by a .skilled system of catch cropping and rota- tion. Finally, it was noted that in the dry districts no system of cultivation can be permanently effective lo AiG.. 191:;.] VV/na/ cdiJ its Culfivalion. 459 si J*;. ^'-■M Q 2 460 Journal of AgriciiTtiirc , Victoria. [10 Aug., 1912. unless it provides, not only for the conservation of moisture, but also for the conservation of fertility. Attention was concentrated on the f(jrmer principle in the preceding article. Let us now c(jnsider the latter prin- ciple. The weak point in the i)ractice of barefallowing is that it tends to deplete the soil of organic matter. Organic matter — by which is meant vegetable or animal matter in the process of decay — is the soil's iiio.st valuable constituent. Tt has an important physical, chemical, and biological effect upon the soil. It acts physically, by increasing the capacity of the soil for holding moisture, and by improving its texture ; chemically, by supplying nitrogen necessary for the growth of the crop and by unlocking the dormant stores of plant food and making them avail- able ; and, biologically, by affording the necessary material for the promo- tion of vigorous bacterial growth within the son. It may readily Ije understood, therefore, that the presence of this important ingredient in ample quantity will mean success, whilst its absence will mean disaster, and when the organic content of the soil becomes lessened, the crop-producing power will be seriously impaired. Alternate barefallowing and wheat cropping, without a period of rest or pasturage, will ultimately deplete the soil of its organic matter, and this depletion will be hastened by the practice of burning the stubble. Local figures are wanting as to the rate at which organic matter is lost by slow oxidation in the process of fallowing ; but there can be little doubt that the loss in dry, hot districts is considerable. The loss through burning of the stubble of a 15-bushel crop, however, may be set down at 1,145 lbs. of organic matter per acre {vide page 203). To counteract these losses should be the aim of every practical farmer. It is a matter of common observation that many of our old wheat lands are becoming more difficult to plough and reduce to a satisfactory tilth compared with virgin land of the same character in the same locality. I'his is one illustration of the effect of a reduction of the organic content of the soil. There are three general ways of supplying the soil with the organic matter necessary to maintain its fertility — (i) By the application of farmyard manure. (2) By pasturing and by rest. (3) By green manuring. Lender the conditions that obtain in the wheat areas, the application of farmyard manure as a practical means of counteracting the depletion of organic matter is out of the question. The average wheat holding is far too large to be appreciably affected by the totality of farmyard manure produced on the farm. In districts where intense culture is practised, however, and where individual holdings are relatively small, the use of farmyard manure as a means of restoring organic matter becomes prac- ticable. The average wheat-farmer, with his relatively large holding, must, therefore, depend either on pasturing, rest, or green manuring for the maintenance of the organic content of his soil. til. — Rotation Systems for Wheat. Thus arises the necessity for some sort of rotation in a system of cropping. Continuous cropping with the same crop, and the biennial system of cropping and barefallowing, have been shown to fall short of the requirements of a permanent system of agriculture. It is very rarely, however, that a wheat-farmer follows the strict practice of alternate crojjping and fallowing. Sheej) have now become an integral part of TO Aug.. 191^.] 117/(7?/ and its CiiIfivafio)i. 461 every wheat farm, and pnrtion. at least, of the area is therefore periodically reserxt-d for pasture, and a more or less regular rotation is practised. Advantages of Rotation. — The most important advantages accrumg from a rational svstem of crop rotation is that it leads to the best possible utilization of the resources of the- soil, and makes for maximum crops. Different crops vary very widely in the manner in which, and the depth at which, they obtain their nutriment from the soil. Some obtain it from relatively shallow depths, whilst others are deep rooted, and, by alternat- ing such crops, the store of fertility is more evenly used up. A well- planned system of rotation leads to a better and more economical distri- bution of labour throughout the farm year, and thus enables a farmer to offer permanent, instead of casual, employment to farm hands. Moreover, it aids in [ireventing the ravages of disease, for crops susceptible to the attack of specific fungoid pests are less liable to be attacked when grown in rotation with other crops. An illustration of this may be seen with regard to " take all " in wheat. It enables land to be cleaned without the employment of special labour, for where one kind of crop is grown repeatedly, the weeds favoured by that crop cannot be kept in check. Finallv. it provides a means whereby the fertility of the soil may, by rational treatment, be maintained, and e\"en increased. A regular system of rotation — by which is meant that different kinds of crops are made to succeed one another on the same ground in regular order — is a feature of the advanced forms of agriculture practised in the older countries of the world. We must not fall into the error of assuming that because certain rotations are found profitable in the densely populated countries of Europe, that they would be equally applicable in a new country like Australia, with a relatively sparse population. The most advanced and profitable rotation for us will be that which is best adapted to the exigencies of our peculiar climatic and economic conditions. What are the conditions obtaining in the wheat areas? The climate is such that the greater part of the rain falls during the winter months. The spring and summer rains are irregular, and rarely copious. Hence, in the wheat areas proper, the growing of summer crops is more or less risky and uncertain, and for securing suitable crops for rotating wath w^heat we are driven back to the use of winter-growing forages or cereals. Among the economic considerations, the labour problem is of great im- portance. To break away from an extensive system of culture and adopt intensive methods is to change from a system in which a minimum of labour is required to one necessitating the eniployment of a maximum of labour. To rear and feed a large number of li\'e .stock, to rotate and diversify crops, and to follow the hundred-and-one practices of the intensive farmer, imply the expenditure of additional capital and labour. In den.sely crowded countries, the latter factor of production is usually abundant. In a spar.sely populated country, in which immigration cannot keep pace with local requirements, trained farm labour is at a premium. The hicreasing cost of, and difficulty in securing, efficient local labour are already inducing many farmers to lessen the area devoted to cultivation, and increase the area devoted to grazing. The size of the holding is obviously an important factor in determining the method of cultivation adopted, for the smaller the holdings, the more intense must be the methods of cultivation. According to the Y ear-Book of Victoria for 1910-11. more than one-half of the total area. i.e. 2.916,671 acres, devoted to cultivation in the whole State w^as confined to holdings in which the amount of privately owned land varied from 500 to 2.500 acres. 462 Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [10 Aug., 1912. The values of farming lanfl in the wheat areas have an important bearing on the methods of cultivation followed. Throughout the wheat areas, land values have considerably appreciated during the past decade, and this appreciation has been largely due to the increased producti\e power of the soil, brought about by improvements in cultivation, crop rotation, and in the adoption of artificial manures. It may be contended that the present prices represent high-water mark, and that values are not likely to ascend beyond the present limits. This belief, however, would imply that we have reached such a high stage of de\'elopment in wheat growing that further improvements are impossible. It implies that the system of agriculture practised at the present time, which, by the way, is quite normal in a country occupied by a mere handful of people, nfust be a permanent characteristic of a country with an ever expanding population. High though the land \alues may l)e, it is certain that they must ulti- mately continue to rise with the pressure of population, and those who find themselves unable to make satisfactory interest on the enhanced capital values will gradually make way for those who can. Let us .now consider the rotations practised under existing economic conditions, and endea\-our to see whether we may reasonably expect im- pro\"ed rotations in the future. A very widely practised rotation in the wheat areas is that of wheat, pasture, barefallow. This practice enables but one crop in three years to be taken off a gi\'en piece of land. One-third of the farm area is devoted to pasture for sheep and lambs, whilst the remainder, for a portion of the year, is under barefallow. Obviously, such a rotation could only be practised in a district where land values are relatively low, and where individual holdings are con- .^iderable. Since but one crop is taken oft" in three years, and the crop is fallowed by a vear of pasture, the system is not exhausting, and with careful working one would expect a succession of heavy crops for many years. The preparatory year of careful barefallow guarantees the suc- cess of the wheat crop, Init whether, under ordinary conditions, the year of pasture will accumulate sufficient organic matter to coA'er losses through fallowing has not been determined. Of course, only a portion of the organic and mineral constituents of the pasture is returned in the animal droppings, and imder ordinary conditions the lambs and the wool are sold off the farm. The important point about this rotation is that it requires a minimum of hibour, and is wel) adapted for a district in which holdings are large, and land is relatively cheap, and the rainfall .scanty. It must be noted, however, that with the increasing land values the time must come when, in the more favoured wheat districts, the returns will be insufficient under this system of rotation, to cover expenses, and leave a profitable margin of interest. While land is, say, ^3 to jQio an acre, one 15-bushel crop in three years may yield a fair rate of interest over and aboA-e expenses, but the contrary might be the case if the monetary value of the land doubles. A modification of this rotation is largely practised in the Wimmera, and consists of Wheat: Oats (for i)asture) : Pasture: Barefallow. The wheat is sown on well-prepared barefallow, and after the wheat is harvested, oats are disced in the autumn on the stubbles, and utilized for pasture. After oats, the })addock is depastured for sheep and lambs, and the rotation brought to a close by a season of barefallow. Under this scheme of rotation there can be little doubt that the organic content of the soil may be maintained, as two vears of pasture are given for every year of crop. As will be shown later. !iowe\er, the nitrogen content of the soil is not lo Aug., 1912.] \\'//c-ci/ and its C iiUivatioii. 463 likfly to increase unless legumes, such as trefoil and clover, regularly appear in the pasture. As with the three course rotation the labour difificulty is reduced to a minimum. The area of wheat actually in crop will be smaller than i[ the former rotation were practised, but the number of sheep that may be safeh kejjt on the farm will be much greater than with the correspond- ing three-course rotation. These may be regarded as the prevailing rota- tions at present in \-ogue in the wheat areas, and it will be seen that they fit in well with the existing economic conditions in the wheat areas. From time to time various forage crops, such as peas, rape, rye and \etches, barlev. &c., have been grown in more or less regular rotation with wheat and barefallow in the drier areas, and the results have been such as to lender it extremelv probable that these crops will play an important part' in the future of wheat growing, more especially as the laml) industry is now lirmlv established. Many individual cases are on record where farmers have been strikingly successful in combining the cultivation of these crojjs with that of wheat to the great benefit of the latter. As yet. however, no regular and definite rotation of forage crops with wheat and barefallow has lie^n applied to anv consideral)le area of the wheat belt proper. In this direction there is scope for much useful experimental work. A systematic test of different rotations of forage crops, with cereals and barefallow, extending over a sufficient period of years to eliminate the error effect of season and climate, would pro\ide data of very material value for deciding the merits of different rotations, for the drier districts. and would indicate whether it is possible to get more than one crop in three years or one crop in four years. The fundamental weakness of alternate cropping and barefallowing was seen to be the depletion of the organic content of the soil. It is only \\ hen the .soil is rich in organic matter that the highest yields may be obtained from barefallowing. and the feeding oft' of forage crops, grown in systematic rotation with wheat, provides the grower with a means of preventing the depletion of the organic content of his .soil. The grow- ing and feeding down of forage crops should, therefore, be made to sup- plement barefallowing, and the problem to solve is "What are the best forage crops to grow in drv districts, and what should be their position in a rotation? " This can only be determined bv svstematic experimentation, i.e.. by try- ing all possible combinations of forage crops, barefallowing and wheat, and determining accuratelv the monetary net return from each possil)le com- liination. A modest eft'ort has been made this season at Rutherglen to test the merits of different systems of crop rotation for wheat. These will probal)ly l)e extended next season, and pr;:vision made for tests under drier conditions than Rutherglen. For the present .season the following rotations have been laid down: — (i) Wheat and barefallow. alternatelv. (2) Wheat, pasture, barefallow. (3) Wheat, oats, pasture, barefallow. (4) Wheat, rape, fallow. (5) Wheat, non-leguminous forages, leguminous forages. (6) Wheat, forage crops, alternate!}. (7) Wheat, forage crops, fallow. (8) Wheat, forage crops, barlev or oats, legumes. (9) Wheat, rape or kale, barley or oats, rye and vetches mixed. (10) Wheat, non-leguminous forage crop, leguminous forage crop, l;)arlev, fallow. (11) Wheat, oats, green manure. 464 Journal of Agriculture , Victoria. [lo Aug., 1912. It is not, of course, expected that all these rotations will succeed. In- deed, some of them must obviously be of little value in the district. The systematic recording of the results of the tests over a period of years, how- ever, should throw considerable light on the subject of crop rotations for wheat in dry districts. The best rotation, of course, will be the one which continues to yield the best financial returns over a period of years, under i.he economic and climatic conditions of the district. The restoration of organic matter to the soil can be brought about by grccii manuring, as well as by the feeding down of forage crops. Green manuring, i.e., the ploughing in of green crops such as peas, rye, and vetches, &c., is a much more effective method of restoring organic matter to depleted soils than the feeding down of forage crops. As, however, the feeding value of a green crop is usuallv greater than its manurial value, the general practice is to convert the crop into milk, mutton, or beef, in- stead of ploughing it under. Crof rotation mint be supplemented hv Soil Fertilization. — Before leaving the subject of crop rotation there is one important point to bear in mind. No system of crop rotation — however well conceived and carried out — can make up for any shortcomings in either cultivation or manur- ing. There are manv who think that crop rotation is a substitute for manuring, i.e., rotation of crops in itself will maintain the fertility of the soil. Crop rotation alone, witJiout adecjuate manuring, will not in- crease, nor even maintain, the soil's fertilitv. No system of crop rota- tion can add one .single pound of any of those inorganic elements so essential for plant growth. Moreover, unless legumes are grown, or un- less they appear naturally in the pastures, even the nitrogen content will not be maintained. A rational system of crop rotation does increase the organic content of the s;;il. simply because the plant can obtain its organic matter from the carbon dioxide of the atmosphere. We have already seen (P. 201) that 95 ])er cent, of the dry weight of the plant is obtained from the air. and. therefore, when a crop is ploughed in as a green manure, or fed down on the land with stock, the soil is enriched by the organic matter which the plant has secured from the atmosphere. But no scheme of crop rotation, in itself, can add one iota to the inorganic portion of the .soil. Rotation of crops must, therefore, be supplemented bv the application of inorganic manures, if the fertility of the soil is to be maintained or increased. Nothing could be clearer on this funda- mental point than the results obtained during the last seventy years at the Rothamsted Experimental Station. The results obtained in the Agdell field represent the world's best information on this point. In the Agdell field the famous Norfolk four-course rotation — turnips, barley, clover, wheat — has been practised for over se\-enty years. In any one year there were three plots for each crop, ^"iz. : — (i) Unmanured. (2) Manured regularlv with phosphates. (3) Manured regularly with phosphates and nitrogen. The following table shows very clearlv that (i) on Section I., where rota- tion was carried on without soil fermentation, the yields in turnips, barley, and wheat have regularlv and continuallv declined. After the first year the turnip yield on this plot never exceeded 3 tons per acre, i.e., they were always grown at a loss. The barlev average dropped from 46.5 to 13.7 bushels, whilst the wheat dropped from 29.7 bushels to 18.9. lo Aug., 19 1 2.] The Olive. 465 Summary of Results of Crop Kotation in Adgell Field, rothamsted. since 1 848. Section \. .Section II Section III. Tn manured • Phosphates. Phosphates and Nitrogen. Turnips. Barley. Wheat. Turnips. Barley. Wheat. bush. Turnips. Barley. Wheat. lbs. 1 bush. bush. lbs. bush. lbs. bush. 1 bush. (1) First Crop, 1848 19,584 1 46-5 29-7 25.004 36-3 30 25,032 35-9 30-3 (2) Average of first 1 20 years 5,264 38-0 29-6 18,561 36-8 32-5 31,198 46-3 35-3 (3) Average of second 20 vears 1,723 22-5 21 1 17.669 28-1 30 1 31.790 41-1 32 0 (4) Average of third 1 20 years 967 13-7 18-9 25,275 22-2 38-9 41,739 1 29-2 36 4 (2) On Section II. the application of phosphates has maintained the yield of turnips, and has increased the wheat yield by 25 per cent., while on the unfertilized plot the yield of turnips dropped to less than i ton per acre, the plot manured with phosphates has averaged nearly 12 tons per acre during the last twenty years. The barley crop shows a falling off, but it remains twice the average of the unfertilized barley crop. (3) The turnip crop, on Section III., manured with phosphates and nitrogen, has increased from 12 tons to 20 tons per acre. The barley crop, which follows the turnips, seems to have suffered from the increased demands made by the heavy crops of turnips. The average yield, how- ever, is more than twice that of the unfertilized plot. Finally, the high initial wheat yield, 30.3 bushels, has not only been maintained throughout the whole sixty years, but has even increased during the last twenty years to 36.4 bushels. Soil fertilization is, therefore, bound up with crop rota- tion, and is indispensable for the maintenance of soil fertility. (J^o be continued.) THE OLIVE. By L. Macdonald, F.R.H.S., Horticulturist. Dookie Agricultural College. {Continued from page 408.) Pests — continued. The Rrowii or Black Olive Scale {Lecatiium olece) : This pest is said to be the most general among our olive trees. Owing to its adaptability to various conditions and its disposition to attack such a large number ot plants, it is found to be one of the worst to cope with. Citrus trees, many of our garde.i shrubs, and even deciduous fruit trees, are liable to its attack. Usually it is accompanied by another serious trouble, the Sooty Mould Fungus. This pest appears to be the natural concomitant of the olive scale living as it does on the .sugary .secretion of the scale insects. 466 Journal of Agriculture , Victoria. [lo Aug., 191 2. The eggs, pinkish in colour, are very minute, and hard to (Hstinguish. The colour and appearance of the scales vary through the different stages of their life history. The young insects that have just hatched out have also a pinky, somewhat transparent a])pearance. As the .scales begin to grow they assume a vellowish colour with darker markings ; gradually, as they mature, they become grey, brown, and black, and vary considerably in size, some of the adult insects being c]uite large. The adult female usually occupies the whole of the space under the shell-like covering, but when egg-laying begins — and it continues for some time — a gradual diminution takes place in her size, until there is practically nothing left but a filament of skin, the eggs occupying the whole of the space under the covering. With regard to the number of eggs laid by an adult female, some difference of opinion appears to exist, between 200 and 300 are said by some authorities to be about the average. In observations on this point FIG. 21. -BLACK OLIVE SCALE (MAGNIFIED). carried out by the writer, the number of eggs found under each scale was much greater. In no case, in fact, was the number less than 700, and in the greater number of cases noted considerably oxer 1,000 were found. It must be stated, though, that all examined were well-developed specimens, living somewhat isolated from others. Probablv the number of eggs found under the average scale shell, where they are crowded together, would be much less, and would more likely approximate the numbers first mentioned. However this may be, it is certain that this insect is fairly prolific, and will soon spread if left unmolested. The usual methods of combating this pest, and those of a similar kind, are by spraying or fumigation. In spraying petroleum compounds are most favoured ; they are cheap, easy to prepare, and, if properlv applied, effective in reducing the pest. Red oil, crude petroleum oil emulsion, and kerosene emulsion are all prepared in the following way : — Boil i gallon of water and 1 lb. of lo Aug., 191 Tlic Olrrc. 467 s!iced-up hard soap, or 2 llis. of soft soap, until the soap is dissolved. Remove from the fire and add 2 gallons of the oil, thoroughly agitate with 0 force syringe for about five minutes, or until emulsified, replace on the fire again after adding the oil. The greatest care should be taken that it does not boil over or drip into the fire, as, owing to its inflammat)le nature, it is exceedingly dangerous. If the mixture has been properly prepared, it will set when cool, and no free oil will be noticeable on top. The presence of free oil indicates eitlier an insuffitnenry of soap or of emulsification. Sufficient stock may he prepared at once in the abo\e way to last all through the season. In making up for u.se the stock should be heated up or diluted in hot water. In applying the red oil preparation use at the rate of i in 20 to i in- 30, according to the time of application. In autumn or late summer, or on badlv infested trees the stronger strengths may be used, while the FIG. 22.- -TERMINALS OF SHOOTS ATTACKED BY BLACK OLIVE SCALE. weaker solutions should be used in spring, when the new growth is on the trees. The olive, being an evergreen tree, will not bear the winter strengths used on deciduous trees. Crude petroleum and kerosene emulsion should be used at strengths from 1 in 12 to 1 iii 15. Resin w'ash and the lime and sulphur wash may also be u.sed. Although all the.se sprays are of value in reducing the pest, it is very rarely that they succeed in completely eradicating it on evergreen trees. The only •effective method of doing this economicalh is by fumigation with hydrocyanic acid gas. Full particulars of this method appear in the Journal of Agri- culture, June issue, 1912, pages 366 to 374 The chemicals used and the gas generated are exceedinglv dangerous poisons, and should be handled with the greatest care. The gas should never be inhaled. The chemicals should be securelv locked awav when not in use. 468 Journal of Agriculture , Victoria. [lo Aug., 1912. The Red Scale {Aspidiotus rossi) : This pest must not he confused with the " Red Orange Scale '' {Aspidiotus aurantii). It belongs to the great family coccididse. the members of which are responsible for a great amount of damage every year to both fruit and ornamental trees. It is one of the most common of the scale here. It appears to flourish some- what better in the coastal regions than in the inland areas ; this is due, in part, perhaps, to the presence of more succulent vegetation, more equable conditions, and the greater shelter in the dense foliage of .southern wood- knds. This scale differs considerably from Lecauium olca, inasmuch as it appears to secrete very little honevdew, con.sequently very little of the black fumagine that lives on this secretion, and is so conspictious a feature of the latter's presence, is noticeable. OLIVE LEAVES SHOWING ATTACK OF SOOTY MOULD. The treatment adopted for the Black 01i\e Scale should be applied' jilso for this one. -The White or Oleander Scale {Aspidiotus nerii) : This scale sometimes attacks the olive as well as a number of other evergreen trees. It has a very wide distribution, and is very hard to dislodge when once vi^ell estab- lished. It is greyish white in colour, often changing to greyish brown. The scales are about i-25th to i-i2th of an inch in diameter. The female- puparium is almost circular and somewhat larger than that of the male, which is small and elongated. Owing to the absence of the " Scotv Mould Fungus " with this and Aspidiotus rossi. it is more difficult to detect an early attack than in the case of, for instance, Lecanium olece. When once they are discovered, however, no time should be lost in apply- ing the most effective remedies. Treatment. — This should be carried out with contact spravs or fumiga- tion, as is recommended for Lecanium olecE. JO Aug., 19 1 2.] The Oliv 469 A small [lar.isitic fly is found to be attacking this scale, and lending a hand towards its suppression. However, the grower must as vet ]f)ok to other means of effectively combating it. The Sootv Mould F'ungus. — This fungus is known in many places as {Meliola camel lice. Sacc). Some difference of o])inion exists as to whether this is its right name. It does not appear to Ije definitely settled which of the species of this fungus — if the\ are various — feeds on the honeydew of the scale insects on different trees. It is verv probable, as pointed out by Mr. McAlpine. that different species cause the trouble in different countries and on difft-rent trees. The Black Blight {Capiiodium citricolum. McAlp. ) which attacks citrus trees in this country, appears to live, like allied forms, on the sugary secretions of aphides and scale insects. Hf)wever this may. be, it will usually be found sufficient for the i)ur])ose of the horticulturist to know that thr \arious forms of this fungus have a similar effect in injuring the functions of the leaves, and that if the trees are ke[)t free from the i)resencc^ of scales or aphides the fungus also ceases to exist. FIG. 24. — OLIVE TWIG ATTACKED BY RED SCALE (aSPIDIOTUS ROSSI). Trees attacked by the Black (31ive .Scale are usuallv easilv distinguished by the dark appearance given them 1)\ the presence of the Sooty Mould Fungus ; the lea\es also become shiny and sticky in cases where the attack is severe. The chief injury caused by the fungus is the clogging up of the .stomata of the leaves, antl in cases where there is a bad attack the branches and lea\es become almost completely covered with an incrustation cf this fungus, and, consquently. cannot properlv perform their functions. Treatment. — Since this disease derives its food supplies from the secre- tions of aphides or scale insects, it is obvious that by destroying such in.sects you also do away with the food supplies of the fungus ; and, as a result, it .soon disappears. Hence the grower should direct his attention firstly to the destruction of the scales. However, to hasten the removal of the fungus a weak solution of some fungicide — such as Bordeaux 470 Journal of Agriculture , \ ictoria. [lo Aug., 1912. mixture — may be used in conjunction with tlie spray that is used for the treatment of the scales. The Olive Tree Bug {Froggattia olivina). — This bug does not appear \.o have claimed the attention of growers in this State. According to Mr. Froggatt, it has a wide distribution in New South Wales, where its native host plant is the mock olive {Notelecc longifolia), and since this tree is also native to this State, it is possible that the olive bug may also be present. Though instances are recorded in New South Wales of this bug having transferred its attention from the native olive to the cultivated olive, it has so far done little damage; nevertheless, where sufficiently numerous, a great deal of damage can be done. The bug itself is very small (being about i-i6th of an inch in length), and dark linnvn in colour, and although h can hardly be regarded as one of the olive pests here, it may possibly become one, and growers should be on the look out for its appearance, especially in those districts where the native olive grows. Where it is once detected precautionary measures should be immediately adopted against its extens'on. Tuberculosis {Bacillus olccc). — It is found that this disease cau.^es the formation of various sized tubercules or nodules on the main branches. They, of course, interfere with the healthy development of the shoots, and if allowed to remain will gradually multiply. The trouble takes place in the wood-fibres under the bark, consequentlv it is difficult to apply any remedy effectively. The affected parts should be cut out and burned. This disea.se is prevalent in the Mediterranean countries, but does not appear to have been found in this country. The Olive Fly {Dacus olca: ossi). — This is i)robably the most dreaded of all the olive pests in the gro\es adjoining the Mediterranean. For years •t has worked enormous damage. Owing to- its habits and method of attack it is one of the most difficult tO' cope with. Its life history and mode of attack appear to be v&xy similar to that of the closely allied species, the Mediterranean Fruit Fly {Ceratitis capitata. Weid). The fly itself is about one-fifth of an inch in length, yellowish red in colour, with dark stripes on the abdomen. The eggs are of a golden hue. The pest is most preva- lent about the time of the fruits ripening, and if the affected fruits do not fall by the time the larvae have developed .sufficiently to enter the pupating stage they fall to the ground and .seek some harliour in which to pupate. The larvae, which are hatched out in a few days, burrow through the fruit, l)reaking down its tissues and quickly rendering it unfit for use. As before stated, the method and period of this fly's attack render it very difficult to carrv out any effective method of combating it. Since the insect is concealed in the pulp of the fruit during those stages of its life history where its damaging work is carried out, it cannot be attacked by means of a spray, methods of suppression must be directed chiefly against the moth itself. The traps used for other fruit flies would probably Le found of value for this one. They are made of shallow tins with a liftle kerosene in them, and hung in the trees. Experiments made with various chemicals would reveal something which would attract the flies and prove of value in minimizing the pest ; spraying with sweetened poLsoned solutions has been carried out in Italv with some degree of success. The Olive Moth {Qruga minadora). — The caterpillar of this moth is responsible for some degree of damage in the older countries, but so far as lo Aug., 1912.] The Olive. 471 the writer can ascertain it is not doing any damage in the phintations here. It attacks chiefly the branches at the l)utt. sometimes also the fruit. Its attack is noticeable by the formation of galls on the shonts. The fullv- grown insect is greenish white in colour and the larvae yellowish. The Olive Twig Borer {Polycaon confertiis). — This beetle is reddish brown in colour and about \ inch in length. Tt makes its attack by boring into the twigs, usually close to the axile of the leaves. So far as can be ascertained, it is not present in this country, and in America, where it IS found, it has as yet done so little damage that it has received verv little attention. Thrips. — During the flowering season of the olive countless millions of these tiny insects swarm over the trees. It is hard to estimate the extent of the damage that may be attributed to^ their presence, or to what extent they affect the .setting of the fruit. It is doubtful whether the)- interfere to anv great extent in the latter case, as heavy crops have been observed in seasons when the insects were excessively numerous. Several species of the familv {Tliripidcc) are native to Au.stralia, but the imported ones are most commorilv met with. Judging by the varying appearance and size, tl.ere i.suallv appears to be more than one species present on the olive. Treatment. — Owing to the number and variety of our spring blooming plants, Thrips have every opportunity of multiplying during the flowering season of the olive, so that it seems well nigh impossible to suppress them. The Cape Weed proves a great harbour for them, and, consequently, it should be got rid of among the trees. Fumigating with hvdrocvanic acid gas will, no doubt, prove an effective remedy, if it can be economically applied. Mr. French recommends the use of " Benzole Emulsion,"' or white oil soap (i pound to each gallon of water used, and applied at 130 degrees Fahr.). Dry-Rot. — Th^ Californian (Station) Report for 1895-96. 1896-97 (]j. 235), gives the description of a disease which is not defniitely named, but which cau.ses a gradual rotting of the fruits in spots. It appears in that State to attack chiefly the Nevadillo olives. Reference is also made Id a similar disease in Bulletin 62 of the Arizona Experiment Station. In this ca.se it appears more commonly on the Columbella olives. A similar, or identical, trouble is occurring here in a mild form on two varieties of olives. It appears fir.st, just when the fruit is ripening, bv a slight indentation or contraction of the skin of the fruit, gradually as the fruit becomes riper the spots become more marked, and they become darker in colour, extending in diameter and depth, and reaching right to the stone. The affected parts .subside greatly, and tissues become dry and brown, similar in some respects to the effects of Bitter Pit. The trouble usuallv occurs towards the apex of the fruit, and is more marked in the wet years than in the dry According to Mr. McAlpine, it is one of the Micro- diplodia. Since it has confined itself to two varieties, and then appears only in a very mild form, it has not called for any special investigation. (To be continued.) 472 journal, of Agriculture, \ ictoria. [lo Aug., 1912. BEE-KEEPING IN VICTORIA. {Coutinued from fagc -/-I5-) F. R. Beulinc, Bee Expert. VI. — Water for Bees. DRINKING TROUGHS FOR BEES. Illustrition of article appe.iriiig in July issue ot Jdiirnal. page 413. VII. — How TO Make a Start. How to make a .start in beekeeping will depend upon whether the beginner is taking up bee-cul'aire as a business, or as a side issue of some other occupation. If it is intended tO' adopt it as the only calling, then the best way is to go as a working pupil with an up-to-date apiari.st for a season or two. Even if a premium has to be paid for the fir.^t year, it will be less costly than the experience gained by failure. After the first season, a pupil will have learned enough tO' entitle him to some pay for the second year, or he ma\- be competent enough to run a small apiary on shares with the owner. By the end of the second year, sufficient confidence and experience will have been acquired to make an independent start. When means ot circumstances do' not permit of taking a position as pupil in an established apiary, or when beekeeping is to be only a side issue, then it is best to start in quite a small way. Begin with two or three hives, and as experience is gained by practice, and knowledge by reading, gradually increase the number of colonies. A book of reference, such as A. I. Root's A. B. C . of Bee-culture, will greatly assist in ma.ster- ing the principles of beekeeping, and will supply solutions to nearly all the problems which usually present themseh'es to the novice. Any opportunity tO' visit an apiary, or to personally consult an apiarist of somie standing, should be made good use of whenever it occurs. lo Aug., IQI2.] Bcc-kecp///i^ ' ici(>na. 473 Everybody handling bees requires two things to start with, namely, a bee-veil, and a smoker. A veil will cost about is. 6d., a smoker 4s. to 7s., according to size, and whe- ther tin or brass. There are two kinds — one straight, the other with a bent nozzle. T strongly recommend the Latter (Fig. i), be- caus;^ any kind of fuel may be used in '^^ without risk of glowing embers dropping from it when directing smoke downwards. Dry decayed wood or bark is better smoker fuel than bagging, rags, or fresh wood, the former giving a cooler smoke and less tar in the smoker. There are se\eral ways of making a start in a small w^av : — (i) Full colonies; (2") Swarms; (3) Box-hives; (4) Nuclei. With which of these to start will depend upon the amount of mrood is hatched, when they can be taken away and melted up for wax. If a box-hive is strong and it is earl\- in the sea.son the most con\enient way of transferring the bees to a frame hive is to let them swarm, hive the swarm in a frame-hive on the spot where the box-hive stood, and re- move the latter some distance if it is desired tO' make two colonies; if not, leave it near the new hive but facing in a different direction. Just three weeks later all the worker brood in the box-hive will have hatched out, and a new queen will be laying. The bees may now be drummed out into another frame-hive or into the hive containing the swarm, as the case may be. The old box containing only combs without brood should be taken indoors and secured against bees, and as soon as convenient the combs boiled down for wax. If there is any suspicion that a box-hive colony is diseased, it is l>est to drum it off at once, and destroy the box and old combs by burning. The bees themselves will be clean in their new hive provided they do not get access to any honey or comb from the old box after being driven off. 4. .Yinii-i. Beekeeping may also be commenced with nuclei colonies. A nucleus is a small colony of bees with a queen and two or three frames of comb 3i FIG. 476 Journal of Agriculture , Victoria. [10 Aug., 191 2. with lin.iod. and some stores. When received it is transferred to a hive and frames with starters or full sheets of foundations added tOi till the box. Three-frame nuclei may be obtained of Italian Ijees at 15s. to 25s., accord- ing to the kind of queen chosen with them, and black or hybrid bees at los. tO' 20s., or either may lie bought in full-sized hives with the additional frames in pcsition for 5s. each extra. Under favorable conditions, if obtained early enough in the season, nuclei will rapidly build up into full colO'uies and have the advantage that the beginner is not troubled with hiving, and possibly losing swarms during the first sea.son. The first cost of hives, frames, and comb-foundation appears high, and manv beginners think that money can be saved by making their own hives and frames. It will be found, however, that when timber of the proper qualitv is purchased in small quantities the cost per hive is verv little less than that of one bought already prepared. In any ca.se, it is advisable to purchase at least one hive and frames sO' as to have a pattern to work by. Californ'an red wood is decidedly the best timber for hives, it is free from knots, shrinks very little, does not warp, and is never eaten by white ants, which in some localities are very destructive tO' hives. If the first cost has to be cut down to a minimum, temporary hives may be made out of kerosene or petrol cases. The frames which should be of the self-spacing kind (Hoffman) had better be bought, as they require to be made very accurately, so that later on they can be transferred to per- manent hives. To' construct a frame hive out of a kerosene case, one of the broad sides is taken off, while the opposite one serves as a floor for the hive. The original Ud of the case is nailed on as a side, the former bottom of the case forming the other. At the bottom at one end an open- ing 6 in. by Yq in. is cut out as an entrance for the bees, and a strip of wood 3^ in. thick (such as the thin boards of the case), is nailed to the inside of the ends of the case Yq in. from the upper edge. This is to suspend the frames from. A roof for this hive may be made out of the broad side taken off the case. It should, however, be covered with some waterproof material and shaded to prevent excessive heat melting the combs in the hives. Hoffman, or other full-depth frames .should always be wired, as without wires new combs often lireak out in handling the frames, or fall down in hot weather. When two sets of half-depth or shallow frames are used wiring may Ije dispensed with. If in making two shallow bodies out of a kerosene case, Y i'l- ^s cut off the ends of the case crossways before sawing it in two lengthways the resulting half-depth bodies will exactly lit on an eight-frame hive, on which: it may be used as a super when a i)roper hi\-e is adopted. A diffi- culty usually experienced by beginners is that, not wishing to purchase a honey extractor right away, they attempt to raise comb-honev hi i lb. sections. It is well known amongst apiarists that the profitable produc- tion of section honey requires considerable skill and a good honey locality. In the case of beginners both these factors are usually absent, wdth the re- sult that the bees sooner than start work in the sections will repeatedly swarm, and the season will be over before the swarms have become strong enough to store any surplus of honey, whereas if frames had been used in the super instead of sectious swarming would have been prevented to- a great extent, and a fair amount of honey secured. With shallow^ unwired frames the honey may be obtained by cutting out the comb, leaving about y2 in. on the top bar to act as a guide for a new comb. The dim.ensions :o Aug.. 191^.] Bcc-kLL pnii:^ ni Viclnria. of shallow I'lair.e are: — Tnj) har, 19 in long, i in. wide, }% in. thick; hottoni hnr. ryys in. long. 1 in. widt-, ^g in. thick; .side l)ars, 3-;4 in. long, i;8 in. wide, fs in. thick, nailed together as shown in Fig. 4. Locality. It must \k- nnderstoiid that althi.ngh hees mav be kept almost anywhere, e\en near cities, and when properly managed some return may be secured, no one should take up beekeeping for profit or as a sole means of living unless prepared toi go into the country as soon as the elementary knowledge and some experience in handling bees have been acquired. As wheat- growing is proiital)le (.nlv where fair-sized areas of easily tilU-d land are available, so l)eekeeping require-s a wide range of hi:ney-i)roducing flora FIG. 4. to make it a paying occupation. To supplement the insufficient honey resources of a locality by growing flowers specially for bees is impractic- able. The land available for this purpose in the neighbourhood of cities and towns is too limited in area, and too valuable. While in remoter localities where large areas of bee-pasture might be planted, the expense would be out of proportion to the return .secured even if neighbours" bees and wild liees could be prevented from trespas.sing. Australia has such a splendid honey-producing flora, if beekeepers will only go to it, there is no need whatever to raise plants speciallv for honey. In Victoria only a fraction of the nectar produced annual I v by our native flora is at pre- sent being gathered by iDees. {To he continued.') 47< Journal of Agnciiltiirc , Victoria. [lo Aug., 191 3. SMALL ill KAL INDUSTRIES. 0.— ROSE CULTIVATION. By JosC'p/i Knight. Possibly there is no plant grown which is more popular than the rose, nor any perfume produced which finds more favour than the Oil of Rose, or, as it is generally known, " Attar of Roses." Its cultivation is simple. If grown under healthy conditions, the plant adapts itself to almost any soil or climate, and there is but little trouble with insect and fungoid pests. The work of gathering the flowers lasts but a few weeks — gener- allv from four to five — after which the plant may be left to itself. ' All that is necessary is to i)rune in the autumn, and culti- vate the soil suffi- ciently to keep weeds in check. It takes about 4 tons of blooms to make i lb. of oil, and the present wholesale price of the oil in JNIelbourne is ;2^3 per oz.. or ^48 per lb. It is well, therefore to look whether regular labour can be ob- tained to gather the blooms every se- cond day, as this is necessary to en- sure success. The work is light, and where the united efforts of a family mav be utilized, rose cultivation has much to recommend it. This brief paper is written as a guide to those who wish to give rose-growing for essential oil production a trial. Varieties Suitable. In dealing with this (]uestion, only those which have been tested in this State, and found to be satisfactory, will be considered. The late Mr. F. Mellon, who had experience of essential oil production in the South of France, was employed many years ago by the Department to establish a Scent Farm, and provide plants. He introduced the variety ROSA CENTIFOLIA (PROVENCE ROSE). ic Aug.. ipi:;.] I^osc Cultivation. 479 known as the "' Pr. )Vfncc Rose." which is much cuhi\ated in the large rose-producing district of (irasse. in the South of France. Mr. Mellon, in giving his e\idence before the Royal Commission on Vegetable Products, in answer to the question of the suitability of Vic- torian soil and climate, stated that it was much better than that of the South of France. He stated that in the town of Grasse, which is said to be the centre of the world's floriculture, there were 52 distilleries, some of them employing 500 people at a time. With this experience before him, Mr. ^lellon was careful to introduce the Ijest rose for his purpose when stocking the first scent farm establi.shed in this State. He discarded all others but the one referred to. this he named " Rose de Gras.se." which is identical with '' Rosa centifolia,' ' or " Provence Rose.'" On Mr. Mellon's departure, the writer took charge of this Farm, and can say that this variety supplie? all requirements, as it is hardy and easily cultivated, and. with proper attention in pruning, gives a large amount of blooms. Another variety of rose will be dealt with se])aratelv later on. Soil. ^lany rose-growers assert that special soils with clay, or a " clay bottom.'" are necessary. Possibly this may be the case with some varieties, but with the " Provence Rose '" it is not necessary. A warm, dry situa- tion, whether sand, loam, or clay, answers the purpo.se quite well. The onlv situation which I ha\e found unsuitable is one with a wet bottom. Climate. Most parts of Victoria are suitable for rose cultivation, Those that do not experience excessive rain, but sufficient to allow the plant to mature its blooms, give the best results in "oil." Rain on the blooms has a detri- mental effect. At the Dunolly Flower Farm, North- western District, the crop could be harve.sted without danger of rain ; while at Leongatha. Southern Dis- trict, the reverse was the ca.se, considerable rain falling during the four or fi\e weeks the plants were in blcom ; but under these conditions the plants were more vigorous, and gave a much greater yield of blooms. As to the yield of oil. I had no opportunity of judging, as the farm was closed down before a proper experiment with distillation was made. It is recognised that the more sunshine the greater is the amount of oil, providing there is sufficient moisture for the proper development of the plant. Plants were distributed to almost every part of Victoria, and so far as growth is concerned. I knew of no place A\here there has been a failure. The " Provence Ro.se "" can be recomm.ended to any part of this State. Plants. Plants may be obtained from shoots, or what is known as " suckers."'" The latter may be ol)tained from any plantation which has been established for three or four years, when the plant is being thinned cut. When growing from cuttings, pieces 6 or 7 inches long are planted out in a well-prepared' nursery bed in autumn, and left until well rooted ; thev mav be put out in late spring, or carried over until the following autumn. When well rooted suckers can be obtained, they will be better, as the\ can be planted out in their permanent place at once. The plants should be well cut back when being planted out, and it is advisable to prune back straggling or 480 Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [10 Aug., 1912. wounded roots. The stem and side shoots shouldi be trimmed first of all, both above or below the surface, with the exception of two or three on the top. These should not be more than i foot to 15 inches above the surface, as it is desirable to have a good strong stem to build the plant on, so that it can fill the space allotted to it. In selecting plants, it is well to take only from those that are of healthy growth. Cultivation. The soil for rose culture should be cultivated tO' some depth. If ploughed, it should be subsoiled, as m most cases it is better to keep the surface soil on the top, and loosen, the subsoil to- a depth of at least 10 or 12 inches. The soil should be well pulverized before planting, and, where convenient, it would be better to lie fallow for a few months before putting plants out. Where drainage is necessary, it should be attended to as early as possible, as a " wet bed '' is most objectionable. All that is necessary in the after treatment is surface cultivation by light ploughing — 3 or 4 inches deep — and extermination of weeds. The plants of the "^ Provence Rose " should be set out in rows about 4 to 5 feet apart, and the space in the rows should be about 3 to 4 feet. Where it is intended to^ employ horse labour, the wider distance between the rows should be selected, or even more, say 6 feet. The bush develops considerably under favoral)le conditions ; if planted too close, it would be most difiicult both to gather the flowers and cultivate the land. Care should be taken not to plant too deep, for if it is planted too deep the crop becomes s unted and unhealthy. This is a mistake commonly made by those having no experience of rose culture. The roots should be near the surface, well spread out. and running down at an angle of about 45 degrees, and the fine surface soil pressed down on them tightly. This should give the plant a good start, and go a long way to the successful establishment of a plantation of this kind. Pruning. Rose pruning generally is a much debated point, and methods differ ; but with oil extraction as the object, the form of bloom or quality as a rose is of no consequence. What is required is "quantity." The bush should be cut back sO' as to produce an abundance of yormg growth on which the blooms can develop. Care must be taken to cut out the thinner growth, and admit light and air through the plant, and at the same time strengthen the leading shoots so as tO' keep it in proper form. The season in which this should be carried out is important, as late pruning does not give time for strong shoots to develop before the flowering season is due. The usual time for rose pruning about the cltv is July and August, but June, or early in July, is to be preferred when pruning for the pur- poses of oil distillation. The work should be done thoroughly, so as to give free scope tO' work the land. Gathering of Blooms. The blooms must be gathered every second day, and the best time for this operation is early in the morning before the sun gets at its height ; the earlier the better. The blooms should be taken off before they are fully expanded, but not before they are opened sufficiently to show the petals. There is less risk of bruising or loosening them by shaking if it is done at this time. Care in this respect is necessary if the best results are to be obtained. lo Aug.. 191^-] ^"^'^-f'' Cultivation. 481 The blooms should be cut as near to the flower as possible, as any matter beyond the petals reduces the c|uality of the oil. and is useless. When gathered, blooms should be taken direct to the still-room and not exposed to the sun's rays, or rain, or moisture of any kind. Distilling. Rose distillation is similar to that of other essential oil-producing plants, but somewhat more delicate, and extreme care must be taken not to force the "boiling." This is. perhaps, difficult where direct heat is applied, but with superheated steam it is easily regulated, and where it can be done, this metriod is the best wav of raising the temperature. Tn Bulgaria, small stills are scattered all over the flower-growing dis- tricts, but it is said that nothing like as good results are obtained as in the South of France, where the work of distillation is carried out in large and well -equipped establishments, which sometimes handle 150 tons of roses a day. Nevertheless, with proper care in applying the heat, and attention to little details, good results can be obtained with the ordinary still and direct heat. In distillation, two methods are adopted. The oil is contained on the surface of the petals. Either the petals are stripped from the calyx and distilled separately, or the whole flowers are employed. The former method gives a superior product, but it is doubtful whether the extra labour is repaid. The time during which the boiling should continue depends on the size of the still. In a 20-gallon still, the Inilk of the oil, and the best, would be pa5.sed over within one hO'Ur from the time of boiling, but it should 1)6 carried on for another hour at least. The still which has been illustrated and described on page t^^2> *'f t'^i^ journal, is suitable for treating roses, and when the first lot of water has passed over into- the " Florentine," the recep acle should be removed, and another placed in position to secure the balance. The two lots should be kept separate. The second lot is usually returned to the still with the next lot of flowers. In rose distillat'on, oelav must be avoided as much as possible; the flowers should be treated within 24 hours from the time of gathering, and care should be taken not to submit the roses to more rough treatment than is absolutely necessarv. The place of treatment should be free from offensive or other odours. A good supply of cold water is necessary to supply the cooler, and where a running stream is not available it must be supplied from a well 93^ head, which, valued at ^20. equals ^818,720. The organism is from 8,000th to I '5.ooofh of an inch (Fig. 20). " Epizootic lymphangi- tis ' (Figs. 21, 22, 23) i.^ present in India, Africa, Japan, China, France, Swe- (U'li, Russia, Germany, and parts of the United States, and is produced by an organism some i / 6000th to I /8,000th of an inch in diameter. The incubation [leriod varies from three weeks to fourteen months or more. Apparent recovery may occur, and later the di,sea.se re- appears. The mortality is low, only about 10 per cent, dying; but the after effects are serious, EPIZOOTIC LYMPHANGITIS SHOWING thickened tendons, _ &c., LESIONS ON SHOULDERS. Causing great depreciation. FIG. 22. lo Aug., 1912.] The Etiology of Contagious Diseases. 499 Next there are a series of diseases which, whilst causing serious havoc, are produced by an organism so small that it cannot be seen except in FIG. 2J[. cows AFFhCTED WITH FOOT AND MOL TH DISEASE. culture masses. An example is seen in foot and mouth di.sease in cattle <^Fig. 24). In 188.^ 500.000 animals were affected in Great Britain ; in FIG. 25. FOOT AND MOUTH DISEASE. BURIAL OF CARCASES OF CATTLE IN DEEP TRENCH. Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo Aug., 191 2. Bavaria, 100,000. In Germany, in 1890. 800,000 were affected, and in 1892 over 4,000,000. Though the mortality is not high in the disease, the loss from wasting, fever, &c., is enormous; so much so, that a system of slaughter of all affected and in contact animals is carried on as the cheapest method of checking its ravages (Figs. 25, 26). Its. seriousness may be gauged from the cablegrams appearing in the press of the last outbreak in Great Britain. FIG. 26. FOOT AND MOUTH DISEASE. CARCASES OF CATTLE PILED WITH WOOD READY FOR BURNING. No lecture on contagious diseases would be complete without some re- ference to tuberculosis, the disease upon which there is mere literature than on almost any other subject. It is known as the " White Plague,"' and has been regarded by scientists as the only disease which is capable of exterminating the human race, and this mainly because of its insidious- nature ; for it is pnssibL'fnr one tO' contract the disease in youth or infancy and to be quite unaware- nf it until later in life — - say upon gaining ma- turitv. when, owing 10' some debilitating in- fluence, the protection aft'orded up to that time bv the white corpuscles of the blood is broken down, and the organism spreads through the system, bringing with it' that train of symptoms which so many are fami liar with either through the loss of relatives c r^ friends from consumption (Figs. 27, 28). The organism responsible for the disease is from i /4.000th to T/i2,oooth of an inch long, and from 1/ 24,000th to i /72,000th of an inch broad (Fig. 29). The disease is communicable from animal to man, and vice versa, and^ unfortunately, in the early stages,, does not produce- anv visible symptoms (Figs. 30, 31). The symptoms are usually recog- FIG 27. CHRONIC CHEESY TUBERCULOUS PNEUMONIA. SECTION OF LOBE OF COW's LUNG. lo Aug., 1913.] The Etiology of Contagious Diseases. 501 FIG. 2 ni.sed only when the disease is well advanced, and most are familiar with the wasting, cough, &c., produced (Fig. 32). A verv common method of spreading is per medium of a LUNGS AND LIVER OF A COW' AFFECTED BY TUBERCULOSIS. FIG. J9. BACILLUS OF TUBERCULOSIS. milk supply (Figs. t^t^. 34). A cow may be dangerousK tubercular, yet continue to look and act like a healthy animal ; she may show neither symptoms of disease nor discomfort ; her appetite may be Fu.. jo. cuw a)'I'.\i-;i:m !,\ iiiAiim, sikoxg and vigorous, giving a LARGE QUANTITY OF MILK. KNOWN TO BE AFFECTED WITH TUBERCULOSIS FOUR YEARS. good ; she may conceive and milk like an ordinary cow, and mav even be the sleekest and fattest in the herd. The illustrations shown are those of cows apparentlv in the best of health ; some of them. ] ■iitrual of Agricu'rurc , Yicioria. [lo Aug., 19 12. indeed, in fat condition. They were, howexer, known to be affected ■with tuberculosi.s, di.strihuting the bacilli through their faeces, and some oof them through th-ir milk. The necessity for cleanliness in m'lking '- ^\i '^M f i. riG. 31. cow APPARENTLY HTlALTHY, GOOD CONDI FION FOR DAIRY COW. KNOWN TO BE TUBERCULOUS FOUR YEARS. DUNG OF THIS COW CAUSED TUBERCULOSIS IN PIGS THAT WERE PERMITTED TO EAT IT. methods in the yard, and hind-quarters of the cow, is thus evident; for It will readily be seen how milk can be contaminated where operations are carr'ed on under insanitar\' conditions, and where cows, whose flanks are covered with manure, which may possibly contain large numbers of AL)\'AN(,'L1) 11 liKKt/l l_().sl "the organisms, are milked. The spread of the disease to the pig also x;curs when they are allowed to roam at will and root about in the manure heap contaminated, possibly, by only one cow in a herd. lo Aug., '9<--] ^ /'i Eiiologv of Conf anions Diseases. FIG. ^^3. LONG STANDIXG CASE OF TUBERCULOSIS WITH TUBERCULAR SWELLING IN UDDER. Since the Milk and Dairy Supervision Act l^as been in operation some 500 cows out of dairy lierds have been destroyed. It i.s, indeed, difficult FIG. 34. TUBERCULOUS UDDER OF COW. to say what .sa\"ing of human life will result from this ; but if only one life is saved for everv cow, it cannot be regarded as other than a great work. ^04 Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo Aug., 191 2. UNPROFITABLE ORCHARDS: REASONS AND REMEDIES. E. Wallis, Orchard Supervisor. Many orchards throughout the State are unprofitable, owing to one or more of the following causes : — Area too large. Unprofitable varieties. Want of proper soil drainage. Lack of systematic cultivation and manuring. Improper pruning methods. Unsuccessful eradication of insect and fungus pests. Area of Orchard. Large areas under orchard require much manual labour, horse and mechanical power, to bring them into and sustain them in a highly profitable condition. In many instances these necessary factors to profit-earning are not provided, and thus some essential part of the orchard's well-being is neglected. It may be cultivation, manuring, pruning, or spraying, but whatever it is, the orchard suffers. Thus it cannot possibly yield the same quantity or quality of fruit as if properly managed. Of course, large places worked thoroughly under proper organization, yield large profits. Unless, however, one has command of the necessary capital and labour, it would be better for him to be placed on a small holding, which could be thoroughly worked in every detail. Concentration is quite essential to success, and without it the orchard will fail to yield its maximum profits. Unprofitable Varieties. There is no greater drawback to the profit-earning capacity of many established orchards than unprofitable varieties. It may be that when the trees were planted, their adaptability to the climatic and soil conditions of the locality was not understood. As a result of this want of knowledge, much labour is often expended without any appreciable result in the way of profitable crops. In most cases, none can be expected. Yet some growers persevere year after year with such trees, thinking that at some time their profitless career will end, and their profitable one commence. As a rule, their perseverance remains unrewarded. This is especially so with such varieties of apples as Cleopatra and Munro's Favourite when grown in the southern districts of Victoria. When, however, these splendid varieties are grown under congenial climatic conditions, such as obtain in the northern parts of the State, they produce fru't of high-grade quality without being subject to the characteristic scab and cracking which affect them in the south. Should these or any other varieties unsuitable to the locality be established, no time should be wasted with them. They should be cut back and worked over with some variety or varieties known to do well in the particular place concerned. This method is shown in Plate No. i. The trees shown here are two-year-old grafts of Rome Beauty worked on eight-vear-old stems of Munro's Favourite. In another two years, they should be capable of bearing a good crop. These Munro's Favourite trees were cut back on account of the fruit cracking badly, and thus rendered unfit for market. This is not a singular case, but one of many which has come under the writer's notice in the Diamond Creek and other districts south of the Dividing Range. lo Aug., 191^.] Unprofitable Orchards. .I'-'D 5o5 ] oiinud of Agricidiiirc , Victoria. [lo Aug., 191 2. There are other varieties of fruits whicli often pro\-e unprofitable on account of their non- or partial fruiting. This sterility or partial sterilitv is to a great extent a varietal characteristic due to underlying causes which may sometimes be remedied by cross-fertilization, whilst in other cases the thinning out of the fruit spurs has often the desired result. In the Diamond Creek district, Keiffer pear is extensively grown, and in many ca.ses is worthless as a cropper. This unprofitable condition generally occurs where the trees are planted in rich soil, producing very vigorous perpendicular growth, and isolated from oiher- varieties blos.soming simultaneously. When planted in poor country, the vigorous growth is checked, and trees often bear well. This varietv is very susceptible to the influence of cross-fer- tilization. Such varieties as Harrington's ATctoria, Howell, Le Coute, and others have proved suitable as a cross with Keiffer. AVHiere this variety is established and has proAed sterile or partly so, a sufficient number for cross-fertilizing purposes should be cut down and re-worked with one of the above varieties. Bailey's Bergamot is another variety often barren of fruit, though blossoming profusely each season, l)ut the writer has brought it into a state of fruitfulness by crossing with Williams' Bon Chretien. Spur-pruning is advised as a remedy for want of bearing in Winter Nelis pear. Earlv Guigne cherrv often proves a very light cropper when grown isolated from other helpful varieties. It, however, appears to be very favourablv influenced by such varieties as Black Bigareau and Early Lyons. Coe's Golden Drop plum ''also is prone to barrenness. No definite results have so far been obtained by crossing, but Pond's Seedling is recom- mended as a varietv likely to prove beneficial as a cross. In the case of a young orchard being established containing any of the.se self-sterile or partially self-sterile varieties, suitable trees should be planted near them for cross-fertilization purposes. Draining of Orchards. It has been said that the better the drainage, the .surer the water supply. This is sound advice, for land well drained and worked is enabled to draw up by capillarv action, and hold, sufficient water for the use of the trees. Unrirained land is cold, and being filled with water in winter time, the beneficial influences of soil aeration are absent. In hot weather such soil is generallv caked, hard, and dry, and under such conditions it is not difficult to understand the reason why so many trees " go off " in orchards, and become unprofitable during the existence of such conditions. Orchards, to prove highly profitable, must be established under the best possible conditions of soil drainage, either natural or artificial. Few are naturally drained ; parts of them may be, but generally weak or rather wet patches exist, and the trees " go off " in those places. Plate No. 2 .shows a Reinette du Canada apple tree groAving vigorously. This tree was placed in a badly-drained situation, and did not make any satisfactory growth until a drain was laid and the tree cut back. The strong growth seen in the photo, is the direct result of the work. In a perfectlv-drained orchard, the trees develop uniformly. In fact, when looking along the rows of trees in such orchards, it is difficult to notice any difference in the general appearance of the trees of same variety and agi8. Plate No. 3 shows two rov^s of such trees. It will be seen that these trees are thrifty in giowth and even in general development. This is the kind of orchard that proves profitable — every tree being able to produce maximum crops. ic Aug., 191^.] U II pro fit able Ore hards. 507 Of course, it is better to do the necessary work of draining wlien the orchard is being established, but old orchards, not too far gone, respond to the work of draining, even when done late in their existence. Old and stunted trees have sometimes become quite thriftv in growth after the orchard has been drainrd. S.^f'^M^^ The system of drainage must vary according to local conditions. Speaking generally, however, if the soi'l is stiff and compact, the drains require to be placed at smaller distances apart than in ground of a more open texture. Again, if the surface is fairly level, more drains are required than in land having a good slope. Drains should be arranged so that soakage may be caught in the easiest and most complete way. ^o8 ]onr)ial of Ai-;r/culinn\ Victoria. [lo Aug., iqi2. Pipe drains should be placed mid-\va\ between the rows about 20 or 40' feel apart, and usually parallel to the fall. These pipe drains should lead into the main open drain that follows the natural water-course. / A' -^ ri- ''^^ ^^ In laying pipe drains, they should be placed well into the subsoil to draw off water freely. It is a good plan to lay them on sand if readily available. Sand makes a good bed for pipes, and they are then not so apt to become displaced as when put on a hard bottom. In laying the.aiy lo Aug., 191--] Unprofitable Orchards. 509. extreme care must be taken not to ha\e any unevenness between successive pipes to allow dt the collection of sediment in the interior of the pipe drain. Manuring. It is too commonly believed tliat fruit trees tliri\e well in tlie poorest of soil. This idea is not correct, for when the trees are called upon to bear heavy crops, they require a liberal supply of the necessary plant-food con- stituents. Soil of poor (]ualitv may certainly be beneficial in bringing trees, into bearing quickly or in checking the over-vigorous growth of some varieties ; but continued cropping will surely soon exhaust the required elements of plant-focwl in such soil, so that the trees will soon become incap- able of producing a profitable crop of fruit. The evils of soil -exhaustion may be seen in many orchards, as evidenced by the stunted growth of trees,' depleted buds, and fruit of very inferior quality. In fact, it may be said that tlie profits of the majority of orchards are considerably lessened by the lack of systematic manuring. The appearance of trees is the best guide to their manure requirements. Young trees should make regular and thrifty growth. Any defect in this respect should, be remedied by the application of manure rich in nitrogen. Nitrogenous manures are very effective in pro- ducing growth, either in young trees or in old and stunted ones. No better manure can be used for general purposes than farm-yard manure, which, when properly prepared, is rich in all the essential elements of plant-food — nitrogen, potash, and phosphoric acid. In addition, the organic part of it has a. very beneficial physical effect upon soil. It is, therefore, known as a general manure in contrast to special manures which contain one, two, or more constituents of plant nutriment, but which are not capable of maintaining the general fertility of the soil. The chief value, however, of special manures is to supply the soil with some plant food which it lacks. In order, then, to apply such manure profitably, the soil deficiency should be first ascertained, otherwise it may do no good. Sometimes a soil mav fail through the absence of one or more of the essential elements. The reason of failure in such a case is because the minimum governs the whole in the same way as the strength of a chain is governed bv its weakest link. The mechanical effect of farm-yard manure upon soil texture is very marked, making it either more open or compact, as the case may be. Soil of hea\y texture is opened up by the decomposition of the straw, which forms channels, and through them moisture, air, and the roots of trees penetrate. As there is generally a difficulty in obtaining sufficient quantities of farm-yard manure, a system of green manuring is stronglv recommended for soils deficient in humus. Such soils are light-coloured, dry, and harsh to the touch. Those containing it in proper proportions are dark-coloured, moist, and mellow. The properties of humus are that it renders heavv soils lighter, more open, and porous, while, on the other hand, soils of a loose sandy character are made denser and better enabled to absorb and retain moisture. Hill orchard land generallv requires a liberal application of manure to firing about ideal humus r mditions. In addition to the production of humus, green manure of leguminous crops is rich in nitrogen. This is produced by the action of bacteria working in the root nodules of legumes, such as beans, peas, lucerne, &c. It will thus be seen that bv the use of green manure, not only is the soil benefited physically, but also one of the most expensive manures — nitrogen — is added to the soil. jio Journal of Agricidhire , Victoria. [lo Aug., 1912. Green crops should be sown in the autumn, and ploughed into the soil when in flower. Special manures, such as nitrate of soda, sulphate of ammonia, sulphate of potash, and superphosphate, are soon rendered soluble, and thus should be appl'ed to soil when trees are becoming active in early spring. Bonedust is a valiiabie manure for fruit trees. It is not easily rendered .soluble, therefore should be applied in autumn or winter. Pruning. This all-important factor in making or marring the profits of an orchard cannot be dealt with at any length in such an article as this. However, no article bearing on unprofitable orchards would be complete without reference to the common mistakes made and which cause so much profit-leakage in many orchards. Young Trees. — Instead of cutting leading growths of young trees hard back, some growers merely tip them ; the result is a weakly framework which cannot bear the weight of fruit after the tree has come into bearing, the limbs often break off, and irreparable injury is done. Young trees should be hard cut back for a few years, in order to form a strong frame- work capable of bearing heavy crops. Leaders. — Frequently the leading growths are improperly placed, and too manv allowed to remain. The leaders should be spaced as equi-distant as possible and rise obliquely at an angle of about 45 deg ; generally speaking, about 12-16 leaders are sufficient. Laterals. — A thorough knowledge of the fruiting habits of different kinds and varieties is essential to successful pruning. A good general policy is to spare the knife on all well-placed light lateral growths. If allowed to remain for a season to ripen and develop fruit buds, they can then be shortened in as required. Especially does this apply to such varieties of apples as Jonathan and Rome Beauty. Many instances are met with where these splendid varieties have been made barren, or partly so, by the improper use of the secateur on laterals. A good plan is to observe carefully the result of last season's cuts. By this means a mistake should be made only once — -not repeated. Pruning the Peach. — Many peach orchards are silent witnesses to improper pruning methods. The light wood growth of the tree is often merely a tangled mass at ends of leading shoots, instead of being well regu- lated and placed in the most suitable positions. As a result of such management, or lack of management, fruit of an uncertain quantity and quality is produced. The peach bears its fruit on new growth, and only once on the same spur. Thus a regular supply of well-placed fruiting wood is essential. This caiTi be obtained and maintained by the judicious use of the secateur — only possible when there is a thorough knowledge of the different kinds of buds and growth. In pruning the peach, care must be taken to supply wood-growth for the succeeding year's crop as well as the regulation of spurs for the development of large fruit during the year the pruning is carried out. All dead wood should be removed as well as the over-weakened laterals. Cuts should be made clean to permit of free healing. Treatment of Insect and Fungu.s Pests. This subject has been dealt with in the Journal from time to time, and the Orchard Supervision Branch is always available to give instructions to growers in this important detail of orchard work. lo Aug., 191-] Herd 'l\si'iiig. 511 HERD TESTLXG. Government Certification of Standard Cows. By II". .4. .A'. Ro]>crlso,i, B.V.Sc. The desire of the members of the Victorian branch of the Jersey Herd Society to introduce a scheme for the official registration of records of the Jersey cow, affording as it did an opportunity for putting into "practice the principle advocated by the officers of the Department of Agriculture, was responsible during 191 1 for the meeting of a committee of their mem- . bers, representatives of the Royal Agricultural Society, and officers of the Department, at which the more important features of such a scheme were- discussed. Later th's led to a deputation waiting upon the Hon. G. Graham. Minister of Agriculture, and placing their request for assistance from Government officers before him. Being in accord with the principle, the Minister, after due consideration, agreed to the issuing of certificates to all cows of any pure breed attaining a definite standard. Eventually regulations were drawn up, which are reproduced herewith. The testing is to apply to any pure breed, but only to those animals registered in a. recognised herd book, whilst every such animal in a herd must be entered. A fee of jQ\ per herd and 5s. per cow tested will be made. The test will occupy nine calendar months, commencing one week after calving, and cows attaining the standard as shown in Rule 1 1 will be granted cer- tificates whereon all the information possible as showing her value will be recorded. A list of all cows gaining the standard will be published annu- ally. As a cow must enter for testing within one week of calving, it is^ advisable that all owners desirous of participating in the scheme should enter their herds as early as possible, for it will be seen that some months must elapse before even the majoriiy of animals in a herd are undergoing the test, and those which are calving at the present time will be handicapped by missing the lactation period of the present vear. Rkgilations concermng Herd T?:sting for the Government Certification o:-" Standard Cows. Entrance — 1. The owner of nnv herd of pure bred (hiir\- cattle mav submit his herd for certification. 2. Onlv those cows registered in a recognised herd book or pure stock register will be accepted, and all such cows in the herd must be tested, w'th such exceptions as are set out in Clauses 14, is, and 16. 3. An annual fee of £1 per herd and ;s. per cow tested shall be paid to the Department of Agriculture on demand. 4. Any cow entered for certification mav be branded in such manner as to- insure identification, and all stmdard cows will be marked on the inside of an ear with the Government tattoo mark and an identification number. Lactation Period — • 5. Testing and recording sh Cowan Bros. 97 101 198 } 36 64 H. Merrick 120 78 198 66 M. A. Monk 105 90 195 38 42 Mrs. T. Kempster . . 146 47 193 39 61 Black Orpingtons . . J. Ogden 93 88 181 40 5 White Legliorns . . J. H. Brain 82 85 167 41 10 R.C. Brown Leg- horns S. P. Giles 55 110 165 \ '- SI White Leghorns . . H. Hammill 71 94 165 I 58 ), W. J. Stock 114 46 160 44 12 T. H. Stafford 92 66 158 45 54 F. E,. DeGaris 72 83 155 60 !, Miss B. E. Ryan 55 100 155 43 II G. Purton . . 82 71 153 48 4 J. Blackburne 78 72 150 j « 65 A. H. Thomson 71 79 150 27 E. Nash . . 98 51 149 51 52 Black Minorcas Chalmers Bros. 63 76 139 52 18 White Leghorns . . B. Mitchell 49 89 138 53 59 W. J. Seabridge 56 79 135 54 41 >, A. Stringer 90 41 131 55 69 I. Morgan and Watson . . 52 69 121 56 16 Silver Wyandottes R. Jobling 49 71 120 57 32 White Legliorns . . S. Brundrett 56 63 119 58 11 Black Orpingtons . . T. S. Goodisson 31 75 106 59 22 White Leghorns . . W. N. Ling 62 43 105 60 57 II B. Walker 63 39 102 61 21 11 .r. O'Loughlin 57 42 99 62 68 11 W. J. McKeddie 50 47 97 63 55 Brown Leghorns . . T. Matheson 18 72 90 64 36 Old English Game K. J. Barrett 40 41 81 65 66 White Leghorns . . .1. Moloney 40 34 74 66 17 I, S. Childs . . 11 37 48 67 67 Anconas . . .V. E. Manning 44 44 68 34 White Leghorns . . Reg. F. B. Moore . . 3 40 43 69 26 (Reserved) Totals . . 8,071 5,688 13,759 lo Aug., 191 -j] Yictoriaii Produce. VICTORIAN PRODUCE. The Government Statist (Mr. A. M. Lau^^hton) has issued the following return of the area and ])roduee for 191 i-u and 1910-11 : — Potatoes. Principal Counties. Bourke Grant Mornington . . Evelyn Dalhousie Talbot Grenville Polwarth Ripon Villiers Norman by . . Delatitc Buln Buln . . Remainder of State Total* 1911-12. 1910-11. 5.228 7.230 8.205 9.451 5.(U8 0,877 8()0 1,333 2,087 3,891 6,870 8,590 1.310 1.324 7ti8 1,227 1.219 1.208 3.758 7,256 1.253 1.368 1.202 1.348 3.012 6,371 5,102 5,430 47.692 62.904 I'l'dduce in Tons. t^i. 4. 1911-12. 1910-11. 13,686 17,315 21,813 27,595 14,695 17,166 1,952 2.806 4.855 6,015 16.599 21,648 2,699 3.()39 2,640 4.174 2,976 4.281 10,559 20,386 3,240 5,709 2,122 4,545 10,218 11,929 11,032 15,504 119,092 163,312 Average per Acre in Tons. 1911-12. 1910-11. 2-62 2-39 2-66 2-92 2-62 2-50 2-27 2-10 1-81 1-70 2-42 2-52 2-06 2-75 3-44 3-40 2-44 3-54 2-81 2-81 2-59 4-17 1-77 3-37 2-83 1-87 2-16 2-80 2-50 2-60 * These flgures include 5,142 acres of early crop in 1911-12, wliidi^yielded 17.498 tons, being an averse ot 3 '40 tons per acre, and 5,60(5 acres in 1910-11, whidi yielded 21,140 tons, an average of 3 •11 tons per acre. Maize. Principal Counties. Area in Acres. Produce in Busliels. Average per Acre in Bushels. 1911-12. 1910-11. 1911-12. 1910-11. 1911-12. 1910-11. Delatite 241 019 3.309 25.670 13-98 41-47 Bogong 999 733 23,217 21.470 23-24 29-29 Croajingolong 2.634 3,160 150,960 113,470 59-59 35-91 Tambo 3,197 3,827 159.562 174.473 49-91 45-59 Dargo 4.228 4.498 174,024 219,547 41-10 48-81 Tanjil 5,003 5,320 225,860 331,383 44-61 62-29 Buln Buln . . 017 785 17,745 50,381 28-76 04-18 Remainder of State . . 1,244 1,209 31,923 45,703 25-66 37-80 Total 18,223 20.151 792,000 982,103 43-50 48-74 Millet, Chicory, and Hops. Crop. Area. Produce. ,1911-12. 1910-11. 1911-12. 1910-11. Chicory Hops . . 1 Acres. 1 399 122 Acres. 467 121 Tons.* 333 C«'t. 777 Tons.* 432 Cwt. 936 Crop. Area. Produce. 1911-12. 1910-11. 1911-12. 1910-11. Millet (broom) Acres. 286 Acres. 680 Cwt.t 1,652 Cwt. J 1,147 Cvrt.t 3,663 Cwt.t 4,000 * Dry. t Fibre. X Seed. Note. — Millet is princi)>ally gro\vn in the county of Delatite ; chicory in counties Mornington, Dargo, and Tanjil; and hops in connties Delatite, Bogong, Dargo, and Tanjil. 5i8 Journal of Agriculture , Victoria. [lo Aug., 191: Perishable and Frozen Produce. Exports from State Deliveries from Produce. (Oversea). Government Cool Stores. Description of Quarter ended Quarter ended Quarter ended Quarter ended 30.6.12. 30.6.11. 30.6.1-2. 80.6.11. Butter lbs. 625,184 7,507,892 874,664 7,780,584 Milk and Cream cases 148 2,056 1,205 30 Milk and Cream (d riedj II 2 Cheese ... lbs. 26,040 1 '94, 160 4,800 219,730 Ham and Bacon „ 38,520 98,010 Poultry head 3,705 2,910 2,224 1,898 F'ggs . . . dozen 25,149 24,574 Mutton and Lamb carcases 171,469 3.5,155 11,520 1,328 Beef quarters 3,397 1,427 2.30 Veal carcases 777 772 65 163 Tork... // 287 1,.5.30 820 648 Rabbits and Hares pairs 183,444 70,272 1.30,361 14,044 Sundries lbs. 24,316 78.014 R. CROWE, Superintendent of Exports. Fruit, Bulbs, Plants, Grain, &c. Imports and E. cports Inspected f ir Quar er ending 30th June 1912. Imp arts. Exports. Imports. Exports. Inter- state. 18 Oversea. Oversea Inter- State. Oversea. Oversea. Apples (Custu-d) ... Mace 44 Apples and I'ears ... 1,.384 1 37,749 Melons ... — — & Apricots — 257 Nutmegs — 195 — Bananas, bunches .. 71,720 16,891 — : ^UtS 254 3,211 — Bananas, cases 2,867 14,325 — Oats 26,824 175,.340 — Barley ... 10,907 31,533 — Olives 0 — Beans 42 478 — Onions ... — 125 2 Blackberries 48 — - Oranges ... 54,251 224 61 Bulbs ... — 28 32 Passion ... 1,310 — 25 Chillies ... — 387 - Paw Paws 9 — — Cocoa beans — l,:i85 — I'e iches ... — — 6. Cocoanuts — 489 — Pepper ... — 1 60 — Coffee beans — 4,144 — Peas, dried 17,917 319 — ( 'opra — 212 — , Persimmons .68 — — Cucumbers ill — — Pineapples 14,958 — 79^ D.i.tes ... - 2,067 — Plants 261 133 510 Figs — 50 — ' Plums — — 14 Fruit — 1 'otatoes 233 — 718 Canned — — .S,395 Prunes .. — 200 — Dried i7r) 4,698 Quinces .. 1,113 — 23 Mixed 34 7 25 Kice 3,883 92,425 — C rapes ... 1.-) — 6 Seeds 1 222 15,850 211 Ginger ... 58 1,005 — ' Spice — 132 — Hops — 47.3 '1 iimatoes 50 — — .Jamsand Sauces, &c. — — 2,024 Vegetables 5,286 277 n Lemons 1,003 00 J, 398 Wheat, (iraiii, &c. 4,673 155 — Lentils ... — 122 Vams 44 — — Linseed Logs 449 117 768 Totals 221,316 363,788 51,2.30> Total number of packages inspected for ijuarler ending 30th .June, 1912 = 630,354. E. MEEKING, Senior Fruit Inspector. ]0 Aug.. 191^.] Rainfall St a'i sties. 5^9 STATISTICS. Rainfall in Victoria. — Second Quarter, 1912. Tablk shuvving average aiiiomit of rainfall in eacli of tlie 26 Basins or Regions con- stituting tiie State of V^iotoria for each niontii and tlie quaiter, witli tlie corre- sponding montiily and quai'ierly averages for each Basin, deduced from all available ifcoffl^ to (Hte. April. y xy. June Qua ter. basil] or District. a 3 o a < poi:.tS. 1 < points. < points. v it points. 5 < p < points. o < c: < points. points. points. Olenelg and Wannoii Rivers 22(5 217 124 290 211 357 />61 864 Fitzroy, Eunieralla, and Merri 3;)2 248 202 325 211 373 715 916 Rivers Hopkins River and Mount 24G 204 135 260 194 305 575 769 Emu Creek Mount Elephant and Lake 2.S1 200 120 246 167 274 518 720 Corangamite Cape Utway Forest 4;?7 319 238 407 313 460 988 1,186 Moorabool and Barvvou Rivers 226 209 113 240 227 26() 566 715 Werribeeand Saltwater Rivers 167 194 77 216 215 243 459 653 Yarra River and Dandeuong 3;i() 307 189 317 224 382 743 1,006 Creek Koo-weerup Swamp 297 306 184 315 277 384 758 1 ,005 South Cippsland .SoO 386 243 313 270 427 863 1,126 Latrobe and 'i'homson Rivers 267 295 217 28 i 267 384 751 965 Macallister and Avon Rivers 112 166 118 1.55 132 257 362 578 Mitchell River 20S 212 184 229 99 2b0 491 731 Tambo and Nicholson Rivers 170 165 271 im 12S 262 569 613 Snowy River 299 223 291 269 187 414 777 906 Murray River 28 143 10 188 250 268 288 S99 Mitta Mitta and Kiewa Rivers 92 211 35 309 408 510 535 1,030 Ovens River 85 229 16 349 435 529 536 1.107 Goulburn River 78 183 53 261 271 357 402 801 Campa.'-pe River 61 164 65 260 247 317 373 741 Lodilou River 3S 141 38 200 237 250 313 f-91 Avon and Richardson Rivers 28 122 32 184 246 222 ;06 528 Avoca River 2.*^ 1.S2 24 187 270 223 317 542 Eastern Wimmera ... S!) J 42 43 240 274 302 406 684 Western Wimmera... 41 163 50 218 263 265 354 646 Mallee District IS "" 12 160 281 181 311 448 Tile whole State 1.S2 IS.-. 94 238 253 306 479 729 10) paint? 1 inth. 10th July, 191: 11. A. HUNT, Common wp'i/lh M elenroloijiHt. 520 Journal of Agriculture , Victoria. [lo Aug., 1912. REMINDERS FOR SEPTEjVlBEH. LIVE STOCK. Horses.— Still continue to feed stabled horses well; feed green-stuff if available. Continue rugging to encourage the shedding of the coat; good grooming will also be beneficial. Continue giving hay or straw to grass-fed working horses. Feed old and badly-conditioned horses liberally Cattle. — Cows should still be rugged, but coverings should be removed frequently^ in order to enable the animal to get rid of the old coat ; or, better still, a good curry-combing may be given. Continue hay or straw. Give calves a good warm dry shed. Give the milk to young calves at blood heat. Pigs. — Supply plenty of bedding in warm well-ventilated styes. Keep styes- clean and dry, and feeding troughs clean and wholesome. Sows may now be turned into grass run. Sheep. ^Prepare for shearing. Clean yards to minimize dust : also remove all straw, chaff, etc., from sheds and wool bins. For superior wools, procure special- packs; for ordinary wools, the usual kind will do. Clean all excessively " daggy "^ sheep before bringing them on to the shearing board. Poultry. — September is one of the best for hatching. Incubators should be kept going, and broody hens set. Care must be taken to keep down vermin, as they now breed quickly ; use sprays in houses and Insectibane or Pestend in nests — nothing stunts chickens quicker than vermin. The food for young chicks should be fine oatmeal, stale bread crumbs, a little calcined (dry) bone, and a pinch, of powdered charcoal. Slightly moisten with skim milk, and add very finely pulped raw onion. Make the whole friable, and feed frequently ("little tind often")' just as much as they will readily eat, as an excess of food only sours and disturbs their digestive organs. Do not feed animal food yet. Skim milk is safer, and answers same purpose. Keep chicken's feet dry — wet grass causes a chill ; and" once the birds are chilled, trouble may be expected. CULTIVATION. Farm. — Plant early potatoes, and work up fallow for the main crop. Keep' fallow for summer forage crops well worked up with the disc and harrows. Make early sowings of mangolds, beet, field carrots, and turnips. Push on with the fallowing in the Northern Districts. Prepare land for tobacco seed beds by burning rubbish on the site ; afterwards work up to depth of three or four inches. ORCHARD. — Commence spring ploughing ; plough in leguminous crops for green manure as soon as the plants are in full flower. Finish grafting early in the; month. Spray peach and apricot trees with Bordeaux mixture as the blossom bu^s are opening, as a preventive against " leaf curl " and " shot hole " fungi ; watch. for peach aphis, and spray when present with tobacco solution. Flower Garden. — Cultivate and work up the surface to a fine tilth — clear out all weeds. Water newly planted shrubs, iSic, if the weather is dry. Plant put cannas, early dahlias, chrysanthemums, gladioli, and other herbaceous plants. Vegetable Garden. — Plant out seedlings. Sow seeds for summer use, such as- tomatoes, cucumbers, marrows, pumpkins, melons, &c. Plant out tomatoes, and shelter till frosts are over. Hoe and work up the soil surface. ViNEYARiD. — -Plantation of young" vines(grafted or ungrafted) should be concluded before the commencement of Sejjtember; pruning of old vines likewise. Prune- vines recently planted just before buds commence to swell (if not pruned when planted), cutting strongest cane back to two buds. Do not delay this work untiT buds have shot, as" this seriously 'weakens the young vine. Towards erfd of month,. field grafting may be commenced, if weather be fine and warm. If cold and wet, postpone until October. Swab with acid iron sulphate vines which showed signs of Black Spot last season. To avoid burning, this must be completed before the buds commence to swell. Cellar. — Conclude spring racking early in month, if not already done. Fill up. regularly, all unfortified wines. •lo Aug.. 1 9 12.] Journal oj Agriculture . Victoria. xvu The Milker that is DIFFERENT. ROYAL MEDAL MILKING MACHINE Critically Tested through Seven Years. The '* Royal MedaP' has been more critically and thoroughly tested than any other machine. For over seven years it has TOYAL MEDAL" iVfilkmg Machines, !THf»aLt,HOl1 r(# I jm The •' ROYAL MEDAL" Booklet. been in continual use on valuable pedigreed cows, of which regular milk records are kept. An extended test under the supervision of Edric Druce, Esq., Principal of the Bed- fordshire Agricultural Institute, .^ resulted in the machine being AWARDED THE MEDAL OF THE ROYAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY OF ENGLAND, THE "ROYAL MEDAL" BOOKLET gives fullest particulars. FILL IN THE COUPON AND MAIL TO-DAY. POST FREE BOOKLET COUPON. ''Royal Medar' Milking Machines, 34 Queen Street, Mdhournt. Please forward a copy of your Free Booklet. It it to he understood that I consider myself under no ohhijation. Name... Address J. 11. ROYAL MEDAL MILKING MACnVNES 34 QUEEN STREET, MELBOURNE. London Office : Caxton House, Westminster, S;W. J. H. DAVIES, Managing Director Journal of Agricidiiire, Victoria. [lo Aug., igi2. er 'Phone 4881 Central. The Australasian Mutual Live Stock Insupanee Society m., ROYAL BANK CHAMBERS, 70 Elizabeth St., Melbourne. HON. AGAR WYNNE, M.P. HENRY GARDNER, Esq. CHAS. YEO, Esq., J.P. WALTER G. HISCOCK, A.C.P.A., Manager. FARMERS AND BREEDERS- Has this simple truth ever struck you? Ours are the world's minimum rates. Our terms and conditions are equal to the best obtainable. Every pound of our money is invested in Australia. We pay promptly. We pay ia full. INSURE WITH THIS SOCIETY, AND RECOMMEND IT TO YOUR NEIGHBOURS, A GOOD AUSTRALIAN ' Why didn't you put your penny in ihs plait tKit morning f" ' Becaute U vai a forttgn munon. and dada lay* tt'( not righi to lend eapitat out oj the couiilry." ! "OLDS" PETROL Hopper Jacket or CMlOIKIFC Tank Cooling Type, t 1^ \J I 1^ C- O Al^Q PREMIER GAS ENGINES. POWER GAS ENGINES. CLUTTERBUCK BROS., 585 Bourke-st., Melbourne. Visitors to Melbourne Show ~^ -CALL AT- Showrooms, 585 Bourke Street, or Stand 112, Show Grounds, for particulars of BLAGKSTGN OIL ENGINES STATIONARY & PORTABLE ic Aug., 1912.] Journal of Agriculture , Victoria. Dairy Science. The last word. Scientific men in the dairy centres of Europe have given close attention to the question of feeding for milk and feeding for butter fat. It has been laid down by one of the leading German Scientists that where a large quantity of very watery food is used for some time, a poor, thin milk is obtained : and he particularly recommends, when a milk rich in fat is wanted, to use a cake made exactly from the same material as Sunlight Oil Cake : stating that, by the use of such a cake, an increase of butter fat in the milk has been observed. Further, where the butter is inclined to be soft when the animal is fed on certain foods, Sunlight Oil Cake substituted in the ration will make the butter firmer. Every animal will not show the same corresponding result with Sunlight Oil Cake, but Sunlight Oil Cake will produce the highest milk flow and butter fat from a good milker and will increase the average from a poor milker. Sunlight Oil Cake is the last word in Pairy Science. For Post Free Book— " MILK FLOW AND BUTTER FAT increased by Scientific Feeding," By H. M. SOMER, Royal Agricultural Society, Write to Lever Brothers Limited (Dairy Department) Sydney. Sunucht Oilcake Guaranteed Pure. See that the name «• Sunlight " is branded on every cake. Journal of Agriculture . Victoria. [lo Aug., 191 j. "HORNSBY" Petrol Engines (STATIONARY AND PORTABLE) J^AVE a World-wide Keputation for all round Superiority. There is nothing Equal to them. Just as suitable for Motive Power as the well-known HORNSBY OIL ENGINE. <^^<^ Britain's BEST Oil Engine— THE HORNSBY. The recognized essentials of Oil Engine Superiority are DESIGN QUALITY SIMPLICITY ECONOMY THESE the HORNSBY possess, proved by the Fact Made in Two Types— Stationary and Portable. that it has Won all the Largest Prizes ever offered. Hornsby Gas Engines and Suction Gas Plants are unequalled. R. HORNSBY & SONS LTD., '1^°^^^^^^:^ loAuG.. 191 -.] Jiiurnal of Agriculture , Victoria. "-orioll WHITE LEGHORNS ^^gou^ All Stock raised on my Farm and GUARANTEED my own strain and breeding. GOVERNMENT COMPETITION, BURNLEY, VICTORIA, 1911-12.— My pen of 6 Pullets Won Winter Test, 4 months, 47il egyrs. Laid 777 fuys first t; niuMtlis, Laiil 41 in 7 days. Hi<,'-hest for whole Competition of till pens. heading over 10 months. Gained World's Record Second Prize, total \JA*3 egj^s. Profit, 17/G jier hen. (See Jminial nf AriylrKltiin' .Jvily issue.) Cockerels from 21/- each. Settings, 21 '-, 30 -, 63 -, Guaranteed. W. G. SWIFT, Prospect Grove, Northcote, Victoria. For ROOFS of all descriptions USE RUBEROID ROOFING. For OUTSIDE PAINTING of barns, stables, fences, ou has amply borne out the representations made by you respecting- it. With its aid I succeeded in clearing- about 7 acres of timber, ringbarked for years, in less than four days. As a large percentage of these trees measured a good 3ft. at the base, the hand grubbing method would obviously have entailed weeks of hard and expensive labour. A point which I have not yet seen emphasized is this :— The hole left after a tree is pulled by the " Forest Devil " is nothing like so large or laborious to refill as that left after hand grubbing— an important point. I may add that I am perfectly satisfied with the soundness of my investment, and thank you for the courtesy and promptness with which the transaction of purchase was carried out. Bamawm, Rocheste . (Signed) GUY H. T. LEiICK. JOHN COOPER & SONS, 287-9 ELIZABETH-ST., MELBOURNE. (Op. St. Franelss Church). LYSACHT'S WIRE NETTING MADE IN AUSTRALIA. All Sizes Manufactured, ^ inch to 4 inch Mesh. The Standard Netting of the State. LOOK FOR OUR MARKER IN EVERY ROLL. Our manufacture of Rabbit -proof Wire Netting is known as the best throughout Australia. ohxtcje: xtsibxs Better in quality, p.nd owing to its being loose rolled less costly to erect than any im- ported Netting. \\' and IJ' MESn. LYSAGHT BROS, & CO. Ltd., MANUFACTURERS. SYDNEY. AGENTS: GIBBS, BRIGHT & CO., 34 Queen Street, MELBOURNE. 10 Aug.. 191--] Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. LITEHATURE FOR AGRICULTURISTS. PLAN AND SPECIFICATION OF SHEEP-SHEARING SHED. 2s. 6d. Po-am .-—Milkmaid 34th (590),byPlinlimmon (imp. 62 A.H.B.). {In charge of H. Macanley, Nanneella.) Jersey Bull "GOLD MEDAL"; Calved, 3rd April, 1910. Sire .-— (iolden Fox (142 A. J.H. B. ). Dam .-— Melba, by Greystanes 2nd. {In charge of Mr. W. F. Hill, Blocks 43 and^^, Nanneella.) Jersey Bull "MAGNET'S FOX"; Calved, 6th November, 1909. Sire .- -Fox's Laddie. Dam .-—Magnet 28tli, by Defender (imp. ) (2288 H.C. J.H.B. ). {In charge of Mr. 0. C. 'Woods, Block 29, Koyuga.) Jersey Bull "ZODIAC"; Calved, 10th November, 1908. Sire : — Starbright Fox (190). Dam: — Zoe 4th (805), by Handsome Hero. {In charge of Mr. B. J. Chtppell, Block 12F, Swan Hill.) Jersey Bull "GAY FOX"; Calved, 12th May, 1909. (Sire . — Starlnight Fox (190). Dam .-—Floss, by Plinlimmon (imp. 62). (//( charge of Mr. Dyer, Swan Hill.) loArc. 191--] JfliiniaJ of Agriculture. Victoria. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, VICTORIA. GOVERNMENT STUD BULLS. AVAILABLE FOR SERVICE OF COVI/S BELONGING TO BONA-FIDE SETTLERS UNDER THE CLOSER SETTLEMENT m^-continued. Fee, 5s. pep eow. Jersey Bull "WILLIAM OF AYRE"; Calvkd, Februai-y, 1910. Sirt : — Favourite's Fox Snd. X>aw .■ — Bessie McCartfay, by Snowflake's Progress. (In charye of Mr. J. S. Dickinson, Block 13, Xyah.) Jersey Bull "FOX'S LAD"; Calved, 5th October, 1908. Sire: — Fox, by Snowdrop's Progress 2nd. Dam: — ^Pansy 2nd, by Duke. (In charye of Mr. Ernest E. Barley, Block 6, Nyah.) Ayrshire Bull "PETER OF WILLOWVALE"; Calved, .30th Sept., 1909. ^S'//-s .— Annetta's Pride (243). i>yw.— Madge 2iid (Appendix A.H.B.), bv Red Clifef (3.59). (In chanje of Mr. F. Mclvor, Block 12F, Sicau Hill.) Particulars of extended pedigrees, milking records, &c., can Ije obtained from each bull holder, from the resident Dairy Supervisors (Mr. O'KEEFE, Rochester, or Mr. S. J. KEYS, Swan Hill), or from The Department of Agriculture, Melbourne. AVAILABLE FOR SERVICE OF COWS THE PROPERTY OF SETTLERS ON WYUNA ESTATE. Red Danish Bull "CLAUDIUS"; Calved, 10th ^^ovember, 1909. Sire: — Ernst Bellinge (imp.) Dam: — Kirsten iX. (imp.). Fee, 5s. Red Danish Bull "HAMLET"; Calved, 1st August, 1910. ^'^/■e.• —Ernst Bellinge (imp.). iMm : — Marianne IV. G. Dam: — Marianne III. (imp.). Fee, 5s. Particulars of extended pedigrees, milking records and prizes may be obtained from, and arrangement for service made with, Mr. E. R. EMERY, Manager. Government Farm, Wyuna, where the bulls are kept. AVAILABLE FOR SERVICE OF COWS THE PROPERTY OF BEET GROWERS AT BOISDALE. Red Polled Bull "TABAOUM"; Calved, 12th November, 1908. .S("/e .—Acton Ajax (inii). ). Z>(U» .-—.Janet, by Primate by Laureate (imp. Fee, 7s. 6d. (available to 20 cows). Application to Mr. E. STEER, Herdsman, at the Homestead, Block 21. Journal of Agricidiure , Victoria. [lo Aug., 1912- RED POLL DAIRY HERD YOUNG BULLS FOR SALE DAM. Date of liii-tli. RECORD OF DAM. PRICE. Mii;<. Butter Fat. Pennsylvania Aug. 12th, 1911 1 1911— 462 galls. I 1912—635 galls. / 190 lbs. \ 272 lbs. £ s. d. 13 13 0 Carolina ... ,, Kitli „ (1911— 570 galls. \ 1912—580 galls. f 253 lbs. 1. 254 lbs 12 12 0 Cuba ,, 25th ,, r 1911—526 galls. \ 1912—701 galls. / 232 lbs. L 338 lbs. 16 16 0 Mllo* May 30t]i, 1912 (548 galls. 286 lbs. 14 14 0 Ardath** ... June 6th, 1912 1st milking No record 10 10 0 Hii-e " TabacKia" bi/ " Acton Ajax" (imp.). * Rfc-ord of (Jraiid flam " CIGARETTE." *♦ Sire of ealf "ACTON DEWSTONE" (imp.) The pric-es are based approximately 011 the actual milk and butter fat rerord of the dam at the rate of Is. per lb. of butter fat yielded. '{See .Juurnnl of Agriculture, ^'or^'lnber, I'Jll, and Scjitcmber, 191,;). Inspection by arrangement with Mr. E. STEER, Herdsman, Boisdale, Gippsland. Application for purchase to DIRECTOR OF AGRICULTURE, MELBOURNE. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. POULTRY FOR SETTLERS. SITTINGS OF EGGS Are \\o\Y available from the Poultry Pens at the WYUNA FARM and the BURNLEY HORTICULTURAL SCHOOL, at the undermentioned rates. Wyuna White Leghorns (Cosh Hens and Swift Cockerel) White Wyandottes (Burnley stock) ,, Black Orpingtons (Wyuna stock) Burnley White Leghorns (Imported Hens and Padman Cockerel) Bui-nley ,, ,, „ (Burnley stock) Black Orpingtons (Imported pens) ,, „ ,, (Burnley stock) „ Minoreas (Imported pens) ,, Rhode Island Reds (Imported pens) The Eg'S's will carry the Departmental Stamp, and any infertil" eggs will be replaced, proxided that such em;s are returned unbroken within IS days from date of receipt. Postal Order ov Cheque should accompanj- order, «lii.h should be addressed to the Manaj^er, Government Farm, Wyuna, vi& Kyabram, or the Principal, School of Horticulture, Burnley. £1 1 0 0 7 6 0 7 6 I 0 1 0 0 7 6 1 0 0 7 6 1 0 1 0 lo Aug., 1912.] JDurnal of Agriculture, Yictmia. NilTIOflflli TRUSTEES I Executors & Agency Compainy Australasia, Ltd. . . . DIRECTORS : HON. WALTER MADDEN, Ohairman and M»nag:ing Director. EDWARD FITZGERALD, Esq., L.L.D. MICHAEL MORNANE, Esq. HON. DUNCAN E. McBRYDE, M.L.C. HENRY MADDEN, ESQ. DAVID HUNTER, Eso. This Company acts as Executor, or Joint Executor of Wills, Administrator, Trustee of Settlements, and Agent for Absentees under Power of Attorney. MONEY TO LEND ON BROAD ACRES AND FARM LANDS. O..C.S ^^3 QUEEN ST. (Litt^°c"oirin°Jst) MELBOURNE. — GUARANTEED BY THE \. ESTABLISHED 1841. YH£ GOVERNMENT OF VICTORIA. STATE SAVINGS BANK OF VICTORIA Grants greater facilities to Depositors than any other Savings Bank in the World. All prolit.s earjied, after providing for a reasonable Reserve Fund, are tli.stributera}'- in- sheep, &e., .vo. It is a most powerful Pump, entirely British ma^le in best brass, and has a malleable foot rest. A substantial air chamber ensures a steady, even pressure. The Pump is simple, and easily taken to pieces T« • / Fitted withx X^riCe ( Bordeaux : Nozzle :: ) £1.1.0 ■■\^7"3r±-t^ for* CsL-tsL^.csS'^^^ "to F. R. MELLOR 440 Elizabeth-St., Melbourne. JARRAH: Write to When you contemplate erecting fencing, buildings, dairies, woolsheds, &c., be sure you get the best of hardwoods. 1^" JARRAH resists white ants, dry rot, &c. MILLAR'S KARRI & JARRAH CO. O902) Ltd. QUEEN'S BRIDGE, MELBOURNE. '^DYAN, GOULDING, & OO.^ ^^\ (JOHN F, GOULDING). | ' * WHOLESALE GRAIN & PRODUCE COMMISSION AGENTS & GENERAL BROKERS, 546-552 COLLINS STREET WEST (Near ^ing-st.) FARMtRS • Before Selling your C4rain, Hay, Potatoes, Onions, consult or write us. It will pay you. CONSIGNMENTS Received and Sold Daily ex Rail or Wharf. Storage arranged on Liberal Terms and Advances made. All kinds of Seed Grain for Sale. Prompt Account Sales. Oats Specialists. New & Second-hand Bags for Sale at Lowest Rates. Quotations i;iven for Chaff, Grain, Lucerne, Wheaten or Oaten Hay, delivered to any station in Victoria or Xew South Wales. i When in the CITY Call In. — Short distance from Spencer-st. RIy. Station, / 1 oiirnal of Agriculture , Victoria. [lo Aug., 191:;. "WATERLOO BOY" 4 h.p. PORTABLE OIL ENGINE. ABSOLUTELY THE SIMPLEST AND CHEAPEST EFFICIENT ENGINE IN THE WORLD. USES BENZINE OR KEROSENE. IGNITIONi — Is make and break style, charge fired by electric spark. Igniter, which in other Engines is difficult to get at, in the " Waterloo " can be completely removed by loosening two cap screws Both Magneto and Battery Ignition, — a very useful arrangement, as work can never be stopped. SPEED LEVERi — Acts same as throttle of a steam engine. You can speed up or down, or stop altogether with it. Makes the Engine easy to start, prevents ' ' kicking back," and saves fuel. ly^lXERi — Is a great idea, patented because it is worth patenting. Has an adjustable mixing cup that can, by a winged nut, be slipped up or down to give more or less air. No valve springs or pump to get out of order ; makes Engine easy to start ; aids the governor and speed lever in getting more power out of the fuel. AUows a charge in the cylinder QOVERNORi — Centrifugal type, sure and sensitive, only when the work requires it. PU EL. —Works on either benzine or kerosene, but benzine is better, as it is not so dirty. The speed-saving devices, Speed Lever, Patent Mixer, and Governor make the "Waterloo" consume the least fuel. Compare it for simplicity, fuel cost, and power with other engines, and you will send your order to us. HOPPER COOLED. — That is, there are no Tank, Pipes, and Pump to cool the cylinder. Makes the Engine easy to move about ; less space, less weight, and no water pump troubles, as there is no Pump. Also lessens the fuel bill. TRANSPORT. — is a very strong one. Through axles in both front and rear wheels. Turntable on front axle is simple and strong. Dgp- SEND FOR CATALOGUES OF OUR OTHER FARM REQUISITES. MITCHELL & COMPANY PTY. LTD. FACTORY &. OFFICE WEST FOOTSCRAY, MELBOURNE. | 596 BOURKE ST., MELBOURNE I SHOW ROOM iJ^efFigeratirig ^ ^ and lee JVCakiug j^Caehiuery ^ ^ Made by HUMBLE & SONS, f< h 1 Geelong, Victoria. ~4i jy^^r M llflll -^ i^^lUii liiiiiiiii^ =^11 ill -^ Specially suitable for Biitcliers, Breweries, Squatters, Butter, Bacon, and Ice Factories, and all classes of Cold Storage, &c. The Machines can be supplied from 3 cwt. capacity upwards, and either belt-driven or fitted with Engine A large number of these Machines are working in the Australian States, New Zealand, and South Africa, and are giving universal satisfaction. All classes of Refrigeration work undertaken, including coils. One of these Machines is installed at the Dookie Agricultural Colleg^e. " Ferrier's " Woolpresses and Rabbit Foison Distributors, Engines, Boilers, Horseworks, &c. Full Particulars on Application to— Humble and Sons, i General Eng^ineers, VULCAN FOUNDRY, GEELONG. '^ VICTORIAN RAILWAYS. SPECIAL NOTICE, SI)ow Visitors and Olheis ARE INVITED TO CALL AT THK Government Tourist Bureau, Corner Collins and Swanston Sts., Opposite Town Hall, Melbourne. : : Full :: Information freely given respecting Rail, Coach, and Steamer Travel, and Tourist Accommo- dation. M?\(^ I3). c :: Cheap :. Excursions List of Trains, &c., Tourist Haad» books, Maps, and Country and Melbourne and Suburban Hotel and Boarding House Guides free on application. THE GOVERNMENT TOURIST BUREAU. Ask for Particulars of Trips to the Buffalo Plateau (all the year round); and to the Gippsland Lakes, Buchan Caves, Victorian Alpine District, Daylesford and Midland District, Healesville, Warburton, Dandenong Ranges ; and to Queenscliff, Lome, and other Seaside Resorts (from 15th Nov. till 30th April). WHEN IN TOWN RING UP THE GOVERNMENT TOURIST OFFICER. Telephone 174 Central. E. B. JONES, Acting Secretary for RaUways. ^ Vol. X. FRUIT TRADE OF VICTORIA. Part 9. fReii'tered at the General Po=t Office, MelVjoiirne, for tranj-miasioii by Post as a Newspaper.] VEGETABLE, FLOWER, AGRICULTURAL, TREE & SHRUB SEEDS. RYE GRASS. COCKSFOOT. CLOVERS. JAP. MILLET. SORGHUMS. PRAIRIE. MANGELS. PASPALUM. PHALARIS. ESSEX RAPE. TIMOTHY BURR TREFOIL TRADE MARK. PLANET JR. CULTIVATOR. PURE BRED SEED MAIZE HICKORY KING. ECLIPSE. SIBLEY. EARLY LEAMING. RED KENTUCKY, SYDNEY HORSETOOTH. YELLOW MORUYA. EARLY YELLOW DENT. CORN QUEEN PLANTER. Price, Without Fertilizer - £15 10 0 „ With ,. - £20 10 0 Write us lor lull list oi varieties ami jirices. THE HEADQUARTERS FOR LUCERNE IN VICTORIA. HUNTER RIVER. PERUVIAN. FRENCH. TURKESTAN. Sam]iles ami '^luotations on Application. WE STOCK ONLY GOOD SAMPLES OF THE STANDARD VARIETIES OF LUCERNE. WE DO NOT DABBLE IN FANCY VARIETIES WHICH ARE VALUELESS. PLANET JR. IMPLEMENTS, AERATORS, SECATEURS, SPRAY PUMPS, NIKOTEEN, CORN SHELLERS H E; 3Vr I3>JC3-'W-A_3r' s PURE "ARSENATE OF LEAD." NEW WHITE ONION. MILD AS AN APPLE. 1/- per pkt. " Spanish Silver Globe." 1 /- per pkt. F. H. BRUNNING, PTY. LTD. 64 ELIZABETH-ST., MELBOURNE. THE JOLJK,NAL OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, ■VlCOrOI?,!^^, J^TJST:EiJ^lL.TJ^. CONTENTS.— SEPTEMBER, 1912. Some Result.s in Fallowing Land ... Lucerne Plants Bee-keeping in Victoria General Notes Mischievous Dodder, The Propagation of Fruit Trees Wheat and its Cultivation Profitable Dairy Cow, A ... Vine Moth Caterpillar Parasite How to make a Blood Smear Red Polls as Butter Producers Paspaluin for Hill Pastures Fruit Trade of Victoria, The Vernacular Names of Victorian Plants Good Salt House, Lick, and Device for Foot Rot Second Victorian Egg-laying Competition, 1912-13 Hints to Settlers .. Orchard and Garden Notes Answers to Correspondence Reminders NEW YOf^K eOTANlCAl. John W. Pal^rson, B.Sc, Ph.D., and P. R. Scott F. R. Beuhne C. F. Cole A. E V. RirhardsoH, M.A., B.Sc. C. French, Jnr. W. A. N. Boher/son, B.V.Sc. R. G. Thrdfall E. AJeeking A. J. Ewart, n sv., Ph.D , and C. S. S niton, M.B., Ch.B. H. V. Hawkins J. WilsoJi E. E. Pt'icott 521 528 529 533 535 536 543 552 5.53 555 556 563 564 567 572 574 576 579 582 584 COPYRIGHT PROVISIONS AND SUBSCRIPTION RATES. Tlie Articles in the .Journal of the Department of Agriculture of Victoria are protected by the provisions of the Copyright Act. Proprietors of new spapers wishing to re()ublish anj' matter are at liberty to do so, provided the Journal a.»d author are both acknoicledc/ed. The .Journal is issued monthlj-. The subscription, which is payable in advance and includes postage, is 3s. per annum for the Commonwealth and New Zealand, and 5s. for the United Kingdom and Foreign Countries. Single copy. Threepence. Subscriptions should be forwarded to the Director of Agriculture, Melbourne. A complete list of the various publications issued by the Department of Agriculture will be supplied by the latter. Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo Sept., 1912. Cost of up -keep detepmines Economy. TT^HAT would be the vise in saving a few jiouncls when purchasing, to tlii'ow them away again and again in fuel for a greedy engine ; or in repair expenses for a defective engine ? Better let Quality' and Cost of Running be your i>oints for consideiaticiii. "Victoria" British Made Kerosene Oil Fngines stand the quality test. Simplicity of parts is also a feature. For instance— the Governor hasn't tlie com- plicated arrangement of vertical spindle, balls, and wheel gearing, yet it regulates splen- didly. This simplicity of parts, which is featured throughout, reduces wear and tear, as well as enhances smooth and sure working. The cost of running is remarkably low— unsur- passed by any engine that has yet come under our notice. PRICE— The above is by no means a plea for a high-priced engine. You will admit Victoria i:ngines are very moderately priced. Send NOW for complete specification and prices. SIZES— 3 B.H.P. and upwards. Stationary or Portable. Suitable for pumping, driving farm machinery, &c. Larger Crops at Reduced Cost made possible by the Planet Jr. methotl of Planting and. Cultivating. One man equipped with the tool shown can i' changed from side Packed weight, 83 lbs. ro side with points forward, for covei'ing. The Horse Hoe when used as a culti- vator, expands to a width of 30 inches and closes to 14, sutHcient for ordinaiy purposes. The ratchet castings.can.be placed, reversed, on the inside of the bai-s, bringing the side hoes together, for opening furrows for manure, ttc. Cultiva tor teeth, attached in this position, are 1 1 inches apart — the teeth are carried on the hoe standards. A lever expander changes the tool instantly, while in motion, from extreme width to the narrowest position. It has a pair of double steel expander bars and long steel lever, placed in easy reach, and with its malleable connections, is perfectly fitted and pivoted to work smoothly — is strong, simple, rigid, and has stood the test of many years without change. TOOL MERCHANTS, 554=66 & 582=88 Collins=st., MELBOURNE. TO Sept.. 1912.] Jounial of Agriculture, Victoria. — IT WILL PAY YOU TO LEARN MODERN METHODS IN AGRICULTURE LIVE STOCK & FRUIT GROWING FOR PROFIT. STOTT'S CORRESPONDENCE COLLEGE can teach .vou AT YOUR OWN HOME how to MAKE MOKK MONEY by the employment of up-to-date methods. We teach all branches of Agriculture and Live Stock Husbandry, includin<,' Drainage, Irrigation, Dairying and Practical Orcliard Management. We also give instruction in the following,'- subjects ; — Bookkeeping Arithmetic Electrical Engineering Mechanical Drawing Shorthand Mathematics Steam Engineering Architectural Drawing Accountancy Languages Shire Engineering Building Construction Commercial Law Drawing Mining Engineering and Estimating English Illustrating Surveying Timber Measurements WE PREPARE CANDIDATES FOR ALL PUBLIC EXAMINATIONS. The instruction sjoes RIGHT TO YOUR HOME, no matter where you live. It is clear, concise, easily understood, and practical. Every student is handled privately and separately and receives individual attention according to his particular requirements. Our instructors are men of sound technical knowledge, combined with years of practical experience, and they are at the service of every student, to guide him with their valuable advice. Only spare time study is required, and our fees are e.xceedingly moderate and within the reach of everybody. We invite you to write at once for a free copy of our Handbook D. It explains our system and shows how we can teach anj' man who is willing to be tau'.4ht and anxious to increase his earning power. It costs nothing to inquire. Don't put it off. Write tO-day. STOTT'S CORRESPONDENCE COLLEGE 56b MARKET STREET, MELBOURNE. r LAW, SOMNER & OO.'S ^ SPECIAL GRADED AND SCREENED SEED POTATOES (Pedigree Seed). Prices on Application. HUNTER RIVER. ■ ■ ■ — ^w ^^ ^ ■ mm» FRENCH PROVENCE. ARABIAN. Ill r^ LT Ij K I L AMERICAN. PERUVIAN. I LJ^^rr^lAlL HUNGARIAN. TURKESTAN. ^" ^^ ^^ ""^ ■ » ■ ^ ^h SPANISH (New). All our Lucernes are Specially Machine-dressed, Hand-sieved, Free from Dodder, and True to Name. CRAIG MITCHELL ll/l A I 7 C and other MAMMOTH WHITE IYIMIZ.[1 leading varieties. Write for Maize and Potato Circular. LAW, SOMNER & CO., '^S^o\^^^l 139-141 Sw^anston-st., Melbourne. established 1850. TELEPHONE 729 CENTRAL. BULK STORES— MASON LANE. OF? LITTLE COLLINS STREET. Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo Sept., 191 2. "AUSTRAL" MILKING MACHINES. FIVE YEARS OF UNBROKEN SUCCESS Have established the AUSTRAL as the Premier Milking^ Machine, and have demonstrated tliat it does not belong- to that class of appliances whose etficieney terminates alter a few nioiiihs of use. It has stood the test of time, and tliab under all sorts of conditions. \T IS SIMPLE. CV)ini)lexity .nnd intricacy are the l^ane of milking machinery. Both in princi])le and construction the Austral is strikingly simple. Minute pulsating mechanism on teat cups or buckets has Vieen entirely dispensed with, its place being taken by a single pulsating pump, sim[)le and sti'ong in construction, which serves for the whole outfit, whether two cows or ten are to be milked at a time. The pulsating ]iuin[) is placed in the engine room, remote from the cows. ST IS AN EASY MILKER. Fear of injury to cows was at one time the bogie of machine milking. The Austrcll has done away with all that. Its. action on the cow is as gentle as that ot the softest hand, and much easier tlian the a\erage hired help. Alter three and four years" milking with the machines, cows are found to be as sound in tiie quarters as when they started. Enquirj' from any AustrSll user will coniiini the correct- ness of this statement. IT IS THE LAST WORD IN ECONQMICAL DAIRYING. The working parts are so few and the construction so simple and solid, that A\"ear and tear, and consequently the cost of upkeejj, are reduced to a minimum. An outstanding feature of the Austral is the Tank System, whereby the milk is conducted direct from cow to sejwrator without any handling whatever. With this system, so great a saving is effected in time, labour, and trouble, that in ordinary circumstances its advantages are overwheln in?. A single bucket can he supplied for testing individual cows ; or where spec'al requirements render it pre- ferable, complete bucket plants can be installed. GLOBE CREAM SEPARATORS. ^ CROSSLEY OIL ENGINES. Embodies the famous Link-Blade Bowl 1 The world's standard Oil Engine. In all Structure. Official tests conducted by the J sizes and for all descriptions of farm work. Swedish Government at Alnarp placed the f "Globe" in the very forefront for clean t VACCAR PETROL ENGINES. skimming and easy running, against all T competitors. J Biiti^li bnilt. Low rumnng speed. All sizes from 14 to 200 gallons. ' Econonu'cal on fuel. WINDMILLS, SAW-BENCHES, CH/^FF-CUTTERS, and all Farrn aqd Dairy Machinery. ^ When writiiiE:, plense nifiitioii this .Tournal. W. H. BLflCKHflni: ""' ""^ '"■ .J MELBOURNE. 3 0 Sept., 19 12.] journal of Agriculture, Victoria. 19 c^ Herd of Prize Winning, and Heavy Milk ^ and Butter Pro- ducing Strains* YOUNG BULLS AND HEIFERS FOR SALE. MYSTERY VI. OF MELROSE.' INSPECTION BY APPOINTMENT. WILUflm WOODfJASON, """'°"" Daipy, MALVERN, MELBOURNE, Vic Vlll Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo Sept., 1912. G. CLOSER SETTLEMENT LAND. List showing number of allotments on the various Estates available for application : — Estate. Irrigrat ion Areas. Area. Estate. Wheat Growing-. Area. Swan Hill 4 totalling 337 acres. Cornelia Creek .. 17 totalling 2,389 acres Cohuna ..• 28 „ 2,081 „ Oak'lancls .. ..6 „ 4,140 „ Shepiiartoii . . ., 64 „ 2,200 „ Hurstwood .. ..4 „ 2,094 „ Nanneella ., 22 „ 1,320 „ Mt. Widderin ..16 „ 5,913 „ Bamawin ., 20 » 1,569 „ Nerrin Nerrin ..21 „ 4,940 „ Tonsala •• 52 „ 4,150 „ Pannoo .. ..18 „ 6,412 „ Marathon feWillow Grove 12 „ 6,363 „ Strathallan .. ..11 „ 325 „ Dairying- I5ona Vista . . and Mixed Farming-. 6 tntalliiiH: 475 acres. Beet Growing- and Dairying-. Deepdene 2 484 „ Boisdale .. .. 3 totallin,i>- 365 acres Eumeralla ,, 4 l,94.n „ KilmanyPark ..21 ,. 1,860 „ AUambee Morven •• 11 9 1,72(; „ 3,6U:! „ Clerks' Homes. Werribee .. 47 4,34^ „ Tooronsa . . 57 allotments. Kenihvorth . 1 60(1 „ Mooralla .. 1 » 62(i „ Workmen's Homes. Cremona Dunrobiii 1 20 „ Pender's Grove . . . . 108 allotments. Allotments on these estates are sold under Conditional Purchase leasehold terms, extending*- over 3U years, with payments at the rate of 6 per cent, per annum. Advances of money can be obtained up to 60 per cent, of the \alue of permanent impro\einents effected, repajniients extending over fifteen years bearing 5 per cent, interest. For full inforinut.ion and terms applij to THE SECRETARY , LANDS PURCHASE AND MANAGEMENT BOARD. MELBOURNE. AUSTRALIA'S WACON ^il^;:^. PATENT STEEL WHEELS. Patent Felloes. Renewable Carron Boxes and Oil Caps. The only Steel Wheel that has stood the Test. Beware of Imitations. BulUvant Bros., Gillenbah, Narrandera, write: — 4/4/11 — "Tlie 7-ton Wool Wagon I got from you four years ago has given every satisfaction. I now want you to send me a 54 in. and 48 in., diameter wheel x 6 in. tyre 10-ton Wagon, with Table 19 ft. x 8 ft. Your Wagons are the Best." Hundreds of others say the same. When yoa get a Wagon see that it is the Genuine "Hildyard Patent." A well-known and up-to-date farmer in Victoria {Mr. E. A. Neald, of Nathalia) says : — " I had last season a 6-ton Ordinary English Wagon, and one of the "Trusty" type Steel Wheel Wagons, 40 in. and 36 in. dia. wheels, carting in sheaf hay. Although the (j-ton ua^un seemed to carry the larger loads, I found, to my surprise, after keeping careful count, that the Patent Steel Wheel Wagon carted and put into the stack 700 sheaves a day more than the big wagon. The labour was the same for both wagons." Oj TABLE TOP — Truck body, and all classes of little Wagons for Farm and Station work. WRITE FOR CATALOG TO-DAY. R. J. L. QUEEN'S BRIDGE-ST., SOUTH MELBOURNE, V. TO Sept.. 191 2.] Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. LIGHT, STRONG, PERFECTLY RIGID. t^^ n I "CYCLONE WOVEN GATE 9 T±. -to IG T-t. Will hold anything, and can be made rabbit proof by putting rabbit proof intersection at the bottom. The wider gates have three stays. Get our Catalogue of this and many other Cyclone Gates. " THEY'RE ALL GOOD." CYCLONE FENCE & GATE CO., 459 SWANSTON ST., CORNER FRANKLIN ST., MELBOURNE. PERFECTUS APPARATUS FOR THE TREATMENT OF MILK FEVER IN COWS. BY THE METHOD RECOMMENDED IN THE JOURNAL OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. I 'HE treatment by this apparatus is ^ effective and easy to perform, and it is indeed rare that the severest case does not yield to it. The treatment should be applied directly the symptoms of the fever become manifest. The set contains everything neces- sary to effect a cure, including a ther- mometer for aiding the recognition of the disease. PRICE COMPLETE 12s. 6d. (Postage, 9d.) Ask your nearest Chemist for it, and if he cannot supply, ap{)ly to us direct. FELTON, GRIMWADE & CO., MELBOURNE, Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo Sripr., 1912. "GLEN ELGIN'S PHILANTHROPIST" 299 A.H.B. of Aus. Winner of Champion, Sydney Royal Shew, 1909, 1910, 1911, 1912. Reserve Champion, Melbourne Royal Show, 1907, 1908, 1911. Also Winner of Bull and Progeny Prize of £10 for 5 females (the progeny of any one bull) producing the largest amount of commercial butter in 24 hours, Sydney Royal Show, 1912. Also holdft the record of 150 Firsts, Champions, Specials, and Gold Medals for Ayrshire and Dairy Bull. The "GlengarDoek" Stad of Pxiv^- flypshipe Cattle Has won innumerable prizes in the ring. The females in this herd are noted for deep and heavy milking: and test well above the average, and are kind and quiet. CHOICE YOUNG HERDBOOK BULLS FOR SALE at from 5 to 25 guineas each. From Best Cows only, by Pure Herdbook Bulls. Full pedigrees and particulars, with photographs of animal for sale, his sire and dam, will be forwarded on application. INSPECTION CORDIALLY INVITED. VISITORS MET AT LANC LANG RAILWAY STATION. Address- A. T. PRIESTLEY, i Post V'CLENCARNOCK," Tei^graSSjYANNATHAN, Vic. ioSept.. 191 2. J Journal of Aoriculture, Victoria. Vaeuum Gargoyle Prepaped Red Spraying Oil Needs no Soft Soap OP other ingredient. Requires only Clean Soft Water. Vacuum Gargoyle Red Spray Oil now obtainable in prepared form is the same Oil as that originally introduced to Australia for fruit- tree spraying. Full particulars — Horticultural Department, Vacuum Oil Co. Pty. Ltd., 90 V/illiam Street, Melbourne. Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo Sept., 1914. The New Automatic Cream Separator Separating Finished same time as Milking THE AUTOMATIC CREAM SEPARATOR introduced into the Dairy means lessening the work wonderfully — saves time and expense. At last we have got the self-contained Cream Separator, automatic in action, simple enough for a child to work. It is an ingenious combination of a powei ful, perfectly balanced motor, with a special Separator, and will keep running continuously for 6 hours. Cost of upkeep is ridicuously small, and separates as fast as seven or eight milkers can supply. No intricate gears. You have only to pull the cord on the side, and the machine kepps going, producing a smooth cream, SKimming to .01. Know more about this great boon to dairymen. It will be an excellent investment for you. One size machine for any siz.t; dairy. SA/rite ror particulars. Sole A.gents : NEWELL 43-45 KING STREET, MELBOURNE NEW ZEALAND LOAN & MERCANTILE AGENCY C3Q. X« X l^S X "X* ES I> . Head Office— Melbourne Office— LONDON. COLLINS-ST. W. LIBERAL CASH ADVANCES. Wool, Grain, Skins, Hides Jallow, Bark, Stock and Station Brokers ON COMMISSION ONLY. Butter Shipments Undertaken on Owners Account AGENTS FOR COOPER'S DIP FOR VICTORIA AND RIVERINA, PAGE'S PATENT WIRE STRAINER and IRONSIDE'S WIRE CUTTER. CHIEF AGENTS IN VICTORIA for the PALATINE INSURANCE CO. lo Sept.. 191 2.] Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. TRADE MARK oB/lRXH/lM 24..0 -A-TJTr03*I TTIC GAS PRODUCTION Cheaper than COAL GAS at 3 " P^r 1,000 cubic feet. FOR LIGHTING, COOKING, AND HEATING. MANUFACTURED UNDER LICENCE BOOTY-LOFTHOUS E PATENTS. SYSTEM ADOPTED BY STATE AND FEDERAL GOVERNMENTS. For further particulars and prices apply J. BARTRAM & PTY. 19, 21, 23 KING ST. ; and LTD., 586 BOURKE ST., MELB. SHIFT THOSE STUMPS I Y, SAFELY, AND SATISFACTORILY. ^^ RACKAROCK FOR STlllVIP LIFTING, TREE FELLING, LOG SPLIHINC & LAND CLEARING GENERALLY, SUB-SOILING & TREE PLANTING. STANDING TREE. SNAPSHOT OF EXPLOSION. It is absolutely without a rival. This is owing to its Great Rending Power. RACKAROCK is comprised of two ingredients — a solid and .a liquid — which are not explosive until mixed. The ingredients can therefore be transported and stored like candles and oil. This characteristic makes it invalualjle for out-of-way places. CHEAPER THAN NITRO-COMPOUNDS. V. KT. GS-XJTI3::FtIX>G?^E3 2L.tica.. PROPRIETORS AND MANUFACTURERS. 525 COLLINS STREET, MELBOURNE. Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [ioSept.. 1912. Mp. farmer. This is what concerns you 5 C-wt. Galvd. Because it concerns your pocket. NEPTUNE" ^Teeu Fencing Wire 12^ Gauge, will cost you £o 2Sa OCi* and will give j'ou 7,150 yds. of Single Wire Fence. 10 ewt. Galvd. ORDINARY Fencing- Wire No. 8, will cost you £5 2s. 6d. and will only give you 5,2S9 yi^ ' QC ' 1' A C3 E p^liiiii a l\ if —^ 1-^ t/5 ^ J?. ^iSl loiililli;/ . (/} QC CO ^ 41r ^ t/3 ^ UJ ^ « 2 'Nlin Ji -jpir j^ OJ •= • 0 0 >~. > 0 0 "> 0 33 -o * ^A C-, fVw c 0 0 CO as CO \ CJ rt Td QC s. 3 IM £2 0 > = UJ ■ :»-, -fcj 0 £ Xl r^ w w average to onl; ! Is i e? in 0 0 0 0 0 coo c 0 CO 3 2 5 - - ^ -J^A^.^^AV « c 3 _-^ S = 2 -^ 3 0 X ^ \ ^ 0 3 "o 'S t^ = 0 _ Vi-, 53 0 0 U3 0 cc \ ^ UJ "M U C u b. < cs ^ ■■-^ 3 t« = Of a 2 © — 0 -0 VN^rY'>A^ CQ xtra cost ol "Orb" Ii an the wh( g an inferi z j: (0 >- -1 fiC c 1 ^ ** 5 .S s 9> •— t/5 'tfl >« x: ^ "Of = >J H .E 1 a> ~ a> ^ rr? 3 S IS t^A U. 0 c« ^ \Wi J^ S „ ^ •= ^3 Nj 0 • I Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo Sept., 191; ALSTON'S Patent "'"^^ "rank §^ WINDMILL 1910 Pattern. Grease Lubricated Most Perfect Windmill Motion in Existence. Gives a direct and central lift of the pump rod, and an even wearing- of tlie beariny:s. FITTED WITH STEEL ROLLER AND BALL BEARINGS. No Overhanging or Twisting Strains COMMON TO ALL OTHER MAKES. Do not buy a mill till you have inspected this latest invention. RUNS in the LIGHTEST WIND. STANDS the STRONGEST STORM Cheapest and Strongest Mill ever offered, Patented throughout Avstralia. Send for Catalogue. Alston's Improved Patent Portable Steel Framed Galvanized Stock The Best Trough ever invented Trough WILL NOT CRACK, LEAK, RUST, OR ROT. Packs in Small Space. Supplied "'feE_ In AU Lengths. The Cheapest and Most Durable Trough Ever Invented. Send for Price List. JAMES ALSTON, Patentee and Manufacturer, WINDMILL FACTORY, Queen's-bridge, Melbourne. WILL LAST A LIFE-TIME. I'aenteil Throu-liout Australia. THe JOURNAI9 OF LIBRAR NBW Y05 ''botanic QaRDGJ OP Y^e department of Mgncufture; VICTORIA. Vol. X. Part 9. loth September, 1912. SOME RESULTS IN FALLOWING LAND. By Joint W . Patcrsflii, B.Sc. FJi.D.. Experimentalist, and P. R. Scott, C lie mi St for Agriculture . The most pressing demands of an ordinary crop are for water, phos- phates, and nitrates. The importance of these arises from their comparative scarcity in the soil. The deficiency of phosphates is most easily made good by applying some phosphatic manure along with the seed. The deficiency of water and nitrates can usually liest lie remedied bv some svstem of fallowing the land. Scheme of Experiments. In order to fini Fal/mf/ni^ [.and. 523 rain fell on four dates. It was a dry spell, and ga\e no chance to equalize matters. At the final sampling, the cropped plot contained less than half the water present in the worked fallow; the neglected fallow^ was also bad. It had become caked on the surface, and carried a fair cover of weeds, both of which reduced its water content. When taking samples at the later dates, it was evident to the eye th;it the worked fallow had much more water than the others. The assistants also noticed it when digging the holes. Th(> worked fallow rould be TAKING SAMPLES OF SOIL. dug ea.'yily with a spade, while the other plots required a pick to get down to them. The Results by Weight. By weighing the earth from a measured hole, it was estimated that I acre of the so 1 to a depth of 18 inches equalled 2,270 tons in the dry condition. Employ'ng this figure, the water percentages at the different dates may be converted into tons. Table III. Worked Fallow. Neglected Fallow. Oat Crop. October 16 November 28 January 17 February 28 Tons. .572 445 469 492 Tons. .551 .362 26.3 281 Ton.«. .566 345 227 228 At the close of the experiments, the cropped soil contained 264 tons, and the neglected fallow 211 tons less of water per acre in the first 18 inches than the corresponding w^orked fallow. One ton of water to the acre equals almost exactly one point of rain. s 2 Journal of Agriculture, Yiciflria. [lo Sept., 191 2. Results Obtained Abroad. While it did not appear useful to carry the moi.sture investigation.s at Sparrovale deeper than 18 inches, there are indications in the above figures that the effect of cropping and fallowing upon water content would be felt at much greater dejJths. l^xperiments conducted elsewhere support thi-s inference. Moisture determinations of the soil under barley and bare- fallow respectively w^ere made at Rothamsted in the dry summer of 1870. Table IV. gives the results, which are stated as percentages of the wet soil.t Table IV. Bare Fallow. Barley Crop. Per cent. Per cent. First 9 inches 20-36 11-91 Second ,, 29-53 19-32 Third 34-84 22-83 Fourth „ ■ . . 34-32 25-09 Fifth 31-31 26-98 Sixth 33-55 26-38 Similar results have since been obtained by King and, others in America. As the result of three years' trials at Nebraska, Burr reported " that land under summer tillage or thorough cultivation had accumulated from 5.5 to 7 inches (557 to 709 tons) m ire water in the first 6 feet of soil than similar land growing a crop."+ Effect of Australian Climate. While the Rothamsted figures and those quoted from America bear out the general conclusion that water-saving is eTfected to considerable depths by a good fallow, it is probable that they understate the relative advantage to be expected in Australia. P\irther investigations on the subject are now proceeding. Fallowing operations and the formation of mulches are most required where the drying conditions are most powerful, and the result is the same, whether the evaporation is from the soil direct or by influencing the tran.spiration of plants. § From a table published by Hilgard,|| it would seem that the climate of Australia is somewhat unique in causing evapora- tion, and it is primarily to prevent such losses that fallowing is carried out. The figures are given in Table V. The first column states the number of years during which observations were made ; the second column gives the inches of water evaporated from a free surface of water during twelve months. Table V. — Years. Inches. Rothamsted (England) 9 17-80 London (England) 14 20-66 Munich (Germany) ("■) 24-00 Emdrup (Denmark) 10 27-09 Syracuse (New York) 1 50-20 Fort Collins (Colorado) 11 41-00 San Disgo (California) 1 57-60 Pekin (China) {•'■) 38-80 Bombay (India) . . . . . . • • 5 82-28 Demerara (South America) 3 35-12 Kimberley (South Africa) (?) 98-80 Alice Springs (South Australia) . . . . (••) 103-50 t The Soil. Bv A. D. Hall; London. John Murray. 19(13. t Univ. of Nebraska, Bui. 114, by W. W. Burr. § Water Requirements of Plants. Jour Agric, Vic. June. 1912. 11 Soils. By Prof. Hilgard. Xew York. The Macmillan Co. 1906. lo Sept., Tgu.] Some Results in FaUoivitii:^ Land. 5^0 While the figiiifs for Alice Spriigs cannot be regarded as tvpical. being, according to ligun-s published by the Meteorological Office,* about one-half greater thin those tor the drier wheat areas, still the rate ot e\aporation in Australia is undoubtedly \ery great, and there is almost no country where an equal need for fallowing occurs, nor where greater saving in .soil moisture may be expected from good cultixation. Relation of Fallowing to Nitrates. Leaving the effect of fallowing upon moisture, the nitrate contents of the plots next call for notice. Table VI. states the results obtained in lbs. per acre of nitr.ite nitrogen for each plot at the different dates of .sampling. Depth, i8 inches. Table VI. Worked Fallow. Xeglected Fallow. Oat Crop. Ib.s. lbs. lbs. October 16 14-04 17-58 trace November 28 43-20 44-35 3-31 January 17 123-09 60-2!) 28-06 February 28 148-61 58-63 32-49 Up to i6:h October, the worked and the neglected fallow had received the same treatment, and the results show that the worked fallow had no -original advantage. Nevertheless, at the end of February, the neglected fallow contained just 39 per cent, of the nitrate present in the worked plot, f The latter was seen to be much moister during the latter half of the experi- ments, and the extra nitrates are proliably due in large measure to this extra moisture encouraging nitrification. This is in accord with the results of •experiments recently reported in this JoumalX Sufficient moisture will be of greatest benefit in aiding nitrification during the hot months of the year. In addition to the extra water present, the better aeration of the worked fallow would also encourage the production of nitrates. Nitrates Used by Crop. On the cropped plot the nitrate content was only a trace at the date of the first sampling. Comparing it with the fallow plots, this could not be due to lack of moisture, as at that date the moisture content of each plot Avas approximately identical. It appears that the nitrates of this plot had been absorbed to supply the wants of the growing crop. Apparently the crop in the earlv part of its growth was taking all the nitrates it could find. This fact indicates the importance of nitrates in the soil, and the probability that the supplv often fails to meet the demand. Results Obtained Abroad. Similar results showing the demand for nitrates by cereals were obtained h-, America bv King. § On 20th June (summer) a .strip of land 8 by 120 feet in a growing oat crop was cleared by shaving everything off just beneath the surface. At this date nitrates were determined, on the cleared strip and also on the adjacent land growing oats, and similar determinations were made again after nineteen da vs. Table VII. gives the results in lbs. of nitrate nitrogen for each date at successive depths of i foot. * Commonwealth Y tar- Book. '911. t This is exclusive of 25 lb. nitrate nitrogen in the worked fallow and i\ ll>. in the neglected fallow iound below the 18 inch level at the last sampling. t May. 1912. p. 275. § Univ. of Wisconsin. Agric. Exp. St. Bui. 93. 526 Journal of Agriculture . Victoria. [10 Sept.. tqi: Table VII. Commencement of Fallowing. Alter 19 Days. Ground Fallow. Oat Crop. Ground Fallow. Oat Crop. First foot Second foot . . Third „ .. Fourth „ . . lb. 3-81 2-78 19-23 41-64 lb. 3-78 2-70 21-37 43-07 57-87 2-74 13-12 42-52 3-32 0-00 3-08 25-13 Totals 67-46 70-92 116-25 31-53 While the cleared or fallow strip made a gain of 49 lbs. nitrate nitrogen, the cropped land lost 39 lbs. Nitrates Formed Near Surface. Looking to Table VII., it will be seen that the increase of nitrates ir^. the fallowed strip during the nineteen days was confined to the top foot of soil. The reason is that nitrate production requires plenty of fresh air, and the less porous the soil the more superficial will the action be. Where- any considerable supply of nitrates is found below the second foot of soil, they will have passed down by diffusion and drainage. As the upper portion. of a soil in particular may become very dry under a crop or neglected fallow (Table IV.), it is the more necessary in a dry climate that the land be well supplied with nitrates before the vegetative period commences. At Sparrovale the oat crop was the third in succession on the ground. On the cropped plot during the experiments no nitrates were ever found below 18 inches at any date of sampling. The same was true for all the- plots at the first sampling, and the oat crop undoubtedly started growth under bad nitrate conditions. Had September not been exceptionally wet (532 points) it would have been still worse. The interposition of a fallow between two crops allows the soil to lay up a store of nitrates. With moderate winter rains, the.se will pass more or less down- wards in the soil, and can be drawn upon by next .season's crop for the- purpo'ses of growth. Nitrates Available for Next Crop. That the nitrates produced in fallow must exercise a beneficial effect upon the next crop is clearly indicated in a table by King and reproduced by Hall. Analy.ses were made in spring of two similar soils, one of which had been fallowed and the other cropped during the previous year. The- figures represent lbs. of nitrate nitrogen per acre. Table VIII. Land previously fallow Land previously cropped lb. 212 25 lb. 56 15 lb. 22 10 lb. 13 Tio Sept., 1912.] Soitw Results in FalUnciiii:^ Land. 527 Warington* (estimated that '" the production of nitrates tor the next crop is probably the mo t important result of a bare fallow." While this is no •doubt true for F'.ngland, it hardly holds for Australia, where moisture con- servation takes the first place. At the same time we have the authority of Warington added to King for stating that fallowing greatly increases the nitrate supply available for the next season's crop, and the analyses of the Sparrovale soils (Table VI.) indicate that the third oat crop grown on the land started its life with too small a supply of nitrates. A Manorial Test. On 2nd November two small plots of j,\, acre were staked off in the oat ■crop adjacent to the plots laid down for sampling the soils. One cwt. of WEIGHING SAMPLES FOR MOISTURE CONTENTS. nitrate of soda per acre was broadcasted on one plot, while the other received no manure. The object was to determine whether the addition of nitrate to a soil, which had proved .so poor in nitrate at the previous sampling, would benefit the crop. The oats were then 6 inches high. The <:rops were harvested and weighed on 27th December, when the yield from the nitrated plot was increasd by 228 lbs. dry hay per acre, or 2 cwt. (nearlv). There had been a fair rainfall after the application of the manure, but the crop was probably too far advanced to make a good u.se of it. In concluding this report, we desire to thank Mr. Baird, manager at iiparrovale, for granting facilities for these experiments, and for furnishing ajs with the rainfall records. [Suiiuiiary next page.] * Chemistry uf the Farm. By R. Wariugtou. London. Vinton * Co. 5^8 Jonnial of Agriailtitrc, Victoria. [lo Sept., 1912. Summary. I. A well-workfd falldw i)revents much loss of soil -moisture during" (Irv wt^ather. J. A fallow may O/.y little good if neglected. 3. A crop leaves the soil extremely dry in the autumn. 4. This lack of moisture must affect the succeeding crop unless the- winter he exceptionally wet. 5. The Australian climate indicates in a special degree the need for fallowing. 6. Land growing a crop may contain only a trace of nitrates. 7. This deficiency may starve a crop. 8. Xitj-ate formation stops when the surface .«oil becomes too dry. 9. A growing crop dries up the surface soil. 10. It is desirable, therefore, that a crop should start with a ready- formed nitrate supply In the soil and sub.soil. II. Such a nitrate supply will also favour a downward development of the roots. 12. A well-worked fallow meets the nitrate retjuirement of the succeed- ing crop. 13. Fallowing serves the doul)le purpose of storing soil-moisture and' .supplying nitrates. LUCERXE PLANTS. Sam[)les of lucerne plants obtained from a paddock sown nine months- previously in the Rochester irrigation district. They show most eft'ectivelv the prolific growth possible on suitable land under proper methods of irrigation. JO Sept. . 191-.] nt'c-kccpiHii ill Viitoria. 529 BEE-KEEPING IN VICTORIA. {Coiifiiiiicd from page 477.) /•'. A'. Hen line, Bee Kxptrt. Part VII 1. — The L'se of Comb-foundation. Cumb-foundation is the base or nii(lril> of the comljs in the frames of the modern bee-hive. It consists of a thin sheet of l)ees\\ax impressed on h)Oth sides with the shape of the basis of the cells of honey-comb, and is supi)lied to the liees with the object of obtaining a larger yield of honey than would be possible were they allowed to build their combs in their own w.i\ . The better results obtained by the use of full sheets of comb-founda- tion, instead of a comb-guide or narrow strip of embossed wax, are due to three factors: — i. A stronger force of worker bees and very few drones. 2. The faster building of the combs for brood and the storage of honey. 3. Stranger and straighter combs. I. Stronger Colonies. Bv the use of full sheets of comb-foundation, the numl)er of worker 3>ees is greatly increased, and the number of drones reduced to a minimum, FIG. I. COMB BUILT FROM STARTER. NEARLY ALL DRONE CELLS. and as the former are producers and the latter c msumers onlv. the profits of bee-keeping depend to a very large extent upon the ratio of worker bees to drones, and this is best regulated by the prevention of the l)uilding of ■drone-comb. The combs built by bees consist of two kinds of cells, one 1-5 inch in diameter, and known as worker cells, the other j inch, called drone cells, the former being the cradle of the worker bee. the latter that of the drone. In a state of nature a large percentage of the comli consists <>i drone -cells, and immense numbers of drones are raised, a provision of nature to insure the fertilization of the queen from one hive bv a drone from another colony, which, when bees are in their wild state, is often a considerable distance away. In the meeting of the sexes, which alwavs takes place in the air often a considerable distance from the hives, a further safeguard against inbreeding is the aversion of the voung queen to drones which come from her own hive, and have the same family odour. When a number of -colonies occur close together, as in an apairy, the necessity of large numbers of drones ceases, as a limited numl)er are alwavs raised in each liive. Not- 53° Journal of Ai^ric////Nrc. Victoria. [lo Sept.. 1912. withstanding all efforts to suppress their production, the aggregate number is quite sufficient under the conditions of closer proximity of colonies. A sheet of foundation is embossed with the pattern of worker comb,. 25 cells to the square inch, and as the inside dimensions of a standard'' frame are 17 inches by 8 inches, there are 3,400 cells on each sire, a total of 6,800. Making a liberal allowance of cells for the storage of honey and pollen around, the brood, a comb of all worker cells produces fully 4,500 worker bees (i lb. live weight) in one generation," while the same- comb, but composerl of drone cells, would, with the same allowance for storage cells, produce 2,900 drones. The amount of food and labour necessary for the raising of 4,500 workers is probably the same as for 2,900- drones, but while the workers, from a few days after hatching onwards,, engage in productive work, the drones remain consumers to the end. Further, the presence of large numbers of drones in the hive stimulates.^ the swarming impulse of bees by causing crowding of the brood combs and' that condition of the colony which precedes swarming. It will be seeii from the above that the use of all worker combs not only increases the- amount of surplus honey, but also counteracts in a large measure the H p ^■■1 ■■■ P 5w[p i V ^m |wlj ■ii^^ ^^ ^ ^^ ^^pijji l^BB'a vfMSjSs^v ^Aq^kS^ ff^^Sss^ jSbJjssS BsSsSsShS***** IP 1 1 1 B l^pi^^ ^^^ ^^ ^^^ ^^^p?:*! nn ^ K- ^ fvtfnfii ^ FIG. 2. COMB FROM FULL SHF.E 1 (Jl 1 ( )1 Nl lA I K iN . ,\l,l. WORKER CELLS. swarming propensity of bees. Under certain conditions, which will be dealth with later on, the use of starters instead of full sheets is not only- permissible but even advisable. 2. Faster Comb-building. Apart from the advantages of using full sheets of foundation enumer- ated above, the saving of the time of the bees by the quicker building of the combs and the consequent greater and earlier storing of surplus honey will amply repay the extra cost of foundation. Up to a few years ago it was assumed that when given full sheets of foundation the bees used no- wax of their own secretion and wasted that which they secrete involuntarily when swarming, while quite recently the prevention of the exercise of one of their natural functions, the secretion of wax, has been held responsible for impaired vitality and consequent predisposition to disease. Experi- ments have shown, however, that no wax is wasted, and wax secretion not interfered with. A sheet of foundation of the grade generallv used weigh.s- 2 ozs., while the finished comb built from it weighs 35 to 4 ozs., shownig" that an equal or nearly equal quantity of wax of their own secretion was; added by the bees. In another experiment, when foundation of a different colour to that of the wax secreted bv the bees was used, a cross-section of 30 Sept., 1912.] Bec-ki'cpifii;^ in Victoria. 531 the resulting comb showed that nearly one-half of the total was newly- •secreted wax. As half the wax composing the combs is given to the bees and the other Lhalf secreted by them, it follows that without any interference with their natural functions, double the amount of comb is produced in a given time, thus bringing the colony much sooner into the condition for storing surplus honey. The speed of comb-building is also accelerated by the larger surface •to work ujjon presented by full sheets as compared to combs from .starters. 3. Stronger and Straighter Combs. The importance of good combs for the raising of brood as well as for Jounial of .\gncuUiirc , Victoria. [lo Sept., 1912. cells, therefore, depends upon the rate of egg-production by the queen and the absence of worker comb already built. The ideal condition is that of a newlv-hived swarm with a prolific queen. If the queen is defective in laying owing to age or lack of vigour, and cannot keep pace with the comb- builders, drone comb will be built. The same result will occur when the l)ees from the first-laid eggs hatch out before the combs completely fill the frames. As soon as bees hatch out, the queen again deposits eggs in the cells, neglecing the new comb which is in cour.se of construction, and thus causing the building of drone cells. After having hived a swarm on a set of frames with starters, and allowed them to work for four or five days, some of the frames in which little or no work has bet^n done should be removed, and the number thus reduced to what they are likely to fill with coml) in the first three weeks after hiving. This rule also applies to colonies which have been shaken down, that is, deprived of their combs, on account of fnulbrood. Once bees begin to hatch from the new combs, it is extremely difiicult to get further worker combs built from starters, except by removing all the combs but one or two, a procedure better left alone, as it would tend to run the colonv down to :i \< i\ ^n ill ( lu \ P^r cent. From these figures it is apparent that 100 lbs. of the "seed " contained just over 21 lbs. of pure white clover capable of growing. The germinat- ing capacity of the weed seeds is not stated, but it is asserted that the greatest factor in the spread of weeds in New Zealand is the use of impure seeds. Cheap seed is always bad, and there are no "bargains" in the seed trade. The sowing of cheap, weed-infested seed is the most expensive policy that a farmer can adopt, and the germination of grass and clover seeds should be ascertained before buying. MANURING FOR MILK. Experiments on the manuring of cow pastures were started in 1909 by the Midland Agricultural and Dairy College, England. In the spring of that year, 8 acres were dressed with 10 cwt. ground lime per acre. A few- days later one-half of this area received 4 cwt. superphosphate and I J cwt. sulphate of poLash per acre. The two 4-acre plots were then sepa- rately fenced off, and no further applications of manure have been made to them. The method of the experiments was to graze cows on the plots each summer and note the respective milk yields. At first two cows were allotted to each plot, but it was found later that three could be carried. The two lots of three cows exchanged plots every fortnight in order to eliminate differences in the milking capacitv of the cows. The experiments have completed their third year, and each vear the manured section has yielded most milk. The original cost of the manures was jQi 9s. per acre, and over the three years the gross revenue from the manured section has been increased by jQ6 5s. 6d. per acre, leaving a net profit of jQ^. i6s. 6d. per acre from the use of the manures. It is estimated that the manures are not vet exhausted. lo Sept., 191 2.] The Mischievous Dodder. 535 THE MISCHIEVOUS DODDEII. Perhaps no more striking instance of the necessity for seed cleaning could be advanced than that of clover seed. When it is delivered from the threshing machine, it is no more fit to send out to farmers for sowing than, so much sand or sawdust. To begin with, the seed is mixed up with quantities of foreign matter — earth, small stones, vegetable fibres, frag- ments of wood, and the like. Of course, this miscellaneous collection is- not, in itself, injurious to the prospective crop ; but it serves to " make weight " in a manner entirely derogatory to the interests of the buyer. So all these odds and ends must be carefully sifted from the seed. Nor is- this all. For among the newly-threshed seed, presumably clover, there is certain to be a considerable quantity of seed which will germinate and spring up as weeds of different varieties — all, of course, harmful to the clover crop. Among these injurious seeds is an exceedingly minute one, to detect which the seed merchant must be constantly alert. The plant which springs from it is a veritable blood-sucker, and is known as the dodder. Now, the dodder is not, as some suppose, a fungus, but a true flowering plant, which has acquired the parasite habit. Out of its germinating seed comes a little club-shaped root, which seeks the soil, while its young leafless stem grows upward like a thin thread, slowly moving round in sweeping circles. Should this stem fail to come into con- tact with a clover plant, it eventually falls prone upon the earth, and the embryo dodder soon dies. But let it once touch its prey — the clover — and it grips it with all the tenacity <■ f the well-known bind-weed, to which it is nearly related. Moreover, it not only holds to the clover for support, but actually drives its " sucking roots" right into the substance of the clover's stem, and absorbs the vital sap of its helpless host. As soon as the dodder has thus taken hold, its root dies away. There- after it has no connexion with the soil, as in the case of an ordinary plant ; nor does it produce a single leaf. It becomes a rapidly-growing mass of red, hair-like fibres, twisting about its victim the clover, and sending out sucker roots at every possible point of contact. Thousands of tiny white flowers are produced, each destined to mature many seeds ; but the increase of the dodder is an unmixed evil, for it is a hopeless hanger-on in the economy of nature. Fortunately, the seed of dodder does not ripen very freely in England ; but this saving clause fails to apply to seed brought from abroad. Thus it is of the utmost importance that the agriculturist shall be acquainted with the history of his clover seed when he makes a purchase, or else make it a rule only to buy such seeds from firms of recog- nised standing. The seed of dodder, as already mentioned, is exceedingly small,, and the aid of an expert microscopical botanist must be invoked b)efore a given quantity of clover seed can be pronounced " free." All big seed merchants are scrupulously particular on this point. After the clover seed has been passed through delicately adjusted machinery, which extracts the seeds of weeds, parasites, and every particle of rubbish in a manner as unerring as instinct, numerous samples are taken from the bulk, and sub- jected to the closest scrutiny through the microscope. If this final test fails to reveal impurity of any kind, then the clover seed is pronounced "clean," and guaranteed as such. — (From the Southland Times.) Cleanliness comes next after godliness. Some say that in the dairy it should come before it. 536 Journal of A\^ricnHiirc , Victoria [lo Sept., 1912. PROPAGATION OF FRUIT TREES. {Coiifi lined frt'in pa^c ■\^<^-) C. F. Cole. Orchard Supervisor. Fungus Diseases. Fungi, like mosses, are a low form of i)lant life. They belong to the great cryptogamir grouj), which includes phmts that are flowerless and ' hence do not produce seed. In fungi, pro- pagation is l)v si)ores of various kinds. Fungi live on the substance of other l)lants. Some draw their nourishment from li\ing plants (parasites). Some live on dead phmt substance (sapro- ])hvtes). When a para- site can live for a time on dead plant tissue it is called a facultative saprophyte. This pro- pertv is of importance in securing the survival at times of parasitic infection. An attack by plant fungus differs from an attack bv in.sect life in the following particu- lars : — (jenerally with insects the attack is gradual and may be noticed from the earli- est stages. The serious- ness of an attack is generally controlled by the rapidity with Avhich they perpetuate their kind. But with most of the fungi, their presence is not observable until the harm is actuallv done. It is thus specially incumbent upon growers to applv a suitable fungicide at a time which will prevent the spores from germinating, and so destroy the fungus in its early .stages of growth. The germination of spores and the growth of fungi attacking fruit trees is largely controlled and influenced by the climatic conditions prevailing at the season suitable for their development. During a phenomenally wet spring, summer, or autumn, some species of fungi cause considerable damage that, in normal seasons, would do little or no harm. Dry weather conditions are adverse to their growth, whilst damp .soil, bad drainage, excessive irrigation, and a moist, humid atmosphere are all favorable. FIG. 7--- -PEACH BUD ATTACKED BY LEAF CURL FUNGUS. lo Sept., 191 .2.] P) (,pagati())i of Fruit Trees l\acli Curl (K.xoascits df form tins. Fckl.). — This parasitic fungus disease is confounded with the crimping and curling of the foliage and twisting of the terminal ends of young shoots, caused by an attack from Peach Aphis (black and green species). However, a very sligiit practical knowledge of this fungus will serve to distinguish its workings trom that of Ajjhides When the growing buds are attacked, the leaves, and very often the stems, become swollen, fleshy, distorted, and curled, changing in colour from green to a ruddv or dirty gifcy, whilst from aphis attack, the foliage and shoots become crimped and curled only. If neglected and the weather and other conditions are favorable, this fungus will spread rapidly, and do consider- able damage to the growing peach and nectarine buds. Some varieties are more susceptiljle to attack than others. If neglected the inroad of the disease on the well-known variety of peach, Elberta, is so severe that the growing buds either die out or become weakened and useless as a .sound type for planting out. Treatment. — When selecting buds in the autumn for propagation purposes, .secure them, if possible. from trees that were free from attack, or trees that were well sprayed in the spring, strictly avoiding anv growths ha\ing a distorted or swollen appearance. The buds should receive a spraying with Bordeaux mixture or Lime-sulphur wash as soon as they start to move in the spring. Place the nozzle Oi the spray close to, and direct the wash well into the buds, using high pressure. This is an all -important factor when attacking this fungus and. indeed, most other disease of a like nature. The buds should be closelv watched, and if there is the slightest sign of attack a further spray- ing should be given. This will be when the growth of the buds, which is rapid, is from i inch to 6 inches in length. If no steps have been taken to spray as a deterrent, and the buds are attacked, all sw^ollen or distorted leaves should be cut away and burnt, and spraying proceeded with at once to prevent spreading. If the stem is attacked, reduce the growth back into healthy wood and at a basal bud. (See Fig. 73.) If the stem is attacked along its whole length, the growing bud is ruined and worthless. Having to cut away diseased leaves or reduce back the growth at all. like I^ig- 73' i'^ a very poor secondary operation to fall back upon. This check to the growing bud is generally so severe that at best only a poor type of tree is produced. The di.sease is more prevalent in wet, cold districts, and where trees are growing in wet, cold, and undrained s?ils. Well-drained and aerated soil is an all-important factor in the propa- gation and cultivation of the peach and nectarine. Yearling pruned trees in the nursery row should be sprayed when the buds are bursting and again when the leaves are developing. Prime Rust {Puccinia prinii. Pers.). — To the kinds of stone fruit trees -subject to attack, this disea.se seldom causes serious harm in the nurserv row. As a fact, the fungus usually appears after the trees have made their full growth. If weather conditions are at all favorable after a good Tainfall in late .summer or early autumn, the rust mav spread rai)idlv. FIG. 73. METHOD OF TREATMENT. 53^ Joiinial of Agriculture , Vicioria. [lo Sept., 1912. attacking first the lower leaves ui)on the branches, and working upwards to the terminal ones, the result being that the trees are divested of their foliage. If the attack is confined solely to the leaves, the loss of foliage, being some- what gradual, may be l lo Sept., 191 i.j Propagation of Fruit Treei. 539 )i nj bruit Tree i4r Amongst grijwrrs tht'iv is a dixersity of oijiiiiou as to the prexentiou of Collar Rot. The following are some of the theories : — (Xo. i) Worked trees are more susceptible than those propagated by layers or cuttings. (Xo. 2) Trees worked low (l(jwn upon the stocks, particularly tho.se grafted, are more subject to the disease than budded trees. (Xo. 3) Only certain stocks should be used for propagation purpo.ses. (Xo. 4) X > trees should be propagated from one that had, or one that has got, Collar Rf;t. If so. all such trees will die sooner or later from the di.sease, arguing that the disease is hereditary. After clDSf obser\ation it is found that with trees growing in a certain soil, locality. ])osi- tion, and rtceiving certain treatment, these theories to some extent are sound ; but if the same class of trees is grown under different conditions with re- gard to .soil, locality, >S:c. , opposite results are obtained. Take the stock theory. Trees worked upon a certain stcnrk, grown in a certain soil, with a free natu- ral drainage, receix - ing no artificial ir- rigation, thrive well and remain verv free from the fungus diseases mentioned. But when grown under artificial irriga- tion, upon another class of .soil, the trees become diseased or die out. X'o hard- and-fast rules can be laid down from anv of the.se theories. The chief factor in growing and pro- pagating citrus trees fig. is to have a thorough knowledge of the class of .soil to be planted, the locality, and condi- tions under which trees are to be grown, and the class of propagated tree whether suited or not to such conditions. When propagating citrus trees in the nursery row, great care should be taken that the soil is a friable one, naturally or easily drained, and that over-irrigation is not practised, as the chief causes of developing the fungus di.sea.ses mentioned are bad drainage, unsuitable soils, and excessive irrigation. With the citrus tree "4- -LEMOX TREE ATT.ACKED BY COLLAR ROT. 542 Journal of Agriculture , Victoria. [lo Sept.. 19 ij. we have so far no universal stock for propagation pur[)oses suitable for all conditions. Treatment. — Seedling stocks or young trees attacked in the nursery row t)y any of these three fungus diseases should be dug up and immediately burnt. If standard trees are attacked by Collar Rot or Bark Blotch, the •diseased part should be cut away as soon as detected, care being taken to see that all diseased and discoloured bark and wood is removed. Then paint the wound with equal ptarts of liquid carbolic and Stockholm tar. Give a good ■dressing of lime before replanting stocks in soil in which trees have died irom fungus diseases. Rank weed growths should be ke[)t down, and no mulch allowed to lie about the trunks, particularly during late autumn, winter, or ■early spring as damp and decaying matter close to the butts favours the ■development of fungus disease. If using stable manure or other matter as a mulch durmg the dry season, keep it away from the butt about 6 inches, .and remove the mulch not later than the following April by raking it away from beneath the trees to the centre of the rows, either to decay or be ploughed in. When the trees have attained a fair size, plough only the one way each time ; cross-ploughing should be avoided. Ploughing close to the trees should not be practised. Dusting lime upon the butts and beneath the trees is very beneficial to the health of citrus tree^. Spra)ing the butts with a fungicide once or twice .a year is also good. Gross growth in the nursery row or citrus grove should not be encouraged. The trees should be kept in the best of heart, .and if a fertilizer is required the following mixture will be beneficial : — Sulphate of potash, 4 cwt. ; blood and bone manure, 16 cwt. It is far t)etter to apply a fertilizer twice in the year than all at one time ; early spring and autumn are the suitable seasons. The quantity per tree is con- trolled by its condition and size — roughly, a tree ten years old, of average size, should receive 5 to 6 lbs. at each dressing. The following will enable growers to prepare the fungus washes which have been recommended : — Bordeaux Mixture. — Bluestone (sulphate of •copper), 6 lbs. ; fresh unslaked lime, 4 lbs. ; water, 50 gallons. Slake the lime with a small quantity of water, and then make up to 25 gallons. Pulverize the bluestone and dissolve in a small quantity of hot water, then make up to 25 gallons. Stir lime and bluestone water, and run evenly through a strainer into a third Tessel. Stir well, and apply with a fine spray. Lime-SuIpJiur Wash (Stock Mixture). — Best lime, 10 lbs. ; sulphur, 20 lbs. The lime is added to 2 gallons of water placed on a fire ; when slaking is well started the sulphur is added, and water to make all to a thin paste is then poured in. When slaking and mixing are complete, 10 gallons of water are added and the mixture boiled for an hour stirring all the time. At the end of the hour there must be 10 gallons of mixture. Covering lihe stock mixture with paraffin oil will prevent air-ciusting. When diluting for spraying take I gallon of stock mixture and dilute to 8 gallons with water. Lime-Sulphur Wash is used on trees when dormant or just when buds are beginning to open at a density of 1.03 and at a density of i.oi when huds have burst. The strengths given in the foregoing i in 8 and i in 25 give approximately these respective densities, if the mixture is made as directed. It must be pointed out, however, that Lime-Sulphur Wash is still in an experimental stage and should not be given preference over Bordeaux Mixture. Caution. — Lime-Sulphur Wash when buds &c. are vegetative should only be used at a strength of i in 25. {Concluded.) lo Sept., 191 2.] W'lieat and its Ctdtivailon. 543 WHEAT AND ITS CULTIVATION. {Continued from page 465.) Xo. 7.— MANURIAL PROBLEMS. A. E. V . Rich nd son, M.A., B.Sc, Agricultural Superintendent. It has already been demonstrated that the most important requirement of a permanent system of agriculture is the maintenance of the productive power of the soil, and that the permanent efficiency of any given method of cultivation must be determined by its effect on soil fertility. Under a good system of farming the soil will gradually increase iif productive power. Poor soils may be improved and rich soils made richer. Bad methods of cultivation, however, will gradually deplete the soil of its fertility, and render rich soils incapable of producing other than mediocre crops. Factors Involved in Soil Fertility. Soil fertility, in practical language, is the cropping capacity — the pro- ductive power — of the soil. It is a complex of many factors — some external -^some internal. Obviously, the climate is the most important external factor, and the amount of rainfall, its seasonable distribution, the range of temperature, &.C., are controlling influences in successful farming. Excluding these climatic considerations, however, as entirely beyond human control, we may say that the fertility of a soil is dependent on the chemical, physical , and biological nature of the soil. Let us consider these points seriatim. Chemical Composition. — One of the most common characteristics of a fertile soil is that it contains, in a soluble or available form, a sufficiency of those elements necessary for the nutrition of plants. These are ten in number fp. 200), namely, carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur, phosphorus, potassium, iron, magnesium, calcium (lime). The first three are obtained from the air and water, the remaining seven are obtained from the soil. All these elements are essential plant foods. Fortunately, seven of these ten essential constituents are present in most soils in overflowing quantities. The other three— nitrogen, phosphorus, and potash — are frequently wanting or deficient. As the yield of the crop is governed by the amount of the most deficient element present, it is obvious that a study of the three substances referred to is of immediate practical importance. Lime sometimes becomes of considerable practical importance in assisting production, but the necessity for lime invariably arises from a faultv physical and biological condition of the soil, and not because it is actually required for plant food. In the case of the wheat crop (straw and grain), of the to'al amount of food taken in by the crop^ — (i) No less than 93^ per cent, is obtained from the air and from the rain. (-) 3l P^r cent, consists of mineral substances with which the .soil is abundantly supplied. (3) About 3 per cent, consists of nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash, which the soil contains in strictly limited quantities. Hence, that portion of the plant's needs which man may require to supplv is only a small fraction of that which is yielded by crops. But it is an 544 Joiinial of A^i;ric///f//ri\ Victoria. [lo Sept., 191 2. indispeiisible fraction, and, as will l)e seen later, on this simple fact rests the whole practice of manuring. So far as chemical considerations are concerned, it would appear that a fertile soil is one which contains a suflficiency of plant foods — and par- ticularly nitrogen, phosphoric arid, and potash — in an available or soluble form. J'>mphasis must be laid on the presence of available plant food, becau,se the greater portion of the plant food is locked up in inert forms, i.e., in forms incapable of being used by the plant. It may, therefore, he readily underst(x>d that, while a soil may contain large reserves of nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash, it may yet be unable to support the growth of a decent crop. Such a soil would pos.sess potential fertility, but could only become really fertile bv methods of soil treatment which would bring about a conversion of the dormant plant food into available forms. It must be clear, also, that under certain circumstances the amount of available plant food in the soil may be reduced to such a low level that there is insufticient for the requirements of a normal crop. Under these circumstances, the soil is said tO' be " worn out,'' or " exhausted." It was formerlv supposed that the fertility of a soil could be determined bv chemical analvsis. Soils were analysed, and the analyses referred to arbitrary standards, and judgment was given on the agricultural possil)ili- ties of the soil under re\'iew. If, for example, a given soil was analysed and found to contain o.i per cent, of nitrogen, o.i per cent, of phosi)horic acid, and 0.2 ])er cent, of potash, it was judged to be a good soil. But no agriculturist who knew his business would attempt to judge a soil merely bv the results of its chemical analvsis. and to say what crops should be grown and what manures should be a])[)lied. Soil analysis can tell us the total reserves of food stored up in the soil, or it may inform us as to the amount of food soluble in dilute solution of citric acid, but it can throw very little light on the forms in which the elements of plant food actuallv exist in the .soil, and as to the amount actually available for a wheat crop. Physical Condition, of the Soil. — A soil exceedinglv rich in total nitrogen, phosi)horic acid and potash, and also in its available i)lant food, may yet be incapable of growing a blade of grass, much less a satisfac- torx crop. This may be the case with naturally rich but Ijadly J 00 CO CO -^ -t 00 (M - is 5 (=. t- 0 fM 'M iM (M C TP t^ r- t^ •-^ 00 ic 0 0 © ic ■6 il ■S. 1-07 1 -00 Trace 1-67 2-31 1-20 ■6 ■5 20-60 Trace Trace 3-46 2-17 5-25 (4) 28th March, 1912. Non- fallowed. 2-10 1-10 2-8 2 -02 1-70 1-94 Fallowed. 0 0 (M 0 10 r- Tt< Tt 0 0 0 CO !M ^ (M ffi> (3) 6th February, 1912. Non- fallowed. 1-60 Trace Trace 1-41 2-47 1-10 c (M -^ CO t^ 00 to • • CO i> t^ r^ 10 Ol • • • (N -H — ( (N CO (2) 4th January, 1912. Non- fallowed. 0 t~ 10 t^ 0 00 (N C-1 CO CO -H yi CO ■?! -H — 1 rvj c^ Fallowed. 13-28 3-12 3-16 1-71 1-73 4-6 (1) 7th December, 1911. Non- fallowed. •p9;s9^ ;oK •6 % 0 ■3 10-3 Trace 1-4 3-1 1-9 3-4 C 3 S (1) 0" to 12" (2) 12" to 24" (3) 24" to 36" (4) 36" to 48" (5) 48" to 60" Average nitrogen content of first 5 feet Sept. . 19 rj. \\'//i'a/ and its Ciiliii'afioii. 549 Table 1. shows the amount of nitrates found in each of the first 5 feet of soil when fallowed, and when allowed to lie in pasture The soil samples were taken in two ])arallel lines, the distance between the fallowed and non-fallowed portions being 10 yards, whilst the distance between each successive sampling was 5 yards. The nitrogen determinations were made by Mr. P. K. Scott, Cliemist for Agriculture. In the above tallies, it will be ncjted that the anmunt of nitrate present in each layer is continually changing. These changes follow closely on the changes in the moisture content of the soil. With heavy showers, the nitrates get washed down to lower depths. rndt-r hot dry siiells, they tend to concentrate near the surface. The table clearly shows that, throughout the whole period during which the investigations were made, the fallowed land contained far more nitrate than the adjacent non-fallowed portion. If these tables are condensed, and the figures reduced to pounds per acre, this point may hv more ■clearly seen. Table II. — ^Total Nitrate Nitrogex in the first five feet of Fallowed and Non-Fallow^ed Land under Ordinary Field Conditions at Longerenong (Victoria), 1912. Date of Sampling. (1) 7th December, 1911 <-2) 4th January, 191-2 (3) 6th February. 191-2 (4) •28th March," 1912 (5) 20th May, 1912 (<}) 7th August, 1912 Amount of Nitrate Nitrogen. (In Parts per Million.) Fallowed. Non-fallowed. 3-4 Not taken 4-() 2-18 (i-70 1-10 0-00 1-94 5-25 1-20 5-12* 1-28 Amount of Nitrogen. (Reduced to lbs. per Acre.) Fallowed. Non-fallowed. lbs. per acre. lbs. per acre. 59-5 Xot taken 80-5 38-15 118-3 19-25 105-U 33-9 91 -87 21-0 89 -ti 22-4 * Now under crop. From this table it will be seen that the amount of nitrate in the fallowed land gradually rose from 595 lbs. in December, to 118. 3 lbs. in the first week in February, after which it gradually fell to 91-87 lbs. per acre, as contrasted with 21 lbs. in the non-fallowed portion. As a 1 5-bushel wheat crop removes in its grain and straw about 21 lbs. of nitro- gen (p. 203) per acre, it will be observed that there was four and a half times more available nitrogen in the fallowed portion at seed time than was required for a i5-f)ushel crop. On the other hand, in the non-fallowed portion there was barely enough nitrogen to supply the requirements of one such crop even assuming that e\ery particle of nitrate nitrogen in the first ^ feet could have been used by thf croi). Moreover, at seed time, the nitrate nitrogen in the fallowed land amounted to 71 lbs. per acre above that of the non-fallowed portion. If nitrate of soda containing 15 per cent, of nitrogen he worth 14s. per cwt., then the cash value of this extra nitrate content of the fallowed land over that of the uiifallowed portion anir>unted to no less than jQ2 19s. 2d. per acre. 55° Journal of Ai:;^riciiltiirc . Victoria. [to Sett.. 191 2. We see at a glance from these figures the reason why. in the northent areas, under the existing methods of cultivation, the application of nitro- genous manures are unnecessary and unprofitable. In the Southern and Western Districts of Victoria, however, the same- climatic and soil advantages as regards nitrate production do not hold, for in these districts fallowing is far less common (p. 336), and the rainfall is heavier, and in these districts it might be inferred that nitrogenous, manures would prove of some value. The needs of the North and South in this respect have already been made the subjects of separate inquiry by this Department. Experiments conducted in 1902, and following years, brought out their differences as resulting from climate. Thus, in the Northern Wheat Areas, the addition of soluble nitrogenous manures (sulphate of ammonia) to- phosphate gave an increase of only 3 lbs. of wheat per acre, on the average of 94 farms, and in no single case of the twelve local groups into which the 94 farms were divided did the nitrogenous manure repay the cost of its purchase. In many cases, it did actual harm — probably as a result of increased leafage causing too rapid a drain on the soil moisture. In the moister Southern Districts, the need for some nitrogenous manure was apparent in the experiments, for an increase was obtained iiT 47 of the 50 farms by its use. On the average of the 50 farms, i cwt. of nitrate of soda increased the yield of hay bv nearly 6 cwt., and r cwt. of sulijhate of ammonia bv exactly 8 cwt. per acre. To summarize, then, it may be said that the need for nitrogenous- manures in this State is, to some extent, dependent on the length of time the land has been under cultivation, but is, in a verv large measure, also-- dependent upon the climate. In the drier portions of the State, the use of nitrogenous manures does not seem to be called for, and it may even prove harmful. In the wetter districts, a limited call for nitrogenous manure.s- exists at the present time, and this may be expected to develop as cultiva- tion becomes of older date. Manures Co}iiain'nig Nitrogen. The principal nitrogenous manures are nitrate of soda, sulphate of ammonia, blood manure, calcium cyanamide, and nitrate of lime. Nitrate of Soda is obtained principally from the nitre beds of Chili and Peru, and Bolivia. The commercial article contains about \^\ per cent, of nitrogen. It is extremely soluble in water, and is very readily leach^^d out of the soil by excessive rains. For these reasons, it is generally applied as a top dressing, more especially in districts with a heavy rainfall. In order to insure its uniform distribution, it should be mixed with two or three times its weight of drv loam, and broadcasted over the crop. According to- Lawes and Gilbert, nitrate of soda ap])lied in earlv winter is never as effective as when applied in spring. Nitrate of soda can only give the best results when the soil is well supplied with phosphates and potash, and is deficient in available nitrogen. If it is to be used in conjunction with superphosphate, it is inadvisable to mix the manures together long before sowing, as a loss of nitric acid may result. The most profitable rate of application for anv particular soil and crop, can only be determined by experiment. Generally speaking, however, from I to I cwt. per acre is used for hay crops where nitrates have been proved to be necessary. 30 Sept., 1912.] ]V//ca/ a>id its Cultivation. 551 It is generally held that nitrate of soda stimulates the vegetative rather than the grain-ljearing power of cereals, and that it appears to exercise a retarding influence on vegetation which, in our climate, must always prove more or less detrimental. Experience at the Roseworthy Agricultural College during the i)ast six years i(inar. 555 HOW TO MAKE A BLOOD SMEAR. By IF. A. N. Robertson. B.V.Sc. Numerous inquiries are made annually to the Stock Department for information as to the probable cause of deaths amongst stock which occur throughout the State. Occ-iisionally, in addhion to describing the .symp- toms of sickness, si)ecimens of parts of organs, blood, &c., are forwarded, in the hope that some information can be obtained. Such specimens, how- ever, are almost useless, as changes, due to putrefaction, commence during transit, and the organism responsible for this change either masks or destroys any organism which may have been present as the cause of mortality. Useful information, however, can be obtained from an examination of blood and tissues if correctly taken ; consequently the accompanying description of " How to make a Blood Smear" will prove useful if kept for reference. The description is given of how to make a smear on microscopic slides ; these are, of course, not always obtainable by the farmer, Vnit any slip of flat glass will answer the purpose equallv well, and the smear may be made with the end of a clean, unburnt wooden match. The essentials to be borne in mind in following the method described are cleanliness and atten- tion to detail, especially in regard to the drying of the smear in the air. Glass upon which is a wet smear should never be put against another slip ; each slip must be dried separately and wrapped in a piece of paper by itself before forwarding. In addition, a very careful description of the symptoms of sickness should be recorded, and on fost-mortcm examination a minute description of the appearance of all the organs given. No detail is too small to record if an accurate diagnosis is to be made. To Make a Blood Smear. {a) From tlie Living Aiiiinal . Blood may be taken from one of the \"eins which run along the upper surface of the ear. The animal's head should be firmlv secured, and the ear washed in solution of washing soda. A prominent vein should then be pricked with a needle (an ordinarv clean sewing needle will do) or with the point of a clean, sharp knife, or a fine inci-sion can be made on the margin of the ear. As soon as the blood flows the smears should be made; if delav occurs in spreading the film the blood will coagulate and the .smear be a failure. Do not squeeze the vein in order to make the blood flow ; it shfiuld occur quite naturally. {h) From the Dead Au'imal . Having opened the carcass, blood should be taken from the spleen or lymphatic glands, and in the forwarding letter it should be stated from which organ the smear was made. Cut the organ with a clean knife, and scrape a small piece of the cut surface off with the edge of the glass slide. The first thing to be done is to prepare the glass slides on which the blood is to be spread. The glass should be thoroughly cleaned, kept free from dust, and should be polished with a cloth or handkerchief imme- diately before use. To make the film, a very small drop of blo'-d. about the size of a millet seed, should be put on one end of the_siide by means of either the end of a wooden match or by the point of a knife, or by the needle used for pricking the ear, or bv one of the corners of another glass slide. 556 Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo Sept., 191 2. Then plac^ a second slide oA'er it, arranging that tlie two slides together form an acute angle wherein the blood drop lies ; the inclined glass slide should touch the drop, and the blood will then run along the edge of the slide, and the inclined slide should then be immediately drawn along the horizontal slide, as shown in illustration when the required film will result. Scrapings from the organ made with the short edge of the slide can be drawn over the horizontal slide in the same manner. It is very easy tc spoil a smear by making it too thick, and the film should always be made as iJiin as possible. A rough way of ascertaining whether the blood film is too thick or not is to hold the slide with the blood smear on it up to the light, and if the colours of the rainbow can be seen on the glass, the film can he considered as being thin enough. When the smear has been made, allow the blood on the glass to dry in the air ; when dry, wrap each glass in a .small piece of thin paper, pack carefully and forward to The Chief Veterinary Officer, Department of Agriculture, Melbourne. Fig. I. — Glass slide with drop of blood. Fig II. — First position showing position of slides. A. Direction in which top slide is drawn. Fig. III. — Second position of slides after blood smear is drawn out as indicated. Fig. IV. — Slide showing blood smear. RED POLLS AS BUTTER PRODUCERS. (Scaso/i's Milk and Butter Record of the Govermntnt Herd.) In continuation of the returns published in the November, 191 1, issue of the Journal, the tables following, compiled by Mr. C. K. Harrison, Dairy Supervisor, show the mircing record for the 1911-12 season of the (jovernment herd of Red Polled Cattle stationed at Boisdale, Gippsland. These returns furnish som.e very interesting data, both as regards butter fat, and quantity of milk. During the period under review the herd has been ted on the natural pastures without hand feed of any kind except for less than 10 tons of lucerne hay and 5 tons of sugar beet offal, given during the dry autumn and towards the end of the milking period. TO Sept., 191:?.] Red Polls as Buffer Producers. 557 On referring to table A, it will be noticed that the majority of the cows show an increase in milk yield this season over that of 1910-11. The only cows producing less milk this season being "Connecticut," "Bullion," " Virginia," and " Havana." The three last-named were also below their butter- fat returns of last season, whereas " Connecticut's " butter-fat yield for this season shows an increase of 95 lbs. This cow's test in 1910-11 was 4.2 per cent, to 4.6 per cent., and in 1911-12 from 4.6 per cent, to 6.2 per cent. ; such a case as this, and indeed some of the others also emphasizes the necessity of systematic weighing and testing from year to year, and not resting content wilh one year's records. The money values of the returns this vear show a considerable increase over tho.se of last year, partly due to the higher market price of butter-fat during the. l)ast .season. The average monthly increase in the price since September, 1911, over the corresponding period this year was 3- id. per lb. of i)utter-fat. The weights of the daily milk yields were recorded, and weekly fat te.sts made by Mr. E. Steer, Dairy Herdsman, who has taken a keen interest in the herd and managed it with success. The butter-fat tests have been checked by the Senior Dairy Inspector (Mr. R. T. Archer) and ihe Chemist for Agriculture (Mr. Rankin Scott). The stud bull " Tabacum " has been made available to settlers' cows on the Boisdale Beet Farms. The plan has L^en adopted of selling the bull calves under one year old at prices based on the preceding season's butter-fat return of the dam. For instance, the cow " Muria " returned 240 lbs. of butter-fat, which, reckoned at is. per lb., etijuals ;^i2 — the price realized for her calf. This is considered a fair basis for fixing the \alue of a bull intended for dairy purposes. After all is said and done, the value of a bull is in his potentiality for getting good milking heifers, and the hereditary influence in this direction posse.ssed by the bull can probably be best estimated to the extent of one-half at any rate by the yielding capacity of the dam. This basis of sale seems likely to become popular, as last year's crop of bull calves haye met a ready sale under it. The yearling bull " Vuelta's Son " (sire " Tabacum," dam " Vuelta ") has, however^ been reserved from sale, notwithstanding a very tempting offer for him received from a breeder of Red Polls in New 2Lealand after reading the record of the dam. Prior to this it was decided to reserve the bull for stud purposes and breeding experiments on the Central Research Farm about to be established at Werribee. On referring to the tables, it will be .seen that the dam •• Vuelta'" is a phenomenal })roducer. In the sea.son 1910-11 she gave 556I gallons of milk, returning 405 lbs. of butter-fat, value jQi'] los. lod. ; and in the past season .she yielded 485 lbs. of butter-fat from 775 gallons of milk, with a money value of jQ26 5s. 9d. During the month of November (twenty weeks after calving) '' Vuelta" averaged 19 lbs. 4 ozs. of butter-fat per week. The herd has recently been augmented by the purchase from Captain Philip Charley, of Belmont, Richmond, New South Wales, of twelve females and a young bull, "Nicotine," sired by the imported bull "Acton Dewstone." dam " Chessie," by "Magician" (imported). These cattle are descended from deep milking strains in the Old Country, and appear to have the milking qualities well developed ; but as weighing and testing the milk is the only reliable proof of individual milking qualities, it will remain for their records to show to what extent the augmentation of the herd in this way is advantageous. 558 Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo Sept., 191 2. Table A. COMPARATIVE SUMMARY OF YIELDS AND RETURNS OF THE GOVERNMENT HERD OF RED POLL DAIRY CATTLE. (Seasons 1910-11 and 1911-12.) Cow. Vuelta Connecticut Bullion Beulah Cuba Cigarette Sumatra Kentucky Muria Pennsylvania Carolina Virginia Havana Seaso> 1910-11 Season 1911-12 Weeks in MUk / in Butter Fat. lbs. V aliip Weeks in Milk in Butter Fat. lbs. Values. Milk. ' Gallons. £ s. d. Milk. Gallons. £ 5. d. 38i 556-5 405-1 17 10 10 ■iU 775-2 485-1 26 5 9 40J 818-2 269-0 11 17 4 401 678-2 364 0 19 11 10 401 773-3 356-7 15 17 10 431 694 ■ 8 344 0 18 10 7 39| 646-5 342-6 15 3 6 (Not c oniplet ed.) 401 526-9 231-8 10 5 11 431 701-4 337-8 18 10 4 34 504-4 211-6 8 18 9 41i 648-1 285-9 15 14 & 41* 43-6 19-6 0 19 2 42 666-2 284-2 15 6 2 361 531-1 225-9 9 12 7 391 669-5 277-7 15 1 1 401 548-9 240-7 9 14 9 41 580-2 275-7 14 14 10 381 461-9 189-7 8 4 3 451 634-8 271-9 14 13 10 401 570-5 253 1 11 3 4 321 580 - 6 254-3 13 11 4 401 636-2 254-7 11 5 1 391 551-2 221-7 12 0 7 401 575-5 229 - 9 10 5 0 371 535 - 6 215-3 11 15 4 * Short lactation period due to accident. Table B. YIELDS AND RETURNS OF THE GOVERNMENT HERD OF RED POLL DAIRY CATTLE. (Season 1911-12.) Cow. Vuelta €!onnecticut Bullion Beulah Cuba Cigarette Sumatra Kentucky Muria Pennsylvania Carolina Virginia Havana Days in Weeks in Milk in Tests. Butter Fat. Prices. V alues. Milk. Milk. Gallons. lbs. £ s. d. 289 411 775 2 5 2-8-2 485 1 121-141 26 5 9 283 401 678 2 4 6-6-4 364 0 121-14J 19 11 10 305 431 694 8 4 8-6-2 344 0 121-141 18 10 7 278 39J 646 5 4 9-6-4 342 (5 91-121 15 3 6 304 m 701 4 4 4-8-4 337 8 121-15 18 10 4 291 411 648 1 4 0-5-6 285 9 121-15 15 14 6 293 42 666 2 4 0-5-0 284 9 121-15 15 6 2 277 391 669 5 4 0-4-8 277 7 121-15 15 1 1 28() 41 580 2 4 5-7-0 275 7 12i-14i 14 14 10 318 45 .V 634 8 4 0-5-2 271 9 121-15 14 13 10 226 321 580 6 4 0-5 0 254 3 12i-14i 13 11 4 277 391 551 2 3 9-4-6 221 7 121-15 12 0 7 262 37i 535 6 3 8-4-5 215 3 121-15 11 15 4 lo Sept., 19 12.] Red Polls as Butter Producers. 559 YIELDS AND RETURNS OF INDIVIDUAL COWS. (Season 1911-12.) Month. Yield for each Month. Milk iti (iallnns. Test. liutter Fat. I'rice. d. lbs. £ .s. d. Totals from Calvikq to Date. Butter Fat. lbs. Value £ s. d. August Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. •Jan. Feb. Mxrch April May Viielta (due to calve 7th July, 1912). 1 8 2 18 3 1 4 (i .3 11 .3 13 2 U 2 8 1 5 0 17 .■)3-9 5-2 28-0 l^i Mt.T-S .-)-2 .-)7 -0 i-'i i2r,-7 4-7 .-)')•(» I2.V 18-7 7-0 83-0 12J 94-9 7-U 6()-4 13 95-6 0-8 6.5 -0 13.1 68 • 1 7-0 47-6 13| ()l-8 7-0 43-2 13.V 28-0 7-4 21-1 \^ 18-1 8-2 14-8 i-ti 7 15 53 -9 28-0 2 45 163-7 85-0 5 76 289-4 144-0 5 106 408 • 1 227 -0 1 137 503-0 293 -4 1 168 598-6 358 -4 () 197 666-7 406-0 / 228 728-5 449-2 (i 258 757-1 470-3 7 289 775 -2 485-1 1 8 7 4 6 9 7 8 2 11 14 7 15 6 6 18 19 7 21 14 1 24 2 8 25 8 2 26 5 9 Connecticut (due to calve 9th July, 1912). August •Sept. Oct. Nov. Dsc. J-in. Feb. Mirch April Miv 23-1 4-6 10-5 12] . il3-7 4-6 .-)2-3 12] . 123-5 4-(i 5'.t-5 12i . il2-l ()-4 71-7 12i 88-3 6-0 52-9 13 66-6 5-8 38-6 131 51) -9 5-4 27-4 13a 51-2 5-2 26-6 13.1 215-1 5-6 14-6 141 16-0 6-2 9-!t 1^1 1 1 0 17 0 11 10 8 13 4 1 11 14 8 17 3 3 5 11 4 9 11 9 9 23-1 10-5 39 136-8 62-8 70 266-3 122-3 loa 378-4 194-0 131 466-7 246-9 1<)2 533-3 285-5 191 584-2 312-9 222 636 - 1 3.39-5 252 662-2 3.54 - 1 283 678-2 364 -0 0 10 8 3 4 1 6 5 11 10 0 7 12 17 10 15 1 3 16 12 7 18 2 6 19 0 1 19 11 Ifl BuUion (due to calve 17tli July, 1912). August Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb. :\[ir. April ilav 81-1 5-2 42-1 121 87-4 4-8 41-9 121 )4-3 4-8 50 -0 121 '»7-6 5-0 48-8 12i SB-0 5-0 43-0 13 72-1 4-8 34-6 131 57 -4 4-8 27-5 13f 58-8 5-0 2;) -4 131 . ■ 30 -7 4-8 !4-7 141 19-4 i)-2 12-0 1-^1 2 2 11 30 81-1 42-1 2 2 9 61 168-5 83-0 2 12 1 92 272-8 134-0 2 10 10 122 370 -4 182-8 2 6 7 153 456-4 225-8 1 18 11 184 .528-5 260-4 1 11 6 213 585-9 287-9 1 13 0 244 644-7 317-3 0 17 9 274 675-4 332 -0 0 14 3 305 694-8 344-0 2 2 1] 4 5 8 6 17 9 9 8 7 11 15 2 13 14 1 15 5 7 16 18 7 17 16 4 18 10 7 Feb. M-irch April May June July August Sept. Oct. Bt^uJah (due to calve 8tli February, 1913). 1 10 3 2 1 11 2 1 10 1 10 1 1 11 9 1 14 6 2 1 7 1 8 3 0 14 4 96-6 5-0 48-3 n M)5-9 5-0 .-)2-5 9.1, 99-0 5 "2 51-4 n 72-3 5-0 36 • 1 10 70-8 4-9 34-6 101 61-6 5-3 38-8 \\\ 65-9 6-2 40-8 V2\ 44-7 (i-2 27-7 121 21-7 (i-4 13-8 121 33 96-6 48-3 64 202 -5 101-2 94 301 -5 152-7 125 373-8 188-8 155 444-6 223-5 186 514-2 260-3 217 580 - 1 301-1 247 624-8 328-8 278 646-5 342-6 1 19 3 4 1 2 6 3 0 7 13 1 9 4 10 10 19 4 13 0 11 14 9 2 15 3 6 560 jouniaJ of Agriciiliure, Victoria. [10 Sept., 1912. YIELDS AND RETURNS OF INDIVIDUAL VOW^—continwd. (Season 1911-12.) Yield for each Month. Milk in Gallons. Test. Butter Fat. Price. d. lb,s. £ «. d. Totals fkom Calving to Date. Day.< in Milk. Cuba (due to calve 25th September, 191 2). Sept. 89 T) 4-7 42-0 12{ 2 2 10 30 89-5 42-0 2 2 10 Oct. 113-2 4-(> 52-0 12i 2 14 2 61 202-7 94-0 4 17 0 Nov. 112-2 4-6 51-6 \2l 2 13 9 91 314-9 145-6 7 10 9 Dec. 94-5 4-4 41-5 13 2 4 11 122 409-4 187-1 9 15 8 Jan. 74-2 4-6 34-1 131 1 18 4 153 483-6 221 -2 11 14 0 Feb. 60-1 4-6 27-6 13^? 1 11 7 182 543-7 248-8 13 5 7 Mirch 60-4 4-6 30-5 13i 1 14 3 213 610-1 279-3 14 19 10 April 49-4 5-0 24-7 141 1 9 10 243 659-5 304 -0 16 9 8 M ly 30-() 8-0 24-4 14} 1 8 1! 274 690 - 1 328-4 17 18 7 June 11-3 8-4 9-4 15 Oil 9 304 701-4 337-8 18 10 4 Cigarette, (clue to calve 14th September. 1912). Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb. March April May June 17-7 4-2 7-4 12} 115-8 4-2 48-6 121 114-8 4-6 52-8 121 96-2 4-6 44-2 13 81-6 4-0 32-6 13i 57-5 4-2 24-1 13a 71-9 4-2 30-1 131 49-8 4-5 22-4 14i 30-2 5-6 16-9 14i 12-6 5-4 6-8 15 0 7 6 2 10 7 2 15 0 2 7 10 1 16 8 1 7 7 1 13 10 1 7 0 1 0 {) 0 8 6 17 48 78 109 140 169 200 230 261 291 17' 133' 248' 344 426 483 555 605 635 648 7-4 56-0 108-8 153-0 185-6 209-7 239-8 262 -2 279-1 285-9 0 7 6 2 18 1 5 13 1 8 0 11 9 17 7 11 5 12 19 14 6 15 6 15 14 Sumatra (due to c^lve 7th Aut;ii,st. 1912) August Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb. M irch April Miy June 25 - 1 4-4 11-0 12|1 98-2 4-4 43-2 121 99-6 4-2 41-8 12i 96-3 4-4 42-3 12i 84-3 4-4 37-0 13 70-9 4-0 28-3 13i 58 -0 4-0 23-2 12f 64-6 4-0 25-8 13J 39-6 4-4 17-4 14J 26-5 4-8 12-7 14i 3-1 5-0 1-5 15 0 11 2 4 2 3 2 4 2 0 4 7 9 0 1 0 1 5 ] 1 10 9 25-1 11-0 39 123-3 54 -2 70 222-9 96-0 100 319-2 138-3 131 403-5 175-3 162 474-4 203-6 191 532-4 •226-8 222 597-!' 252-6 252 636-5 270 -0 283 663 -0 282-7 293 666-2 284 -2 0 11 2 2 15 3 4 18 9 7 2 9 9 2 10 10 14 8 11 19 3 13 8 3 14 9 3 15 4 4 15 6 2 Kentucky (due to calve 11th October. 1912) Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb. M irch Anril Miy June 88-0 4-0 35-2 12} 117-8 4-2 49-4 12 J 115-6 4-2 48-5 12.1 95-1 4-0 38-0 13 79-1 4-0 31-6 13J 60-9 4-2 25-5 13? 57-0 4-2 23-9 13.' 29-7 4-4 13-0 14i 24-4 4-8 11-7 141 1-9 4-8 0-f 15 1 15 11 2 11 5 2 10 6 2 1 2 1 15 6 1 9 2 1 6 10 0 15 8 0 13 10 0 1 1 29 88-0 35-2 60 205-8 84-6 90 321 -4 133-1 121 416-5 171-1 152 495-6 202-7 181 556-5 228-2 212 613-5 252-1 242 643 -2 265 - 1 273 667-6 276-8 277 669-5 277-7 1 15 11 4 7 4 6 17 10 8 19 0 10 14 6 12 3 8 13 10 6 14 6 2 15 0 iV 15 1 1 lo Sept.. 19 ij.] k'td Fulls as Butter Producers. 56 r ^■1KLI)S AXl) RETURNS OF INDIVIDUAL COWS— <-owitiu!icd from pa^c 448.) Coiiniiiinicafcd bv Alfred J. Eicart. D.Sc, Ph.D., F.f..S., CJienrman, and C. S. Sutton, M .B., Ch. B.. Secretary, of the I^lant Names Committee of tlic Victorian Field Naturalists'' Club. DICOTYLEDONE^C— ro«/«»Mfrf. DicoTYLEDONE.E — Choripetale.e Hypogyn.e — Continued. RUTACE.E — continued. Phebalium — puageus, Benth. pliylirifdliuiu. F.v.M. deiitatuiu, Sm. . . Ralstoni. Benth. bilobuiu. Liudl. lamprophyllum, Beiitli. araplifi)lium, F.v.il. diosineum, A. Juss. ozothaiunoides. F.v.M. glaudulosum. Hook sqiiaiiiuliisuiii. Vent. stfiKiphvlliiui. F.v.M. podiicarpuides, I'.v.JI. Billardieri, A. Juss. ovatit'olium, F.v.M. Microcybe — pauciflora, Tiuez Asterukma — Muelleri Benth . . Pie urandropsis — phebalioides, Baill. trymalioides, F.v.M. Crowea — exalata, F.v.M. . . EriostemoH — lanreolatus, (Tacrtner tnu-hyphyllus. F.v.M. *niyoiiiii(]idi_'s. 1).C. obovalis, Cunnaighani scaber. Paxton . . difformis, Cuunhighaiu Correa — aemula, F.v.M. . . alba, Andrews . . speciosa, Andrews speciosa, var. nonualis speciosa, var. glabra Lawreuciana, Hook Geijera — parviflora, Lindley Acronychia — laevis, R. & G. Forster Prickly Pliel)aliuni Mountain Plit-balium Umbellate I'liebalium Shy PlielialiuM . . Truneati" Plielialiuni Shining Phebalium Broadleaved Phebalium . Slender Phebalium Everlasting Phelialium . Desert Plielialium Scaly Phebalium I Xarrowleaved Phebalium Alpine Phebalium Satinwood Phebalium Ovate Phebalium Microcybe Phebalium Lemon Star-bush Downy Star-bush Leathery Star-bush Crowea Lance-leaved Waxflower . Bluut-leaved WaxHower . Long-leaved WaxHuwer . Fairy WaxHower Rough Waxfliiwer Small-leaved Waxflower . Hairy Correa White Correa Red Correa Green Correa Smooth Correa . . Mountain Correa Wilga . . Yellow Wood There is hardly an unattractive member In this group, and Eriostenum obovalis, Asterolasia Muelleri, Phebalium bilo- bum, P. Billardieri, P. glandulosum, Eriostemon difformis, and E. myo- poroides (Eriostemon nerii/olius of the florists' catalogues) are specially re- commended for cultivation. All the species of correa are worthy of cultivation in gardens, particularly some forms of Correa speciosa. Yields valuable feed for stock in timejof drought, sheep being particularly fond of it. Timber light coloured, hard, close grained, and used for naves of wheels, blocks, &c. Timber light coloured, close grained, but is not much used. * Plants marked thus are listed either as growing plants or seeds by one or more of our florists. 568 Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo Sept., 191 2. Vernacular Names of Victorian Vlx^t^— continued. Botanical Name. Popular Name. Uae or Character. DicoTYLEDONE^ — -CHORiPETALBiE Hypocjyn^e — Continued. Zyoophyllace*. Nitraria — Schoberi, L. Zyjophyllum — apiculatum. F.v.M. glaucescen?, F.v.M. crenatum, F.v.M. iodocarpum, F.v.M. ammophilum, F.v.M. Billardieri, D.C. . . fruticulosura, D.C. Tribulus — terrestris, L'Obel Linuin — ■ margiuale, CLiiiulugham Geraniace.'e. Geranium — dissectum, L. se3siliflorum, Cav. Brodium — cygnorum, Nees Pelargonium— australe, Willd. Rodneyanum, Mitchell OXALIDACE.E. Oxaiis — magellanica, G. Fowter coraiculata, L. . . Livatera — plebeja, Sims Plajianthus — pulchellus, A. Gray spicatus, Bentham glomeratus, Bentham microphyllus, F.v.M. Sida— corrugata, Linlley intricata, F.v.M. Abut Hon — otocarpum, F.v.M. Avicennae, Gerard Howittia — trilocularis, F.v.M. Hibiscus — - Krichauffl, F.v.M. tTrionum, L. Nitre Bush Pointed Twinleaf Pale Twinleaf .. Notched Twinleaf Violet Twinleaf . . Sand Twinleaf . . Coast Twinleaf . . Shrubby Twinleaf Caltrop.s Cut-leaved Geranium Mountain Geranium Blue Eiodium . . Austral Pelargonium Rosy Pelargonium White Wood-sorrel Yellow Wood-sorrel Austral Hollyhock Hemp Bush Salt Plagiauth . . Thorny Plagianth Small-leaved Plagianth Dwarf Sida Bushy Sida Desert Chinese Lantern Swamp Chinese Lantern Shrub Mallow Desert Hibiscus Bladder Hibiscus It produces fruit of the size of an olive, of a red colour, and agreeable flavour. ( No known economic value. A suspected poison plant, but stock usually avoid it. (- No knowii economic value. Has been said to kill stock if eaten when starving, possibly owing to the prickly fruits. Though only a small plant, it yields a flbre of good quality, and is used by the blacks for making fishing nets and cordage. Stock very fond of the succulent herbage of this plant. Of slight pasture value. 1 Affords good herbage in the young state. Can be made into capital hay and might be turned into ensilage with good results. Might be improved by garden culture. I Usually avoided by stock. The leaves i resemble clover but are acid. Stock very fond of this in its young state. Root edible. Fibre can be prepared from the inner bark. The flbre is soft and glossy and should form a good warp yarn. When in seed, if eaten in quantity, may injure stock by inflaming the stomach. Of no known economic value. Several of these are worth the notice of Y our florists. Sometimes grown in gardens. t Naturalized in Victoria from the other States, where it is native. ioSeft., ]gi2.] Vcnuicular Names ,>J Victoriau Plants. Vernacular Names of Victorian Plants— con;^>mfi(Z. Botanical Name. Popular Name. Use or Character. .S69 DiCOT VLEDONE.^ -C'HURIPETALE.i; STERHUHOEiB. llrachyehiton — •populneus, R.Br. liuelingia — pannosa, R.Br. . . ■Co mmerson ia — Praseri, J. Gay . . Thomasia — : petalocalj'.x, F.v.M. Liis irroetalum — dasyphyllum, Siebar Behrii, F.v.M. . . parviflorum, Rudge Baueri, Steetz . . ferrugineum. Smith Schuizenii, F.v.M. EL.\EO0.=iRP.iCE.B. Elaeocarpus — holopetalus, F.v.M. 'cyaneus, Ait. EUPHORBIACE-E. Euphorbia — erythrantha, F.v.M. Drummondii. Boissier eremophila. Cumi. Poranthera — ericoides, Klotzsoh. eorymbo.sa, Brongu. microphylla, Brongu. Mierantheum — hexandrum, Hook. f. Psfudanthus — ovalifolius, F.v.M. divaricatissimus, Beiith. Bejeria — viscosa, Miquel . . lasiocarpa, F.v.M. opaca, F.v.M. Ricinocarpus — pinifolius, Deitcmt. Bertya — Cuaninghamii, Plaudion oleaefolia. Plaucli. :(Mitchelli. J. Mueller) Findlayi, F.v.M. A iiipdrea — spirtioides. Brougn. Phyllanthus — Fuerarohrii, F.v.M. lacunarius, F.v.M. trachyspermus, F.v.M. thymoides, Sieber (jtunnii. Hook. f. Kurrajoiig Kerrawan Blackfellow's Hemp Paper Flower Shrubby Velvet Busli Pink Velvet Bush Small-flowered Velvet Bus White Velvet Bush Rusty Velvet Bush Drooping Velvet Busli . Blaek Olive-berr.i Blue Olive-berry YiypoiiYS M~conlinui>d. The tap-roots or young trees are used as tood by the aborigines. In drought periods the leaves and branches are used as fodder A strong fibre is obtained" from the bark. Timber is soft, fibrous and useless. The timber is comparatively close grained and fairly hard, but is difficult to season. Sometimes grown in gardens. No known economic value. Red Spurge Flat Spurge Desert Spurge Heath Poranthera ClusteredPoranthera Small-leaved Poranthera . . Bo.v Micrantheum Oval-leaved Pseudauthus Round-leaved Pseudauthus Sticky Wallaby-bush Large Wallaby-bush Small Wallaby-bush Wedding-bush . . Sticky Bertya . . Olive Bertya .Mountain Bertya Broom Spurge . . Sand Spurge Lagoon Spurge . . Dwarf Spurge . . Thyme Spurge . . Shrubby Spurge Some species may prove worthy of garden cultivation. The wood is white, close grained, and good tor joiners work. Wood dark coloured ; very tough ; makes good handles and i)oles. ^ Frequently stated to poison sheep but L in the case of E. Drummondii^ this r has been shoun to be incorrect E J eremophila may be actually poisonous' -No known economic value. is considered a poison plant inN.S. Wales The wood is very hard, and is used for turnery. I No known economic value. A handsome shrub, well worth cultivating in gardens. Yields a clear gum-resin, but its economic value is unknown. .No known economic value. * Plants marked thus are listed either as growing plants or ; Now included in B. oleiefolia. as seeds by one or more of our florist*. 57° JcuTual of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo Sept., 1912. Vernacular Names op Victorian Plants — continued. Botanical Name. Popular Name. Use or Character. DicoTYLEDONE.E — Choripetai.e.e Hvpogyn^ — Continued. BVPHORBIXCE.E— continued. Claoxylon — australe, Biillon Adriana — tomentosa, Gaurlich. qiiadripirtita, Gaiidicli. . . Omalanthus^ Lescheniultiauus, A. de Jussieu URTICAC'E.E. Trema — aspera, Blume . . Ficus^ scabra, G. Forster Parietaria — debilis, G. Forster Australina — ■ Muelleri, Wedd. . . Urtica — incisa, P.jiret. Fagace.e. Vagus — Ciininii''hanui. Hooker Casuarinace.e. Casuarina — • *quadrivalvis, Libill. lepidoplilola, F.v.M. Luehiiianni, R. T. Baker. . Belar Buloke *glauca, Sieber . . Grey Buloke *suberosa, Otto & Dietrich Black Sheoke paludosa, Sieber distyla, Veiitenat nana. .Sieber Marsh Sheoke Stunted Sheoke Dwarf Sheoke Celastrace.b. Celastrus — australis, Harvey & F.v.M. Staff-climber SAPINDACEJi!. Nephelium— *leiocarpum, F.v.M. Smooth Ramboi Heterodendron — oleaefolium, Desfont. Brittlewood Woolly Bitterbush Common Bitterbush Poplar Spurge Rough Hemp Nettle Sand Paper Fig Forest Pellitory Smooth Nettle . . Scrub nettle Myrtle Beech Drooping Sheoke Berrigan Wood, light yellow colour, hard, close grained, useful for cabinet-work. No known economic value. A suspected poison plant, but no poisonous substance has been extracted. Is generally considered poisonous to stock in dry seasons, but probably is only mechanically injurious. Of no known economic value, but might be used for polishing or scouring. Useless weeds, of which the last has severe stinging properties. Useful for .sash and door-work and all kinds of light joinery, also for furniture. All tlie casuarinas can be pollarded for cattle fodder. Foliage eagerly eaten by cattle, and useful to stock of all sorts in drought time. A first-class fuel wood. A hard close grained wood, useful for cabinet and ornamental work. Of rapid growth. Wood valuable for staves, shingles, &c. Useful as forage for stock in time of drought. Timber tough, coarse-grained and useful for many purposes. Stock fond of the young growth. Of some fodder value intimesof scarcity. A hardy evergreen climber. Greedily eaten by stock when otherherbage is scarce. Wood hard and useful for tool handles. Wood a yellowish colour with a black or dark brown heart ; used for rollers and rolling pins. "Plants marked thus are listed either as growing plants or as seeds by one or more of our florists. lo Sept.. 19 r2.] Vernacular Names of Victoria}/ Plants. 57 i Vernacular Names of Victorian Plants — continued. Botanical Name. Popular Name. Use or Character. DlCOTYLEDONE.-E — CHORIPETALEiE H\TOGYN.E — Continued. Sapind ACE.E —continued. D}dona?.i — triquetra, Wendl. •visco.sa, L. procumbent. F.v.M. lobulata, F.v.M. calycina, Cunningham bursarifolia. Behr. it F.v.M. Baueri, Endlicher. humilis. Endlicher. boronifolia, G. Don. tenuifolia, Lindley stenoz}-ga, F.v.M. STACKHOrSIAC'E.E. Stackhousia — pulvinaris. F.v.M. linarit'olia. Cunning. flav"a, Hook, viminea, Smith . . spathulata, Sieber Frankexiace.^;. Frankenia — nauciflora. D.C. PLUMBAGIN'ACE.E. Statice — australis, Spreng. POETULACACE^. Portulucu — oleracea, L. Calandrinia — • volubilis, Benth. calyptrata. Hook. f. corrigioloides F.v.M. brevipedata, F.v.M. pygmaea, F.v.M. C'lii'jtonia — australasica, Hook. f. Montia — • fontana. L. Caryophyllace.e. Stellaria — pungens, Brongn. palu.stris, Retzius flaccida, Hook. multiflora, Hook. Sajina — procumbens, L. apetala, L. Large-leaved Hopbush Giant Hopbush Trailing Hopbush Tall Hopbush . . Angular Hopbush Lessor Hopbush Crinkled IIoi)bush Dwarf Hopbush Hairy Hopbush Thin-leaved Hopbush Desert Hopbush Alpine Stackhousia Creamy Stackhousia Yellow Stackhousia Slender Stackhousia Coast Stackhousia Yellow Sea-lavender Common Purslane Twining Purslane Pink Purslane . . Strap Purslane . . Short-stalked Purslane Dwarf Purslane \yhite Purslane Waterblinks Prickly Starwort Marsh Starwort Limp Starwort . . Many Flowered Starwort. . Spreading Pearlwort Small Pearlwort Wood light coloured, close grained. Wood of a l)ro«Ti colour, close grained and hard. Used in India for tool handles, &c. No known economic value. Timber hard, tough, close grained. One of the best forage shrubs. Sheei) are particularly fond of it. No special economic value, but some - formerly provided a substitute for hops. ^ Herbs of some decorative value. Of no known economic value. Might he wortliy garden plants. II adn tu the list of Of slight pasture value when better > fodder is scarce, but generally classed as useless weeds. No known economic value. *See over page. * Plants marked thus are listed either as growing plants or as Reeds by one or more of our florists 572 Joiiriia] of A i^^ri culture. Victoria. [lo Sept.. 1912^ Vernacular Names of Victorian Plants — continued. Botanical Namn. Popular Name. Use or Character. DlCOTVLEDONE.^ CHORIFETALEiE HYPOGVK^': - COntivVfd. CARYOPHYlLACEiE — continued. I Colobanthus — subulatus, Hook. f. Billardieri, Fcnzl. Scleranthus — pungens, R. Br. di.mder, R.Br. . . minusculus, F.v.M. bitlorus, Hook. f. mniaroides, F.v.M. Gypsophila — tubulosa, Boissier Spergularia — rubra, J. & C. Presl. Drymaria — filiformis, Benth. Polycarpun — tetraphyUum, L. AmarantacEjE. Atternanthera — nodiflora, R.Br. Trichinium — obovatum, Gaud. alopecuroideun, Lindl. nobile, Lindl. macrocephaluni, R.Br. e.xaltatuni, Benth. erubescens, Mog. spathulatum, R.Br. Amaranthus — maorocarpus, Benth. Alpine Colebanth Coast Colebanth Prickly Knawel . . Tutted" Knawel . . Cushion Knawel Twin-flowered Knawel Mossy Knawell . . Chalk wort Sand Spurrey Thread Spurrey Four-leaved Allseed Joy weed Silvertails Long Tails Yellow Tails Feather Heads . . Lamb Tails Hairy Tails Pussy Tails Desert Amaranth 1 ! The native members ot this order have- no special commertdal, pastoral, or horticultural value, e.vcept perhf-ps a. variety of Stellar a paluftr s, which would make a pretty edging to flower beds. The species of Stelhwia and Sagina though sometimes troublesome- as weeds of cultivation have a slight fodder value in pastures. Nil known economic value. All the species of Trichinium have a certain decorative va.lue. and some - are eaten by stock, particularly in dry seasons (especially T. obovatum,. T. nobile. and T. erubescens). No special economic value. {To be coi/ti)iiied .) A G(30D SALT HOUSE, LICK, AND DEVICE FOR FOOT ROT. During the past season there have been many deaths from starvation,, impaction, &c., and in the latter case many animals have been in good condition. Numerous licks have been recommended in these columns from time to time, and it is of interest to know that favorable reports on their- use are being made. Mr. Temple Smith, Chief Field Officer, in a recent visit to the North-Eastern District found one farmer who, having lost a con.siderable number of cattle and sheep, resorted to a lick made of 100 lbs. coarse salt, 10 lbs. slaked lime, 10 lbs. bone meal, 3 lbs. sulphur, ^ lb. sulphate of iron, and molasses sufficient to allow of the whole being made into a stiff lolly. After this he only lost two head of cattle, although the weather and general conditions had gone from bad to worse. A great saving of life was attributed to the use of the lick by farmers who had adopted it early in the season. Salt and sulphur encourage lo Sept., igi2.] Gofld Salt House. Lick, and Device jor Foot Rot . 5 7> salivation, and thus assist as an aid to digestion. The latter is al.so a laxative ; the lime and bone meal supply certain elements of food, and the sulphate of iron is a good tonic for the blood ; while the molasses makes the mixture more palatable and is a food that helps to supply warmth to the animal body. One farmer who has had great success has arranged an ingenious method of supplying the lick and at the same time a method of treatment for foot rot. A shed made of bush timber and roofed with iron, shingles, or bark, has been made in each paddock to protect the lick from the weather. The dimensions are 9 feet by 3 feet by 3 feet in height to the eaves, with an overlap of the roof of at least i foot at the eaves. Rails and saplings are nailed to the sides and ends, through which the sheep gam access to the salt, without being able to stand in the troughs in which the mixture is placed. For cattle a higher shed, with rails so fixed that they can be reached over, is constructed. A still further addition for the treatment of foot rot is the placing of trays on each side of the shed 2 inches deep and 2 feet wide, in which burnt lime is spread from time to time, and in which the sheep must stand while engaged at the lick. This has been found of excellent assistance in keeping in check the disease, though not a cure in bad cases, where more stringent treatment is neces- sary. The lime carried away by the sheep and spread in the paddocks is also beneficial to the land, and in time, when sufficient quantity has been used, will materially improve the quality of the grasses, encouraging the growth of trefoils and clovers, and generally sweetening the soil. The sketch appended will give some idea as to the construction of the sheds. The troughs can be hewn out of a log, the depth of the cut being not more than 5 inches for sheep and 10 inches for cattle. They should be raised off the ground a few inches to preserve them from rotting. The trays for holding lime can be made of strong galvanized sheet iron. Spouting should be provided to prevent water from the roof dripping into the travs. 574 Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo Sept., 191 2. SECOND VICTORIAN EGG-LAYING COMPETITION, 1912-13. H. V. Hawkins, Poultry Exfert. The Winter Test, in connexion with the Second Burnley Egg-laying Competition, came to a conclusion on the 14th August. As will be seen. U'hite Leghorns again won the prize for the greatest number of eggs laid during the period (first four months). The Black Orpingtons, however, have scored well, and for many weeks past have put u|) the highest weekly scores. During, the last month many frosts have been experienced, together with cold, sleety showers. The necessity for providing good accommodation for profitable results — a feature, too, often overlooked in the selection of a j)Oultry farm site — has been well emphasized, for, in spite of the elements, the yield of eggs has been very satisfactory; 21,182 having been laid, or an average number of 307 per pen, as against 15,021 laid last year, 01 an average of 224 per pen, when Mr. W. G. Swift's pen won the contest with a total of 479 eggs. The prizes offered in connexion with the Winter Te.st are for the greatest total number of eggs laid by a pen during the first four months of the competition, terminating on the evening of 14th August — the first prize b-ing ^4 4s., and the second ^2 2s. : — No. eggs First Prize — iNIr. Samuel Brown, Gembrook South ; White Leghorns 480 .Second Prize — Mr. George Edwards, Mentone, White Leghorns ... 456 Mr. W. McLister, Melbourne-road, Spotswood, White Leghorns 454 Mr. F. G. Eagleton. Ballarat Hospital, Ballarat. White Leghorns 451 The winning pen opened the competition in perfect condition, and established a lead which has been well maintained. One pen, under Rule 12, has been disqualified on account of not having attained the standard weight of 24 oz. to the last dozen eggs laid. This was pen No. 2i^ (Old English Game). The remainder of birds competing are producing eggs ranging from 24 to 27 ozs. per dozen. Within the last month very few birds have become broody, due, no doubt, to the cold weather experienced. Two replacements have occurred — one of the birds became paralyzed, and one, due to wasting, had to be returned to the owners. Feeding has been carried out on practically the same lines as pub- lished in the August issue of the Journal — the only alteration being an increase of one part of maize to the evening meal to compensate for the extremely cold weather being experienced. lo Sept., igii.] Second Viclorian Egg-lay'ui}:^ Compctitio)!. 575 SECOND VICTORIAN EGG-LAYING COMPETITION, 1912-13. Commencing I5lh April, 1912. CONDUCTED AT BURNLEY HORTICULTURAL SCHOOL. Eggs laid during competition. Position in Pen. Breed. Xauie of Owner. April 15 to July 14. 358 July 15 to Aug. 14. 122 Total t(i Date ( 4 months). Competi- tion. 40 White Leghorns . . S. Brown . . 480 1 31 Geo. Edwards 328 J 28 456 2 23 W.McLister 327 127 454 3 28 F. G. Lagleton 322 129 451 4 47 J. E. Bradley 314 127 441 5 70 C. J. Beatty 322 113 435 6 20 E. Waldon 303 127 430 7 9 .1. S. Spotswood 304 122 426 8 3 Black Orpingtnu ; . . King and Watson 313 100 413 9 1 White Legliorns . . J. Campbell 282 126 408 10 46 Black Orpingttjns . . H. A. Laugdou 278 124 402 11 8 D. Fisher . . 280 118 398 12 48 White Loglwrns . . Griffin Cant 288 105 393 13 C2 R. W. Pope 280 105 385 14 a7 C. B. Bertelsmeier . . 254 126 380 15 24 Sargentri Poultry Yards 260 119 379 16 45 Wuoldridge Bros. 248 127 375 17 -J 11. L. Applelord 253 117 370 j w 20 J. B. Brigden 248 122 370 38 11. Moy 259 109 368 20 9 B. K/Jwlinson 240 124 364 21 30 Mrs. Stevenson 264 99 363 22 14 J. H. Wright 233 129 362 23 39 W. G. Swift 260 100 360 24 50 A. Ahpee . . 248 106 354 25 6 J. B. McArthur 236 116 352 26 49 W. Purvis 225 125 350 27 13 W. B. CreUin 216 132 348 28 44 A. W. Hall 242 105 347 29 15 W. H. Steer 212 127 339 30 63 Percy Walker 218 120 338 31 61 Black Orpingtons . . J. Ogden 181 152 333 32 7 White Leghorns . . A. H. Padman 256 69 325 33 33 H. McKenzie 201 118 319 34 19 Cowan Bros. 198 116 314 35 56 M. A. Monk 195 118 313 36 35 C. H. Busst 200 112 312 37 42 Mrs. Kempster J 93 112 305 38 53 H. Hodges .. 203 101 304 39 5 J. H. Brain 167 127 294 40 10 E.C. Brown Leg- liorns S. P. Giles 165 121 286 41 64 Wliite Legliorns . . H. Merrick 198 St; 284 42 51 )» H. Hanimill 165 il8 283 43 60 .. Miss B. E. Ryan 155 lU 269 44 54 ,, F. R. DeGaris 155 106 261 45 43 ,, G. Purton . . 153 106 259 46 58 ,, W. J. Stock ito 93 253 47 65 ,, A. H. Thomson 150 97 247 48 16 Silver Wyandottes R. Jobling 120 123 243 49 52 Black Minorcas Chalmers Bros. 1?9 1(13 242 1 50 57 White Leghorns . . B. Walker 135 107 242 27 >. E. Xash . . 149 S6 235 } - 12 „ T. H. Stafford 158 77 235 4 I! J. Blackbume 150 84 234 54 69 >> Morgan and Watson . . 121 112 233 55 32 1. S. Briindrett 119 112 231 t r,^ 11 Black Orpingtons . . T. S. Goodi-sson 106 125 231 J 56 41 White Leghorns . . A. Stringer 13 i 79 211) 58 18 „ B. Mitchell 13S 70 208 59 68 ,y W. J. McKeddie 97 109 206 60 55 Brown Leghorns . . J. Matheson 90 115 205 61 21 White Leghorns . . J. O'Loughlin 99 176 62 66 .. J. Moloney 74 95 169 63 22 »j W. N. Ling 105 59 164 64 59 „ W. J. Seabridge 102 51 153 65 36 Old English Game K. J. Barrett 81 69 150 66 67 Anconas . . A. E. Manning 44 103 147 67 17 White Leghorns S. Childs . . 48 60 108 34 „ R. F. B. Moore 43 65 108 1 68 26 (Reserved) Totals . . . . 1 — 13,759 7,423 21.182 1 57<5 journal of Agriculture , Victoria. [lo Sept., 191 2. HINTS TO SETTLERS. Bv ] . W'Uson, Silo Builder. A. — Six -hail Milking and Feed SJied. The accompanying illustrations are for a 6-l>ail milking and feed shed. The following is a list of material required : — Hardwood. 4 inches x I5 inches, thirty-nine y-ft. Wall Studs. 4 inches x 3 inches, two ii-ft. Front Studs. 4 inches x 4 inches, five 7-ft. and five 6-ft. 6-in. Bail Posts. 4 inches x 2 inches, five n-ft. Bail Rails. 3 inches x 2 inches, seven 5-ft. and six 6-ft. Studs and Tongues. 3 inches x ig inches, four 9-ft. and four 17-ft. Runners for Bails. 4 inches x 2 inches, two 17-ft. Collar Ties. 4 inches x 2 inches, eighteen 12-ft. Rafters. 3 inches x 2 inches, two 17-ft. and two 9-ft. Capping for troughs. 3 inches x I5 inches, ten 17-ft. and ten 9-ft. i'urlins. 6 inches x 1 inch, two i4-ft. Ridge. 4 inches x 2 inches, four 17-ft. and four 14-ft. Plates. 4 inches x 3 inches, one r7-ft. and one lo-ft. Plates. 3 inches x i inch, four 17-ft. and four 20-ft. Braces. 4 inches x 2 inches, 50-ft. Gable Studs. 3 inches x I5 inches, thirteen i-ft. 9-in. Trough Bearers. 3 inches x 2 inches, thirteen 4-ft. 6-in. Trough Studs. 3 inches x I5 inches, thirteen i-ft. 3-in. Trough Studs. Red Deal. Weatherboards, 1,400 feet. Barge and Cover Boards, 6 inches x | inch, T. & G., eight 13-ft. Flooring, 6 inches x | inch, T. & G., for Feed Troughs and Door, 260 feet. Angle stops, 3 inches x i^ inches, four 9-ft. Ironmonger, &^c. Iron for Roof, 56 sheets, 6 feet, 26-gauge, galvanized, corrugated. Ridging, galvanized, 16 inches, 26-gauge, five lengths. Spring-head Nails, ten packets. Wire Nails, 6 lbs. 4 inch ; 8 lbs. 3 inches ; 42 lbs. 2 inch. T Hinges, one pair, 18 inches. Bolts, 6 inches x 5 inch., six. Spouting, galvanized, 5 inches, O.G., ten lengths. Down Piping, galvanized, 2 inches, seven lengths. Brackets for 5-in. Spouting, two dozen. At present price of material in Melbourne it would cost ^24 landed on trucks at Spencer-street station. If the walls are covered with iron instead of weatherboards, 10 more packets of spring-head nails will be required, also 32 sheets of 9-ft. galvanized corrugated iron and battens for iron 3 inches x i| inch hardwood — four 13-ft., four 17-ft. (Weather- boards and nineteen 9 ft. 4 in. x i|-in. wall studs would not be required or any 2-in. wire nails.) The difference in cost of weatherboard and iron walls is ;^i for material, but there is a big saving in labour if iron is used and fixed to the inside of the walls. The need for limewashing is done away with, and the smooth surface can be more quickly and effectively cleaned by swabbing it at required intervals with a swab or broom. Specifications for Shed. The studs of back and two end walls are 4-in. x i|-ini. hardwood, spaced 18 inches centre to centre, checked in | of an inch into 4-in. x 2-in. lo Sept.. 191 -.] Hi)its to Settlers. 'r^ll Section rf«nw'"ii*/i ,,'"1" Ifiiiillil ill i;ttom plates will do to fix the ends of iron and divide the .space between with two horizontal 3-in x i^-in. battens, sinking them in flush with studs. The rafters of 4-in. x 2-in. hardwood, spaced about 3 ft. centres, well nailed to top plate and ridge (ridge 6-in. x i-in. hardwood). Fix purlins, 3-in. x i|-in. hardwood to carry iron spaced not more than 3 feet, and well nailed to rafters. Cover the roof with 26-gauge galvanized corrugated iron, allowing a 6-in. lap at joint cover Ridge with i6-in galvanized ridging, use 2|-in galvanized spring-head nails for fixing on iron. Bails are formed with 4in. x 4-in. posts sunk 2 feet in ground and mortised to receive the partition rails, 4-in. x 2-in. hardwood. Fix runners of 3-in. x i^-in. hardwood. The first one from floor to top edge of runner is 9 inches, and the second comes level wath top edge of bail post 5 feet from the floor. The posts will require to be checked out to receive runners, leaving 2\ inches on posts to allow the bail tongues to work freely. Fix studs as shown; the first stud is 12 inches, from post, then allow 7 inches between this stud and bail tongue, when, the bail is closed a 6-in. bolt is provided for tongue. The feeding troughs are made as shown on plan ; studs of 3 inches x 2 inches sunk i foot in floor, and spaced about 2 feet apart; fix bearers (3 inches x i| inches), keeping the top edge of bearer 18 inches from ground. Cover framing with 6-in. X f-in. T. and G. flooring. Make a movable partition for each bail, which when removed will allow the troughs to be cleansed from end to end. Caps of 3 inches x 2 inches rounded on one side are well fastened to^ top edges of trough. The quantity of concrete required to cover the floor as shown, 5 inches deep, is 4 cubic yards, and the approximate cost of labour and material jQ\ i5-s. per cubic yard. The whole woodwork on outside of building should have at least two coats of paint, but paint or wash should not be applied until the timber is thoroughly sea.soned, otherwise it will hasten the decay. B. — A Durable White-wash. The following is a durable white-wash (American Congress recipe), used on White Hou.se, Washington : — Slack \ bushel of unslacked lime with boiling water, covered to keep in steam. Strain through fine sieve. Add a peck of salt previously dissolved in warm water. 3 lbs. ground rice, boiled to a thin consistency ; \ lb. powdered whiting ; i lb. clean glue previously dissolved. Boil the mixture one hour in a small kettle, then add 5 gallons of hot water, stir it well and let it stand for a few days, and put on hot with a brush. It remains brilliant for many years. Colouring matter mav be added if desired. One pint covers one yard. C. — Concrete for Cow-sheds, g'c. In mixing concrete it is just as important to .select good stone, sand, and clean water as to choose the brand of cement. Experience proves that the most reliable stone is basalt. The cement, sand, gravel, or broken stone, should first be thoroughly mixed in a dry state, and then again when moistened witli water. A lo Sept., 1912.] Orchard and Garden Notes. 579 watering can with a rose can be used for the purpose. The proportions for concrete for general pur[)Oses is one part cement, three parts sand, and .six parts broken stone, gravel, or ashes. AH concrete should be lightly rammed and a surplus of water should be avoided, as otherwise the strength and density of the concrete is affected. The proportion of water is correct if after only light ramming the liquid appears on the surface. Care should be taken to prevent the quick drying of concrete by protecting it from the direct rays of the sun and sprinkling from time to time with water. When placing a s'.'cond layer of concrete, it is best to do so betort,- the first is dry, otherwise the first layer will require to be scratched, cleaned, and wetted, so as to insure a firm hold. Three inches of con- crete, with I inch of facing, is sufficient for silo floors ; while for cow- sheds and other floors, where there is a lot of traffic, 4 to 6 inches of concrete, with 2 inches of facing, is required. The facing for cow-shed floors should be made with a greater proportion of cement than ordinary concrete, and the metal should be finer and the surface have a slightly rough finish ; this will prevent the cows from slipping. To prepare the floor it should be levelled off, well rammed, then covered w-ith 2 inches of sand ; this should be well wetted. The concrete is laid in sections, dividing each section with a batten, which is removed when the concrete is set, and the spaces where battens are taken from are grouted in with cement mortar ; this prevents cracking caused by the shrinkage of concrete. The facing should be put on before the concrete is set. Gutters, corners, and edges should be rounded off. For cement mortar the cement and clean sharp sand (not too fine) should be thoroughly mixed in a dry state. Cement mortar of one part cement and two parts sand is us(h1 when a high degree of strength and density is required, such as machinery foundations, damp cellars, &c. , but for masonry, plaster- ing, and general purposes, one part cement and three parts sand is a suit- able mixture. A smooth surface or platform is required for mixing. A board for this purpose can readily ht made from any surplus timber avail- able. Gauge boxes are necessary for measuring the quantities ; and in making boxes it is advisable to allow the side boards to project past the ends of the box, so as to form handles for shifting the boxes. Do not make more concrete than can be used in half-an-hour ; set or hardened cement mortar or concrete is quite useless. Its initial set should not be disturbed. Cement work should never be applied on dry or absorbent surfaces, unless those surfaces have been previously wetted. ORCHARD AND GAllDEX NOTES. E. E. Pcscoii, Principal, School of Horticulture , Burnley. The Orchard. The winter seasonable works, such as pruning and planting, with the exception of Citrus fruits in the latter case, will now be completed ; and the time has arrived for the new season's work to be commenced. The spring ploughing should now be prcceeded with as earlv as possible, so as to conserve all soil moisture. If the ploughing be delayed, it frequently happens that, owing to dry weather setting in, the soil surface becomes hardened and compacted, and in that condition it is very difficult 580 Journal of Agriculture , Victoria. [10 Sept., 1912. to turn over. Cultivation .should quickly follow ploughing, so that there shall be no lumps or clods on the surface. Where it is intended to use •stable manure, or to spread fresh soil in the orchard, this should be done before ploughing, so that it may be well ploughed under. As soon as cover crops are in full flower, they should also be ploughed in. If the soil be warm, Citrus trees of all descriptions may be planted, the ground having been previously prepared for their reception. The planting of these trees may be spread over September and October ; and in ■cooler districts they may even be left until November. Spraying. Peach aphis will be makmg its appearance on peach, nectarine, and Japanese plum trees, if it has not already done so. As soon as it appears, frequent sprayings with a nicotine solution will be required to keep it in •check. It is advisable to spray early, and to spray a second time a few hours after the first spraying has been completed. After the first spraying, the aphides that remain alive generally endeavour to find a more congenial position. These moving ones, as well as the weakened ones, are then readily dealt with by the second application. Red oil emulsion should not be used, as this is only a winter spray. As soon a.s the flower buds of the apple and pear are opening, these *rees siiouid be sprayed with Bordeaux mixture for black spot. Peach and nectarine trees will need a Bordeaux spraying for leaf curl ; and plum trees also, for plum or prune rust. In spraying peach trees for peach aphis and leaf curl, or for aphis and prune rust, the tobacco solution and Bordeaux mixture may be safely u.sed as a mixture without any fear of damage to the trees. In some cases the copper-soda spray is joreferred by orchardists, in lieu of Bordeaux mixture. It is certainly good in many instances ; and, where fresh lime is not procurable, or where the climate is dry, the copper- soda mixture is useful as a fungicide. It is, however, not so adhesive as Bordeaux, and is readily washed off by rain or heavy dews. The copper - soda mixture .should not be used on stone fruits, particularly peaches, as the foliage of these trees is too delicate for the use of this spra}-. The recognised formulae are: — Bordeaux : 6 lbs. bluestone, 4 lbs. fresh lime, and 50 gallons of w^ater. Copper-soda : 6 lbs. bluestone, 81bs. washing soda, and 50 gallons of water. If the winter spraying for the Bryobia mite has been neglected, the trees should be given a good spraying with a nicotine solution, or with Robinson's Pine Spray, Soaperine, or some other similar preparation. The work of grafting should be completed early in the month. The most useful method of re-working old trees is to cut the head right awav. leaving only the .stump. Then grafts can be put in according to the fancy of the grower. The old method of cleft grafting has been superseded b) the bark or crown graft. The latter method does not cause any damage to the wood, and thus, with care, no rotting can take place. The best method of bark grafting is the saddle graft ; that is, the graft is inserted in the bark, and a strip of bark is carried right across the trunk and inserted in the bark on the opposite side. This method is much slower than the ordinary bark graft, but it insures a much quicker healing over of the old stump. lo Sept., 1915.] OrcJiard and Garden Xotes. 581 Vegetable Garden. The vegetablt^ plnt.s .should be cleaned from all weeds, having the light Aveeds dug in and the stronger ones pulled out and rotted in the compost heap. The suriace should be worked up to a very fine tilth after digging : it must be kept constantly loose with the hoe to keep the soil cool ; an(J prior to digging it will be advantageous to give a top dressing of lime. If the weather be dry or windy, all newly-planted plants should be frequently watered. In transplanting seedlings, it is a help to dip the Avhole plant in water \/efore planting. Any seedlings that are ready may be planted out; tomato plants may l)e planted out under shelter until the frosts are over. At the end of the month a sowing of French bean seeds may be made. Seeds of peas, broad beans, beet, cabbage, Kohl rabi, radish, turnip, cauliflower, lettuce, oarrot, parsnip, &c., may be .sown in the open. Seeds of melons, ■cucumbers, pumpkins, marrows, and similar plants may be planted in frames for transplanting after the frosts have gone. Flower Garden. After digging, the surface mu.st be kept constantly stirred with the hoe, so as to have it lojse and friable for cooling and for moisture con- .serving purpose.^. All weeds must be kepr down, as they are robbers of plant food and moisture at this season of the year. Shrubs of all kinds may still be planted out, and these should be well Avatered after planting. Rose and other aphides must be watched for, and treated according to instructions given in last months' notes. Rose scale should be sprayed with lime-sulphur wash, or with kerosene emulsion. This pest will soon dis- appear if the bu.shes are kept open to admit the air and the sunlight freely. Rose mildew will now be appearing, and the plants as well as the soil should be .sprinkled with liberal dustings of sulphur. Sulphide of potas- sium is also a good specific for this fungus trouble, using it at the rate of I ounce to 3 gallons of water. Cannas, early chrysanthemums, and early dahlia tubers may be planted •out, as well as all kinds of herbaceous plants, such as delphiniums, per- ■ennial phlox, and asters, &c. The clumps of these should be well divided, and in planting they should be fed with a liberal quantity of stable manure. Beds should be prepared and well dug over for exhibition chrysanthemums and dahlias. Wattles of all kinds mav be planted out, and many of these are suitable for garden work. For trees. A^cacia Baihyana (C'ootamundra), A. saligna (West Au.stralian willow wattle). A. sfectabilis (w^eeping), A. vernicif.ua, A. luttata, A. prominens, A. leprosa, A. longi folia. A. cultriformis, and A. data are all u.setul. While as shrubs, the following may be grown : — A. ruhida, A. Fame si ana. A. myrti folia. A. acinacea, A. Mitchelli, and A. pod vlari folia. Acacias may l)e readily pruned, the work being done after flowering ; and if this work be commenced when the plants are fairly young, they may l)e trained into beautiful and shapely bushes and trees. It is also a good time to sow the seed. The outer covering of acacia seed is very hard, and the growing root is not able of its own accord to penetrate it. The seed must, therefore, be immersed tor a few moments in boiling water, and allowed to soak for at least twelve hours. After this, they may be planted direct into the garden or into pots for subsequent transplanting 582 Jounial of Agriculture, Victoria. [10 Sept., 1912. SUGAR ]5EET. The phenomenal sugar beet rcx>l represented ujjon the opposite page was- produced by a local syndicate of Maffra growers upon their land in the Sale-road. The beet measured from the crown to the tip 48 inches, and is properly shaped, that is, it is of the type desired in factory operations. This shape of beet can only be secured by deep subsoiling. which is one of the prime essentials in beet root cultivation. ANSWERS TO CORRESPONDEiNTS. The Staff of the Depivtment has been ori Agridiliurc, Victoria. "ROYAL MEDAL 99 The Machine Does all the Work* Every dairyman who v/ould enjoy the utmost in results with a minimum of working expense^ labour, and worry, will do well to investigate the money-making, labour- saving, leisure-giving merits of the '^ Royal Medal *^ Milking Machine — the Milker that is different — and write for the ^^Royal Medar^ Booklet. ROYAL MEDAL MILKING MACHINES 34 QUEEN ST., MELBOURNE. London OKice— Caxton House, J. H. DAVIES, Westminster, S.W. Manar/inij Director, POST FREE BOOKLET COUPON. "■^ Royal Medal" Milkiiii). Machines, 34 Queen Street, Melbourne, Please forward a copy 0/ your Free Booklet, It is to be understood that I consider inyself under no obligation. Name.. A ddres: J. 12. JouriiaJ of Agriculture, Victoria. lo Sept., 19 12.]! CB 'Phone 4881 Central. The Australasian Mutual Live Stoek Insuranee Society lw,, KOYAL BAMK CHAMBERS, 70 ELIZABETH-ST., MELBOURNE. ^tvcctcirs: Hon, AGAR WYNNE, M.P. HENRY GARDNER, Esq. CHAS. YEO, Esq., J.P. WALTER G. HISCOCK, A.C.P.A., Manager. FARMERS and BREEDERS. We will undertake to INSURE YOUR LIVE STOCK at the Lowest Current Rates obtainable in Australia, OTHER DEPARTMENTS OF BUSINESS. ^ Fire, Marine, P'idelity Ouarantee, Plate Glass, Personal Aixident and Sickness, Employers' Liability, Workmen's Compensation, Public Risk, Motor Car, and Burglary. INSURE WITH THIS SOCIETY, and RECOMMEND IT TO YOUR NEIGHBOURS. A GOOD AUSTRALIAN * Why didn't you put your penny m the plate thii Tnorwhig f" " Pxause it was a foreign mission, and dada say» it's not right lo send capital out of the country," "OLDS" PETROL Hopper Jacket or C Kl ^ I Nl F O Tank Cooling Type. tl^Nall^CiO Also PREMIER GAS ENGINES. POWER GAS ENGINES. CLUTTERBUCK BROS., 585 Bourke-st., Melbourne. Visitors to Melbourne Show ^ CALL AT- Showrooms, 585 Bourke Street, or Stand 112, Show Grounds, for particulars of BLAGKSTGNE n STATIONARY & PORTABLE OIL ENGINES lo Sept., 19' 2.] Journal of Agric/tlfi/rc. Victoria. xix Dairy Science. The last word. Scientific men in the dairy cenires of Europe have given close attention to the question of feeding for milk and feeding for butter fat. It has been laid down by one of the leading German Scientists that where a large quantity of very watery food is used for some time, a poor, ihin milk is obtained : and he particularly recommends, when a milk rich in fat is wanted, to use a cake made exactly from the same material as Sunlight Oil Cake : stating that, by the use of such a cake, an increase of butter fat in the milk has been observed. Further, where the butter is inclined to be soft when the animal is fed on certain foods, Sunlight Oil Cake substituted in the ration will make the butter firmer. Every animal will not show the same corresponding result with Sunlight Oil Cake, but Sunlight Oil Cake will produce the highest milk flow and butter fat from a good milker and will increase the average from a poor milker. Sunlight Oil Cake is the last word in Dairy Science. For Post Free Book- MWILK FLOW AND BUTTER FAT increased by Scientific Feeding," By H. M. SOMER, Royal Agricultural Society, Write to Lever Brothers Limited (Dairy Department) Sydney. SUNLIGHT I ^"^'■^"teed Pure. ^^^ ^^1 I *^** thnt the name ««5unlizht" is Oil c AKfi ] See tliat the name "Sunlight' branded on every cake. Journal of /Agriculture , Victoria. [lo Sept., 1912. "HORNSBY" Petrol Engines {.STATIONARY AND PORTABLE") J-JAVE a World-wide Reputation for all round Superiority. There is nothing Equal to them. Just as suitable for Motive Power as the well-known HORNSBY OIL ENGINE. ^^#<^ Britain's BEST Oil Eng^e— THE Made in Two Types— Stationary and Portable. HORNSBY. The recog:nized essentials of Oil Engine Superiority are DESIGN QUALITY SIMPLICITY ECONOMY THESE the HORNSBY possess, proved by the Fact that it has Won all the Largest Prizes ever offered. Hornsby Gas Engines and Suction Gas Plants are unequalled. R. HORNSBY & SONS LTD., MELBOURNE. SYDNET. BRISBANE. n>. No Smoke, No Smell. For Shops, Butter Factories, Verandahs, &c. BENGALIA Spirit Burners For Table Lamps, 17/6 EROS WkMfm Gas Burners & Mantles. Sole Agents : Allen, Fergusson k Seiell 508 COLLINS-ST., MELBOURNE. ioSept., 1912.] Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. \xi ^J^GOL^ WHITE LEGHORNS ^fcoLi All Stock raised on my Farm and GUARANTEED my own strain and breeding. GOVERNMENT COMPETITION, BURNLEY, VICTORIA, 1911-12— My pen of C Pullets Won Winter Test, 4 months, 479 ej?;,^s. Laid 777 i-^;;> tii^t f, niontlis. Laul 41 in 7 days. Hifjhest for whole Conii.ietition of (id pens. Leatlinjf over 10 months. Gained World's Record Second Prize, total 1,540 ej^jrs. Profit, 17/0 I>er hen. (See Journal of Ar/ricultiire .July issue.) Cockerels from 21/- each. Settings, 21/-, 30/-, 63/-, Guaranteed. W, G. SWIFT, Prospect Grove, Northcote, Victoria. pj.i-u«jj,» 'J-.! ■ ujjj.i, itn'rirai t fit For ROOFS of all descriptions USE RUBEROID ROOFING. For OUTSIDE PAINTING of barns, stables, fences, &c., "g^' INDELIBLE GOLD WATER PAINT. For INSIDE PLASTERED WALLS "J^ C A LCI MO ci>Vu^p'^s These Goods are UNEQUALLED by any others, and are obtainable from all Storekeepers. SOLE AGENTS BROOKS, ROBINSON & Co. Ltd., Melbourne. FOR BEST QUALITY IN ALL MAKES OF BINDER TWINE ■ .A-Si^ nEPOE^ > The "ANCHOR" BRAND MANUFACTURED BY JAMES MILLER & CO. PTY. LTD., MELBOURNE. Works Yarraville & Brunswick. Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo Sept., 1912. r Facts are Stubborn Things. Read This. I beg to inform you that the "BUNYIP" F'orest Devil which I recently purchased from you has amply borne out the representations made by you respecting it. With its aid I succeeded in clearinjr about 7 acres of timber, ringbarked for years, in less than four da3's. As a large percentage of these trees measured a good 3ft. at the base, the hand grubbing method would obviously have entailed weeks of hard and expensive labour. A point which I have not yet seen emphasized is this: — The hole left after a tree is pulled by the '' Forest Devil " is nothing like so large or laboriovis to refill as that left after hand grubbing — an important point. I may add that I am perfectly satisfied with the soundness of my investment, and thank you for the courtesy and promptness with which the transaction of purchase was carried out. Bamawm, Roihestc . (Signed) GUY H. T. LEV'ICK. JOHN COOPER & SONS, 287-9 ELIZABETH-ST., MELBOURNE. (Op. St. Francis's Church). HE EB LYSACHT'S W[RE NETTING MADE IN AUSTRALIA. All Sizes Manufactured, 1 inch to 4 inch Mesh. The Standard Netting of the State. LOOK FOR OUR MARKER IN EVERY ROLL. Oup manufacture of Rabbit -proof Wire Netting is known as the best throughout Australia. onxrcES tjsesij Better in quality, and owing to its being loose rolled less costly to erect than any im- ported Netting. \\' and IJ' MESH. ■-A.X-XV.A-"52'S XTS3E:I3. LYSAGHT BROS. & CO. Ltd., MANUFACTURERS. SYDNEY. AGENTS: GIBBS, BRIGHT & CO., 34 Queen Street, MELBOURNE. te SEPT..TyT2.1 Jiutnial of \gricidiure. Victoria. LITERATURE FOR AGRICULTDRISTS. PLAN AND SPECIFICATION OF SHEEP-SHEARING SHED. 2s. 6d. rosta(,e, Id. MILK CHARTS ( IMonthly and Weekly). 6d. per dozen, post free. When ordering, dairy farmers should mention " iMonthly " or " Weekly." By Professor A. ./. Eivart, Government Botanist. WEEDS, POISON PLANTS, AND NATURALIZED ALIENS OF VICTORIA. 2s. 6d. Postage : Commonwealth, IJd. ; N.Z., 5d. ; British and Foreign, lOd. PLANTS INDIGENOUS TO VICTORIA. Vol. II., 10s. Postage : Com., 2d. ; N.Z., 8d. ; Brit. & For., Is. 4d. By C. French, F.E.S., Government Entomologist. DESTRUCTIVE INSECTS OF VICTORIA. Parts L, IL, IIL, IV., V. 2s. 6d. each. Postage: Parts I. and III.. C, Id. ; N.Z.. 3d.; B. & F., fid. each. Parts II. and IV., C, Ud. ; N.Z.. 4d. J B. & F., 8d. each. Part V„ C, Id. ; N.Z., id. ; B. & F., 7d. By D. McAIpine, Govermnent Vegetable Pathologist. RUSTS OF AUSTRALIA, os. Postage : C, 2d. ; N.Z., 8d. ; B. & F., Is. 4d. SMUTS OF AUSTRALIA. 4s. Postage : C, 2Jd. ; N.Z., 9d. ; B. & F., Is. 6d. FUNGUS DISEASES OF CITRUS TREES IN AUSTRALIA. 2s. Postage : C, Id. ; N.Z., 3d. ; B. & F., 6d. FUNGUS DISEASES OF STONE FRUIT TREES IN AUSTRALIA. 2s. 6d. Postage : C, lid. ; N.Z., od. ; B. & F., lOd. SYSTEJIATIC ARRANGEMENT OF AUSTRALIAN FUNGI. Ss. Postage: C, 2d.; N.Z., 8d. ; B. & F., Is. 4d. THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, MELBOURNE, VICTORIA. Remittances from places outside the Comino:r.vealtIi to be by Money Order only. Pamphlets obtainable from the Director of Agriculture, Melbourne, Free on Application. NEW SERIES. 1. SILO CONSTRUCTION. A. S. Kenyon, C.E. 2. HINTS FOR NEW SETTLERS. T. A. J. Smith. * 3. APPLE GROWING FOR EXPORT. P. J. Carmody. * 4. BOOKKEEPING FOR FAR.AIERS. W. Mclver, A.I.A.V., A.S.A.A., Eng. 5. CIDER MAKING. J. Knight. * 6. FARM PLUMBING. C. H. Wright. 7. CITRUS FRUIT CULTURE. E. E. Pescott. 8. BUILDING HINTS FOR SETTLERS. A. S. Kenyon, C.E., and others. 9. TOBACCO CULTURE. T. A. J. Smith. 10. SILOS AND SILAGE. G. H. F. Baker. 11. THE BEET SUGAR INDUSTRY AND CLOSER SETTLEMENT. H. T. Easterhy. 12. WORMS IN SHEEP. S. S. Cameron, D.V. Sc, M.R.C.V.S. * Not yet available. Journal oj Agriculture , Victoria. [lo Sept., 1912. [3^31EQ BEET & DAIRY FARMING. THE IDEAL CLOSER SETTLEMENT COMBINATION. THE RICH BOISDALE ESTATE AND THE FAR-FAMED^ KILMANY PARK. Both of these Estates have been specially selected, purchased, and subdivided for Beet Growing and Dairying combined, and to afford opportunity to THRIFTY, EXPERIENCED WIEN WITH SMALL CAPITAL to make a comfortable living while acquiring the freehold of the land. For the possibilities and practical results read the article on "THE BEET insriDXJSTI^^^/' in the March, 191 2, issue of The Journal of Agriculture of Victoria. lo Sett. .191 ] (Utnial (if Agriculture , Victoria. BOISDALE ESTATE Subdivided into 57 blocks, and already settled with the exception of Five Blocks of from 40 to 60 acres, to carry 10 acres of Beet annually. Price, £26 to £27 10s. per acre. Total Value, £1,040 to £1,590. KILMANY PARK Applications now invited for these Unsold Allotments. 12 farm blocks from 56 to 202 acres, to carry 10 acres of Beet annually. Price, from £10 lOs. to £14 per acre. Total Value from £840 to £2,200. 9 small farm blocks from 20 to 46 acres, to carry 4 acres of Beet annuallv. Price, from £20 to £25 per acre. Total Value from £500 to £800. For particulars and conditions of purchase and as to blocks available, apply to the SECRETARY, CLOSER SETTLEMENT BOARD, MELBOURNE. For information concerning the financial aid given to suitable Settlers to stock the farms, apply to THE DIRECTOR OF AGRICULTURE, MELBOURNE. Journal of AgrictiUiire , Victoria. [lo Sept., 1912. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, VICTORIA. GOVERNMENT STUD BULLS. AVAILABLE FOR SERVICE OF COWS BELO-^GINQ TO BONA-FIDE SETTLERS UNDER THE CLOSER SETTLEMENT ACTS. Fee, 5s. pep cow. Jersey Bull "DREADNOUGHT"; Calved, 22nd October, 1908. Sire: — Sir Jack (188). Dam .-—Lady Kitchener, by Lord Melbourne. {In charge of Mr. H. Crumpler, Block 148, Bainawm.) Jersey Bull "ROSE FOX"; Calved, 19th August, 1909. Sire: — Starbright Fox (190). X'am ."—Tuberose, by Magnet's Progress (54 A.J.H.B.). [In charge of Mr. W. W. Viewers, Bamaicm). Jersey Bull "VERBENA'S BOY"; Calved, 10th January, 1908. Sire: — Aci-obat. Dam . — Verbena 2nd, by Snowdrop's Progress 2nd. (7/1 charge of Messrs. Laitig and Mundie, Block 70, Bamawm,. ) Jersey Bull "NOBILITY"; Calved, 2nd April, 1910. Sire: — Lucy's Noble of Oaklands. Z'am .-Winnie of Melrose 3rd, by Royal Blue. [In charge of Mr. E. T. Partington, Block 136, Bamaicm.) Jersey Bull "MILKY WAY"; Calved, 20th June, 1909. Sire .-—Starbright Fox (190). Dam .—Milkmaid 34th (590), by Phnlimmon (imp. 62 A.H.B. ). {In charge of H. Macaidey, Nanneella.) Jersey Bull "GOLD MEDAL"; Calved, 3rd April, 1910. Sire .-—Golden Fox (142 A.J.H.B.). Dam .•— Melba, by Greystanos 2nd. {In charge 0/ Mr. W. F. Hill, Blocks 43 arid 44, Nanneella.) Jersey Bull "MAGNET'S FOX"; Calved, 6th November, 1909. Sire .-—Fox's Laddie. Dam .-—Magnet 28th, by Defender (imp. ) (2288 H.C. J.H.B. ). {In charge of Mr. C. C. Woods, Block 29, Koyuga. ) Jersey Bull "ZODIAC"; Calved, lOth November, 1908. Sire : — Starbright Fux (190). Dam : — Zoe 4th (805), by Handsome Hero. {In charge of Mr. B. J. ChappeU, Block 12F, Stuan Hill.) Jersey Bull "GAY FOX"; Calved, 12th May, 1909. (Si?-e .-—Starbright Fox (190). Dam : — Floss, by Plinlimmon (imp. 62). {In charge of Mr. Dyer, Swa?i Hill.) 10 Sept., 1912.] Journal of AgrictiUure, Victoria. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, VICTORIA. GOVERNMENT STUD BULLS. AVAILABLE FOR SERVICE OF COWS BELONGING TO BONA-FIDE SETTLORS UNDER THE CLOSER SETTLEMENT m^-co>ucuued. Fee, 5s, per cow. Jersey Bull "WILLIAM OF AYRE"; Calved, February, 1910. Hire: — Favourite's Fox 2nd. Dam: — Bessie McCarthy, by Snowflake's Progress. {In rharr/e of Mr. J. S. Dickinson, Blork 13, Xyah.) Jersey Bull "FOX'S LAD"; Calved, .5th October, 1908. Sirt : — Fox, by Suowclioiis Progress ind. Dam: — Pansy 2nd, by Duke. {In rh/irgf of Mr. ErncM E. Borley, Block 6, Nyah.) Ayrshire Bull "PETER OF WILLOWVALE"; Calved, 30tli Sept., 1909. Siri : — Annectas Piide (243). Dam: — Madge 2ad (Appendix A.H.B.), by Red Chief (359). {In charge of Mr. F. Mclvor, Block 12F, Swan Hill.) Particulars of extended pedigrees, milking records, &c., can be obtained from each bull holder, from the resident Dairy Supervisors (Mr. O'KEEFE, Rochester, or Mr. S. J. KEYS, Swan Hill), or from The Department of Agriculture, Melbourne. AVAILABLE FOR SER;IGE OF COWS THE PROPERTY OF SETTLERS ON WYUNA ESTATE. Red Danish Bull "CLAUDIUS"; Calved, 10th November, 1909. Sire: — Ernst Bellinge innp.) Dam: — Kirsten IX. (imp.). Fee, 5s. Red Danish Bull "HAMLET"; Calved, 1st August, 1910. Sire: -Ernst Bellinge (imp.). />«/h .—Marianne IV". G. Z>aw.— Marianne III. (imp.). Fee, 5s. Particulars of extended pedigrees, milking records and prizes may be obtained from, and arrangement for service made with, Mr. E. R. EMERY, Manager, Government Farm, Wyuna, where the bulls are kept. AVAILABLE FOR SERVICE OF COWS THE PROPERTY OF BEET GROWERS AT BOISDALE. Red Polled Bull "TABAGUM"; Calved, 12th November, 1908. Sire:— Xctou Ajax (imp.). Z)«?7t .-—Janet, by Primate by Laureate (imp.). Fee, 7S. 6d. (available to 2) cows). Application to Mr. E. STEER, Herdsman, at the Homestead, Block 21. Journal of Agriculfurc, Victoria. [lo Sept., ipia-- RED POLL DAIRY HERD YOUNG BULLS FOR SALE Date of Birth Test of L>am- Buttoi- Fal. jion 4-2-4-S 1191-2 4-4 -8-4 /1911 4- 0-5-0 1 191-2 4 --2-4-8 Cuba .. -25.8.11 Carolina .. 16.8.11 Carolina .. 10.8.12 Milo* .. 29.5.1-2 Ardath*' .. 14.6.12 Virginia .. 14.7.12 Bullion .. 20.7.12 Sumatra 12 . 8 . 12 * Record of Granddam " CIGARETTE ' AH of tlie above Calves are sired liy "TABACUM" \<\ "ACTON AJAX' /1911 4 0-4-6 [1912 4-0-5-6 1st milking- /1911 3-8-4-6 \1912 3-9-4-6 /1911 4-2-5-0 (1912 4-8-6-2 1912 4-0-5-0 Record jf Dam. Gals. I'"at. 526 701 2321 338 f 570 580 2531 254/ 504 648 211\ 2S6i (no record) 636 551 2541 -22^/ 773 694 3561 344/ 666 2S4 Price of Calf. 19 19 15 15 12 12 14 14 10 12 17 17 14 14 of the one marked **, which is hy "ACTON DEWSTONE" (im]!.) \\ith the exception The prices are liased ajiproxmiately on the actual milk and butter fat record of the dam at the rate of Is. per lb. of butter fat yielded. {See Journal of AriricuUure, yovemher. 1011, and September, 1912). Inspection by arrangement with Mr, E. STEER, Herdsman, Boisdale, Gippsland. Application for purchase to DIRECTOR OF AGRICULTURE, MELBOURNE. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Are iijw available from the Poult ly I'cus at the WYUNA FARM and the BURNLEY HORTICULTURAL SCI-IOOL, at the undenr.entioned rates. Wyuna White Leghorns (Cosh Hens and Swift Coekerel) .. £1 1 0 White Wyandottes (Burnley stoek) ... ... ... 0 7 6 Black Orpingtons (Wyuna stoek) ... ... ... 0 7 6 Burnley White Leghorns (Imported Hens and Padman Coekerel) 1 1 0 ,, ,, M „ „ Burnley ,, 110 ,, ,, „ (Burnley stoek) ... 0 7 6 „ Black Orpinctons (Imporited pens) ... ... 110 ,, „ ,, (Burnley stock) ... ... ... 0 7 6 ,, Minoreas (Imported pens) .. ... 110 ,, Rhode Island Reds (Imported pens) . ... ... 110 The Eg-ijs will carry the Departmental Stainp, and any intertill- e:4gs will be replaced, jirovidcd that such eg-gs are returned unbroken within 18 days from date of receijit I'ostal Order or Cheque should accompany order, which should be addressed to the Manager, Government Farm, Wyuna, rid Kyatoram, or the Principal, School of Horticulture, Burnley. 10 Sept., 1912.] Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. XXlJt NATIONAL TRUSTEES Executors and Ag^ency Company of Australasia, Ltd. i^ DIRECTORS: HON. WALTER MADDEN, Chairman and Managing Director. EDWARD FITZGERALD, Esq.. L.L.D. MICHAEL MORNANE, Esq. HON. DUNCAN E. McBRYDE, M.L.C. HENRY MADDEN, Esq. DAVID HUNTER, Esq. This Company Acts as Executor, or Joint Executor of Wills, Administrator, Trustee of Settlements, and Agent for Absentees under Power of Attorney. MONEY TO LEND ON BROAD ACRES AND FARM LANDS. Offices^llS QUEEN ST. (Corner of Little Collins-st.) MELBOURNE. ESTABLISHED 1841. — GUARANTEED BY THE — THE GOVERNMENT OF VICTORIA. ^ STATE SAVINGS BANK OF VICTORIA Grants greater facilities to Depositors than any other Savings Bank in the World. All profits earjied, after providing for a reasonable Reserve Fund, are distributed auioiigst Depositors by giving them the Highest Bank Rate of Interest obtainable in the State on current accounts. RESERVE FUND OF FOUR HUNDRED AND FIFTY THOUSAND POUNDS. INTEREST is allowed on Deposits up to £350, namely :— 3i per cent, on first £100 ; and 3 per cent, on excess over £100 up to £350. THE TOTAL AMOUNT OF DEPOSITS IS NOW NEARLY TWENTY MILLION POUNDS. Depositors can lodge money with the same pass-book at any of the 424 Branches and Agencies of the Bank throughout Victoria. GEO. E. EMERY, hispector-General. Head Office— MELBOURNE. TREWHELLA "^ "WALLABY' QUICK POWERFUL SIMPLE GRUBBING JACKS Mr. (.'has. Hamilton, Mulesworth, \'u:, says; — "I would not be without one of these .Jacks on the fann." Mr. O. C. R. Brown, Timber Merchant, Frances, SA.: — "Have been using Trewhella Wallaby .Jacks now nearly six years, and as long as I have anjthing to lift will never be without one." WRITE FOR ILLUSTRATED CATALOGUE TO- TREWHELLA BROS., Engineers, TRENTHAM, Victoria. Joinnal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo Sept., 1912-. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, VICTORIA. JBurnlcy J^ortieultural School. ANNOUNCEMENT. The curriculum and management of the Burnley Horticultural School have now been arranged so that greater advantages and facilities will be given to students of both sexes in Horticulture and allied subjects. The present course of Horticulture for male students includes a two years' course, students being charged a fee of £5 per annum. Classes have been formed at Burnley, whereby students of both sexes may receive instruction on two afternoons of each week — Tuesdays and Fridays. Instruction includes theoretical and practical work, and will commence at 2 p.m. This will be a two years' course, and the fee charged will be j£2 per annum. It has also been arranged that several short lecture courses shall be given on subjects which are suitable adjuncts to Horticulture, such as Poultry Farming, Bee-keeping, and Fruit Preserving, and these courses will be open and free to the general public. The subjects and dates- of the Short Course Lectures will be announced monthly in this JournaU STUDENTS SHOULD ENROLL WITHOUT DELAY. Application for admission should be made to The Director of Agriculture, Public Offices, Melbourne, OK. TO THE I=E,I3SrCi:F'^^3L.. V , J lo Sept., 191-.] Journal of Agriculture , Victoria. 66 CARLTON — V ARSENATE OF LEAD The Uver-S^tccessful Orchard Spray. THE ORCHARDIST wlio would h;ive his g;irden free from pests will do well to siunple the effectiveness of Carlton Arsenate of Lead. The oertificiites of analysis of the last sliipments sliuw it to contain 19",) to ■ 20% of Arsenic Oxide. This high proportion of |)oison gives "Caiiton" a strength much greater than that of any other brand. "Carlton" is very finely ground, and so remains in suspension and adheres much longer to the trees than coarser grained articles. Its strength makes it the most economical of all spraying materials. PRICES— 7d. per lb. in Cwt. Drums . . . 7Jd. per lb. in 56 lb. Drums. 8d. per lb. in 28 lb. Drums. The "FRIEND "-a Money-Saving^ Nozzle 7/6 post free. WRITE FOR CATALOGUE OF ORCHARDIST'S SUNDRIES < F. R. MELLOR J 440 ELIZABETH ST., MELBOURNE. ) JARRAH.' When you contemplate erecting fencing, buildings, dairies, woolsheds, &c., be sure you get the best of hardwoods. 1^" JARRAH resists white ants, dry rot, &c. r MILLAR'S KARRI & JARRAH CO, mHii QUEEN'S BRIDGE, MELBOURNE. '^DYAN, GOULDING, & CO.^ I"*^ (JOHN F. GOULDING). ■ * WHOLESALE GRAIN & PRODUCE COMMISSION AGENTS & GENERAL BROKERS. 546-552 COLLINS STREET WEST (Near King-si) r ARMERS I Before Selling your Grain, Hay, Potatoes, Onions, consult or write us. It will pay you. CONSIGNMENTS Received and Sold Daily ex Rail or Wharf. Storage arranged on Liberal Terms and Advances made. All kinds of Seed Grain for Sale. Prompt Account Sales. Oats Specialists. New & Second-hand Bags for Sale at Lowest Rates. Quotations K'ven for Chaff, Grain, Lucerne, Wheaten or Oaten Hay, delivered to any station in Victoria or New South Wales. i When in the CITY Gail In. — Short distance from Spencer-st. RIy. Station, j journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo Sept., 191; "WATERLOO BOY" 4 h.p. PORTABLE OIL ENGINE. ABSOLUTELY THE SIMPLEST AND CHEAPEST EFFICIENT ENGINE IN THE WORLD. USES BENZINE OR KEROSENE. IGNITIONi — Is make and break style, charge fired by electric spark. Igniter, which in other Engines is difficult to get at, in the '* Waterloo " can be completely removed by loosening two cap screws Both Magneto and Battery Ignition, — a very useful arrangement, as work can never be stopped. SPEED LEVERi — Acts same as throttle of a steam engine. You can speed up or down, or stop altogether with it. Makes the Engine easy to start, prevents "kicking back," and saves fuel. MIXERi — Is a great idea, patented because it is worth patenting. Has an adjustable mixing cup that can, by a winged nut, be slipped up or down to give more or less air. No valve springs or pump to get out of order ; makes Engine easy to start ; 4iids the governor and speed lever in getting more power out of the hiel. GOVERNORi — Centrifugal type, sure and sensitive, only when the work requires it. Allows a charge in the cylinder FUELi —Works on either benzine or kerosene, but benzine is better, as it is not so dirty. The speed-saving devices. Speed Lever, Patent Mixer, and Governor make the " Waterloo " consume the least fuel. Compare it for simplicity, fuel cost, and power with other engines, and you will send your order to us. HOPPER COOLED.— That is, there are no Tank, Pipes, and Pump to cool the cylinder. Makes the Engine easy to move about ; less space, less weight, and no water pump troubles, as there is no Pump. Also lessens the fuel bill. TRANSPORT.— Is a very strong one. Through axles in both front and rear wheels. Turntable on front axle is simple and strong. Dgp- SEND FOR CATALOGUES OF OUR OTHER FARM REQUISITES. MITCHELL & COMPANY [fi; FACTORY & office: WEST FOOTSGRAY, MELBOURNE. ! SHOW ROOM 596 BOURKE ST., MELBOURNE. By Authority; Aldert J. Mullett, Acting' Government Printer, Melbourne. J^cfrigeFating ^ ^ and lee JVCakiug JVCaekinerY ^ ^ Made by HUMBLE & SONS, Geelong, Victoria. Specially suitable for Butchers, Breweries, Squatters, Butter, Bacon, and Ice Factories, and all classes of Cold Storage, &c. The Machines can be supplied from 3 cwt. capacity upwards, and either belt-driven or fitted with Engine. A large number of these Machines are working in the Australian States, New Zealand, and South Africa, and are giving universal satisfaction. All classes of Refrigeration work undertaken, including coils. One of these Machines is installed at the Dookie Agricultural College. Ferrier's " Woolpresses and Rabbit Poison Distributors, Engines, Boilers, Horseworlts, &c. Full Particulars on Application to— Humble and Sons, General Eng-ineeps, VULCAN FOUNDRY, GEELONG. 1 DEPARTMENT ^^^^ OF AGRICULTURE "VICTORI^^. isrO'V^r ^A^^T-^^IL^^BLE. H[.A.]M^I3BOOZ£^ OF POTATO DISEASES 1 ;: IN AUSTRALIA » AND THEIR TREATMENT. By D. McALPINE, Government Vegetable Pathologist. WITH APPENDICES BY W. LAIDLAW, B.Sc, Biologist, on Eel-Worms. C» FRENCH, Junr., Acting:- Goveinment Entomologist, on Insect Pests of the Potato. 235 pages (cloth). 58 Full Plates. 170 Illustrations. PRICE FIVE SHILLINGS. (Postage— Connnnu-rteallli. -Jd. : New Zealand, Sd. ; British & Foreign, Is. od.) Applications accompanied by Postal Note or Cheque, covering Price and Postage, to be forwarded to the Director of Agriculture, Melbourne, Victoria. Remittances from beyond the Commonwealth to be made by Post Office Order. — Vol. X. LIME IN AGRICULTURE. Part 10. (Registered at the General Post Offine, Melbourne, for transmission by Post as a Xeuspaper.] RUNNINGS. DEMON AUTOMATIC BIRD SCARER The new labour-saving device for protecting fruit. A new form of insurance for the orchardist. When once charged will go continuously for 16 hours. Requires no attention whatever. Prices. DEMON BIRD SCARER. DEMON BIRD SCARER - - £1 5 0 CRACKERS FOR SAME (per box of soo) 1 0 0 FUSE - - . (per hank) 0 4 6 Full particulars. Post free on application. WRITE AT ONCE FOR OUR NEW BOOKLET "HOW AND WHEN TO SPRAY" A useful treatise on tlie vrxvious motliorls of spraying Post Free on Application. 1912 Seed & Farm Handbook Containing over 130 pp. POST FREE. Apply to "Mailing Dept." for above piilihcations. SEED MAIZE All the leading varieties. HICKORY KING. YELLOW MORUYA. ECLIPSE. SIBLEY. LONGFELLOW. NINETY-DAY. LEAMING. EY. DENT. Full list of varieties, jjrices, Note on Limestone Deposits in Victoria ... ... W. G. EohertHon 598 The Chemistry of Lime ... ... ... ... P. Rankin ScoU 603 Tlie Practice of Liming ... ... A. IJ. V. Richardson, M. A., B.Sc. 608 The Relation of Lime to Soil Fertility John W. Paterson, B.Sc, Ph.D., and P. P. Scott 619 The Use of Lime in Victorian Vineyards ... ... F. de CasteUa 628 Lime for Tobacco Land .. ... ... Temple A. J. Smith 6.36 The Use of Lime in Potato Culture ... ... .., Geo. Seymour 639 Lime for Orchards ... ... ... ... ... P J. Carmody 640 Notice to Manufacturers and Lnporters of Artificial Manures ... ... 6-11 •Spring Cheddar Cheese-making ... ... ... ... G. G. Sawert 642 Second Victorian Egg-laying Competition, 1912-13 ... ... II. V. Hawkins 644 Orchard and Garden Notes ... ... ... ... E. E. Pescott 645 Reminders for Nfivember ... ... ... .. ... ... . . 64g COPYRIGHT PROVISIONS AND SUBSCRIPTION RATES. The Articles in the Journal of the Department of Agriculture of Victoria are protected by the provisions of the Copyright Act. Proprietors of newspapers wishing to republish any matter are at liberty to do so, provided the Journal and atUhor arc both acknowledged. The .Journal is issued monthly. The subscription, which is pa3'able in advance and includes postage, is 8s. per annum for the Commonwealth and New Zealand, and 5s. for the United Kin^alom and Foreisru Countries. Single copy, Threepence. Subscriptions should be forwarded to the Director of Agriculture, Melbonme. A complete list of the various publications issued by the Department of Agriculfcure 'will be sui)plied by the latter. Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo Oct. , 1912. Cost of up -keep detepmines Economy. ■^^HAT would be the use in saving a few pounds when purchasing, to throw them away again and again in fuel for a greedy engine ; or in repair expenses for a defective engine ? Better let Quality and Cost of Running be your points for consideration. "Victoria" British Made Kerosene Oil Engines stand the quality test. Simplicity of parts is also a feature. For instance— the Governor hasn't the coin- I'licated arrangement of vertical spindle, balls, and wheel gearing, yet it regulates splen- dir'ly. This simplicity of parts, which is featured throughout, reduces wear and tear, as \\v\\ as enhances smooth and sure working. The cost of running is remarkably low— unsur- pas.sed by any engine that has yet come under our notice. PRICE — The above is by no )neans a plea for a high-priced engine. You will admit Victoria Engines are very moderately priced. Send NOW for complete specification and prices. SIZES— 3 B.H P. and u{)wards. Stationary or Portable. Suitable for pumping, driving farm machinery, &c. ^gSS^'Tr Crops at Reduced Cost <:* »sible by the Planet Jr. method of Planting and inparton Nanneella Bamainn foognb Irrigration Areas. 3 totalling' Area. 263 acres. 2,081 „ 2,200 ,, 1,846 „ 1,885 „ 5,183 ,, Dairying" and Mixed Farming-. Bom Vista Deepdene lilumerulla Albunbee Morveii Werribee Kenilwortli Mooralla Cremona Dunrobin 6 totalling' 475 acres. 484 1,945 ,, 1,726 „ 3,663 „ 4,348 „ 600 „ 1,226 „ 403 „ 20 Estate Cornelia Creek . . 17 Oaklands . . 6 Hurstwood . . . . 4 Mt. VViddenn .. 14 Nerrin Nerrin . . IS Pannoo . . IC Marathon feWillow Grove 12 Strathallan . . 11 Wheat Growing-. Area. 2,389 acre*. 4,140 „ 2,094 „ 6,115 „ 4,022 „ 6,733 „ 6,363 „ 325 „ Beet Growing- and Dairying^. Boisdale Kihuany Park 7 totalling 400 acres. 21 „ 1,766 .. Clerks' Homes. 57 allotmenta. Workmen's Homes. Pender's Grove . . 108 allotments. Allotments on these estates are sold under Conditional Purchase leasehold terms, extending over 31 J years, with pa3-inents at the rate of 6 per cent, per annum. Advances of money can be obtained up to 60 per cent, of the value •( penuaiM-nt improvements effected, repayments extending o\er fifteen years bearing 0 per cent, interest. FwfvU information and terms apply to TH E SEC RE TA RY , LANDS PURCHASE AND MANAGEMENT BOARD, MELBOURNE. AUSTRALIA'S WAGON "The Finest Wagon Ever." PATENT STEEL WHEELS, Patent Felloes. Renewable Carroa Boxes & Oil Caps, The only Steel Wheel that has stood the Test. BEWARE OF IMITATIONS. Wheels Guaranteed for 3 years against Breakage, &c, A. MAir, Esq., Meningie, South Australia, says:— , .,. ux ^ u Dear Sir —I have recei\ ed Spring Wagon. I am well pleased with same. I never thought it would run so welL and I think those who have Steel Wheds will never use the old style again. Two horses carried my first load U tw^ionsof^tatoes over a bad road of 30 miles, where the old style of Wagon was boK&ed.^Jjdj^st^^there. AIiBERT MAY. Esq., Meningie, S.A., says :— ,^ ^ , . „, ^ , , . f ,1 Dear Sir —In answer to your letter wanting to know how the wheels of my Wagon are, I am pleased to teU TOO I have had the Wagon about Ci years, and it has not cost me a shilling, the wheels are like new and I hav« flmw- n. \nt of heavv c^rtin'^ Only Veins a 2-ton Wagon, I lent it to a man carting wheat, and he had some very 'o^h^l Ws^Tn^about 50 bags," Your Wagons are worth^their money, and I would not be^ without one of tbem. I think this Wa^fon will last my life time. 40' and 36' Wheels. August 13th, 1910. TABLE TOP— Truck body, and aU classes of little Wagons for Farm and Station work. Wagons Shipped to aU Ports in Australia. WRITE FOR CATALOG TO-DAY, Rl I Ull nVARH QUEEN S BRIDGE-ST.. . O- L. rilL.LJ T MriUj south Melbourne, v. lo Oct., 191 2.] Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. "CYCLONE" WOVEN GATE 8 f*. -to le f-t. Will hold anything, and can be made rabbit proof by putting rabbit proof intersection at the bottom. The wider gates have three stays. Get our Catalogue of this and many other Cyclone Gates. " THEY'RE ALL GOOD." CYCLONE FENCE & GATE CO., 459 SWANSTON ST., corner franklin St., MELBOURNE* PERFECTUS APPARATUS FOR THE TREATMENT OF MILK FEVER IN COWS. BY THE METHOD RECOMMENDED IN THE JOURNAL OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. " I 'HE treatment by this apparatus is •^ effective and easy to perform, and it is indeed rare that the severest case does not yield to it. The treatment should be applied directly the symptoms of the fever become manifest. The set contains everything neces- sary to effect a cure, including a ther- mometer for aiding the recognition of the disease. PRICE COMPLETE ll^pl^l j^ VauOul j ^^^^ *■' '" " ■'■" ' " , '" -^' " ~ 12s. 6(i. (Postage, 9d.) Ask your nearest Chemist for it, and if he cannot supply, apply to us direct. FELTON, GRIMWADE & CO., MELBOURNE. Journal of Agriculture. Victoria. [lo Oct., 1912. "GLEN ELGIN'S PHILANTHROPIST" 299 A.H.B. of Aus. ^(^ (|)(|) Winner of Champion, Sydney Royal She^.v., 1909, 1910, 1911, 1912. Reserve Champion, IVlelbourne Royal Show, 1907, 1908, 1911. Also Winner of Bull and Progeny Prize of £10 for 5 females (the progeny of any one bull) producing the largest amount of commercial butter in 24 hours, Sydney Royal Show, 1912. Also holds the record of 150 Firsts, Champions, Specials, and Gold Medals for Ayrshire and Dairy Bull. The "GlengaFDOGk" Stod of Pure — ..- ^ flypshipe Cattle Has won innumerable prizes in the ring. The females in this herd are noted for deep and heavy milking and test well aliove the average, and are kind and quiet. DISPERSAL SALE OF THIS HERD Will take ])lace on the 31st October, 1912. Send for Catalogue. INSPECTION CORDIALLY INVITED. Address — «rv A. T. PRIESTLEY. \ VISITORS MET AT UNG UNG RAILWAY STATION. Post .V«CLENCARNOCK," Td^'JaSSj YANNATHAN, Vic. Z J o o z -I m r O O m lo Oct., 19 I 2.] Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. Vaeuum Gargoyle Prepared Red Spraying' Oil Needs no Soft Soap OP other ing'pedient. Requires only Clean Soft Water. Vacuum Gargoyle Red Spray Oil now obtainable in prepared form is the same Oil as that originally introduced to Australia for fruit- tree spraying. Full particulars — Horticultural Department, Vacuum Oil Co. Pty. Ltd., 90 William Street, Melbourne. Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo Oct. . 1912^ The New Automatic Cream Separator Separating Finished same time as Milking THE AUTOMATIC CREAM SEPARATOR introduced into the Dairy means less^ni ^g the work wonderfully — saves time and expense. At last we have got the seif'Contained Cream Separator, automatic in action, simple enough for a child to work. It is an ingenious combination of a povi^erful, perfectly balanced motor, with a special Separator, and will keep running continuously for 6 hours. Cost of upkeep is ridicuously small, and separates as fast as seven or eight milkers can supply. No intricate gears. You have only to pull the cord on the side, and the machine ke ps going, producing a smooth cream, SKimming to .01. Knov< more about this great boon to dairymen. It vvill be an excellent investment for you. One size machine for any size dairy. vA^rite ror particulars. Sole A.gents : NEWELL & CO. > 43-45 RING STREET, MELBOURNE NEW ZEALAND LOAN & MERCANTILE AGENCY €3€>. X« X TIX X ^F X3 Z3 Head Office— LONDON. Melbourne Offlce- COLLINS-ST. W. LIBERAL CASH ADVANCES. Wool, Grain, Skins, Hidesjallow, Bark, Stock and Station Brokers ON COMMISSION ONLY. Butter Shipments Undertaken on Owner's Account AGENTS FOR COOPER'S DIP FOR VICTORIA AND RIVERINA, PACE'S PATENT WIRE STRAINER and IRONSIDE'S WIRE CUTTER. CHIEF AGENTS IN VICTORIA for tlie PALATINE INSURANCE CO. o Oct., 1912.] Journal of Agrictiltvre . Victoria. TRADE MARK o o 24.C GAS PRODUCTION I Cheaper than COAL GAS at 3 - Per 1,000 cubic feet. FOR LIGHTING, COOKING, AND HEATING. MANUFACTURED UNDER LICENCE BOOTY- LOFTHOUSE PATENTS. SYSTEM ADOPTED BY STATE AND FEDERAL GOVERNMENTS. For further particulars and prices apply PTY. 19, 21, 23 ] LTD., 586 BOURKE ST., MELB. J. BARTRAM & SON "" " ''- '' •^™^^'^^ ^"'^ ■i V^ LYSACHT'S WIRE NETTING MADE IN AUSTRALIA. All Sizes Manufactured, ^ inch to 4 inch Mesh. The Standard Netting of the State. LOOK FOR OUR MARKER IN EVERY ROLL. Our manufacture of Rabbit -proof Wire Netting is known as the best throughout Australia. Better in quality, p.nd owing to its being loose rolled less costly to erect than any im- ported Netting. IJ* and IJ* MESH. OnxrOE: TTSE3X3 ■A.X^'V^.A.'g'S XTSTTT^. LYSAGHT BROS. & CO. Ltd., MANUFACTURERS. SYDNEY. AGENTS : GIBBS, BRIGHT & CO., 34 Queen Street, MELBOURNE. Journal of AgrixuUure, Victoria. r[oOcT..iQi Mr. FARMER. This is what concerns yau 5 CVfft Galvd. Because it concerns your pocket. NEPTUNE" ^Teel Fencing Wire \2\ Gauge, will cost you £5 2S« OQ. and will give you 7,150 yds. of Single Wire Fence. 10 ewt. Galvd. ORDINARY Fencing" Wire No. 8, will cost you £5 2s. 6d. and will only give you 5,280 yds. of Single Wire Fence. GUARANTEED l^^^'l% "NEPTUNE" 12^ Gauge, is 1,140 lbs. Breaking Strain ORDINARY No. 8, is 1,125 lbs. Railway Freight and Cariiage is about one-third of that on Ordinary Wire. "NEPTUNE" Unrivalled WIRE is not influenced by climatic changes. AGENTS- ASK YOUR STOREKEEPER. MORRIS & MEEKS, Lt. Collins-st, Melbourne. To GRAZIERS, FARMERS, and DAIRYMEN. Proprietary Ltd. You cannot do better than purchase your requirements from THE VICTORIA VARNISH COY. Who are Importers and JNianufacturers of the undermentioned, namely : — Varnishes for all uses, Paints, Dry Colors, Stainer's Turpentine, Boiled and Raw Linseed Oil, Resin, Shellac, White Lead, &c. OUR MANUFACTURE IS OF ONE QUALITY— THE BEST. Note the Address— The VICTORIA VARNISH COY. Proprietary Ltd., Queen's Bridge, South Melb Tel. Central 614.. Established 1853. A. J. BORTHWICK, Managir. BONEDUST, SUPERPHOSPHATE, AND OTHER HIGH-GRADE FERTILIZERS DELIVERED AT RAILWAY STATION, FOOTSCRAY, OR ON WHARF, MELBOURNE. Office :— 407 POST OFFICE PLACE, MELBOURNE. BONES BOUGHT. CONSIGN TO ME, FOOTSCRAY. Telephone 2098. lo Oct.. 19 1 2.] Journal of Agriculture , Victoria. SP ^ ^ ■ >2 <^ ."^ ^ s ^ «« "ii ^ ^ t-" M b« c 13 r^ 3 w E fl) ^ (/5 oS -1 Uh 3 u 0 > ^ -!-> t*-. 0 u, ^ 0 0 t3 U rrt nl 1) 4-1 Cfl CO ■t^j (U n1 H Crt 0 tl) u. Q. p J= 0 0 u 3 •4—) 0 0 <:> 0 > >^ ta ^ LXJ 1— CO ^c UJ cs CQ ZD QC LU cc ^c *"^ 1— CD ^ CO LU .Q h*j ^^H 0 ^^ -l-» ■^ ^^ "C3 ^ C3 £ H- -a 0 cd -c >^ ^Z! ^^^ c;J a L_ CO CO > '^ sz CO cc ^ CO «a _E CO _o 1- ^ X g 0 GC < C3 CO >- ^ QC c/5 a 3= "* 3 a a. a ~ II a ^ S = E H .^, fA •a 5^ es 0 , H K *f F- 4> S « *1 U. 0 0 V) u e: V) <( ■? xe u: c as 0 E c ■a ■a Z > =: u] 'Z rt UJ a o ^ « "2 n u Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo Oct., 191 2. ALSTON'S Patent """'■le crank §^ WINDMILL Beyond Dispute the 1910 Pattern. Most Perfect Windmill Motion in Existence. Gives a direct and central lift of the pump rod, and an even wearing of the bearings. FITTED WITH STEEL ROLLER AND BALL BEARINGS. No Overhanging or Twisting Strains COMMON TO ALL OTHER MAKES. Do not buy a mill till you have inspected this latest invention. RUNS in the LIGHTEST WIND. STANDS the STRONGEST STORM. Cheapest and Strongest MiU ever offered, Patented throughout Australia. Send for Catalogue. Alston's Improved Patent Portable Steel Framed Galvanized Stock The Best Trough ever invented Trough WILL NOT CRACK, LEAK, RUST, OR ROT. Packs in Small Space. Supplied In All Lengths, The Cheapest and Most Durable Trough Ever Invented. Send for Price List. JAMES ALSTON, Patentee and Manufacturer, WINDMILL FACTORY, Queen's-bridge, Melbourne. H^ WILL LAST A LIFE-TIME. ^' Patented Throughout Australia. THe JOURNAI9 or Tfie department of Mgncufture VICTORIA. Vol. X. Part 10. loth Oetober, 1912. LIME I\ AGRICULTURE. I. Introduction. By the Director of Agriculture {Di. S. S. Cameron). It has become almost a commonplace to say, in respect of a large pro- portion of land in this State, that it would be the better for a dose of lime. In many ways, both direct and indirect, the liming of land has a proven beneficial influence in both the maintenance and enhancement of soil fer- tility. It is die function of the agricultural specialists to explain and make clear the varied actions, physical, chemical and biological, as the case may be, b} which lime produces its beneficial effects ; but in a foreword to a serie.s of articles on the subject by officers of the Department, it may not be out of place to indicate the character of the efi^ort that is being made by tbe Department to demonstrate the exact value of lime in agricultural practice, and for the guidance of agriculturists in the profitable and economical use of it. Hitherto the use of lime in this State has oftentimes been regarded by many practical agriculturists as an expensive luxury, and much the same in- credulity has been expressed concerning its benefits as a regular means of maintaining or increasing soil fertility, as was voiced regarding the use of superphosphate at the time of its first introduction by Professor Cunstance of the Roseworthy Agricultural College (S.A.), and, indeed, until the ex- periments conducted by Mr. A. N. Pearson, formerly Chemist for Agri- culture of this State, placed its value beyond doubt, and demonstrated the profitable quantities in which it could be economically and regularly used. The fact is, that in the evolution of agriculture in this State, and from the stand-point of soil fertility, we have not yet quite reached unto the third stage. Our first was the cultivation of virgin land, unassisted by manure of any kind. The second stage was reached when it was realized that the surface soils of this continent were below the average in phosphatic content, and by frequent cropping became quickly depleted to a point below 12315. i; 5^6 JiHinial (>] Agnciilturc, \ ictorui. [lo Oct., 1912. essential fertility of such as they contained naturally; then the use of super- phosphate was advised and became general. Now, the increase in market value of land demands that its productive value must be increased also; and the continuous cropping and the use of superphosphate has tended to a '■ stiffening "" and " souring " of the soil, which demands that further assi.st- tance shall be given in the maintenance of fertility. One of the directions — and there are doubtless many, but in each case the cost or value ratio will be the prime consideration — in which this assistance may be given is in the judicious use of lime, at all events for the soils of certain districts. As with the use superphosphate in the past, and as is inevitable for the amelioration of at present inferior soils by under-drainage in the future, so the liming of land is one of those refinements of agricultural practice which is always brought about whenever production has to be pushed in order to square increase of cost or compensate for competition. It has been said repeatedly that the main thing standing in the way of the general use of lime was its cost. Not so much its initial or actual cost as the cost of carriage on the railways. Doubtless there is much in this con- tention, and the example of some American railway companies, and of the Government of New Zealand, in carrying lime at a loss, might well be followed by the Railways Commissioners of this State. The increased freightage resulting from the more abundant production following on the use of lime would doubtless amply compensate the loss. That there are other factors, however, operating against the more general use of lime in agriculture is obvious when last year's experience of the Maffra Sugar Fac- tory is related. The factory had some hundreds of tons of high class lime on hand, as a by-product of the manufacturing operations. Failing to secure local buyers, attention was drawn to it by paragraphs in the daily papers, and it was advertised in the weekly agricultural press for two months at los. per ton in bags f.o.r. Maffra. Not a single application or offer was received, and such as was not required for departmental use was ultimately disposed of in one line to a Lyndhurst farmer at 4s. per ton. One of the means of lessening the carriage cost of lime would be the opening up of lime quarries that could be practically worked in as many different localities as possible, so that each district requiring lime could be served from the nearest deposit. There are. of course, scores of lime de- posits throughout the State, but many of them are composed of an inferior or unsuitable quality of lime. Others are of high quality, but .so small in exterit as to be worthless to work, and others again, suitable as regards quality and extent, are so awkwardly situated as to be impossible of ex- ploitation. In October last year, and as a step concurrent with the initiation of district liming experiments, this Department .sought the aid of the Geological Branch of the Mines Department as to the location of lime deposits through- out the State of a character that could be profitably worked for agricultural purposes. In response the Mines Department furnished the report published herewith, which may be regarded as both valuable and accurate, compiled as it is from the researches of such men as those whose names are attached to it. Equally important as the matter of initial and carriage cost, and pos sibly in a greater degree accounting for the small extent to which lime is at present used, is the uncertainty of knowledge as to the exact nature and re- lative value of the different limes available, and the uncertainty of know- ledge of the effect of lime in different districts, for different soils, in small or large quantities, for different crops, at long or short intervals, and so loOcT.. 1912.] Lime in Agriculture. ^S] on. The application of lime has been advocated in a Hght and airy way by many advisers, but all sorts of confusing advice as to quantities, periodicity of application, and the like have been given. Farmers, however, with that conservative wisdom which is sometimes charged to their detriment, but which is really their abiding safeguard against irresponsible advisers and wasteful expenditure, have been loth to act on the exhortation of other than dependable investigators who can advance sound research and .scientific proof for their guidance. So it was with superphosphate so it will be as regards lime. The demand of the moment, therefore, is that exact research should be undertaken to demonstrate: — (a) the districts in which lime is likely to be generally required ; (b) the soils in such districts that are already in a state of lime hunger, or are approaching thereto ; (c) the varying or constant quantities, as the case may be, in which lime can Ije profitablv applied ; {d) the profitable or economical periodicity of application ; {e) the proportion in which the yields of different crops are influenced by applications varying or constant in amount ; (/) the form of lime best suited to different crops and different soils ; {g) the season and method of application ; (h) the cost of varying quantities relative to resultant crop yields. Such work has not been previously undertaken in this State, or, indeed, in Australia. There have, doubtless, been fugitive experiments carried out in these directions, but the results, even when recorded, have been largely estimations or opinions or guesswork. Actual weighing of yields from treated and control areas, or comparative feeding off tests of results have not been carried out. and without these conclusions cannot be accurate, or other than speculative. That such work has not been so undertaken may be charged as a sin against this and other State Departments of Agriculture. If so. it is not desired to extenuate the neglect further than to repeat what has been already said, viz. : — that the conditions of agriculture in this State have but re- cently become such as to require aid in this direction, and State Govern- ments are not notoriously prone to authorize expenditure ahead of require- ments. Agricultural research is slow of process. There can be but one set of observations in each year, and these subject to so great a margin of experi- mental error as to be useless on which to base conclusions until they have been several times repeated under naturally varying seasonal conditions, particularly rainfall; so that some years must elapse before definite data can be authoritatively pronounced concerning the problems for solution and the questions for answer set out above. Nevertheless, belated though it be (culpably so, some critics will smugly aver), a start has been made. During last autumn the Agricultural Superintendent (Mr. A. _E. V. Richardson, M.A., R.Sc.) initiated a series of district experiments in dif- ferent parts of the State, and also commenced in the North-Eastem district, at the Rutherglen Viticultural Station, and in the Goulburn Valley at the Wyuna Irrigation Farm, permanent lime plots designed to elucidate the problems that have been indicated. These will be elaborated in required directions from year to vear, and at the Central Research Farm, at Werribee. they will be triplicated and extended. The objectives of these experiments are indicated by Mr. Richardson in his contribution to this brochure, in the article on " The Practice of Liming." V 2 Journal of Agriculture. Victoria. [lo Oct.. 1912. As year succeeds year the accumulating results will be published until, it is hoped, reliable data can be put forth as having stood the test of time and repetition under such a sufficiency of varying conditions as to be axio- matic for practice. In the meantime, and in order that as much reliable information on the subject as possible may be made available for the benefit af farmers at the present time, it has been deemed desirable to put forward a concise com- pendium dealing with such of the aspects of the lime in agriculture ques- tion as is likely to prove informative and helpful in a practical sense to all who wish to undertake this method of soil renovation. Accordingly, in addition to Mr. Richardson's article just mentioned, Mr. Rankin Scott, Chemist for Agriculture, deals with the chemistry of lime, and at the same time indicates a simplified nomenclature of the CURDIE S RIVER LIME COMPANY. FIRST KILN. various forms of lime which will be used throughout, and which it is hoped will tend, to do away with the confusion that at present exists in the minds of farmers concerning the many forms in which lime may be purchased. Dr. J. W. Paterson, B.Sc, Ph.D., Experimentalist, and Mr. Scott, deal with the "Relation of Lime to Soil Fertility," and indicate results of ex- periments already obtained in the laboratory. The Viticulturalist (Mr. F. De Castella) supplies information with respect to the use of lime in viticulture; and Mr. Temple Smith, Chief Field Officer, as regards lime for tobacco land. The Chief Orchard Superviser, Mr. P. J. Carmody, advises on the use of lime for orchard soils ; and Mr. G. Seymour, the potato expert, relates practical experiences of the use of lime on certain classes of soil for potatoes. lo Oct.. igi2. Lime in Agriculture. 589 CO H- CO a. LU ca UJ CD h- CO UJ • LOCALITIES. 1 Curdie's River, Timboon 2 Karwarren, near Colac 3 Howe's Creek, near Mansfield 4 Tvers River, Gippsland 5 Tnompson River, Gippsland 6 Merrimu, near Comadai 7 Yalloak Vale 7a Merriman's Creek, Sale 8 Woornyaloak, near Geelong 9 Mitchell River, Gippsland 10 Lilydale 11 Mitchellvale, Gippsland 12 Bindi, East Gippsland 13 Waratah, South Gippsland 14 Dookie 15 Warrnambool 16 Limestone Creek 17 Buchan, Gippsland 18 Moyne, Port Fairy 19 Wombat Creek, Gippsland 20 Batesford, near Ceelong 21 Mt. Wellington, Gippsland 22 Netherby, Border District 23 Deutgam, Werribee 1 2 * °ll,i *^ \ tc ■ 0 . : i i — 'ai _ . ' '-Hi'.. 1 \ i -* < — ^ a. 5- z. f'f 2 ^l>?^ i [ ■^ rgr^— .- ,. ■■•• ^. — J ^1 /'' >^:^' 5 |':.trF~|'p4^ ! 4j^ S3 ( yi rffx 4-< ^f^^ ,' * 7 5 III /^r" CTi^ < ■•I 1: V j^i""" — -■ l^______ .^„^^= tW — ^H"^"""" #==r l.74ryr; ^ <^ H ± n 0 % m • -^ 590 Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [loOcx., 1912. II. VICTORIAN LIMESTONE DEPOSITS. The information contamed in this report was compiled from depart- mental records and Victorian scientific journals, the authorities being— - I-.. J. Dunn, F.G.S., Director of Geologv ; R. A. F. Murrav. F.G.S. ; J. Stirling. F.G.S. ; F. Chapman, A.L.S. ; A. W. Howitt, F.G.S. ; D. Mahonv. l''.G.S. ; and Messrs. S. B. Hunter, W. Baragwanath, and W. H. Ferguson. The analvses were made by J. Cosmo Newbery, B.Sc.^ and the Geological Sur\ev laboratory officers. A. W. HowiTT. 30.7. 19 1 2. Locality map attached. — A.W.H., 30.7.12. (i) Curdie's River. Timeoon. Locality. — On Curdie's River, where the railway crosses it. parish of Timboon, in the county of Heytesbury. Occurrence. — Tertiary calcareous ::trata carrying bands of limestone of varying quality. Ecoiio)iiic.— Large deposits occur in this locality, and have been specially examined at Tallent's Hill, on the railway line. Fuel is abun- dant, and the forest should be conserved, so as tO' provide a constant and cheap fuel. Analyses. — Nos. 172 and 173, from Tallent's Hill- — No. 17 5 (North face) No. 173 (Ea.st face). Ca CO., ^ 92.61% 88.39 Insol. vSilica 3-54% A-2>o Magnesia Trace. Trace. The analyses show that the limestone ranges from good to fairly good quality, and for agricultural purposes the deposit is most valuable. (2) Kam'arren, near Colac. Locality. — These deposits are 2g chains west of Kawarren railway station, and 13 miles south of Colac. Occurrence. — Tertiary deposits of sands and clavs, &c.. amongst which the lime.stone occurrence seems to be abnormal and different from the sur- rounding rocks. The deposit is composed of organic remains, corals, shells, &c. Economic. — The limestone presents an abrupt face of eight} feet (80 feet) thick, and the quarry is eighty feet (80 feet) wide. Fuel is abundant, and the occurrence of this deposit so clo.se to the railway renders it a very valuable one. Analysis. — No. 174 — - Ca. Cr 3 ... ... 88.02 In.sol. Silica ... ... 3-48 Magnesia ... ... Trace The analysis shows the limestone to be of fairly good quality, and quite good enough for agricultural purposes. (3) HowE.s' Creek, near Manspield. Locdlitv. ~\n allotments 94, 131. 132, and 133, parish of Loyola, and 6 miles from the Mansfield railway station. The quarry is known as Griffith's. TO Oct.. 191--] \ictoiiaii LtniestoUi Dtpoxits. ^91 Occurrence. I'Ik-it aif 3 acres ot blue dense limestone with small •calcite veins. These limestone areas occur in Silurian formations, and they are fairly extensive, one being said to be 300 feet in length and 50 feet wide. Economic - This limestone has been worked in a small way from time to time, and yields an excellent lime. It is very similar to the Lilydale limestone, and is of value both for agricultural and building purpcses. Analysis (/. Cosmo Neivbery) — Percentage. Ca. CO3 . . ... 95.55 Mg. CO3 ... ... Trace Fe and Al . . ... 2.92 Clav and sand . ... 1.53 (4) Tyers River, Gippsland. Locality. — Tyers River. 8 miles from the Traralgon railwav station, in a deep gully emptying into the Tyers River. Occurrence. — Grey, dense limestone, seamed with small calcite veins, and occurring in Silurian strata. There is a large formation of the lime- stone, which shows for 100 yards in length along the gully, and for a considerable height up either bank. Economic. — It appears to be a tirst class limestone, and the analyses made by the late J. Cosmo Xewbery. F.G.S.. show that it is of high •(juality. Analyses. — No. i. No. 2. Ca. CO;, ... 96.20 ... 93.50 Fe CO3 . 1.25 ... 1.47 Si Og ... ... 1.70 ... 4.00 Mg CO.^ .. ... Trace ... Moisture ... 0.50 ... 0.70 (5) Thompson River. Locality. — Thompson Ri\er. between Walhalla and Toongabbie. and about 10 miles in a westerly direction from Toongabbie. Occurrence. — Several small areas occur on the Thompson River, east of the Deep Creek junction, and one on Deep Creek is se\-eral chains long and 200 feet high. Another small outcrop occurs nearer Walhalla, and •close to the copper mine area. All are of Silurian age, and occur as a dense, compact limestone. Limestone. — These deposits of lime.stone would be suitable for building or agricultural purposes. Analyses .—-T\\om]i^on Ri\er — No. 445. No. 448. Insoluble ... 0.75 ... 0.72 Fe and Al 0.75 0.42 Ca CO-t ... ... 07.12 97.64 Mg CO., . 1.6^ [.TI H=, 0 C.08 COS 100.33 • •• 99-94 59- Journal of A.griciilture, \"icioria. [lO Oct., 1912. (6) Merrimu, near Coimadai. Locality. — One mile east of the Lerderberg P. R., parish of Merrimu, county of Bourke. Occtirrencc. — Limestone bands of Tertiary age. These bands have their partings of sand, clay, and gravel, and they rest on glacial forma- tions. Economic. — A considerable body of limestone occurs, and extensive works have been carried on here. About half-a-mile to the north-east of the main deposits, another deposit of workable size occurs. The main deposit is over 24 acres in area and thirty feet (30 ft.) thick in one place. Mainly of use for building purposes. Analvsis — 41.00 Ca CO. J Mg C63 Fe and Al Si O2 ... Ho- O and 1.90 2.05 •05 100.00 (7) Yaloak Vale. Locality. — Southward from bores. Yaloak Vale, parish of Yaloak,. Bacchus Marsh district. Occurrence. — White, earthy limestone of Tertiary age. An extensive deposit occurs with harder hands of excellent quality. (8) Merriman's Creek, Sale. Locality. — Between Merton and Stradbroke, on Hodinots Creek, above the Sale-road. Occurrence. — Dense grey Tertiary limestone, with soft layers. Economic. — Yields excellent lime, similar to the Boggy Creek deposits. (9) Wqornyaloak. Locality. — Near Duck Ponds railway station. Woornvaloak. and north from Geelong. Occurrence. — Yellow, sandy limestone occurring over a large area^ and twenty feet (20 ft.) thick in places. Economic. — The limestone varies in character and quality, as can be seen from the following analyses: — Analyses. — No. I. Carbonate of lime ... 47.80 Cartonate of magnesia ... 26.70 Carbonate of iron ... 2.90 Silica ... ... 18.10 Water ... ... 1.05 Alkaline salts ... ... 2.90 (10) Mitchell River. Locality. — Over a wide area from west of the Mitchell River to the east side of Take Tyers. At Lake Tyers showing as the banks of an estuary ; and on the Mitchell River as banks bounding alluvial flats. No. II. No. Ill 77.60 . Trace . 88.38 0.76 4.05 . 1 1 . 1 5 . 6.80 . 0.51 7.02 ioOcT., ipi-.J Victorian Limestone De-posits. 593 Occurrence. — Tertiary limestone. Being ;i yellow, friable calcareous rock to a hard, yellow limestone. It ma) be regarded as being about two hundred and lifty feet (J50 ft.) thick in place.s, and has a slight dip towards the south-east. Economic. — It affords a rich soil, and has been burnt for lime. For agricultural purposes it has been used at Ho.spital Creek in the natural state with benefit, the limestone being soft and friable. Analysis. — No. 144 (Ho.spital Creek, 1910) — Insoluble ... ... ... 4.28 i-e^ O3 ... ... ... 2.65 Ca CO;j ... .. ... 84.10 Mg ... ... ... ... Trace (11) L1LVD.4LE. Locality. — Cave Hill, Lil\dale district. Allotment 20. parish of Mooroolbark, county of Evelyn. Occurrence. — Blue-grey to pink-brown limestone of Silurian age. In texture it is a hard and semi-crystalline limestone, lenticular shaped and occurring between quartzite and shales. Economic. — A large area occurs close to the railway line, but its exact extent is not known. In 1892 its greatest width was over three hundred feet (300 ft.). In good times it is reported that as much as seventy tons (70 tons) per day has been sent away. Analysis (/. Cosmo Nciubery). — Percentage. Ca COv, .. ... ... 92.60 MgCOg 0.36 Fe CO3 ... .. ... 2.12 Clay and .sand . ... ... 3-24 Other constituents . . ... 1.68 100.00 (12) MiTCHELLVALE. Locality. — At Ostler's, south of the junction of the Wentworth and ]\iitchell Rivers. Occurrence. — Limestones sliading into calcareous sandstone, and highly fossiliferous. Seams of calcite occur in places. Of Middle Devonian age. Economic. — About 30 miles from the Lindenow railway .station. The country is rough mountain ranges. No analyses have been made. (13) BiNDI. Locality. — Old Hut Creek and Tambo River, parish of Bindi. in the county of Tambo, Ea.st Gippsland. Occurrence. — Dense blue to grey crystalline limestone, with .some chalky and impure lower calcareous beds. The formation is of Middle Devonian age, and covers about 18 square miles of country. Economic. — It is nearly 80 miles by road from the Bairnsdale railway station ; but on the completion of the Orbost-Bairnsdale line, the distance from that line will be only about 55 miles. Analysis. — There is no record of any analysis of the Bindi lime.stone. but the percentage of Ca CO^ should be nearlv as high as that found in the Buchan limestone. =594 Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo Oct., 1912. (14) Waratah. Locality. — On the west shore of Waratah Bay, and near Bird Rock,, parish of Waratah, in the county of Buln Buln. Occurrence. — Crystalline granular fine to coarse limestone. The deposit shows up to five chains (5 chs.) wide at the base and one hundred and ten feet (no ft.) high. Of Silurian age. Economic. — From an area of 2 acres over 1,000,000 bags of lime were obtained. There is every facility for direct shipment. It is easily worked, and upon burning yields a perfectly white lime. There are also, large deposits of limestone at Bell Point and Point Grinder. Analysis. — Ca CO;j ... ... ... 94-9° Mg ... ... ... ... Trace Fe 2.85 Si O^ ... ... ... ... 2.85 H. O ... ... ... ... 0.50 (15) DOOKIE. Locality. — Allotment 169, in the north-east of parish of Dookie^ county of Moira. Occurrence. — As a large calcite vein traversing diabase rocks. It appears to occupy a fissure, and is sometimes seen as a calcareous breccia. Economic. — In one of the quarries the vein has been worked for a length of 3 chains, and to a depth of 10 feet, and 12 feet wide in places. Other quarries occur along the course of the vein for a total length of eight chains (8 chs.). This limestone was burnt and sent long distances in former years, and the old kiln is still standing. Analysis. — Ca CO;^ ... ... ... 94.10% [16) Warrnambool. Locality. — Between Warrnambool and Port Fairy, a distance of about fifteen (15) miles, county of Villiers. Occurrence. — Extensive sand dunes up to 50 feet high in places. These sand dunes in many places consist almost entirely of small broken pieces of sea shells, and this shell sand has the composition of a fairly pure limestone. Economic. — The deposits contain many millions of tons of finely- crushed limestone, apparently in a form most suitable for agricultural purposes. It is close to the railway line, and could be very cheaply handled ; but before any operations are undertaken, the dunes should be thoroughlv examined and sampled to determine the relative values of the various parts. Analysis. — Ca CO3 .. ... ... 84.46 Insol. (SiO?) ... ... ... vio AU O3 ^ ... ... ... 0.57 Fe., O., ... ... ... 0.87 Mg'COg Hs'O &r. (by differenrt^) ... 9.00 Na CI. ' ..." ... ... Trace P. O5 ... ... ... ... Trace 100.00 lo Oct., 1912. j Victorian Lunestotie Deposits. 595 A bore at Albert Park, Warrnambool, was put down for a depth of 398 feet through 81 ft. 9 in. of limestone; at times this limestone contains flints. At a depth of 115 feet there was 9 ft. 5 in. of calcite. (17) Limestone Creek. Locality. — On Limestone Creek, 25 miles from Omeo Plains Station, parish of Enamo, in the county of Benambra. Occurrence. — An extensive area of dense subcrystalline to white crystalline limestone and marble of the Middle Devonian series. Economic. — One of the outcrops covers thirty-five (35) acres. The locality is over one hundred (100) miles from the Bairnsdale railway station. Analysis (/. Cosmo Newbery). — Ca CO3 ... ... ... 96.80 Mg COu .. ... ... 2.80 Soluble silica ... ... ... 0.20 Insol. silica ... ... ... o.io H^ O ... ... ... ... o.io (18) BuCHAN. Locality. — Buchan, in the county of Tambo, Eastern Gippsland, including Gelantipy, Buchan, South Buchan, Canni Creek, and New Guinea Point, Snowy River. Occurrence. — Blue-grey limestone of Middle Devonian age, some ex- tremely pure. It is by far the most extensive outcrop of limestone in Victoria, being in extreme length 15 miles, by 5 miles wide, and of great thickness. Economic. — The southern area would be about 6 miles south of Buchan, and on the completion of the Bairnsdale-Orbost railway line this area will be more accessible. Analyses. — No. 395/1905 (Dr. Mackieson's, South Buchan). Ca CO^ .. ... ... 93.20 Insol. ... ... . . ... 2.07 Fe and Al ... ... ... 0.60 Indeterminate ... ... ••■ 4.20 100.07 No. 396 1 Ca CO3 Insol. Fe and Al Indeterminate 905 (Spring Creek, Buchan). ... 92.97 2.80 . . .. ... 1.80 2.70 100.27 (19) Moyne. Port Fairy. Locality. — Hanging Rock Quarry, Moyne, Port Fairy. It is situated a little to the south of the Moyne siding, between Koroit and Port Fairv. 596 Journal of Agriculture. Victoria. [10 Oct., 1912. Occurrence. — Tertiary limestone exposed in a small quarry, and from the general appearance of the country there appears to be a very consider- able amount of similar material to that submitted for analysis. Economic. — Its position is convenient for transport, being about i mile from the railway, and the quality of limestone as collected for analysis is excellent, Analysis. —No. 38/ 1907 — Ca CO3 ... Insol. AI2 O3 Fe^ U3 ... Mg COs Ho O ... Undetermined (20) Wombat Creek. Locality. — On Wombat Creek, about 2 miles west of the Wombat- Mitta River junction, parish of Tongaro, in the county of Bogong. Occurrence. — Blue to grey crystalline lime.stone bands of Silurian age. The area is extensive. Economic. — The values of Ca CO3 should be high, and somewhat similar to the other crystalline Silurian limestones as at Mansfield, &c. The locality is in rough mountain country, and too far from railway com- munication at present to be of commercial value. (21) Batesford. Locality. — Just east of the Dog Rocks, on the Moorarbool River, and about I mile south-east of the Batesford bridge, parish of Gheringhap, in the county of Grant. Occurrence. — Yellow to reddish limestone of Tertiary age. A hilt section shows — Feet. Basalt ... ... ... ... ... 75 Incoherent sandy material with calcareous concretions 50 Yellow clay, with calcareous concretions ... ... 5 Polyzoal limestone ... ... ... ... 25 Orbitoidal limestone ... ... ... ... 20 175 Economic. — The Upper Quarry shows a fairly hard limestone passing^ upward into a friable limestone, making about 45 feet in all. The Dryden, or Filter Quarry, is about three-quarters of a mile lower down the Moorarbool, and here the deposits are very extensive, and are being worked by P. McCann and Sons, of Fyansford, for cement pur- poses, &c. The beds vary, being at one place 22 feet vertical of pure white, friable limestone, but generally less. Analyses made by Mr. P. G. Bayly gave — No. 735 (Upper Quarry) (Ca CO.5) ... ... 99.12 No. 736 (Filter Quarry) ... ... ... 96.66 loOcT.. 1912.J \'ictoria)i Limestone Deposits 597 (22) Mt. Wellington. Locality.— Ko.\\\ Horse Gully, near Dolodorook Creek, parish of Nap Nap Marra, county of Tanjil. Occurrence. -^Vih-cx:\st:x\\\i\i:^ grey limestone of Upper Cambrian age, forming a lenticular patch. Economic. — There are three outcrops of limestone, one of which is said to be traceable at intervals for i mile in a south-west direction. Eventually this limestone should prove of great value for building pur- poses, and also for fertilizing the land. The locality is about forty (40) miles northward from the Heyfield railway station. Analysis. — No. 412/1907 — Ca CO3 ... ... ... ... 65.0 Insol. ... .. ... ... 23.0 Fe^ 0:5 Alo- Oj ... ... 6.0 Mg" CO..J ' ... ... ... 6.0 {2^) Netherby. Locality. — At Netherby, in the parish of Warraquil, county of Lowan, in the Horsham district. Occurrence. — Tertiary friable limestone was proved in a bore, and was found to occur from a depth of 245 feet to 657 feet. In some other adjacent bores, the limestone beds were cut at a much shallower depth. Economic. — An analysis of a sample of limestone from Netherby was as follows: — Si O^ ... ... ... 2.883 Fe and Al ... ... ... 1.283 Ca CO3 ... ... ... 92.270 Mg CO3 3-^05 Unestimated and loss ... ... .359 (24) Deutgam (Werribee District). Locality. — At a point 160 feet east of the north-west corner of allot- ment J3, section HI., parish of Deutgram, county of Grant, in Bore Xo. 4, which was put down under Government supervision in the year 1902. Occurrence. — At a depth of forty-eight (48) feet from the surface large deposits of limestone were met with, and were as follows: — 48 feet to 70 feet limestone and calcareous clay, 90 feet to 270 feet fossiliferous limestone, &c., and other beds at various depths, down to 606 ft. 5 in., where the bore was di-scontinued. Economic. — These deposits are near the \Verril:)ee railway Ihie, and the bore only 4 miles south-east of that station. There are no depart- mental analyses of these denosits. 59^ J ournai of Agriculture, Victoria. [loOcx., 1912. III. NOTE ON LIMESTONE DEPOSITS IN VICTORIA. Will C. Robertson, Chief Deputy Chemist. An extensive deposit of limestone of a fair degree of purity, say, 90 per cent, calcium carbonate, may be a valuable asset in any country, but from the stand-point of agriculture, especially in a State where closer settlement is in its infancy, this asset becomes dead stock if the environ- ments preclude facilities for economical working. The lime required by the builder is a different thing to the lime needed by the agriculturist, inasmuch as the former looks for a product with as high a percentage of lime as possible, and is prepared to pay a price for it. On the other hand, whilst the agriculturist would not say no to very pure lime, still, for the purposes for which he requires it, the high price that builders pay might not be justifiable. At present, therefore, the agriculturist is content with a product of a lower degree of purity sup- plied at a much cheaper rate. Consequently a limestone deposit, to be of any practical value to the agricultural community, must possess the following advantages — (a) It must be of great extent. (b) It must occur near the surface, and be easily quarried, thereby removing the difficulty of overburden, and minimizing the cost of labour. ic) Means of railway or seaboard transport must be handy. {d) An abundance of fuel adjacent. {e) The percentage of calcium carbonate in the raw material should be at least 80 per cent. This would give on burning a pro- duct containing approx. 69 per cent, caustic lime. These conditions are necessary if the limestone is to be burnt with the object of using "free caustic lime," but if "mild lime," in the form of ground limestone, is to be the object, then the same conditions apply with the single exception of fuel abundancy for which condition there needs to be substituted the pro\ision of the raw material being of a soft tendency to perm it easy grinding. The chemist's branch of the Department of Agriculture has paid especial attention for years past to the all important subject of limestone deposits for agricultural purposes, and whenever possible, investigations have been conducted and analyses made, with the object of .solving a verv difficult problem. A glance at the Mines Department list, showing the occurrences of limestone deposits in Victoria, elicits the information that 40 per cent, of these deposits are unavailable through the depth of occurrence and trans- port difficulty ; amongst such are those situated at Mitchellvale, Bindi, Limestone Creek, Buchan, Wombat Creek, and Mount Wellington, whilst those at Netherby and Deutgam (Werribee) occur far too deep for economi- cal working. The deposits at Curdie's River, Coimadai, Dutson, Lilydale, Waratah and Batesford are being rrined extensively, whilst those at Kawarren, Mans- field and Mitchell River are being worked in a smaller way. The remaining deposits at the present moment are not being utilized. It will, therefore, be .seen that, of the twenty limestone occurrences listed, 45 per cent, are being worked, 40 per cent, are unavailable, whilst the re- maining 15 per cent, are in abeyance. 7oOcT., 1912.] Xoh' on Limestone Deposits in Victoria. 599 The analyses of the deposits show them to be of great purity with one exception, viz., Duck Ponds, ^^'oornyaloak. It should be noted that the ('oimadai deposit is dolomitic, containing over 40 per cent, magnesia, which, according to authorities, somewhat tletracts from its usefulness for agricultural purposes. In addition to the limestone deposits mentioned above, there are marl beds, consisting mainly of calcium carbonate in an amorphous form, scat- tered through the limestone eras of the State, several of which are being quarried for agricultural purposes. Some of these are situated in the Geelong district, whilst others are at Cobden. The following analyses of marl, from Mount Duneed and Cobden, may be of interest — Marl from Ford's Pit, Mt. Duneed. Xo. 1. No. 2. .\(). :i. No. 4. VcUdW Marl. Samplf I'loni loft. face. Uiulwlviiig Clay. White Marl. 0/ /O % % 0/ /o Insoluble 86 01 60-61 78-62 12 17 Fe.303-Alj03 .. 3-90 2-86 4-44 1-22 Lime . . 0-60 14-08 0-32 45-78 (= Ca. Carb.) 107 25-12 0-57 81-75 Magnesia 108 1-97 0-98 1-51 (= Mg. Carb.) 2-26 413 205 3-17 COBDF X M.\RL.S. Xo. 1. Xo. 2. No. i. Moisture (ibO 15-68 25 • 63 2-30 Insoluble 2-40 1602 29-47 11-51 FeoOj-Al.O.r .. 0-82 2-80 3 • 65 2-55 Lime . . .50 Of) 35-30 21-40 46-25 (-: Ca. Carb.) .. 89-37 63 03 38-21 82 - 59 Magnesia 0-22 0-52 0-40 0-50 ( = Mg. Carb. ) . . 0-4() 1-09 0-84 1 -05 'SO3 0 09 0-10 0 06 0 • 14 Phos. acid Traoe Trare Trace Trace Soft marl deposits have also been discovered in the Gippsland district. The following is an analysis of a sample from the Gipp.sland Lakes — M.\RT. FROM NiCOLSON RiVEE. Insoluble Fe.Oj-AUOs Lime (= Ca. Carb.) Magnesia (= Mg. Carb.) As will be noticed from the tables marls vary in lime content, and as a general rule white marls are the purer. The impression that the blue pug underlying the.se deposits contains the most lime is erroneous, and should be dismissed. 7o 2-47 104 51-88 92-64 0-91 1-91 6oo Journal of A^^nculture, Victoria. [lo Oct., 1912. Marl deposits come as a boon and blessing locally, owing to the shallow depth at which they occur, and the easy manner in which the marl can be dug out, carted, and distributed. Unfortunately these deposits are never of very great extent, and they only serve a useful purpose in their own immediate locality, where the cost of handling is the only expense attached to their use. A FARMER S MARL F-IT, GEELONG DISTRICT. (Ste also page 610). On the other hand, there is the deposit of limestone sand occurring as " Dunes " or " Hummocks," and running from the mouth of the Hopkins River, at Warrnambcdl, to Port Fairy — a distance of from 15 to 20 miles. ^ The following is a list of analyses of samples taken from various points around Warrnambool — LiM-i:sTONE Sand Dunes, Warrnambool. No. 1. No. 2. No. 3. No. 4. No. 5. Sand Dune Sand at Sand Dune Sand Dune Waste from near Pampas near Rifla at Levy's Steere's Plantation. Butts. Point. Quarry. Insoluble 0/ /o 16 06 % 9-39 0/ /O 5-26 O/ /O 11-28 0/ /o 2-79 FegOs-AloOa 102 104 1-26 1-40 0-96 Lime 42 12 46-28 47-21 44-48 52-88 (= Ca. Carb.) 75-21 82-64 84-31 79-43 94 - 43 Magaesia 3-54 3-17 3-88 3-72 1-29 (= Mg. Carb.) 7-43 6-65 8-15 7-81 2-71 Salt Trace Trace Trace Trace Nil Phos. acid Trace Trace Trace Trace Trace Regarding the quantity of this material available, suffice it to say that the Dunes are, in some places, a quarter of a mile wide and 80 feet hio-h. loOcT.. 1912.] Note oil LiiHcstone Deposits hi Victoria. 601 l"he deposit coukl be readilv and cheaply worked by running a side line in from the main Port Fairy railroad, preferably on the Koroit side of Warrnambool, towards Levy's Point, or half-a-mile on the Mel- bourne side of the Warrnambool station, close to the Breakwater-road. The extremity of this side line could lie made portable, and bv means of a steam scoop the sand lifted and deposited in trucks at a \ery small cost, probably not more than a shilling per ton. The Dunes on the seaward side only should be worked, for those extending inland are of much lower grade, being contaminated with debris and the adjacent soil. The fine state of dixision makes burning for caustic lime out of the question. The degree of division, however, is hardly fine enough for agricultural purjioses, and this is the main disadvantage of the deposit, and it is questionable whether grinding to a finer state of di^■ision would be a profitable undertaking. A test, con- ducted in the laboratory, showed the lime in Geelong marl to be more readily available than that in the sand dunes. At Steer's limestone quarry, in the heart of Warrnambool, a certain amount of limestone sand and dust accumulates. This is available at 7$. per ton, and, although rather coarse in texture, it is a xery pure material and well worthy of note. Unfortunately, here again one is beset with the "quantity available" difficulty. From the stand-point of disintegration the soft yellow lime- stones, such as tho.se occurring at Bellevue and Picnic Point, Bairns- dale, are more readilv ground than the hard, dense, and compact blue and grey limestones occurring at Lily- dale, Mansfield, and other parts. Some of the yellow limestones contain up to I per cent, phosphoric acid — an important advantage. 6o. Journal oj .\i:^r'icultHrc . Victoria. [jo Oct.. 191 . Like unto the marl deposits. Ijut more rare, are the beds of small sea or freshwater shells. The only deposit of this description at present being worked is that occurring on the Harbor Trust's Sparrovale jjroperty. The price charged for this shell deposit is 3d. per load. STEER S LIMESTONE QUARRY, WARRNAMBOOL. SHOWING ACCUMULATION OF LIMESTONE S \ND IN THE FOREGROUND. This shell grit is much more in.soluble and unavailable than either marl or ground limestone, in that the glaze of the shell acts as a waterproof roating, and. together with the density, prevents the action of solvents- The deposits are small in extent. TV THE CHEMISTRY OF LIME. By P. Raiihiii Scott. C/iciiiist for Agriculture. Lime is a term somewhat looselv applied in a general way to various forms of compound substances which have for their base the oxide of calcium, represented by the chemical formula CaO, and commonlv termed lo Oct., 1912. J I'lic Chemistry of J. .me. 603 Lime is therefore a compouml of two elements, calcium (Ca) and oxygen (O). This compound possesses such a strong affinity for acids that it is ntvtT found free in nature. Combined with carbonic acid gas (CO.,), however, large deposits of calcium carbonate (CaCO^) are found in various forms, chief amongst which may be noted the limestones, marbles, chalks, and shells. Any one of these deposits can be utilized for the production of calcium oxide (CaO) or quicklime by depriving it of carbonic acid gas by heat, thus CaCO.^ + heat = CaO + COg. In actual practice there are three distinct forms of lime compounds applied to the soil, namely : — Calcium oxide (CaO) lime. Calcium hydrate (CaH^Oj) slaked lime. Calcium carbonate (CaCO;, ) chalk, limestone, shell. &c. What these forms are and the relation they l>ear one to the other can be seen by means of the lime cycle : — Calcium Carbonate CaCO j^ Limestone, (S:c. ^. / M Calcium Hydrate Calcium Oxide CaH.p, CaO .Slaked lime. Lime. \ J The above cycle illustrates the changes of one form into the other. From calcium carlx)nate we obtain directly the oxide by driving off the carbonic acid gas, then the hydrate is formed by the combination of one part of water (H^O) with the oxide, thus CaO + H2O ^ CaHjOs, and finallv the carbonate is formed by the substitution of one part of carbonic acid gas for one part of water, thus CaH^O^ + CO2 = CaCO.. + H^O The changes occurring are brought about by means of the following treat- ment : Lime is obtained when calcium carbonate is submitted to a red heat, the carbonic acid content is driven off as a gas, or is '"' burnt out,"' and lime remains. Henct the term '' burnt lime '' as applied to the oxide of calcium (CaO). On the addition of water to the lime a chemical combination takes place, resulting in the formation of slaked lime. This slaked lime when left exposed to the atmosphere combines graduallv with carbonic acid gas, and continues to do so until all the lime is converted back again into calcium carbonate, identical in composition with the original material. These changes can be explained more in detail by the u.se of chemical equations — ist— Calcium Carbonate Calcium Oxide Carbonic Acid CaCOa = CaO + C0._, This change is brought about bv heat : the molecular weight of each substance being — CaCOg = CaO + CO. 100 = -6 + ^4 6o4 Journal oj Agriculture, Victoria. [lo Oct., 1912. therefore, 100 lbs. of calcium carbonate yield.s 56 lbs. of calcium oxide, which remains as a solid, and 44 lbs. of carbonic acid, which is driven' off as a gas. 2nd — Calcium Oxide Water Calcium Hydrate CaO + H/J = CaH.O, This change is brought about b\ wetting the (calcium oxide CaO> lime; the molecular weight of each substance being — CaO + Water = CaH.,0.^ 56 + 18 ^ 74 56 lbs. of calcium oxide and 18 lbs. of water yield 74 lbs. of calcium hydrate. 3rd— Calcium Hydrate + Carbonic Acid = Calcium Carbonate + Water CaHoO, + CO., = CaCOg + H,0 This change is brought about bv the carbonic acid of the air and soil ;. the molecular weight of each substance being — CaH.p., H- CO., = CaCO, + H.^O 74 + 44 = 100 + iH therefore, 74 lbs. of calcium hydrate and 44 lbs. of carbonic acid yield 100 lbs. of calcium carbonate, and 18 lbs. of water. This was the quantity of water combined with the calcium oxide to form calcium hydrate, so the cycle is completed. From the above results it is evident that heat applied to calcium car- }x>nate alters its composition with reduction, of weight ; that the residue of lime left combines first with water to form calcium hydrate, and this calcium hydrate, if left exposed to the atmosphere, reverts back again to calcium carbonate, with no actual loss. There is another important compound of lime which lies outside of the cycle given above, viz., the bi-carbonate of calcium CaHo (COg)^, formed by the addition of one part of water, and one part of carbonic acid gas to the ordinary carbonate, thus CaCO;, + H.^0 + CO2 = CaH._, (COg).^. It is through this form of lime compound that the chief losses of lime from the soil occur. Unlike the single carbonate of lime (chalk, limestone, &c.) this double carbonate is .soluble in water, and when it is formed by the carbonic acid dissolved in the soil water coming in contact with particles of calcium carbonate, the latter is dissolved and pas.ses away, or leaches out of the .soil by means of drainage or in gravitational water. Lime Proper or " Burnt T.ime." Lime (calcium oxide CaO) is always made commercially by taking advantage of the action of heat on limestone or other form of calcium carbonate. The general procedure adopted consists in burning the natural deposit in a specially constructed kiln, into which carbonate of lime and fuel are added in alternate layers from the top until the kiln is filled. The fuel is then ignited, and the process of burning can be kept on loOcT., I9I2-J '/'//f Clifiinstry of Lime. 605 continuously by removing the burnt lime at the base of the kiln, replacing with a fresh supply of carlx)nate and fuel at the top Natural deposits of limestone, &c., are never pure, but usually contaminated with varying proportions of carbonate of magnesia, iron and alumina and silica. The higher the percentage of these in the deposit, the less pure will be the lime produced on burning. The Quality of Lime. This depends upon several circumstances ; impurities, as just men- tioned, in the limestone, affect the quality. But quality may also be affected in other ways. If the lime is not thoroughly burned, pieces of imperfectly burned stone, which will not slake, will be contained in it. With limestone containing much silicious matter (sand), over-burning may take place, and calcium silicate be formed. Again, if some time has elapsed since burning, the lime will deteriorate owing to partial slaking, and subsequent formation of calcium carbonate as explained above. The essential points in connexion with lime burning is that limestone of good quality should be used, combined w^ith careful burning. Well burned lime should contain practically all its lime as calcium oxide (CaO). Slaked Lime (C'alcium Hydrate, ("aH._,0;a). Slaked lime is produced when freshly burned limestone is treated with water. The material will swell up considerably, and give off steam, owing to the heat generated by the chemical combination of the lime and water, thus. CaO + HoO = CaHjO.^. Eventually the mass will crumble into a fine powder. Air Slaked Lime. This material differs from the water-slaked lime, in that it is a mix- ture of slaked Ume and calcium carbonate formed by reason of the fact that air contains both moisture and carbonic acid gas, both of which have a combining affinity with the burnt lime. The relative proportion of each constituent of air-slaked lime varies according to the time of ex- posure to the atmosphere after burning, for, as already mentioned, lime, if left long enough exposed, will eventually all become calcium carbonate again. Tliis is the form of lime usually su])i)lied as agricultural lime. Carbonate of Lime. This is present in agricultural lime, having been formed from slaked" lime on exposure. Carbonate of lime is also obtained in chalk and all forms of limestone direct. If applied as a land dressing this form cf lime, to be of the best .service, must be in as fine .state of division as pos- sible, and, therefore, when purchasing limestone for such use it should be stipulated for, that it be finely gicund. When finely ground, it can be more evenly distributed. Its effectiveness is also increased, owing in a great measure to the greater surface exposed by the fineness of rhe particles to the action of the soil acids. Some deposits of carbonate of lime are better adapted on that account for dressing soil than others. Chalk will easily crumble into a fine powder when dug out and allowed" to become dry with exposure. Other forms which bear a striking re- semblance to ordinary sandstone are also easily ground. Shells, both- of fresh and salt water origin, are much denser in structure, and offer 6o6 Jonnial of Agriculture. \"utoria. [loOcx.. 1912. considerali!^ resistance to the grinding process. Tliey are generally less bulky weight for weight, as compared with the more friable deposits, and proportionately less likely to disintegrate as readily in the soil. Gypsum (Sulphate of Lime). Besides the natural deposits obtainable as carbonate of lime, consider- able depcsits exist of gypsum. Gypsum is lime (CaO) in combination with one part of sulphuric acid (H2SO4) and two of water (HgO). It possesses the following formula: — CaSO^ • 2H.,0 The molecular weight being : — Sulphate of ^^j , Oxide of Calcium Sulphuric ,,. Calcmm. nmie). Anhydride. CaSO^ . 2H.p = CaO + SO3 + 2H2O 172 56 80 ^6 therefore as 172 : 100 : : 5^ : the percentage of lime (CaO) 56 X 100 172 32.51 CaO Thus, 100 lbs. of gypsum will yield 32.54 lbs. of lime. Gypsum being already in combination with an acid (H-0SO4) does not possess the power of combining with and neutralizing the acids in. the soil, so that it is useless as a dressing for sour land. Furthermore, as its lime con- tent is only about one-third that of lime as shown above, its claims to recognition as a substitute for burnt lime can only be reasonably enter- tained when the price and convenience of the deposit are such as to counter-balance the extra cost of handling, rail, carriage, &c. The Relative Value of the Different Forms of Lime. 56 li)s. of fresh burnt lime contains the same amount of lime as — 56 lbs. of fresh ground lime. 74 lbs. of water-slaked lime. 100 lbs. of carbonate of lime (as a powder — ground limestone, chalk, &c.). 100 lbs. of old air-slaked lime. 172 lbs. of sulphate of lime (as gypsum). The equivalent value is. therefore, as follows: — 100 lbs. of fresh burnt lime is equivalent to — 135 lbs. of water-slaked lime. 178.6 lbs. of carbonate of lime (as a powder). 307.3 lbs. of sulphate of lime (as gypsum). Standards. Zime. A good quality lime should contain at least 85 per cent, com- bined oxide and carbonate, of which not more than 10 per cent, shall be present as carbonate. Slaked Lime. — A good quality slaked lime should contain at least 85 per cent, of combined oxide, hvdrate, and carboi ate. of which not more than 10 per cent, .shall be present as carborate. lo Oct.. 1 91 2. J The Cl/eniistr \,' of L.me. 607 Carbonate of Lain. — A good quality carbonate of lime should contain at least 85 per cent, of carbonate of lime, and pass through a sieve of 50 meshes to the linear inch. Gyfsiim. — A good quality gypsum should contain at lea.st 30 per cent, of calcium oxide. All other grades should be sold on a guarantee, stating their calcium oxide content. MoNKv Value of Lime to the Farmer. On some land the beneficial effect of lime may l>e worth ^3 per ton. On other land it may be worth only ^i per ton. according to the greater or less ill-effect on the crop returns of the defect which it remedies. What, therefore, is the money value of lime delivered on the farm can only be ascertained as a result of experiment and careful record of die cost compared with the increase of crop returns over a period of years. Assuming standard lime as above (75 per cent. CaO. and 10 per cent. CaCOg) to be worth £,1 los. per ton on the farm, then — Standard slaked lime (75 per cent. CaO and CaH^O^. and 10 per cent. CaCOg) is worth ^i 2s. 3d. per ton on the farm. Standard carbonate of lime (85 per cent., finely ground CaC^Oo (ground limestone, &c.) is worth i6s. lod. per ton on tbi farm. Standard gvpsitni (30 per cent. CaO) is worth 9s gd. per ton on the farm. It does not follow that if a farmer can get gypsum landed at the nearest railway station to him for 9s. 9d. per ton that it would pay him as well as to buy freshly burnt lime landed at the station at 30s. per ton, for the cartage to the farm and the cost of distribution would be three times as much in the former case as it w^ould in the latter. Still less would it pay to buy the bulkier form of lime, paying the above rates at the sending end. for the freight of 3 tons would have to be paid for in the ca.se of gyp.sum additional on the cost, as against the freight charges for i ton in the case of liurnt lime. Table showing the Names, Chemical Formula, and Synonyms of THE Different Forms or Lime. Name. Chemical Foniiula. Synonyms. No. 1. — Lime ... 1 1 Calcium Oxiile CaO Quicklime, .stone lime, lump lime, caustic lime, builders' lime, burnt lime, ground lime Xo. ^} — Slaked Lime Calcium Hydrate 1 CaH.O, Hydiate of lime, water slaked, ail- islaked, slacked lime Xo. 3. — Carbonate of Calcium ("arbonate Limestone, chalk, marble, shell. Lime CaCO, shell-sand. marl, grfiuud lime- stone No. 4. — Gypsum Calcium Sulphate CaSO^ & 2H,0 Copi, sulphate of lime, land plaster Note. — Nos. i and 2 are known as hot lime. Xos. 3 and 4. are known as mild lime Hot lime is much stronger in its action in decomposing organic matter than the miUL linifs. 6o8 Journal of AgncuLiure^ Victoria. [lo Oct.. 191 :;. V. THE PRACTICE OF LIMING. By A. E. V. Richardson, M.A., B.Sc, Agricultural Suferintcndent. The value of lime a.s a means of ameliorating certain classes of soil has been known from the very earliest times, and was the subject of com- ment by many of the ancient writers. During comparatively recent time; there are many instances on record where liberal dressings of marl and chalk have had a most marked and favorable effect on the fertility of the soil for generations. According to Hall, there are certain fields on the Rothamstead Experimental Station known to have received heavy appli- cations of marl more than a century ago, which to-day exceed in productive value adjoining fields which were not so treated. That the presence in the soil of a sufficiency of lime in the form of carbonate is a fair guarantee of its fertil ty and productive power is indeed generally recognised, and this view finds its expression in the well- known maxim, " A limestone country is a rich country." In this article will be considered briefly the forms in which lime may be applied, its action on the soil, the rate, time, frequency, cost, and mode of application, and the method of determining the soil requirements with regard to Hme. I. Forms in which Lime may be Applied. These will be dealt with in greater detail in Mr. Scott's article. It is only here necessary to mention that lime may be applied in four distinct forms : — (i) As Carbonate, CaCOg, in the form of ground limestone, marl, chalk, " unburnt lime," "dilute lime,'" shells, &c. (2) As Oxide, CaO, in the form of quicklime. " hot lime," " caustic lime." or "' burnt lime," " unslaked lime," " lump lime.'' (3) As Hydrate, Ca(OH)o, m the form of slaked lime. (4) As Sulphate, CaS04 . 2H2O, in gypsum, or " land plaster." It is of importance to the farmer tO' realize that the relative value of these substances depends mainly on the percentage of lime present in the respective compounds. Now, if 178.6 lbs. of pure ground limestone (carbonate of calcium) are burnt in a kiln, 78.6 lbs. will disappear into the air as carbonic acid gas, and 100 lbs. of quicklime (oxide of calcium) will be left behind. That is to say, 100 lbs. of quicklime are equivalent to 178.6 lbs. of ground limestone or any other form of pure " carbonate of lime." Again, if the 100 lbs. of quicklime be thoroughl\- slaked with water, 132 lbs. of slaked lime (hydrate of calcium) will be obtained. Finally, if this amount of slaked lime be properly neutralized with sulphuric acid, 307 lbs. of " land plaster '' or gypsum (sulphate of calcium) will be produced. These figures are of practical importance. It will be seen that there is precisely the same amount of "lime" in 178.6 lbs. of carlmnate or ground limestone. 100 lbs. quicklime, 132 lbs. of slaked lime, and 307 lbs. of gypsum. That is, if a farmer wished to purchase the equivalent of i ton of pure lime, he would requ're approximately the following quantities: — I ton of quicklime, 1.3 tons of slaked lime, 1.8 tons ground limestone, or 3.1 tons of gvpsum. loOcT.. 1912.' 'L'hc Fracticc oj Uni'mg. 609 2. AciioN OF Lime on the Soil. The object of applying lime to the soil is not the same as that involved in the application of ordinarv fertilizers. Fertilizers, such as super- phosphate, Thiiinas' phosphate, guano. &c., supply the soil with elements of plant food in which the .soil is actually deficient, and they are applied in relativelv small amounts, i.e., from \ cwt. to i cwt. per acre under ordinarv farming conditions. I.ime. however, is applied becau.se of its indirect effect upon the soil. i.e.. because of the effect it produces upon the chemical composition and i)hysical and biological condition of the soil, and not because it is actually wanted to supply the plants' immediate requirements. It is not in itself a plant food, as phosphoric acid is, except to a very limited extent, but nevertheless, the application of lime in suitable quantities has a most marked effect on soils wanting in lime. Lime corrects soil acidity. — Perhaps the most important effect is that lime being alkaline neutralizes the acidity of the soil, and thus promotes vegetation. Most of our agricultural crops cannot thrive in a soil that is sour or acid, but must have a .soil that is neutral or basic in character. Soils tend to become sour from various cau.ses. In regions of heavy rainfall, lime is being constantly washed out of the surface layers. At Rothamstead this loss amounts to 800 lbs. of lime per acre per annum. Carbonic acid gas, which is present in all soil water, has the power of dissolving lime and carrying it off in the drainage waters. It is the presence of lime in solution that causes the " hardness " of certain waters, and it is owing to the power of the .soil waters to dissolve lime that the formation of limestone caves is brought about. Again, the organic matter or the humus of the soil is constantly under- going decomposition, and, as a result, various organic acids are formed in much the same wa\, as ensilage becomes acid and sour on exposure. Now. lime is the natural base by means of which these acid substances in the soil are neutralized. Hence, if for any reason the soil has become acid, then a dressing of lime is an indispensable preliminarv for satis- factory crops. This is more particularly true of such leguminous crops as clover and lucerne, for these will not thrive on soils that are sour and acid in character. Lime liberates flant fi'od. — Lime is a very powerful soil stimulant, and is very effective in liberating plant food. Most of the phosphoric acid and potash present in the .soil is present in insoluble combinations that cannot be used by the plant. The application of liberal dressings of lime renders such insoluble compounds as iron and aluminium phosphates more susceptible to the solvent action of the soil water bv con\erting them into phosphate of lime,* and thus making them immediately available to the crop. Lime also replaces potash in its insoluble combinations in the soil, and this probablv accounts for the beneficial action of lime, particularly when applied in the form of gvpsum, on those crops which require relatively large amounts of potash, e.g., lucerne, clover, and other legumes. The action of lime on the organic portion of the soil is extremely important. It hastens the decay and decomposition of the organic matter, and greatly promotes the process of nitrification. Lime imfroves the mechanical condition of the soil. — The effect of lime on the physical constitution of the soil is verv marked. Stiff clay soils are rendered more friable, far less adhesive, more open and porous 6ro Journal ol A f-//i/////irc\ Mctoria. [lo Oct.. 1912. in character by the application of a liberal dressing of lime. Lime cau.ses the very fine particles of silicate of alumina, which are re- sponsible for the tendency of clay soils to set hard, to coagulate or curdle and aggregate into relatively large particles. Thus the soil becomes more open, its porosity and permeability are increased, and the soil tends to become drier, more friable, and more easily culti\ated. and thus more con- genial conditions for the develop- ment of the plants' roots are provided. With light sandy soils quick- lime should be used with discre- tion. When, however, lime is ap- ])lied to such soils in the form of carbonate, it has the opposite effect tO' that exerted on clay soils, and tends to hold the soil particles together, and to increase the capa- city of the soil for retaining moisture. /.line improves the biological coudition of the soil. — On rich peaty soils, lime may be u.sed with considerable freedom. These soils are very liable to become sour owing to the decomposition of the lai'ge amount of organic matter they contain, and the consequent formation of \arious organic acids. This decomposition is brought al)out through the agency of count- less millions of microscopic bacteria, and one may say that the fertility of any given soil is very largely dependent on the nature and activity of the teeming bac- terial population it holds. The functions of some of these soil germs have been discussed else- where.* It need only be added that the presence of adequate sup- ])lies of lime in the form of car- l)onate will insure in the soil a vigorous and beneficial bacterial flora, and will consequently en- hance the fertility and productive power of the soil. JoiirnaJ oj A/ricxIture (Victoria), Spptember. 1912. lo ()(!.. 191-2. J The Practice oj Liming. 611 Quantity per Acre and Frequency of Application. The quantity of these various lime compounds to be used will depend on the nature of the soil, the ol)ject of the application, the form in which the lime is applied, and the cost of the mat< rial. The maximum dressing will be required on stiff clay soils, in which it is desired to effect an im- provement in the physical condition, or on peaty soils rich in decaving organic matter. The minimum dressing is required for light open soils deficient in organic matter. On these latter soils, indeed, the use of (luicklime, especially in large quantities, should be avoided. Ground limestone or " unhurnt lime '" will give far more satisfactory results. For stiff cla\ soils or sour peatv soils which have never yet received any lime, very little material effect will be observable with a lighter dressing than 10 cwt. of quicklime, or its e(]uivalent in slaked lime, while con.siderably heavier dressings mav be applied with profit. To bring about a material improvement in the mechanical condition of very stiff clays from i to 2 tons of lime mav be necessary for an initial dressing, and this will be sufficient for a number of years. Such a heavy dressing ma\ seem at first sight a verv improfitable venture to farmers accustomed to an annual expenditure of js. di^. to 5s. per acre for artificial manures. It must be remembered, however, that with a dressing of lime the effects last for a long period, and the initial cnsi mu.st be spread over a period of years. On lands rich in decaying organic matter, and in reclaimed swamps, a very liberal application of lime will also be necessary to insure the best results. On light soils, loose and open in character, application of lime must be smaller. If these soils are wanting in organic matter, carbonate of lime should be used in preference to quicklime or slaked lin;;e. Car- bonate of lime is mild in its action, and it may be applied to anv .soil without danger. Marl, which is an impure form of carbonate of lime, is usually applied in very heavy dressings, amounting to tons per acre, but on account ot freight its use must necessarily be confined to the neighbourhood of marl pits. Many years ago it was the custom in Europe to apply lime in very larg^^ dressings at long intervals of time. Frequently 5 tons per acre were applied. Recent investigations in America have conclusively demon- strated the futilitv of this practice. It is now generally recognised th.it the secret of success in liming iand is to apply the lime in comparatively small doses at frequent intervals and to stiff lement the dressing of lime with organic matter and phosphites. Professor Wright, of Glasgow, carried out a series of experiments with lime over a period of eight years. He applied 4 tons of lime per acre in one, two, four, and eight applications to four different experimental plots. As a result of the first eight years' work, he says. " The largest increases of crops were obtained in this experiment from annual applications of TO cwts. of burnt lime per acre. Applications of 5 to 10 cwts. per acre per annum gave profitable results, but larger dressings of i, 2. and 4 tons proved very unprofitable." — (Tenth report. West of Scotland Agri- cultural College, 1 91 1.) It must be added that the soil on which Professor Wright was working was a loam in high condition. Mode of Application. Lime may be applied bv hand, with ordinarv fertilizer drills, or by means of specially constructed limespreaders. The advantages of the lime- spreaders are that comparatively small amounts may be spread with great regularity, and with the minimum of labour and of physical discomfort. <6i2 Journal oj Agriculture, Victoria. [ioOct.. 1912. {a) If spread by hand, the lime may be placed on the ploughed land in small heaps at regular inter\al.s. and co\ered with fine soil. If quicklime be used, it may be allowed to ''air slack" by atmospheric moisture or by showers of rain, in which case a mixture of carbonate and hydrate is obtained ; or it may be slaked quickly by the adBition of sufficient water to break down the mass into fine powder. If this latter operati(jn be judiciouslv performed, and ■excessive amounts of water be avoided, the whole mass will break down into very fine powder which will act most beneficially on the soil. After slaking, the lime may be mixed with earth (to facilitate evenness in d stri- bution and render it less objectionable to^ handle), and then spread with a shovel and harrowed in. Since lime naturally tends to ' ' sink ' ' in the soil and to be remo\ed by solution from the surface layers, it is unad\isable to plough it in and thus place it at the bottom of the furrow. The bett<-r practice is to spread it on the surface and harrow it in. FIG. I. LIMESPREADER. {b) Lime and ground limestone may be sown with an ordinary seed drill, but only in relatively small quantities, i.e., a few cwt. per acre. If larger dressings are to be applied with the drill, it becomes necessarv to go over the land twice, which obviously increases the cost of the appli- cation. {c) There are, however, a number of specially constructed limespreaders now on the market, which will satisfactorily sow from 2 or 3 cwt. up to 2 tons per acre with great uniformity. The general principle of these spreaders is that the lime is fed into a V-shaped hopper containing a series of slots either at the bottom or .side of the box, through which the lime is forced by means of a revolving chain, a set of teeth, or by a set of beaters. The amount of lime sown is regulated bv an alteration in the size of the exit slots. Figures I., II.. III. represent three limespreaders procurable on the Melbourne market. These limespreaders do very satis- factor\- work, and will spread from 3 cwt. to 2 tons of lime per acre lo Oct., 191 -J /'//(• /'racticc 0] LiinDig. 613 with regularity and accuracy. It would be a distinct advantage to have larger hoppers, more especially when fairly liberal dressings are used. -SO as to avoid the necessity for filling up so often. The price of the spreaders also .Sieems rather high, especially for the small settler. It is interesting to note that the farm dray is being adopted for limespreading. Figure IV. represents a limespreader. made by Sir. H. W. Kerle, of New South Wales, attached to the back of an ordinary dray ; and Figure V. shows a field in the act of being limed with this machine. The advantage ■of this arrangement is that a good load of lime may be started with in the dray, and the hopper replenished as the .spreading proceeds. I am indebted to Mr. Geo. Valder, Superintendent of Agriculture of New South ^Vales. for the photograph of this machine in action. If a simple and cheap limespreading device could be made and attached to the back of an ordinary farm dray, and worked by a sprocket from the box of the wheel, it would be a great con\-enience to a farmer desirous ■of applving lime in liberal dressings. Time of Application. The most suitable time to apply lime is in the autumn— a month or two T>efore seeding. O'licklime or staked l^ne mav interfere wdth the germina- FIG. 2.- -FORCE FEED LIMESPREADER. tion of the seed if sown too close to seeding, but its power to injure seeds gradually disappears as it changes into the form of carbonate by contact "with the soil, and in this form it is quite innocuous to germination or plant life. Quicklime and slaked lime mav be applied at other seasons of the year, provided the lime is \-er\ thoroughlv and uniformly worked into the soil by means of the harrows before the crop is sown. Carbonate of lime. I.e., chalk, ground limestone, ■" unburnt lime" or ground limestone, may lie applied at any time without risk, and the farmer may, therefore, consult his own convenience in applying these. Cost of Material. An important practical consideration to the farmer is the cost of the lime. At present, good agricultural lime containing over 90 per cent, of calcium oxide may be purchased for 25s. per ton. This agricultural lime Js a by-product in the manufacture of builders' lime, which costs over jQ2 per ton. Now, as a source of lime, this burnt lime is relatively much 6i4 Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo Oct.. 1912. cheaper than ground limestone, mor- especially when freights are taken into consideration. As previously stated, i ton of burnt lime is equivalent in lime content to 1.3 tons of slaked lime, and 1.8 tons of ground lime- stone or carbonate. Hence, if burnt lime is quoted at 25s. per ton, ground limestone, leaving freights out of consideration, is worth, as a source of lime, only 14s. per ton. The present price is jQi per ton. The freight on a ton of burnt lime is 5s. 4d. per 150 miles. The freight on an equivalent amount of lime in the form of ground limestone would therefore be 5s. 4d. X 1.8 = 9s. 7d. In other words, if a farmer, situated 150 miles from a lime quarry, were to purchase the equivalent of a ton of pure lime in the form of burnt lime and ground limestone, his purchase would pan out as follows : — I ton of burnt lime at 35s.. ])lus freight. 5s. 4d = 30s. 4d. Equivalent in ground limestone == i .8 tons at ^r per ton, freight, 9S. lA.^£2 5s. 7d. So that the lime in ground limestone would really cost him 50 per cent, more than in burnt lime. This should not lie. ^^'ith the vast deposits of FIG. 3. LIMING LAND FOR LUCERNE. high quality limestone in this State, and the improved rockgrinding ma- chinery now available, it should be possible to bring the price of ground limestone to nearly half its present level. With an increasing demand for, and an increasing output of ground limestone,, the price will doubtless drop considerably. The price must drop if it is to be used extensively. In other countries the ultimate cost to the farmer has been reduced by free haulage on the railways. Whether Victoria should follow in this regard is a matter of railwav policy. It is to the farmers' interest, however, that lime and ground limestone or carbonate of lime should be railed at bedrock rates. It is also to the farmers' interest that the various lime compounds on the market should be sold on a guarantee basis just as is now done with phosphatic nitrogenous and potassic fertilizers. What Form of Lime to Use. ^^'e have already seen that lime may be applied in the mild form of carbonate, in the active form of burnt lime, slaked lime, or quicklime, and in the form of '' land plaster "" or gypsum. With regard to gypsum, it must be understood that on some soils it has little or no value. It improves the mechanical condition of stiff clay soils, and liberates large amounts of potash, but it does not correct the soil acidity. It is not alkaline, and lo Oct.. 1 9 1 -J '[' he I'ractiLL oj Liming. 6i therefore it cannot take the place of lime in acid soils. It has a \alue for stiff clay soils, and under certain circumstances for potash loving plants like clover and lucerne, but it will not relieve a soil of its sourness. More- over, as a source of calcium, it is very expensive, containing but 34 per cent, of lime, and therefore worth about 8s. per ton compared with present market values of the other forms. With regard to the remaining forms of lime, viz.: — lime (carbonate), and quicklime (oxide), much depends on the cost and the nature of the soil to which the compounds are applied. The relative cost of ground lime- stone and burnt lime has already been discussed. It may be said that to the farmer in outlying districts, remote from lime- stone quarries, where freights must enter into consideration, the most con- centrated form, i.e. burnt lime, will be cheapest. In the neighbourhood of marl pits and quarries, ground limestone or mar] will probal)ly be the most •economical form to use. -LIMESPKEADER ATTACHED TO A FARM DRAY, On stiff clay soils. i)eatv lands, and reclaimed swamps, burnt lime is most efficacious. On other soils, carbonate of lime will give more beneficial and more lasting results. The most extensive investigation ever made into the relative merits of burnt lime and ground limestone, in comparative tests, is that conducted by the Pennsylvania Experimental Station. Equivalent quantities of lime in the form of ground limestone and burnt lime were u.sed e\ery four years, and, as a result of 25 vears' work. Dr. Frear says — " The yields from car- bonate of lime (ground limestone) showed superiority under the conditions of this experiment over those following the application of an equivalent application of caustic lime." Precautions to be Observed in using Lime. Several matters need to be guarded against in applying lime — (i) Lime has a constructive and a destructive effect on the soil. Its constructive effect is observed in the correction of soil aciditv, the stimulation of leguminous growth in the pastures, the promotion of nitrification and other liacterial 6i6 Journal of Agnciilture. Mctoria. [loOcT.. 1912-- activity, and the improvement of the mechanical condition of the soil. Its destructive effect is due to its caustic character. It rapidly destroys humus, and thus tends to rob the soil of its most valuable constituent. According to the Pennsylvania experiments quoted above, this loss was equivalent to the loss of 375 lbs. of nitrogen per acre in the first 9 inches of soil in sixteen vears, i.e. equal to 37^ tons of stable manure per acre. Hence, in' liming, provision must be made for the restoration of this organic matter by green manuring or the use of organic manures, like farmyard manure,, and also by the avoidance of stubblt- burning. Furthermore, on soils deficient in organic matter, ground limestone or dilute lime should be used in preference to caustic lime. (2) There is an old couplet which runs — " Lime and lime without manure Make both farm and farmer poor." Liming must not l)e regarded as a substitute for manuring. Phosphates nnist be used in conjunction with lime to secure the best results, and the supply of organic matter or humus must also be maintained. Unless these points are borne in mind, liming will deplete the soil of its fertility. When does a Soil need Lime. 1. The nature of the vegetation often indicates whether lime is wanting or abundant in a given soil. The habitual presence in the crops of such weeds as sorrel and plantain, which are fairlv tolerant of acid soil con- ditions, is an indication of the lack of lime, just as the continual appear- ance of vigorous clovers and trefoils in the pastures is a fair indication of the presence of a sufficiency of lime. The nature of the vegetation is a reliable, but not an infallible indication of the requirements of a soil as regards to lime. 2. There are several simple tests which roughly indicate whether or not a soil is in need of lime. If a soil is acid or sour in character, it is deficient in lime. A rough practical method of determining whether a given .soil is acid is to take a strip of blue litmus paper (which may be purchased from, any druggist), and place it between the broken halves of a ball of moist soil. If, after standing for some little time, the litmus turns red in colour, the soil is clearly acid in character and in need of lime. 3. If a soil contains a sufficiency of lime in the form of carbonate, it cannot be acid in character. A rough test of the amount of carbonate of lime in a soil may be made by taking a hollowed out ball of soil and pour- ing in a few drops of strong spirits of salts or hydrochloric acid. If much lime in the form of carbonate exists, a brisk effervescence will take place, while, if small quantities only are present, only a few bubbles will appear. 4. Some idea of the requirements of a soil for lime may be gained by studying its chemical analysis. The total amount of lime present in the the soil may be determined with accuracy by chemical analysis, but such analysis can throw little light on the form in which the lime is present. If the greater portion of the lime is present in the form of phosphate, or silicate, or sulphate, it will be of practically little value in keeping the soil " sweet." Paradoxical as it may appear, some soils known to contain large quantities of lime have given increased returns when dressed with this ingredient ; whilst, conversely, some soils with a relatively low per- centage of lime have proved unresponsive to further applications. Hence the form in which the lime is pre.sent, rather than its total amount, is the important factor in deciding whether lime is required. The four loOcT.. 1912.] 1' he Practice of l.'nu'mg. Oiy indicators descrited above all have their limitations, but to the experienced worker they are of service as rough guides in feeling the pulse of the land with r<'sp('ct to the nt'ed of lime. 5.- -Experiments with Lime. Bv far the most satisfactory and practical method of testing the land is by the establishment of experimental plots with varying dressings of lime. By this means every farmer can test the requirements of the soils on his farm. In order that the information gained should be of value, it is absolutely necessary to conduct the experiments over a length v period. Indeed, the most satisfactory results can onlv be obtained when the plots are permant-nt in character, so that the effects of ea-^h particular dres.sing can be noted. Tlu' full effects of lime are never immediately discernible. Time must be a I lowed for the beneficial changes to be wrought. Experiments were laid down last autumn at Rutherglen, Wyuna, and on private farms in the Western district. Central district, and in Gipps- LIMING LAND. land, to test the value of lime under var\ ing conditions. The experiments were designed to' seek deliniie information on the followiiig points: — (a) The value of dressings of lime var\ing from 5 cwt. up to 2 tons per acre when applied to lucerne, barley, wheat, and rape crops, in order to determine the effect of lime, and the most suitable amounts to appiv for legumes, cereals, and nan- leguminous forages. (h) The periodicity of application that will lead to the most profit- able results. (c) The value of lime when used in varying (juantities with and without phosphates, iiitrales, and potash, singly and in com- bination. (d) The effect of lime when used with and without green manures. (i ) The eff'ect of lime when used in various two, three, four, and rive course rotations. (/) The relative merits of equivalent forms of lime when applied in the form of quicklime, carbonate of lime, and gypsum, to different crops and different soils, with and without supple- mentary dressings of phosphates and organic matter. 1-231."). " X 6i8 ] oiiniaJ oj AgrHuUurc . Victoria. [loOcx.. 1912. Some timr must elapse before anv delinite conclusions can l)e drawn from these field experiments, hut each \ear indications of value should be obtained. The experiments will be extended and laid down in permanent plots at the Central f^xixTiniental Farm, probal)lv next autumn Unfortunately. \ery little ex])erimental work has been done on the lime question in Australia. It is admitted that tnere are wide divergences in Australian and European agricultural practice. This was referred to in dealing with the nitrogen question in the September issue.* It may so happen that in some details of liming, Australian soils mav require special treatment. If so, the prosecution of definite experiniental work in each of the climatically different districts of the State under varying conditions of soil treatment will indicate the direction in which improvements in existing and traditional practic- may be brought aliout. Summary. 1. Lime mav l:>e applied in one of four ft)rms : quicklime, slaked lime, ground limestone, and gvpsum. 2. One ton of quicklime is equivalent to 1.3 tons slaked lime, 1.8 ton.s^ of carbonate of lime, and 3.1 tons gypsum. 3. Lime has an important chemical, mechanical, and bioik1., 1906. loOcT.. 191-3] Rcliitioii of Lime to Soil Fertility. 621 Mechanical Effect of Lime. When a clay deficient in lime is wetted it becomes sticky and swells up somewhat after the manner of starch paste or glue. On drying it becomes very hard. If lime, however, is added, the cla\ will not juiddle well, and or. drying it crumbles. Fig. i shows an ordinary clay from the Western Plains rubbed up with water. The photograph was taken 20 hours after the cylinders were .set up. No. i had nothing added to the ■clay; the clay remains swollen up in the water, which is still muddy. In No. 2 the addition of lime has caused coagulation (sometimes referred to as flocculation) of the clay, which has then settled down as a fine powder. No. 3 got neutral carbonate of lime, which is practically insoluble, and 'hence had no immediate action. Xo. 4 got gypsum, which, like lime, is sufficiently soluble to act. Soluble lime compounds produce this coagulat- ing effect on clay soils which then become more friable and porous, suffer ■ ^^Bi^^H llii^^^^H^ IP li ' ^^^^^B "vr 'V " '^^^^^H !■' ^p-^ H^ 1 H ! ■It ■ 1 Hi ^1 I Jm 1^,.;?? 1. Control blank. 2. With liuif. 3. Carbonate of lime. 4. With suliihate of lime. FIG. I. COAGULATING EFFECT OF VARIOUS FORMS OF LIME. less from working wet, and shrink and cake less on drying. Gypsum has not the other effects of lime in soils, but it has that of coagulating heavy clay. Hot lime will generally be preferred on stiff clay to all others — ■ to gypsum because it has basic character and can correct sourness, and to ground limestone (carbonate) because the latter is slow to effect coagula- tion. In time, however, carbonate will also coagulate clay, as it gradually passes into solution as bicarbonate in the soil water. Where gypsum can be obtained cheaply, it will form a useful applica- tion to heavy clay soils. When the drainage waters from a district, and the water puddles in the fields remain long muddv. we have an indication of want of lime. Clear puddles in a clay district show sufficient solnfc'.e lime compounds to be present. The waters of the Lower Goulburn, for example, have obviously drained from an area deficient in lime. 62 2 Journal of Agriculture. Yicforia. [lo Oct.. I 91 j. Lime and Nitrification. Lime is important in the production of nitrates. Wliere land show.s. signs of being " run down "or exhausted in fertility, this is more frequently due to its failure to produce sufficient nitrates than to anything else. Additional superphosphate manure will not help this, because if nitrates- are deficient, extra phosphates given will not remove the defect. Lime- does not contain nitrates, but it causes a m.ore rapid production of nitrates from the supply of organic nitrogen within the soil. The organic nitrogen in soils is not in a form which the crop can; utilize. It is converted into the nitrate form by different kinds of bacteria. The changes may be viewed in two stages. The first stage results in the formation of ammonia from the organic matter ; the second stage results in the conversion of the ammonia into nitrates. First Stage of Nitrification. The first stage may be considered first. When fresh vegetable residues are incorporated in the soil, this kind of organic matter yields ammonia ]. With lime. 2. Cuiitrul Ulaiik. 3. With gypsum, i. Witii cai Ijuiiatc ut limr. ' FIG. 2. SHOWING HOW LIME HELPS NITRIFICATION. with comparatixe ease. Where land has been long under cultivation without any return of fresh organic matter, the production of ammonia becomes- each year a matter of greater difficulty. As it gets older, the soil organic matter gets " tougher," and the fir.st stage in nitrate production, viz., the production of ammonia, becomes, in consequence, more difficult. Lime helps the change. Ammonia is a product of the decomposition of soil organic matter, but it is onlv the last link in a chain of complex intermediate products. Except under specially favorable circumstances a certain amount of acidity is developed in these intermediate bodies, and where there is no lime as carbonate to neutralize the acid produced, the activity of the bacteria producing ammonia is greatly hindered. Bacteria cannot flourish when the reaction passes from neutral to acid, and when the acidity becomes marked, the decay processes are left to noxious fungi and moulds, which prefer an acid medium. Carbonate of lime by neutral- izing the acid incidentally formed in the decav of soil organic matter, thus .stimulates the production of ammonia from the relatively large supply of inactive organic nitrogen which all soils possess. roOCT.. igi2.] Rchitniii "j l.inu to Soil h\rtilit\. 623 Tn the absence of iime, the production of ninmonia is hampered by iicidity. The e\il will be most marked (jn stiff soils which are badly aerated, and on peatv soils rich in organic matter. These classes of soils, therefore, require heaxier a])i)lic;ations of lime than sandy soils poor in organic mattrr or humus. Second Stage of Nitrification. The second stage in the production of soil nitrates, \iz.. tlie change from ammonia to nitrate, is also helped by limi\ J'"ig. 2 shows the relative amounts of nitrate produced from ammonia in a soil during 21 days. Th^y experiments from which the.se results are abstracted were conducted in the laboratory of the Department, and are fully de.scribed in the July i.ssue •of the Journal of Agriculture. No. i shows the nitrate formed where hot lime was added to the soil. No. 2 with no addition made to the soil. \(). 3 with gypsum added, and ^so. 4 with carlKmate of linif. In the te.sts free or combined lime was used in equivalent amounts. On contrasting the cylinders, the different compounds of lime are se^n to act in different wavs. Gypsum was of but little help to nitrification, ■carbonate of lime increased it fourfold, while hot lime stopped nitrification .altogether. Corroborative results w-ere obtain;^fl in a second series of tests la.sting 51 days. The first .and second stages of nitrification are alike due to bacteria both of them tend to produce acid, and in both the production of acid inhibits the organisms. The effects of lime upon the second stage may therefore be discu.ssed with reference to the whole process of nitrate pro- ■fluction from the organic matter of the soil. The Best Form of Lime for Nitrification. The most effective form of lime is the carl)onate. The .soil organi.sms •cannot endure acid, but neither can they enrlure free alkali or soluble base as this is present in hot lime. It is tho.se facts which explain the results. Carbonate of lime removes any acid which mav be produced, but it is not alkaline in reaction. Gypsum is not alkaline in reaction, but it is unable to neutralize acid substances produced bv the germs. Hot lime can neutralize the acids all right, but it is too strongly alkaline to allow the bacteria to work. In Great Britain the old usage in applying lime was to spread 4 or 5 tons of hot lime to the acre. It was a matter of common knowledge that such applications tended to diminish the yield for the first one or two years. The chief reason was that the land was rendered too alkaline for nitrification to proceed. During the fir.st years the heavy dressing was gradually converted into carbonate of lime by the carbonic acid of the air and .soil, and the lime then began to be of benefit. Such heavy dressings of hot lime are now seldom employed in agricul- ture, about I ton being a usual amount. Comparatively light dressings are quickly converted to carbonate, and in such cases a benefit is expected (luring the first vear. Even light dressings, however, should not l)e applied with the seed of any crop, but are better put on several months l)efore, in order that the hot lime mav be converted into carbonate. Direct applications of carbonate, as in ground limestone or marl, may Tk? given at any time without danger to nitrification, and. practically speak- ing, to any amount. Gypsum has no important action in stimulating the production of jiitrates. 624 Jonnuil of AgriculUirc. Vicloria. [lo Oct.. 1912. Other Results of Lime. \\W\\i' tht^ effect of lime ui lil)er;iting plant food from the soil is chiefly seen in an increased production of nitrates, it has also some effect in. rendering a\ailable the mineral co nstituents. This action is most important in connexion with potash and phosphoric acid, for both of which farm: crops make considerable demands. The Libe ation of Potash. The effect of lime in liberating potash from insoluble compounds will" be chieflv felt in the heavier class of soils. Like lime, potash is a base, and in the less stable hydrated double sil'cates of potash and alumina' (zeolites) present in clav soils, lime and potash tend to change places. The liberation of potash by lime is less important for cereals than for roots and legumes, the latter of which require large amounts of potash. The- largely increased vield of lucerne and clover which commonly follows an- applicat'on of lime mav often be traced to the liberation of potash within- the soil. The Liberation of Phosphoric Acid. The addition of lime also increases the availability of the soil phos- phoric acid, particularly where this exists in union with iron and alumina.. FIG. 3. — SH(.)\\ING HOW LIME HELI'.S IXSCJUELE PHOSPHATES TO ACT. Fig. 3 represents the stage, at the time of writing (15th September), of some experiments conducted by the Department during the present .season. The primary object of these experiments is to test the relative efficiency of phosphates from different sources, but in certain cases lime has been in- troduced in order to obtain greater variety in the conditions. Pot 5 receives a native lime phosphate, Pot 6 the mineral Wavellite — an aluminium phosphate, and Pot 7 the mineral Vivianite — a phosphate of iron. The- phosphates were ground up, but not dissolved. No lime was given in- these pots. Pots 25, 26, and 27 received the same phosphates respec- tively as Pots 5. 6, and 7, but get carbonate of lime in addition. A uniform and sufficient quantity of easily available nitrogen and potasb was appled to all the pots, and the phosphoric acid in each case A-as used in equivalent amounts. Federation wheat is the crop grown. From the results at the present stage it appears that lime has in- crea.sed the action of all the insoluble phosphates, but the improvement is more marked with the phosphates of alumina and iron than with the- lime phosphate. Much of the phosphoric acid occurring in Victorian soils is combined with iron and alumina, and as there is a general ('■ ficiency of available phosphoric acid partly on this account, the liberatior* of phosphoric acid by lime may have considerable practical moment. loOcT.. 191^-] Rcl'ition of Lime to Soil Fertility 62s Kfi-ect of Lime on Plant (.«ro\vth. From the nature of the action which lime exercises in soils it would" naturally be expected that the result would be seen in the character of the vep;etation. This is so both in rt^gard to the quantity and quality •of the produce. Heavier Yields. Fig. 3 represents a stronger growth of wheat following upon the u.se • of lime. Reference has already been made to the stimulating effect of lime upon lucerne and clover. Several years ago a few experiments •with lime were conducted by the Department in the northern wheat areas. On most of the farms an increase was recorded— this increase ranging from 0.67 to 3.25 bushels per acre. Unfortunately, these tests lasted for •one season only, and it is impossible to test the full effect of lime within -one year. Improved (Quality in Roots. In root and forage crops the effect of lime will often l>e seen in the ^better quality of the produce as much as in the quantity. A few years ago some experiments were conducted in the south of Scotland to deter- mine this point with turnips.* At each of three farms 2 acres of turnips were grown, i acre with acid phosphate (super) and i acre with lime and phosphate. After lifting, the roots were separately fed to equal lots of sheep, which were weighed at the beginning and again at the end of the feeding tests. The same weight of turnips was given to •each lot, and the feeding lasted twelve weeks. The results were as follows : — Name of Farm. Auchneel Awhirk Torr .. X umber of Shcop fed. Relative Feeding Values. Acid-phosphate. Lime and Phosphate. 8(1 80 40 I (1(1 1011 lIKl 1141 122 121 The roots from lime and phosphate were better feeding than the roots from superphosphate alone on every farm. Profitable Returns from Pasture In England a number of experiments have been carried out to find how the top-dressing of pastures affected its mutton-producing capacity.! The experiments with lime lasted nine years, and were conducted at three farms. At each farm two separate blocks were fenced off, and each received 100 lb. phosphoric acid per acre the first year, and again in the fourth year. In addition one block at each farm got h ton ground lime per acre in the first, third, and seventh years. Each year the blocks carried what sheep they could feed, and the sheep were weighed when put on, and again when taken off. The following table shows Bui. 2.3, W. of Scot. Agric. Col. t Supp. Jour. Bd. Agric, Lond. Jan., -811. 626 Joiinial of AgnciiliKrc. Victoria. [10 Oct.. 1912. the aggrt-gate gains in live-weight per acre from the limed and unlimed blocks at each farm at the end of nine vears : — Cockle I'ark. Sevii gtoi;. (ran No Lime. -ley. No Lime. Lime. No Lime. Limo. Lime. Mutton ))rofhi(ed (9 years) 513 lbs. 713 lbs. 402 lbs. 435 lbs. 1(30 lbs. 402 lbs. Increase due to lime . . 200 lbs. 33 lbs. 233 lbs. Value of increase at 3d. per lb. 50s. 8s. 3d. 58s. 3d.. Cost of lime at 20s. per ton 30s. 30s. 30s. Profit 20s. *21s. 9d. 28s. 3d.. Loss. .\t Cockle Park the l.me returned a net ])roiit of 66 per cent, after paying outlay for lime, and from the last yearU returns it appears tf> LIG. 4. LIMED PASTURES WILL OFTEN CARRV MORE SHEEP. be not nearly exhausted. Sevington is on the chalk, and lime here gave- are acid-loving plants. A g(X)d application of lime is the surest method of eradicating- them, and encouraging tlie kind of plants the farmer wants. Precautions in using Lime. This article deals with the application of lime to land. We shall now conclude by drawing attention to certain precautions which should be observed in the use of lime. 10 Oct.. 191-'] Rcldtioii of T.iiiic l<> Soil Fertility. 62 j Sufficient Phosphates I-.ssential. Lime will not g'.ve a good result on land which is too ])(K)r in avail- uihle ])ho.sphoiic acid. This may occur very frequently. Where 'iine is used, phosphates should be used just as usual. On pasture land ih*" need for lime cannot be determined until it has tjeen tried with, as well as without, phosphates. In Victoria lime will seldom fail to act L-e- KL-ause of a deficiency of potash. Wet Land must first be Drained It is no use applying lime to land that is swampy and requires drain- ing. On wet land, owing to the exclusion of air, the production of soil acids is too great for the land to be sweetened by ordinary aj)];l cations of lime. Drainage b\ admitting air removes the cau.se of extreme acidity, and lime cm only remove the effect. To continue liming vvet soil in order to keep it sweet is like trying to keep a leaking bucket full -of water. Lime Diminishes Soil Humus. An important constituent in a soil is the organic matter or humus which it contains. Soil humus is important in that it increases ihe water-holding capacity of a soil, opens up stiff clavs, and provided lime is present has a binding action on sands. In its decay it also furni.shes nitrates directly from itself, and mineral con.stituents of plant food, both •directly and also indirectly from the fine rock mas.ses of the soil. Good soils are always well supplied with organic matters, and market gardeners rightly place great confidence in farm yard manure because it forms humus. Lime hastens the decay of the .soil organic matter. While fresh vegetable residues as in stubbles, green manures and, where practicable, farm-yard manure should be returned to cultivated land in any case, lime increases the necessity of doing so. The farmer who neglects this matter is living upon his capital in so far as his land will steadilv deteriorate under continued cropping. If he still neglects it after using Imie he will be living upon his capital more quickly than ever. Lime may help to add Humus But while I'me increases the need for returning fresh vegetable matters to the soil, it also makes the operation more easy. It may do so m ^veral ways During the year of pasture, which is commonlv allowed in the wheat areas between successive crops, the growth of clover and trefoil, where these are indigenous to the soil, will be stimulated. Lime will also assist in giving a good stand of rape and rye, but particularly of vetches where these can be sown in autumn for feeding or ploughing-in in spring before the land dries out. Phosphate .should be used with those catch crops. Then, again, if the use of lime brings the deter- mination to plough in stubbles, instead of burning while preparing lanrl for fallow, the lime will be a profitable investment. Such ploughing should be overtaken early, so that in the damp soil the lime will help the stubble to rot. Lime increa.ses alike the practical feasibility, and the need, of returning fresh organic matter to the land. When is Lime Required. It is by the combint^d use of lime and organic or green manures that the regeneration of worn-out land will most frequentlv be accomplished. As to the question of whether anv particular piece of land requires lime iLSf mav be made of the chemical analvsis of the soil, or of the litmus 628 Journal of Agriculture. \'ictoria. [1 o Oct.. 1912. test, both of which have beeu described. As a guide each has its uses and its limitations, but in most cases the question can best be decided on the spot. To the practised eye the colour of the vegetation may often indicate acid soil conditions, and here lime is required. Such a result, however, may simply be due to an excessively wet season, and in this case and in all others where the need for lime is suspected the surest test is to try. For this purpose trial strips should be treated with lime at different parts of the farm, and the situation of these plots should be indicated by suitable marks. Where the trial applxations are made on grass land too much atten- tion should not be paid to the bulk of herbage produced, as stock usually prefer limed pasture, and eat it more closely down. Summary and Conclusions. 1. Lime tends to leave the surface soil through various channels, and fresh applications become necessary to maintain fertility. 2. Carbonate of lime is the best form of lime for the soil. 3. Burnt and slaked lime are rapidly changed to carbonate when: they are applied to land. 4. The rate at which lime acts depends on its fineness of division. 5. Lime, but especially hot lime, has a good effect upon the mechanical condition of stiff clays. 6. Gypsum also coagulates clay, but it has not the beneficial action of lime in other directions. 7. Lime greatly hastens the production of nitrates. 8. It has a good effect in lil-)erating potash and phosphoric acid, especially when the latter is combined with iron or alumina. 9. Where required by soil, lime produces larger crops. 10. It produces root crops, which are of greater feed'ng \alue per ton. 11. It may often be a profitable application to grass land 12. Lime kills sorrel, docks, and other acid-loving weeds. 13. It is specially stimulating to lucerne, clovers, and leguminous. plants. 14. Lime will not act if phosphates are deficient. 15. It increases the need, everywhere present, of ploughing in green manures or stubbles. \ 16. It facilitates this operation. 17. The surest method of determining the need for lime is to dress trial strips and await results. VII. THE USE OF LIME IN VICTORIAN VINEYARDS. By Francois de Castclla, Government Viticnlturist. The object of the present article is to briefly set out the reasons which make it logical to anticipate that our vine-growing industry will benefit quite as much as any other branch of our agriculture, from the judicious application of lime to the soil. As will be shown pre.sently, the soils of mo.st of our vine-growing districts have a low lime contents. Though those of our vignerons who have planted their vines properlv and culti- vated them carefully have usually obtained profitable results, the progres- sive grower must ever strive to do t>?tter than he has done in the past, and there appears every reason to anticipate that in the supplementing^ loOcT.. iQi:;.] The I'sc of Livic in Victorian Vineyard!'. 629 of ihtr lime content e maintained, receives no consideration whatever. Perhaps the explanation is that, as compared with the other three plant foods, lime is usually present in such enormous quantities in luiro- pean soils that there is no possibility of its ever l:)eing exhausted ; under such conditions it cannot present anv mterest from a strictly manuriid stand-point. .So generalh rich in lime are the vine soils of France that excess of this constituent was, in the early days of reconstitution, a very fre- quent cause of non-success, ur^til the introduction of stocks less sensitive to lime in excess than those first tried. Nevertheless, the quantity of lime annualK removed from each acre of vineyard is considerable. Though it naturally varies a good deal from one locality to another, according to yield, variety, climate, &c., the figures arrived at by Rousseau and Chappaz, as the result of their investigations in the Chablis district of J'rance, will give .some idea of the annual lime requirements of the vine as compared with the other plant f(X)d materials usually taken into account. The yield being at the rate of 320 gallons per acre, requirements would be similar to tho.se of Victorian vineyards — Firtilizi)ig Stibstaiiccs Ahsorbed per Acre. Xitrogen. Phosplioric Acid. Dry leaves Dry prunii'igs Marc .. Wine Lees lbs. 933 01 904-72 3-JU>14 310-47 9-25 lbs. 16-626 5-121 5-716 -8.33 •584 28-880 lbs, 2-351 1-240 1-653 -200 -1.39 5-583 lbs. 8-220 6-360 6-668 2 174 -699 24-121 lbs. 55-981 12-66e 5 004 ■34.> 1114 75-110 * Kxtiact iroiii ■ Etude sur le Vignoble de Chablis." By E. Rousseaux and G. Chai)paz. Rertu de Viticulture, 23rd Febnuny. 190.-,. From this table it will be seen that the vine extracts more of Hrpe than of all the other plant food elements put together, and nearly three times as much lime as potash. It is true that the bulk of the lime is contained in the leaves; these, however, are largely blown away bv the wind, only a small proportion returning to the soil. 6;o Journal of Agriculture , Victoria. [lo Oct., 1912. The most striking difference between tlie soils of the greater part of Victoria and those of France, Spain, &c., is the low lime content of tbt^ former, and the very consideral)le quantity of it present in the latter. In European vine\ards, except in a few isolated districts, it is rare to find a soil containing less than 5 per cent, of lime. In Victoria, if we except the Wimmera, the Mai lee, Geelong, and a few parts where vines are not extensively grown, it is unusual to find' a soil containing i |-er cent, of lime, whilst the great majority contain less than .1 per cent. Many of our vineyards are in auriferous country, and belong, geo- logically, to the Silurian backbone of the State. Such hilly formations, as well as the sedimentary valley soils resulting from their decomposi- tion, are alike poor in lime. So poor are they in this element that it is reasonable to question whether, in manv Victorian vineyards, lime may not possess a real manurial value whirli it is not recognised as having under European conditions. Lime Contents of Victorian Vineyard Soils. Thanks to the co-operation of the Chemist for Agriculture, a good many analyses of typical vineyard soils have been made during the past three years. On examining these it is possible to divide that portion of the State comprised between the main Dividing Range and the Murray River, which contains fully 95 per cent, of the vineyards of Victoria, into two distinct regions; in one of. these the soil is remarkably poor in lime, whilst in the other this element is very plentiful. The low lime region is of very considerable extent, and, if Mildura (in the high lime region) be excluded, it contains 92 per cent, of the remain- ing vineyards of the State. It is separated from the high lime region by a somewhat irregular line from the junction of the Murray and Goulburn Rivers, n^ar Echuca, to the Grampian Mountains. As might be ex- pected, the line of demarcation is not well defined, and in its vicinity soils of high, medium, and low lime contents are somewhat mixed up. The following table contains analyses of typical vineyard soils through- out this extensive area ; the North-East. Goulburn Valley, and Great Western being represented, as well as Whitfield, which is typical of the lower levels of the main Dividing Range: — - Table A. — Low Lim^. Reghn. Nitrogen. I'hosphoric Acid. Potasli. Limp. Magnesia. Rutherglen. Per c:>nt. Per e?nt. Per c^-nt. Per cent. Per cent. Hillside— 1a Surface to G inches •075 •057 •220 132 •197 1b Subsoil, 6 to 15 inches •064 •051 •255 084 •223 Ic „ 15 to 24 „ •061 •065 •281 096 •267 Flat near Brown's Plains — 2a Surface to 11 inches •092 •083 •193 136 •166 2b Subsoil, 11 to 24 inches . . •050 •039 •239 082 •196 Viticultural College Flat — 3a Surface to 8 inches •039 •022 •135 080 •152 3b Subsoil, 8 to 14 inches •040 •022 •154 086 ■185 3c „ 14 to 20 „ •040 •024 •335 124 •263 3d „ 20 to 26 „ •030 •024 -.350 125 •367 Wahgunyah (sandliill soil) — 4a Surface to 12 inches •043 •043 •120 099 •212 4b Subsoil, 12 to 24 inches •028 •038 ■1.34 076 •213 4c „ 24 to 3fi •019 ■037 •140 070 •260 10 Oct., 191:?.] Tlie Use of Lime in Yictonaii Vi//evards, \V Tabi.k a. — L'lW LiMK Region — conliimed. Whitfield. .~)\ Surface to 12 inches OB Subsoil, 12 to 24 inches Goidburn ]'iillei/. Shepjjarton Irrigation Settk nient (loamy clay soil) — Surfate to 8 inches Subsoil, 8 to 20 inches .. 20 to 2(j Tatura (stiff clay soil) — Surface to o inches Subsoil, o to 12 inches „ 12 to 20 ., Cobrani (sand hill soil) — Surface to 7 inches Subsoil. 7 to 18 mches .. 18 to .30 ,. Tabilk (fairly sandy soil) — Surface to 12 inches Subsoil. 12 to 24 inches 24 to 36 „ 3<5 to 48 „ Dookie (red soil) — Sui'facc . . «)A <)B <)C 7 A 7b 7c 8a 8b 8c 9a 9b 9c 9d 10a 10b 11a llB 12a 12b 12c 13a 13b 13c 13 1) Subsoil Cosgrove soil)- Surface Subsoil (exceptional lime Great Western. Surface to 7i inches Subsoil, Ih to 14i inches Hl to 20' ... Rhymney — Surface to 8 inches Subsoil. 8 to 18 inches „ 18 to 2.5 ., .. 2.1 to 30 .. Xitrogi'ii. 'Per cent. ■137 ■050 048 033 028 0!».") 055 042 034 014 Oil 084 007 050 047 095 050 ■2,38 •210 •022 •017 •041 ■ 10() ■078 ■058 •045 Phosph"!; Acid. Per c -lit. •ooo •047 •023 ■026 ■027 •068 (».-)2 041 • 023 •013 ■018 •067 • 0(50 •054 ■05() •043 •043 •045 ■153 •012 •013 • 022 •046 •049 • 055 •054 Per cent. •289 •238 •120 •299 334 442 •62t) • ()56 •147 •140 •134 ■ 308 201 •Kil •161 •319 •477 •386 ■379 ■056 •0()5 •214 •108 •088 133 •258 Per cent. 080 024 096 276 316 308 208 204 132 096 078 182 118 156 096 156 248 1 960 13 240 056 048 108 250 190 202 322 Magnesia. Per cent. •180 •125 •174 273 • 697 ].-)5 134 1.38 210 161 277 241 •036 ■ 070 • 220 • 290 •349 402 .544 All t'xaniination ot Tablf A show.s clt^-arly the remarkable deliciencv of lime which characterizes the soils of this large portion of the State. The great majority of the samples analyzed contain twice as much potash as lime. I.solated exceptions are, of course, to be met with occasionally, such as Xo. II A and B, at Co.sgrove. near Dookie. which show up to 13 per cent, of lime in the sub.soil. This is a local lime deposit of very limited area. Such cases are rare, and do not affect the main contention, that our silurian .soils and the .soils of valleys resulting from the decomposition of silurian formations are invariably poor in lime. It is worthy of note that Xo. 13 A. B. C, and D, one of the few- in which lime exceeds potash, is the lieaviest bearing vineyard in the Great Western and Rhymney districts. It was. in fact, its excellent v:eld.s Avhich led to the samples being taken for analysis. Between the low and high lime regions there exists an intermediate ione shown in Table B in which, as vet. there are few \inevards. The 6;- Joiirnal of Agriculture. Victoria. [lo Oct.. 1912. foliowing analyses show a markeil increase in lime, the percentage of which slighth exceeds that of potash : — Taki.k B. — Intermediate Lime Rec.ion. — Nitrogen. I'liosplioric Acid. Totasli. Lime. Magnesia. Per cent. r.T cent. IVr cent. I*er cent. IVr cent. Bnmnwm. Pine ridcfe country — 14a Surface to 12 inches 14b Subsoil, 12 to 24 inclies . . •042 •028 ■024 ■027 •089 •292 174 214 •189 •318 Medium soil — 15a Surface to fl inches 15b Subsoil. 9 to 15 inciies 15c .. 15 to 24 „ ■ 045 ■025 •022 ■026 ■026 ■ 02() ■ I!»9 • 297 • .)t»9 260 230 520 245 •464 •490 Sw-xn HiU. Eel soil— • 16a Surface . . 16b Subsoil . . ■017 •014 ■056 ■0(iO 2()0 ■M)l 466 418 •814 1189 Black soil— 17b Subsoil. 7 to IS inrhes • 1 (15 • 070 •048 035 •:U9 • ..35 390 414 445 • 576 In striking contrast with the soils of tables A and B are those of the Mallee and Wimmera districts shown in Table C — Table C. — Hum Ltme Region. — ■ Nitrogen. Plinsi)horic Acid. J'otasli. Lime. Magnesia. !'■■" cent. I'er cent. I'er cent. I'er cent. Per cent. Xijali. Mallee. jiine. and honey- suckle— 18a Surface to 10 inches ■ 059 026 •403 348 •487 18b Sub.soil, 10 to 20 inches . . •037 •025 • 535 1 836 •769 18c „ 20 to 30 ,. • 028 •027 • 756 6 450 1095 Wimmera. Longerenong (red soil) — 19a Surface . . 1.54 •026 •617 213 •461 19 b Subsoil . . •118 •02(i •960 253 •620 Longerenonii^ (black soil) — 20 V Surface . . •151 033 1 •042 3 580 •137 20b Subsoil . . 134 •045 1 ■070 4 300 076 Mild lira. L^arge Mallee — 21a Soil •069 •065 • 529 3 500 — 21b Subsoil . . •046 •051 ■488 8 610 — Blue Bush — 22 V Soil •071 •069 •826 820 — 22b Subsoil . . •046 •050 •676 9 960 — Murray pine — 23a Soil •022 • 020 •261 808 — 23b Sub.soil . . ■024 •019 293 5 480 — Blue bush country — 24a Surface to 8 inches ■089 • 0(55 .571 9 160 • 990 24b Subsoil, 8 to 22 inches ■ 058 •048 •497 19 360 1 • 1 50 24c .. 22 to 36 .. . 053 .045 .575 17 280 1 . <)20 loOcT.. 1912. J 'r lie I'sc of /.inw III Victorian ]'i/ie yards. 635 III ihis part of thf State lime is almost ever\ where present in almndance. Occasional exceptions, such as No. ig A and B, where the potash exceeds th'e lime, are rare, and in a general wav the soils of the Mallee and Wimmera cfintain enormous quantities of lime. They are in this respect similar to the hulk of P^uropean vine sods. Table C is given for the purpose of showing, hv comparison, how verv deficient in lime ar-' the soils of table A, and that it is essentially logical to expect that the correction of this defect by liberal lime dressings cannot fail to have \ery beneficial results.* South of the Dividing Range but few samples of soils have been sub- mitted for analysis by the writer. Some of these re\eal lime deficiency similar to that shown in table A. At Geelong, in many parts of the south-western district, and of Gippsland calcareous formations occur. 1t is scarcely necessary to point out the value of .soil analysis in this conne-xion. Lime and Magnesia. The arguments so far adduced in favour of the application of bme are based on the natural deficiency of this t'lement in the soil. The analyses quoted above reveal another rea.son why such application should prove beneficial, viz., on account of the large quantity of magnesia manv of our soils contain. Authorities on soils are agreed that it is desirable for lime to be present in greater quantity than magnesia. Hilgard is •emphatic on the point — ■ " Soils containing large proportions of magnesia generally are found to h^ unthrifty, the lands so constituted being frequently designated as ' barrens.' Lowe finds that certain proportions of lime to magnesia must be preserved if production is to l>e satisfactory, the proportion varying with different plants, some of which {e.g., oats) will do well when the proportion of lime to magnesia is as i to i. while others require that that ratio should be as 2 or 3 is to i, to secure best results. In general it IS best that lime should exceed magnesia in amount.'" And again — ■' In the case of soils containing much magnesia the proper proportion between it and lime may easily be disturbed by the greater ea.se with which lime carbonate is carried awav by carbonated water into the sub- soil, thus leaving the magnesia in undesiraljle excess in the surface soil. Hence the great advantage of having in a soil, from the outset, an ample proportion of lime. From this point of \iew alone, then, the analytical determination of lime and magnesia in soils is of high practical value. ' ' On reference to table A it will be seen that the .soils of the low lime region contain, very generally, from two to three times as much magnesia as lime. The correction of this defect by applications of lime appears to be most desirable. Lime as a Potash Liberator. The Avhole of the analyses quoted above show that our vine soils usually contain a satisfactory proportion of potash. Some are exceed- ingly rich in this element, which, in view of the considerable quantities removed annually, in the shape of cream of tartar, is of great importance in viticulture. * In the viticultural districts of France where lime is deficient e.xcellent results follow its application to the soil. According to Guillon. for instance. " Granitic soils are nearly always rich in potash, but the majority, excepting those with calcic feldspar, are almost completely devoid of lime, anl only become fertile if thi^ elem^at is brought to them in the course of soil improvement ■an\^i\Amer^ls)." J. M. Guillon. Etude G6n6rale de la Vigne, p. 349. 634 Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [jo (Jct., 1912. The question arises: Ts tliis potash readily avaihtble? In the case of the soils of table A this appears doubtful. In view of the low (ime contents a large proportion of the potash is probably held in zeolitic and other combinations, largely in the shape of double silicates. From such some- what loose comljination lime is able to displace potash. An application of lime is coiisecjuentlv equivalent to an application of potash, and when the very considerable difference in Drice in favour of the lime is taken inta account, this means of unlocking the latent potash supplies, is thus, not onlv desirable, but financially easy. Such theoretical considerations re- ceive practical confirmation in a striking manner in parts of the Goulburn Valley, where several growers are satisfied that thev have obtained greater- benefit from the application of lime than potash. The f'oRRKCTioN OF Acidity. Aciditv or sourness is well known to be an undesirable condition in a soil ; and vet very manv Victorian soils present an acid reaction. Thc^ J^uukiiig towaids ll(i|ikiiis J{i\(i. Tin- uiiiguig sand dunes contain SU per cent, ealeium carbonate. Cross on tlu' left shows position of railway line. whole of the soils of which analyses are given in table A are more or less; acid, with the exception of No. 11 ; on the other hand those of table B are neutral or alkaline, whilst those of table C are distinctly alkaline. Lime poverty and acidity are thus directly connected. Lime, being stronglv alkaline, is a direct corrective of soil aciditv as well as being the- cheapest obtainable. Its use for this reason alone is most desirable in all soils, presenting the defect of an acid reaction. Lime as a Soil Improver. In addition to the chemical actions mentioned abo\e, lime is capable- of bringing about considerable physical improvem,ent, especiallv in soils containing much clay. It flocculates or curdles this substance, thereby rendering soils containing it in considerable proportion more friable and more easy to work. ^^"ith the exception of sandy formations, su^di as the pine ridges occurring at intervals throughout Northern Victoria, the .soils, and more especially the sub.soils of the State, are of a clayey nature, and are- capable of lieing much improxed by the application of lime. A striking- loOcT., lyi-'.J 77/1' Use of Lime in Vicionaii Vineyards. 635 instance uf this case may be given. Mr. H. J-:. Ireland, of St. Leonard's vineyard, near Wahgunyali, planted with vines a block of land on which were a couple of small patches of unusually stiff land on which reeds grew. Instead of leaving _ these patches un- planted, Mr. Ireland dt^cided to attempt their correction by the use of lime. Gypsum (sulphate of lime) was the form u.sed ; this was applied at the rate of about 5 tons per acre, about three years ago. The result was entirelv satisfactory, and at the present time the.se patches are com- pletely transformed. From on almost liopelessly stiff clay, which seemed unfit to grow vines, they have been converted into good friable soil, quite equal to the rest of the block. The dressing was no doubt a very heavy one, but the cost of such could easily be borne in the case of a permanent and profital)le culture, such as that of the vine. The case was a rather exceptional one, and in view of the apparently intractable nature of the clav patches, an heroic dose was judged necessary. Very much lighter applications would probably be ample in most clay soils. The application of lime as a soil improver is often found advantageous in French vine soils, notwithstanding their being already well supplied. In tho.se of our Victorian soils which are deficient in lime it is surely reasonable to look for far greater benefit. Different Forms of Lime. Lime mav be applied to the soil in several distinct forms, each of which has its advantages and defects, and ma\ be well suited or otherwise to any given case. The three principal foims are — J. Lime properly so called, or burnt lime, whether '"quick" cr " slaked." 2.. Ground limestone or lime carbonate. 3. Gvpsum or lime sulphate. It must be remembered that the phosphatic n:anures in general use contain much lime ; superphosphate contains nearly half its weight c^f lime sulphate, whilst Thomas' phosphate (basic slag) contains even more lime, but combined in a different form. The first is the most concentrated, a given weight of burnt lime con- taining more lime (pure calcium oxide) than any other form ; hence, at anything like equal price it is also the most economical, both as regards cost of the lime unit and carriage. Being strongly alkaline it immediately neutralizes .soil acidity, but being also caustic it is rather severe on the organic matter (humus) of the soil ; for the latter reason the rate cf application should not exceed half a ton per acre. Used in conjunction with green manuring, to supply organic matter, we have in lime a most poAverful means of increasing the fertility of our vineyards. Ground limestone, containing considerably less calcium oxide than burnt lime, is a less economical form. It parts readily with its carbonic acid in acid soils, and is therefore well suited for their neutralization. Since it is not in any way caustic it ma\- be .supplied in almost any quantity without affecting humus. Insolubility is its chief defect, but this is also shared In burnt lime, which rapidly becomes carbonated on exposure to the air. Gypsum po.ssesses undoubted good qualities as well as serious draw- hacks. A great part of its weight being made up of sulphuric acid and water, the unit cost of lime in this form is very high. It is a neutral salt, and as such it is valueless for the correction of acid soils. On the 636 Joitnial of Agriculture, Victoria. [70 Oct.. 191:;. other hand its solubility is much greater than that of the carbonate (166 times) ; its dissemination throughout the soil is therefore niore rapid, every shower carrying a certain quantity further into the subsoil. As a source of lime, where this element is deficient, as a potash liberator and as a soil improver, its efficiency is unquestionable. Its successful use in the latter connexion, at St. Leonard's yineyard, has already been mentioned, (iypsum is very highly thought of in France, where it enters into all the most popular vine manure formulas. \\'ere it not for its high cost, per- haps even in spite of it, it would seem to merit further trial in our vine- yards. Possibly a mixture of lime and gypsum, the former on account of alkalinity and cheapness, and the latter owing to its greater solubility, may prove the most suitable form for vineyard use Practical Results. It is to be regretted that experiments to practically test the influrnce of lime as a means of increasing yield have not yet been carried out ; at least, not on a sufficient scale to give definite information. It is true that in some experiments conducted by the writer both lime and gvpsum have been applied in conjunction with otherwise complete manures. In a general wav the plots receiving either of these substances have yielded better crops than those to which complete manure- without lime in any quantity were applied. Owing to the unevenness of the plots and their small number, the information, so far, is less definite than one could wish. Nor have the experiments been in force for a sufficient time. In vineyard manuring results are not so immediate as in the case of an annual crop. Reference must be here made to the numerous practical growers who, as the result of their past experience of Ume application, are quite con- vinced on the subject, and have become strong advocates of the practice. Further experiments, in order to practically test the application of lime in its different forms, are to be shortly undertaken. It is con- fidently expected that the results will confirm the theoretical considerations outlined above, and that they will be in complete accordance with the experience of tho.se progressive growers who already applied lime exten- sivelv to their vinevards. VIII. LIME FOR TOBACCO LAND. By Temple A. J. Smith. The \-alue of lime for soils in which tobacco is produced has not yet been sufficiently recognised by growers in Victoria. Most of the land used for this purpose has been shown by analysis to be deficient in lime, and even where the land is known to have a fair percentage, applications, especially in some new form, have advantageous results. loOcT.. 1912.] T.uiic for Tobacco Land. 637 The ash of the tobacco plant contains large proportionate amounts of lime and potash, with a low ])eMcentage of jjhosphoric acid, as the following, figures show, viz. : — - Xitrogen Potash Phosphoric acid Lime Magnesia 4.12 6.20 .62 5-50 1.67 Tobacco is evidently largely dependent on lime as a food, and for that reason alone a supply should be provided where it is known a deficiency . exists. It is also necessary that considerably more than is actually re- quired bv the crop be present, as the period of growth is short. " being from. twelve to twenty weeks," to enable the tobacco to obtain a full supply. A crop of Connecticut seed leaf from i acre, including stalks and leaves,, w-eighing 4,075 lbs. in all, takes from the soil : — 138 lbs. of potash. 94 lbs. of lime. 97 lbs. of nitrogen. 16 lbs. of phosphoric acid. 30 lbs. of magnesia. The application of lime, apart from its \alue as a food in itself, is of even greater importance in regard to its effect in releasing and indirectly supplying potash and nitrogen for the crop's benefit. As the analysis- shows that potash is the element of food taken in the greatest quantity from the soil, and, as is well known, lime has the effect of liberating and making available potash for the quickly growing crop, it is evident that for this purpose dressings of lime sHould be applied. ^ "^ • • • Potash in sufficient quantity is not only necessary to tobacco to insure a heavy yield, but its influence on the quality of the leaf is highly beneficial, counteracting the bad effect on the combustion or burn of tobacco caused by an excess of magnesia or chlorine in the soil. Lime also assists in supplying nitrogen indirectly, and at a greater rate, owing to its influence on: nitrification, and the temperature of the soil is slightly increased, an impor- tant matter in regard to tobacco. The mechanical effect of lime on the soil in relation to tobacco-growing- is especially valuable. All tobaccoes thrive best, and are of better quality, when produced from free and well aerated soils, consequently the floccu- lating power of lime on those soils, liable to set closely, renders them more open and friable, bringing about the desired result. Its effect on sour soils is highly beneficial in counteracting acidity, and in this way, not only inducing a better growth of the crop, but materially in- fluencing the curing processes and fermentation later on in the sheds, this being due to the effect of the alkali supplied to the plant, which, if deficient in quantity, interferes with the development and action of the enzyme, or ferment, through whose agency the cure and fermentation of the leaf is perfected. 638 J o II r}ial of Agriculture, Victoria. [10 Oct.. 191-'. An application of lime will often save laliour and loss from insect pest.s. killing the larvge of cutworms, caterpillars, grasshoppers. &c. It is likewise to some extent a fungicide, and though not a cure for the disease known as blue mould, acts more or less as a preventive. Weeds of the most trouble.some kind, .such as sorrel, will not grow w^here lime is plentiful in the soil, another important consideration in tobacco-growing, where weeds must be kept out of the plot. Clovers and trefoils always grow more pro- fusely after liming practices are adopted, and very beneficial results follow. Tobacco is, as a rule, har\ested in the early autumn, and if the trefoils grow well during the winter, they act as a catch rotation crop, sup- plving humus to the soil, and releasing potash and phosphoric acid, in arldition to storing up nitrogen in the soluble form. Experience proves that tobacco in Victoria, and elsewhere, when grown in soils containing large amounts of lime, matures from four to eight weeks earlier than when grown in sour land. Quickly-grown tobacco leaf is generally of better quality, and naturally labour' is .saved in keeping down weeds and in.sect pests, and the risk of loss l:)v frost, hail, &c:., diminished. 'J"he different forms of lime procurable have somewhat different effects en tobacco soils. Where heavy swamp land or peaty soils are cultivated, the use of builders' lime, " burnt lime,"' will be found most advantageous. Too much rough, organic matter in the shape of undecomposed roots, weeds, tv:c.. has the effect of causing the tobacco to grow rank, and with too great a nicotine content. The builders' lime applied at the rate of from 5 cwt. to 10 cwt. per acre in the autumn w-ill assist in decomposing this excess of vegetable matter, and render the soil sweeter and better fitted to produce good quality leaf. On clay or silty soils, the burnt lime also is desirable, as it improves the temperature in cold soils, and makes them more friable and open. On .sandy loams, gypsum, "sulphate of lime," gives good results, as also on chocolate soils ; larger amounts, howe\'er, should l)e used, from 10 cwt. to 2 tons, as its effects are not so pronounced as those of the burnt lime. In all soils short of humus, gypsum is safer to u.se than burnt lime, not having the caustic properties, and consequently Jiot destroying the vegetable matter to the same extent. Ground limestone is a valuable form of lime for tobacco land, and is more easily handled and applied than burnt lime. At the price, it will be found no more expensive than burnt lime, although it is necessary to use about twice the amount to obtain equal results ; it is also slower in its effects. On the whole, I am of opinion tliat lime for tobacco land is of more importance in Victoria, especially in the mountainous districts, than any other treatment, and that it would pay to use it. I have no doubt what- ever a larger crop of better quality would pay the cost of purchase and application of, say, 10 cwt. per acre, twice over in one vear, and the effect of the lime would be felt over three years at least. For the seed-beds in which tobacco plants are raised, the use of lime as an insect and weed y a six-toii crop of i)Otatoes and the haulm of the crop — <( tons ])er acre Lime Rpiuovpd por Aoro. Tubers. ■1\) 1I)S •1-1 -, II) Total. 1>.}() 1I)S Taking the average of the Victorian crop of potatoes at 3 tons per acre the total loss would be nearly 13 lbs. per acre. This, it must be re- membered, is often from a soil already deficient in lime, so that growers would do well to test the value of the use of lime on their potato fields. The benefits of lime mav be stated as follows: — • 1. It acts as plant food. 2. It corrects the acidity of the soil, causing coarse vegetation to- give place to more nutritious plants and discourages the growth of sorrel. 3. It acts ra|)idly on the organic matter in the soil, and prepares it for plant food by liberating the nitrogen which it contains. 4. It decomposes the dormant mineral matter of the .soil. esi)ecially clay .soil. 5. It improves the physical condition of heavy clav lands. This Dei)artment carried out .some experiments on the 5-acre fora^-e fields in the seasons 1905/6 and 1906/7, the results of which are given ui the table below. The soils embraced the following — Heavy clay .soil, at < 'arrum : clay loam, of a gravelly nature, at Digger's Rest ; peat.' drained swamp, at South Bunyip ; heavy clay soil, at Turkeith (Colac). The above soils were all, more or le.ss, benefited by a dressing of ^ cwt. per acre, whilst tlie rich volcanic soil, at Illowa. and the light volcanic soil, at Kilmore. showed a decreased return, but looking at the returns <640 Joiinial of Agriculture , Victoria. [lo Oct., 1912. 1 10111 tlie [leaty and heavy clay soils it will he seen that even so moderate n dressing as 5 cwt. proved beneficial. The action of lime on the peaty soil of the drained swamp at Bunyip South, in 1905/6, was repeated in a more emphatic rr.anner in the 1906/7 operations with an increase to 12 cwt. per acre over the unlimetl section. Its action was equally satisfac- torv in the clay loam at Digger's Rest, also in the stiff, heavy clays at ihe widely separated centres of Carrum and Turkeith, near Colac. The soils at the two latter places being almost identical. The results of these experiments go to show that lime may be used with advantage to the potato crop on the soils which contain abundance of organic matter, such as the peaty soils of drained swamps and the heavy clav land, whilst it mav do harm on the lighter soils. Digger's Re.st Digger's Rest Whittlesea YMiTiun Bu'iyi)! South Bunyip South Condah Carruiu Turkeith Illovva Kilmore 0 ew 1 + Increase. Class of Soil. Lime No l.iiiie. Decrease. Season. t. C. q- t. e. q- t. c. q. Gravelly clay loam 1 0 0 0 l(i 0 + 0 4 0 1905-6 Gravelly clay loam () l(i 0 0 12 0 + 0 4 0 1906-7 Litiht loam 1 2 0 1 2 0 1905-6 Liiiht loam (1 10 0 0 12 0 — 0 2 0 1905-6 Peat 2 2 0 1 18 0 + 0 4 0 1905-6 Peat .3 4 0 2 12 0 + 0 12 0 1906-7 Gravellj' loam vol- 4 2 0 4 4 0 0 2 0 1905-6 canic soil Heavy clay 4 18 0 4 8 0 + 0 10 0 1905-6 Heavj' clay 2 4 0 1 18 0 + 0 6 0 1906-7 Rich volcanic 3 Ui 0 4 0 0 — 0 4 0 1905-6 Light volcanic ■^ 4 0 4 16 0 — 0 12 0 1906-7 X. LIME FOR ORCHARDS. By P. J . Carmody, Chief Orchard Supervisor. When it is considered that the average crop of fruit requires more plant food for its development than an average crop of wheat, and, more- over, that the fruit demands the same soil constituents year after year, the necessity for a sweet and favorable medium for root pasturage is apparent; and as no other application is at all comparable to the in- fluence of lime for this purpose, its frequent use is urgently required. It is a matter of common observation that the fruit-buds of trees grown on sour soils are of a weak or indefinite character, while the bark is harsh and dry in appearance, and the growtii more or less stunted. Under such conditions it is practically impossible to develop trees on the most profitable lines without first correcting soil acidity bv the free use of lime in the same manner as re(}uires to be adopted for other farm crops. In many parts of the State insufficient attention has been given to this feature of soil management in the orchards. Particularly is this the loOcT., 1Q1-] LiDic for Orc/iards. 641 case wlwre fruit is grown on heavy clay soils. In these soils fruit trees; grow through a lengthy period, so that a considerable quantity of im- mature wood is produced to the detriment of suijsequent crops of fruit. Measures have not hitherto been adopted to definitely determine the actual effect of lime on the different parts of the tree ; but investigations in- other countries show that on soils rich in lime the wood is matured earlier and the fruit-buds are mere stock\ and robust than is the case with trees grown on soils deficient in lime. This is very apparent tn any one acquainted with the fruit areas of many parts of Cipjisland and other places in Southern Victoria, and one is struck with the unusual prominence or length of the fruit-buds, the relative distance between the nodes, and the softness of the wood in these districts when compared with the same varieties grown in fruit centres known to possess lime in abundance. It may not, however, be correct to assign these differences solely tot the effect of lime, as other soil constituents bear an important ])art orr the character of the tree and its fruit-buds, particularly potash. It i.s- generally recognised that the trees are not so manageable nor so prf)!ific in bearing in soils where lime is deficient, and growers who have rectified this have had excellent results, though as artificial fertilizers were sub- sequently applied the same year, the relative va.lue of the lime could not be ascertaineil. Though lime plavs an important part in the apple and pear tree^ it is in the stone fruits that its value is most apparent. It is a familiar fact that in .soils rich in lime the stone fruits set their crops well, and are not so j)rone to cast off their fruit at the period of " stoning " as is otherwi.se the case. Where trees are making extensive wood grouch with abundant foliage there is buL little doubt that the ap- plication of lime at the rate of 7 to 8 cwt. to the acre would be of pro no'.inccd benefit. No class of fruit is more eloquent in its retjuest for specific soil con- stituents than the citrus. A light yellowish appearance of the leaves- demands an application of nitrogenous manures, whilst the want of phosphoric acid is evidenced by manv of the light laterals dying off. In a soil where lime is abundant the thinness of the rind, the deep colour and delicate aroma of the f.ruit are special features of the orange, so that beneficial- effectS'.are. obtained .bv the use. of lime in almost all classes of fruit. ARTTFiriAL MANURES ACT. No. 2274. Sfxtion 14. NOTICE TO MANUFACTURERS AND IMPORTERS OF ARTIFICIAL MANURES. Applications for registration of brands of all manures which are intended for sale during the ensuing season mu.st, with declarations and regulation fees, be lodged with the Secretary for Agriculture on or before the I St November. hl2 Journal of Agriculture, Yicioria. [lo Oct.. 1912. 8PRTN(; CIIKDDAR CHEESE-MAKING. By G. C. Sawcrs, CJiecsc Expert. As the season approaches for the making of cheese, it is important 1c- overhaul the Imildings, and have the interior, plant, Sec. thoroughly renovated and brought up to date with modern utensils. Provision should he made for the supply of clean, sweet milk, perfect samples of which in .such quantities as are accumulated at factories are far too rare, and those engaged in the manufacture of cheese commence their efforts under con- ditions which make perfection impossible. Sometimes it is found that the milk when recei\ed appears in fairly good condition, hut after the heat is applied to the curd in the whey, develops a very bad flavour. This is owing to some of the milk containing germs — probably entering in the milking shed by reason of insanitary and careless methods — which had not developed their characteristic odour at the time the milk was being received. A good, clean-flavoured .starter is one of the fir.st essentials in the manufacture of prime cheese. Every utensil which comes in contact with The starter .should be previously sterilized. Spring cheese is generally made too firm due mainly to it receiving the same treatment as that made from richer milk. Curd from spring milk containing a comparatixely small percentage of fat expels moisture more rapidly than curd from richer milk ; therefore, it must be treated so as to retain more moisture, or the resulting cheese will .he too firm and cure slowly. A test of the milk should l>e made, and the treatment varied according to the quality. In spring, when the milk is testing low. it is found that .setting at a lower temperature and using a correspondinglv larger quantity of rennet, tends to make a quicker-curing cheese. If it is intended that the cheese shall go into market in fourteen to twenty days, which is usually the case in the earlv part of the season, sufficient should be used to insure the process of coagulation commencing in from eight to ten minutes. Spring milk testing 3 to 3.5 may Ije set at 82 to 84 degrees Fahr., and enough rennet used to have it ready for the knives in twenty to twenty- five minutes; this usuallv requires 4 oz. to 4^- oz. rennet extract per i.ooo Ihs. milk. This treatment should only be for a few weeks, and should be gradually changed as the fat increases and the weather gets warmer. The setting temperature must then be raised and the quantitv of rennet de- •creased, in order to get a firmer and slower-curing cheese. The milk should be set in the vat early enough to allow the curd sufficient time to get fairly firm in the whev before the acidity develops. A great deal of curd is injured at this stage of the process. Cheese made from milk working fast will always tend to break down soft and Aveak in body. Experience has shown that when the curd is not properly cooked, and the whey hurried off. the resulting cheese will go off-flavour much more readilv than that from curd which has remained in the whev the proper loOcT.. 191-.] Spr/j/g Llicddar C lice>iL-makiii\:^. 6.)_:j length ot tinif, and lias bt-en firmed and cooked. \\ ith spring milk good results will be obtained by heating or cooking to 96 or 98 degrees Fahr. It is very important to know when the curd may be- separated from the main bodv of whey. It is advisable, if the acidity is developing fast, or in hot weather, to draw off most of the whey before dipping, or racking. in order that the remainder may be drawn quickly when ready. The proper test of aciingtous . . H. A. Langdon 402 147 549 9 3 King and Watson 413 134 547 10 1 Wliite Legliorns . . J. Campbell 408 133 541 11 62 R. W. Pope 385 144 529 12 37 C. B. Bertelsmeier :i80 139 519 ) ■» 48 Griffin Cant 393 126 519 8 BUick'orpingtoiis . . D. Fislier . . 398 116 514 ) ,. 24 White Legliorns . . Sargenlri Poultry Yards 379 135 514 45 Wooldridge Bros. 375 ]:i7 512 17 25 R. L. Appletord 370 134 504 18 29 J. B. Brigden 370 132 502 19 38 K. Moy 3t8 133 501 } 20 14 I. J. 11. Wright 362 139 501 2 B. Rijwlinson 364 132 496 22 «1 Blacli Orpingtons . . J . Ogden 333 161 494 23 13 White Legliorns W. B. CreUin 348 141 4H9 ^ 24 39 W. G. Swift 360 129 489 i '^* 6 J. B. McArthur :^52 134 486 26 44 A. W. Hall 347 137 484 27 30 " Mrs. Stevenson 363 120 483 28 49 W. Purvis 3.50 132 482 29 60 >• A. Ahpee . . 354 123 477 30 15 Mrs. Steer 339 MO 469 31 ■63 .. Percy Walker 338 124 462 32 19 .. Cowan Bros. 314 136 450 33 33 H. McKenzie 319 130 449 34 7 1. A. H. Padman 325 122 447 35 53 >> n. Hodges .. 304 138 442 36 35 J C. H. Busst 3l2 127 439 37 56 > M. A. Monk 313 124 437 38 42 )» Mrs. Kempster 305 1l6 431 39 5 !. J. H. Brain :!94 136 430 40 10 It.C. Brown Leg- hums S. P. Giles 286 127 413 41 64 White Leghorns . . 11 . Merrick 284 128 412 42 51 »» H. HanimiU 283 128 411 43 •60 i> Miss B. E. Ryan 269 li9 398 44 54 )» F, 11. DeGaris 261 126 387 45 43 ,» a. I'lirton . . 2J9 127 386 46 16 Silver' Wyandottes K.Jobling 243 139 382 ) " 65 Wliite Leghorns A. 11. Thomson 247 135 382 ■69 it Morgan and Watson . . 233 135 368 49 57 » ■ ■ B. Walker 242 124 366 50 32 ,, . . S. Hrundrett 231 134 365 ) " 11 Blai k Orpingtons . . T. S. Goodisson 231 134 365 27 Wliite Leghorns . . E. .Vash . . :35 125 360 53 4 J. Blackburn 234 124 358 54 .52 Black .Minorcas Chalmers Bros. 242 114 35*^ j 5,-, 58 White Leghorns . . W. J. Stock 253 103 356 41 , A. Stringer 210 130 340 57 12 „ T. H. C. Stafford 235 J02 337 58 55 Brown Leghorns . . .1 . Matheson 205 124 3-9 59 68 White Leghorns . . W. J. McKeddie 206 101 307 1 60 18 B. Mitchell 208 99 307 66 )» J. Moloney 169 130 i99 62 21 J. O'Loughlin 176 119 :'95 63 22 W. N. Ling 164 Vi3 277 64 67 An'.onas . . A. E. Manning 147 V21 268 65 59 White Leghorns W. J. Seabridge 153 106 2?.9 16 36 Old English Game K. J. Barrett ioO 106 256 67 34 White Leghorns R. F. B. Moore 108 J18 2-^6 68 17 .. S. Childs . . 108 89 197 69 26 (Reserved) Totals . . ' 21.182 8,836 30,018 io()cr.. 191--] Secdiid Victorian Egg-layiiig C ompcthiDu. 645 SErOND VICTOHIAN EGG-LAYING rOMPETITION, 1912-13. //. T'. Hawkins, Poultry Expert. Report i-uR Month ending \ yiw September, 1912. The month ending 14th Septeml»t-r iias been decidedlv cold and gusty, with a fair rainfall. However, as the birds are well protected from wind and draughts, and provided with ample litter scattered in the pens, they have Wen. kept busy, and the production of eggs has l>een well maintained. There has been no case of sickness. Mr. S. Brown's White Leghorns still maintain pride of place, with -a score of 621 for the five months; followed bv W. McLister's White Leghorns, with 594. A feature of the Competition during the past few weeks is that of a pen of Black Orpingtons, owned bv Mr. Jas. Ogden. Their w^eekly record since 26th July is as follows :— 33, 36. 35, 7,^, $2,. 37. 37, and 39 respec- tively— making a total of 286 eggs in eight weeks. The total number of ■eggs laid is 30.018 — an average of 435 per pen. The feeding during the period under review has been on similar lines to that mentioned in my former report ; and there is no reason for any diminution of the meat or maize (heating foods) whilst the present cold conditions continue. Possibly next month we shall dispense with a part of the jnesent grain ration, and reduce slightly the amount now used of animal food. ORCHARD AND GARDEN NOTES. E. E. Pescott. Principal. School of Horticulture, Burnley. The Orchard. Cultivation. Orchard ploughing should now be finished, and the main work for the Tiext few months will be an endeavour to keep the soil surface loose, friable, and well opened. The consolidation of the surfaces must be avoided; as a hard, compact surface means the loss of much soil moisture by means of capilliary attraction. So that after rains, heavy dews, spray pump and other traffic, it will be advisable to run the harrows through the orchard, to keep the surface well broken, so as to maintain a good earth mulch. If after ploughing it be found that the surface is cloddy, and that the harrows will not break the clods down, the soil must be well rolled with a spike or an ■ordinarv round roller, and then afterwards harrowed. Green manure crops should now be ploughed under; if these crops are at all aluindant in growth, thev should be well rolled or dragged down with a chain, or thev should be run oxer with a disc. Any of these means will assist in getting the whole of the crop underground, which is a -desideratum. 64t> ]o!(riial of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo Oct. ,191: In addition to the retention of soil moisture, cultivation of the orchards will suppress all weeds, which rob the trees of both water and food. The suppression of weeds is an important work in the spring and early summer, and they should be rigorously hoed or cultivated out. Sfraying. Peach aphis will be claiming attention, as it will now be present in full force, if no winter spraying has been carried out. The spray for the pre- .sent time is a strong nicotine solution, to be sprayed frequently, so long as the insects are present. Until its action upon young foliage and fruit is well known, it will not Ije wdse at the present time to spray with the lime-sulphur wash for either peach aphis, peach leaf-curl, or black spot of apple and pear. In all recent American experiments, this mixture has been used upon either dormant trees, or upon trees with mature foliage. Neither will it be wise to spray peach trees at this stage for leaf-curl with Bordeaux mixture. If this be done now, the trees will probably lose their foliage. For this disease and for shothole and scab of apricots, the trees should have been sprayed earlier in the season with Bordeaux mixture. As apple and pear blossoms are bursting, the trees should be sprayed with Bordeaux mixture for black spot. If this has been delayed, the sul- phate of copper may be added to the first arsenate of lead spraying for codlin moth, using one pound of copper sulphate to fifty gallons of the spray. As soon as the apple and pear blossoms drop, it is time to prepare for the arsenate of lead spraying against the larvae of the codlin moth. Early applications are necessary ; and one of two applications at the beginning of the season, while the apples are growing quickly, will be very efficacious. General. ■ Grafts on young and old trees will need constant observation ; they must not be allowed to become too dry ; the sap and growth must not be restricted by the ties ; and, if the growths become unduly long, they should be pinched back to make the growths sturdy. The foliage will always be benefited by a water spraying when the weather is hot, dry, or w-indy. Citrus trees may be planted out ; watering at planting and giving the foliage an occasional water sprinkling will be beneficial to the young trees. Vegetable Garden. The surface soil re-.|uires to be well pulverized at this time of the year; ii should be kept well hoed, especially after the necessary frequent water- ings, and all weeds must be suppressed. Apart from their harmfulness in robbing plants of food and moisture, the weeds, if allowed to remain and seed, become a menace to future economical work. The top dressing and weeding of Asparagus beds will now be necessary ; the beds should be well cut over as often as necessary, removing all growths, small and large. It is a mistake to allow the small stems to grow on, be- cause they may be to<:) small for cutting. Plantings of tomatoes may now be carried out ; all early planted plants should be fed. staked, and the laterals pinched back. A little bonedust or TO Oct.. T91:!.] Orchard and Garden Xn/cs. 647 superphosphate mav he given, hut these are not equal t(.) animal manures, if the latter are availahle. Chemical manures .'^^hould only Ix- given in a limited quantitv. Six or seven cwt. i)er acre would he a heavy dressing, and this works out' at nearly 3 ounces per square yard. Vegetable growers may easilv trv this for themselves, and it will .soon be seen that 3 ounces scattered over a square yard of surface will appear to be a very light dressing. French beans, carrot, parsnip, celery, radish, peas, and lurnii) seeds may now be sown. Seeds of cucumber, melon, and yjumpkin family may now be sown in the open ground. All seedlings may be transplanted on favorable days, and it will be well to sprinkle the tops when planting out. as v^ell as to water the roots. Flower Garden. As in other sections, there should be no clods on the surface, the soil should be friable, and no surface cracking should \>e allowed. As often as ::i watering is given, .so a hoeing should succeed this work. Flowering plants suffer exceedingly through loss of soil moisture, and hard and compact surfaces are detrimental to their .successful growth. It is always helpful to plants, and especially .so on hot, sunny and windy days, to have the sur- face well hoed. In addition to conserving the soil water, it creates cool soil conditions, which is so helpful to good root action at this season of the year. Hoeing also keeps down the weeds, which need keeping down, and which should not be allowed to seed in the beds. Roses will need attention, as both rose aphis and mildew will be making -their appearance. For the former, strong tobacco and soap sprays. Robin- son's pine spray, Benzole emulsion, and Soaperine are all very helpful in its eradication. For mildew the plants should be dusted with sulphur when the foliage is moist ; a dusting of sulphur on the ground under the bu.shes will be useful, as the fumes will l)e helpful in checking the fungus. All leaf eating insects on any plants may now be suppressed with arsenatf of lead or with Paris Green. Beds should be well dug over in preparation for chrysanthemum or dahlia planting; if these plants are not to be grown in separate beds, a few may be planted out for early flowering. Bulbs that have finished flowering, and that have lost their foliage should be lifted and stored. The foliage must not be cut off while it is still green, as this means loss of sap and energy. Tender and half-hardy and other annuals may be planted out for summer and autumn flowers. These include asters, zinnia, salvias, balsams, amaran- thus, celosias. Sec, lobelia, bedding begonias, iresines. and altemantheras may also be planted in the beds and borders. Among the new garden plants now in cultivation one that is worthy of notice, and one that will be of great value for early spring and summer flowers is the new red perennial pea or Lathyrus Waratah. This is a fitting companion to the blue perennial pea, Lathyrus pubescens. now so popular. The colour is a rich Waratah red, and the plant is extremely floriferous. The flowers are larger than those of the blue pea ; the plant is very hardy, and a good vigorous grower. It flowers at the same time as the Lathyrus pubescens. and is in every way worthy to be planted with it. 6^8 Journal of Agriculture. Victoria. [loOcT.. igu. REIVIINDERS FOR ]^0VE|V1BER. LIVE STOCK. Horses. — Continue to feed stable horses well ; add a ration of greenstuff. Rug at night. Continue hay or straw, chaffed or whole, to gra.ss-fed horses. Feed old and badly-conditioned hovses liberally. If too fat, mares in foal should be put on jioorer pasture. Catti.k. — Except on rare occasions, rugs may now be used on cows on cold and wet nights only. Continue giving hay or straw. Give calves a warm dry shed and a good grass run. Continue giving milk at blood heat to calves. Tigs. — Supply plenty of bedding in warm well-ventilated styes. Keep ^tyes clean and drv, and feeding troughs clean and wholesome. Sows may now be turned into grass run. Sheep. — Prepare for dii)])ing. Powder and paste di]is are most effective, par- ticularly where lice are prevalent. Ascertain exact conienls of bath before ailding dip. Keep sheep in bath not less than half a minute. Submerge heads. Dip big sheep first, lambs last. Commence early in the day ; ' sheep can then dry before nightfall. Do not dip sheep when heated or full. Clean out baths occasionally. A\oid having to travel sheep too far. Yard over night. Dip early in the day. Avoid filthy baths in dry areas particularly. Merino and fine comeback ewes are in season from middle of November. Join Lincoln and Leicester rams, English Leicester especially for small ewes, thick nuggety type for fat lambs preferable. I'ciri.'iKV. — Provide i)lent\- of green food and shade. \Vatch for vermin; s]iray perches with kerosene and houses with a solution of 3 per cent, crude carbolic acid mixed with a little lime and soft soap. Keep water clean and cool. Discontinue ieeding maize and reduce meat ration. Some Epsom salts should be placed in water weekly. Fresh skim milk, if available, should be given. Remove all male birds from the flock. Infertile eggs only should be used when pickling or when placed in cool storage. CULTIVATION. Farm. — Plant main crop of ])otatoes. Cut hay and silage. ^Yeed early poialnej. Sow maize and millets. Weed tobacco beds, and water, if dry. Orchard. — Ploughing, harrowing, and cultivating to be continued. Weeds in be kept down. Secure, pinch, and spray grafts with water. Spray frequentl) for codlin moth, pear and cherry slug, and peach aphis. Plant out citrus trees. ' Vegetable C.artjex.— Hoe and mulch surface. Suppress weeds. Water where- dry and hoe afterwards. Disbud and pinch back tomato idanls. Sow celery, French beans, peas, lettuce, cuciunber, melon, &c., seeds. Flower Garden.— Water and mulch. Cultivate and keep down weeds. Thin out weak wood from roses. Prune early all flowering shrubs that have finished flowering. Lift and store bulbs. Plant out dahlias and chrysanthemums. Liijuid- nianure herbaceous perennials. Vineyard. — Cultural work, such as scarifying and hoeing, should be actively pushed forward, so as to provide as good a " mulch" as possible during summer. Proceed with ty.ng up, stopping, and topping. Avoid excessive topping, summer pruning being usually more injurious than useful in warm, dry climates. Cincture Zante currant vines as soon as flower caps have fallen. Apply second sulphuring^ just before blossoming, wherever Oidium was prevalent last year. Cellar. — Same as last month. ^TO Oct., 1912.] Journal of Agncutture. Victoria. Xvii GUARANTEED. T HE "ROYAL MEDAL *^ GUARANTEE means that if anything happens to any part of the Mechanism so that you cannot use it, you can send it back and get another. No red tape. ^ ^ No question about it. THE COUPON BRINGS THE "ROYAL MEDAL" BOOKLET. FILL IN AND MAIL TO-DAY. ROYAL MEDAL' MILKING MACHINES 34 QUEEN ST., M ELBOURNE. London Office— Caxton House, Westminster, S.W. J. H. DA VIES, Manarjlnn Dir<\-t,,r. POST FREE BOOKLET COUPON. "Boi/al A/edctl" Milking Machim^^, 34 Queen Street, Mefhonrne. PUufse foncard a ropy of your Fret Booklet. It is to he understood that I consider myself under no ohiifjation. Name.... Address J. 13. Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [to Oct., 1912. 'Phone 4881 Central. The Australasian Mutual Live Stoek Insuranee Society m., ROYAL BANK CHAMBERS, 70 ELIZABETH-SI, MELBOURNE. Hon. AGAR WYNNE, M.P, HENRY GARDNER, Esq. CHAS. YEO, Esq., J.P, WALTER G. HISCOCK, A.C.P.A., Manager. FARMERS and BREEDERS. We will undertake to INSURE YOUR LIVE STOCK at the Lowest Current Rates obtainable in Australia. OTHER DEPARTMENTS OF BUSINESS. Fire, JIarine, Fidelity Guarantee, Plate Glass, Personal Accident and Sickness, Employers' Liability, Workmen's Compensation, Public Risk, Motor Car, and Burglary. INSURE WITH THIS SOCIETY, and RECOMMEND IT TO YOUR NEIGHBOURS. A GOOD AUSTRAL! Aff ' W\y didn't you put your penny in llu plate tht» morning t" ' Pscatue it was a foreign mtsnon, and dada sa-j» it'i not right to send capital out of ifte eounir^." c LOTTERBDCK Bros. SOLE AGENTS FOR BLAGKSTGNE STATIONARY OR PORTABLE OIL ENGINES FAMED FOR DURABILITY. ECONOMY. RELIABILITY. WRITE or CALL for PARTICULARS. "OLDS" PETROL Hopper Jacket or CM f^ I M C C Tank Cooling Type. C 1^ \Ji I 1^ dO Also PREMIER GAS ENGINES. POWER GAS ENGINES. CLUTTERBUCK BROS., 585 Bourke-st., Melbourne. lo Oct., 1912.] Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. xix Dairy Science. The last word. Scientific men in the dairy centres of Europe have Riven close attention to the question of feeding for milk and feeding fur I. utter fat. It has been laid down by one of the leading German Scientists that where a large quantity of very watery food is used for some time, a poor, thin milk is obtained : and he particularly recommends, when a milk rich in fat is wanted, to use a cake made exactly from the same material as Sunlight Oil Cake ; stating that, by the use of such a cake, an increase of butter fat in the milk has been observed. Further, where the butter is inclined to be soft when the animal is fed on certain foods, Sunlight Oil Cake substituted in the ration will make the butter firmer. Every animal will not show the -ame corresponding result with Sunlight Oil Cake, but Sunlight Oil Cake will produce the highest milk flow and butter fat from a good milker and will increase the average from a poor milker. Sunlight Oil Cake is the last word in Dairy Science. For Post Free Book— ' MILK FLOW AND BUTTER FAT increased by Scientific Feeding," By H. M. SOMER, Royal Agricultural Society, Write to Lever Brothers Limited (Dairy Department) Sydney. ^ ---*«■ •-..- ^1 Guaranteed Pure. See that the name " Sunlight " is branded on every cake. Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo Oct.. 1912. A WORLD-WIDE REPUTATION. "HORKSBY" Petrol Engines {STATIONARY AND PORTABLE) THERE IS NOTHING EQUAL TO THtM. Just as suitable for Mcjtive Power as tlie Renowned "HORNSBY" OIL ENGINE. Britain's BEST Oil Eng^ine— ^m^ -^ HORNSBY. The recognized essentials of Oil Engine Superiority are DESIGN QUALITY SIMPLICITY ECONOMY THESE the HORNSBY i.u.ssess, proved by the Fact Made in Two Types— Stationary and Portable. that it has Won all the Largest Prizes ever oifered. Hornsby Gas Engines and Suction Gas Plants are unequalled. R. HORNSBY & SONS LTD., "^"^Sk^^S"-^^ Facts are Stubborn Things. Read This. I beg to inform j-ou that the "IJUNYIP" Forest Devil which I recently purchased from you has amply borne out the representations made by you respecting it. With its aid I succeeded in clearing about 7 acres ot tnnber, ringbarked for years, in less than four days. As a large percentage of these trees measured a good 3ft. at the base, the hand grubbing method would obviously have entailed weeks of hard and expensive labour. A pomt which I have not yet seen emphasized is this :— The hole left after a tree is pulled by the ■ 1; orest Devil " is nothing like so large or laborious to refill as that left after hand grubbing— an important point. I may add that I am perfectly satisfied with the soundness of my investment, and thank you for the courtesy and promptness with which the transaction of purchase was carried out. Bamawni, Rocheste. (Signed) GUY H. T. LKVrOK. JOHN COOPER &, SONS, 287-9 ELIZABETH-ST., MELBOURNE. (Op. St. Franciss Church). lo Oct.. 19 I -■] Journal of Agriculture. Victoria. XXI NATIONAL TRUSTEES Executors and Agency Company of Australasia, Ltd. DIRECTORS: HON. WALTER MADDEN, Chairman and Managing Director. EDWARD FITZGERALD, Esq., L.L.D. MICHAEL MORNANE. Esq. HON. DUNCAN E. McBRYDE, M.L.C. HENRY MADDEN, Esq. DAVID HUNTER, Esq. This Company Acts as Executor, or Joint Executor of Wills, Administrator, Trustee of Settlements, and Agent for Absentees under Power of Attorney. MONEY TO LEND ON BROAD ACRES AND FARM LANDS. Offices-113 QUEEN ST. (Corner of Little Collins-st.) MELBOURNE. ESTABLISHED 1841. THE — GUARANTEED BY THE — GOVERNMENT OF VICTORIA. STATE SAVINGS BANK OF VICTORIA Grants greater facilities to Depositors than any other Savings Bank in the World. All profits earned, after providing for a reasonable Reserve Fund, are distributed among.st Depositors by giving them the Highest Bank Rate of Interest obtainable in the State on current accounts. RESERVE FUND OF FOUR HUNDRED AND FIFTY THOUSAND POUNDS. INTEREST is allowed on Deposits uj) to £350, namely :— 3* per cent, on first £100 ; and 3 per cent, on excess over £100 up to £350. THE TOTAL AMOUNT OF DEPOSITS IS NOW NEARLY TWENTY MILLION POUNDS. Depositors can lodge money with the same pass-book at any of the ■424 Branches and Agencies of the Bank throughout Victoria. GEO. E. EMERY, Head Office— MELBOURNE. Imptctor-Gemrzl. TREWHELLA "MONKEY" & "WALLABY" GRUBBING JACKS. Quick. Powerful. Simple. Mr. Chas. Hamilton, Jlolesworth, Vic, says:— "I woulil not be without one of these .lacks on the farm." Mr. O. C. R. Brown, Timber Merchant, Frances, S.A :— "Have been nsing Trewhella Wallaby .Jacks now nearly six years, and as long as I have anytliinj;" to lift will never be without one." Write for Illustrated Catalogue to — TREWHELLA BROS., ENGINEERS, TRENTHAM, VICTORIA. xxu Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo Oct., 1912. r DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, VICTORIA. JSurnleY J^orfieuItuFal School E. E. PESCOTT - Principal. ANNOUNCEMENT. The curriculum and management of the Burnley Horticultural School have now been arranged so that greater advantages and facilities will be given to students of both sexes in Horticulture and allied subjects. The present course of Hoi'ticulture for male students includes a two years' course, students being charged a fee of £5 per annum. Classes have been formed at Burnley, whereby students of both sexes may receive instruction on two afternoons of each week — Tuesdays and Fridays. Instruction includes theoretical and practical work, and will commence at 2 p.m. This will be a two years' course, and the fee charged will be £2 per annum. It has also been arranged that several short lecture courses shall be given on subjects which are suitable adjuncts to Horticulture, such as Poultry Farming, Bee-keeping, and Fruit Preserving, and these courses will be open and free to the general public. The subjects and dates of the Short Course Lectures will be announced monthly in this Journal. BEE-KEEPING. A series of Lectures on Bee-keeping will be given bv Mr. F. R. Beuhne, the Bee Expert, on the following dates: — October 4th, 11th, 18th, 25th, at 2.30 p.m. STUDENTS SHOULD ENROLL WITHOUT DELAY, Application for . Admission should be made to . . THE DIRECTOR OF AGRICULTURE, PUBLIC OFFICES, MELBOURNE, OR TO THE PRINCIPAL v_ lO Oct., 1912.] Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. laan Invaluable on the Farm The Foup Oaks Bucket Spray X Ump It has many uses. It is equally effective for Spraying Cattle and Sheep for fly and other pest. Spraying Fruit Trees, Roses, Vines, &c. Whitewashing Cow Sheds, Dairies, Stables and Poultry Houses, Spraying Disinfectant, Washing Buggies, &e. The "FOUR OAKS" is a most powerful Pump, entirely British made from best brass. It is simple in construction, easily taken to pieces, and never gets out of order. A substantial air chamber ensures a steady even pressure. "1*1 • _ /Fitted wilh\ f\ A A ^\. LI 'Bordeaux.) 3^1.1,0. Nozzle . ./ Spraying- Materials for all pests. Price ( Spray Pumps of all sizes. "Write for Catalog'ue to F. R. MELLOR...440 Elizabeth-st, Melbourne. JARRAH; Write to i When you contemplate erecting fencing, buildings, dairies, vvoolsheds, &c., be sure you get the best of hardwoods. 1^" JARRAH resists white ants, dry rot, &c. MILLAR'S KARRI k JARRAH CO. (1902) Ltd. QUEEN'S BRIDGE, MELBOURNE. R YAN, GOULDING, & CO. (JOHN F. GOULDING). WHOLESALE CRAiH & PRODUCE COMMISSION AGENTS & GENERAL BROKERS. 546-552 COLLINS STREET WEST (Near King-st.) r ARMERS • Before Selling your Grain, Hay, Potatoes, Onions, consult or write us. It will pay you. CONSIGNMENTS Received and Sold Daily ex Rail or Wharf. Storage arranged on Liberal Terms and Advances made. All kinds of Seed Grain for Sale. Prompt Account Sales. Oats Specialists. New & Second-Iiand Bags for Sale at Lowest Rates! Quotations given for Chaff, Grain, Lucerne, ^^^leaten or Oaten Hay, delivered to any station in Victoria or New South Wales. . When In the CITY Gall In.— Short distance from Spencer-st. RIy. Station. > XXlV Journal of Agriculture, Vicioria. [lo Oct., 191^. "WATERLOO BOY" 4 h.p. PORTABLE OIL ENGINE. Absolutely the Simplest and Cheapest EFFICBENT Engine iq the World. IGNITION — Is make and break !i>a|iir.l PRICE THREEPENCE. (Annual Subscription — Victoria, Inter-State, and N.Z., 3 •; British and Foreign, 5/-.i BRUNNINGS. DEMON AUTOMATIC BIRD SCARER The new labour-saving device for protecting fruit. A new form of insurance for the orchardist. When once charged will go continuously for 16 hours. Requires no attention whatever. Prices. DEMON BIRD SCARER. DEMON BIRD SCARER - - J&1 5 0 CRACKERS FOR SAME (per box otsoo) 1 0 0 FUSE - - - (per hank) 0 4 6 Full particulars. Post free on application. WRITE AT ONCE FOR OUR NEW BOOKLET "HOW AND WHEN TO SPRAY" A useful treatise on the vaiimis methods of spraying. Post Free on Application. RHODES GRASS THE NEW SUMMER FODDER. Tliis grass is unequalled for its (lrou'4'ht-rcsistin}r qualities. Siiecially suited for hot, drj' districts. All stock like it. Plants & Seed now obtainable. I'lii-c nil nppJifiitiiiii. 1912 Seed & Farm Handbook Containing over 130 pp. POST FREE. Ai>pl3' to "Mailina: Dept." for above publications. SEED MAIZE All the leading varieties. HICKORY KING. YELLOW MORUYA. ECLIPSE. SIBLEY. LONGFELLOW, NINETY-DAY. LEAMING. EY. DENT. Full list of varieties, prices, die., Pout free on application. TEOSINTE, JAPANESE MILLET, SORGHUM, IMPHEE, AMBER CANE, PASPALUM, PRAIRIE, LUCERNE, MANGELS, SWEDES, PUMPKINS, COUCH GRASS. (Sample.s and Quotations on application.) All branches of Cultivators, Plows, Drills, Spray Pumps, Spray Compounds, Orchardists' Requirements, &.C., stocked. 64 ELIZABETH STREET, MELBOURNE. (please mention this advt. when writing.) TliE JOURJNAL OF m rilE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, •\7-lOTORIA., -A.'CrSTK.A.LI^A.. CONTENTS.— NOVEMBER, 1912. .2A5t,. PAOB. Bee-keeping in Victoria ... ... ... ... ... F. R. Beuhne 649 Lucerne and Ensilage ... John W. Pafer-ion, B.Sc, Ph.D., and P. B. Scott 653 Replenishing the Dairy Herd ... ... ... .. Af. 'J'homas 657 Irrigation in the Early Days ... ... ... ^..9. Keinjon, G.E. 658 An Insect Pest of the " Cmrajong " ... ... ... C. French, J nr. 662 General Notes ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 664 Fruit Trade of Victoria ... ... ... ... ... E. Meeking 666 Sheep Dipping ... ... ... ... ... ... A. W. CurltwiH 671 Shearers' Hut Accommodcition Act ... ... ... ... ... 673 Relative Solubility of the Pliosphoric Acid in Rock Phospliate anil Bonedust ... 676 Geranium Cultivation for Essential Oil ... ... ... J. Kniyht 677 Analysis of Artificial Manures ... ... ... ... P. B. Scott 681 On Wattles and Wattle Bark ... ... A. J. Ficart, D.Sc, Ph.D. 684 Second Victorian P>gg-laying Competition, 1912-13 ... ... H. V. HatvHns 692 Wheat and its Cultivation ... ... A. E. V. Uicliardson, M.A., B.Sc. 694 Exports- Perishable and Frozen Produce ... ... ... ... B. Croive 708 Imports and Exports— Fruit Plants, Bulbs, &c. ... ... C. T. Cole "JO^ Orchard and Garden Notes ... ... ... ... F. F. Pescott 709 Reminders ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 712 COPYRIGHT PROVISIONS AND SUBSCRIPTION RATES. The Articles in the .Journal of the Department of Agriculture of Victoria are protected bj' the provisions of the Copyright Act. Proprietors of newspapers wishing to republish an\' matter are at liljerty to do so, provided the Journal and author are both acknoivledqed. The Journal i.s issued monthly. The subscription, which is payable in advance and includes postage, is 3s. per annum for the Commonwealth and Xew Zealand, and 5s. for the United Kingdom and Foreiirn Countries. Single copy, Threepence. Subscriptions should be forwarded to the Director of Agriculture, Melbourne. A complete list of the various publications issued by the Department of Agriculture will be supplied by the latter. Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [i I Nov., 1912. The Wind a Worker -no wages to pay! The "Billabong" Windmill and Pumping Plant will supply water under pressure for the Kitchen, Bathroom, Wash House ; for the Lawn ; for the Stock, Ac, at no expense for power— the wind does the work. Hand pumping and the back- breaking occupation of carrying water are done away with— water is right where you want it. But be sure you get the right Mill— buy a " Billabong." The " Billabong " is made at our Melbourne works, and embodies features which decidedly merit your investigation. Features which we have protected by patent rio-hts. Wouldn't you be unwise not to inquire? Send now for printed matter and prices. It also pays to buy Billabong' Tpoug-hing" Without doubt the prices of " Billabong " Sheep and Cattle Troughing are very low when you reckon the special features of this Troughing : — Extra strength of structure. Interlocking, Watertight body joints, Beds to support body provided by T steel standards, Boltless Trough Plug, and good quality of materials. This Patent of ours is rapidly finding favour. May we send you prices and descriptive matter? JOHN PROPTY. &SON LIMITED, DANKS 391-99 Bourke-st, Melb. PUMP, WINDMILL & TROUGH MAKERS 1 1 Nov., 1912. Journal of Agriculture. Victoria. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, VICTORIA. RED POLL DAIRY HERD YOUNG BULLS FOR SALE TO VICTORIAN DAIRYMEN. MUo* Carolina Sumatra Havana India . Turka Brazilia** Colorado** Date of Birth Te-t of Dani- Butter Fat. Record of Dam. , Milk- Gal.s. Fat- lbs. 0/ 0/ /o /o /1911 4-0—4 U912 4-0-5 /19U 40-5 \1912 4-2-4 1912 4 0—5 57.5 536 29.5.12 ^^^^ ^ ^_^ 10.8.12 fiail 4-0-50 12.8.12 1912 4-0-50 21.8.12 I.J 27.8.12 1st milking (no record) 27.8.1L' 1.9.12 22.9.12 * Record of (Iranddani " CIGARETTE." 504 648 570 580 066 211) 286/ 253) 254/ 284 230\ 216/ Price of Calf. £ s. 14 14 12 12 14 14 11 11 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 0 All the above Calves are sired by "TABACUM" by "ACTON AJAX" (imp.) except the ones marked **, which are by "ACTON DEWSTONE" (imp.) Bull calves bespoken and paid for will be reared until si.\ months old, when delivery must be taken. In the event of death or ill-development, another choice will be allowed. The prices are based a] proximately on the actual milk and butter fat record of the dam at the rate of It per lb. of butter tat yielded. {See Journal oj Agriculture, Xoveviber, lull, and September. 1'J12.) Inspection by arrangement with Mr. E. STEER, Herdsman, Boisdale, Gippsland. Application for purchase to DIRECTOR OF AGRICULTURE, MELBOURNE. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. POULTRY FOR SETTLERS. SITTINGS OF EGGS Are now avaihihle from the Poultry Pen.s at the WYUNA FARM and the BURNLEY HORTICULTURAL SCHOOL, at the undermentioned rates. NOTE.— No more sittintfs of Wyuna White LeVo'^^ RS. These Goods are UNEQUALLED by any others, and are obtainable from all Storekeepers. SOLE AGENTS BROOKS. ROBINSON fi Co. Ltd., MeltoUFDe, BEET & DAIRY FARMING. THE IDEAL CLOSER SETTLEMENT COMBINATION. THE RICH BOISDALE ESTATE AND THE FAR-FAMED KILMANY PARK. Both of tliese Estates have been sjieciallj' selected, purchased, and subdivided for Beet Orowinsc and Dairying comlMned, and to afford ojiportunity to THRIFTY, EXPERIENCED iviEN WITH SMALL CAPITAL to make a com- fortable living while acquiring the freehold of the land. For the possibilities and practical resvilts read the article on ''^THIE BEET IJN^'nDTJSTi^'^^," in this issue of the Journal Of Agriculture. II Nov., 1912.] Journal of Agriculture, Victoria BOISDALE ESTATE Subdivided into 57 blocks, and already settled with the exception of Six Blocks of from 40 to 60 acres, to carry 10 acres of Beet annually. Price, £25 10s. to £27 10s. per acre. KILMANY PARK Now open for Application, Subdivided into 13 farm blocks from 56 to 195 acres, to carry 10 acres of Beet annually. Price, from £7 lOs. to £22 lOs. per acre. 7 Workmen's blocks from 20 to 46 acres, to carry 4 acres of Beet annually. Price, from £23 to £25 per acre. For particulars and conditions of purchase and as to blocks available, apply to the SECRETARY, CLOSER SETTLEMENT BOARD, MELBOURNE. For information concerning the financial aid given to suitable Settlers to stock the farms, apply to THE DIRECTOR OF AGRICULTURE, MELBOURNE. Journal of Agricidtiire, Victoria. [ii Nov., 1912. G. R. CLOSER SETTLEMENT LAND, List showing nunibe • of allotments 011 tliu > arious Estates available for application : — Estate. Irrig ation Areas. Area. Estate. Wheat Growing-. Area. Swan Hill 4 tot;illiiit. 337 acres. Cornelia Creek .. 22 totalling 713 acres. Cohuna 27 2,414 „ Oaklan.ls .. ..6 „ 4,140 „ Shepparton . . 52 1,886 „ Hurstwood .. ..4 „ 2,074 „ Nanneella 19 1,884 „ Mt. Wiildeiin .. 13 „ 4,723 „ Baiuawm 21 1,774 „ Nerrin Nerrin ..18 „ 4,022 ,, Tongala SC 4,896 „ Pannoo .. ..15 „ 5,403 „ Marathon &Willow Grove 12 „ 6,363 „ Strathallan .. ..11 „ 325 „ Dairying" and Mixed Farming-. Bona Vista .. .. 0 totiiUinjr 463 ai rus. Beet Growing- and Dairying-. Deepdene ■7 1^ 484 Boisdale . . . . S totalling 366 acres. Eumeralla 6 2,706 „ Kilman\ Park .20 ,, 1,626 ,, Allambee .. . Morven 13 10 2,062 ., 3,364 Clerks' Homes. Werribee 24 4,348 ,, Toorona-a . . . . 43 allotments. Kenilwoith .. 1 600 ,, Mooralla Cremona 2 5 1,226 ., 403 „ Workmen's Homes. Dunrobin 1 20 „ Pender's Grove .. .. .. 105 allotments. Allotments on these estates are sold under Conditional Purchase leasehold terms, extending over 31 J years, with payments at the rate of 6 per cent, per annum. Advances of money can be obtained up to 60 per cent, of the value of permanent improvements effected, repayments extending over fifteen j'ears bearing 5 per cent, interest. For fiUi information and terms apply to THE SECRETARY, LANDS PURCHASE AND MANAGEMENT BOARD. MELBOURNE. AUSTRALIA'S WAGON '*The Finest Wagon Ever." PATENT STEEL WHEELS. ratent FeU*M. Renewable Carran Box£8 and Oil Caps. The only Stael Wkeel that has atoad the Test. Bewar* of Imitations. BnUiTant Bros., OiUenbah, Narrandera, write :-4/4Al-"The 7-ton Wool Wagon I got from you four years ago has given every satisfaction. I now want you to send me a 54 in. and 48 in., diameter wheel x 6 in. tyre 10-ton Wagon, with Table 19 ft. x 8 ft. Your Wagons are the Best." Hundreds of others say the same. When j'ou get a Wagon see that it is the Genuine "Hildyard Patent." A weU-known and up-to-date farmer in Victoria (Mr. E. A. Neald. of Nathalia) says :-" I had last season a e-ton Ordinary English Wagon, and one of the "Trusty" type Steel Wheel Wagons, 40 in. and 36 in. dia. wheels, carting m sheaf hay. Although the 6-ton wagon seemed to carry the larger loads I found, to my surprise, after keeping careful count, that the Patent Steel Wheel Wagon carted and put into the stack 700 sheaves a day more than the big wagon. The labour was the same for both wagons." g)gp- TABLE TOP— Truck body, and all classes of little Wagons for Farm and Station work. WRITE FOR CATALOG TO-DAY. RJ L HILDYARD queens bridge-st, ■ ^" ^" ■ lit-l^ I A^riL^, SOUTH MELBOURNE. V. 1 1 Xov^, 191 2.] Journal of AgricuHnre. Victoria. IX LIGHT, STRONG, PERFECTLY RIGID. "CYCLONE WOVEN GATE 9 ft. -to xe f-t. Will hold anything, and can be made rabbit proof by putting rabbit proof intersection at the bottom. The wider gates have three stays. Get our Catalogue of this and many other Cyclone Gates. " THEY'RE ALL GOOD." CYCLONE FENCE & GATE CO., 459 SWANSTON ST., corner franklin ST., MELBOLRNE. PERFECTUS APPARATUS FOR THE TREATMENT OF MILK FEVER IN COWS. BT THE METHOD RECOMMENDED IN THE JOURNAL OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. I 'HE treatment by this apparatus is ■*■ effective and eas}' to perform, and it is indeed rare that the severest case does not yield to it. The treatment should be applied directly the symptoms of the fever become manifest. The set contains everything neces- sary to effect a cure, including a ther- mometer for aiding the recognition of the disease. PRICE COMPLETE 12s. 6d. (Postage, 9d.) Ask your nearest Chemist for it, and if he cannot supply, apply to us direct). FELTON, CRIMWADE & CO., MELBOURNE. Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [ii Nov., 1912. LITERATURE for AGRICULTURISTS. PLAN AND SPECIFICATION OF SHEEP-SHEARING SHED. 2s. 6d. Postage, Id. MILK CHARTS (Monthly and Weekly), 6d, per dozen, post free. When ordeiing, dairy farmers should mention " Monthly " or " Weekly." By Professor A. J. Ewart, Government Botanist. WEEDS, POISON PLANTS, AND NATURALIZED ALIENS OF VICTORIA. 2s. 6d. Postage : Commonwealth, Hd. ; N.Z., 5d. ; British and Foreign, lOd. PLANTS INDIGENOUS TO VICTORIA. Vol. II., 10s. Postage : Com., 2d. ; N.Z., 8d. ; Brit. & For., Is. 4d. By C. French, F.E.S., Government Entomologist. DESTRUCTIVE INSECTS OF VICTORIA. Parts L, IL, III., IV., V. 2s. 6d. each. Postage: Parts I. and III., C, Id. ; N.Z., 3d.; B. & F., 6d. each. Parts II. and IV., C, l-Jd. ; N.Z., 4d. ; B. & F., 8d. each. Part V., C, Id. ; N.Z., 4d. ; B. & F., 7d. By D. Mc Alpine, Government Vegetable Pathologist. RUSTS OF AUSTRALIA. 5s. Postage : C, 2d. ; N.Z., 8d. ; B. & F., Is. 4d. SMUTS OF AUSTRALIA. 4s. Postage : C, 2id. ; N.Z., 9d. ; B. & F., Is. 6d. FUNGUS DISEASES OF CITRUS TREES IN AUSTRALIA. 2s. Postage : C, Id. ; N.Z., 3d. ; B. & F., 6d. FUNGUS DISEASES OF STONE FRUIT TREES IN AUSTRALIA. 2s. 6d. Postage : C, Ud. ; N.Z., 5d. ; B. & F., lOd. SYSTEMATIC ARRANGEMENT OF AUSTRALIAN FUNGI. 3s. Postage: C, 2d.; N.Z., 8d..; B. & F., Is. 4d. THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, MELBOURNE, VICTORIA. Remittances from places outside the Commonweaitii to be by Money Order only. Pamphlets obtainable from the Director of Agriculture, Melbourne, Free on Application. NEW SERIES. 1. SILO CONSTRUCTION. A. 8. Kenyon, C.E. 2. HINTS FOR NEW SETTLERS. T. A. J. Smith. 3. APPLE GROWING FOR EXPORT. P. J. Carmody. * 4. BOOKKEEPING FOR FAR^MERS. IF. Mclver, A.I.A.V., A.S.A.A., Eng. 5. CIDER MAKING. J. Knight. * 6. FARM PLUMBING. C. H. Wright. 7. CITRUS FRUIT CULTURE. E. E. Pescott. 8. BUILDING HINTS FOR SETTLERS. A. S. Kenyon, C.E., and others. 9. TOBACCO CULTURE. T. A. J. Smith. 10. SILOS AND SILAGE. G. H. F. Baker. 11. THE BEET SUGAR INDUSTRY AND CLOSER SETTLEMENT. H. T. Easterhy. 12. WORMS IN SHEEP. S. S. Catneron, D.V. Sc, M.R.O.V.S. *I3. CHEESE MAKING (Cheddar). C. S. Sawers. 14. FARM BLACKSMITHING. G. Baxter. 15. BROOM FIBRE INDUSTRY. T. A. J. Smith. *16. PIG INDUSTRY. B. T. Archer. 17. GOVERNMENT CERTIFICATION OF STALLIONS, 1911-12. W. A. N. Robertson, B.V. Sc. 18. REPORT ON FIRST EGG-LAYING COMPETITION AT BURNLEY, 1911-12. * Not yet available. JI. V. Hawkins. II Nov.. 191 3.] journal of Agr'cuU iirc . Victoria. Vaeuum Gapg^oyle Prepared Red Spraying Oil Needs no Soft Soap OP other ingredient. Requires only Clean Soft Water. V^cicuum Gargoyle Red Spray Oil now obtainable in prepared form is the same Oil as that originally introduced to Australia for fruit- tree spraying. Full particulars — Horticultural Department, Vacuum Oil Co. Pty. Ltd., 90 William Street, Melbourne. Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [i I Nov., 191 2.. YOUR LAND INCREASED IN VALUE 50°/ o Land properly irrigated increases ils productiveness from 50% 10 100%. This practically means an equal increase in its value The more efficient the method of irrigation, the greater the incn-ase. The Nunan Patent Spray System of Irrigation Distributes water in a natural manner, similar to rain. With this system you secure a greater and more efficacious irrigation with half the amount of water required by the flooding method. Again, the water by being sprayed through the air, is freshened antl sweetened, and increased in nutritive value. The Nunan system is lieing adopted throughout Australia and is giving highly satisfactory returns. We have published a book fully describ- ing the Nunan system, if you send us your name and address we will send y.ni a copy free. NEWELL & CO. AGENTS 43=45 KING=ST. MELBOURNE. NEW ZEALAND LOAN & MERCANTILE AGENCY c:o. x^xiMEx^riESH) Head Office— LONDO.N. Melbourne Office — COLLINS-ST. W. LIBERAL CASH ADVANCES. Wool, Grain, Skins, Hidesjallow, Bark, Stock and Station Brokers ON COMMISSION ONLY. Butter Shipments Undertaken on Owner's Account AGENTS FOR COOPER'S DIP FOR VICTORIA AND RIVERINA, PAGE'S PATENT WIRE STRAINER and IRONSIDE'S WIRE COTTER. CHIEF AGENTS IN VICTORIA for the PALATINE INSURANCE CO. 1 1 Nov., 191 3.] Journal of At^r/c/z/fi/re, Yictoria. TRADE MARK r o 24.C 'o -A-TJTTOIMC OTICJ GAS PRODUCTION Cheaper than COAL GAS at 3/" V^^ 1,000 cubic feet. FOR LIGHTING, COOKING, AND HEATING. MANUFACTURED UNDER LICENCE BOOTY-LOFTH O US E PATENTS. SYSTEM ADOPTED BY STATE AND FEDERAL GOVERNMENTS. For further particulars and prices apply PTY. 19, 21, 23 ] LTD., 586 BOURKE ST., MELB. J. BARTRAM & SON "^ " ''' " •'"'*' ^"^^ ^""^ MADE IN AUSTRALIA. The Standard Netting of the State. LOOK FOR OUR MARKER IN EVERY ROLL. Our manufacture of Rabbit -proof Wire Netting is known as the best througliout Australia. Better in quality, p.nd owing to its being loose polled less costly to erect than any im- ported Netting. 1\' anfl \V MKSn. LYSAGHT BROS. & CO. Ltd., MANUFACTURERS. SYDNEY. AGENTS: GIBBS, BRIGHT & CO., 34 Queen Street, MELBOURNE. Journal of Agriculture. Victoria. [n Nov., 1912. Mp. farmer. ~ This is what concerns you 5 C>vt Galvd. Because it concerns your pocket. NEPTUNE I'S Fencing Wire 12^ Gauge, will cost you £5 2S. OQ. and will give you 7,150 yds. of Single Wire Fence. 10 cwt. Galvd. ORDINARY Fencing* Wire No. 8, will cost you £5 2s. 6d. and will only give you 5,280 yds. of Single Wiie Fence. GUARANTEED ^^k^In'of "NEPTUNE" 12| Gauge, is 1,140 lbs. Breaking Strain ORDINARY No. 8, is 1,125 lbs. Railway Freight and Carriage is about one-third of that on Ordinary Wire. "NEPTUNE" Unrivalled WIRE is not influenced by climatic changes. AGENTS- ASK YOUR STOREKEEPER. MORRIS & MEEKS, Lt. Collins-st., Melbourne. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, VICTORIA. POTATO DISEASES IN AUSTRALIA .A.3SriD THIEIE, T E, E ^^T JVC E IsT T - By D, McALPlNE, ' Government Vegetable Pathologist. 235 PAGES FULLY ILLUSTRATED. T\^\^^ r^" / /Postage— Commonwealtli, 2d. ; New Zealand, 8d. ;\ irriCe - I^/" \ British and Foreign, Is. 3d. / Applications, with Postal Note or Cheque covering price and postage, to be made to the Director of A|ricuiture, Melbourne, Victoria. Remittances from beyond the Connnonwealth to be made by Post Othce Order. With Appendices by W. LAIDLAW, B.Sc., Biologist, on Eel Worms ; and C. FRENCH (Jnr.), Acting Government Entomologist, on Insect Pests of the Potato. BONEDUST, SUPERPHOSPHATE, AND OTHER HIGH-GRADE FERTILIZERS DELIVERED AT RAILWAY STATION, FOOTSCRAY, OR ON WHARF, MELBOURNE. « ^^^ ^,^ '^-.^ Jl^ W li^. Mil B^ n^^^M.-ui.fa.cs'fcxi.r^r. Office :— 407 POST OFFICE PLAGE, MELBOURNE. BONES BOUGHT. CONSIGN TO ME, FOOTSCRAY. Telephone 2098. II Nov.. 191 2.] Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. — b£ e < ca LU ^-r|!^ TM\ 1— b r/i,fill'!iffl i 4 ^ C3 K 0 s ^Iflo I ill t/j g 00 ^%ili P 01 0 cc ULl CO b 5 2. 0 £ Ji 0 -o c C3 LU 2S 5 f" ;5 "5 5 0 LU h- LY Iron oreke OF I 5 0 ^ ^ poses use alvanized ronmongers, St eed. BEWARE 0 0 >> C in to > 0 0 c 2 3 cs C '3 > orki HEA ble f s bra f — 1 - C3 cc 3 t/5 5 or a 2 © -J^WWYYV m Xtra cost oi "Orb" It t/3 aj a> JS .S • t/3 ^ 1 ^M 3 >- K-l 3 1 a> 1^ a> So nu ~ f/- '; 3 ■s x: BG tu 0 ^ ^ 1^3 H ^ *!% 0 ^ JZ 5S z -a « -J- _N "^ 0 C3 ^ 1 en jonniAl of Agriculture, Victoria. [ii Nov., 191 2. r WINDMILLS that Give Satisfaction : ALSTON'S 1 91 2 PATENT. The most perfect windmill motion in existence. Ball-bearing throughout. All moving parts are enclosed in dust-proof case, and run in oil bath. Gives a direct and central lift of the pump rod. No overhanging or twisting strains that are common in all other makes. Runs in the A^r;^^ lightest winds. Stands the strongest storms. <^5r^C^, ^^ ^ot buy a Mill till you have inspected ^^:^^:^ the ''Alston.*' 16 ft. Alston Mill Pumping from Bore into Trough. OVER 30,000 OF THESE MILLS IN USE THROUGHOUT AUSTRALIA. WATER TROUGHING The Alston Patent Trough is the only reliable article. It is manu- factured by the inventor. The Patent Water=Tight Joint of the Alston Trougfh is perfection. It is made by the overlap of the curved steel sheets securely held by the inside and outside bands. The sheets are not grooved, as this only fractures the coating of galvanizing, and exposes the iron to the action of the water. JAMES ALSTON, - QUEEN'S BRIDGE, MELBOURNE, THe JOURNAL or ^fie department of Mgricufture VICTORIA. Vol. X. Part 11. 11th November, 1912. BEE-KEEPLXG IX VICTORIA. {Continued from Page 532.) F. R. Beitline, Bee Ex-pert. IX. Swarming. Swarming i.s a natural impulse with bees, and the means of multiplying the species. In Victoria it occurs from September till December, October being the principal swarming month in most localities. In abnormal seasons, when copious rains succeed a period of drought, swarming may take place a second time in January or February. To the beginner the issue of swarms is a source of delight, and the most convenient way of increasing the number of his colonies. When, however, stocks have increased to the number intended to be kept, or to what the locality will carry with profit to the owner, then swarming be- comes a trouble, involving a considerable amount of unprofitable work, and unless it is counteracted by re-uniting of swarmed stocks may result in the loss of all surplus honey. This is particularly so in districts having a plentiful supply of pollen in spring and a honev flow in early summer only. Taking as an illustration two colonies of equal strength, and assuming that one swarms several times, and that the other does not swarm at all, the worker force of the former is broken up into two, three, or more com- munities, none of which is in a condition to store surplus honey for a month or longer, because the parent colony is depleted of field bees by the issue of one or more swarms. The voung queen, hatched after the swarm left, does not commence to lay for fourteen to twenty-one days, and this interruption in the succession of bee generations seriously affects the storing ot honey later on, while every swarm put down in a separate hive has first to build sufficient comb to fill the frames of the lower story, establish a brood -nest, and accumulate stores before it is in a condition to store surplus honey. This point, at whicti productiveness commences, is in some locali- ties, such as the country surrounding Melbourne not reached till the main 13941. V 650 Journal of Agriculture, Victona. [11 Nov., 1912. honey flow is practically over, and for the remainder of the season the bees are only able to gather sufficient to maintain themselves, and sometimes not enough to last them through the winter. In the following season the colonies which survived will again undergo division by swarming, little or no honey will be obtained, and the owner will come to the conclusion that bees are not profitable in his locality. It should be understood that in- crease of colonies always takes place at the expense of honey production, except in exceptionally good bee-country, with a late honey flow ; but in passing it may be mentioned that in Spring bees are as much a saleable commodity as honey, that apiarists in the best honey districts of the State purchase swarms in large numbers, and that in localities better suited to the breeding of bees than the production of honey better profits may be obtained by the sale of bees than of honey. Taking now the case of a colony which does not swarm at all, although ot the same strength as another one which does, it will be seen that as the laying queen remains in the hive there is no interruption in the rearing of bees, and as all the work which is done by swarms during the first three or fours weeks is done by bees which come from the parent colony, it follows that when the total worker-force remains in the parent hive whatever would be needed in the establishment of the new colonies is available as surplus ; in other words, the nectar available in the fiora of the locality is, in one instance, turned into surplus honey for the benefit of the owner of the bees, and in the other into more bees which cannot do more than exist for the remainder of the season. What has been said so far does not apply to the best honey districts of this State where the honey flow is heavy, and more or less continuous for the greater part of Spring, Summer, and Autumn ; but even when the limit to increase is one of labour and material rather than of sources of nectar it is found more profitable to have the same total force of bees in a lesser number of colonies. More surplus can be obtained from one colony contain- ing 30,000 bees than from two containing 15,000 each, because the number necessary to attend to dome.stic work such as the rearing of brood, carry- ing water, &c., is practically the same in the smaller as in the larger colony, the latter has therefore a much larger number of bees available for the gathering of nectar and is less influenced bv changes of temperature. The prevention or control of swarming is one of the most diflUcult problems of bee culture. Systematic efi'orts to eliminate the swarming impulse by breeding all queens from the mothers of non-swarming stocks have so far only resulted in reducing the percentage of swarming, owing to the inability of queen breeders to control the mating of the sexes as is done in the case of animals and birds. Beekeepers are therefore compelled to confine their efforts to cope with the swarming problem to the removal of contributing causes and to counteracting the eff"ects which swarming has on honey production. Apart from the natural impul.s.e, which is much stronger in some races, .some strains, and even some individual colonies of bees than in others, climate, season, and flora have great influence upon the swarming propensity. These are factors beyond the control of the beekeeper ; there are, however, others which mav' be controlled, more or less, and excessive swarming prevented thereby. The principal inducements for bees to swarm are — 1. A crowded condition of the bees. 2. The presence of large numbers of drones. 3. An old or failing queen. Nov. 1912. Bee-keeping in Victoria. 651 I. Hives may become crowded with bees early in September if win- tered in single stories; as soon as the bees occupy all the combs, an upper story, with drawn empty combs, should be put on to allow the bees to spread out as their numbers increase and the weather becomes warmer. The beginner is at a great disadvantage in not having another set of combs, and the only thing he can do is to remove one or two combs from the brood chamber to the super (upper story) and put two frames with full sheets of foundation alongside the outside brood combs in the lower hive body. The bees will soon draw the foundation into comb, and the combs removed to the super will induce them to commence work there. Frames with starters only should not be used before swarming time, as drone comb is invariably built in them at this period. It must be pointed out that the addition of a set of frames with starters, or a section super, does not spread the bees out, because there is no connexion between the brood combs and the starters in the super. In a wild bees' nest, or when a set of drawn combs are given, the comb is continuous, and therefore, in the FIG. I. SPRING EXAMINATION OF HIVES. latter case, accepted by the bees as part of their home as soon as required and the crowded condition relieved. 2. The presence of large numbers of drones is best avoided by the use in the brood chamber of combs built from full sheets of foundation, or combs which have been built by swarms during the first three weeks. The cutting out of drone comb or the shaving off of the heads of drone brood is of very little use, because drone comb is again built by the bees in the same space, and the queen again lays drone eggs into the cells from which the bees have removed the decapitated drones. 3. Old or failing queens may be discovered during the first or second examination of hives in Spring (Fig. i) by noting the irregular way eggs are laid, as they are found scattered about instead of in compact circles. Colonies having three-year-old queens will be found most inclined to swarm ; thos.e with two-year-old queens less so, and the previous season's queens still less, while later on. when young queens of the same season's Y 2 652 Jonnuil of Agriculture, Victoria. [ii Nov., 1912. rearing are laying, their colonies will not swarm the same season. Defective and old queens should be replaced as soon as ripe queen cells are available. In weak colonies the queen may be destroyed and a queen cell given at the same time, the interruption of brood rearing can be made good by gi\-ing a comb of brood a few days after the young queen hatched. If the colony contains sufficient bees it may be divided into two on the same stand, the old queen being kept laying in one till the young queen is laying in the other, when the former may be removed and the two stocks united by alternating the brood combs after smoking both. Uniting is best done at or after sunset. Even when e\"erything possible has been done to discourage swarming, there will be a number of swarms, but they will be larger (Fig. 2) than they would have been had che colonies swarmed earlier. Examining the hives once a week and destroving any queen cells that are found will, to some extent, prevent swarming or, at any rate, delav it. How- ever, unless the bees are shaken off the brood combs e\"ery time, a small queen cell on the face of the comb, or one well covered with newly- built comb, is very likely to be over- looked and, if condi- tions continue favor- able, colonies which have been thwarted will often swarm with- out having built cells. Taking into account the trouble involved by a careful weekly examination and the risk of failing to pre- vent swarming, it will be found best to allow FIG. 2. A LARGE SWARM, lO LBS. 45,000 BEES. OR ABOUT the swarm to come off and, if no increase but a yield of honey is desired, to re-unite the swarm and the parent colony. This is done in' the following manner: — When the swarm has issued and clustered somew'here, hive it in a new box on a set of wired frames with starters on the spot occupied by the hive from which it came; remove the latter a little to one side, with the entrance facing at right angles to its former position. All flying bees remaining in the parent stock, on returning from the fields, will join the swarm, because they will return to the spot they are used to. The swarmed colony will thus be so depleted of flying bees that usuallv the first virgin queen which hatches from one of the cells will be allowed by the bees to destroy the remaining queen cells. To make sure, however, that no after- swarms come off, it is best to examine the stocks within a day or two and destroy all the queen cells except one, selecting for the purpose one of the largest and most forward in development. In from fourteen to twenty-one II Nov., 1912.] Lnccnic and Ensilage. 65 DO days the young queen will be laying and, under normal concJilions, the combs in the hive containing the swarm will have been built down to the bottom bar of the frames. In the meantime the parent hive has been gradually turned round till it stands close alongside to the swarm, with the entrance facing the same way, and the two stocks may be united into one hive, the old queen (that with the swarm) being removed, the young queen taking her place on the new combs, with the old combs over a queen-excluder in the super to be extracted when full, or replaced by frames with full sheets of foundation, if unsuitable for further use. As previously stated, uniting should be done towards evening, first blowing smoke between the combs of both colonies, and then alternating the frames of the two colonies, thus thoroughly mixing the bees. They will have settled down by next morning, and will work peaceably together; the combs intended for the brood nest and the queen are then put in the lower chamber, the other combs in the super above a queen-excluder. The old queen may be removed the day before uniting, which should not be attempted till the young queen has been laying for some days, as much stinging and balling of the queen may take place if uniting is done before or too soon after the young queen commenced laying. The united stock is in the best condition for storing surplus honey, the brood combs ha\e been renewed, and the queen being of the same season's raising, there will be no further swarming. {To be continued.) LUCERNE AXD ENSILAGE. By John W . Paierson, B.Sc., Ph.D., Experimentalist ; and P. R. Scott, Chemist for Agriculture. In order to determine the changes or losses which may occur in locally grown forage during the process of ensilage, a preliminary .series of experi- ments was carried out at Geelcng during the past summer. The silo was of the reinforced concrete type, and in filling it the material was chaffed and elevated in the ordinary way.. Second-cut lucerne was the crop employed. The method of working was simple. About 50 lbs. of the material as it came from the cutter was well mixed on a clean floor. From this 30 lbs. was sewed up in a clean Hessian bag and dropped in the centre of the silo where it was soon buried in the ordinary course of work. At the same time 10 lbs. was weighed frcm the same heap and set out to dry as a thin layer in a lock-up room. When dry this 10 lbs. was carefully col- lected and preserved for analysis. The bag was placed in the silo on 27th December. Chaffing went on from that time until the silage was from 10 to 12 feet deep over the bag at the end of three days. The material was then fed to cows straight away, a quantity being taken from the silo daily. On 27th February the bag was reached and it was then taken out and weighed. It had been buried in the silo 62 davs. The silage when taken out weighed 2^ lbs. 9 oz. It was forwarded the same day in a sealed milk can for analysis. At the same time the air- dried chaff from 10 lbs. of the original material was sent on as a separate 654 Journal of Agrkidtiire, Victoria. [ii Nov., 191 2. parcel. One of us was present at all weighings on the farm to check the results. The silage was of a brownish-green colour and had a somewhat pungent smell suggesting the presence of butyric acid. The dairy herd at the farm ate it readily. There was no mould of any sort on it and the farmer was well pleased with the general appearance of the material and the way it was turned out. Table I. gives the percentage composition of the silage and dried chaff, and also of the original green lucerne as calculated from the dried chaff it produced. The items in the upper portion of the table are those ordi- narily determined in stock food analysis, and they were determined in the ordinary way. In the lower division of the table the true protein was estimated by Stutzer's method, and the amides, &c., w^ere then found by difference from the crude protein. Each of these represents nitrogen x 6.25. Sugar was determined by the gravimetric copper method. Furfurol was obtained by distillation with hydrochloric acid and subsequently precipi- tated by phloroglucin. Furfurol represents the pentosans and less resistant celluloses (oxy-celluloses) of the fodders, the latter being of most importance. The analys^es werq made by Mr. V. Deschamp, who has long experience of this class of work. Tablk I. Water Ether Extract . . Crude Protein . . Sol. Carbohydrates Woody Fibre Ash . . Protein Amides, &c. Sugar . . Furfurol obtained Green Lucerne. Lucerne Hay. Per cent. Per cent. 74-63 9-80 -83 2-94 4-60 16-37 1118 39-75 6-35 22 -.58 2-41 8-56 100-00 100-00 3-31 11-75 1-29 4-62 -27 -97 3-7.5 13-32 Lucerne Silage. Per cent. 75-00 1-29 3-66 10-43 6-90 2-72 100-00 2-19 1-47 -02 3-28 The percentage composition of the fodders indicates that chemically any one of them may be a useful feed for ruminants, but weight for weight they vary in the nutrients supplied. Comparing the green lucerne with the silage the latter contained less crude protein and considerably less true protein, while it contained a larger amount of amide or non-protein nitro- gen. The silage had also somewhat less carbohydrates, and of the sugar which belongs to this group it had practically none while the furfurol shows that the more digestible cellulose w^as diminished. The silage had some- what more fibre. It had more ether extract. Not much importance, however, should be credited to the ether extract in rough fodders of the kinds under review. While the ether extract of concentrated foods such as corn or linseed consists almost entirely of true fats which are wholly digestible and have a high value in feeding, the ether extract of rough fodders generally contains about 50 per cent, of chlorophyll and waxes which are^ indigestible. In silage it contains in addition a number of organic acids, such as lactic and butyric acid which have a low heat value and are in no way comparable to fats. The water in the silage happens to Nov., 191 2. Luc erne and Ensilage. 655 be about the same as in the original lucerne. Weight for weight the dried chaff is a much more concentrated food than the others, for the reason that it contained less water. The important practical points in a comparison of silage, green fodder and hay lie not so much however in percentages as in the actual amounts of feeding material obtained from the different methods of curing. Thus it is conceivable that a gain in quality during ensilage might be purchased at too great an expense as regards the quantity of feed. Table II. shows for 100 lbs. of the original material how manv lbs. of each food constituent were put in and how manv taken out of the silo. WEIGHING AT THE FARM. Table II. 5g Ether °3 Extract. S--3 •0 -S = 0 oil c 1118 >> 5 J < c' 0 Ph m •§ u a Si •27 £S fc.O Put in (lbs.) . . 25-37 4-60 6-35 2-41 3-31 1-29 3-75 Taken out(lbs.) 21-87 1-09 311 9^50 5-86 2-31 1-86 125 •02 3-28 Loss (lbs.) . . 3-50 •26* 1-49 1-68 -49 -10 1-45 •04 •25 •47 Loss (per cent.) 13-8 31-3* 32-4 150 7.7 4-1 1 43-8 3^1 92-6 12-5 • = Increase. Of the total dry matter put in 13.8 per cent, was lost in 62 days. Of the •soluble carbohydrates 15 per cent, was lost including all the sugar, and also, as the furfurol shows, the more decomposable cellulose. Analysis and theory alike indicate that during ensilage it is the most digestible part of the carbohydrates which are lost. The fibre showed less actual loss and the ash practically none. The bag was several' feet from the floor of the silo. The most apparent loss, however, has been in the crude protein, and still more in the true protein of the silage. In the last case the loss approached 50 per cent, of the protein in the original material. 6s6 Journal of AgrkiiUure, Victoria. [ii Nov., 1912. " Alhuminoid ratio" is the ratio of tile digestible albuminoids (proteins) to the digestible non-albuminoids in a food, the fat being multipled by 2.4 in making the calculation. Adopting Wolff's digestion coefficients for the fodders concerned the ratios work out at i :3.3 for the fresh lucerne and I :.4.38 for the silage on the basis of crude protein; calculating from true protein the figures are 1:4.1 and 1:6.1 respectively. The American standard is i :6 — 8, so that all the figures show the silage to be sufficiently rich in protein. This result is obtained because fresh lucerne is particularly rich in protein as compared to ordinary forage. This however offers no reason why the protein should be wasted. Protein isjthe expensive constituent in a fodder. In the case of maize or the ordinary cereals there is less protein to start with — there is 66 to 50 per cent. less. These therefore are ■ rops which seem •nore suitable for en- siling. They will lose less protein because hey have less to lose. Ensilage has its advantages and its disadvantages. When succulent food fails or at certain seasons in ■he dairy its advan- tages outweigh every- thing else. For ruminants succulent fodder is necessary to keep them in bloom, and continued dry feed is incompatible with heavy milking. The disadvantages of ensilage are connected with an inevitable loss of food materials. This indicates that it is wasteful to make silage to be u.sed at a time when satisfactory green feed will be available. But the loss during ensilage falls more hea\-ily upon certain of the con- stitutents of foods than upon others. From these experiments it seems to fall heavily upon the proteins. Aaid as lucerne is particularly rich in protein it seems better that lucerne should be cured as hay rather than en.siled. Such hay would fo^rm an admirable addition to silage made from less nitrogenous fodders such as wheat, oats or maize. There are few farms which do not produce a variety of forage crops. If is proposed to continue these investigations from the chemical side in order to find which crops can V)e converted into silage with greatest econom\-. WEIGHING AT THE LABORATORY. II Nov., 191 2.] Kcpleius/iiiig the Dairy Herd. 657 REPLENISHING THE DAIRY HERD. By M. Thomas, Dairy Supervisor. The dairy farmers of this State will, before many years have passed, have to face a serious situation unless a change in present methods is adopted. This will be how to replenish their dairy herds, which are con- tinually being depleted by various causes. The cutting up of large estates, under the Closer Settlement Act, into dairy farms, and the extension of the dairying industry generally through- out the State, has created a large demand for dairy heifers of good quality which seems very hard to satisfy. This is a subject that requires very careful consideration on the part of our dairy farmers. The ruthless destruction of large numbers of heifer calves is, to my mind, a great waste of raw material, which should be utilized to better advantage especially in securing a certain supplv of well-bred and well-reared heifers to replace any gaps that may occur in the herd. When one thinks of the number of heifer calves, from cows of a 5, 6, and, in many cases, 7 gallons a day capacity, that are annually slaughtered for pigs' food, one can only conclude that eventually there must be a dearth of dairv heifers, and our herds, instead of improving, as they should do, will become of an inferior class. It, no doubt, seems to be the easiest way for the farmer to go to a cattle saleyard and purchase a few heifers, every now and then as wanted ; but this is altogether wrong, for he is generally buying the calves that have been carelessly reared for throe months, and then turned out to take their chance. The farmer who has fed his calves for five months, and reared them well, does not part with them unless forced to do .so. For a good milking cow to stand the wear and tear on her system for years, a heifer must be reared from birth properly, so as to have stamina in her as a cow when she comes to the bail. A lot of the heifers that are purcha.sed in the saleyards are not so -well reared as they require to be, and hence we often hear a farmer say, " 1 bought a couple of heifers in the yards a few weeks ago, but they are no good." This means that he will sell them for whatever sum the dealer likes to offer, and purchase others, from the same source, that possibly may turn out as bad, if not worse, than the first ones. Therefore the farmer who depends on this haphazard method of replenishing his herd will be far behind the careful farmer who rears the heifer calves from his own best cows, and rears them properly. The correct method of rearing a calf has been described in previous issues of the Journal ; it will, therefore, suffice to say that we have at our disposal many valuable, scientifically-tested, substitutes for the butter fat extracted from milk ; whilst the farmer who will grow his own lin.seed will have all there is need of to rear good calves. Another important reason why the farmer should rear his own stock is to minimize the danger of introducing disease into his herd through purchasing a beast from an unknown and possibly infected source, and which may 7ause the loss of a whole year's profit to him. In order to attain a high milking standard in a dairy herd, it is not essential that only pure-bred stock should be kept, for many of the most prolific milkers are of mixed breeds, and many of the pure-breds are 658 Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [11 !\ov., 1912. absolute failures at the bucket. It is, however, absolutely necessary that prolific cows should be bred from along the lines of pure breeding, and that instead of their offspring losing the milking character by being bred from mongrel bulls, the function that is so well developed in the dam should be made more and more of a fixed character by the use of a pure-bred bull of milking strains. In no class of breeding is the influence of the sire so well marked as in the breeding of dairy cattle. Therefore serious attention should be given to the rearing of heifers, but they should be only from the good cows of a herd, and got by none other than a pure-bred bull. IRRIGATION IN THE EARLY DAYS. By A. S. Kenyon, C.E. Recently a paragraph appeared in the daily press that the first attempt at irrigation in Victoria was made at Kerang by the late Mr. W. J. W. Patchell. No detraction from the credit due that enterprising settler is intended in disputing that claim. That his was the first system which was continuously successful is probable ; but it was not the first attempt. From the very outset of settlement on this continent, it was recognised that its peculiar climatic conditions ; its rivers — then known only as ''chains of ponds" — with their intermittent flows, rendered irrigation an essential accompaniment to the full and profitable occupation of the interior. The discovery of gold and the consequent dislocation for the time of the ordinary conditions of life delayed the advent of irrigation, for the efforts of the station gardener, generally a Chinaman, or of an occasional pastoralist, in flooding some paddocks by damming the creeks, are hardly worthy of the name, though in Ta.smania a considerable amount of work took place in the forties. It wais not until the gold fever had nearly run its cour.se that the attention of the people was directed to winning wealth from the soil by the less attractive but much more profitable method of agriculture. In the Victorian Government Prize Essays, i860, Mr. William Storey, in his essay upon the Agriculture of Victoria, says " Irrigation is pre- de.stined to be a prominent feature in Australian husbandry, and though It may seem parodoxical, it is, nevertheles.s, my impression that irrigation will be more general, and will be earlier and better developed in Australia than it would have been had its rivers been without drawback and fluvial at all sea.sons of the year." Notwithstanding this and many similar opinions, so little impression was made by the various efforts at irrigation that Henniker Heaton, in his Australian Dictionary of Dates, 1879, makes no reference to them whatever. Yet, in 1859, an extensive and costly pumping scheme was being put into operation at Heidelberg, and in the succeeding year an elaborate system was established at Adelaide Vale, on the Campaspe River, for Messrs. Elms and Bladier. The following extracts from the Farmers' Journal and Gardeners' Chronicle, a remark- ably well-edited paper, will be of interest: — " Irrigation is, perhaps, the most important subject that can engage the study of the Australian farmer. In this dry climate, with its length- ened droughts and scorching hot winds, crops are often blighted and II Nov., 1912.] Irrigation in the Early Days. 659 destroyed before the grain has had time to ripen; and, again, the whole of the summer is lost, so far as production or vegetation is concerned. During the very months when the glowing heat of the sun would, with abundance of moisture, force and stimulate the most luxuriant vegetation, the whole face of the land is scorched and burnt up. The peculiarities of our climate, no doubt, ari.se, in great measure, from the vast extent of land we have on the one hand, and a wide ocean on the other. Any summer rains we have are not of much value, for the periods between one rainfall and another are so long that we have not only no summer vegeta- tion, but the withered grass and dry herbage of the previous spring months are, in our opinion, often much damaged. "If at any future time in the liistory of Victoria a general system of irrigation should be adopted and carried out, the greatest advantages would be gained by the agriculturists; and it is probable that the climate will become completely changed from a dry region to a land of showers and clouds and thunderstorms. " Two days ago we paid a hurried visit to the farm of S. Ricardo, Esq., on the Yarra, near Heidelberg, for the purpose of inspecting his Avorks for irrigating his land. That gentleman deserves very great credit for his enterprise in being the first in this Colony to employ irrigation on an extensive scale; but it is highly probable the undoubted gain the scheme will yield to him will come first, the credit afterwards. " Mr. Ricardo's farm is 185 acres in extent, situated on the south bank of the Yarra, opposite to Heidelberg, and consists of two descriptions of soil — one of rich alluvial river flats, the other of sandy, undulating ground, with a clay substratum, bedded on rock of silurian formation. The highest ground is 120 feet above the river, and on it is formed the reser- voir, which will, when full, contain 523,000 gallons. This reservoir is simply a square excavation, of about 30 yards by 60, and 5 or 6 feet deep. The soil and clay stripped from the rock form an embankment on all sides. From the engine-house, which stands by the river bank, a main pipe, sunk beneath the surface, leads the water up to the reservoir. To perform this work, a 12 -horse-power engine, with double action pump, is provided. It was intended that this engine should force up 200 gallons per minute, but it has not been able to do this. Of course, the resistance to be overcome at each stroke is great — equal to about 60 lb. per square inch in 120 feet of elevation. Over a considerable extent of the rich river flats piping has been laid 2 feet under the surface, with plugs at intervals of 78 yards, so that two men with a hose can throw the water over the whole extent of intervening ground, and for this portion of the farm the water need not be taken from the reservoir, but may be supplied direct from the engine. In applying the water in this way, it, as a matter of course, falls upon the growing crop, and, under a burning sun, might be supposed likely to injure it ; but such is not the case. Mr. Ricardo states that the water falling on the plants, even under the hottest sun, does them no harm whatever. Probably it is the radiation and reflec- tion of heat from perfectly dry ground in the neighbourhood of plants that usually injures them if watered during sunshine. " This mode of irrigation has been greatly recommended by Mr. Mechi, of Tiptree Farm. Mr. Ricardo, however, finds that it is a very imperfect method ; that, in short, the supply is never equal to the demand ; that the ground is no sooner watered than it requires to be watered again. Besides, he finds that the surface becomes caked by applying water from 66o Joiinial of Agriculture, Yicioria. [ii Nov., \g\z.. a jet or hose. He is, therefore, determined to irrigate the rest of the- farm upon the Italian principle, or a modification of it. This consists. in conveying the water along small open channels from the main pipe on various le\-els, allowing the liquid to flow gently and continually over the surface. " Last summer the works were not completed early enough to test the full value of irrigation. Mr. Ricardo states, however, that he had a crop of turnips ready two months after sowing the seed. ' ' In reference to expense, he puts down the cost of pumping — that is, for fuel and attendance of one man — at 15s. per day. Two men, with hose, can water 5 acres per day. The whole cost of the works amounts to about ^3,000 ; but a great deal of this sum might have been saved had all parties concerned posses.sed more practical knowledge of the sub- ject, and had Mr. Mechi's stand-pipe system not been followed. The chief outlav should consist in raising the water to the required height, wnere such is necessary, and in making arrangements for its distribution- by gravitation. " At the present time the works in question are incomplete, and until next summer it will be impossible to say what will be the gain. Mean- while, Mr. Ricardo has secured the services of a " duly qualified " Italian — one who thoroughly understands the practice followed in Italy, and he hopes, and, may we add, is certain, to obtain great results." — (7th July, i860.) Further particulars are given in the issue of 20th October, of the same year — - " The necessity for irrigation in this country is now a recognised fact. One of the first to discern this want and to take measures for supplying it is Mr. Ricardo, on whose farm at Heidelberg a system of irrigation by underground pipes, hose, and jet, .similar to that practised in our streets, has been for some time in operation. This plan was projected by Mr. Mechi, the well-known agriculturist, of Tiptree Hall, Essex, but whatever the amount of success that may have attended its use under his auspices, it is now being discarded by Mr. Ricardo, on the ground, we believe, of its expensive working and general inefficiency. In its stead he has adopted the Italian system, which can be carried out at considerably less expense than the plan adopted by Mr. Mechi. The most difficult part of the ground, which, on account of its irregularity, requires a great amount of work in the way of levelling, has been under- taken for £iK, per acre, while the more level portions of the farm will be completed for about £6 per acre. Mr. Mechi's system, on the other hand, co.sts something like ;^ioo per acre. "A portion of the works being sufficiently advanced to allow of a trial, the water was laid on last Tuesday, and the trial was in every respect a success. A steam-engine erected on the bank of the Yarra pumps the water into a tank capable of containing about 20,000 gallons. This tank is merely an excavation in the ground, and is, therefore, very inexpensive hi its construction. It is 45 feet in length, 22 feet in width, and 4 feet in depth. From either end proceeds the main channel, 3 ft. 6 in. wide at top, i ft. 3 in. wide at the bottom, and 15 inches deep. Twenty-five chains only of this channel are yet finished, and they are intende;! f->r the irrigation of about 10 acres of land. The whole len^^th II Nov., 19 1 2.] Irrigation in tlic Early Days. 661 of main cliannel required for the supply of the flat portion of the farm (about 100 acres) will be no chains. The experiment consisted in testing the efficiency of the part already completed. Several portions of land of about half-an-acre each having been ploughed, a flood-gate at the tank was raised and the channel was speedily filled to overflowing, irrigating the land regularlv and most completely." While claiming for Mr. Ricardo the honour of being the first irrigationist on a large scale, the names of Messrs. Robinson (Dutson), Eason (Buninyong), Vince (Bridgewater), Miller (Lerderderg), Pearce (Bacchus Marsh), Troy (Gannawarra), and Patchell (Kerang), should be placed on the roll of honour. The two first-named, though only irrigating on a small scale from springs, commenced in the fifties, the others not until the next decade. Any reference to the beginnings of irrigation in Victoria would hardly be complete without mention of Mr. Garden, of Cohuna, who, though not starting until 1882. was probably the most successful of all. Footnote by the Hon. Geo. Graham. M.L.A.. Minister of Agriculture and Water Suppli/. I do not think the name of Messrs. Learmonth Bios., of Ereildoiine, should be omitted from any list of early irrigators in Victoria. As far back as lS(i(), Mr. Thomas Learmonth j)repared a piece of land about 1^ acres in extent, and, after carefully grading the same, had it planted with lucerne. He watered it by gravitation from a large reservoir situated on a hill at the back of the station, and irrigated with a S3'stem of mitre drains about 9 feet apart. To my personal knowledge he supplied a dail\- ration of lucerne to over 200 pigs for five months in the year ivom this small plot. I saw the crop growing in February, 1861, when thej' were just preparing to take off the fourth cutting, and the lucerne was from 18 inches to 2 feet high. What Mr. Kenyon has stated with regard to Mr. Ricardo is perfectly correct as I had the information from Mr. Ricardo himself many years ago. Mr. Ricardo was a very advanced and enthusiastic agriculturist, and was one of the very first men who purchased land in the Ballarat district foi- farming jjurposes. Milk contains 4! per cent, of sugar. This milk sugar is not so sweet as cane sugar. On standing, bacteria form lactic acid from the milk sugar, and when the quantity becomes sufficient this acid causes the casein to coagulate. Casein can also be curdled by rennet, but the product is dif- ferent to the curd produced by acid. 662 Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [ii Nov., 1912. AN INSECT PEST OF THE "CURRAJONG" (BRACHYCHITON). By C. French, Junr., Acting Government Entomologist. From time to time, leaves of the native Currajong tree (Brachychiton populneum, R. Brown) are forwarded to the Entomological Branch by correspondents, who state, that the leaves are being discoloured by " insects which have white tails." On examining the specimens I find them to be covered with the remarkable Psyllid (Tyora sterculiae, Frog- gatt) which resembles an aphid and is often mistaken for one. This insect was first discovered at Forbes, New South Wales, by Mr. W. W. Froggatt, Government Entomologist of New South Wales, and the following is a quotation from his description of the insect : — "This is one of the most anomalous species I have found; and the living psyllid with its bright green tints, delicate transparent wings, and long slender legs and antennae, might easily be passed over at first sight as an aphis. The deeply cleft head, absence of face lobes, and the peculiar venation of the wings render it a very distinctive insect. The eggs are horn-colour, elongate-oval in form, and deposited in patches con- taining 30-40 in number on the upper surface of the leaves. The larvae and pupae cluster together where they emerge from the eggs, the long filaments trailing out all round giving them a star-like appearance and each family makes a large white blotch on the foliage." Many Currajong trees are now cultivated in Victoria, in large private gardens, public parks, avenues, &c. They are fine, evergreen, shady trees, easily grown and very shapely. The flowers are fairly large, downy on the outside, and on the inside red and yellow, variegated. It is unfortunate that they are being attacked by an insect pest, which causes discoloration of the leaves and the trees themselves to become unsightly. In times of drought, in some parts of the interior of Australia, starving stock have been saved by eating the leaves of these trees, and also the roots if they happen to be exposed. Remedies. The most effective means of dealing with this pest is to spray the trees with kerosene or benzole emulsion, pine oil spray, or any other mixture that kills insects by contact. Formulas for any of these mixtures can be obtained on application to the Entomological Branch, Crown Law Offices, Melbourne. EXPLANATION OF PLATE. (Tyora sterculiae, Froggatt.) Fig- I- Eggs. Magnified. From Nature. Fig. II. Leaves with insects and cast skins. Natural size. From Nature Fig. III. Young leaves with cottony filaments. Magnified. From Nature Fig. IV. Pupa. Magnified. From Nature. Fig. IVa. Pupa. Natural size. From Nature. Fig. V. Perfect Insect. Magnified. From Nature. Fig. VI. Antennae. Magnified. From Nature. Fig. VII. Leg, anterior. Magnified. From Nature. II Nov.. 19 1 2.] Insect Pest of the ''Ciirrajong." 66^ INSECT PEST OF THE "CURRAJONG" (bKACHYCHITON). 664 journal of Agriculture , Victoria. [ii Nov., 1912. GENERAL NOTES. THE FLY PEST— A simple method of destroying house flies, which is well spoken of, is described in the Agricultural Journal, Queensland. Formalin is the agent employed. One ounce of commercial (40 per cent.) formalin is added to one pint of equal parts milk and water. A trace of sugar added makes it more attractive. The mixture is exposed in shallow plates, and a piece of bread or blotting paper in each plate offers more space for the flies to alight on. The preparation has been tried in cow houses, stables, dairies, and dwelling houses, and in most cases seems to have been very destructive. Mixed with syrup it was eaten by ants with impunity. COMPARATIVE VALUES OF FOODS— The unit-value system of ascertaining the prices of manures is described by the Chemist for Agriculture in the January issue of this Journal.. It is useful as showing whether the purchaser of manures is getting value for his money according to current rates. From time to time proposals have been made for the application of the unit system to a comparison of food values, and Leaflet 7^ of the Board of Agri- culture suggests the following method : — In a cattle food the ingredients commercially important are the albuminoids (proteids), fats, and carbo- hydrates. In working, multiply the percentage of albuminoids and fats by 2h, and to- the product add the percentage of carbohydrates. The result gives the number of food units in the material. Take an ex- ample. If a food contains 32 per cent, albuminoids, 11 per cent, fats or oils, and 34 per cent, carbohydrates, then 2^ (32 + 11) -I- 34 = 141 J food units. If the price is ^g per ton then each unit costs is. 3|^d. The same calculation may then be conducted for another food at another price in order to see which is purchasable at the cheaper rate per unit. In making this comparison between different foods it must be confined to foods of essentially the same character, and where each is dietetically suited to the purpose for which it is required. To compare, say, barley meal with oaten chaff under this method would give misleading results. GOOD AND BAD PASTURE— In any stretch of comitry one, pasture establishes a reputation as good fattening land, while another is known as only fit to carry store stock or lambing ewes. The reason for those differences is often hard to trace. In the Romney district of England there occur fields of per- manent pasture capable of fattening six or eight sheep to the acre, while immediately adjoining may be found others of apparently the same character, which will only keep sheep in growing condition. In the Jour. Agric. Sci., June, 19 12, Mr. A. D. Hall and Dt. Rus'sell, of Rothamsted, describe some investigations of this subject. They compared a good with an adjoining bad-feeding pasture at thrlee stations. At each place both pastures were situated in flat silt land, and appeared to ha\e been formed in the same way. There was no regular difference in the water content of the good and bad soils, and temperature differences were small. The ordinary chemical and mechanical analyses of the soils revealed nothing to account for their great differences in fertility ; the good soils generally contained rather more total phosphoric acid, but not of citric acid soluble. Their inves- tigations point to only one feature in which the good soils excelled in II Nov., 19 1 2.] General Notes. 665 marlcfd degree — they contained much more nitrates and ammonia early in the season. No reason could be given Tor this. Botanically, there was very little difference in the types of herbage. The feeding value of the pasture was thus largely independent of its botanical 00m- position. Habit of growth appeared the important thing. On the good land, with plenty of nitrates and ammonia, the grasses were leafy, with little tendency to form heads; on the bad fields the herbage was s'temmy, and flower heads came early and abundantly. Altogether the investi- gations indicate that the bacterial activity of pasture lands is of first- rate importance. They suggest that the application of lime (a germ tonic) would often bring marked improvement. Lime increases the natural supply of nitrates. Incidentally it helps clovers in another way. On some soils phosphates are required in addition to lime. It is by experimenting along these lines that the right means of improving poor pasture can be determined. HERD TESTING— Six years ago Mr. Burgess, a New Zealand farm.er, started testing his dairy herd, and a lucid account of his experience appears in the ]ournal of Agriculture of the Dominion. In the first season of testing the cows averaged 198 lbs. of butter fat. As a result of always weeding out the worst cows, the average for the second season was 222 lbs. ; for the third season 234 lbs; for the fourth, 241 lbs.; in the fifth season the yield was affected by the dry summer, and consequent scarcity of feed; in the sixth season the average was 261 lbs. Six year's testing thus increased the yield by 63 lbs. butter fat per cow. The cost of testing is calculated at 8s. iid. per cow, including cost of apparatus and the farmer's own time at is. per hour. He estimates that improve- ment will continue, because in the period under review an exceptional number of heifers ^^as introduced to replace culls. The herd was of mixed breeding, but at two dates a pure-bred Ayrshire bull of good milking strain was obtained. The writer would prefer pure breeds to work on as these perpetuate their qualities with greater certainty, but points out the difficulty of obtaining this class of stock with good records well authenticated. The scheme for officially testing pure herds recently introduced by this Department will furnish a guarantee to those purchasing pure-bred animals with the object of grading up their herds. DRAINAGE LOSSES— Phosphoric acid, potash, lime, and nitrogen are the soil constituents which the farmer wi.'-hes to conser\'e, and each of them stands in a different relation to drainage losses. A discussion of the subject and the analysis of drainage waters from the fields of five farms which appeared recently in the Illustrated Landw. Zeit, which serve to draw attention to the subject. The results were typical. There was no phosphoric acid lost by drainage. The loss of potash was not serious, but there was considerable loss of nitrogen (11.8 parts per million) almost wholly as nitrates. There was no loss of nitrogen as ammonia. The most serious loss was in lime, amounting to 215 parts per million. In nearly all cases lime will be the chief constituent in drainage waters. The loss is greater on cultivated land than on pasture, and most of the manures in use tend to increase it. The waste is inevitable, and in the long run must be made up by fresh applications of lime at the surface. 666 Joiinial of Agriculture, Victoria. [ii Nov., 191 2. FRUIT TRADE OF VICTORIA. ITS PRESENT STATUS, FROM A COMMERCIAL STANDPOINT. {Continued from Page 567.) LOCAL TRADE. By E. Meeking, Senior Inspector of Fruit. Part 2. It is intended, in this number, to show the present position of the local fruit trade, and to point out some of the disabilities connected therewith. Suggestions will be furnished later as to the manner in which these may be, in large measure, surmounted. Before doing so, it may be as well to indicate the channels whereby our fruits reach the consumer, in order that the suggestions for improving the present methods of disposal may be rendered more clear. Approximately 50 per cent, of the total fruits raised in Victoria never leave the State, being consumed or otherwise dealt with locally. Lideed, so far as the small fruits (berry fruits, currants, olives, &c.) are con- cerned, it may be confidently asserted that 99 per cent, of these are con- sumed within the State. This is also true concerning a great proportion of the softer kinds of our large fruits, as the following figures will show : — Low Consumption of Fruit in Victoria. Li the year 1910-11 (the latest year for which figures are available), a total of 3,641,977 bushels of fruits, exclusive of grapes, was raised in Victoria. This total consisted of 3,583,059 bushels of large fruits, and 58,918 bushels of small fruits. Of this total, a quantity of 484,413 bushels, or 13.5 per cent., was exported to the other States of the Com- monwealth; 318,297 bushels, or 8.8 per cent., were exported oversea; 997,454 bushels. Or 27.3 per cent., were manufactured^ into jams, jellies, &c., and 59,600 bushels, or 1.09 per cent., were converted into dried fruits. This gave a total of 1,859,764 bushels exported, manufactured, or otherwise disposed of, and left a total of 1,782,213 bushels, or slightly under 50 per cent, of the total raised, to be consumed locally. If we add to the quantity raised locally a quantity of 785,106 bushels imported from the other States, and 81,560 bushels imported oversea, we get a total of 2,648,879 bushels consumed in Victoria in the year 1910-11. Taking the population of the State for the year under notice at 1,305,000 souls, it will be seen that approximately 80 lb. of fruit per head of population was consumed during the 12 months. This gives a daily consumption of 3I oz. of fruit per day per individual. Com- paring this consumption with the consumption of such staple articles of food as meat and bread, it would appear that the proportion of fruit con- sumed is relatively very small, as in 1910-11 there were consumed per head of population in Victoria 223 lb. of meat per annum, or 9.6 oz. per day, and 272 lb. of bread per annum, or 12 oz. per day. Large Amount of Waste. As no figures are available to indicate the amount of waste which annually takes place, the figures quoted do not allow for the fruits which are raised but never reach the consumer, and are either fed to stock or II Nov., 1912.] Fruit Trade of Victoria. 667 carted to municipal rubbisli tips. There is everv reason to believe, how- ever, that this amount of waste is much larger than most people imagine, and would be ([uite sufficient to bring the total consumption per head to below 3 oz. per day. Present Methods of Distribution. The two points most forcibly emphasised by these figures are — firstly, that we import a great deal of fruit which might be raised locally ; and, secondly, that in a climate such as ours the use of fruit as a staple article of diet is much less than it should be. If we seek for reasons as to why this state of affairs exists, the following facts would seem to indicate that the causes are mainly due to the want of appreciation of the dietetic value of fruit on the part of the public, and to improper methods of placing our fruits before the consumer. The latter cause may be chiefly attributed to 668 journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [ii Nov., 1912;. our incomplete methods of distrilnition. Within the City of Melbourne and suburban radius, the total population of which in 1911 was estimated at 600,160, there are only three principal retail markets, viz., the Queen Victoria (situated within the city). South Melbourne, and Prahran Markets. In addition to these three retail markets, one wholesale market, the Western Market, is situated between Market and William streets, Melbourne. None- of the markets, retail or wholesale, are connected with the railway. The following are the number of fruit retailers in these different markets: — Victoria Market, .^50; South Melbourne Market, 35; Prahran Market, 20 — a total of 505. In addition to these, there are, on an average, 60 barrowmen in the city, 20 in South Melbourne, and 90 in Prahran. The total number of fruiterers and greengrocers in the city and suburbs is 769. II Nov.. 1912.] Fruit Trade of Victoria. 669 The wholesale distributors, who are situated in, or adjacent to, the Western Market and Queen Victoria Market, number about 20. This gives a total of slightly over 1,400 distributors, or, approximately, one distributor to every 360 inhabitants in the metropolitan area. Improvement in Distribution Needed. It would appear, from the above figures, that the number of distri- butors is quite sufficient to place the fruit before the public ; but the expensive and cumbersome methods by which these retail fruiterers and barrowmen are supplied add so much to the cost of the fruit as to render it a luxury, instead of being, as it should rightly be, a necessary article of diet. This contention will be rendered more clear when it is explained 670 Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [11 Nov., 1912. that the only means by which the suburban fruiterers and barrowmen can. obtain their supplies is by attending the early morning markets, or by pur- chasing the fruit required at the Western Market, in _ the city. To compensate for the wear and tear incurred through the journey into the city and back, tlie long hours worked, and the great length of time occupied in obtaining his supplies, the retailer has necessarily to charge high prices for his fruit. This has the effect of lowering the average consumption, and also curtails the profits which would accrue if more direct methods were in force whereby the fruiterer could secure his goods. The necessity for working half the night during, at least, three nights of the week precludes the possibility of the fruiterer conveying his fruit to the houses of the consumers in his locality, and he has therefore to depend, in large measure, upon the residents calling at his shop to make their purchases. Many of the growers adjacent to the metropolis bring their fruit to the Queen Victoria and South Melbourne Markets and sell direct to the retailers and consumers. The growers other than those adjacent to the metropolis are dependent for the distribution of their fruit upon the Western Market alone. The retailers in the Prahran Market consist mostly of Chinese and Greek vendors of an itinerant type. The grower whose residence is so contiguous to the metropolitan markets as to enable him to convey his fruits to the city and sell these direct to the consumer would, at first sight, appear to possess an advantage over his fellow-grower who resides in a more distant portion of the State, as, by such direct sales, he is enabled to eliminate the profits of the middleman. When, however, the time occupied in travelling between the orchard and the market, in the disposal of his fruits, and in the return journey, and also the cost of wear and tear to his plant, is considered, the advantage is more apparent than real. The expense of placing his fruits on the markets is almost as great to the grower adjacent to the city as it is to the grower of the outlying district. The foregoing facts tend to show that, consequent upon our cumber- some methods, the contingent expenses incurred in distributing our fruits for local sale are such as to lower the profits to the grower and raise the prices to the consumer. Whether the grower elects to convey his own fruits to the market and personally dispose of same, or whether he depends upon the wholesale merchant in the only wholesale market in the metro- politan area to dispose of these, the time and labour involved under our present methods of distribution are such as to render in some seasons both the production and consumption of fruits an unprofitable proposition. That fruit is a special product and needs special methods in connexion with its harvesting, handling, transportation and marketing has not yet been fully realized, and consideration also has not been given to the fact that our conditions are constantly changing, and that our methods of distri- bution should be altered accordingly. The following outline of the marketing facilities and methods which have recently been adopted in Sydney since the erection of new municipal fruit markets there may serve to show, by comparison, how very urgent reform in our own methods is necelssary. These markets cover a total area of i2| acres of ground, and the section reserved for the disposal of fruit occupies 2| acres. The market contains 34 stalls, of two stories, and 34 offices. The ground, or floor space, will accommodate 500 vendors, with ample room for the display and disposal of fruit. A branch fumigating chamber and cold-storage accommodation containing 30,000 feet of air space is also provided on the ground floor. The space on this II Nov., 19 1 2.] Slieep Dipping. 671 floor is equally allotted to the grower and the agent, or fruit merchant. The two classes are divided by a central roadway running through the market. The growers are placed into five districts. The fruit is distri- buted to the public and shopkeepers and about 2,500 dealers, who have districts and sell both fruit and vegetables to the public. In addition to the above-mentioned facilities, the municipality has erected, within 100 yards of the market, twenty large stores, of three stories, for the use of tlie large fruit merchant. The market is connected with the rail, and fruit may be forwarded direct to it from country districts. The method in which the fruit is distributed from the market through- out the city and suburbs is by cars and motor w-aggons. It will tiius be seen that at present the city of Sydney is much in advance of this city with regard to the disposal and marketing of fruit. If the projected scheme in connexion with the new markets,, which it is intended to shortly erect on the south side of the Yarra, is carried out as completely as proposed, Melbourne should then be well abreast of any other city in the Commonwealth with regard to the marketing and distribu- tion of fruit. {To be continued.) SHEEP DIPPING. By A. VJ . Curlewis, Inspector under SJiecp Dipping Act. As shearing time in this State is again approaching, a few words on sheep dipping may not be out of place. A large majority of the sheep-owners of Victoria, including all who have had a lengthened experience on the subject, are fully aware of the benefits which accrue from careful and systematic dipping and strongly approve of the general provisions of the Sheep Dipping Act. The small minority consists, firstly — of those who are averse to taking any progressive steps which entail trouble and expense, and to measures taken to protect others from the effect of their carelessness and lack of management ; and secondly, of those whose first experience of dipping has for .some reason been unfortunate. And to the latter a few hints may be acceptable. Various reasons may be given for the failure, or partial failure, of the operation, such as the use of inferior dipping medicaments, errors in mixing, over dilution with the false idea of economy, failure to keep the dip at the proper strength, and faulty methods of actual dipping. Owners who have not had experience in dipping sheep are advi.sed to procure a dip strongly recommended by one who has used it, to mix and use according to instructions received with it ; if a powder, roll to break all lumps and mix in a paste over night, and in the morning complete mixing with the pre.scribed quantity of water, take care to keep dip at a uniform strength, use a plunger frequently whilst the sheep are going through to prevent any powder settling at the bottom of the dip. The sheep should be yarded over night and put through as early as possible ; dipping should not be carried on in a fierce heat, and failing shelter trees being available rough shelter sheds should be provided near draining yard. When a small dip is used care should be taken to see that every sheep is thoroughly soaked, the head should be immersed a couple of times, and 672 Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [11 Nov., 1912. each sheep should be in about a minute. If it is necessary to drive the sheep away from the dip do so quietly, after allowing them to stand under shelter for a time, and avoid dusty roads until they are dry. Numerous cas.es have come under notice the last few months of sheep which were dipped after last shearing and are nevertheless carrying ticks or lice. Imperfect dipping, together with the bad time most of them have gone through consequent on the drought, has had a good deal to do with it, the frequently expressed opinion is that "poverty breeds ticks and lice"; and whilst this is not correct it is true that vermin thrive and increase best when their hosts are in low condition. On the other hand, the freedom from lice and ticks observed in num- bers of dipped sheep suffering from the effects of the bad season — recent yaraings at Yarck and Nagambie for example — is very encouraging to all advocates of dipping, and goes to prove that poverty is not the only factor to be considered. One of the reasons why dipping does not absolutely eradicate vermin is the practice, followed by some who are not aware that they are infringing the Sheep Dipping Act, of leaving the lambs unshorn and undipped when the ewes are so dealt with ; the majority of the former may be marketed before they can infest dipped sheep, but others fatten late and some are not fattened at all. These are generally shorn and dipped later, but not before they have to some extent reinfested the flock. Granted that it is undesirable to dip lambs nearly fat and intended for early marketing, those which are to be kept any time after the dipping of the flock might well be shorn and dipped with the sheep and thereby secured from grass seeds and freed from vermin ; it should not be detri- mental to their improvement or sale but the reverse, and as all sheep dipped should be immune from contagion from the early lambs up to the time the latter were sold, a great benefit should result to the flock. Opinions vary very mucH as to the length of time which should inter- vene between shearing and dipping. Some dip " off the shears," but many prefer to put it off from three to six weeks, and others go so far as to object to the period allowed by the Act, i.e., sixty days, as not long enough. Whilst it is no doubt advisable when practicable to allow three or four weeks to elapse, especially in cases of machine shorn sheep, it is, I think, a mistake to leave them undipped longer than six weeks ; and in any case, farmers' sheep should be dipped before harvesting operations are commenced. Dipping "off the shears" frequently gives excellent results; as an example, I may instance cases of sheep which are depastured in the moun- tains near Alexandra. There bemg no facilities for holding the sheep near where they were shorn, they were mustered, shorn and dipped straight away and turned out in the hills again, and when mustered and offered for sale recently were found on being handled to be absolutely free from vermin, the wool being clean and bright. When practicable, owners of, say, upwards of 200 sheep should have their own dipping baths ; it is a mistake to drive sheep far and have to 'return them over dusty roads, after being dipped. The cost of a dip suitable for small flocks is very moderate, portable iron baths are quoted at about jQ"] , and with a small additional cost may be put down and small draining yards provided. Small brick and cement or concrete and cement dips and draining yards may also be constructed at from ;^io to ;^i5, which are permanent and answer the purpose admirably : it is only a question of a little more time in putting the sheep through. II Nov.. 1912.] Shearers' Hut Accommodaiion AcL 673 The clubbing together of farmers and using a large dip between them is not altogether satisfactory, for the last to use the bath has a fouled wash and frequently has to wait his turn until late in the day ; the result is the sheep do not dry before night : this is very undesirable. In putting a flock through it is advisable for the largest sheep to go in first, the lambs and smaller ones last when the bath is shallower; broken legs are avoided in this way. Particulars of various styles of dips have already been given through these columns and directly to owners by the Department, and further de- tails may be obtained on application. Finally, 1 strongly advise sheep- owners, who have already been referred to as having had somewhat unfor- tunate experiences in the matter, to continue to dip, but to do so with care and judgment, and they need have no fear but that their trouble will be well repaid. SHEARERS' HUT ACCOMMODATION ACT. The Shearers' Hut Accommodation Act, No. 2341, came into opera- tion on 1st July, when the Hon. the Minister for Agriculture decided that it should be administered by the Live Stock Division of the Depart- ment of Agriculture, and that the inspections necessary should be under- taken by the present staff, without additional appointments being made. The first requirement was to define the districts, as ordered in Section 5 (i), and appoint inspectors thereto. This was done, and the Order in Council passed on 19th August, 191 2. The following table shows the districts defined, together with the names and addresses of the inspectors : — Name of Inspector. Address. Shires under his Control. Mathieson, John Warrnambool . . Warrnambool, Portland, Belfast, Minhamite. Hej-tesbury, Colac, Mortlake, Hampden Gresson. George Leslie Casterton Glenelg Keys, Stanley Jeffrey . . Coleraine Wannon Fisher, Albert William. . Hamilton Mount Eouse, Dundas Temple, John Mc Vicar Ararat Ararat, Ripon, Lexton, Avoca, Stawell. Wimmera. Dunmunkle, ~ Borung. Ara piles. Ko^^Tee Wilson, Thomas Melbourne La^loit, Lowan, Dimboola, Mil- dura, Karkarooc, Swan Hill, Walpeup Edwards, Charles Basil Bendigo Wycheproof. Birehip. Charlton. Gor- don. East Loddon, Korong, Kara Kara, Bet Bet, Kerang O'Keefe. Peter Bernard Rochester Rochester MeKenzie, John William Kvabram Deakin Henderson, George Bendigo Huntlv. Strathfieldsaye Close. John Bendigo Marong. Donald Ash. Ethelbert Ebenezer Castlemaine . . Maldon, ^letcalfe Marshall, John Carlyle. . Melbourne Tullaroop, Talbot, CresA^-ick, New- stead, ]\Iount Alexander, Mount Franklin, Glenlyon. K^^leton, Mclvor. Ne\\ham and Woodend, Romsey. Springfield, Gisborne, Lancefield 674 Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [ii Nov., 1912. Districts, Etc. — continued. Name of Inspector. Ross, Alexander John . . Kyle, Albert . . Kyle, John Thomas, Moses Madden, Thomas O'Bryan, Patrick Francis Morris, Edgar Gordon . . Budd, Hubert Walton Comans, Michael Gemmell, Thomas Parfitt, Henry Francis Porter, William Thomas i>- -J Thrclfall, Robert George Younger, William McDougall, Edgar Wallace Turner, Ernest James . . Sherlock, Samuel McKenzie, George McKenzie, Robert Taylor Grant, James Morton, Charles James Fleming, James O'Keefe, Dennis Francis Corney, Charles Edwin Macdougall Curlewis, Alfred William Ballarat Ballarat Geelong Winchelsea Geelong Melbourne Bacchus Marsh Melbourne Melbourne Seymour Melbourne Wangaratta Yea .. Melbourne Melbourne Melbourne Frankston Cranbourne Korumburra Leongatha Foster Alberton Berwick Baimsdale Melbourne Shires under his Control. Ballarat, Bungaree Buninyong, Grenville Meredith, Leigh, Corio, Bannock- burn Winchelsea, Barrarbool South Barwon, Bellarine Werribee, Bray brook Bacchus Marsh, Ballan, Melton Broadmeadows, Bulla. Keilor Preston, Merriang, Whittlesea. Ep- ping Seymour, Broadford, Kilmore, Pya- long Goulburn, Waranga, Euroa, Mans- field, Rodney, Shepparton, Nu- murkah, Tungamah, Violet To^vn, YarraA\onga Benalla, Oxley, North Ovens, Rutherglen, Chiltern, Wodonga, Yackandandah, Beechworth, Bright, Onieo, Towong Yea. Alexandra, Howqua Heidelberg, Eltham, Doncaster, Healesville, Templestowe Nuna\\'ading, Lilydale, Upper Yarra Mulgrave, Fern Tree Gully, Dan- denong Moorabbin, Mornington, Frankstom and Hastings, Flinders and Kaa- gerong * Cranbourne Poowong and Jeetho, Phillip Island, and Woolamai Woorayl j ^^ South Gippsland Alberton Berwick Buhl Buln, Warragul, Narracan, Morwell, Traralgon, Walhalla, Maffra, Rosedale, Avon, Orbost, Tambo, Bairnsdale, Mirboo Whole of State In order that all pastoralists may be made familiar with the opera- tions of the Act, an epitome showing the principal provisions has been drawn up for circulation throughout the State. This epitome is in the f ol 1 ow i n g form: — SHEARERS' HUT ACCOMMODATION ACT, No. 2341. Notice to Employers of Shearers. Notice is hereby given that, in accordance with the provisions of the Shearers' Hut Accommodation Act, No. 2341, if six or more shearers* are to be employed in or about a shearing shed, the employert must give to an Inspector at least three clear days' notice of intention to commence shearing — Section 12 (i). Penalty for failure to notify, £2 — Section 12 (2). Shearing sheds where five or less shearers II Nov., 191 2.] Shearers Hut Accomrtiodaiion Act. 675 are employed and those situate in cities, towns, and boroughs, are exempt — Section 3. An employer must provide sufficient accommodation for the comfort and health of shearers in buildings at least fifty yards from the shearing shed — Section 6 (i) — unless such accommodation has been provided prior to the passing of the Act, and conforms to the other requirements of the Act, which are — Section 6 (2) : — {a) Separate buildings for sleeping accommodation of Asiatics; [b) Sleeping bunks not placed one above another, and 240 cubic feet air space to each person ; [c) Sleeping-room apart from kitchen and dining-room ; if cooking and serv- ing is done in same room, then it must be at different ends thereof ; [d) Separate dining accommodation for Asiatics ; [e) Latrine not less than 25 yards from building, and 50 yards from water supply; (/) Sufficient good drinking water ; (g) Meat house or safe constructed to keep out flies ; [h] Separate compartment for stores and rations; [i] Sufficient clean straw or chaff for filling mattresses ; (7) Proper vessels for kitchen slops and refuse, and provision for disposal of same ; [k) Light and ventilation in sleeping and dining rooms ; (/) Floors of approved material ; [m] Proper cooking and washing vessels; Tent accommodation to the satisfaction of an Inspector shall be deemed sufficient — Section 14. Buildings must be kept clean by, and must not be damaged by the shearers. Where an employer is put to the expense of cleaning or repairing damage by shearers, the cost thereof, when certified to by an Inspector, may be deducted from the wages due to such shearer — Section 7 (1-5).+ Where any expense is incurred by a tenant in providing any of the requirements of the Act, such expense shall be borne by the tenant and landlord, in the absence of any agreement to the contrary, in the following proportion — Section 15 (i) : — If the tenant's interest is — (a) for less than three years, the whole shall be payable by the landlord ; (b) for three years or less than five years, three-fourths by the landlord and one-fourth by the tenant ; (c) for five years or upwards, the whole by the tenant ; provided that if the interest of a tenant be for less than five years, and he commences sheep-farming without the written consent of the landlord, the tenant shall bear the whole cost — Section 15 (2). The Governor in Council may appoint Inspectors, who shall have free entry into any shearing shed or building provided for accommodation of shearers — Section 15 (1-2) — Penalty for obstruction, ^20 — Section 5 (3). Every Inspector shall carry a certificate of his appointment, which shall be shown to an employer on demand. An Inspector may order the requirements of the Act to be complied with ; failure to carry out same renders the employer liable to prosecution ; and the penalty for not fulfilling the order of the Court entails a fine of ;i^io, and £1 for each day in default — Section 11 (1-4). By direction of the Hon. the Minister for Agriculture, W. A. N. ROBERTSON, B.V. Sc, Live Stock Division, Department of Agriculture. * " Shearer " means any person employed in work connected with shearing, but does not include regular employes or members of employers family. t " Employer " means any person owning, having control of, or superintending at any shearing shed. % The 1911 award of the Commonwealth Court of Conciliation and Arbitration provides that the employer may deduct such cost after notifying the shed representative in writing. 676 Journal :>t Agriculture , \ictoria. [11 Nov., 1912. THE RELATIVE SOLUBILITY OF THE PHOSPHORIC ACID IX ROCK PHOSPHATE AND BONE-DUST, TV. C. Robertson, Chief Deputy Chemist. The following table gives the results from an experiment recently con- ducted at the Agricultural Laboratory. The object of the test was to ascertain the availability of the phosphoric acid in rock phosphate and bone-dust respectively. A preliminary experiment was carried out by placing two perforated tin vessels containing pulverised rock phosphate and bone-dust respectively, in a garden soil and covering them to a depth of 12 inches. The soil was watered every morning and, by a launder arrangement, the drainings were separately collected in two glass vessels. After the expiration of one month, the drainage water in each vessel was tested for phosphoric acid, with the result that the drainings from the bone-dust gave a distinct affirmative reaction, whereas the test on the liquid from the rock phosphate gave an entirely negative result. In the experiment under review, the mode of procedure was as follows : — Two lots of virgin soil, each weighing 7 lbs., were placed in two earthenware jars having an outlet at the bottom. From the latter, a tube with stop cock attached, led to a glass jar con- taining in one case 100 grammes of finely ground rock phosphate, and in the other the same amount of bone-dust. The following diagram will serve to show the arrangement of the apparatus: — ■ or ' 'fi,one dust- The sod in the earthenware receptacles was kept saturated with water and the dramage conducted through the outlet tube to the glass jars and thus allowed to act upon the material contained therein. The experiment was conducted over a period of four months, but progress analyses were conducted at the end of {a) one week, {b) one month, {c) four months. The soil in the first instance was analysed for humus and available phosphoric acid and was found to contain 2.3 per cent, humus, whilst the available phosphoric acid content was infinitesimal. The soil water was of an acidity equal to .012 per cent, citric acid. II Nov., Tgi2.] (icrdiiiu)ii C iillivation jar /i-' XI ■r rr ::^ ci 0 c/"- C •" r^ ^-^x r 1 0 • 1— ( G "3 "*— ' 1^ "a; C 73 +j ■J ^ tH r; ri n 0 3 n '•^ "-H ^ .^n t« a ^_^ (-! ^ Mh 4h ^ w N ^ 0 _ ^ G ;jz! +-> rt S 'S t_ 0 0 0 =S' 0^ 13 m ^ J^ cj a 0 8 ■5 ^ c^ c« 73 ^ >.ri .C 0 t: td ^ c '-^ j:: _o' a ^' ^^ov-- 1912.] Supplementary List of Artificial Mainiroi. 683 A I— I o o >^ <; o O "^ 051 D & "". "5 ^ •/ ". !>; = = 5DOOOCDO:OwOOOOOOCOCOOOOOtOO •S£g: t^ o 10 1^ o o o c-i o t^ >-': o 10 o o o o i>- 1^ >.t L': o >n tn o T3 e aske r the r ton. -B ^ ^- 0 Oi_< o CM '^OOOOi-H-ttO-tOOOOCS050i-li0C^JOC0a0«>O(>J'*X^00 10 «^(M 10 (Mtf^O-MOOO ' - — »" ^' — -^ o vi ^ x -*< X r^ r^ CC CC CC CO c? o 00 CO i--:! ; '_- ci s-i ci X X ,-1 ^ X o X o CC CC CO o CC o CC lO ri CC r- f^'*'"'«X(Mi-*»-lOi-(Ot-lvnOiCCr-i^r-tT-HCa3i-(rH t-HClcc-iOCOOOCSOOCCOOCOi-ii-iOO ^ c r^ -^■z, 0 0 2 0 IE - 0 S5 « 0 a 0 fe ^ ; ^ 10 tn i-H (M « -+ >0 t^ t^ OS rH !-< n 10 r^ O rH t « ^2 c ] o< o. fl 6D ^ cc !z! -- 2^ c • "T ^ ■ ; ^ ^ ^ 2- c c d c c; js ?; o c c c d d fo |l^■ pq (5 ~ ,S I S ^ § S" g g £ i I c c c c =' = * § •cS-r^ ggggggggggggciScicScSScS 81 OS 0:; ,0 5S 684 Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [ii Nov., 1912. OiY WATTLES AND WATTLE-BAKK. I Alfred J. Eivart, D.Sc, Ph.D., Professor of Botany and Plant Physiology in the Melbourne University. The efforts of the Field Naturalists' Club and of the Wattle League have recently drawn considerable attention to our native wattles as plants of sufficient bt^auty to be regarded as the national Hower of Victoria or of Australia, and also as being possessed of sufficient economic value to be worthy of cultivation and to be protected from destruction when growing wild. In regard to the question of the wattle as the national tlower for Australia, several points of interest may be noted. In the tirst place, the name " wattle " is an instance of one of those misnomers, or at least words with altered meanings, which are so common in Australia. The word "wattle" is usually applied to the fleshy appendages hanging from the heads of such birds as fowls, and hence the Australian wattle bird receives its name, not from any association with the plants, but from the fleshy appendages which hang from its ears. The name wattle applied to acacias is derived from the Anglo-Saxon word " watel," meaning a hurdle, and hence came to be applied to the osier, Salix viminalis, one of the common European willows from whose flexible twigs hurdles were usually woven. The early colonists in New South Wales, using the branches of acacia for similar purposes and for stiffening the mud walls of their huts, applied to these acacias the name of wattle, which has since persisted and passed into general popular use. Strictly speaking, the name wattle should not be used as a general term for all acacias, but only to a certain limited number of species, and it would not be correct to apply it to acacias which grow outside Australia. With regard to the wattle as the Australian national flower, this is of course entirely a matter for public opinion, and in time the latter is bound to crystallize aroimd some particular plant. The wattle has much in its favour as regards beauty and fragrance as a national floral emblem. From a botanical stand-point, however, the acacias are not nearly as typically Australian as certain other genera, notably eucalyptus. Out of a total of 296 species of eucalyptus, only 25 occur elsewhere, and of these few species all are natives of districts not widely separated from Australia. On the other hand, out of a total of 767 species of acacia known to science, some 417 species are Australian, 112 species are native to Africa, and 234 species grow in other countries. Hence there would be no valid cause of objection if any other country — South Africa, for instance— were also to adopt the wattle as its national flower; and although the eucalyptus is peculiarly Australian, it now grows in such abundance in many parts of the world as to form a characteristic feature of the forest flora, and to give rise to the possibility of its being adopted as a national flower for certain of the States in North America, or for some of the smaller Principalities in Europe, not as yet provided with a national floral II Nov., 191-^.] On Wattles and Wattle-Bark. 685 emblem. As a matter of fact, botanical considerations usually play little part in the adoption of national flowers. There is. for instance, no special botanical reason why the rose should be the national flower for England, or the lily the national flower of France; while in the case of Scothmd, the national flower a botanist would have selected would probably have been the heather. In our own case, the special merit of the wattle probably lies in the fact that so many species flower at the same time, early in spring, forming a conspicuous feature in the landscape and giving the first relief from winter's floral monotony. Regarding the fears that have been expressed that the popularization of the wattle — if it needs any popularizing — and its adoption as the national flower may lead to its destruction, this is not a very serious danger. The adoption of the thistle as the national flower of Scotland has, for instance, not caused this plant to become extinct, nor have roses or lilies suffered in any way through being national flowers. Wattles in particular are easily planted and quickly grown, and are able to re-establish themselves year after year on ground where they have once grown, provided the conditions are suitable. It is probably no exaggeration to say that there are sufficient dormant wattle seeds lying in the surface soil of Victoria to cover the whole of Australia with a dense crop of wattles, if planted out and given the conditions necessary for development. The only damage done to wattles by people removing blossoms is when large branches are broken off, spoiling the symmetry of the tree and leaving a ragged injury aiding the penetration of borers or starting decay. Small, slender flowering branches may be cut or broken off without injuring the tree in the least; and, in fact, priuiing off all the flowering branches each season would increase the life of the tree and give it a more compact growth. Most wattles can, in fact, be pruned much more severely than is generally imagined without suffering or being permanentl.y injured, and in gardens a little judicious priming will often considerably improve the appearance of various acacias, particularly when indi- vidual branches show signs of disease. Wattles for Gardens and Parks. Although wattles or acacias in general are well suited for garden cultivation, they are not suitable plants for street planting, particu- larly in large towns. For the most part they are very apt to become begrimed and dingj^ in appearance in an atmosphere which is at all smoky. In addition, the duration of life is short and also irregular. The best selected and tended avenue of acacias could rarely be relied upon for more than ten years, and after that time would need continual replanting as single trees died, so that the symmetry would always be broken by a series of gaps. Apart from the attacks of the borer beetle, the acacias in general are liable to the attacks of various plant and animal parasites, which may injure the trees or may com- pletely distort its natural appearance. The natural habitat of most of our common acacias is on the fringes of forests, in open forest glades, and generally among other trees wherever a sufficient opening occurs. They do best, in fact, when given a certain amount of protection by other vegetation. This applies particularly to the 686 JoiirJial of Agriculture, Victoria. [ii Nov., 1912.. species with tender leaflets and to a somewhat lesser extent to those with large flat phyllodes. The species with prickly or needle-like leaves, on the other hand, stand exposure much better, but have no special decorative or economic value for the most part. Many of our Australian acacias are very suitable plants for cultivation in gardens and parks. A list of these was compiled by Mr. F. I'itcher, of the Botanic Gardens, and issued as a leaflet by the Wattle League. With a few slight alterations the list in question is given beneath, and though it does not entirely exhaust all the acacias which may be worthy of cultivation, it is sufficiently compre- hensive for ordinary purposes. Acacia acinacea, "Gold DiLst Acacia." Approximate height, 5-8 feet. Victoria, New South Wales, and South Australia. „ • armata, "Hedge Acacia." 10-15 feet. Western Australia, South Australia, Victoria, New South Wales, and Queensland. ,, Baileijana, "Cootamundra Wattle." 10-15 feet. New South Wales. ,, drachybotrya, "Silvery Acacia." 4-8 feet. Victoria, New South Wales, and South Australia. ,, huxifolia, "Box Acacia." 3-5 feet. New South Wales and Queensland. cardiopUyUa, "Wyalong Wattle." 8-10 feet. New South Wales. „ cultriformis, "Knife-leaved Wattle." 8-15 feet. New South Wales and Queensland. „ ci/a«op/ij/^?a, "Blue-leaved Wattle." 12-20 feet. Western Australia. dealhata, "Silver Wattle." 80-100 feet. Victoria. New South Wales, Queensland, South Australia, and Tas- mania. decurrens, "Early Black Wattle," or "Green Wattle." 10-20 feet. New South Wales, Victoria, and Queens- land. „ diffusa, "Spreading Acacia." 3-5 feet. Victoria, New South Wales, and Tasmania. discolor, "Sunshine AVattle." 10-20 feet. Victoria, New- South Wales, and Tasmania. elata, "Cedar Acacia," or "New Year Wattle." 60-80 feet. New South Wales. /(0}*(fl./o^:»/(2///o, "Yarram Acacia. " 15-40 feet. Victoria, New South Wales, Queensland, and South Australia. „ implexa, "Lightwood Acacia." 30 feet. Victoria, New South Wales, and Queensland. iteapliyUa, "South Australian Wattle." 8-12 feet. South Australia. Jonesii, "Jones Acacia." 5 feet. New South Wales „ juniperina, "Juniper Acacia." 8-10 feet. Victoria, New South AVales, Queensland, and Tasmania. „ leprosa, "Leper Acacia." 15-30 feet. Victoria and New South Wales. Xov.. TQT2.] . Oil ^Vatth's and Waffle-Bark. 68- Aracia hprosa var. donnata, "Seville Wattle." K)-20 feet. Victoria. linearis, " Narrow-leaved Acaeia." 5-8 feet. Victoria, New South Wales. Queensland, and Tasmania. lincifolia, "P'lax Acacia." 8-12 feet. Victoria. New South Wales, and Queensland. JongifoUa, "Sallow Acacia." 15-30 feet. Victoria, New South Wales, Queensland. South Australia, and Tas- mania. JongifoUa, var. forlhunda, " Marrai-us," or "' ]\Iany- flowered Acacia." 8-12 feet. Victoria and New. South Wales. JongifoUa var. Sophorae, " Coast Acacia." 3-8 feet. Vic- toria. New South Wales. Queensland. South Australia, and Tasmania. „ lunata, "Crescent Acacia." 3-5 feet. Victoria, New South Wales, and Queensland. „ Macradenia, " :\lackay (Myall) Wattle." 10-12 feet. Queensland. Maidcnii, ":\[aiden Acacia." 50 feet. New South Wales and Queensland. „ melano.rijlon, "Blackwood Acacia." 40-100 feet. Vic- toria. New South AVales, South Australia, and Tasmania. MitchelU, " Fringe Wattle." 2-6 feet. Victoria and South Australia. „ moJUssima, "Late Black Wattle." 30-100 feet. Vic- toria. New South Wales, South Australia, and Tasmania. montana, "Mountain Acacia." 4-6 feet. Victoria, New South Wales, and South Australia. myrtifoUa, "JNIyrtle Acacia." 5-8 feet. Victoria, New South Wales, Queensland, South Australia. Western Australia, and Tasmania. „ oxycedrus, "Spike Acacia." 3-10 feet. Victoria, New South Wales, South Australia, and Tasmania. „ pendula, "Weeping :\Iyall," or "Boree." 30-40 feet. New South Wales and Queensland. ,, penninervis, "Hickory Wattle." 30-40 feet. Victoria, New South Wales, Queensland, and Tasmania. ,, podalyrifoUa, "Queensland Silver Wattle." 10-15 feet. New South Wales and Queensland. ,, pravissima, "Ovens Acacia." 10-20 feet. Victoria and New South Wales. ,. prominens, " Golden-rain Acacia." 10-15 feet. New South Wales. ,. pruinosa, "Frosty Acacia." 10-15 feet. New South Wales. „ pycnantha, "Golden Wattle." 20-40 feet. Victoria, New South Wales, and South Australia. „ retinodes, "Wirilda Acacia." 10-20 feet. Victoria and South Australia. 688 Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [ii Nov., 1912. Acacia Eiceana, "Kice Wattle." 8-10 feet. Tasmania. „ salicina, "Willow Acacia." 15-25 feet. Western Aus- tralia, South Australia, Victoria, New South Wales, Queensland, and North Australia. saligna, "Western Wattle." 12-20 feet. Western Aus- tralia. „ spectabiUs, "Showy Acacia." 8-12 feet. New South Whales and Queensland. „ stricta, "Straight-leaved Acacia. 2-10 feet. Victoria,. New South Wales, and Tasmania. „ strigosa, "Hairy Acacia." 2-4 feet. Western Australia. „ suaveolens, "Sweet Acacia." 6 feet. Victoria, New South Wales, Queensland, South Australia, and Tas- mania. „ verniciflva, "Varnish Acacia." 5-10 feet. Victoria, New South Wales, South Australia, and Tasmania. „ verticillata, "Prickly Acacia." 8-15 feet. Victoria,. New South Wales, South Australia, and Tasmania. Economic Value of Acacias. Acacias have both a direct and an indirect economic value. Owing to the fact that they are plants which bear nitrogen-assimilating root tubercles, they are important agents in maintaining the nitrogenous constituents of a fertile soil, and hence making good the loss occasioned by forest fires. The hard seeds of various species of acacia are able to remain living in the soil for long periods of time. The following are a few of the longest records obtained by me for different species of acacia, whose seeds had been kept dry for the periods of time mentioned : — As-e. Gevmination Acacia acinacea . . 51 years . 4 per cent 5) alata . . . 30 " „ . 4 „ ,, aneura . 20 „ . 56 „ ,^ armata • 51 „ . 11 J? >J hossiaeoides . 57 „ 3 J? hrachyhoirya ■ 57 „ 4 J> calamifolia . . . 18 „ . 80 ?j T> dealhata . 15 „ . 65 ij J> decurrens . 17 „ . 63 ?j }i diffusa . 59 „ . 10 *? )) doratoxylo)i • 20 „ 6 57 ,, data . 30 „ . 16 J J )J Farnesiana . . . 15 „ 5 M ;> glaucescens . . . 20 „ . 46 J J ,, lanigera . 20 „ . 20 ?J J> leprosa • 51 „ . 28 5 J !> longifoUa • 52 „ . 21 J) >y longifolia . 68 „ 5 JJ !7 lunata . 48 „ . 8 J J „ melanoxylon • 51 „ . 12 3? 1 1 Nov., 1912.] On Wattles and Wattle-Bark. 689 Ag ( iLTiniiiation. . 10 years . 6 per fent . . 58 2 . . 55 . 5 . . 17 4 . . 80 . 4 .. 10 . 50 ,, . . 67 3 . . 30 < >) . . 51 0 )) . . 81 . 15 . . 51 4 . . 41 . 4 Acacia Merralli „ montana „ vujrtifolia „ neriifolia ,, nervosa „ Oswaldi ,, pcnninervis „ pentadenia ., Senegal ;, Simsii . ., suaveolens verniciflua In each sample of air-dried seeds it is the hard seeds whicli last longest, and in the soil it is only these hard, non-swelling seeds which •can last for any length of time. In my paper on the "Longevity of Seeds," I have used the term "macrobiotic" to denote seeds of this ■character which are specially adapted for dispersal in time rather than in space.* To some extent these macrobiotic seeds are adaptations to l)iish fires, which were probably of common occurrence long before the advent of civilized or even uncivilized man, and must have been far more frequent than at present when the lava was flowing from the volcanoes J. Spotswood 577 141 718 4 31 >> Geo. Edwards 590 126 716 5 47 )> J. E. Bradley 583 124 707 6 20 ,. E. Waldon 562 134 696 7 7U iy V. 3. Bealty 559 115 674 1 a 4t) Black Ori)iiigtous . . H. A. Langdon 549 125 674 ) ^ 62 White Leghorus . . R. W. Pope 529 142 671 10 1 ■ 1 J. Campbell 541 128 669 11 3 Black Orpingtons . . Iving and Watson 547 121 668 12 37 Wliite Leghorns . . C. B. BerteLsmeier . . 519 138 657 13 40 ,> Wooldridge Bros. 512 135 647 14 24 .) Sargenfri I'oultry Vards 514 131 645 15 48 .. Grittin Cant 519 123 642 16 25 )> R. L. Applelord 504 133 637 ) " 14 .. J. U. Wright 501 136 637 29 ») J. B. Brigden 502 127 629 19 13 )) W. B. CreUin 489 132 621 \ 38 »j R. Moy 501 120 621 \ 20 39 11 ■ • W. G. Swift 489 132 621 J 61 Black Orpingtons . . Jas. Ogden 494 126 620 23 2 White Legliorns B. Rowhnson 496 121 617 24 6 »» J. B. MoArtluir 486 127 613 25 44 >) A. W. Hall 484 126 610 26 60 >j ■ ■ A. Ahpee . . 477 129 606 ) " 49 ,1 W. Purvis 482 124 606 8 Black Orpingtons . . D. Fisher . . 514 84 598 1 29 15 White Leghorns . . Mrs. Steer 469 129 598 30 j> Mrs. Stevenson 483 111 594 31 33 it II. McKenzie 449 137 586 32 7 ,, A. H. Pad man 447 138 585 33 63 >) Percv Walker 462 114 576 34 53 „ H. Hodges .. 442 130 572 35 19 >. ■ • Cowan Bros. 4.50 119 569 36 35 »» C. H. Biisst 439 129 568 37 5 jj J. il. Brain 430 131 561 38 42 If Mrs. Kempster 431 125 556 39 56 „ ■ ■ -M. A. Monk 437 112 549 40 10 K.C. Brown Leg- horns S. P. Giles 413 126 539 41 51 White Leghorns . . H. HammiU 411 125 536 42 64 )» ■ ■ H. Merrick 412 117 529 43 54 >> F. 11. DeGaris 387 132 519 44 60 i» ■ ■ Miss B. E. Ryan 398 119 517 45 65 11 A. H. Thomson 382 128 510 46 16 Silver Wyandottes R. Jobling 382 124 506 ) " 69 White Leghorns . . Morgan and Watson . . 368 138 506 43 ,, G. Purton . . 386 117 503 49 32 11 S. Bruudrett 365 134 499 50 11 Black Orpingtons . . T. S. Goodisson 365 133 498 51 27 White Leglioms . . E. Xash . . 360 123 483 52 4 »j • • J. Blackburne 358 116 474 1 53 57 j» B. Walker 366 108 474 58 » W. J. Stock 356 117 473 55 41 „ A. Stringer 340 131 471 56 12 ,, T. H. Stafford 337 132 469 57 52 Black Minorcas Chalmers Bros. 356 97 453 58 55 Brown Leghorns . . J . Jlathieson 329 120 449 59 68 White Leghorns . . W. J. MoKeddie 307 118 425 60 66 )) . . J. Moloney 299 125 424 61 21 »» J. O'Loughliu 295 117 412 62 18 „ B. Mitchell 307 103 410 63 22 „ W. N. Ling 277 125 402 64 67 Anconas . . A. E. Manning 268 121 389 65 36 Old English Game K. J. Barrett 256 116 372 66 59 White Leghorns . . W. J. Seabridge 259 102 361 67 34 ,, R. F. B. Moore 226 118 344 68 17 »» S. Childs . . 197 143 340 69 26 (Reserved) Tntnis . . 30 ni i? 8.603 38.fi?l Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [ii Nov., 1912. WHEAT AND ITS CULTIVATION. {('oiifi)ti(cd from page 552.) Xo. 8.— IMANURIAL PROBLEI\IS— ro/ffnn/ff/. A. E. y. Richardson, M.A., B.Sc, Agricultural Superintcndoit. In the September issue consideration was given to the factors involved in Soil Fertility, and to the position of Nitrogen in Victorian agricnltnre. It was shown that soils of the wheat areas of Victoria differed very widely from those of Enrope, in regard to available nitrogen supplies, owing principally to the exceptional rate at which nitrification proceeds under the conditions which obtain in our wheat areas. It is now necessary to consider the requirements of the wheat areas with respect to phosphoric acid and potash. T*HOSPIIATIC ^IanTRES. Importance. — Phosphatic manures are of the greatest practical importance to the cereal farmer. One striking peculiarity in Australian soils, as compared with these of Europe, is the uniformly low phos- phatic content. We need not here enter into a speculative discussion as to the prob- able causes of this deficiency. It is sufficient to note that practical experience and experimental work throughout the wheat belt of Aus- tralia has conclusively demonstrated the value and necessity of phosi^hates in cereal culture. In many of the wheat areas the use of soluble phosphates is absolutely essential to secure a crop. The import- ance of soluble phosphates in Australian cereal culture is strikingly demonstrated by the Commonwealth Statistics for 1911-12. The following table, taken from the Year-Book for 1911-12, indicates the amount of artificial manure (nearly wholly phosphates') used in the four wheat-growing States of the Commonwealth, and the percentage of the manured area to the total area : — ■ state. Artiticial Manures used. Total Area under Crop. Area manured. Percentage of Crop manured. New South Wales Victoria South Australia Western Australia Tons. 25,017 86,316 81,899 33,194 Acres. 3,386,017 3,952,070 2,746,334 855,024 Acres. 1.030,554 2,714,854 2,235.578 773,561 Per cent. 30-43 68-69 81-40 90-47 Sources of Phosphatic Fertilizers. — The most important sources of phosphorus are the minerals apatite and phosphorite, the various deposits of phosphatic guanos, and the widely distributed natural rock phosphates. The inorganic portion of bones contains a large percentage of phosphates of lime, which is the principal fertilizing constituent of bone manures. Another source of phosphates is the phosphatic slag obtained in the Bessemer process for making steel from iron ores rich in phosphorus. Nov.. 191:^.] Wheat and its Cultivation. 69: From the mineral phosphates and l)oii('s, such mannfac- tiired phosphatic fer- tilizers as super- phosphate, dissolved bones, concentrated superphosphate. are obtained. , Phosphates of Lime. — The calcium com- pounds are by far the most important of the compounds of phos- phoric acid, and a knowledge of these is of practical impor- tance to the farmer. Phosphoric acid (P.2O., WH.A)) forms with lime three dis- tinct compounds, namely, tricalcic, di- calcic, and monocalcic phosphate. In these three com- pounds, one part ot phosphoric acid com- bines with three, two, and one part of lime respectively. The de- gree of solubility of these compounds varies considerably. Thus, the tricalcic form (3Ca, < )!%<),) containing one part of phosphoric acid combined with three parts of lime, is in- soluble in water, in weak organic acids, and is oidy soluble in mineral acfds. such as sulphuric acid. It is the form found in bones and in rock phosphate and guano. It corresponds to the insoluble phosphate on the manure guarantee tags. 696 Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [11 Nov., 191 2. Dicaleic phosphate (2('a(), H-iO, P2O5) is insoluble in water, but soluble in wealc organic acids and in citrate of ammonia. It is the form in which the phosphate is found in "reverted" superphosphate. Monocalcie phosphate (CaO, 2H-2( >, P2O;,). so named because one unit of phosphoric acid is combined with one unit of lime, is freely soluble in water, and is of innnediate value as plant food. It is the form found in superphosphate, dissolved bones, &c., and corresponds to the "water soluble phosphate" of the manure guarantees. The following table summarizes these facts : — 1. Tricalcic phos-~» phate (iiisol- I" uble phosphate ' 2. Dicalcic phos- phate verted phate,' ly phosphate ") 3. Monocalcie ^ phosphate | (water soluble j phosphate) J Re-/ phos- V ' slow- / soluble \ Composition. Lime "I Phosphoric Lime c acid Lime -> Phosphoric Lime J acid WaterJ Lime \ Phosphoric Water \ acid Water > Formula. 3Ca0 PaO- or Ca., (POj^j 2CaO HjjO P}0- or CajH^PjOs Ca0 2HsO PjO, or CaHiP,0. Insoluble in water and citrate of ammonia Insoluble in water ; soluble in citrate of ammonia Soluble in water . . Bones, guano, mineral phos- phate Reverted super. Superphosphate, dissolved bones Note. — in addition, there is a fourth form of phosphate called tetracalcic phosphate, which has the composition — 4CaO P.^O- — which is found in basic slag or Thomas' phosphate. The precise composition of Thomas' phosphate is not known, but it is possible that the phosphoric acid is present in the form of a double silicate and phosphate of lime, while smaller amounts are present as tetracalcic phosphate. Superphosphate. This is deservedly the most popular and profitable artificial manure used in the wheat areas of Australia at the present time. There are very few soils in the wheat areas proper which will not favorably and profitably respond to applications of super., and in dry seasons many soils fail altogether to produce a crop without soluble phosphates. In 1840, Liebig, the great German chemist, suggested that insoluble tricalcic phosphate — the form in which phosphoric acid exists in bones and rock phosphates — could be changed into the soluble monocalcie phosphate by treatment with sulphuric acid. The product obtained as a result of this action is superphosphate. The change which takes place may be simply represented thus. When the sulphuric acid acts on the tricalcic phosphate, two parts of lime are abstracted from the latter compound and two parts of water substituted. A mixture of monocalcie phosphate and gypsum is, there- fore, formed, which constitutes the superphosphate of commerce. The action may be represented thus — • 3CaO.P,0, + iMH.O SO3) = CaO •2H,0 P.,0, -+- 2CaS04 (Tricalcic (Surphuric (Monocalcie (Gj'psum) phcspliate) acid) phosphate) Superphosphate. "Reversion" op Superphosphate. The rapidity of the action of superphosphate is due to its great solubility. But under certain circumstances the soluble phosphate in II \ov.. 191 Wlicat and it 6 Cultivation. 69: super. undergoes change and becomes converted into less soluble forms. This change in the solu- bility is known as " reversion." Such reversion, whatever may be its cause, obviously depreciates the value of the manure. This reversion may be considerable in manures made from raw phosphate con- taining large per- centages of iron and alumina compounds. For this reason, manufacturers gene- rally refrain from using natural phos- phates containing much iron and alu- mina. A slight amount of reversion may take place when super, is kept for any length of time. This is due to the fact that manufacturers usually iLse less sul- phuric acid than is actually required to change the whole of the triealcic phos- phate to soluble phos- phate, in order to avoid the presence of free acid in the manure. Hence, the undissolved triealcic phosphate reacts with the soluble and forms reverted phosphate. When applied to the soil, however, the process of reversion goes on at a Avhole- :sale rate, due to 698 . J oiiriial of Agriculture, Victoria. [11 Xov., 1912. the action of lime, alumina, and iron compounds in the soil. If this is so, one might naturally ask why superphosphate is so superior to other forms of phosphate, if it begins to revert to more insoluble forms immediately it is applied to the soil; and, why should the manufacturer go to the trouble of converting it into water soluble phosphate? The reason for the efficacy of the super, may probably be accounted for by the fact that when it is applied to the soil, the soluble phosphate is dissolved by the soil water or by the rains, and it immediately becomes thoroughly and intimately diffused through the soil before the process of reversion actually takes place. Moreover, in the form of a solution, the particles of monocalcic phosphate are in the finest state of sub- division possible — in a far more finely divided state than could ever be obtained by any process of grinding. It is owing to the infinitely minute state of subdivision of the soluble phosphate and its intimate mixture with the soil particles that its action is more rapid than the other phosphates. Hate of Application of Superphosphate . — Opinions differ very widely as to the most suitable quantity of manure to use per acre for a wheat crop. Many farmers apply as little as 30 to 40 lbs. per acre, and consider the dressing quite sufficient ; whilst there are many who use relatively heavy dressings, namely, 1 to 2 cwt. per acre. The rate of cipplicatiun will naturally vary with the soil and rainfall. In regions of light rainfall the dressings are generally reduced to a minimum, whilst in moister districts much larger quantities can be used with profit. In the drier districts heavy dressings may not infre- quently lead to rank and vigorous growth, and in seasons of short rainfall transpiration from leaf and stem goes on so rapidly that the available moisture supplies give out with disastrous results to the crop. Obviously, such a contingency is less likely to happen with crops sown on well-prepared fallows. In considering the most profitable amount to apply, it must be remembered that conditions are such in the wheat areas that the farmer derives a considerable portion of his income from sheep. Consequently, in determining the most profitable dressing to apply, it becomes necessary to consider the indirect effect of the manure on the pasture as well as its mere direct effect upon the crop. Now, it is a well established fact that relatively heavy dressiugs of superphosphate produce in Australian wheat soils a remarkalile effect on the pastures. A marked stimulation of the leguminous growth on the stubble and pasture succeeding tlie wheat crop invariably results from heavy dressings of soluble phosphates, and the stock carrying capacity of the pasture is greatly increased. Increased stock carrying capacity is quite as important to the cereal farmer as the direct effect of the manure on his crop, for, on the avei'age wheat farm, the returns from sheep, wool, and lambs do not fall far short of those from wiieat. This being the case, it would appear that, if the indirect effect on the pastures is taken into consideration, it is probable that, in moister districts at least, relatively heavy dressings will be far more profitable than light dressings. Just what quantities may be most profitably applied in any given district can, of course, only be determined by actual trial. In such trials, however, we should look further ahead than the mere results on the season's crop. Nov. W/fcaf and its CuU'ivation. 699 The residual value of various applications should be carefully mea- sured by their effect on the resultant stubble and pasture. Unfortunately, the residu.d value of various heavy and light dressings of super, on the sheep carrying capa- city of the pasture has not been the subject of systematic and continued experiment in this State, and there is no local data as a guide. In any case it is well to remember that, even if the value of the extra yield obtained from heavy dressings merely covers the increased cost of the manure, it will pay to use the heavy dressing, because the soil is being enriched in phosphoric acid without extra cost. It may be thought that, if more soluble phosphates are applied than are really necessary for a wheat crop, the excess is lost for succeed- ing crops. Such, how- ever, is not the case. Phosphates, unlike ni- trates, are not generally found in the drainage waters. They become fixed in the soil shortly after their application. As explained above, soluble phosphates, when applied to the soil, be- come dissolved and inti- mately mixed with the soil particles, and then rapidly imdergo conver- sion into less soluble forms. In tliis manner Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [ii Nov., 1912. they are fixed in the soil and prevented from becoming lost. This is borne out by the investigations of Dyer in the permanent plots of the- Rothamsted experimental station. Dyer's results show that practi- cally no loss of phosphoric acid has taken place on the plot heavily- manured with super, for over fifty years. It is often asked whether the continual use of superphosphate will impoverish or exhaust the soil. Real soil exhaustion, of course, can never take place. Bad farming practices, however, may reduce the fertility of the soil to such a low level as to render cropping operations unprofitable. For practical purposes we say that such a soil is ' ' worn out " or " exhausted. ' ' Now, the repeated use of superphosphate will not bring about any such soil exhaustion, if the farm operations are intelligently conducted. The continued use of phosphates will merely bring about a state of things in which further applications of phosphate will no longer prove profitable. The soil will not, however, be exhausted. It will merely contain an excess of phosphates, and it may then be necessary to apply other manures such as nitrates in order to maintain production at a high level. In soils deficient in lime, the continual application of heavy dressings of superphosphate may cause the soil to become acid or sour in character, thus impairing vegetation. In such cases, however, this acidity may be corrected by suitable applications of lime {vide Journal of Agriculture, Victoria, October, 1912). Time and Mode of Application. — In the majority of seasons the best results are obtained with superphosphate when the seed and manure are drilled in together in the normal seeding season. Many farmers frequently sow the manure some weeks before seeding,, either by means of a cultivator with a drill attachment or with the- ordinary fertilizer drill. The cost of cultivation is slightly increased by sowing the seed and manure in two operations, but a compensating advantage is perhaps gained at seed time by the expediting of seeding operations. This is sometimes a matter of importance, especially where the seeding is likely to be delayed by want of strength, or by not having the land properly prepared. The advantage of sowing seed and manure together is that the young plants very readily find the manure and make vigorous growth early in the season. They thus become well established and develop a good root system before the winter sets in — a point of great importance in relatively dry districts. If the autumn has been unfavorable to the- destruction of weeds, the sowing of seed and manure gives the young crop a decided start, and materially assists it in overcoming the weeds. Basic Slag. This is obtained as a by-product in the manufacture of steel from iron ores rich in phosphorus. It is sold as a fine, heavy black powder. It is a very popular manure in Europe, both for wheat crops and for the improvement of pastures. It contains from 15 to- 18 per cent, of phosphoric acid, and about 40 per cent, of lime. In the wheat areas it is used at present only in relatively small quantities, and experience proves that, though a valuable manure, it Nov.. 1912.] W/ieaf and its CuUivalion. is less effective than an equivalent amount of phosphoric acid in the form of super])hosphate. The probable explanation of the sui)eriority of superphosphate has already been indicated. It is not likely to dis- place superphosphate in the wheat areas, especially in districts where- the soil has a high lime content. On sour peaty land, however, it will be found a most useful and valuable manure. The application of super- phosphate alone to these latter soils would only aggravate their acidit}'. Basic slag, however, by reason of the lime it contains, tends to correct the acid conditions, and thus acts as a soil amendment as well as a phosphatic manure. Basic slag is extremely valuable in the top- dressing of impoverished pastures. The results of a large number of pasture experiments in Europe indicate that Thomas' phosphate does not always give a greater weight of herbage than super. The grazing- value of the herbage, however, manured with Thomas' phosphate proved superior to that of super. A greater increase in live weight of sheep has been secured from the pastures manured with Thomas' phosphate CLOSER VIEW OE NO. 3. SHOWING PEAS EOR EEEDIXG OFF. than those treated with super. The rate of application to wheat land.s is similar to that of superphosphate. BONEOrST. Bone consists of an organic and an inorganic portion. The organic portion comprises about 40 per cent, of the raw bone, and consists of (o) ossein or bone cartilage, which is very rich in nitrogen; and (&) fat. The inorganic portion, comprising about 60 per cent, of the raw bone, consists principally of tricalcic phosphate (phosphate of lime). Hence, the fertilizing principal constituents of raw bones are organic nitrogen and phosphate of lime. The presence of fat is, however, highly objectionable, for. in addi- tion to being useless as plant food, it prevents the bones from being finely ground, and also protects the fertilizing ingredients from being 702 Journal of AgricuUurc , Victoria. [[i Nov., 1912. made available. Ilenee, in the preparation of bonedast, the fat is first removed from the bones by steaming or by treatment with benzine, and the treated bone ground to fine. meal. The value of a bonedust will depend on its composition and its fineness of subdivision. The purchaser should always insist on a guaranteed analysis for b(medust. for there is no fertilizer on the market so liabh^ to vary in composition like the so-called bone fertilizers. The phosphoric acid in bonedust is in a most insoluble condition. It is only very slowly made available in the soil, and therefore it has a very limited use in most of the wheat areas. It gives best results on soils rich in organic matter, for with these there is a possibility of the insoluble phosphate being slowly made available. On limestone soils in the drier districts, however, it has been proved of little value, because it takes so long for the tricalcie phosphate to be rendered available. Other sources of phosphoric acid are the phosphatic guanos and raw ground i)iiosphate rock. In both these substances the phosphoric acid is insoluble, and they are of very little value in the majority of our Avheat areas. Potash Manures. ~ Potassic manures do not figure very largely in Australian manu- rial practice. ^lost of the strong soils characteristic of the wheat areas are well suj)plied with potash, and further supplies in the form of artificial manures are generally unnecessary. There are some soils, however, on which potash may possibly be of considerable benefit. These are the light, sandy loams, and possibly heavy, j)eaty soils. Dressings of potash are fre([uently necessary to secure a full crop from these soils, more especially with root crops such as potatoes, onions, beets, &e. On the clay loams and stiff clay soils of the wheat areas, the application of potassic manures is generally unnecessary and unprofit- able. This may be gathered from the results of many field experiments conducted by the Department some ten years ago. The addition of potassic manures to phosphates did not materially increase the yield. In fact, in many cases the effect of the application was to depress the yield, and resulted in actual loss. The principal potassic manures are Sulphate and JMuriate of potash and kainite. These are obtained from the Stassfurt potash mines which form the principal source of the world's potash. Sulphate of potash contains from 50 to 52 per cent, of potash, and costs from £13 to £14 per ton. Muriate of potash contains an equivalent of 60-62 per cent, of potash, and is quoted from £14 to £14 10s. per ton. Kainite is (me of the crude potash minerals of the Stassfurt mines. Its composition varies considerably, but it generally contains from 12-13 per cent, of potash, most of which is in the form of sulphate, whilst a lesser quantity is present as chloride. It is quoted at £5 per ton. Potash is required in, fairly large c^uantities by leguminous plants, such as clover and lucerne, but the drain on the soil reserves of potash II Nov., 1 91 2.] Wheat and its Cultivation. by wiu^at ri'ops is very siiiall iiidt-pd. It is not likely to he of vahic in the wheat areas, except in the ease of certain sandy soils deficient in this ingredient. With legnininous crops the most economical method of supplying potash will prol)ably be the application of compounds, such as lime and gypsum, which will lil)erate the insoluble potash com- pounds and render tliem available. This matter, however, was dis- ctissed in tlu' Sc])teniber issue of the Jounial. General ^Manures. These supply all the elements required l)y plants for their perfect development. The most important manures of this section are Stable and Green manures. Stable Manure is one of the most valuable manures that can be applied to any soil to increase its fertility. In the older agricultural countries of the world the greatest care is taken in the preservation of ,*N^i?^^^ FEEDING Off TESTS I9I2BARLEY SHEEP 1913 1914 1915 5. FEEDINi iF BARLEY PLOT WITH SHEEP. all the nianurial resources of the farm. Under the conditions which obtain in the wheat areas of Australia at the. present time, farmyard manure is practically neglected, and regarded as of minor importance. The average wheat holding at the present time is so large, and the amount of stable manure produced in a year so small, that the effect of the stable manure on the fertility of the farm will, for all practical purposes, be inappreciable. This state of affairs will not. however, con- tinue indefinitely. With the rapidly increasing population, and the inevitable increase in land values ahead of us. individual holdings must gradually become much smaller in size, and the system of farming more diversified. Live stock will become more and more prominent, and ultimately the amount of farmyard manure produced on the farm will be sufficient to have a distinct effect on the fertility of the farm. On the dairy farm, however, as contrasted with the wheat farm, farmyard manure is of great importance. The majority of such farms are situ- ated in the moister districts, where systematic rotation is possible. ^04 J oiir?iaL of Agriculture, Yictona. [i i Nov., 1912. Moreover, tlie average dairy liolding is considerably smaller than the average wheat farm, and the number of live stock per unit of area considerably larger. Farmyard manure, therefore, becomes an item of considerable economic importance. It is of even greater importance to the small irrigation farm or orchard. The composition of stable manure varies very considerably, as might be expected. The nature of the food eaten, kind of bedding used, the amount and nature of the fermentation, all have important bearing on the composition. Generally speaking, a good sample will contain about .6 per cent, of nitrogen, .35 per cent, of phosphoric acid, and .6 per €ent. of potash, i.e., about 13 lbs. of nitrogen, 7 lbs of phosphoric acid, and 13 lbs. of potash. The most important principle to be observed in the care of stable manure is to prevent any loss of plant food constituents. No difficulty arises with regard to phosphoric acid and potash compounds, but it is almost impossible to prevent losses in nitrogen and organic matter. The loss of nitrogenous organic matter may be avoided by the use of good absorbents for bedding purposes, and of substances, such as gypsum, which assist in fixing ammonia compomids and preventing loss by volatilization. Losses may also be reduced to a minimum by (a) Controlling the fermentation of the manure, and (6) By prevention of leaching. If a plentiful supply of air is admitted to the manure heap, fermenta- tion and nitrification proceed very rapidly, and the temperature quickly rises. Under these circumstances, a great deal of the organic nitrogen escapes as ammonia in its compoimds, or even as free nitrogen. The fermentation may be controlled by keeping the manure heap well compacted, and keeping it moist. Losses by leaching may be avoided by building the manure heap <)n a raised cemented floor, with sloping sides. The liquid manure drains towards the side of the floor and collects in a pit, and is periodic- ally pumped over the manure heap. This system of conserving manure is already practised on several large wheat farms. Green Manuring. — The object of green manuring is to increase the organic content of the soil, which we have already seen is a dominating factor in soil fertility. There can be doubt that many of the soils in the wheat-growing areas, which have been under cultivation for a comparatively long period, have lost a considerable amount of the organic matter they formerly contained. This loss has been accentu- ated by the practice of bare-fallowing, and by stubble-burning. The restoration of this organic matter is a problem of fundamental im- portance to the wheat areas. Modes of restoration of this organic matter that are practicable in the wheat-growing areas have already been discussed. {Jour. Agric, Victoria, 1912, p. 460.) The turning in of green crops is one of the most rapid methods of increasing the organic reserves in the soil. Whether this practice may be profitably worked in with the ordinary rotations in the wheat areas has not hitherto been the subject of experimental investigation. The crops to be used for this purpose may be nitrogen gatherers, such as peas, IT \ov.. iQiJ.l Wheat audits Cultivation. 705 vetches, and other leguminous crops, or nitrogen consumers, such as rye, rape, mustard, &c. The former crops restore to the soil all the organic matter secured from the carbon dioxide of the air during the course of their growth, but they also secure, for the use of the succeeding crop, a large quan- tity of combined nitrogen from the atmosphere. Thus they enrich the soil in organic matter and in nitrogen. On the other hand, crops like rye, rape, mustard. &c., produce large quantities of organic matter, but they cannot make use of the free nitrogen in the air in the same manner as leguminous crops. In the M'hcat areas, however, at the present time, the most important require- ment is organic matter. The increase of the nitrogen reserves is at present a secondary consideration. The important point to bear in mind is that crops which produce a maximum weight of green stuff that can be turned under in early spring, before the soil becomes too hard and dry to plough, should be grown rather than crops which give a relatively small yield of green stuff of high quality. Such crops re- quire for our conditions to be sown early in autumn, so that they may be ready by August or September. The immediate effect of these green manures is to greatly increase the water-holding capacity of the soil — a point of fundamental im- portance in arid agriculture — and to improve its mechanical condition. Feeding Down of Forage Crops. The system of feeding down of crops, specially grown for ii\'estock. provides a means for increasing the organic content of the soil. As the feeding value of a green crop is usually greater than its manurial value, the practice of raising green crops and converting them into mutton, beef, or milk, instead of ploughing them under, will be pre- ferred to the practice of green manuring. For this purpose rape,, mustard, peas, rye, vetches, &c., will be found extremely useful. Summer crops such as sorghum, millet, and maize, cannot be recom- mended in the drier wheat districts under ordinary farming conditions, as the yield of the succeeding wheat crop is invariably lowered, especially if the rainfall is short. Winter growing forages are most suitable for the wheat areas, and if these are sown early in autumn so as to germinate with the first rains they make a large amount of growth while the soil is still warm, and make invaluable winter forage for stock. NOTES ON THE USE OF ARTIFICIAL MANURES. Always Buy on Guarantee Analyses. — In purchasing artificial manures farmers should always study closely the guaranteed analyses of each manure. In the January number of the Journal of Agriculture each year the Chemist for Agriculture publishes a statement of all manures, registered under the Artificial ^lanures Act, together with their guaranteed percentages of the fertilizing ingredients present, and the unit values of nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash. These tables should be closely scrutinized by each farmer. The unit values will enable him to calculate the commercial value of any artificial manure selling: on the market. 7o6 Journal of AgriciiUure , Victoria. [ii Nov., 1912. Mixing of Manures. Care needs to be exercised in the mixing of manures. Fertilizers cannot be mixed indiscriminately without risk of loss, or of lowering the value of some of the plant food constituents. With regard to nitrogenous manures, sulphate of ammonia, nitro- genous guanos, animal and blood manures, should not be mixed with substances of a strongly alkaline character. Quicklime, slacked lime, wood ashes. Thomas' phosphate, or basig slag' should, under no circumstances, be mixed with these manures, since considerable loss of annnonia will result. "With regard to nitrate nitrogen, loss is liable to occur with nitrate of soda if nnich free sulphuric acid is present in superphosphates; especially if the manures are mixed some time before application, and are kept in a warm place. Provided, however, the super is well made and drv. and the mixing is performed at the time of sowing, very little loss will occur. "tKtM^^^t i- FEEDING OFF TESTS ,^'|||f*fE SHEEP -1914 ! -'ISIS V-Vt'-'>^^- 6. FEEDING OFF OF RAPE PLOT WITH SHEEP. With regard to phosphatic manures, reversion will take place with soluble phosphates when placed in contact with lime, iron, or alumina compounds. This has already been referred to in dealing with the re- version of superphosphate. In purchasing mixed manures attention should be paid to the guaranteed analyses. The farmer should study particularly the guarantee for nitrogen and see whether it is in the form of nitrate, ammonia, blood. &c., also the percentage of water soluble, citrate soluble, and insoluble phosphate should receive close attention. Frequently the prices asked for certain mixed manures is out of all proportion to their real commercial value, and in such cases the mixing can be most profitably done by purchasing fertilizers separately, and mixing them on the farm. A study of the unit values published each year in the Journal will enable each pur- chaser to determine for himself whether the prices asked for a given mixed manure is reasonable. II Nov.. 1912.] W//caf and its Cultivatioji. Mamiriiifi not a Suhstifiifr for TUJaiio. It imisl not l)c jissuuu'd tliJit tlie Mpplicjitioii of arlificinl iiuiiiiifcs will relieve the fai'iner of the respoiisibilil y of thoronjih cultivation. There are some who appear to think that heavily manured crops do not require the same amount of tillage as unfertilized crops. As a matter of fact, heavy dressings of mannre cannot be used at a full pro- fit without thorough preparatory tillage. Thorough tillage always was^ and always will be, a prime factor for the ])roduction of heavy crops. Jethro Tull doubtless placed an exaggerated value on tillage operations when he stated, more than a century ago. that manures were absolutely unnecessary if tillage operations were thoroughly performed, and that thorough tillage was the best substitute for manure. We. in the twentieth century, should remember that while fertilizers are essential on many soils for the production of profital)le crops, they do not give 7. GREEN AJANURIAL TESTS, KUTHERGLEX EXPERIMENTAL FARM. their full measure of benefit unless the soil receives a tliorough pre- paratory cultivation . How TO Determine Soil Deficiencies. The most satisfactory and practical method of finding out the requirements of the soil is by systematic experimental work. Th(^ most important i)oints requiring investigation with respect to mauurial practice is to determine in each of the more important divisions of the State the value of the various phosphatie, nitrogenous, and ))otassic manures singly and in various combinations, the value of lime when applied in different forms, the cumulative as well as the immediate efl:'ect of each application, and the most economical method of restoring the organic matter. Permanent experimental plots have been laid down at the Rutherglen Experimental Farm with the object of securing exact information on these points. The results will be made available from time to time. {To he confiniK d.) 7o8 Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [i I Xov. , 1912. Perishable and Frozen Produce. Exports from State Deliveries from Produce. (Oversea). Government Cool Stores. Description of Quarter ended Quarter ended Quarter ended Quarter ended 30.9.12. 30.9.11. 30.9.12. 30.9.11. Butter lbs. 1,397,160 4,823,228 1,564,976 5,148,752 Milk and Cream cases 559 360 90 20 Milk and Cream (dried) // 650 60 Cheese lbs. 12,480 11,520 14,210 Ham and Bacon n 13,200 28,560 Poultry head 10,875 10,065 2,987 2,658 »ggs . . . dozen 2,232 4,.375 Mutton and Lamb carcases 11,077 162,844 19,789 Beef ... quarters 2,699 2,600 53 Veal carcases 80 743 83 53 Pork // 1,009 289 1,476 Rabbits and Hares pairs 676,176 909,390 320,184 198,545 Sundries lbs. 72,803 14.010 R. CROWE, S^qnrintendent oj Mxporln. Fruit, Plants, Bulbs, Grain, &c. Imports and Exports Inspected for Quarter ending 30th 8eptenil)er, 1912. Goods Imports. Exports. 1 mports. Exports. Inter- State. Oversea. Oversea. Inter- State. Oversea. Oversea. Apples . 18,514 259 Maize 1,715 2 Apples (Custird) ... 1 — — Millet ... 76 _ 101 Bananas, bunches... 41,749 20,556 — Nutmegs 205 — Bananas, cases 4,371 17,622 — Nuts 156 2,152 Barley ... 6,952 19,971 — Oats 1,437 73,566 Beans 1 419 26 1 )at Hulls 887 Bulbs ... 2 17 6 Onions ... 1,200 Chillies ... — 446 — Oranges ... 138,483 — 1,207 Cocoa beans — 1,264 — Passion ... 5,449 8 Cocoanuts 37 755 _ Paw Paws 37 Ooffee beans — 2,448 - Pears 20 Copra — 260 Peas, dried 3,4,34 94 1 Cucumbers 441 — — Pepper ... 318 Figs — 8 — Pineapples 17,455 301 Fruit- Plants, Trees, &c. 547 221 406 Canned — — 2,903 Potatoes 774 196 329 Dried ■— 89 7,425 Rice 7,983 9,003 — Mixed — 10 — Seeds 1,636 6,174 159 Granadillas 7 — — Spice 89 Creen Ginger — 70 — Strawberries 21 __ Hops — 464 ! Tomatoes 2,579 Jams, Sauces, &c — — 1,178 Turnips ... 5,350 21 Lemons 3,500 — 2,880 Vegetables 346 476 20 Lentils ... — 82 Wheat, Grain, &c. 2 210 Linseed — 1,255 Yams 19 Locjuats ... 406 _ Logs 173 Miice 34 • — Totals i 264,560 159,097 17,209 Total number of packages inspected for quarter ending 30tli September, 1912 = 441,466. C. T. COLE, pro. Senior Fruit Inspector. II Nov., 191 2.] Orchard and Garden Notes. 709 ORUllARD AND GARDEN NOTES. E. E. Pcscott, Principal, School of llorticultnre, Burnley. The Orchard. Spr.vying. The spray pump should now be in thorough working or(hn', so tluit ihe various spring sprayings may be carried out witli as litth^ interrup- tion as possible. It is always wise to clean out the pump after each ■spraying, so that it will be ready for the next mixture. Putting a dif- ferent spray into a pump barrel that has not been washed out very -often causes the formation of a sediment which blocks the nozzle and interrupts the work. During November, it will be necessary to spray for codlin moth, peach aphis, pear slug, and various leaf-eating insects. In addition, black spot of the apple and pear, shothole, and other fungus diseases must be kept in cheek. Various sprays are required for all of these troubles, and the necessity of always having a clean pump will thus be admitted. At the present time, the wisest spray to use for peach aphis will be a strong tobacco solution, and the same spray may also be used for the pear slug. Arsenate of lead is the better spray for this insect, but it should not be used when the fruit is approaching the ripening stage; hellebore may also be used for the slug with good effect. As a preventive against codlin moth, the trees should be kept well sprayed with arsenate of lead. It has been definitely ascertained that this is the best remedy, and all other mixtures should be discarded in its favour. Its permanent cfualities. combined with an effective killing strength, render this mixture invaluable ; at the same time, it is easily mixed, and so very few brands leave any sediment, that the work of spraying is now reduced to a minimum. If the spraying is careful and thorough, no bandaging need be car- ried out. The time spent in bandaging will be far better employed in an extra spraying. The first spraying should have been given at the time of the falling of the petals; the second spraying, owing to the rapid expansion of the fruit, should be given a fortnight later. After that, the grower must use his own judgment as to the necessity for subsequent sprayings. If the moths be at all prevalent, other sprayings will be quickly necessary. Now that arsenate of lead is produced with such an excellent degree of killing strength, it is not necessary to spray nearly so frequently as it was in former years; and it may be foimd that four sprayings, and perhaps only three, will be sufficient to keep this pest in check. Last season, a number of Gravenstein apple trees at the Burnley Horticul- tural Gardens were sprayed once only, and out of 2,804 apples, includ- ing windfalls, only nineteen fruits were moth infected, which gives a j)ercentage of only .67 of loss. Three Rokewood trees were sprayed 7IO Joiir)ial of Agriculture, Victoria. [i i Nov., 1912. twice, and 870 fruits, ineludiug windfalls, were gathered. Only three apples were inoth infected, or a percentage equal to .35. One Mellon 's Seedling tree was sprayed twice, and out of 202 apples gathered, also including windfalls, one fruit Avas moth infected, equal to .54 per cent. These figures must not be taken as conclusive, as it will be remembered that the attack of the codlin moth last season was very light. As the woolly aphis is increasing at this season of the year, it will mean a saving of a good numl^er of buds if this insect is sprayed. Nico- tine solution or Pine Spray may be used with good effect. Cultivation. The work of ploughing and harrowing should be completed imme- diately. The frequent rains have rendered cultivation easy, and there should be no difficulty in carrying out this work at once. It is always advisable to have the land well tilled before the dry weather sets in. All crops for green manure should be now under cover; and, if the orchard soil is at all heavy or sticky, the grower should make up his mind to grow a cover crop next season in order that this condition may be reduced. The orchard should be kept free from weeds, not only for the con- servation of moisture, but in order to do away with all hiding places of the Rutherglen fly, cut worm moths, &c. General AVork. Grafted and newly planted trees should be frequently examined, and given an occasional watering and overliead spraying, in order to encourage their growth and to prevent loss of moisture from the foliage. It is also advisable to mulch young trees with light grass or straw mulching, not too rich in animal manure. The disbudding of unnecessary shoots, and the pinching back or stopping of growths, to prevent them being unduly prolouged, may now be carried out. This work is particularly important on young trees. Graft ties should be examined, and the ties cut wherever any growth is being made. AVhere the grafts are likely to make any long growth, they should be well staked and tied. Citrus trees may be planted out, watering and mulching them after planting. Vegetable Garden. Tomato plants should now receive attention every day; laterals will require pincliing liack, crowded bunches and shoots should be thinned, the plants should be well tied to the stakes, and liberal supplies of water and manure should be given. One or two more plantings of tomato plants may still be made, so that there may be strong sturdy plants for the production of late fruits. By planting three or four successions of plants, it is possible to have a good supply of fruits from December to June. Celery may now be sown for winter crops. French beans should be largely sown. Cucumber, melon, pumpkin, and all seeds of this family may now be sown in the open. Xo'.'., iyi-2.] Orchard and dardoi Xotes. AVhcro these phiiits are already growing the h)ngest and strongest runners may l)e pinched hack, to throw tlie strength into the tlowering and lateral growths. Watch the plants for mildew, and use the sul- phur freely wherever present, especially on the yoinig plants. Peas, lettuce, radish, turnip, eahhage. and sweet eorn seeds may be sown this month. Seedlings from former sowings may he planted out, and it may be well to dip the whole plant in water before planting. This greatl.v assists the young plant while taking hold of the soil in its new location. Frequent waterings and frequent eultivati(m will now he jiecessary ; and all weeds must he hoed or hand-weeded out ; mulching with stable manure will greatly assist the plants. A few beds should now be deeply worked adding a liberal dressing of stable manure. These plots will be then ready for the celery, cab- bage, and otlun' seeds i)lanted during this month. Flower Garden. Continue to plant out various bedding and foliage plants, corms of gladioli, tubers of dahlias, and seeds of such tender annuals as Phlox Drummondi. Balsam. Zinnia. Nasturtimn. Celosia. Aster. Cosmos, and Portulaca. AVhile seeds germinate and grow fairly well planted out in the open, it is more advisable during the summer months to plant these in shel- tered seed beds, or in a canvas or calico frame. The protection need onl}^ be on the one side, preferably the west or north-west ; the seedlings are then protected during the hottest portion of the diy. At the same time the shading is not sufficient to unduly " draw " them. The seeds should not be deeply sown, and all waterings should be light. A little water and often should be the rule for seedlings. An- nuals should be given plenty of room when planted out in the garden. Being quick growers, they are generally gross feeders, and they must have room to develop a good root system. Feeding, too, with liquid manure is helpful when they are reaching the flowering stage. Dahlias should now be planted out, either from tubers or from young rooted cuttings. These will give good summer blooms. For autunui and show blooms, the })lanting should be deferred until the middle of December. Herbaceous and succulent plants should be staked for their protec- tion ; included in this section are Delphinia, Gladioli, perennial Phlox, Rudbeckia, &c. These plants will all benefit from liberal nnilchings and watering with liquid manure when approaching the blooming period. Spring flowering bulbs, corms. and tubers should now be all lifted and stored. The soil surfaces will now benefit from frequent hoeings and stir- rings. Constant waterings will be required if the weather be hot or windy ; the cultivation should quickly follow the waterings in order that the moisture may be thoroughly conserved. ]\Iulching with stable manure is also beneficial at this season. 712 Joiir)ial of Agriculture , Victoria. [t i Nov., igiT.. REMINDERS FOR DECEIVIBER. LIVE STOCK. Horses. — Slabled Horses. — Over-stimulating and fattening foods should be avoided. Give water at frequent intervals. Eub down on coming into the stables overlieated. Sujiply a ration of greenstuff to all horses. Brood Mares. — - Those with foals at foot should be well fed. Early Foals may, with advantage, be given oats to the extent of 1 lb. for each mouth of age daily. Cattle. — Eugs may now be dispensed with. Supply succulent fodder. Milk should be given at blood heat to calves. Pigs.- — Sows. — Su])ply those farrowing with plenty of short bedding in well- ventilated sties. Those with litters old enough may be turned into grass run. All pigs should be given a plentiful supply of clean water. 8HEEP. — To insure even lambing, see that a sufficient number of rams ru!i with the ewes for six weeks. In cases of non-pregnancy, this period admits of the ewes coming in season a second time whilst with the rams. Merino and fine come-back ewes have been in season for some weeks, whilst cross- bred ewes (i.e., first cross) will now begin to come on. Coarse three-quarter bred ewes, and those approaching any of the British breeds, will not be in season until February. Ewes carry their lambs for five months. Poultry. — Add a little peameal to morning mash, and give less bran. Feed equal parts wheat and short white oats at night. Supply plenty of green food — at this time, lettuce is invaluable. Discontinue salts and condiments. Avoid salt meat of any description. Put Douglas mixture in drinking water. Keep ample supplies of sand, ashes, &c., in pens, and moisten same. This will enable the birds to keep themselves cool and clean. Top off geese, ducks, and cockerels for the Christmas markets. Hens will do better this month by having free range. Remove all male birds from flock. CULTIVATION. Farm. — Cut hay in late districts. Cut oats and barley in early place.s. Finish planting potatoes. Put in late maize for fodder, also millet and imphee.. Plough fire-breaks where required. Get stackyard and stages ready for hay. Orchard. — Keep the surface loose and free. Suppress weeds. Spray as often as necessary for codlin moth and pear slug. Mulch and spray yuung trees and grafts with water in the early morning during hot weather. Vegetable Garden. — Keep the surface hoed, and allow the plants plenty of moisture. Stake, pinch out, manure, and water tomatoes. Pinch back long runners of pumpkin and melon family. Sow autumn and winter varieties of cabbage and cauliflower. Plant out seedlings in cool weather. Sow French beans. Cease cutting asparagus beds, and top-dress with manure. Flower Garden. — Plant out dahlias for autumn blooming. Lift and store spring flowering bulbs. Stake, tie, and train growing plants. Sow zinnias and asters. Layer carnations, camelias, daphnes, &c. Water well and keo]> the surface loose. Vineyard. — Inspect young grafted vines (field or bench) and carefully remove any scion roots. Tie up young vines. Beware of cut worms on young vines — See Journal for July, 1911. Tying up of bearing vines, if practised, should be completed early in month. Avoid excessive and indiscriminate topping, far too frequent in Victoria. Scarify, if soil is not sufficiently loose, and after heavy rain. Look out for oidium and repeat sulphurings on first appearance of disease. Cellar, — Fill up regularly and keep cellars as cool as possible. Journal of AgricuUure, Victoria. MILKING MACHINE The Essentials of the PERFECT Milker. Extract from the Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society of England : — The following are the essential points that should be observed in the construction of Milking Machines : —Ease of cleaning, efficiency, power to strip, non-injuriousness to the cow, simplicity of construction (either for the process of milking or for obtaining the vacuum), cheapness. rS" All these are Features of "ROYAL MEDAL" Construetion, It is easy to clean. It strips the cows right out. Its action is perfectly natural, and cannot injure the cow. It is sim- plicity itself, and no machine is more economical to use. The "ROYAL PROOF. ^ MEDAL '^ BOOKLET brings you ^ Send the Coupon TO-DAY. ROYAL MEDAL MILKING MACHINES, 34 Queen Street, Melbourne. Loudcjii Oflice : Cuxtou House, Westminster, S.W. J. H. Booklet" Coupon DAVIES, Managing Director. "Royal Medal" Milking Machines, 34 Queen Street, Melbourne. Please forward a copy of your Free Book. It is to be understood that I consider myself under no obligation. .r.i4. Name Address — — Journal of Agriciilfure. Victoria. [i I Nov., 1912. EH 'F'lione 4881 Central. The Australasian Mutual live Stoek Insupanee Society ud., ROYAL BANK CHAMBERS, 70 ELIZABETH-SI, MELBOURNE. ^iifctnvs : Hon. AGAR WYNNE, M.P. HENRY GARDNER, Esq. CHAS. YEO, Esq., J.P. WALTER G. HISCOCK, A.C.P.A., Manager. FARMERS and BREEDERS. We will undertake to INSURE YOUR LIVE STOCK .at the Lowest Current Rates obtainable in Australia. OTHER DEPARTMENTS OF BUSINESS. I'lre, Marine, Fidelity Guarantee, Plate DLiss, Personal Accident and Sickness, Employers' Liability, Workmen's Compensation, Public Risk, Motor Car, and Burf;lary. INSURE WITH THIS SOCIETY, and RECOMMEND IT TO YOUR NEIGHBOURS. A GOOD AUSTRALIAN 'W}iy didn't you put y OUT penny m the plate thii morniTip '" ' Ptcause It was a foreign mission, and dada sayt C j not Tight to send capital out 0/ llie country " "OLDS" PETROL Hopper Jacket or C KJ f^ I Kl C O Tank Cooling Type. dN VJI I IN dO iicin"- etc — ^ JARRAH OR TASMANIAN k HARDWOOD TIMBERS THERE ARE NONE BETTER Larg^e Stocks of Scantlings, Weather Boards, Floorings, &c. WKITE TO IS. MILLAR'S KARRI & JARRAH CO. (1902) Ltd., wmamm^mm^^K^aaam^mm^mm queen's bridge, Melbourne, ihi ^ DYAN, GOULDING, & CO.^ 1^^ (JOHN F. GOULDING). ' ■ WHOLESALE GRAIN & PRODUCE COMMISSION AGENTS & GENERAL BROKERS. 546-552 COLLINS STREET WEST (Near Kingst.) FARMERS • Before Selling your Grain, Hay, Potatoes, Onions, consult or write us. It will [.ciy you. CONSIGNMENTS Received and Sold Daily ex Rail or Wharf. Storage arranged on Liberal Terms and Advances made. All kinds of Seed Grain for Sale. Prompt Account Sales. Oats Specialists. New & Second-hand Bags for Sale at Lowest Rates Quotations ijiven for Chaff, Grain, Lucerne, WlieuLcn ur Oaten Hay, delivered to an,\ station in Victoria or New South Wales. i When in the CITY Call In. — Short distance from Spencer-st. RIy. Station, j Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [ii Nov., T91 ^n THE WALTER A. WOOD NEW CENTURY BEST CUTTER. BEST TIER. STRONGEST. REEL.— Can be set in any position to deal with long, slioit, or tangled crop. CUTTING. — Guards are fixed to a heavy piece of Angle Steel. This gives a clean cut by stopping vibration. It also reduces draft and wear by preventing Sections from rubbing heavily on the Leger Plates. It also takes shocks from stones, thus saving the Platform from strain and wear. ELEVATING. — Elevator extends in front of the Knife, preventing the straw from bending up and choking it. Straw is carried up evenh in good shape for the Packers to take it to the Knotter. Any length crop can be successfully dealt with, without loss or damage. Roller Bearings lessen draft hy eliminating friction. All Canvases ha\ e adjustable spring tension. PACKING. -Three Packers, instead of the usual two, gently press the Straw instead of hitting it as only two must do, so the "New Century" doesn't spoil or lose grain here. Each one works a little ahead of the other, and disappears without )>ulling the straw down. The needle lias all strain taken off it by one of the Packers working just ahead of it, so it cannot get bent or fail to take the twine to the right spot for tying. TYING. — Knotter is an improved type, very simple, with \ ery few parts. Is made of \ ery best material, put together with great care, and then tested to prove it faultless, so you can depend on it to see you through every season \Aithout e.Kpensive delays. Wastes no twine. Adjustments to take up natural wear. A si|uare-butted Bundle is made, and you can place the twine where you like on it. CONSTRUCTION.— Frame is extra strong, well supported, and trussed to prevent sagging. Extra Higli Driving Wheel gi\'es light draft and ample cutting and tying power. Roller and Ball Bearings wherever necessary or ad\ isable. DriNer's Seat adjustable to take neck weight off horses. ASK FOR CATALOGUES OF OUR FULL LINE OF FARM and DAIRY IMPLEAIENTS and MACHINES. YOU CAN SEE THE MACHINES AT ANY OF OUR MANY COUNTRY AGENCIES. MITCHELL & GO. PPTY. LTD., Office and Factory: WEST FOOTSCRAY, MELBOURNE. Show-room : 596 BOURKE-ST. W., MELBOURNE. MENTION THIS PAPER WHEN ASKING FOR PRICES. By Authority; Albert J. Mtillett, Acting Government Printer, Melbourne. jPefrigeratiug and lee JVCakiug JVCaehiuerY Made by HUMBLE & SONS, Geelong-, Victoria. Specially suitable for Butchers, Breweries, Squatters, Butter, Bacon, and Ice Factories, and all classes of Cold Storage, &c. The Machines can be supplied from 3 cwt. capacity upwards, and either belt-driven or fitted with Engine. A large number of these Machines are working in the Australian States, New Zealand, and South Africa, and are giving universal satisfaction. All classes of Refrigeration work undertaken, including coils. One of these Machines is installed at the Dookie Agricultural College. "Ferrier's" Woolpresses and Rabbit Poison Distributors, Engines, Boilers, Horseworks, to. Full Particulars on Application to — Humble and Sons, General Eng'ineers, Vulean Foundry, GEELONG. x. VICTORIAN RAILWAYS. SUMMER EXCURSIONS The Victorian Railways issue SUMMER EXCURSION FARES to the SEASIDE :t MOUNTAINS :: LAKES and CAVES :t from J 5th November till 30th April. THE YARRA AT WARBURTON. PICTURESQUE Sli.'^i' THE BUFFALO PLATEAU with its famous Gorge, Falls and Peaks, embraces the Finest Moun- tain Scenery in Australia. Excur- sion Fares all the year round. Splendid Accommodation at the Government Chalet. Special in- clusive Week Tickets, covering- transport and accommodation, issued on Fridays by the Express train from Melbourne. First-class - £4 10s. THE AUSTRALIAN ALPS Mounts Bogong, Feathertop, Hotham. The Baw Baw Range, The Dividing Range, Macedon, Woodend, Dajlesford, &c. HEALESVILLE. Seven Days Trip, including Rail, Accommodation & Coach Drives. £3. WARBURTON (Mt. Doriria Buaqg). THE GIPPSLAND LAKES The Most Charming Chain of liakes in the Commonwealth. THE BUCHAN CAVES Indescribably Beautiful. LORNE. Waterfalls, Fern Glens, Sea and River Fishing. Splendid Accommodation. FLINDERS. Ocean Beach & Golfers' Paradise. QUEENSCLIFF. Bay and Ocean Beaches. Rail and Steamer Services. Edition issued shortly. Postage extra. VICTORIA. For full information as to train services, fares, &c., write to or enquire from the Government Tourist Officer, Tourist Bureau, 0pp. Town Hall, ColUns-st., Melbourne. Handbooks, Maps and Hotel Guides free on application. B. JONES, ACTING SECRETARY FOR RAILWAYS. Vol. X. HAYSTACK BUILDING. Part 12. [Rejiistered at the General Post Otfice, Melbourne, for transmission by Post as a Newspaper.! PRICE THREEPENCE. (Annual Subscription Victoria, Inter-State, and N.Z., 3 -; British and Foreign, 5 -.) F. H. BRUNNING, PTY. LTD. EZST-A-^X-ISmSID O'^U^ESH 60 '52"E:.A.n.S. ONLY THE BEST. PURE SEED MAIZE. HICKORY KING. ECLIPSE. NINETY-DAY. LONGFELLOW. N.W. DENT. EARLY YELLOW DENT. EARLY LEAMING. YELLOW MORUYA. SOMERTON WHITE. SIBLEY IMPD. For full list of varieties, cultivation notes, prices, &c., see our 1912 MAIZE BOOKLET. POST FREE ON APPLICATION. ONLY THE BEST. "HOW AND WHEN TO SPRAY." Our new handbook on Spraying for Codlin Moth, Black Spot, &c. Fullest particulars and many useful hints. Post free on application. RYE GRASS, COCKSFOOT, PRAIRIE, TIMOTHY, CLOVERS, PASPALUM, COW PEAS, MANGELS, SUGAR BEETS, SORGHUMS, AND MILLETS. Samples and Prices. Post free on application. A WONDERFUL DROUGHT RESISTER. RHODES GRASS (CHLORIS VIRGATA.) The New Summer Fodder Grass. Withstands the most extreme dry weather. All cattle are fond of it whether g-reen, dry, or chaffed. Full particulars and prices Post free on application. SOW OCTOBER TO JANUARY. PLANET JUNR. IMPLEMENTS, CAHOON SOWERS, MOLINE PLANTERS, CORN QUEEN SEED DRILLS, HEMINGWAY'S ARSENATE OF LEAD, SPADES, HOES, RAKES, SPRAY PUMPS, NIKOTEEN, PARIS GREEN, FRUIT TREE TAGS, TREE NETS. SEE OUR 1912 SEED MANUAL FOR full list. Post free on application, 64 ELIZABETH ST., MELBOURNE, j THE JOURNAL OP THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, "V^IOTORI^^, -A-XJSTE,- BO'!. QAKDtiN. CONTENTS.— DECEMBER, 1912. Cood and Faulty Cheeses Exhibited at the Royal Show, 1912 ... Storage Test of Shipping Grapes General Notes Insect Pest of the New Zealand Flax Leongatha Labour (/olony (Trustees' Report) Fodder Crops for Northern Areas under Irrigation on Small Holdings ... Results of Spraying for Irish Blight Fruit Prospects for the Coming Season Bee-keeping in Victoria O. C. Sawers F. dt Ca-stdla G. French, Jnr. T. A. J. Smith O. Seymour P. J. Carmody F. R. Beuhne Putrefaction and Decay Rainfall in Victoria Haystack Building Notes on the Occurrence of Lime in Victoria Orchard and Garden Notes Second Victorian Egg-laying Competition, 1912-L^ Reminders for January J no. W. Paterson, B.Sc, Ph.D. T. A. J. Smith A. S. Kenyon, C.E. E. E. Pescott H. V. Hawkins 713 715 718 720 722 740 745 753 758 761 762 763 769 772 774 776 COPYRIGHT PROVISIONS AND SUBSCRIPTION RATES. The Articles in the Journal of the Department of Agriculture of Victoria ar« protected by the provisions of the Copyright Act. Proprietors of newspapers wishing to re[)ublish any matter are at liberty to do so, provided the Journal and author are both acknowledged. The Journal is issueu monthlj'. The subscription, which is payable in advanc* and includes postage, is 3s. per annum for the Commonwealth and New Zealand, and 5s. for the United Kingdom and Foreisn Countries. Single copy, Threepence. Subscriptions should be forwarded to the Director of Agriculture, Melbourn*. A complete list of the various publications issued by the Department of Agriculture 'Will be supplied by the latter. Journal of AgriculLure, Victoria. [lo Dec. 1912. A silent wcrker day & night No expense for power. Plenty of Water for Household & Stock The "BILLABONQ" Mill is powerful and easy running. It works in a remarkably light breeze, and maintains an even and well- governed motion in strong winds and gusts. A most reliable mill for supplying water for Household, Farm and Stock use. All contem- plating the purchase of a Wind Mill should send at once for descriptive matter and prices of the "BILLABONG." This mill is rapidly coming into favour on account of its patented features, and being an Australian made mill, certainly de.serves your full inquiry. Stock Water Troughs. In " BILLABONQ" Troughing you have the latest. It is protected by recent patent rights, and has many advantages. " BIL- LABONG " Patent Steel Troughing is giving all-round satisfacti(jn. Buyers like the interlocking and leak-proof joints, the good materials, and strong structure. We make Cattle, Sheep, Calf, and Pig Troughs. Prices no higher than those chargeil for ordinary troughs. Send now, or call for lists. Tools for the Farmer^ Carpenter & Engineer* In our vast assortment of modern tools and appliances there are, no doubt, many labor- saving devices you re- quire. Send for our priced and illustrated Tool Catalogue now, and thus get in touch with our goods and their very moderate prices. JOHN PROPTY. DAIMKS t^?^. G91-399 BOURKE STREET, MELBOURNE. lo Dec, 191 2.] Joiinial of Agriculture, Victoria. m DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TO OWNERS OF PEDIGREED STOCK OF ALL KINDS :: DAIRY FARMERS :: AND OTHERS. The Department has compiled a Stock Breeding Record Book Comprising — Table of Service and Due Dates, Females with Record of Progeny, Sires with Record of Service, General Service Record, Pedigree Charts, Milk Fat and Butter Records for Dairy Stock. Price, 10/6 Postage— Victoria 1/6, other States and New Zealand 2/8 extra. This Book contains 234 pages on stiff paper, and is strongly bound in half leather. — A limited number available. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. POULTRY FOR SETTLERS. SITTINGS OF EGGS Are now availaljle from the Poultry Pens at the "WYUNA FARM and the BURNLEY HORTICULTURAL SCHOOL, at the undermentioned rates. NOTE.— No more sittings of Wjuna White Le<,'horns (Cosh Hens and Swift Cockerel) can be booked until June 1st, 1912. A limited number cf Cockerels from the above strain may be obtained at 10s. 6d. each. "Wyuna White Leghorns (Cosh Hens and Swift Cockerel) „ "White Wyandottes (Burnley stock) Black Orpingtons ("Wyuna stock) Burnley "White Leghorns (Imported Hens and Padman Cockerel) .. >. „ „ Burnley „ .. .. „ (Burnley stock) Black Orpingtons (Imported pens) .. .. .. .. (Burnley stock) .. Minorcas (Imported pens) „ Rhode Island Reds (Imported pens) The Eggrs will carry the Departmental Stamp, and any infertile e??s will be replaced, provided that such egrr!,wiD£ Shorthand Mathematics Steam Engineering Archltecttiral Drawing Accountancy Languages Shire Engineering Building Constmctlon Commercial Law Drawing Mining Engineering and Estimating English Illustrating Surveying Timber Measnremonts WE PREPARE CANDIDATES FOR ALL PUBLIC EXAMINATIONS. The instruction ffoes RIGHT TO YOm HOME, no matter where you live. It is clear, concitw, easily understood, and practical. Every student is handled pri\'ately and separately and receives individual attention according to his particular requirements. Our instructors are men of sound technical knowledgfe, combined with years of practical experienc«, and they are at the service of every student, to guide him with their valuable advice. Only spare time study is required, and our fees are exceedingly moderate and within the reach of everj'body. We invite you to write at once for a free copy of our Handbook D. It explains our system aiid shows how we can teach any man who is willing to be taught and anxious to increase his earning power. It costs nothing to inquire. Don't put it off. Write tO-day. STOTTS CORRESPONDENCE COLLEGE | 56b market STREET, MELBOURNE. I f LAW, SOMNER & GO.'S ^ SPECIAL GRADED AND SCREENED SEED POTATOES (Pedigree Seed). Prices on Application. HUNTER RIVEE. ■ ■ . ^^ mm b^. m. ■ va FRENCH PEOVQTOE. ARABIAN. I I I^^CTDKICr AMERICAN. IB^J}^- L U V-# t T\ IM t HUNGARIAK. TURKESTAN. ■" ^^ ^^ ^ ■ 1 I ^ Iim SPANISH a>TewX All our Lucernes are Specially Machine-dressed, Hand-sieved, Free from Dodder, and Tri>8 to MBAe. CRAIG MITCHELL 11/1 A IT^ C and other MAMMOTH WHITE lYIMI^Q leading varieties Write for Maize and Potato Circular. LAW, SOMNER & CO, ^"e\Vh^^ 139-141 Sw^anston-st., Melbourne. established 1850. telephone 729 CENTRAL BULK STORES— MASON LANE, OFF LITTLE COLLINS STREET. J Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo Dec, 1912. 'irraiMTiMiiBa For ROOFS of all descriptions USE RUBEROID ROOFING. For OUTSIDE PAINTING of barns, stables, fences, &c., "i^ INDELIBLE GOLD WATER PAINT. For INSIDE PLASTERED WALLS USE CALCIMO ci)V;R^ RS. These Goods are UNEQUALLED by any others, and are obtainable from all Storekeepers. -SOLE AGENTS BROOKS, ROBINSON & Co. Ltd., Meltarie. BEET & DAIRY FARMING. THE IDEAL CLOSER SETTLEMENT COMBINATION. THE RICH BOISDALE ESTATE AND THE FAR-FAMED KILMANY PARK. Both of these Estates have been specially selected, purchased, and subdivided for Beet Growing and Dairying combined, and to afford op|)ortunity to THRIFTY, EXPERIENCED MEN WITH SMALL CAPITAL to make a com- fortable living while acquiring the freehold of the land. For the possibilities and practical results read the article on ''^THE BEET I3SriDXJSTE;^X"/' in this issue of the Journal Of Agriculture. lo Dec, 1912.] Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. vi'i BOISDALE ESTATE Subdivided into 57 blocks, and already settled with the exception of Eight Blocks of from 40 to 60 acres, to carry 10 acres of Beet annually. Price, £25 10s. to £27 10s. per acre. KILMANY PARK Now open for Application, Subdivided into 13 farm blocks from 56 to 195 acres, to carry 10 acres of Beet annually. Price, from £7 lOs. to £22 lOs. per acre. 7 Workmen's blocks from 20 to 46 acres, to carry 4 acres of Beet annually. Price, from £23 to £25 per acre. For particulars and conditions of purchase and as to blocks available, apply to the SECRETARY, CLOSER SETTLEMENT BOARD, MELBOURNE. For information concerning the financial aid given to suitable Settlers to stock the farms, ^pply to THE DIRECTOR OF AGRICULTURE, MELBOURNE. Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo Dec, 1912. ', R. CLOSER SETTLEMENT LAND. List showing number of allotments on the various Estates available for application : — Estate. Swan Hill Cohuna Shepparton Nanneella Baniawm Toiijrala Irrig-ation Areas. totallinu' Area. 41u acri 2,554 1,811 1,874, 1,774 4,672 Wheat Growing". totalling Dairying" and Mixed Farming". Bona Vista Deepdene Eumeralla AUanibee Morven Werribee Kenilworth Mooralla Cremona Dunrobin totalling 15 10 24 1 5 14 463 acres. 484 2,706 2,062 3,364 4,348 600 1,226 403 36 Estate. Cornelia Creek . . 20 Oaklands .. .. 6 Hurstwood .. .. 4 Mt. Widderin .. 13 Nerrin Nerrin , . 18 Pannoo . . . . 15 Marathon &WilIow Grove 12 Strathallan . 11 Area. 653 acrev. 4,140 2,074 4,723 4,022 5,403 6,368 325 Beet Growing- and Dairying. Boisdale . . . . 3 totalling 366 »crei. Kilmany Park ..20 ,, 1,626 ,, Clerks' Homes. Tooron<;a . . 39 allotments. Workmen's Homes. Pender's Grove . . 103 allotmenti. Allotments on these estates are sold under Conditional Purchase leasehold terms, extending' over 31 J years, with payments at the rate of 6 per cent, per annum. Advances of money can be obtained up to 60 per cent, of the value of permanent improvements effected, repayments extending- over fifteen years bearing 5 per cent, interest. Fur full iu/'ormation and terms apply to THE SECRETARY , LANDS PURCHASE AND MANAGEMENT BOARD, MELBOURNE. AUSTRALIA'S WACON "The Finest Wagon Ever." PATENT STEEL WHEELS. Patent Felloes. Renewable Carron Boxes & Oil Cap*. The only Steel Wheel that has stood the Test. BEWARE OF IMITATIONS. Wheels Guaranteed tor 3 years against Breakage, &c. A- MAY, Esq., Meningie, South Australia, says:— Dear Sir,— I have received Sjirin^' Wagon. I am well pleased with same. I never thought it would run so well and I think those who have Steel Wheels will never use the old style again. Two horses carried my first load of two tons of potatoes over a bad road of 30 miles, where the old style of Wagon was bogged, and is still there. August, 1903. ALBERT MAY, Esq., Meningie, S.A., says :— , ^ „ Dear Sir, — In answer to your letter wanting to know how the wheels of my Wagon are, I am pleased to tell you I have had the Watron about 6^ years, and it has not cost me a shilling, the wheels are like new, and I have done a lot of heavy carting. Onlv being a 2-ton Wagon, I lent it to a man carting wheat, and he had some very rou"h roads loads being about 50 bags. Your Wagons are worth their money, and I would not be without one ot them. I think this Wagon will last my life time. 40' and 36' Wheels. August 13th, 1910. TABLE TOP— Truck body, and all classes of little Wagons for Fann and Station work. Wagons Shipped to aU Ports in Australia. WRITE FOR CATALOG TO-DAY, R. J. L. HILDYARD, QUEEN'S BRIDGE-ST.. SOUTH MELBOURNE, V. lo Dec, 1912.] Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. LIGHT, STRONG, PERFECTLY RIGID. ^'CYCLONE" WOVEN GATE o ft. -to le f-t. Will hold anything, and can be made rabbit proof by putting rabbit proof intersection at the bottom. The wider gates have three stays. Get our Catalogue of this and many other Cyclone Gates. " THEY'RE ALL GOOD." CYCLONE FENCE & GATE CO., 459 SWANSTON ST., corner franklin ST., MELBOURNE. PERFECTUS APPARATUS FOR THE TREATMENT OF MILK FEVER IN COWS. BY THE BEETHOD RECOMMENDED IN THE JOURNAL OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. ' I 'HE treatment by this apparatus is ^ effective and easy to perform, »nd it is indeed rare that the severest case does not yield to it. The treatment should be applied directly the symptoms of the fever become manifest. The set contains everj'thing neces- sary to effect a cure, including a ther- mometer for aiding the recognition of the disease. PRICE COMPLETE \ 1 Ia K-pERFECTUSr =- \ mmier— '■ — i— — '-"^^s«: fcL VatVwi ( .■'.T~r^^^ W>T-~"^ ■"■ 12s. 6d. (Postage, 9d.) Ask your nearest Chemist for it, and if he cannot supply, apply to us direct. FELTON, GRIMWADE & CO., MELBOURNE. Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo Dec, 1912. LITERATURE for AGRICULTURISTS. PLAN AND SPECIFICATION OF SHEEP-SHEARING SHED. 2s. 6d. Postage, Id. MILK CHARTS (Monthly and Weekly), 6d, per dozen, post free. When ordering, dairy farmers should mention " Monthly " or " Weekly." By Professor A. ./. Ewart, Government Botanist. WEEDS, POISON PLANTS, AND NATURALIZED ALIENS OP VICTORIA. 2s. 6d. Postage : Commonwealth, Hd. ; N.Z., 5d. ; British and Foreign, lOd. PLANTS INDIGENOUS TO VICTORIA. Vol. II., 10s. Postage : Com., 2d. ; N.Z., 8d. ; Brit. & For., is. 4d. By G. French, F.E.S., Government Entomologist. DESTRUCTIVE INSECTS OF VICTORIA. Parts L, II., III., IV., V. 2s. 6d. each. Postage : Parts I. and III., C, Id. ; N.Z., 3d.; B. & F., 6d. each. Parts II. and IV., C, l-Jd. ; N.Z., 4d. ; B. & F., 8d. each. Part V., C, Id. ; N.Z., 4d. ; B. & F., 7d. By D. Mc Alpine, Government Vegetable Pathologist. RUSTS OF AUSTRALIA. 5s. Postage : C, 2d. ; N.Z., 8d. ; B. & F., Is. 4d. SMUTS OF AUSTRALIA. 4s. Postage : C, 2id. ; N.Z., 9d. ; B. & F., Is. 6d. FUNGUS DISEASES OF CITRUS TREES IN AUSTRALIA. 2s. Postage : C, Id. ; N.Z., 3d. ; B. & F.. 6d. FUNGUS DISEASES OF STONE FRUIT TREES IN AUSTRALIA. 2s. 6d. Postage : C, l|d. ; N.Z., 5d. ; B. & F., lOd. SYSTEMATIC ARRANGEMENT OF AUSTRALIAN FUNGL 3s. Postage: C, 2d.; N.Z., 8d. ; B. & F., Is. 4d. THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, MELBOURNE, VICTORIA. Remittances from places outside the COiiimonwealth to be by Money Order only. Pamphlets obtainable from the Director of Agriculture, Melbourne, Free on Application. NEW SERIES. 1. SILO CONSTRUCTION. A. S. Kenyon, C.E. 2. HINTS FOR NEW SETTLERS. T. A. J. Smith. 3. APPLE GROWING FOR EXPORT. P. J. Carynody. * 4. BOOKKEEPING FOR FAR:\IERS. \V. Mclver, A.I.A.V., A.S.A.A., Eng. 5. CIDER MAKING. J. Knight. * 6. FARM PLUMBING. C. H. Wright. 7. CITRUS FRUIT CULTURE. E. E. Pescott. 8. BUILDING HINTS FOR SETTLERS. A. S. Kenyon, G.E., and otJiers. 9. TOBACCO CULTURE. T. A. J. Smith. 10. SILOS AND SILAGE. G. H. F. Baker. 11. THE BEET SUGAR INDUSTRY AND CLOSER SETTLEMENT. H. T. EatUrhy. 12. WORMS IN SHEEP. S. S. Cameron, D.V. Sc, jU.P.C.V.S. *13. CHEESE MAKING (Cheddar). C. S. Sawers. 14. FARM BLACKSMITHING. G. Baxter. 15. BROOM FIBRE INDUSTRY. T. A. J. Smith. *16. PIG INDUSTRY. P. T. Archer. 17. GOVERNMENT CERTIFICATION OF STALLIONS, 1911-12. W. A. N. Robertson, B. V. Sc. 18. REPORT ON FIRST EGG-LAYING COMPETITION AT BURNLEY, 1911-12. * Not yet available. IT. V. Hawkins. 10 Dfx., 1912.] Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. Vacuum Gargoyle Prepared Red Sppaying Oil Needs no Soft Soap OP other ingredient. Requires only Clean Soft Water. \'aciium Gargoyle Red Spray Oil now obtainable in prepared form is the same Oil as that originally introduced to Australia for fruit- tree spraying. Full particulars — Horticultural Department, Vacuum Oil Co. Pty. Ltd., 90 William Street, Melbourne. Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo Dec, 1912. The New Automatic Cream Separator Separating Finished same time as Milking T^HE AUTOMATIC CREAM SEPARATOR 1 introduced into the Dairy means lessening the work wonderfully— saves time and expense. At last we have got the se.f-contained Cream Separator, automatic in action, simple enough for a child to work. It is an ingenious combination of a powerful, perfectly balanced motor, with a special Separator, and will keep running continuous y for 6 hours. Cost of upkeep is ridicuously small, and separates as fast as seven or eight milkers can supply. No intricate gears. You have only to pull the cord on the side, and the machine ke ps going, producing a smooth cream, sKimming to .01. Know more about this great boon to dairymen. It will be an excellent investment for you. One size machine for any size dairy. Write for particulars. Sole A.gents : NEWELL h, CO. 43-45 KING STREET, MELBOURNE NEW ZEALAND LOAN I MERCANTILE AGENCY 3ead Oflace — Melbourne Offlce- LONOON. COLLINS-ST. W LIBERAL CASH ADVAINit^E^. Wool, Grain, Skins, Hides, Tallow, Bark, Stock and Station Brokers ON COMMISSION ONLY. Butter Shipments Undertaken on Owner's Account AGENTS FOR COOPER'S DIP FOR VICTORIA AND RIVERINA, PAGE'S PATENT WIRE STRAINER and IRONSIDE'S WIRE CUTTER. CHIEF AGENTS IN VICTORIA for the PALATINE INSURANCE CO. lo Dec, 1912.] Journal of Agriadiure, Victoria. TRADE MARK o .24.C o .xn:' o 3MC ^A-o? I o GAS PRODUCTION Cheaper than COAL GAS at 3/' V^^ 1,000 cubic feet. FOR LIGHTING, COOKING, AND HEATING. MANUFACTURED UNDER LICENCE BOOTY-LOFTH OUSE PATENTS. SYSTEM ADOPTED BY STATE AND FEDERAL GOVERNMENTS. For further particulars and prices apply J. BARTRAM & SON PTY. 19, 21, 23 KING ST. ; and LTD., 586 BOURKE ST., MELB. M LYSACHT'S WIRE NETTING MADE IN AUSTRALIA. All Sizes Manufactured, ^ inch to 4 inch Mesh. The Standard Netting of the State. LOOK FOR OUR MARKER IN EVERY ROLL. Our manufacture of Rabbit -proof Wire Netting is known as the best throughout Australia. Better in quality, Rnd owing to its being loose rolled less costly to erect than any im- ported Netting. IJ' *nd 1}' MESH. LYSAGHT BROS. & CO. Ltd., MANUFACTURERS. SYDNEY. AGENTS: GIBBS, BRIGHT & CO., 34 Queen Street, MELBOURNE. Journal of Agriculture , Victoria. [lo Dec, 1912. MP. FARMER. This is what concerns you- 5 cwt. Galvd. Because it concerns your pocket. NEPTUNE^^Tee: Fencing Wire \i\ Gauge, will cost you £5 2S. 6cl. and will give you 7,150 yds. of Single Wire Fence. 10 cwt. Galvd. ORDINARY Fencing Wire No. 8, will cost you £5 2s. 6d. and will only give you 5,280 yds. of Single Wire Fence. GUARANTEED ^^Y™'^? "NEPTUNE" 12^ Gauge, is 1,140 lbs. Breaking Strain ORDINARY No. 8, is 1,125 lbs. Railway Freight and Carriage is about one-third of that on Ordinary Wire. "NEPTUNE" Unrivalled WIRE is not influenced by climatic changes. AGENTS- ASK YOUR STOREKEEPER. MORRIS & MEEKS, Lt. Collins-st, Melbourne. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, VICTORIA. POTATO DISEASES IN AUSTRALIA .A.3Sr3D THEII?. T K, E ^^T ]yC E IST T - By D. McALPINE, Government VegeUble Pathologist 235 PAGES FULLY ILLUSTRATED. Tk^X^r. r^ I /Postage— Commonwealth, 2d. ; New Zealand, 8d. ;\ JrriCe - 5^/" I British and Foreign, Is. 3d. / Applications, with Postal Note or Cheque covering price and postage, to be made to the Director of Agriculture, Melbourne, Victoria. Remittances from beyond the Commonwealth to be made by Post Office Order. With Appendices by W. LAIDLAW, B.Sc., Biologist, on Eel Worms ; and O. FRENCH (Jnr.), Acting Government Entomologist, on Insect Pests of the Potato. BONEDUST. SUPERPHOSPHATE, AND OTHER HIGH-GRADE FERTILIZERS DELIVERED AT RAILWAY STATION, FOOTSCRAY, OR ON WHARF. MELBOURNE. 9 'SJI.sLT^-VLT&.cs'trvLir^r. . Office :— 407 POST OFFICE PLACE, MELBOURNE. BONES BOUGHT. CONSIGN TO ME, FOOTSCRAY. Telephone 2098. lo Dec, 1912.] Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. .8" ^ •^ <^ ^ 8 Ji «2 ^ ^ ^ .«<> ^ 5 S ^ c« b/) T3 a a E fl) v. I/) ^ -I Uh 3 u 0 (U >N ^ 4-> <*-, 0 L. r* 0 0 T3 (J rn rr\ (U if) en ■i-> «J n1 d Cfl 0 4-1 Lm a. D F 0 0 c 3 4-1 CJ 0 flj o; tn J-, V 1 c ^ 4; j=; 3 ^» 0 > >> 1^ 03 CO \- X o < CO >- CO .2 -a E cd cd CO CO a o •a cs «/5 O s n C ^ = u 'Z 3 3 £ :: .22 U —" tn ■^ •CO U c ea o E . O « p a> n ■a s *- ea JO •XJ tn B n it JO Si 0 '-/5 V^x^^.VvA/ Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo Dec, 1912. WINDMILLS that Give Satisfaction : ALSTON'S 1 91 2 PATENT. The most perfect windmill motion in existence. Ball-bearing throughout. All moving parts are enclosed in dust-proof case, and run in oil bath. Gives a direct and central lift of the pump rod. No overhanging or twisting strains that are common in all other makes. Runs in the i-^*,^ lightest winds. Stands the strongest storms. ^^^^k ^^ ^^^ buy a Mill till you have inspected ^~^&^. the ''Alston.*' 16 ft. Alston Mill Pumping from Bore into Trough. OVER 30,000 OF THESE MILLS IN USE THROUGHOUT AUSTRALIA. WATER TROUGHING The Alston Patent Troug-h is the only reliable article. It is manu- factured by the inventor. The Patent Water-Tig-ht Joint of the Alston Trough is perfection. It is made by the overlap of the curved steel sheets securely held by the inside and outside bands. The sheets are not grooved, as this only fractures the coating of galvanizing, and exposes the iron to the action of the water. JAMES ALSTON, - QUEEN'S BRIDGE, MELBOURNE, THe JOURNAL or ^fie department of Mgricufture or VICTORIA. Vol. X. Part 12. loth Deeembep, 1912. GOOD AND FAULTY CHEESES EXHIBITED AT THE ROYAL SHOW, 1912. Report by G. C. Saivers (Cheese Expert). Fig. 1. — This lot of cheese is regular in make and size, and most suitable for exporting to the London market. The English grocers prefer it to the smaller size, as they claim there is less waste in cutting up on the counter. CHEESE FOR EXPORT. Bemarls. — The flavour is clean, body and texture solid, firm and smooth. Finish — neat with close rinds. The flavour of a prime Cheddar cheese should have both the aroma and flavour of a nut. It should melt in the mouth, producing not only an agreeable flavour, but leaving a most pleasant after-taste. If either ]-v>4 2 a M JdiiniaJ of Agriculture. Yicforia. [lo Dec, 1912. in smell or in taste, or in after-taste, there is anything the least nnpleasant, such taste or smell is termed a taint. The body and texture should be absolutely uniform, solid and smooth. Cheese open in body dries up more quickly wlien cut. The finish should show close rinds with the bandage well pressed into the sides and ends of cheese, allowing not more than 1/2 inch lap each end. FK;. 2. — CIIEK8E FUR J.OCAL AND INTER-STATE TRADE. -This lot is the most suitable size for local and Inter-State body and Fig. 2. trade. Remarks. — The flavour is not so clean as lot Fig. texture fairly close. Finish — fair. The fault in flavour is due to a taint in the milk, or to the lactic acid starter being over-ripe. Body and texture being slightly open, and furry, is due to insufficient acid being developed in the curd before saltine: and hooping, and containing too mnch moisture. Too much FIG. 3. CHEESE IRREGULAR IN SIZE AND POORLY FINISHED. cloth lapped over ends of cheese, which is liable to work loose, and give a rough and ragged appearance. Fig. 3. — This lot is very irregular in size, a matter which cheese merchants dislike. For shipping they require special crates made to fit the cheese at extra cost. The flavour is not clean, being very pronounced ; body and texture too firm and dry. The finish is rough and very poor, showing cracks on sides of cheese and mold. lo Dec. 1912.] Good and l''aiilfv Cheeses at Koyal S/ioic, [912. 715 The fault ill flavour is due evidently to lack of clcauliricss. result- ing in fermentations eaused l)y bacteria, which develoj) only at a high temperature. Body and texture being too firm. dry. and rough, is due to over-cooking the curd in the whey, causing the curd to l)e<'ome greasy, and producing excessive loss of l)ut1ei- fat in ])ressiiig the cheese. A cracky condition in the rind is diu^ to ()vei--cooking. or sour i-ui-d ; the fat adhering to the outside ])rcventing ])ar1icles of curd from join- ing into one mass. Fig. 4. — This lot is of very infiM'ior make: only saleable at a very low })rice. FIG. 4. CHEESE OF VERV INFEKlOU (^1 .\I.1T^ DIJE TO ['XCLEANLINESS PRIOR TO PRESSING. Remarks. — The flavour is putrid, sour; body and texture weak, soft, and mealy. Finish — very poor. The fault in flavour is due to lack of cleanliness, and holding the milk several days at a low temperature before being manufactured into cheese. Body and texture weak. soft, and mealy, is due to the milk being sour — insufficient cooking allowing too much acid in the curd before drawing the whey off. causing excessive moisture; and at times leak on the shelf. Cheese of this descrii)tion dries up readily on the rind, and shrinks in size. It is shown as a striking examph^ of what to avoid. STORAGE TEST OF SHIPPIXG GRAPES. F. de Casfella, Govcnuirent Vificulturiit. Experiments similar to those conducted last year, to test the keeping power of several varieties of grapes.* were again undertaken this year with a similar object, namely, to test the suitability, for exporting in a fresh state, of several recently introduced table grapes. The grapes, which were all grown in the Rutherglen district, and without irrigation, were packed in granulated cork in ordinary export grape cases. West Australian i)attern, holding 28 lbs. of fruit net. They were conveyed to Melbourne in ordinarv fruit trucks (not cooled), actual transit occupying eight hours, but the total time spent in the truck was about 24 hours. * Sec Joi/mo/ for Julv. 1911. 2 A 2 " 7i6 Journal of Agriculture. Victoria. [lo Dec, 191 2. Teneron du Cadenet (white), 8i points. Condition nearly as good as Ohanez. Flavour superior. In fact, this is one of the best flavoured grapes tried. Trifere du Japan (black), 8 points. This grape, which is identical with the one long known in Victoria under the name of Wortley Hall, has opened up in better order than previous trials would lead one to expect. Though not in such good order as Ohanez, it flavour is superior. The berries are of very fine size, and adhere fairly well in spite of their rather thin skin. On arrival in Melbourne, they were placed in the Government Cool Stores, where they were kept at a temperature of 33 and 35 degrees F. Four cases were experimented with ; three of the.se, from the Viticultural College, Rutherglen, went into the Cool Stores on 14th March, 1912; the fourth, grown by Mr. J. M. Grimmond, of Wahgunyah, went into the same chamber about a week later. The time the grapes remained in cool storage was thus only a few days short of four months. The cases were opened and contents examined on 9th July last, in the presence of several officers of the Agricultural Department, and some gentlemen interested in the shipment of grapes. The cases from the College were somewhat at a disadvantage owing to the granulated cork being rather coarse; occasional berries were injured by pressure by the angular fragments. The case from Mr. Grimmond was packed in fine-grained cork. On the other hand, it met with a slight mishap at the time of the Fruit and Floral Carnival, held from 26th to 30th March, having been sent thither in error with some other fruit. The mistake was noticed on its arrival at the Exhibition Buildings, and it was placed in the working model cool store, where it remained until the close of the Exhibition, when it was returned to the Government Cool Stores. It was not opened at the Exhibition. Extra handling in transit and removal from cool storage do not appear to have injuriously affected the fruit. The points awarded refer to marketable condition, according to a scale from I to 10. College Grapes. Case No. i. — Ohanez (white), 9! points. The fruit was in first class order Practically no waste; but a few berries were slightly wrinkled. Case No. 2. — Valensy (white), 5 points. Very poor order, about 50 per cent, waste. The state of this case bears out last year's experience with the same grape. It is not suited for lengthy storage. Case No. 3. — Mixed case, containing the following varieties : — Ohanez (white), 9^ points. Almost in as good order as Case No. i. Probably the proximity of some grapes which had not kept so well, accounts for the slight difference in condition. Raisin de Noel (black), 8 points. This grape has kept very well for a juicy variety. It is quite black, round, and of medium size. Seeing the demand for black grapes, it deserves further trial. lo Dec. i9[2.1 Storatic Test of S/iippirit: Grapes. jiy MavTon (pink), ■]\ points. Very fair order. A remarkably crisp grape of peculiar texture. Firm, and of good flavour. Worthy of further trial. Malvoisie des Chatreux (white), 7 points. This has not kept so well as last year's trial lot. A good many berries have decayed near the .stalk. Excellent flavour, almost as good as Teneron du Cadenet. Malaga Rose. 7 points. A medium sized very pale pink grape. These dropped from the bunch somewhat, but were in fair order, and good flavour. Olivette Rose, about 6 points. Scarcely equal to last year's trial ior. Kobou, 6j points. A juicy white grape of good flavour, but not very large. It kept fairly well. Valensy, 5 points. About the same as the single case of this variety. Sabalkanskoi, 3 points. This large, elongated, pink grape, though remarkably handsome when freshly gathered, has proved it.self to be a poor keeper. Very few berries are altogether sound. Evpn the sound berries are deficient in flavour. Mr. Grimmoud' s Ca.:e. This case contained the following four varieties : — Red May, gh points. Excellent order, practically as good as Ohanez. This grape certainly appears to be a shipper. It is a handsome bright red, somewhat oval grape, which does not detach easiiy, and is more juicy and of better flavour than Ohanez. Red Portugal, 9 points. This appears to be identical with Red Malaga. Almost as good as Ohanez. Grimmond' s Black, 8^ points. This black grape, the correct name of which is unknown, has stood the trial remarkably well. The slight muscat flavour which characterizes it when fresh had almost disappeared after cool storage. It is fairly juicy, and in good order. Seeing the demand for black grapes on the English market, it is worthy of further trial. Gros Caiman (black), 7 points. In fair condition. Scarcely in as good condition as Wortley Hall referred to above. It does not promise well as a shipping grape. * -^ * * * Seeing the accident referred to above, it is remarkable that Mr. Grim- mond's grapes opened up in such good order. Each of his bunches were broken up into several smaller ones when packing — a verv desirable prac- tice. This, as well as the finer-grained cork, no doubt, contributed to the good condition in which this case opened up. It must be noted, also, that Mr. Grimmond's grapes are grown on almost pure sand, whilst the College grapes ore from very stiff soil. Grapes grown on sand usually carry well. 7i8 Journal of Agriciiliiirc . Vicioria. [lo Dec. 1912. GENERAL NOTES. PIG FEEDING— The Central P^xperiment P'arm, Ottawa, lias carried out a series of pig-feeding experiments, and the conclusions arrived at include the following points: — It will not pay to cook feed (grain and meals) for swine if econom^y of production is alone considered. More food is required to produce 1 lb. of gain after the live-weight exceeds 100 lbs., and the most economical time to slaughter swine is when they weigh 175 to 200 lbs. The average dressed weight of swine is about 76 per cent, of the fasted weight. Slrim milk is a valuable addition to a grain ration where hard flesh is desired, and 700 lbs. skim milk equals 100 lbs. mixed grain, unless the milk is used in undue proportion. The greatest gains from a given amount of grain are made when the grain is ground and soaked for 24 hours. ^Nlixed grains are more economical than grains fed pure. PHOSPHATES ON PASTURE— The soils of A^ictoria generally show a marked deficiency in avail- able phosphates, and as a result the use of phosphatic manure upon cereal crops has become almost universal. As wheat and oats belong to the order of Grasses, one might infer that common pasture grasses Avould likewise benefit from an application of phosphatic manure. In this connexion the results obtained by the Federal Institution of Agriculture, at Lausanne, make suggestive reading. Two adjoining sections of pasture were selected, and one of them received 4 cwt. superphosphate each year, while the other got no manure. The experi- ments lasted three years. In the first year the yield on the unmanured plot was 9 cwt.. and on the manured plot 14 cwt. ; in the second year the yields were 6 cwt. and 18 cwt. ; and in the third year 7 cwt. and 29 cwt. respectively. The size of the plots is not stated. Besides increasing the yield, the phosphate also improved the quality of the herbage, and at the close of the experiments clovers formed 45 per cent, of the herbage on the phosphate plot, as compared to 9 per cent, without manure. The profit from the superphosphate was calculated at £1 8s. 6d. per acre each year. It is pointed out that the soils here were rich in humiLs, and showed no deficiency of phosphates by chemical tests; consequently the only sure means of testing the need for phosphates was a trial in the field. The quantity of manure used at Lausanne is considerably in excess of that indicated for application to pastures in this State for reasons that are partly climatic and partly commercial. It is a well known law of manuring, however, that if a heavy dressing of manure yields a profit a small dressing will give a better return relatively to outlay, although the total profit may be less. For pasture trials in Victoria, from 1 cwt. to 2 cwt. superphosphate per acre would be a suitable dressing for the land. JO Ukc. 191^-] General Notes. 719 CROPPING IN VICTORIA- According to the latest volume ot the C oiin)iimited, mention some interesting facts in connexion with the dairy produce trade. So far as butter is concerned, Canada is dropping out from the export business. Of the European countries most ha\-e declined .somewhat in butter exports to England in the last few years, Sweden alone showing a considerable increase. Holland has been sending increasingly to Ger- many. Imports from the Argentine shows a decrease in recent years, and United States exports are now small. Comparing the prices during the quinquennial period. 1893-98, with the prices for 1908-12. there has been a rise in butter from all countries, but it has not l^een unifonnly distributed. In fifteen years Dutch butter has improved by i8s. lod. per cwt., Russian by 18s. 3d., Irish by r5s. 6d., Xew Zealand 13s. iid., Danish and Swedish 9s. gd., Australian 8s. lod.. and French 5s. 2d. During the final period the prices were — Danish, 121s. iid. : French, 120s. 6d. ; Dutch. ii8s. 7d. ; New Zealand, 115.S. 9d. ; Irish, 115s. 7d. ; Australian, ins. iid. ; and Russian, 109s. 7d. — all per cwt. The process of cream pasteurization and careful handing in New Zealand is noted, and it is remarked that Australian butter has not given to buyers of finest qualitv the same complete satisfaction as New Zealand butter. As regards the markets in the coming .sea.son it is anticipated that prices will rule considerably lower than those for 1911-12. but will exceed the average of the preceding four years. 720 Journal of Agriculture, Vicfcria. [lo Dec, 191 2. INSECT PESTS OP THE NEW ZEALAND FLAX {Phormium). The "White Mussel Scale {Phenacaspis eugeniae, Maskell). C. French, Jun., Acting Government Entomologist. This scale, of which there are several varieties, is spreading in many parts of the State. Recently numbers of fine New Zealand flax plants (PJiormium tenax) have been attacked; and, in some instances, especially after the predaceous insects have pulled the scales to pieces^ the plants look as if a snowstorm had passed over them. (See plate 1.) When the leaves are badly attacked, they develop a fungus which causes them to become rusty-red in colour, and in some instances they turn brown and curl up. Mr. C. C. Brittlebank, the Acting Govern- ment Pathologist, informs me that the fungus is one of the stages of Capnodium. Numbers of the scales are attacked by parasitic wasps, other Hymenoptera, and Coccinellids (ladybirds), which help materially to keep them in check. This scale insect is recorded from most parts of Australia, Ceylon, Japan, Hawaiian Islands, and has been found on various plants and trees, amongst which are the following: — Castor Oil Tree {Ricinus commnnis), Eugenias (a very ornamental and highly useful genus of plants). Palms, Tea Tree {Leptospcrmum and Melaleuca), Native Sassafras Tree (Atherosperma moschatum), &c. . Remedies. A spraying with Pine Spray, Prepared Red Oil, Kerosene or Benzole emulsion will soon rid the plants of this pest. Formulas for any of the above sprays can be obtained by applying to the Entomo- logical Branch, Department of Agriculture. The Ivy or Oleander Scale {Aspiditous hederae, Vail'). This is another common scale, which attacks flax plants in Vic- toria. It causes similar damage to that done by the White Mussel Scale, and congregates on the leaves in larger numbers. In some instances leaves 5 feet in length are simply covered with them, the scales often overlapping each other. When the young scales are hatched — generally in September and the following warm months — they are of a dark-yellow colour, and soon form a white round covering over themselves, which after a few weeks alters to a dirty white, greyish, or light-brown colour. This covering has a small cream-coloured dot in the centre. This is a variable species, and has received considerably more than 40 names from writers on Coccids (scale insects). It has been found on oranges and lemons coming into Melbourne from foreign parts, bananas from Fiji, olives, palms, oleander, ivy. apples, cherry, plum, currant, grass, clover, and many other garden and native plants. It is found in most parts of the world. Remedies. The remedies recommended for the White Mussel Scale will suffice. lo Dec, 1912.] Imcct /'esLs of ilie N civ Zealand Flax. 721 THE WHITE MUSSEL SCALE (PHENACASPIS EUGENIAE, MASKELL), H H ^1 ^^^H ' '» .» « T »' 1 M.A ,j^* - » r- #<<«M THE IVY OR OLEANDER SCALE (aSPIDIOTUS HEDERAE, VALL'), 722 Journal of Agriculture, Yiiforia. \\o Dec, 191 2. LEONGATHA LABOUR COLONY. Trustees: — E. J. Nevell (Chairman), Dr. S. S. Cameron, P. J. Carroll, J. H. Mullally, and J. R. Pescott. In presenting the Annual Report of the Leongatha Labour Colony, the Trustees desire to place on record a complete and comprehensive statement of the transactions and conduct of the farm for the year ending 80th June, 1912. We wish to draw attention to the fact that this institution is now in the twentieth year of its existence, and during this term some 1,200 men have received assistance. In the case of those that have been physically fit a good sound training in agricultural work generally has been obtained. Many of the colonists have become competent farm labourers, and in a few instances successful farmers in the district. In 1893 the farm comprised 822 acres of virgin land; since then some 400 acres have been disposed of at prices ranging from £12 to £25 per acre, and this land is to-day studded with prosperous farm houses. The portion retained for Colony purposes forms one of the best improved farms in South Gippsland. An additional 40 acres have recently been excised for the purposes of a High School, and the balance, consisting of 382 acres, is valued on the Colony books at £26 per acre. After taking full credit for the improvements effected, and the value of land sold and excised, the debit balance stands at £1.700. When the number of men relieved and the benefit received by them is taken into consideration, the position should be considered satisfactory. For the year under review, 117 acres of land were put under cultivation, the whole of the produce being used on the farm as food for dairy stock and pigs. For the coming season, the following areas have been either put under crop or brought into a good state of cultivation preparatory to cropping : — 61 acres Oats. Estimate yield, 122 tons. 21 „ Oats and Tares, silage. Estimate yield, 168 tons. 30 ,, fallowed for Millet, Maize, and Sorghum. Estimate yield, 300 tons. 23 ,, Peas (10 acres in now). Estimate yield, 445 bushels. 8 ,, Pumpkins. Estimate yield, 120 tons. 7 ,, Mangels. Estimate yield, 105 tons. 8 „ Potatoes. Estimated yield, 40 tons. 15 „ Millet, for grazing purposes. 13 „ New pasture sown down. Rye and Clover (mixed). The advantage in this respect will be readily understood when it is pointed out that the area the previous year was only 117 acres. The yield for the season just closing must, however, in view" of the TO Dice. igiJ.l Report on Leongaf lid Labour Coloiiv. 723 dryness c'x[)t'rieiic(_'(l, ?^rl)e con- sidered tiiirly siitisf'jictory. the uverim'e ri'tiirns Iicjul;- ;is fol- lows : — Oats for silayH — yield, 3 tons jjcr acre. Peas — yield, 20 busliels per acre. Hay (oats and wheat) — yield, 2 tons per acre. Sorghum — yield, 10 tons ]ier acr<'. Maize and millet — fed off. Potatoes — yield. 3 tons per acre. Apples, exported — 600 cases. ,, local sales — 667 cases. Plums — 28 cases. Peaches — 9 cases. Quinces — 8 cases. Pears — -k^^ cases. Strawberries — 1,596 lbs. Red currants — 29 lbs. Black currants — 304 lbs. Raspberries — 397 lo lbs. Almonds — 25 lbs. Walnuts (green) — 44 lbs. Tomato plants— 4,102. Cabbage plants — 920. Rhubarb bunches — 472. Tomatoes — 46 cases. Lavender cuttings — 32,600. Buildings. The l)iiildiiig's consist of iiiauii- ger's house, stores and otiices, staff and men's quarters, six men's huts, and dining-rooms, fruit-house, stables, harn. and im]»lement slieds, engine and pum]ting plant l)uilding, dairy- man's house, milking and shelter sheds, piggery and accommoda- tion yards, milkers' and pigmen's huts, and several cattle shelter sheds. Most of these have been erected by colonists ; they are complete and modern without being extravagant, and will bear comparison for economy and utility with similar farm build- ings in any i)art of the State. These improvements a'-e kept in thorongh re])air by the colonists. During the past year commodious piggeries have been erected on the farm capalile of holding 15<» pigs in the 724 Journal of Agriculture . Victoria. [10 Dec, 1912. fattening pens, in addition to convenient sheds and runs for the brood sows and store pigs. The floors of the main building are of machine-made bricks, cement grouted; the walls are on pivots to admit air and sunshine, with a lantern roof with glass lights for light and ventilation. In every respect this building presents a model of perfect hygiene in farm buildings, and accounts in a very great 10 Dec, 191 Report 0)1 T.conii^af lift LahoKr Colonv. 725 measure for the freedom from disease that has been the happy experi- ence of the farm. The two silos, which are capable of holding 250 tons of fodder, are kept constantly in use, and are usually filled twice a year. Persistent effort is put forth to conserve a full and complete ration for the dairy stock, a purpose for wliich the silos have been found indispensable. The cow shed is constructed on sanitary lines, and will accommodate 32 cows at a time ; while shade and shelter sheds and water are provided in the yards for the cows waiting to be milked ; those milked are turned direct into the paddocks. Stables, hay shed, fruit storage rooms, and men's quarters are substantial and convenient, the latter, in addition, being thoroughly sanitary. Stock. ' There are altogether 383 head of stock, including 120 dairy herd, 8 commercial cattle, 13 draught horses, 3 light horses, and 239 pigs; the total value being £1,879 14s. INTERIOR OF MILKING SHED. As evidence of the improved financial aspect of this institution since being handed over to the present management, it may be pointed out that in 1904, the year immediately prior to present control, the Government grant to carry on was between £4.000 and £5.000. while to-day it stands at £400 only. This means that the farm has, in the meantime, been made almost self-supporting, a fact considered most gratifying in view of the purpose it serves, and the fact that in many cases the unfortunates admitted have not for some time after admission been in a fit state to give labour adequate to the cost of 72.6 Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [re Dec. 191 2. rlieir kce]). Every effort has, of course, been made to bring' about tliis result hy in(;reasing- tlie pro- ductiveness of the farm, and, at tlie same time, reducing- ex})endi- ture by economical working. The following is a statement of tlie revenue for each vear from — ] 904-5 : 905-6 1906-7 ] 907-8 1908-9 1909-10 1910-11 1911-12 £ s. d. 1,266 2 1 1,172 4 8 1,382 18 3 1,408 3 10 1,847 0 4 2,111 ( 8 2,044 18 4 2 212 Particulars of the transactions for the past year will be shown on a later page. Taking the ])articular items of revenue, i.e., })igs. dairy, and garden, it is evident that the Colony's produce is earning a reputation for soundness and ([uality. Pigs. Although tlie receipts are less this year than the previous one, it must be borne in ndnd that the prices were fully ;>0 per cent, lower ; but, notwithstand- ing this ftxct, the undertaking shows a substantial profit. Pig raising and fattening is a fluctuat- ing business, but it is felt that l)y keeping the stock up to the maximum at all times we will be enabled to reap the ad- vantage when ])rices go up. It is anticipated that with the ])rospect of high prices a, very large increase in receipts will be shown in the present year's trans- actions. lo Dec, 1912.] Report on I.congafh General expenses . 46 18 11 Furniture . . 2 10 9 Insurance . . . 36 10 3 Implements . . . 59 0 0 Fencing 1 1 0 Tobacco . 34 1 9 Stores . 185 9 5 Food . 204 17 0 Boots and clothing . . 94 19 4 Plant and tools 5 9 3 Fodder, seeds, &c. . 332 4 1 Nursery garden . 215 15 2 Salaries and wages . 1.034 16 4 Dairy herd . . 6 6 0 Horses . 50 13 0 Pigs 5 1 8 2,522 13 7 7 3 Less discounts allowed - 0 2,509 0 3 Bank balances, Trust account . 188 17 6 Wages account . 33 9 1 222 6 r» i / t2,731 6 10^ lo Dec. ig\2.] Report on Leongaihn Labour Colony. 733 VALUE OF STOCK, 30th JUNE, 1912. £, s. d. £ s. d. Nmsery, garden, &c. . 132 U 3 Boots and clothinfr . . . 11 12 7 Growing crops . 145 10 0 Water service . 100 0 0 Tanks . 58 5 0 Fencing 1 10 0 Bedding . 60 3 0 Manure . 47 16 6 Printing and stationery 2 15 7 Dairy 6 10 10 Harness . 60 17 0 Furniture . 121 18 9 Implements . 491 14 0 Fodder, seeds, &c. . . . 259 14 4 Tobacco . 11 4 4 Stores . 158 19 9 Food . .36 19 10 Plant and Tools . 447 6 0 Building Material 1 2 0 Stamps 1 14 9 Horses . 454 10 0 Cattle . 860 15 0 Pig^ . 532 9 0 PROFIT AND LOSS FOR TWELVE MONT 4 OOfi •"> fi T,OV7U ^ u HS ENDED 30th JUNE, 1912. Dr. £ s. d. £ s. d Boots and clothing . . . 12 3 9 Building materials . 13 1 2 Food . 160 16 9 Fodder, seeds, &c. . . . 488 17 2 Freight . 48 8 9 General expenses . 46 4 7 Harness 3 14 0 Maintenance and plant . 55 5 11 Insurance . 36 10 3 Manure . 17 6 0 Printing and stationery 3 8 5 Railway fares . 58 14 5 Salaries . 575 S 0 Stores . 145 14 7 Wages . 285 15 0 Water service . 0 5 0 Cr. 1 OtI 1*^ 0 £ s. d. £ -s. d. Board and lodgings . . . 113 4 5 Bedding . 12 0 3 Discounts allowed . 13 7 0 Dairy herd . . . 49 19 3 Dallying . 625 7 9 Fencing . 0 1 9 Furniture . . 9 19 6 Growing crops . 47 15 0 Glazing . 0 6 0 Horses . 18 3 0 Implements . 43 8 0 JJursery, garden . 171 19 2 Plant and tools . 30 15 4 Pigs . 492 17 7 Tobacco . 6 6 5 1 fi^*! 10 5 734 JoiiDial of Agriculture, Victoria. lo Dec, 1912. The ])i'eseut conditions are favoral)le to a plentiful season, and I anticipate mu(*li larger returns, wliicdi should result in an increase of revenue from the dairy and pi,i;gerY. The pastur.' lands on the farm are very de- ticient, and require re-so\vin,n'. Havin,i>' again got possession of the o() acres of land which had lieen ntilized l»y the De}»artment of Agriculture for the ]iurpose of carrying out Hax-growing experi- ments, this has l)een placed under fodder crops and pastnre grasses, which are growing splendidly. Strawberry clover is establishing itself in all the swampy lands, and improving the carrying capacity of the farm immensely. Improvement AVork. Subdivision fences have heen erected, and all old fences re- I)aired, while six old gates have l)een re])laced by new ones. All the land which was under New Zealand flax has been cleaned u]) and brought into a good state of cultivation. It is proposed to subdivide the flax ground and eventually get the whole of it mider grass, the opinion being that this is the best pasture land on the farm. An a,ddi- tijnal 7 acres have been cleared of tussocks and stnm])s. The trees in the old orchard have been taken out, ;ind the land pre- pared for cropping. Noxious weeds, such as ragwort and thistles, have been kept in check, and ferns cut twice. Poi-tions of the low lands have been cleared up and sown with grass. Labour. Althougli the number of colo nists has been up to the average, lo Dec, 191 Report oil LciiHi^af //(I Labour Colt 735 the value of their work is only a fractional part of what one would expect from the number, considerable difficulty being experienced in some cases in sretting any returns Mt all. The absence of competent OATS, PEAS, AND liEAXS FOR SILA(iK. men to carry out the dififerent branches of farming operations has been a severe handicap in the past. This difficulty has now to a great extent been overcome by the decision of the Trustees to permit of the engagement of a permanent farm hand. Ample evidence of the value of this departure is apparent on the farm to-day in the shape of advanced growing crops and thorough cultivation of the soil, in 736 Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo Dec, 1912- addition to which I am relieved of duties that hitherto have prevented me from exercising the close supervision necessary to get the best results. Stock. The dairy herd consists of 117 head and 3 bulls, and 8 commercial cattle for killing purposes. Twenty of the oldest and least profitable cows have been rejected from the milking herd, and will be used for beef or disposed of as opportunity offers. The places of these will be filled by young heifers out of selected cows by the Jersey bull ' ' Canary Lad IX." The herd is being steadily improved both in character and yield, and many excellent young heifers by the above bull are on the farm at present. A heifer, the progeny of this bull, on her first calf has given up to 3 gallons per clay, with a test of 5.2 per cent, fat, and promises to be a much superior cow to her mother, whose test was. 4.5 per cent. This fact is of considerable importance, and very encouraging for the future, and I anticipate still better results in the direction of type as well as production. The young Jersey bull BERKSHIRE BOAR. "Gold Brew," purchased by Mr. P. J. Carroll, Superintending Trustee, commands the admiration of every farmer who inspects him, and, having come from a noted butter producing family, should further enhance the value of the herd as butter-fat producers. Another valuable t>ull on the farm is the pure bred Ayrshire " Newport," out of that noted cow "Edith," whose photo and record appeared in the September number of the Journal of Agriculture. This bull is being mated with some Ayrshire and Ayrshire cross cows in addition to some of the Jerseys which it is thought would not mate to advantage with the Jersey bull. Pigs. — The season just closed has not come up to expectations, chiefly on account of the slump in prices in pigs and the increased lo Dec, 19 1 2.] Report on Leongafha Labour Colon v. 737 cost of food purchased. The number of pigs was, however, Ivept up to the full complement, and, with the advent of the high prices now prevailing, a good year in this branch of our farming operations is anticipated. The number of pigs on hand at present is 239. Some splendid specimens of the breeds kept are at present on the farm, including boars and sows from imported strains purchased at the Royal Show of 1911. The progeny of these are much sought after by the dairymen along the line. Although very little thought or attention is given to the matter of exhibiting at the shows, we have been fairly successful where our pigs have competed, having secured second place with a Yorkshire boar at the Royal Show, 1911; champion, first, and second at Foster ; and at Leongatha, five firsts and • champion, three seconds, and first for porkers and haconers. Horses.- — There are 15 horses on the farm, 3 having been sold during the year; one, a ten-month old colt, realizing £25. The foals last year numbered 3, two draught and one light, all being good speci- mens and thriving well. BROOD MARES. A two-year old colt and a filly of the same age have been broken in and are working splendidly. Four draught mares have been served this year and have all proved in foal. General Remarks. For the year, 266 men have been sent to the farm from the Mel- bourne office, excluding the 37 on the establishment at the com- mencement of the year. Of these, 37 remain on the farm at the present time. After putting in various terms, 266 have left, chiefiy to accept employment in the neighbourhood. Every considera- tion is given to the farmers requiring labour, and they are permitted to select the best men on the farm for their own purpose at all times. I am pleased to say that some of those who have passed through the Colony are now farming on their own account. A large number of the men coming to the Colony are physically unfitted for hard work, and have to be given light employment which is not at all times of a reproductive character. 738 Journal of Agriculture. Yicforia. [lo Dec. 191 2. Gardener 's Report. Orchard. On the whole, the liealth of the trees and plants is \evy good, though as a precaution the usual spraying had to be carried out. The worst diseases to be combated were woolly aphis and mussel scale, but by constant spraying these were kept in check and almost eradicated. Black spot proved a very difficult disease to cope with, more particu- larly on the pears, the trees having to be sprayed several times to keep it down; but. as the spraying was done at the right time, the result pear tree in bloom. was an almost clean crop. Codlin moth was also in evidence to a slight extent, but was no worse than in previous years. The old raspberry patch is gradually failing, but the yoiuig plants are looking very promising. The strawberries are looking very well, in spite of the hot dry summer just passed. Red and black currants are also thriving. Yield. — As regards apples, last season was a record crop, a few of the old trees only being light. The pear crop was light, but had it not been for the destruction caused by the birds they would have lo Dhc. 19 1 2.1 Ripnrt (III l.coii^iaf lid Labour Colony. 73g given a much better return. The damage done to the ])e^ll■ tind apple crops by starlings was enormous, niany of the trees, owing to this pest, wearing a very sorry appearance; the only traces of fruit being the skins left hanging on the trees. Other fruit trees were only fair. Bush fruits did fairly well on the whole, strawberries being very prolific, yielding approximately 1,600 lbs. from l-5th acr«. Red currants fi-uited well, but the sterlings made sad havoc with these, and got most of the crop. Black currants had a fair crop. Rasp- berries were somewhat light, owing to the dry season. Prices for all fruits were very good. Strawberries sold from 4d. per lb. in the buckets to 9d. per lb. in baskets. Raspberries averaged 3'od. per lb., black currants 4d., and red currants 3d. Apples sold locally and in ]\Iell)ourne realized from 2s. to 6s. per case, rejects for export bringing from 3s. to os. The f(nv pears which were saved sold well. We were fairly successful with our export of apples, 600 cases being shipped to Loudon in three consignments, the fruit being fair and of uniform size. The best prices were realized by Dumelow's Seedling, which brought from 9s. 6d. to 12s. 6d. per case, Jonathans bringing 8s. 9d. only. The fruit was all good, and beautifully clean, especially the Dumelows. which evidently opened up very attractively. Jonathans were not so good, not having suffi- cient colour. Next seas(;n it is proposed to keep Reinettes for local sales, and ship mainly Jonathans. Five Crown, and Dumelows. On the whole, the shipment sold well, realizing as good prices as those of other exporters. The dock strike in London affected adversely the sales of the last two sliipments. Snows. A good exhibit of fruit and vegetables was staged at the local Leongatha show, and secured first prize as a collection of garden pro- duce ; also eleven first prizes and two second prizes in the fruit section. A very attractive exhibit was also shown at the Fruit and Floral Carnival, in the ^Melbourne Exhibition, in ]\larch. This secured a certificate of merit, and was much admired by visitors. New Plantations. Since last year, a small plot of raspberry canes (1,500) was planted. These have made good progress, and should yield a fair crop this season. Three more rows of strawberries has also been added. Old Orchard. This has been abandoned, and the trees uprooted, the ground now being put under fodder crops. The trees were very old. and for many seasons have not been profitable. In addition, they were a menace to the clean trees in the main orchard; being old and very weak they afforded excellent harbor for the various kinds of insect and fungus pests. Vegetable Garden. In this section there was a slight decrease in the sales, the demand for several lines falling off. The spring crops were quite up to 74° Journal of Agriculture. Vicforia. [lo Dec, 191 2. expectations, but owing to the dry, hot summer the others were not so good. The onion crop was very satisfactory. Parsnips did not germinate as well as was expected, and were conse- quently short; but carrots did very well, and there is still a supply in hand. There was a successful crop of early cabbages, but those planted later were adversely affected by the very dry summer. Early peas yielded well, but late ones — like all late crops last season — were very light. Pumpkins, turks' caps, and marrows yielded fairly, and proved a good stand-by during the winter. There was not a very great demand for tomato plants. Fortunately, there were not many grown last season ; and the balance, after sale of young plants, was planted out ; the yield from these was good and prices were profitable. Details of the yields of fruit and vegetables, together with prices obtained, will be found in the Manager's report. In addition to the sales of produce from the garden, a very large quantity is consumed on the Colony. "When the value of this is taken into consideration, it will be found that the orchard and garden have proved profitable. Finally, the year on the whole has been very satisfactory. The area under fruit and vegetables is, approximately, 20 acres, the return from which, including sales and the value of produce used on the place, being estimated at £570. The fruit trees, pears particularly, are looking exceedingly well, and show promise of a heavy crop during the coming season. FODDER CROPS FOR NORTHERN AREAS UNDER IRRIGATION ON SMALL HOLDINGS. By Temple A. J. Smith, Chief Field Officer. There are various crops which can be grown in succession under irrigation which will not only supply constant green fodder for dairy cows or sheep, but will also prove a useful rotation so far as preserving the fertility of the soil is concerned, provided a system of manuring is adopted suited to the land, and such a system can be followed with slight expenditure. It is proposed to outline a rotation for the above purpose covering the whole of the year, giving the reasons from a restorative point of view as concerns the soil, and fodder values in relation to the crops produced. Cultivation must also be thorough in order to achieve the highest possible measure of success. Starting in the early autumn the land should be well fallowed to a depth of at least 6 inches unless the surface soil is shallower, under which circum- stances the ploughing should not be so deep as to turn up the colder sub- soil. The land should be worked down with cultivators or harrows after each day's ploughing, as it will be found that this practice con- serves moisture better than where the ploughing is allowed to dry out, and a better tilth is obtained. ioDec, 1912.] Fodder Crops for Northern Areas under Irrigation. 741 In April or May the land should be again worked with the one-way disc or cultivator to a depth of 3 or 4 inches if clean, or skim ploughed if dirty with weeds, and the following mixture sown for dairy cows or silage: — I bushel rye; ^ bushel dun peas; 7 lbs. golden vetch; and \ bushel of barley or white oats. In many cases double the amount of rye and peas is sown on rich land. The peas are sown broadcast, and the rye, vetches, and oats, or barley drilled in to a depth of not more than 2 inches. A mixture of half-and-half i)one dust and superphosphate, at the rate of 60 lbs. per acre, with 20 lbs. of blood manure or sulphate of ammonia is advisable, particularly on long-cultivated paddocks or poor land. If the soil is deficient in lime, and, in addition, of a heavv character, 10 cwt. of gypsum (sulphate of lime) or Thomas' phosphate in lieu of bone and super, will be found suitable. Quicker results are obtained if manures are applied three to four w-eeks before seed is sown. Care should be taken to sow the mixture while the land is still warm in order to give the crop a good start before the cold weather sets in. The advan- tages connected with the sowing of this combination of crops are many. CHINESE MILLET GROWN AT NYAH. In the first place a larger body of feed is produced as compared with separate seedings. The peas and vetches being legumes supply nitrogen in excess of their own requirements for the rye, oats, or barley, and the latter then naturally make greater growth. A better balance ration is also secured, as the legumes supply a larger proportionate amount of protein, which element of food provides a larger milk supply or induces a better growth in lambs The rye and barley provide the carbohydrates which make for the fats and the warmth necessary to animal life. The rye, peas, and vetches are useful rotation crops, the former owing to its greater rooting system, leaving more decaying organic matter in the soil than any of the other cereals, thus supplying humus. While all three have the effect of leaving the soil in better condition so far as available nitrogen is concerned for following crops. Instances are on record of this mixture when cut yielding 28 tons of green fodder per acre, and better returns can always be had from cutting the crops than feeding off, though grazing is a practice often followed. Cutting can, if good autumn rains have fallen, or irriga- 742 j oiirnal of Ag) iJii Victoria. [lo Dec, 191 2. lion applied. l)e begun eight weeks after sowing, though full growth will not obtain until four weeks later. If sheep only are to be fed. 3 lbs. of rape (Dwarf Essex variety) can be added, but where it is intended for cows and silage rape is not recommended. If. however, rape is sown, it should be broadcasted after the other seed is sown, and lighl\' harrowed. It is not unusual to find twelve to sixteen sheep fattened per acre on this fodder mixture, and either for cows or sheep feed will be available right up to the end of the spring. Meantime a .second paddock should be under fallow for a spring crop with a view^ to a: supply of green succulent fodder for the early and midsummer, so that no check in the milk supply or growth of lambs will ensue. The most suitable crops for this purpo.se are the Millets, Japanese, German, and Chinese, or White Millet. The first- mentioned is the hardiest, and gives from 6 to 10 tons of green fodder per acre. It should be sown after the danger of frosts is passed, in October and Novemlier, at the rate of 9 11)S. of seed per acre, in drills 1 1 L §m ^n ^HHhB fl^pm i 1 H^^n ^^n HI ■ BHBwj 1 Bi i^E ^J 1 HH ^ B^^^MI^^^a w^M ^BH^^^^^I |HH^| H ^H^^^^^^^H ft m [|B^^"?^jfe^fl^t<^ oi^B Bpi 1 HHHH s p -^3 ^ aS '^ • ij m^J^ "^"^S^^ft j*iajTj Bk^^sRhhH vB^k^Sm Ib ^^IKmBH^^B^B 1 ^'4 Hn^; ^'vK^aj^Mb ^ IS m^pg ^mm ^m^' ^H. ^hIH 1 ^M F '""^H^fi^S^^ wk 1 k^l F. .^.-JE Bt^^^ '■^^^ K^^M ^^1 m ^^fe*'^ W'--''':^': .^H ^1 B I^H^ LUCERNE, MILLET, AND MAIZE CROPS. 2 feet apart and 3 inches in the drill. Care must be taken not to put the seed down too deep, or it will perish, an inch to an inch and a half being the best depth to sow. The scuffler should be used between the drills until the crop is well established, commencing soon after the rows are well defined. This crop if cut before the seed is formed will come again two or three times if it gets rain or water after cutting and cultivation with the scuffler is followed, as soon as the land is sufficiently dry for the purpose. It can also be grazed if required, but the yield will not be so great if this course is followed. Any surplus can be made into fair hay or silage for cow feed. German Millet grows a finer straw, and gives a lighter yield, but makes a nice hay, and makes excellent grazing for sheep, seeding at the rate of 7 lbs. per acre is sufficient, broadcast. Chinese or White Millet should be sown in the same Avay as Japanese, and treated in the same manner, giving a heavy yield. The .seed from all the millets is readily bought by seed mer- chants. The rrop should be readv for the flrst-cut, about the middle ioDec. 1Q12."; Fodder Crops for Norihcrti Areas under Irrigation. 743 of December, and ran l)e relied upon to keep tilings going until the end of February. Millets make good milk producers, and are easily handled ; thev are also suitable for silage. Farm manures suit the millets best. A third paddock should he in preparation for maize, which can be sown in Septemlier, October, Xovember. and, where irrigation is possible. December. The best fodder varieties are Hickory King. Yellow Moruva, and Eclipse. These kinds give heavier \ ields. and keep green longer than most others, have a large leaf system with the least pro- portionate amount of woody fibre. The land should be fallowed and well worked, and seed sown at the rate of 20 to 30 lbs. per acre in drills 3 feet apart, and the seed 9 to u inches in the rows, two to three seeds in each place or hill as it is termed. The rows should be worked between with the scufifler at intervals to conserve moisture, admit air. and keep down weeds until 6 feet high, 1 rff ""^>V^>'^ i r^^ "'^. >;:.: , ' .' MAIZE CROP SOWN INT DRILLS. the later working being shallow, when the crop itself should protect the soil from the sun's ra\s. Relays of seeding each month to keep a con- tinuous supply should be sown, and the first cutting under favorable conditions should be ready about the end of January, and the last right into June. Broadcasting maize is a bad system, as if grown too thickly the lower leaves will drv off and become useless as fodder, and the stalk will be hard and woody, and less digestible; scarifying cannot be done, and the result is smaller and less succulent fodder. Yields of from 10 to 30 tons are possible per acre, and the best time to cut is when the crop comes into flower, and before the grain hardens in the cob. Maize is not only a fine fodder for cows and silage, but contrary to general opinion makes a fine fattening crop for sheep, especiallv crossbreds, if good fodder varieties are used, as thev soon learn to straddle the stalks after cleaning up the bottom leaves. &c.. and will eat it ba'^k to within a couple of feet 744 Journal of AgricuHure, Victoria. [lo Dec, 191 2. of the ground. If the crop is not allowed to become too dry before they are turned in there is also very little waste after sheep. Broken-mouthed sheep should not be turned on to maize. Amber cane, Imphee, Farmer's Friend, are all treated for growth similarly to maize, except that less seed is required, 8 to 10 lbs. being sufficient per acre. They have a slight advantage over maize for winter fodder in that they are late, and of use after frost has attacked them in the early winter. They can also be cut, and stored dry, and fed through the winter to stock, or made into silage. In regard to the last three crops care must be taken to have good fences enclosing them, as they are liable to cause hoven or bloat if stock gain access to them before the ripening stage; if cut before ripe for fodder they should be allowed to wilt for a few hours in the sun before feeding. For very early winter feed skinless barley sown at the rate of 2 bushels per acre in early autumn will be found of value. Bonanza or Clydesdale oats are also early growers. They should be sown in the autumn while there is still warmth in the ground to get good re.sults, and be well dressed with well-rotted manure ploughed in before sowing. Adjuncts such as pumpkins, kale, mangels, turnips, can also be grown ; the chief difficulty in regard to these root crops being the labour of handling. Pumpkins are easily grown on good river bottoms, and a cheap crop to produce; they are .sown 10 to 12 feet apart, and if a few shovelfuls of good farm manure are deposited at each hill will be found to give satisfactory returns. They are, however, not ideal food for cows, as their mushy condition prevents the act of rumination, and the seed is liable to pass into the second stomach and cause trouble. Nothing has been said about lucerne, and there can be no doubt that as a fodder no better crop can be grown. The above system, if followed where lucerne cannot be successfully grown or as an adjunct, has proved a fine rotation. The addition of good oaten hay, chaff, and bran will improve the food value of all the green fodder crops dealt with, and a subdivision of at least four paddocks is necessary to pro- perly carry out the system of rotation advocated. As each strip of the crop is finally cut the plough should be put in and the land well worked for the following crop ; any delay means loss of moisture, and a prospect of weeds, and trouble. No mention is made as to the areas of each crop required as that will depend on tiu scale of _ operations of each individual, and the average yields of the crop.> will give a good idea as to the area to be planted ; at the same time, a surplus would be always advisable. The average cow in milk will consume 70 to 100 lbs. of green fodder daily; a sheep 20 to 30. Where dairying is the main industry on the farm a silo is indispensable to make full use of surplus fodder crops to the best advantage. Horses and ruminants digest about the same percentage of albuminoids (protein) from a food, but the ruminants digest 10 per cent, more of the carbohydrates and 20 per cent, more of the fibre. They also make a better use of the fat. lo Dec, 19 1 :^.] Ri'sulf!< of Sprayit/g for Irish Blight. 745 RESULTS OF SPRAYING FOR IRISH BLIGHT. B\j Geo. Seymour, Potato Expert. IMiich difference of opinion exists among potato-growers as lo whether it pays to spray their potato crops. It is well known that in Great Britain and Ireland, where the climate is more humid, and therefore more favorable to the development of late blight, spraying will check the disease, and increase the yield of sound tubers; but the majority of growers in this State argue that, with our dry climate, the disease is not likely to do much harm. This may be true ; but spraying must be done regularly as it is impossible to foretell a visi- tation of the disease. Then again, if spraying is to do the greatest amount of good possible, it is necessary that growers should carry out the work simultaneously. In order to gain reliable data, based on local conditions, it was de- cided by this Department to carry out experiments at different centres. For this purpose, plots were established at Crossley and Wollaston. near Warrnambool. for early crops. A plot on the same lines was established at Warragul, on the farm of ]\Ir. S. jNIcKay. for mid-season crop, and at ]Mr. P. H. Ibbott's farm, Pootilla, 2y-2 miles from Bun- garee, for late crop. The scheme embraced five sections in each plot; three of these sections were sprayed from one to three times. In the case of the Warrnambool plot it was deemed advisable to divide the three-spray section, and spray half four times. This fourth spraying evidently had a beneficial effect, as this is the only section that was free of diseased tubers. Varieties. The varieties planted in the plots were as follow : — New Zealand Pinkeye, at Crossley and Warrnambool. Carman, at Warragul. Snowfiake, at Pootilla. All the fields were carefully inspected before operations were com- menced. Crossley and AVarrnambool were inspected on October 3rd. Previous to this date the weather had been showery, and the soil was in a very moist condition, favorable to the development of the Late Blight, which was found evenly distributed in a mild form over the fields; but the tubers, which were just forming, had not been attacked. In the case of the mid-season plot at Warragul, a similar condition existed. In the late plot at Pootilla. the disease did not make its appearance at any stage. The mixture used was copper-soda solution, or Burgundy mixture, of the following strength : — 12 lbs. sulphate of copper. 15 lbs. carbonate of soda. 100 gallons of water. This mixture was applied at the rate of 80 to 100 gallons per acre. The latter quantity was found necessary when the plants were large and well grown. The cost of material worked out at about 3s. per acre for bluestone. and Is. per acre for soda; total, 4s. per acre. The cost of 15584. 2 1; 746 Journal of Agriculture. Victoria. [lo Dec, 191 2. applying the mixture is regulated largely by the distance the water has to be carried and the supply of vessels for mixing, also the number of rows covered by the machine. The machine used in these experi- ments was a five-row " Fleming " sprayer. The total cost for spray- ing an acre works out at about 7s. 6d. T.\BLE I. — Plot 1. SPRAYING EXPERIMENTS, 1911-12. Mr. p. Crowe's Plot, Crossley, Near Koroit. Number of Times Sprayed. Date of Spraying. Yield per acre of Crop. Weight of Diseased Tubers. Proportion of Diseased Tubers. Tons cwts. lbs. lbs. Per cent. Once 13th October 1 5 34 14 •6 Uns prayed Twice I 13th October 21st October I 1 1 5 1 3 50 56 18 11 •6 ■4 Unsprayed ( 13th October ) 1 13 82 14 ■3 Three Times \ 21st October ( 1 9 21 3 ■09 \ 1st November In the case of the Crossley plot, it was found that about the time of the first spraying, on October 13th, the crop received a check. The set-back was very marked on the sprayed sections. The showery weather of the early part of October was followed by an exceptionally dry November, during which month rain only fell on seven days, giving 31 points at Crossley in six weeks. This dry spell, no doubt, checked the disease, and was responsible for the light yields. The Crossley plot was harvested during this month, and the Warrnambool T.\BLE II.— Plot 2. SPRAYING EXPERIMENTS, 1911-12. Messrs. Callagh.\n Bros. Ltd.. Wollaston. Warrnambool. Number of Times Sprayed. Dates of Spraying. Yield per acre of Crop. Weight of Diseased Tubers. Proportion ot Diseased Tubers. Tons cwts. lbs. lbs. Per cent. Once 10th October . 3 6 88 19t3 2-5 T\vice { 10th October \ 3 7 IH 105 1 -4 24th October / Unsprayed f 10th October 1 2 10 4 213 4-3 Three Times < 24th October > 14th November 1 2 13 42 31 0 Unsprayed 10th October ^ 24th October 1 14th November | 22nd November j 2 14 22 298 4-7 Four Times \ 3 0 22 nil lo Dec, 191^-] Results of Spraying for Irish Blighi . 747 plot a month later, the latter thus receiving the benefit of the Decem- ber rain, which amomited to 393 points at Warrnambool. The amount of disease in the Crossley plot was insignificant, the only indication of any benefit being a decrease in the percentage of Blight as the number of sprayings increased, but the average yield was in favour of the unsprayed sections by 13 ewt. 67 lbs. The results of the Wollaston plot were more satisfactory, showing in a marked manner that spraying checks the disease even in a dry season. It will be noted that both the unsp rayed sections have practi- cally the same percentage of diseased tubers, viz., 4.3 and 4.7 per cent., whilst that sprayed only once has the largest amount of disease in the spi'ayed sections, viz.. 2.5 per cent. Another spraying reduced the percentage to 1.4, the third to .5, and the fourth to nil. In the case of the Wollaston plot, it will be noted that the yield showed an average increase of 12 cwt. 92 lbs. per acre in favour of the sprayed sections. This increase, no doubt, appears small ; but, taking into consideration the very dry weather experienced during the growing period, it may be regarded as satisfactory, and proves beyond doubt that spraying increases the quantity of sound tubers. Table III. SPRAYING EXPERIMENTS, 1911-12. Plot 3. — Mid-seasok Crop. Mr. S. Mackay, Warragul. Variety — Carman. Number of Date of Yield per jcre + Increase Weight of Percentage Times Sprayed. Spraying. of Crop Decrease. Tubers. Tubers. Tons cwts. Ihs, Tons Tons cwts. lbs. % Once 2.12.11 4 1 28 — 0 9 84 Nil Nil 10-8 Unsprayed . . 4 11 0 \ Twice 1 2. 12. 11 16.12.11 2.12.11 ]• 3 13 1 22 — 0 17 90 14-6 Three Times < 16.12.11 12.1.1:; ^2 12 21) 4- 0 3 48 *7 Unsprayed . . 2 8 84 + * Plot 4. Mr. Ibbott, Pootilla. Varietj' — Snowflake. Once 15.2.12 3 15 50 0 11 68 Nil Nil 13-2 Unsprayed . . 4 7 6 Twice { 15. 2. 12 \ 7.3.12/ 3 12 80 0 14 38 16-4 Reference to table 5 will show that at Warragul for the period embracing December, January, February, December had seven- teen wet days, resulting in 704 points of rain, and January had eight wet days before the 11th, with 121 points, with only 5 points for the remainder of the month. Such conditions were favorable for the de- velopment of the disease, with the result that it made its appearance in •2 V. 2 748 Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo Dec, 191 2. the plants, but no disease was found in the tubers of the sprayed and unsprayed sections. It is very probable that the dry weather at the end of January and beginning of February checked the disease. That the dry weather had a marked influence on the crop is borne out by the yields obtained on sections 4 and 5 of plot 3, marked thus *, which were planted three weeks later than the sections 1, 2, and 3, consequently the results of sections 4 and 5 must be considered sepa- rately. In this case the sprayed section shows an increase of 7 per cent. Yields. The returns from plots 1, 3, and 4 show a marked decrease in the yield on the sprayed sections compared with the unsprayed, ranging from 7 per cent, to 16 per cent. The only increase is in plot No. 2, and the late planted portion of No. 3. This decrease is consistent through- out, and is greater in proportion to the number of sprayings. Table IV. AVERAGES OF SPRAYED AND UNSPRAYED SECTIONS. Plot. Sprayed. Unsprayed. Increase. Decrease. Mr. C!ro\ve's Mr. Callaghan's Tons cwt. 1 5 3 1 lbs. Ill 98 Tons cwt. lbs. 1 9 66 2 9 6 Tons cwt. 0 12 lbs. 92 cwt. 3-67 From the above it will be seen that in one case spraying increased the yield ; in the other there is an apparent decrease. SPRAYING EXPERIMENTS, 1911-12. Plan of Mr. Crowe's Plot at Crossley. 133 links. Sprayed three (3) times 50 links. Uns]irayed 133 links. Sprayed twice 50 links. [Tnspi'ayed 133 links. ■>prayed once Public road. SPRAYING EXPERIMENTS, 1911-12. Plan of Plot at Messrs. Callaghan Bros., Wollaston, Warrnambool. •285 links. 100 links. 285 links. 100 links. 2Si ) links. Sprayed once . . Unsprayed . . Sprayed twice Unsprayed . . Sprayed three timet Sprayed four times. lo Dec. 191:!.] Ri'snltK of Spraying; for Irish Bliglif. 749 It has been claimed for spraying that it is beneficial to the crop, apart from checking diseases, because it prolongs the life of the plant. It cannot be said to have had that result in any operations carried out by this Department. It has been noted that the sprayed sections kept green longer than the unsprayed, but it does not necessarily follow, because the leaves are green, that the crop of tubers will show an in- creased yield. The results of plot 4, at Pootilla, are interesting in this connexion, the section sprayed once showed a decrease of 11 cwt. 68 lbs. as compared with the unsprayed section, and the twice spra.yed section a decrease of 14 cwt. H8 lbs. In these experiments information has been sought on the following points : — 1. "What effect has spraying on the disease ? 2. How many times should the crop be sprayed? 3. Will spraying increase the yield of the crop? 4. Does it pay to spray? 5. What influence has the weather on the disease? 6. Data in regard to the rainfall during the growing period at different centres. 1. Spraying checks the disease and results in a larger percentage of sound tubers. The increase was in proportion to the number of times the crop was sprayed (see table, plots 1 and 2). 2. The number of times the crop requires to be sprayed must be determined by the weather conditions during the growing period. Results obtained on plots 1 and 2 in this experiment indicate very little difference between the section sprayed once and the unsprayed section, whilst the section sprayed four times was the only one free from disease. 3. In these experiments the balance of evidence is that spraying decreases the total yield of the crop, and that the decrease is in propor- tion to the number of times the crop is sprayed. 4. Judged by the results obtained in these experiments, the answer is No, but owing to the season being unfavorable for the development and spread of the disease, this reply must be considered in conjunction with question No. 1. 5. A prolonged dry period cheeks the disease in the plants, and is the controlling factor in its attack on the tubers. (See results of plot No. 3, sections 1 and 2). It has been stated that the disease was found in the plants of this plot before spraying commenced ; but no disease was found in the tubers of the unsprayed sections. 6. Remarkable variations in the rainfall at different centres is re- vealed by table. Plot No. 1 had 44 wet days, with 658 points of rain ; plot No. 2, 33 wet days, with 537 points ; plot No. 3, 34 wet days, with 946 points; plot No. 4, 19 wet days, with 537 points, showing difference of 68 per cent, between the highest and lowest records. The Water. It was evident, in these experiments, that the quality of the water has a great deal to do with the effect of the copper-soda, and Bordeaux mixtures, on the plants. It is recognised that rain-water, or soft river- water, is best for preparing the solution ; that used at Warrnambool 75° Jo/inial of Agrui/ltiirc, Victoria. \^o Dec, 1912. Table V. The sites for the plots were selected witli due regard to the raiiilall and its effect on the crops maturing at different seasons ; Nos. 1 and 2, for the early Spring rains on the first early crcp ; No. 3 for early Summer rain on the mid-season^crop, and No. 4 for the late Summer and Auliimn rains en the late crops. The following table will show the number of wet days and total rainfall during the growing period at each station : — 1911. 1912. Station. October. November. December. January. February. March. No. Wet Days. Points. No. Wet Days. Points. Wet ^°'°**^- Days. No. Wet. Days. Points. ^°il Point.. Days. No. Wet Days. Points. 1. Crossley 2. Warrnambool 3. Warragul 4. PootiUa (Kirk's Dam) PootiUa (Beale's Re- servoir) 17 12 166 128 7 4 31 16 20 : 411 17 i 393 17 j 704 '9 5 6 126 47 35 's ] lie 4 1 119 4 126 7 9 155 141 and Koroit was hard spring-water, highly mineralized, and required a much larger quantity of soda than the standard formula to preci- pitate the copper. On applying the litmus and cyanide test, the solu- tion contained too much copper, and instead of the standard 6 — 7I/2 — 50, it required 6 lbs. soda-copper, 12 lbs. soda, to 50 gallons of water. At "Warragul, with soft water, the proportions were 6 lbs. soda- copper, 8 lbs. soda, to 50 gallons of water. It is a question for the future whether it would not be better to use the lime-water prepara- tion, which has proved quite as effective, and much cheaper. The latest formula is as follows : — Copper-sulphate — 10 ounces. Lime-water — 8I/2 gallons. Add water to make up 50 gallons. When considering the results of these experiments, it must be re- membered that the season w^as an abnormally dry one, consequently the results are no indication of the benefit to be derived from early and systematic spraying, in such a season as 1910-11. The actual benefit to be derived from spraying every season is far from settled. In other countries, the results are not conclusive ; in some seasons they are slightly in favour of the sprayed sections ; and in others it is in favour of the unsprayed. But, allowing that the decreased yield in these ex- periments is due to the effect of the mixture on the plants, it amounts only to about 15 per cent., whilst the loss from the Blight in 1910-11 ranged from 25 per cent, to a total loss. As many fields were not harvested, it is safe to assume that if spraying had been imdertaken early, and persistently followed up, many of these abandoned fields would have given a fair percentage of sound tubers. It is most de- sirable that those growers w^ho have a spraying plant should be on the alert for any appearance of an outbreak in the coming season, and in carrying out the work are advised to have one or more unspraj^ed control sections. IP Dec, 1912.] Resulti! of Spraying for Irish Blight. 751 I am indebted to the Commonwealth Meteorologist for the daily rainfall registered during the period of experiment at each centre. The thanks of this Department are also due to Mr. Crowe, Crossley; IVIessrs. Callaghan Bros., Warrnambool; Mr. S. McKay, Warragulj and Mr. Ibbott, of Pootilla. for setting apart portions of their crop for experimental purposes, and the assistance rendered in carrying out the Avork. Table VI. SPRAYING EXPERIMENTS. 1911-12. R.\INFALL AT KOBOIT AND WaRKNAMEOOL. Early Fields. Date. October. November. December. Points. Points. Points. 1 3 2 8 12 3 23 1 4 9 5 Ill 6 7 8 ■T 8 4 .") 6 9 29 10 ■1 2 11 2 12 (i9 13 2 6 4(i 14 2 1 15 16 6 1 •)•> 17 2 18 3 19 49 20 20 21 4 22 4 (i 23 2 3 24 t) 3 25 12 36 26 1 09 27 1 28 1 29 30 0 31 47 3 Total rain Kit) 31 411 17 days 7 days 20 days Warrnambool. October. November. December. Points 19 6 10 39 128 12 days Points 6 16 4 d;i Point6. 130 1 8 1 ()2 35 12 7 28 3 30 20 1 393 17 days 75^ Journal of Agric7iltnre, Vicforia. [lo Dec. iqi2. Table VII. SPRAYING EXPERIMENTS. 1911-12. Mid-season Plot. Late Plot. Pootilla Plot. Records taken at Warragul. Beale's Reservoir. 1911. 1912. 1912. 1912. 1912. 1912. Date. Date. - December. January. February. .January. February. March. Points. Points. Points. Points. Points. Points. 1 9 1 .. 10 2 14 2 1 3 3 .. 4 71 47 4 .. 3 i 5 12 4 5 .. 8 2 6 8 4 6 . . 7 'o 75 7 .. 62 8 5 8 .. 24 9 16 9 . . 62 10 17 10 .. 10 25 11 94 8 11 .. 3 12 149 12 .. 3 13 12 13 .. 14 14 .. 15 29 15 . . 16 22 5 15 16 .. 17 2 17 .. 18 50 IS .. 19 40 19 .. 20 4 20 .. 21 67 21 .. 22 21 22 23 6 23 '.. 24 5 24 . 36 25 88 2 25 . 26 34 26 . 27 1 4 27 ., 4 8 28 28 . 25 29 29 ., 13 30 30 .. 2 31 31 . Total Rain 704 126 116 35 126 141 Number 1 of Days' \ " 9 8 6 4 9 Rainfall. lo Dec, IQI2.] Fruit Prospects for the Coming Season. 753 FRUIT PROSPECTS FOR THE COMING SEASON. p. J. Carmody, Chief Orchard Supervisor. The subjoined reports of the district supervisors indicate the fruit prospects of the coming year to be particularly good. Owing to mild winter and to the fact that last season's crop was light, the trees are in excellent condition ; and the bright and sunny weather prevailing at setting time has resulted in leading one to believe that a record yield will be harvested. In only a limited area have frosts been reported to be injurious. Jonathan, the principal export apple of the southern part of the State, gives promise of a very heavy crop where the trees are under the influence of other varieties blooming at the same time. Where large areas of these apples are planted out on their own, crops are light and irregular. Rokewood, Yates, and Statesman are amongst those having the greatest influence in interpollination with the Jonathan, and it is remarkable to see young trees three and four years old with this advantage laden with fruit, while without it trees eight years old have but a few apples on them. It is advisable, not only with this variety, but with all other kinds of fruit, to adopt a method of planting whereby interpollinating influences can have the fullest scope. Now that the work of spraying is facilitated by the general use of motor spray pumps, it is only reasonable to expect growers to take every precaution against diseases so that the fruit may be in a •condition to bring remunerative prices on the market. The reports from the different districts are as follow : — Mr. H. W. Davey, Geelong and Western District, reports: — Geelong, mcludiiig Freshwater Creek and part of Moorahool Valley. — Apricots: from light to heavy, the average on the light side. Peaches: excellent. Plums: fair. Pears: very heavy. Apples: good. Inverleigh, Native Creek, and Bannockhurn. — Apricots from light to heavy, average a fair crop. Cherries and peaches: good. Plums: fair. Apples: good. Pears: heavy. Mt. Cole. — Apricots: not much grown. Plums: good. Apples: good. Pears: heavy. Ocean Grove, Fenwick, and Wallington. — Apricots: light to fair. Apples: good. Pears: heavy. Portland, Gorae, and Bolwarrah. — Apricots: good, but little grown. Pears: very heavy. Panmure. — Apricots: fair. Apples: good. Pears: heavy. Plums: fair. Eoketcood Junction. — Apricots: fair to good Apples: good. Pears: very heavy crops. TVarncoort and Yea. — Apricots: fair to good. Peaches: very little grown. Apples: good; some fine crops of Jonathans. Pears: heavy. Mr. E. Meeking reports: — Prospects of the coming season 's fruit crop in the Mornington Peninsula are: — Apples. — .Jonathan: a good setting is the rule throughout the whole of the Mornington Peninsula and the greater part of South-eastern Gippsland. 754 ] oiinial of Agnculture. Victoria. [lo Dec, 1912. Eeinotte du Canada: generally speaking, throughout the Mornington Pen- insula and South-eastern Gippsland this useful and hardy variety has again set well. Williams' Favorite: very fair all round. Gravenstein: fair to medium in all the centres. Eome Beauty: on the Mornington Peninsula there is promise of a fair crop; but with this particular variety it is rather early to speak definitely. In the Gippsland portion of the district the variety is not much cultivated. London Pippin: this being a late variety, the remarks on Eome Beauty pertain to London Pippin also. Delicious: where planted on the Peninsula, the setting has been very fair. Sunnyside: a very fair setting in most of the centres. Aesopus Spitzenberg: not a heavy setting in any of the centres. Statesman: generally good everywhere. Pears. — Williams' Bon Chretien: the setting has been good; quite different from last season. Beurre de Capiaumont: good generally. Black Spot has made its appear- ance, and will tend to lessen the crop. Beurre d'Anjou: usually a poor setter, this season there is promise of a fair crop. Napoleon: a good setting. Black Spot threatens to cause havoc. Keiffer's Hybrid: promise of a very fair crop generally. Beurre Bosc: a good setting wherever grown. Ajmcots. — OuUin's Early Peach: a very fair promise. Moor Park: a good promise. Beuge: fair to good. Plums. — All varieties have set well, and with favorable weather should yield a good harvest. Strmvberries, — Most varieties set well, but hailstorms caused a certain amount of loss. The crop generally in Eed Hill will be fair. Mr. A. A. Hammond reports on the fruit crops in the Doncaster district : — Apfiles. — Good. All the leading varieties promise a good crop. Apricots. — Good. Very little grown, but the crop is the best for a number of years. Pears. — Very good. Peaches. — Very good. Late varieties are heavy. Brigg's and Hale's Early have only a medium crop, but on the whole the prospects of the peach crop are good. Plums. — Light. All the leading varieties are light. The Washington, Greengage, and Late Black Orleans promise a medium to good crop, but these varieties are not so largely grown. Lemons. — Good. The prospects for the coming season 's fruit crop are, on the whole, very satisfactory. With the exception of plums, all kinds of fruit trees are carrying a good crop. The plum crop will probably be only about one-fifth to one-sixth of the 1910-11 season's crop. Mr, J. Farrell reports : — Bayswater.- — Apples: all varieties medium to heavy. Pears: heavy. Plume: medium. Peaches: heavy. Apricots: light. Strawberries: heavy. Blackiurn. — Apples: medium to heavy. Pears: heavy. Peaches: heavy. Apricots: medium. Plums: light. Brighton. — Apples: heavy, particularly Fillbasket. Pears: Williams' Bon Chretien, Keiflfer's Hybrid, and Howell, heavy; others, medium. Peaches and apricots: medium. Figs: light (first crop). Burwood. — Apples: medium to heavy. Pears: heavy, particularly Williams'' Bon Chretien. Peaches and apricots: light. Plums: light to medium. lo Dec, 191-'.] bruit Prospects for the Coming Season. 755 Croydon. — Apples: Jonathau, medium to heavy; Five Crown and Eome Beauty, heavy; other varieties, good. Pears: Williams' Bon Chretien, Howell, Keiffer, Beurre Bosc, and Beurre Capiaumont heavy; other varieties, medium to heavy. Peaches, plums, and apricots: medium. Emerald. — Apples: Five Crown and Rome Beauty, heavy; Jonathan, medium; others, light. Pears: medium. Plums: light to medium. Strawberries: heavy. '^\W Fern Tree Gully. — Apples: medium. Pears: heavy. Peaches: heavy. Plums: medium. Strawberries: good. Eingtvood. — Apples: all varieties, medium to heavy. Pears: heavy. Plums: medium. Peaches, heavy. Apricots: light. Strawberries: good. Scoresby. — Apples: medium to heavy. Pears: heavy. Plums: medium. Lemons and oranges: medium. Vermont. — Apples: medium to heavy. Pears: heavy. Plums: medium.- Peaches and apricots: light. Lemons and oranges: medium. Strawberries: heavy. Wandin. — Apples: medium. Pears: heavy. Plums, peaches, and apricots: light to medium. Oranges and lemons: medium. Quinces: heavy. Loquats: medium. Walnuts: light. Almonds: medium. Mulberries: heavy. Figs: light. Gooseberries: heavy, particularly Eoaring Lion. Passion fruit: very light. Raspberries: show prospects of good crop. Blackberries: all varieties look well for a croji. Currants: medium. Filberts: light. Strawberries: Edith, Marguerite, Royal Sovereign, and Sunbeam, heavy; Up-to-date, medium; except where irrigated, heavy. Waverley. — Apples: most kinds, medium to heavy. Pears: heavy. Plums: medium. Peaches and apricots: light. Lemons and oranges: medium. ]\Ir. E. Wallis reports: — Diamond Creek, Doreen, Eltham, Greenshorougli, Ee.9eareh, South Morang, Tanclc's Corner. — Apples: heavy. Apricots: medium to heavy. Peaches: heavy. Pears: heavy. Plums: heavy. Quinces: medium to heavy. Arthur's CreeTc, Kinglalce, Eunning Creel'. Stratheicen, Wallan, Whittlesea. — Apples: heavy. Apricots: medium. Peaches: heavy. Pears: heavy. Plums: heavy. Quinces: medium to heavy. Allicood, Cottle's Bridge, Kangaroo Ground, Panton Hill, Queenstown. Summer Hill. — Apples: heavy. Apricots: medium. Peaches: heavy. Pears: heavy. Plums: heavy. Quinces: medium. Digger's Eest, Keilor, Macedon, Eiddell's Creelc, Werribee. — Apples: heavy. Apricots: medium. Peaches: medium. Pears: heavy. Plums: medium to heavy. Mr, A. G. McCalman (Goulburn Valley) reports: — Apricots both in the Goulburn Valley and North-east will be extremely light, especially Moor Park, the principal canning variety. Total yield will probably not be one-fifth of last season 's yield. Peaches. — The early varieties Brigg's Red May and Hale's Early will be a light crop. The later kinds, including all those suitable for canning and drying, will be a good crop, approaching that of last season, both in the Yallev and Xorth-east. Of the late varieties of peaches, the Elberta has set well, but the Comet will be light; Foster is light. Nicholl's Orange Cling, rather light; Pullar's Cling is light on the young trees, and light to medium crop on older trees; Lady Palmerston is light, and Late Orange Cling a very light crop. Pears. — Williams' Bon Chretien, the principal canning pear, will be extremely heavy, except at Toolamba and Ardmona, where the crops will be medium only. The total will probably exceed that of any previous year, as manv young trees are coming into full profit. The yield of pears generally will be good. Apples. — Heavy yields aa-III be obtained with nearly all varieties in the Valley and Xorth-east. Plums. — Crops will be medium only in both districts. Nectarines. — Crops will be good. 756 Journal of Agriciilt?(rc , Victoria. [10 Dec, 191 2. Oranges and lemons. — Promise of heavy yields, but it is too early to say. Grapes. — Damaged by frost in many places. The total yield will be much lighter than last year. Lo(iua1s have everywhere set heavy crops. Almonds. — The crop will be very good, Hatch's Nonpariel having the biggest yield. The Jordan shows well in most places. Mr. AV. P. Chalmers reports on the various localities in his district : — - Bet Bet and Dunolly. — Apricots: very light. Peaches: early varieties, medium; late varieties, very heavy. Plums: medium. Apples: heavy. Pears, very heavy. Amphitheatre, Elmhurst, Eversley. — Pears: heavy. Apples: medium. Pomonal. — Apples: exceptionally light. Pears: heavy. Horsham. — Apricots: exceptionally light. Peaches: early, light; late, heavy. Plums: medium. Apples: medium. Pears: heavy. Guildford and Newstead. — Apples: heavy. Peais: very heavy. Smnmary for District. — Apples: medium. Pears: very heavy. Plums: medium. Apricots: very light. Quinces: abundant. Mr. S. A. Cock reports on the prospects of the frviit crop in the Bendigo district: — Apricots. — The crop is a light one generally. Extremely light in the Bendigo district, and medium to light in the Murray district. Apples. — Every variety is heavy, especially New York, Munroe, Newtown Pippin, and Jonathan. Harcourt should produce a record crop this season. Citrus. — Oranges and lemons are showing abundant blossom, and the con- ditions favorable to setting a very heavy crop in all the northern irrigated areas. Currants. — Black and red promise a good crop at Taradale, Woodend, and Kyneton. Figs. — Bendigo and the Murray districts should produce a record first crop of figs. All varieties have set well. Grapes. — Both table and drying grapes give excellent promise of a heavy crop at Bendigo and the Murray districts. Gooseberries. — The crop is a medium to good one. Loquats. — A good crop in the Bendigo district. Pears. — The crop is light to medium; Williams' Bon Chretien, Beurre de Capiaumont, and Eyewood are the heaviest, and Gansel 's Bergamot and Winter Nel^s extremely light. Plums. — Early ]:)lums will be light, and late plums heavy. Generally, taking Bendigo and the Murray districts, the crop is medium to heavy. Peaches. — Bendigo and the Murray districts should have a splendid crop in all varieties. Quinces. — A heavy crop in all districts. Strawherries. — At Campbell's Creek a good crop; and in the new irrigation settlements of the north, Tongala, Bamawm, Nanneella, and Swan Hill the promise is good. Tovtaloes. — A heavy crop at Echuca, Swan Hill, and all the Murray district. Bendigo a heavy crop, but late, owing to cold conditions of September and October. There is also a large planting in the irrigation settlements, and promise of heavy crops. Mr. L. Pilloud reports on the fruit crop in the Gippsland district : — - Peaches are good at Bruthen, Bairnsdale, and Drouin; a heavy crop. Pears. — Williams' Bon Chr tien, Keiffer's Hybrid, Josephine, Vicar of Wake- field are very heavy all through Gippsland. Plums promise a good crop. Quinces. — Not many grown; a good crop on the few trees here and there. Apricots. — Not many grown; a good crop on those that have them. Apples. — Jonathans and Yates will have a good crop. 10 Dec, 19 12.] Fruit Prospects for the Coming Season. 757 Mr. J. T. Grossmann reports on the IMildura Settlement and adjacent orchards in the district: — Apjdes promise a good yield in practically all the varieties grown. The early varieties, such as Eed Astrachan, are yielding exceptionally heavy. Pears. — Varieties grown are principally Bartletts. The older trees are pro- mising a heavy yield. The younger trees in most cases are only showing light to fair. Peae]ics. — Varieties cultivated are chiefly P^lbertes, Lady Palmerston, and Crawfords. These three varieties in good jieach land are promising a good crop, although not exceptionally heavy. Apricots. — The varieties cultivated are Moor Park, Blenheim, Royal, and Oullin 's Early Improved. The Moor Park are promising best, in some cases heavy; Blenheims are light; and Royals and Oullin's Early Improved only a- sprinkling to fair generally. Plums and Prunes. — Although not cultivated yet to any large extent, the season appears to be a favorable one for this fruit. The Sugar Prune is bearing heavy crops, also the Prune D 'Agen, and most of the Japanese varieties are carrying a good crop. Figs promise a good crop. Almonds. — Principally Brandes Jordan and Nonpariel varieties are carrying a good crop. Oranges. — Varieties, including the Washington Naval, Valencia Late, Medi- terranean, sweet as well as the more common varieties, have all bloomed well, and, according to present appearances, promise a heavy crop for the coming year. Lemons. — Chiefly Lisbon variety; good healthy trees, have also bloomed well, and, so far, the setting is equally good. STRENGTH IN WHEAT— A strong wheat is one which yields a strong dough in baking, and English w^heats are lacking in this respect. Speaking at a conference recently, in Cambridge, Professor Biffen gave some interesting par- ticulars as to the efforts of the Home Grown Wheat Committee to improve the strength of English wheats. Rating the best Canadian at 100 in strength, a good average wheat might be reckoned at 80, while ordinary English wheats could only be classed at 60. English wheat has, consequently, to be mixed with hard imported wheats in order to get the desired strength ; and it is stated that strong imported wheat may be worth 10s. more per quarter to the inland miller than the home grown. In experiments conducted by the Committee it was found that neither soils nor manures can raise the quality of English wheats to the desired standard of strength, and that improve- ment nuist be sought in the introduction of new varieties. Of these many have been tested, seed being obtained from all parts of the world. In England the imported variety, however, has alwaj^s deteriorated under cultivation with one exception — Red Fife — which was found to retain its strength. 758 Journal of Agriculture , Victoria. [10 Dec, 1912. BEE-KEEPING IN VICTORIA. {Continued from page 653.) F. R. Beuhne, Bee Expert. X.— THE REARING OF QUEEN BEES. The selection of a queen from which to Ijreed for the purpose of super- seding old or; inferior queens, or the queens oif colonies showing a piredisr position to disease, viciousness or some other undesirable trait, is not only of the greatest importance but also a most difficult problem. It is upon the prolificness of the queen and the longevity and \igour of her worker progeny that the larger or smaller amount of surplus honey depends; but the most prolific queen is not necessarily the best to breed from. Experience has shown that the queen progeny of an exceedingly pro- lific queen rarely equal their mother ; when they do, they produce workers which are constitutionally delicate, and these never yield the amount ot surplus which one should expect from the great number of bees raised. A prolific queen producing vigorous long-lived workers is very soon re- stricted in egg production by the relatively large number of old field bees, the honey gatherers filling much of the comb with honey once the colony has attained normal strength. In the case of a colony having a queen producing short-lived workers the position is reversed. Many of the bees ii; such a colony die soon after reaching field bee age ; therefore the young, the nurse bees, predominate. It is the work of the young bees to feed larvae, prepare cells for egg-laying, and attend the queen. As the number of field bees bringing in honey is little more than sufficient to supply what is needed for immediate consumption, the colony will show a very large amount of brood in all stages right through the season but will store less honey for the apiarist than colonies which, with a smaller amount of brood, have far more old field bees. As a breeder, I prefer the queen of a colony which has the maximum number of bees from a moderate amount of brood during a season. This results naturally in a good yield of honey, and indicates longevity of the bees. There are, however, other desirable characteristics, such as purity of race, gentleness, and absence of excessive swarming, which are needed. The number of queens which conform to all these requirements is, even in a large apiary, usually rather limited. Important as the selection of the queen mother is, the raising of the young queens by the best possible method, and under the most favourable conditions, is not less so. Poor queens may result when queens are raised under unfavourable conditions, no matter how suitable the mother queen is. There are many different methods of raising queens and good queens may be obtained by any one of them if everything is just right. The difficulty is, that many bee-keepers fail to oKserve when conditions are suitable and when not. A prosperous condition of colonies, an income of pollen and honey, and a warm moist atmosphere, are essential. A heavy honey flow is not the best time for queen rearing, particularly when it occurs during hot dry weather. There may be both pollen and honey coming in, and yet the right conditions may not exist, even though atmos pheric conditions appear favourable. This is probably owing to some deficiencv in qnalitv of the stores gathered. It may, however, be taken as lo Dec, 191 2.] Bee-keeping in Victoria. .759 an indication that conditions are favourable when the voung larvae are surrounded by a plentiful supply of pure white food. The colony selected for raising cells from the eggs or larvae of the chosen breeding queen should be strong, particularly in nurse bees. The " Doolittle " method of transferring young larvae to artificial cell cups and getting the cells raised, either in a queenless colony or over the queen-excluding honeyboard in the .super of a strong colony, has the advantage of enabling one to know exactly when the queen cells will hatch. The same advantage can be obtained by the " Alley " method without disturbing the young larvae. Queenless bees are compelled to raise queen cells under the impulse of self-preservation, whether the conditions are suitable or not. Often they appear to raise them rather hurriedly. There- is no doubt that good queen cells are produced by bees bent on swarming (in the proper season). They are raised deliberately, and only when con- ditions as to food supply and strength in bees are suitable. But the bees of queens from swarm-cells inherit the swarming impulse, which the best apiarists of all countries are trying to eliminate, and .such queens are therefore not desirable in any numbers. There is yet another impulse under which bees will raise good cells ; the super.seding impulse. When a queen is in her third season, and long before the apiarist can notice any decline in her prolificness, the bees usually prepare to supersede her by raising one or more queen-cells. They do this at a time when the conditions are most favourable ; they are usually better r. COMB CUT FOR QUEEN RAISING. judges of this than their owner, excepting in the case of a queen suddenly failing from disease or accident. If the bees are inclined to swarm there may be a swarm issuing before or after the cell or first cell hatches Where the bees are less inclined, the virgin queen on emerging from her cell will destroy all other cells but will take no notice of the remaining old queen, her mother. The number of cells raised under the superseding impulse is not large — from one to three usually ; but they are invariably fine large cells pro- ducing splendid queens. For a number of years I have obtained some of my best queens in this way. but as the number is limited I could not get suflficient, till I made use of the superseding impulse for raising them from larvae supplied repeatedly to the superseding colonies from selected breeding queens. For this purpose it is necessary to know the ages of all queens. Colonies having queens in their third year are examined periodic- ally when conditions are favourable. If there are indications of super- seding, the cells are removed and larvae from the breeding queen, over which cell cups have previously been started by temporarily queenless bees, are given in place of those removed. The colony should naturally be populous and thriving enough to raise good cells. If the queens which are not up to standard are replaced every year irrespective of age, these three-year-olds are those which passed all the musters and there will be no lack of the necessarv condition. Should none of the superseding colonies 760 Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [10 Dec, 1912. be of sufficient strength other strong ones may be made by exchanging queens between colonies with old queens and strong colonies with younger ones. To have all the queen-cells mature at the same time, so as to be able to leave them where they are raised till the day before they hatch, it is necessary for the young larvae from which the queens are to be raised to be all of the same age. This is not a difficult matter for any one knowing from experience the size of the grubs at different ages. At eighteen hours old, they are of about the size of the small c of ordinary type and will hatch on the twelfth day. For the purpose of obtaining larvae of the right age in sufficient numbers, I do not find it necessary to insert an empty comb into the brood chamber of the colony with the selected queen, because, at a time suitable for queen rearing, sufficient larvae for the pur- pose should be in every hive. To obtain the larvae I cut a piece, four to six inches long and the width of three rows of cells, out of a comb in a .•••;•••••"• •• •!>J^n% fifj asaa^^^*^».ui»r-^S 2. QUEEN CELLS GROUPED IN COMB. suitable place. By cutting it again through the middle row of cells two single rows are obtained. These are fastened with liquid wax cell end on, to a thin strip of wood. The open row of cells is then cut down to half the depth (Fig. i) by means of twirling a wooden match head first into the surplus larvae. Those of the wrong age and any eggs which may be pre.sent are removed, leaving as far as possible one larva of the right age in every third cell. These strips of comb are then fixed in gaps cut into a comb and given to queenless bees for 6 to 12 hours to mould queen-cups round the larvae. They are then fitted into an outside brood comb of the superseding colonies. When the cells are sealed the strips may be remo\ed and grouped into a comb, as shown in Fig. 2. This is placed into the super of a strong colony over a queen excluder where they may remain till distributed in cell protectors to nuclei about the tenth or eleventh day after they are started. Started queen-cells may again be given to the colonies which lo Dec. 1912.'^ Putrefaction and Decay. 761 raised the cells as soon as the sealed cells are removed but the brood combs should be examined occasionally for a cell they may be raising on their own account. Three to six cells are all I raise in a superseding colony at a time. When greater numbers are raised they are not so perfect. The thirteen cells in P'ig. 2 are on three strips, each from a different superseding colony. The great advantage of this method of queen-rearing is that, having a laying queen in the hive, the bees will not rai.se the cells given, unless conditions are as they should be. No inferior queens will therefore result. {To be continued. ) PUTREFACTION AND DECAY. Jno. ir. Paterson, B. Sc, Ph. D. It is a matter of everyday experience that when organic substances or mixtures such as milk, wines, flesh products, or wood are exposed to ordinary atmospheric influences they luidergo chemical change and become unwholesome or useless. At one time it was believed that those changes were due to instability in the complex chemical molecule, and that decay, therefore, was a spontaneous result. More modern investigation has shown this view to be wrong, and that the whole series of changes variously known as souring, rotting, decay, fermenta- tion and putrefaction are caused by various low forms of life, especially by bacteria and moulds. As these latter are plants — bacteria are very small plants indeed — it will easily be understood why perishable com- modities can be preserved in various ways. As all plants — including bacteria — require water, it will be seen that dried milk or dried fish can be kept indefinitely. Again, as all plants have a temperature at which they grow quickest — generally between 80 and 100 degrees F. — decay is quicker in warm weather. Then, again, each plant — including bacteria — has a temperature below which it cannot grow — usually between 32 and 50 degrees F. — therefore, freezing prevents decay. Boiling kills all sorts of plants, and a tin of meat sealed up while hot is free from bacteria, and will keep indefinitely ; but if a cold tin be opened decay soon starts because decay germs are floating about in the air. Again, plants may be poisoned just like animals, and anti- septics are things which are poisonous to the bacteria causing decay. Borax, formalin, and carbolic acid are used in different cases to pre- vent decay — they are germ poisons. Lastly, crops cannot grow in soils too salty because the soil water has too much dissolved matter — it is too strong a solution — to pass into the roots by osmosis. It is for this reason that putrefactive germs cannot work in meat that has been made too salt for them ; and also why jam and preserves keep all right when enough sugar has been used in the making. Altogether, the many and different methods of preventing putrefaction and decay all have the same immediate object — it is to render the conditions of life unfavorable to the growth of the little plants which cause the damage. 76. Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo Dec, 191. STATISTICS. Rainfall in Victoria. — Third Quarter, 1912. Table showing average amount of rainfall in each of the 26 Basins or Regions con- stituting the State of Victoria for each month and the quarter, with the corre- sponding monthly and quarterly averages for each Basin, deduced from all available records to date. July. August. September. Quarter. Basin or District. a S) fl ^ ■s' 0) a S> 0 a 5 c« s 0 > 0 S > 0 a 0 > <; < < points. < points. < < < points. points. points. points. points. points. Glenelg and Wannon Rivers 214 3.37 2.=-.9 301 549 294 1,022 932 Fitzroy, Eumeralla, and Merri 162 374 275 322 538 310 975 1,006 Rivers Hopkins River and Mount 169 250 200 256 431 271 800 777 Emu Creek Mount Elephant and Lake 126 239 165 244 455 268 746 751 Corangamite Cape Otway Forest 275 407 362 400 696 388 1,333 1,195 Moorabool and Barwon Rivers 183 230 164 244 536 249 883 723 Werribee and Saltwater Rivers 207 194 131 210 324 248 662 652 Yarra River and Dandenong 314 315 254 300 549 331 1,117 946 Creek Koo-wee-rup Swamp 281 311 254 320 414 349 949 980 South Gippsland 247 371 258 .381 554 407 1,059 1,1.59 Latrobe and Thomson Rivers 288 312 254 339 652 375 1,194 1,026 Macallister and Avon Rivers 337 146 89 218 272 204 698 568 Mitchell River 373 218 92 202 3.>7 264 802 684 Tambo and Nicholson Rivers 427 194 93 180 18S 237 708 611 Snowy River 522 286 139 241 201 .317 862 844 Murray River 371 206 176 188 291 184 838 578 Mitta Mitta and Kiewa Rivers 586 435 256 322 701 310 1,543 1,067 Ovens River 610 456 272 340 446 327 1,.328 1.123 Goulburn River 405 291 172 255 407 244 984 790 Campaspe River 369 267 141 245 516 258 1,026 770 Loddon River 256 188 135 194 378 183 769 565 Avon and Richardson Rivers 252 159 153 174 343 169 748 502 Avoca River 215 188 135 180 387 168 737 536 Eastern Wimmera ... 302 242 164 244 5.36 229 1,002 715 Western Wimmera ... 233 245 204 211 579 206 1,016 662 Mallee District 167 1.38 162 141 247 142 576 421 The whole State ... 291 250 185 235 407 241 883 726 100 points = 1 inch. H. A. HUNT, Commonwealth Mete irol.O'iisi lo Dec. 191^] Haystack Building. 763 HAYSTACK BUILDING. T. A. J. Smith, Chief Field Officer. As with all other arts, in haj stack building proficiency is attained only by experience and practice. The builder requires a good eye for straight lines and the faculty of concentrating his mind on the work before him. The main purpose is so to build the stack that water will not penetrate it, and that it be able to resist the wind ; but it is always desirable that it be syinmetrical. A really well built stack is a fine sight. Forms of Stacks. There are various forms of stacks; they may be round, oblong, square, or oval, according to the fancy or purpose of the owner. As compared with small ones, large stacks have less waste in proportion. At the same time, small stacks have the advantage in being more easily built, and often obviate the necessity for opening a fresh stack ; any size from 10 to 150 tons is the practice in this State. The old practice- of kneeing the sheaves is still followed by some builders, i.e., kneeling on each sheaf, when placed in position. The majority of stacks, however, are now built with a short handled pitch fork, with which the sheaves are put in position by the builder. At least three hands are required for any fair-sized stack, viz.. the pitcher from the load, the stack builder, and a sheaf turner. The business of the latter is, with a fork, to place the sheaf as received from the pitcher in a convenient position for the builder, so that the latter need not leave his place to reach for each sheaf in turn. A good sheat turner can materi- allv assist the builder and save valuable time and temper. . . Site. The first consideration is the choice of a site for the s^tackyard, which should be a good solid piece of land, with drainage, either natural or artificial, on all sides. A substantial fence should be erected, leaving sufficient room for the stacks and a passage way around them for a dray after they have been completed. If the stacks are to be threshed, room for the straw stack should also be included. The size of the yard will depend on the amount of hay available. If more than four fair-sized stacks are necessary, it is best to have two yards, fifty or more yards apart, so that in the event of fire the whole of the crop will not be en- dangered. Where the stacks are luiilt on the ground, the grass and all rubbish should be scraped off to the extent of at least 4 ft. wider and longer than the stack itself. Building on Stage. A better system is to build on a stage. This can be cheaply con- structed, and will last for years. It should be erected on piles. 6 in. in diameter, of some durable hard wood j red gum, box, stringybark all stand well in the ground. They should be not less than 3 ft. in length ; and. when erected, be 18 in. in the ground and not more than 4 ft. apart. Before the floor or platform is built on the piles, a piece of galvanized iron, not less than 12 in. square, should be placed on the top of each pile to prevent mice climbing up and getting into the stack. A still better 764 Journal of Agriculture , Victoria. [10 Dec, 1912. practice is to cut the top out of a kerosene tin and place it upside down on the pile. When climbing up, mice will then get inside the tin, pro- vided the piles are not larger than specified, and it will be impossible for them to jump to hanging straws or anything else that will carry them up to a stack. The floor of the stage is then built on top of the tins on joists laid across, and saplings, rails or slabs are put on the joists close enough together to form a good floor, which should be well nailed down. This stage will last for years, and will soon repay the co.st in the saving of waste at the bottom, which is .so common in stacks built on the ground, to say no- thing of the damage done by mice. A stage, 36 ft. long by 20 ft. wide, will be large enough for a stack of hay contain- ing 50 to 60 tons, according to the height of the eaves, which should be 12 to 15 ft. when first erected. It is best to begin building from the outside, placing the sheaves with the butts to the outside. Keep a straight line along the edge of the staging, and the sheaves clo.se together side by side, until the whole row right around is completed. At the corners, the best system is to draw the heads together so that only the butts are seen from outside as shown in Fig. 4. The next row of sheaves is placed with the heads out- wards on top of the first row, lapping the outside sheaves to within a foot of the end of the butts, and so on with each row of sheaves until the lo Dec. 1912.] Haystack Building. 765 centre of the stack is filled up. As the centre is approached, put tlie sheaves closer together, so as to make the middle of the stack tighter and higher than the outside ; always lap each succeeding row at least as far as the band on that preceding. From then on, as each fresh layer of sheaves is applied, keep the centre well trampled and slightly higher than the outside sheaves, and the butts of the sheaves in each row to the outside of the stack. Many builders commence from the centre, especially on small stacks where no stage is used, and the practice is a good one, though the one y/////////////////////////////////////////////////. FIG. 2. STAGE. recommended will be found even better where a stage is built. Both styles of building are similar after the first two layers have been laid ; everv fresh layer of sheaves should be commenced from the out.side of the stack, always working to the centre and keeping the surface even with an elevation to the centre to give a pitch for any water that might penetrate the roof of the stack. If this is done and the middle well tramped, the stack should be safe from rain. FIG. 3. SYSTEM OF BEGINNING LAYERS AFTER FIRST TWO ARE PLACED. The sheaf turner should always stand, as nearly as possible, in the centre of the stack, and should not trample on the outside row under any circumstances, as he will displace or push out the sheaves and spoil the shape of the stack. Each layer of sheaves should be put on in the same way as the first, except that, after the second layer is put down, the butts should be kept to the outside in the rows. The loose or ungainly sheaves should be used to keep up the middle. The very outside row of sheaves in each layer should not be as tightlv packed as those tow^ards the centre. This will admit of the outside settling as the stack pro- gresses, and give a fall to the exterior which will allow the water to run 766 Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [to Dec, 191 2. off. The corners want carefully watching to see that tliey are even and level. As each load or so is put on, the builder should get down and with a board, 12 in. by 10 in. nailed to a handle 7 ft. to^ 8 ft. long, pat back any sheaves that work out from their position. Keep the sides perpendicular as the building is continued, and it will be found that the stack will spread slightly of itself until, when the eaves are reached, the width will be greater than when commenced. FIG. 4. MAKING THE CORNERS. It is better not to unload the waggon always from the same side or position, as the constant tossing of the sheaves on to one portion of the stack will harden that particular place; and, later on, it will not settle uniformly and will become lopsided. Where possible, it will be found easier to toss the sheaves from the windward side. A good ladder of not less than 20 ft. in length will be necessary for the men to get on and off the stack. The building is continued until the eaves are, say. 74 ft. from the floor of the stage. When it is decided to put on the top. the last row FIG. 5. -FIRST ROW. of sheaves is projected .^ in. further than the previous outside row to make an eave, after which each successive row is drawn in. Roof. The top or roof is made in the same way as the body of the stack, except that each layer of sheaves is drawn in about 6 in. Always re- member to keep the centre of the stack closely packed and slightly higher than the outside; this will give a gable end to the stack. As the roof is drawn in. the rows of sheaves become less until the lo Dec. 91 Ha vsiac k Build in \^ . 767 last sheaves are practically stocked along the top, being lightly packed together with the heads interlocked by opening them and dovetailing them into one another. It will be found best to save a load of well-shaped sheaves of rather short length for finishing. The biggest and roughest sheaves should go into the body of the stack. After the top has been put on, it sliould be lightly raked down to remove all loose straws. Provided due care has been taken to kee]) the middle high and solid. such a stack should resist any fall of rain, and the only waste should be the butts of the sheaves on the roof. Round and Oblong Stacks. Stacks of practically all shapes can be built on the lines indicated, with slight alterations such as square ends instead of gable. The butts of the sheaves are kept out square with the end eave. instead of being drawn in with the sides. Round stacks are perhaps the easies. to make, bui: are suitable only for small quantities. say, 15 to 25 tons of hay. Round stacks and small oblong stacks are often started from the centre. Make a stook in the middle and gradually work out to a circle previously marked out on the ground on the stack site. After the first layer of sheaves is laid each succeeding layer is started from the outside. Work back to the centre and so continue until the stack is finished. FIGS. 6 AND —DIFFERENT STYLES OF RIDGING. Thatching. All stacks that are to be kept for any length of time exceeding three months should be thatched to save waste, and insure immunity from the effects of rain. This can be done with straw. Rye straw is the best, and should be straightened out and tied in bundles. The thatcher sits on a ladder thrown over the roof and anchored b\- a rope on the other side. Operations are commenced bv sewing nn to the sheaves, with a fig. 8.— sewing on thatch. curved needle and twine, a layer of straw about 3 in. thick. The straw- is taken in the hand and each fresh handful laid close up against the pre- ceding one. The twine is taken over the top of the straw, about half way up the length, and through the one laid previously, the needle being brought a couple of inches further out, ready for the next handful. The first layers of straw should project beyond the eaves and be afterwards trimmed with a pair of shears. The second layer should lap 768 Journal of Agriculture , Victoria. [10 Dec, 1912. over the first sufficiently to thoroughly cover the twine on the first, and so on until finished. The top or ridge can be finished by bending the straw over on both sides and sewing each, or by cutting the ends of the thatch square on the side from which the least rain comes, and bringing the thatch from the opposite side well up against the square end and pro- jecting a few inches higher. The latter should then be trimmed. Thatching machines can be bought for ^7. With these, mats of thatch can be made, and these can be pegged on or sewn, simplifying the work very greatly. If the winds are bad, or birds troublesome, it is a good plan to cover the whole roof with wire netting. This will keep the roof from being blown about, and also prevent biids from scratching or pulling it to pieces. Fencing. A fence of plain galvanized iron 2 ft. 8 in. high should be built all around the stack, at least 2 ft. away, to prevent access of mice. If built nearer than this it will be found as the stack spreads and settles it will be liable to injure the iron. A good tarpaulin is of great use during building and afterwards. It should be 18 ft. by 24 ft., and made of good canvas, sufficiently close to prevent water penetrating. It often happens that a rainstorm will come up when a stack is in course of erection. A tarpaulin will be found most useful at such a juncture. A good fence should be erected around the whole, at least 8 ft. from the stacks, with more room, if possible, and all should then be. safe. Insurance Insurance is always advisable when stacks are kept for any length of time, and can be effected for periods ranging from one month to twelve months. The following system for measuring the contents of a stack is useful for insurance and other purposes : — Measurement of Stacks. Scale showing the minimum number of cubic feet to be given to the ton, according to age and condition (coarse reedy stuff, besides being less valuable, is more bulky) — Ohlong Stacks— "'°^^ 1. Measure length and breadth of / :\ Stack in feet, half-way / \ \ between the ground and / \ the eaves — from A to B,/ \ eaves B to C, as per sketch. V % j 2. Measure height from ground A /b /o to eaves, D to E. V / 3. Measure height from eaves to \ i / ridge-cap, E to F. \ ni / ground. 4. To the number of feet between D and E add one-half of th ■ number of feet between E and F. 5. Multiply length, breadth, and average height together, which will give the number of cubic feet in stack. 6. Divide this by the requisite number, as shown in scale below, to ascertain the number of tons. lo Dec, 1912.] Notes on ihe Occurrence oj f.'inic in YktarKi. 769 63 Feet Round Round Stacks — Multiply hcilf the circumference by half the diameter, and the sum of this by the height (ascertained in accordance with the rule already given). Scale showing the minimum number of cubic feet to be given to the ton, according to age and condition (coarse reedy stuff, besides being less valuable, is more bulky) — Immediately on compk tion of stack One week after completion One month after completion Twelve months after completion Oaten Hay. Wheaten Hay. Sheaf. 350 Loose. Sheaf. Loose. 400 400 500 3-25 375 375 450 300 350 350 400 oOO 325 350 400 NOTES ON THE OCCURRENCE OF LIME IN VICTORIA. Supplementary to the articles in the October issue of this Journal, Mr. A. S. Kenyon, Engineer to the State Rivers and Water Supply Commission, and formerly Engineer for Agriculture, furnishes the following : — The list of limestone deposits given may be considerably increased. Mr. F. Chapman, A.L.S., in a paper on the "Victorian Limestones." Journal of Proceedings, Royal Victorian Institute of Architects. ]\Iel- bourne. ^Mareh, 1912, gives the following additional localities : — Mornington. — Balcombe's Bay. Septarian nodules, and layers of an impure limestone. These have been worked for cement. Waurn Ponds. — Rather impure limestone, of a sDuff-l)rown colour. Analysis (Barnard and Dunn) : — Percentage. CaCOg . . 79.60 MgC03 traces FeCOg . . 11.95 SiO.. 3.70 Water . . 0.25 Several quarries are worked both for building stone and builder's lime. yyo journal of Agriculture, Victoria. \\o Dec, 1912. Torquay, Drysdale, &c. — Some of the yellow limestone of these localities are very compact, and would form excellent building stone. Other beds in the series, which are more friable, from their comparative purity would be suitable for lime burning. The marls used from the pits between Geelong and Torquay run about 60 per cent. CaCOg. The harder portions contain over 90 per cent., while the under- lying clays, locally considered of value, only have about 2 per cent. Flinders. — This deposit is of a very limited extent, and is, more- over, too soft to be of use for building purposes. It occurs in a low cliff on the ocean beach, near the point where the extension of the main road from Bittern railway station to Flinders strikes the coast. Sorrento. — The greater part of the lime used in building Mel- bourne in the early days was burnt at Sorrento. The limestone occurs as dune rock. It is also used for building purposes. Grange Burn. — This rock occurs along the valley of the Grange Burn, near Hamilton, towards its junction with Muddy Creek. It is a polyzoal limestone of a conspicuous rose- pink to yellow, and is composed of remains of polyzoa, shellfish, and eehinoids. This limestone is of similar age to the Batesford limestone. Portland. — This is a whitish polyzoal limestone, which has a reputation of hardening on exposure. The yellow Port- land stone is softer in texture, and, therefore, not so well suited for a building stone. Analyses (Barnard and Dunn^ : — White. Yellow. Percentage. Percentage, CaCOg 94.50 91.10 MgCOg 1.95 3.20 FeCO, 1.05 2.20 SiO., 3.20 1.50 Water 0.20 0.30 Alkaline salts traces Besides these quoted by Mr. Chapman there are many other occur- rences. At I\Iarlo, near the mouth of the Snowy Kiver, there are large beds of tertiary limestone showing in the cliffs, probably connected with the Bairnsdale beds. No analysis is given in the October Journal of the Merriman's Creek limestone. The following is an analysis of the marl or limestone found at Seldom Seen, in the same district: — Percentage. CaC03 .. .. 86.2 FegOg, AI2O3 . . 2.9 Insoluble matter . . 6.4 Along the coast west of Torquay tertiary limestones exist at Airey's Inlet, Cape Patten, Johanna River. Moonlight Head, and near Warr- nambool. In the Heytesbury and Otway forests there are many out- Percentage. Percentage. Percentage. Percentage, 89.85' 63.00 38.21 82.62 0.82 2.80 3.65 2.55 0.22 0.52 0.40 0.50 trace trace trace trace 0.09 0.10 0.06 0.14 2.40 16.02 29.47 11.51 0.52 1.87 2.57 0.38 lo Dec, 1912.] Notes on t/ie Occurroice of Lniic in Victoria. 771 crops of similar beds to those at Ka warren, Love's River, and Timboon. Tliese vary in composition from 40 to over 90 per cent., and are largely availed of by the surrounding farmers. The following analyses are from various deposits on the Cobden to Princetown road : — CaCO, .. FeA. Al.,0, , MgO . . P.,0, . . S63 Insoluble Organic matter . On the north shore of Lake Corangamite there are deposits of both limestone and gypsum. In addition to the polyzoal beds at Portland there are extensive dune rock deposits extending for some distance inland. Along the Glenelg River from its mouth to above Dartmoor cliffs of tertiary limestone form the principal feature. Outcrops of similar formation as well as dime limestones are frequent throughout the districts between the Glenelg and the South Australian boundary. Boring operations have proved the existence of beds of polyzoal limestone of many hundreds of feet in thickness from Portland to Wilcannia on the Darling River, New South Wales, underlying the whole of the Victorian mallee country and the county of Lowan, and that part of South Australia east of the Murray River, but they are of no industrial value owing to their inaccessibility. The most extensive lime deposits in Victoria, however, are on the surface of the mallee country, and occur in three forms. Limestone rubble generally only a few feet in thickness and of concretionary origin, spread over the whole district. It is not very rich, but has been extensively used for building purposes. Analysis (limestone near Mildura) : — Percentage. CaCO, .. .. '.. 57.45 Insoluble matter (sand) . . . . 35.91 Undetermined . . . . . . 6.64 Fresh-water limestone deposits occur at Rainbow. Cow Plains, Ned's Corner, and at Sunset. These are very rich, but at Cow Plains, at any rate, are rather high in magnesia for agricultural use. They cover many square miles of country, and are 30 feet and over in thick- ness. Analysis (Cow Plains limestone) : — Percentage. CaCO, .. .. 67.89 MgCd, . . . . 18.59 Insoluble (sand) . . 11.22 The third mode of occurrence is as gypsum, locally termed copi or cow. the aboriginal term for white. As a creamy-white floury powder, apparent^ amorphous, but really minute typical crystals, gypsum occurs as mounds of 20 or 30 feet in height, some few chains in width, 77- Journal of Agriculture. Victoria. fio Dec, 1912. and up to a mile or more in length at Oiiyen, Cow Plains, Ned's Corner, The Raak, Yatpool (near Mildura), Lake Tyrrell, and Towan Plain (near Nyah). Smaller deposits are found throughout the mallee. The supply is enormous, and the quality exceptionally good. Although not quite within the confines of the mallee country, fairly large deposits of the floury form of gypsum are to be found near Natimuk and north of Mount Arapiles on some salt lakes. Large quantities have been excavated and used by the Mildura orchardists and the Melbourne manure manufacturers. Analvses: — Yatpool. Cow Plains. 'ercentage. Percentage. 98.19 94.01 CaSO^ + 2H2O It is also found in beds of large crystals at Boort, Boga, Lake Tyrrell, Cow Plains, &c. These deposits can be loaded on trucks for a nominal sum. ORCHARD AND GARDEN NOTES. E. E. Pescott, Principal, School of UorUculture, Burnley. The Orchard. As a preventive against codlin moth, apple and pear trees should be sprayed with arsenate of lead whenever there is danger from the prevalence of the moth. By the use of arsenate of lead the codlin moth pest is very easily kept in check, and from being one of the most formidable of orchard troubles, it has come to be one of the least feared of all pests. By constantly spraying with arsenate of lead, the use of bandages as a trap for the codlin larva is now quite unnecessary. In fact, bandages, more often than not, become a harbor and a breeding ground. Further, the time spent in overlooking and attending to the bandages may be employed far more profitably by giving the trees an extra spraying. There are a few growers who still make use of lamps at night time to destroy the codlin moth, irrespective of the fact, which has been pointed out again and again, that the codlin moth is not attracted by lamps or lights. These traps do incalculable harm to an orchardist, as they are responsible for the destruction of hundreds of lace-wing flies — insects that are most useful as destroyers of aphides and scales. The question of trapping the codlin moth by means of attractive and sticky baits is again being advanced by growers and experi- mentalists. But it will be well to await definite results before this method is adopted to any large extent. Spraying has proved so effective that growers should hesitate before changing their methods for something new. One of the secrets of success in codlin moth spraying is the destruction of as many as possible of the insects of the first brood. lo Dec. iqi:;.] Orchard and Ciardcn \offs. 773 Thus, if i)articular care is given to the eai-ly sprayings, keeping the fruit covered with spray for a month or six weeks after setting, this result is easily accomplished. l^ome growers prefer to gather all fruit infected by the first brood, spraying only for the second and later l^roods. Even if all the fruits attacked are gathered, which very rarely happens, the grower suffers from the loss of fruit, which he can ill afford, unless his crop be a heavy one. Another feature for consideration is the fact that the presence of any arsenical spray on the foliage is responsible for the destruction of the pear and cherry slug, root-borer beetle. ;-uid all forms of leaf- eating insects. Spraying the cherry trees for the slug will now be necessary. Arsenate of lead may be used, provided the fruit is not far advanced. Hellebore, and also tobacco water, are effective against this pest. Cultivation. — All orchard soils should be kept well worked during the summer months. It is very essential that the trees should have an abundant supply of moisture during the whole of the growing season. The transpiration from fruit and foliage is considerable at any time ; but during hot and windy weather the amount of moisture which is required by a tree, and which is ultimately transpired from the tree, is very exceptional. Excessive transpiration is often the cause of loss of young trees and of new grafts. They are found to part with a large amount of moisture, and are not able to retain or obtain sufficient for their nourishment; they then very soon wither and die. The soil around these should always be kept well stirred ; they may be also given a good straw or grass mulching, and an occasional overhead sprinkling will greatly benefit them. The planting out of citrus trees may be continued, slieltering the tender plants from winds with hessian or breaks of scrub. The general aims in summer cultivation should be to keep up a good loose earth mulch during the whole season, and to keep down all weeds and useless orchard growths. Pruning. — Summer pruning may now be commenced, particularly on apple, pear, and plum trees. The removal or reduction of surplus leader growths, the shortening of unduly long laterals, and the thinning out of crowded shoots, will all tend to strengthen other I)arts of the tree, and to increase the development of new fruit buds. Vegetable Garden. Tomatoes will require a good amount of attention at this time of the year. If the plants have been well looked after, they should be making vigorous growth. It will be to advantage to tie the plants to stakes, training them to two or three main growths, and pinching out all the laterals as they come. The plants should be well watered, and occasionally a handful of bonedust and blood manure mixed should be forked in around the roots. Where stable manure is used, it should be used as a mulch, forking it in every three or four weeks, and making a fresh mulch. 774 Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. \^o Dec, 1912. All plants of the cucumber and melon family should now be constantly supplied with ample water. Pinch out unnecessary lateral growths, and also the terminals. The following seeds may now be sown : — French beans, cabbage and cauliflower for winter crops, parsnip, lettuce, and celery. The side shoots of celery plants should be removed, afterwards earthing up the plants. Asparagus beds should be top-dressed, and allowed to grow without any more cutting. The vegetable beds will need frequent forking and hoeing to keep the soil sweet, and to keep down all weeds. Flo"W"er Garden. Plant out dahlias this month ; tubers early, and plants grown from cuttings for exhibition blooms later in the month. Water well at planting, and keep well cultivated afterwards. Rose bushes and beds may be given a good mulch with light stable manure, straw, grass, or lawTi clippings. The beds should be kept rather dry, so as to allow the plants rest before the autumn period of growth. Sow seeds of cosmos, asters, zinnia, balsams, cockscomb, and other late summer and autumn blooming annuals. Cut down delphiniums that have yielded their first crop of flowers, so as to allow a succession of flowers to come. Daffodil, hyacinth, tulip, ranunculus, anemone, and other bulbs and tubers may be taken up and stored ; while gladioli corms may still be planted. The gaixien must be kept well watered and well cultivated, so as to tide the plants over the hot and dry season. SECOND VICTORIAN EGG-LAYING COMPETITION, 1912-13. H. V. Hawkins, Poultry Expert. Report for Month ending 14th November, 1912. The past month has been for the most part dry, with some changes and showers of rain. The meat ration has been reduced and additional green feed, principally lucerne, has been given, save when the weather changed to cold and wet the maize was withheld, and then a small quantity was added to the wheat ration in order to maintain the body temperature. Unfortunately, three White Leghorns died during the month, pens 70, 44 and 15 each losing one, oviduct troubles being responsible. Broodies are more numerous now, and the heavy breeds are not laying as well as in October ; this also applies in a lesser degree to the Leghorns. Mr. Samuel Brown's White Leghorns still continue in the lead with the good score of 897, although less than Mr. Swift's pen for the corresponding period in the first competition, yet they bid fair to reach good figures by the end of the test. The total number of eggs laid during the seven months was 47.172, an average of approximately 683.6 eggs per pen. ioDec., 1912.] Second Victorian Egg-layitig Cotnpetitton. 1912-13. 775 SECOND VICTORIAN EGG-LAYING COMPETITION, 1912-13. Commencing 15th April, 1912. CONDUCTED AT BURNLEY HORTICULTURAL SCHOOL. No. of Pen. 40 28 23 47 31 9 20 62 1 37 70 45 46 25 14 3 24 48 29 39 61 13 49 38 2 44 50 6 33 15 7 53 63 30 5 35 19 42 51 10 8 64 56 69 60 32 65 54 16 43 11 27 12 41 4 57 58 52 55 21 22 67 18 17 59 34 36 26 White Leghorns Black Orpingtous White Leghorns Black Orpiugtons White Leghorns Black Orpingtons White Legliorns Leg- R.C. Brown horns Black Orpingtons White Leghorns Silver Wyandottes White Leghorns Black Orpingtons White Leghorns Black Minorcas Brown Leghorns White Leghorns Auconas . . White Leghorns Old English Game Xanie of Owner. S. Brown . . F. G. Eagle ton W. McLister J. E. Bradley Geo. Edwards J. Spotswood E. Waldon K. W. Pope J. Campbell C. B. Bertelsmeier C. J. Beatty Wooldridge Bros. II. A. Langdon 11. L. Applelord J. H. Wright King and Watson Sargenfri Poultry Yards Griffin Cant J. B. Brigdeii W. G. Swift J as. Ogden W. B. CreUui W. Purvis K. Moy B. Rowlinsou A. W. Hall A. Ahpee J. B. Macarthur IL McKeuzie Mrs. Steer A. H. Padman H. Hodges . . Percy Walker Mrs. Stevenson J. H. Brain C. H. Busst Cowan Bros. Mrs. Kenipster H. Hammill S. P. Giles D. Fisher . . H. Merrick M. A. Monk Morgan and Watson Miss B. E. Ryan S. Brundrett A. H. Thomson F. R. DeGaris R. Jobling G. Purton . . T. S. Goodisson E. Nash T. H. Stafford A. Stringer J. Blackbume B. Walker W. J. Stock I Chalmers Bros. J. Mathieson J. Molonev W. J. Mckeddie J. O'Loughlin W. N. Ling A. E. Manning B. Mitchell S. Childs . . W. J. Seabridge R. F. B. Moore K. J. Barrett (Reserved I Totals Eggs laid during competiticjn. April 15 Oct. 15 Total to to to Bate (7 Oct. 14. Nov. 14. months). 75(i 141 897 '2:', 1:52 855 721 1:52 S53 707 1:59 846 7 It; 1:50 Hi6 7hH 127 «45 G9ti 1:56 «:52 (571 142 813 669 1:57 806 (i.i7 1:54 791 (574 115 7K9 ti47 l:i6 7>s:5 (i74 1114 778 ():i7 1:57 774 mi 1:51 768 66« 99 767 (345 120 765 fi42 118 760 029 128 757 621 i:s6 757 620 136 756 621 132 753 606 147 753 621 129 750 617 119 736 610 122 732 606 124 730 61 :i 116 729 fj.sO l:!6 722 59,s 119 717 585 1:50 715 572 140 712 576 1:5:5 709 594 109 703 561 1:54 695 568 127 695 569 115 684 556 12:5 679 6:56 i:56 672 539 128 667 598 66 664 529 129 658 549 106 655 506 1:56 642 517 125 642 499 1:55 634 5111 124 6:54 519 111 630 51 16 11:5 619 5(i:5 115 618 498 116 614 4K:i 127 610 469 133 602 471 130 601 474 122 596 474 115 589 47:5 115 588 45:5 128 581 449 116 565 424 127 551 42.5 111 536 412 114 526 402 118 520 :589 122 511 410 99 509 :540 1:57 477 :561 114 475 ;544 124 468 372 94 466 :58.621 S.551 47,172 Position in Competi- tion. 3 4 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 16 16 17 18 19 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 77^ journal of Agriciilfure . Victoria. [lo Dec. 1912. HEIVIINDERS FOR JANUARY. LIVE STOCK. Horses. — Stabled. — Over-stimulating and fattening foods should be re- stricted. Water should be allowed at frequent intervals. Eub down on coming into stables in an overheated condition. Supply a ration of greenstuff to all horses. Brood mares should be well fed on succulent food if available; otherwi.se, oats and bran should be given. Foals may with advantage be given oats to the extent of 1 lb. for each month of age daily. Provision should be made for shade shelter for paddocked horses. Cattle. — Provide supply of succulent fodder, clean water, and shade shelter. Pigs. — Sons. — Supply those farrowing with plenty of short bedding in well- ventilated sties. Those with litters old enough may be turned into grass run. AH pigs should be given a plentiful supply of clean water. Sheep. — Disturb sheep as little as possible during hot spells. Remember, rams work mostly in the cool of the day, and crossbred ewes are only now coming in season. The older the feed becomes the greater the necessity for salt in northern areas; in wormy country it should be available at all times. If the least sign of worms exists, commence drenching weaners at once, and enable them to become strong before winter. Salt, 2 cwt. ; Stockholm tar, 2 pints; and powdered resin, 1 pint (or 1 lb.); is a useful lick for young lambs in wormy areas. Poultry. — Separate the sexes; the cockerels should now be fattened and marketed. Grade the young stock according to age and size, otherwise the younger birds will not thrive. Avoid overcrowding. Do not force pullets too much with animal food; build them up with a good variety of food, bat avoid maize, and give but little meat. Increase the green feed; thoroughly spray houses and perches. Keep water vessels in shady spot, and renew water twice daily. Moisten dust bath. CULTIVATION. Farm. — Get all crops harvested and stacked as soon as possible. Horse-hoe maize, potatoes and other summer crops. See to insurance of stacks of grain and hay. Orchard. — Keep the soil well scarified and weed free. Cultivate after irrigation or rain. Do not allow the surface to become caked. Spray against codlin moth, pear slug, vine caterpillar, and woolly aphis. Summer prune strong growing shoots and laterals. Vegetable Garden. — Plant out all seedlings when ready, from former sowings. Stir and mulch the surface. Dig each plot as it becomes vacant. Sow seeds of cauliflower, cabbage, peas, French beans. Kohl Eabi, &c. Flower Garden. — Keep the soil moist and cool by watering, hoeing, and mulching. Stake tender and lengthy plants. Water and shade young plants. Sow pansy, Iceland poppy, cosmos, aster, &c. Vineyard. — This is the slackest month in un-irrigated vineyards — all ordi- nary work should be completed before Christmas. It is only exceptional operations, such as scarifying after rain or sulphuring in case of oidium, that must be carried out. In irrigated vineyards the application of water, and the cultivation it necessitates, must receive attention. Cellar. — Fill up regularly and keep cellar as cool as possible. Towards end of month commence to make preparations for the coming vintage. INDEX OF VOLUME X. The Index of Vol. X. will be supplied with the first number of Vol. XI., viz., 10th January, 1913. lo Dec, 1912.] journal of Agrictiliiire, Victoria. ROKALtlEDAi: MltKinQ-nACHINES The Milke: s THAT j is Different* Important Features which distinguish the Machine* In Exact Accordance with Natural Law. Complete Immunity from Hurtful Effect. Strips Right Out. Overmilking Impossible. Easily Cleaned. Cups Se!f=sustaining — all pulsating independently of each other. DAIRYMEN'S OPINIONS. "The machines are woiking extremeh' well, and, so far, (luite satisfactorily, but we think that a third machine \v(juld save more time, and would ask you to send us another."' J. A. LATTA, Narnaigoon, loth April, 1912. Awarded the Medal of the Royal Agricultural Society of England. "Just a line to lei _\ou know that we are getting on well with the machines, and that they have exceeded vay antici- pations." J. R. LOGAN, Allansford, 2/9/12. (One of Mr. Logan's cows INSURE YOUR LIVE STOCK at the Lowest Current Rates obtainable in Australia OTHER DEPARTMENTS OF BUSINESS.— Kre, Marine, Fidelity Guarantee, Plate Glass, Personal Accident and Sickness, Employers' Liability, Work- men's Compensation, Public Risk, Motor Car, and Burfilarv. INSURE WITH THIS SOCIETY, and RECOMMEND IT TO YOUR NEIGHBOURS 0 LDTTERBDCK Bros. SOLE AGENTS FOR BLAGKSTONE S TAT I O N A R Y OR PORTABLE OIL ENGINES FAMED FOR DURABILITY, ECONOMY, RELIABILITY. WRITE or CALL for PARTICULARS. "OLDS" PETROL Hopper Jacket or CM^IKICC Tank Cooling Type, b 1^ VA I 1^ CO /vise PREMIER GAS ENGINES. POWER GAS ENGINES. CLUTTERBUCK BROS., 585 Bourke-st., Melbourne. ioDec, 1912.] Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. THE EGGS INCREASED The "Australian Hen " reports in a recent issue:— " We recently selected 20 young hens, picking them so as to get two pens of ten as near alike as possible. "These birds were put on a ration composed of equal parts by measure of pollard, bran, and scalded lucerne chaff, on December ist, and allowed to run on that for a month to test their equaUty. " The ration was mixed with liver souj), and they had boiled liver added to the mash twice weekly. That was all the animal food they had, and it must be remembered that in the table of results no account has been taken of the meat food, as they were both impartially served during the whole of the test. "On the ist of January, to the ration of pen No. i was added scalded Sunlight Oil Cake, replacing half the bulk of bran. By a careful test -we found that bran and Sunlight Oil Cake gave about the same amount of scalded food for a given sum — that is, while the Sunlight Oil Cake was dearer to buy, weight fur weiglit, it swelled to a much greater extent than bran, and a quart of scalded bran would cost as much as a quart of scalded Sunlight Oil Cake, as near as it was possible to compute it. Thus, in doing away with half the bran, and keeping up the same bulk of mash w ith Sunlight Oil Cake, the cost of feed was not increased ; as a matter of fact, after the Sunlight Oil Cake was added. we found that the birds did not consume quite as mucli food as they did before its addition. It is to be understood, therefore, that the addition of Sunlight Oil Cake was not an expense, but rather inclined to be a saving, as far as cost of food is concerned. "The trial was continued for three months, and the birds were then again put on the i)lain ration, without the Sunlight Oil Cake. "The results of the test, as far as the production of eggs is concerned, were as under : — No. I (Sunlight Oil Cake). Feb. Mar. Apr. Total. 157 201 117 920 No. 2. (without Oil Cake). Feb. Mar. Apr. Total. 150 83 67 721 In all other respects but those mentioned, the birds were treated alike. The number of eggs laid by even the plain pen is proof that they w^ere not neglected." Write to Lever Brothers Limited, Poultry Department, Sydney, for Post Free 32 page Booklet— MONEY IN POULTRY Dec. Jan. ^is 210 Dec. Jan. 247 174 Jiinrnal of Agriculture , Victoria. [lo Dec, 1912. A WORLD-WIDE REPUTATION. "HORNSBY" Petrol Engines {STATIONARY AND PORTABLE) THERE IS NOTHING EQUAL TO THEM. ■lust as suitable for Motive Power as the Renowned "HORNSBY" OIL ENGINE. Britain's BEST Oil Eng^ine— ^"^ HORNSBY. The recog-nized essentials of Oil Engine Superiority are DESIGN QUALITY SIMPLICITY ECONOMY THESE the HORNSBY possess, proved by the Fact that it has Won all the Largest iPrizes ever offered. Made in Two Types— Stationary and Portable Hornsby Gas Engines and Suction Gas Plants are unequalled. OURNE. S"! BRISBANE. R. HORNSBY & SONS LTD., ^^■^^•"""'^ ^^^'^ REX" Separators to be Sacrificed! Solely because we are relinquishing the agency in favour of the improved "Perfect" Separators. They're splendid machines for the small dairyman. No. 1, 19 gal. capacity - £7 10s. No. 3, 42 gal. capacity - - £13 Free trial anywhere. THE FAVORITE. Tlie "FAVORITE" Separator The most popular small machine on the market. .... No. 1, 11 gal. capacity - £3 3s. No. 2, 15 gal. capacity - - £.5 ■ Write for full information. THE REX.' Langwill Bros. & Davies Pty. Ltd. 110-114 STURT STREET (Near Prince's Bridg-e), SOUTH MELBOURNE ioDec, i9i-.] Journal of Agncnlture , Victoria. "national trustees Executors and Agency Company of Australasia, Ltd. DIRECTORS: HON. WALTER MADDEN, Chairman and Managing Director. EDWARD FITZGERALD, Esq.. L.L.D. MICHAEL MORNANE, Esq. HON. DUNCAN E. McBRYDE, M.L.C. HENRY MADDEN, Esq. DAVID HUNTER, Esq. This Company Acts as Executor, or Joint Executor of Wills, Administrator, Trustee of Settlements, and Agent for Absentees under Power of Attorney. MONEY TO LEND ON BROAD ACRES AND FARM LANDS. Offices— 113 QUEEN ST. (Corner of Little Collins-st.) MELBOURNE. GUARANTEED BY THE w ESTABLISHED 1841. -pj^ £ GOVERNMENT OF VICTORIA. STATE SAVINGS BANK OF VICTORIA Grants greater facilities to Depositors than any other Savings Bank in the World. All profits earned, after providing for a reasonable Reserve Fund, are distributed amongst Depositors by giving them the Highest Bank Rate of Interest obtainable in the State on current accounts. RESERVE FUND OF FOUR HUNDRED AND FIFTY THOUSAND POUNDS. INTEREST is allowed on Deposits uj) to £350, namely :— 3^ per cent, on first £100 ; and 3 per cent, on excess over £100 up to £350. THE TOTAL AMOUNT OF DEPOSITS IS NOW NEARLY TWENTY MILLION POUNDS. Depositors can lodge money with the same pass-book at any "f the 424 Branches and Agencies of the Bank throughout Victoria. GEO. E. EMERY, Head Office— MELBOURNE. Impector-Gen^mf. TREWHELLA :=* GRUBBING JACKS. Quick. Powerful. Simple. Mr. Chas. Hamilton, Molesworth, Vic, says:— "I would not be without one of these Jacks on the farm." Mr. O. C. B. Brown, Timber Merchant, Frances, S.A. :— "Have been using Trewhella Wallaby Jacks now nearl.v six years, and a.s long as I have anything to lift will never be without one." Write for Illustrated Catalogue to— TREWHELLA BROS., ENGINEERS, TRENTHAIVI, VICTORIA. xxn Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo Dec, 1912. r '\ DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, VICTORIA. JSufhIcy JKortieuItuFal School E. E. PESCOTT - Principal. ANNOUNCEMENT. The curriculum and management of the Burnley Horticultural School have now been arranged so that greater advantages and facilities will be given to students of both sexes in Horticulture and allied subjects. The present course of Horticulture for male students includes a two years' course, students being charged a fee of £5 per annum. Classes have been formed at Burnley, whereby students of both sexes may receive instruction on two afternoons of each week — Tuesdays and Fridays. Instruction includes theoretical and practical work, and will commence at 2 p.m. This will be a two years' course, and the fee charged will be £2 per annum. It has also been arranged that several short lecture courses shall be given on subjects which are suitable adjuncts to Horticulture, such as Poultry Farming, Bee-keeping, and Fruit Preserving, and these courses will be open and free to the general public. The subjects and dates of the Short Course Lectures will be announced in this Journal. STUDENTS SHOULD ENROLL WITHOUT DELAY, Application for , Admission stiould be made to . . THE DIRECTOR OF AGRICULTURE, PUBLIC OFFICES, MELBOURNE, OR TO THE PRINCIPAL. J lo Dec., tgl:?.] Jnitnial of Agriculture , Victoria. SAVE TIME-SAVE WORK-SAVE WORRY-SAVE MONEY Wash w^ith an "O.K." ROTARY WASHING MACHINE No housewife should be without an " O.K." Washer. With it the long tedious washitiij day is no more. A very short time serves to accomiilish well and quickly the hijjgest wash. The machine is simple to use, and will wash anything from Sheepskin, Mats, Blankets, &c., &c. , to the daintiest of Lin- gerie. It is guaranteed not to tear the finest fabrics. The tub is made of cjpress — a wood which will last for years. It is fitted with a steam-tight lid, which prevents the steam rising in the face of the user, and keeps water hot. Full particulars from Sole Victorian Agent: F. R. IVIELLOR, 440 ELIZABETH-ST., MELBOURNE. To FARMERS and OTHERS. For vour House, Barn, "Wool.shed, Dairy, Fencinij, etc. — - ^ JARRAH OR TASMANIAN k HARDWOOD TIMBERS THERE ARE NONE BETTER. Large Stocks of Scantlings, Weather-boards, Floorings, &c. Millars' Timber & Trading Co. Ltd. (Formerly named Millars' Karri and Jarrah Company (1902) Limited), QUEEN'S BRIDGE, MELBOURNE. Hi r" ^ RYAN, GOULDING, & CO. (JOHN F. GOULDING). WHOLESALE GRAIN & PRODUCE COMMISSION AGENTS & GENERAL BROKERS. 546-552 COLLINS STREET WEST (Near King-st.) FARMERS 1 Before Selling your Grain, Hay, Potatoes, Onions, consult or write us. It will pay you. CONSIGNMENTS Received and Sold Daily ex Rail or Wharf. Storage arranged on Liberal Terms and Advances made. All kinds of Seed Grain for Sale. Prompt Account Sales. Oats Specialists. New & Second-hand Bags for Sale at Lowest Rates. Quotations given for Chaff, Grain, Lucerne, \\'heaten or Oaten Hay, delivered to any station in Victoria or New South Wales. ^ When in the CITY Call In. — Short distance frcm Spencer-st. Riy. Station, j Journal of Agriculture, Victoria. [lo Dec, 191:2. LL Harvester Is the Best Harvester for YOU, because It is undeniably the STRONGEST Machine made. It will therefore outlast any other, and is thus CHEAPER. It has beaten all noted makes in DRAFT Tests. Farmers say it V70RKS BETTER EVERY YEAR. It harvested a SO-BUSHSI, WHEAT CROP ex-jcllontly. It has taken off up to 201 BAGS IN ONE DAY (190 lb. bags). It couldn't possibly do this unless it was STRONG, RELIABLE, SIMPLE, and EASY to PULL. EXTRACT FROM 'HORSHAM TIMES." A Record Wheat Yield, 18 bags per acre. "What is undoubtedly a re<.'ord wheat yielil tor the locality is being- gathered in b\ Mr. Samuel Gross, of the Three Bridffes, Drung Drnng. 'With a Mitchell Harvsster doing' exce'.lent work and drawn by five horses, Mr. Gross has taken up ta 18 bag-s of Federation wlieat per acre, the fielri harvested yieldin"- a magnificent average of sixteen bags. From other parts of the district excellent returns are also being harvested, but that bagged by Mr. Gross, so far, is the highest recorded." TESTIMONIAL FROM THE USER. " A report of the work done by your G ft. Hai-\ester appeared in the Horxhavh Times of Tth January last, and you will probably be pleased to liear that the machine has given me the utmost satisfaction. You will notice that" I had a record crop, which the machine had no ditticulty in deahng with, and it made a splendid sample. It was very light in draught, and I would have no hesitation in recommending it to anyone who stands in need of a really first=class Harvester." SAMUEL GR<»SS, (irosses Bridge, Drung Drung. Ask for Catalogues of Grain Drills, Mouldboard and Disc Ploughs, One-way Discs, Harrows, Yokes, Walter A. Wood Binders, Mower?, Raker, Waterloo Boy Oil Engines, Austin Road Graders, Diabolo Separators, and Max Milkers. MITCHELL & CO, PTY. LTD. Show Room : 596 BOURKE ST., MELBOURNE. Offices and Factory : WEST FOOTSCRAY, MELBOURNE. MENTION THIS PAPER WHEN ASKING FOR PRICES. By Authority : Albert J. Mxtllett, Acting GoYernment Printer. Melbourne. 3?efFigeratiug and lee JYCakiixg JYCaehinerY Made by HUMBLE & SONS, Geelong, Victoria. Specially suitable for Butchers, Breweries, Squatters Butter Bacon and Ice Factories, and all classes of Cold Storage, &c. The Machines can be supplied frora 3 cwt. capacity upwards, and either belt-driven or fitted with Engine A large number of these Machines are working in the Austrahan States, New Zealand and South Africa, and are giving universal satisfaction All classes of Refrigeration work undertaken, including coils. One of these Machines is installed at the Dookie Agricultural College. ^^errier's" Woolpresses and Rabbit Poison Distribntors, Engines, Boilers, Horseworks, &c. Full Particulars on Application to— Humble and Sons, General Engineer's, Vulcan Foundry, GEELONG. VICTORIAN P^J,»lff|^ RAILWAYS. SUMMER EXCURSIONS. The Victorian Railways issue SUMMER EXCURSION FARES to the SEASIDE :: MOUNTAINS :: LAKES and CAVES :: from 1 5th November till 30th April. THE YARRA AT WARBURTON. THE BUFFALO PLATEAU with its famous Gorge, Falls and Peaks, embraces the Finest Moun- tain Sfenery in Australia. Excur- Stun Fares all the year round. Splendid Accommodation at the Government Chalet. Special in- clusive Week Tickets, covering transport and accommodation, issued on Fridays by the Express train from Melbourne. First-class - £i lOs. THE AUSTRALIAN ALPS Mounts Bogong', Fea., "top, Ilotham. The Baw Baw^'v ';e. The Dividing Range, ^doa Woodend, Daylesford, I -fi» HEALESVILLE. Seven Days Trip, including Rail, Accommodation & Coach Drives. £3. WARBURTON (Mt. Dorii^a Buaqg). THE GIPPSLAND LAKES The Most Charming Chain of Ijakes in the Commonwealth. THE BUCHAN CAVES Indescribably Beautiful, LORNE. Waterfalls, Fern Glens, Sea and River Fishing. Splendid Accommodation. FLINDERS. Ocean Beach & Golfers' Paradise. QUEENSCLIFF. Bay and Ocean Beaches, and Steamer Services. Kail PICTURESQUE SS^^t^tifeS. VICTORIA. For full informal m as to train services, fares, &c., write to or enquire from the Government Tom ist Officer, Tourist Bureau, 0pp. Town Hall, CoUins-st., Melbourne. Ha.fi.dbooks, Maps and Hotel Guides free on application. E. B. JONES, ACTING SECRETARY FOR RAILWAYS. New York Botanical garden LiDrar 3 5185 00265 0990 M. '^- •^■M ? .■^,- ^ ^,./^ 5^-^ ' v^ : n > ■f' v^v ?>;'-*^i ;-^U:v >X <-■■... J-/ 5#^ ^!V^ ,^