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JOURNAL

lisha Mitchell Scientific Society

ISSUED QUARTERLY

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‘CHAPEL HILL, N.C., U.S. A.

TO BE ENTERED AT THE POSTOFFICE AS SECOND CLASS MATTER.

‘

4

JOURNAL

OF THE

Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society.

ISSUED QUARTERLY

Official Publication of the North Carolina
Academy of Science.

CHAPEL HILL, N. C.:
PUBLISHED BY THE UNIVERSITY OF NORTH CAROLINA
1904

THE UNIVERSITY PRESS
CHAPEL HILL

.
;

JOURNAL

ELIsHA MITCHELL ScIENTIFIC SOCIETY
TWENTIETH YEAR

1904

PROCEEDINGS OF THE NORTH CAROLINA ACADEMY
OF SCIENCE.

The first annual meeting of the North Carolina Academy
of Science was held at Trinity College, Durham, Nov. 28 and
29,1902.

A business session was called to order on the morning of
the 28th in the physics lecture room. The executive com-
mittee made its report and announced the election of twenty-
three members.

On motion the executive committee was authorized to pub-
lish the proceedings of this meeting, including the constitu-

tion and by-laws.

- The following amendment to the consritution was proposed,
to be acted on at the next annual meeting: To insert after
Section 2, Article IL.:

“SECTION 3. Anyindividual who shall contribute one hun-
dred dollars to the maintenance of the Academy may be
elected a patron of the Academy.”

After the busidess session the presentation of papers was
taken up and continued through the afternoon session.

In the evening an address of welcome was delivered by
Judge R. W. Winston of Durham; Professor Collier Cobb
responding for the Academy. The retiring president, Pro-
fessor W. L. Poteat, then delivered his address ; subject,
‘“Sczence and Life.” This was followed by a reception to the

+ ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC JOURNAL

members of the Academy by the ladies and faculty of Trinity
College.

Another business session was held on the morning of the
29th. On recommendation of the nominating committee,
consisting of Professor Collier Cobb, Mr. C, S. Brimley and
Professor W. B. Sackett, the following officers were elected :

President, C. W. Edwards.

Vice-President, C E. Brewer. |

Secretary-Treasurer, Franklin Sherman, Jr.

Executive Committee, C. W. Edwards and Franklin Sher-
man, Jr., ex-officio, F. L. Stevens, W. G. Sackett, H. H.
Brimley, C. B. Williams, W. L. Poteat, Chas. Baskerville,
Collier Cobb. .

The following by-law was adopted :

The executive committee shall jul all vacancies occurring be-
tween meeting's of the Academy.

It was resolved that the Academy extend its heartfelt
thanks to the faculty of Trinity College and to the local com-
mittee in particular for the kindness shown in arranging so
admirably for this meeting.

On the conclusion of business, the presentation of papers
was again taken up and continued until the final adjournment
at the close of the session. |

The program of papers presented at this meeting is as
follows :

PAPERS READ.

1. A New Method of Investigating Alternating Current
Phenomena. C. W. Edwards.

2. Some Recent Work on the Morphology. of the Coral
Polyps. ' /. Z. Duerden.

3. Baccillary Dysentery. red K. Cooke.

4. Some Interesting Insect Captures. Franklin Sherman, Jr.

5. Notes on the Reproduction of Certain Reptiles. C. S.
Brimley. 7

6. Ecological Notes on Mosquitoes with Notes on Color
Preference. W. G. Sackett.

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7. Primary Nucleus in Synchytrium. Mrs. F. L. Steveus.

8. Changes in the North Carolina Coast During Two De-
cades, with Notes on the Origin of the Sand- hill Topography
of the Coastal Plain. Collier Cobé.

9. Predecessors of Roentgen and Becquerel. /as. L. Lake.

10. Distribution of Some Birds in Eastern North Carolina.
7. Gilbert Pearson.

11. Some Considerations of Rare Earths. Chas. Baskerville.
12. Additional North Carolina Desmids (brief). -W. Z.
Poteat. |

13. Some Plant Formations South-east of Raleigh (brief).
W. G, Sackett.

14. Notes on North Gwin Plants (brief). /. ZL. Stevens.

The following papers were read by title:

Certain Compounds in the Husk of /uglans nigra. C. E.
Brewer.

Prairies in North Girottha. W.:W. Ashe.

Diurnal Nutation in Bidens frondosa. F. L. ewe

The Animal Tuberculoses and Their Relation to Human
Tuberculoses. 7Zazt Butler.

The Pollen of the Gymnosperms. W. C. Coker.

List of the Dragon-flies of Raleigh. C. S. Brimley.

Notes on Food-habits of Reptiles in Confinement. C. S.
Brimley.

A Simple Device for Illustrating Jthe Periodic Law to Stu-

_ dents. Chas. Baskerville. |
Improvement in Determination of Halogens in Atomic
Weight Work. Chas. Baskerville. |
¥ Notes on Some North Carolina Algae and ee WwW. €.

Coker, |

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC JOURNAL 5

F RANKLIN SHERMAN, JR.,
Secretary.

; BUSINESS MEETING.

A business meeting of the North Carolina Academy of
Science was held in the office of Tait Butler, State Veterina-

6 ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC JOURNAL

rian, Raleigh, N. C., on May 1, 1903, at 5:30 P. M., President
Edwards in the chair.

Dr. Baskerville reported that the Journal of the Elisha
Mitchell Society, published at the State University, might be
enlarged to meet the demands of the Academy publications,
if the Academy could bear approximately two-thirds of the
necessary increase, which was estimated roughly at one hun-
dred dollars.

The following amendments, as recommended by the Execu-
tive committee in their meeting at Durham, Feb. 23, 1903,
somewhat revised, were adopted:

AMENDMENTS—ARTICLE II.

SECTION 1. Any person actively interested in science, or in
the promotion of science, may, upon nomination by two
members, be elected a member of the Academy by a majority
vote of the executive committee and shall be entitled to all.
privileges of the Academy.

Relatives of members or others interested in Science may
become associates for the annual meeting upon payment of a
fee of one dollar. Associates receive the proceedings and are
entitled to all privileges of that meeting except voting and
holding office.

Sec. 2. The annual dues for members shall be three dollars
and for associates one dollar, and any person in arrears at the
date of the annual meeting for the presentation of papers
forfeits all privileges of the Academy until the dues are paid.

The following by-law was also adopted :

BY-LAW 2.

All elections to membership which take place subsequent to
the annual meeting for presentation of paper shall apply to
the following calendar year, and no regular dues are to be
collected for the year of such election. All elections to mem-
bership which take place at or before the annual meeting for
the presentation of papers shall apply to the calendar yeat in
which the election takes place, and dues shall be collected

en eo 2 be

~

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC JOURNAL

accordingly, and dues regularly become payable on January 1
of each year.

The following amendment was proposcd, to be acted upon
at the next regular meeting:

To amend Article III., Section 1 to read: ‘‘and an executive
committee of five, etc.”

On motion the following committee was appointed to
attend to the matter of publication: C. W. Edwards, W. L.
Poteat, C. S. Brimley.

On motion the University of North Carolina was selected .
for the next annual mecting.

The meeting then adjourned.

FRANKLIN SHERMAN, JR.,
‘Secretary.

SECOND ANNUAL MEETING.

The second annual meeting of the North Carolina Academy
of Scienee was held at the University of North Carolina,
Chapel Hill, Nov. 12 and 13, 1903.

The opening session was held in Gerrard Hall on the even-
ing of the 12th. Anaddress of welcome by Dr. F. P. Venable,
president of the University, was followed by the annual
address of the retiring president, Professor C. W. Edwards, of
Trinity College, whose subject was ‘‘Science and the State.”

On adjournment a smoker was given in the Alumni build-
ing to the members of the Academy by the Elisha Mitchell
Scientific Society.

On the morning of the 13th a business meeting was held in
the Physics lecture room of the Alumni building. In the
absence of the secretary, Mr. J. E. Latta, instructor in Physics
in the University, was made temporary secretary.

The following amendments to the constitution were
adopted:

(1) That the executive committee shall consist of five in-

stead of nine members.

8 , ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC JOURNAL

(2) That any individual who shall contribute one hundred
dollars to the maintenance of the Academy may be elected a
patron of the Academy.

On the recommendation of the nominating committee, con-
sisting of Prof. W. L. Poteat, Prof. Collier Cobb and Mr.
C.S. Brimley, the following officers were elected:

President, Chas. Baskerville.

Vice-President, J. I. Hamaker.

Secretary-Treasurer, Franklin Sherman, Jr.

Executive Committee, Chas. Baskerville and Franklin
Sherman, Jr., ex-officio, and W. L. Poteat, F. L. Stevens and
C..S. Brimley.

Sixteen new members were elected. | i)

The presentation of papers was now taken up for the re-
mainder of the morning session and continued through the
afternoon session. |

The following papers were presented:

Approaching Sun-Spot Maximum. /no. /. Lanneau, .Wake
Forest. (Published in full in this Journal).

Notes on Some Pacific Sponges. A. V. Wilson, Chapel
Fill.

Southeastern Box Tortoises. C. S. Brimley, Raleigh.
(Abstract).

The six species of Terrapene are enumerated and their
alleged characters given with observations on specimens of
Terrapene from Raleigh, N. C., several points in Florida,
Mimsville, Ga., and Colmesneil, Texas, showing that these
characters are frequently not diagnostic. The author is con-
vinced that Terrapene ornata, T. major and T. carolina are —
distinct species, and he is inclined to believe that T. bauriis

at least subspecifically distinct from T. major, and that T. — .

triungis is a southern form of T. carolina and not a distinct
species; however he is by no means certain in either case and
furthermore he is not even certain that the triungis from —
Georgia are specifically identical with those from Texas.
Number of specimens examined 57 in all.
Terrapene triungis Mimsville, Ga, 20 living; 7 alcoholic;

>

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC JOURNAL 9

Bay St. Louis, Miss., 1 alcoholic; Colmesneil, Tex., 3 alcoholic,
1 living, 1 shell; 7errapene Carolina, Raleigh, N. C., 7 alco-
holic and numerous living examples; 7errapene Major, Talla-
hassee, Fla., 2 alcoholic; Riceboro, Ga., 1 alcoholic; Jerra-
pene Bauri, Orlando, Fla., 4 living and 1 alcoholic; Hastings,
Fla., 7 alcoholic and 1 live specimen; Mimsville, Ga., 1
alcoholic.

Poisining by Lepiota Morgani pk. /. ZL. Stevens, West

Raleigh. Read by W. C. Coker. (Abstract).

Account is given of a personal experience with this fungus,
leaving no deubt that on some persons at least it produces an
extremely active toxic effect. The article will appear in the
Journal of Mycology.

Chapel Hill Liverworts. W. C. Coker, Chapel Hill.

This paper appears in full in next issue of this Journal.

Notes on the Transformation of Some Large Moths. C. S.
Brimley, Raleigh.

A Simple Device for Illustrating the Periodic Law. Chas.
Baskerville, Chapel Hill. (Will be published in School
Science ).

Action of Ultra-Violet Light upon Rare Earth Oxides.
Chas. Baskerville. (American Journal of Science, Dec. 1903.)

The Effects on Rare Earth Oxides of Radium-bar:um Com-
pounds, and on the Production of Permanently Luminous
Compounds by Mixing the latter with Powdered Minerals.
Chas. Baskerville and Geo. F. Kunz. (Will appear in the

Am. J. Sci., Jan. 1904).

Demonstration of the Parasite in Anchylostomiasis (Hook-
worm Disease). W. .S. Rankin, Wake Forest.

Mendel’s Contribution to a Theory of Heredity. W. ZL.
Foteat, Wake Forest. (Abstract).

Gregor Johann Mendel (1822-1884) published in 1866 in an
obscure Austrian Journal a paper describing ‘‘Experiments in

Plant Hybridization.” Professor Hugo de Vries, of Amster-

dam, who had taken up a similar line of work, brought the
paper out of its long hiding in 1900. Its importance was at
once apparent. ‘The task which Mendel set himself was, to

10 ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC JOURNAL

determine how many forms of offspring hybrids would pro-
duce, to arrange these forms according to their separate gen-
erations, and to ascertain their statistical relations to each
other. He found that the genus /rswm fulfilled the conditions
essential in the experimental plants. In the work which
extended over eight years the pea hybrids were found to be
not intermediate between the parental forms as regards the
two differentiating characters which were crossed, but one of
these characters was transmitted unchanged—the ‘‘domi-
nant” character of the pair, and the other seemed hardly to
be transmitted at all—the ‘‘recessive” character. When a
plant having a particular dominant character, as round,
smootish seeds, was crossed with one having a corresponding
character, namely, angular and deeply wrinkled seeds, the
resulting hybrid’s seeds were all of them either round and
smootish or angular and wrinkled in the proportion of three
to one respectively. The next generation from the angular
seeds—bred true; from the round seeds (dominant), produced
all round seeds, which, however, subsequent generations
showed to be of two kinds—pure dominants breeding true,
and hybrids (twice as many as the dominants) yielding pre-
cisely the same results as were observed in the first genera-
tion of the hybrid.

The results may be exhibited graphically in the following
scheme, where D stands for a dominant character and R for a
recessive :

D =z

3D 1R Hybrid Seeds.

Lp 2DR R Ist Generation..

D Ditih-Qp Riei(e R 2nd Generation.

ee eS, ery

. ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC JOURNAL 1]

By substituting values the formula is deduced covering the
kinds of hybrid offspring in their numerical relation for a
series of generations:

D+ 2DR-+ R.

This experimental result accords with what the law of
probabilities would lead one to expect in the average of unions
of the pollen and egg cells of the two parental forms. On the
average D pollen will fertilize equally often D ova and R ova,
and R polien will fertilize equally often D ova and R ova.
The chances and the results may be exhibited thus:

POLLEN. OVUM.
D B= « ®,

ae Bs Be
oo ey MLR D

a —- R=> R,orD + 2DR + R.

Mendel appears to have demonstrated that in the offspring
of a hybrid 25 per cent. will show the recessive character and
75 per cent. the dominant, embracing 25 per cent. pure domi-
nants and 50 per cent, hybrids. Accordingly his contribution
to a theory of heredity may be stated to be the demonstration
of the segregation of characters in the totality of an organism
and the individuality of characters, which is preserved down
the line of descent.

A New Palaeotrochis Locality, with Some Notes on the
Nature of Palaeotrochis. Collier Cobb, Chapel Airll. (Illus-
‘trated by specimens and microphotographs, with the micro-
scopic sections displayed under a microscope).

An acid volcanic rock full of spherulites closely resembling
Palaeotrochis occurs on the elevation three miles west of
_ Chapel Hill known as The Old Volcano. These spherulites
are smaller than Palaeotrochis, but they and the rock in which

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12 ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC JOURNAL .

they occur have the same general character as the specimens
from the Sam Christian Mine. These from Chapel Hill are
smaller and the definite Palaeotrochis form not so abundant
among them. Microscopical study shows that they are com-
posed of quartz, fibrous feldspar, and mica (usually green
biotite), just the minerals common in the igneous rocks
around Chapel Hill. These studies indicate the inorganic
origin of Palaeotrochis.

Secondary Radiation from Thorium Compounds. Geo. B.
Pegram, New York.

The following papers were read by title:

The Flora of the Isle of Palms, South Carolina. W. €.
Coker, Chapel Hill. (Abstract).

The flora of this island, which is near Charleston, is semi-
tropical in character and presents an interesting transition
between that of the Florida and North Carolina coasts. The
island is eutirely formed of wind-blown sand and its seaward
side is furnished with high dunes which offer good advan-
tages for the study of the binding action of grasses and the
dune plants.

Twenty-seven species of grasses were found, five of which
also occur in the Bahama Islands.

Thirteen species of trees and twenty-five of woody vines
occur; the most abundant trees being the Palmetto (Sabal
Palmetto), Live Oak (Quercus virens), Laural Oak (Quercus
Jaurifolia) and the Old Field Pine (Pinus taeda). Photo-
graphs were taken of various plant associations. ©

Theory of the Induction Coil. C. W. Edwards, Durham,

The Granville Tobacco Wilt. /. LZ. Stevens and W. G.
Sackett, Raleigh. (Abstract).

A new tobacco disease which is exceedingly destructive is
recorded for Granville County. The disease is described, the
extent of the damage estimated, and its history and distribu-
tion given.

The diseased plants in the effected parts of the root and

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC JOURNAL 13

stem contain numerous bacteria, which probably cause the
disease, though definite proof of this point has not yet been
had, owing to the absence of tobacco plants in suitable con-
dition for inoculation. The substance of this paper was
issued in September as bulletin No. 188 of the North Carolina
Experiment Station.
Improvement of Corn by Seed Selection. .C. &. Williams,
Fealeigh. (Abstract).
_ For the improvement of corn there are three methods in
general practice: first, by the importation of seed from some
reputable grower or breeder; second, by the careful selection
of seed corn from one’s own field or from a neighbor’s; third,
by careful selection and growing of seed-corn in a field iso-
lated at least one-quarter of a mile from any other corn field.
The characters that should be taken into account in seed
selection are: (1) Selection of ears from stalks that have two
or more ears, as it has been demonstrated time and again that
two medium sized ears froma stalk give higher yields per acre
than one large ear. (2) The stalks should be large at the
base and gradually tapering towards the tassel for two rea-
sons: first, because it will be better enabled to withstand
drought, and second, because it will stand better in a wind
storm. (3) The ears should by all means be of a cylindrical
form with both butts and tips filled out, as this is the form
that gives the highest percentage yield of shelled corn per
ear. The difference in yield, as a result of actual experience
of ears of the same length, between those that had the tips
filled and those that were not, was something like six bushels
per acre. (4) The best shaped kernel is a medium wedge, as
this fills the space on the cob most completely. Also the dis-
tance between the rows of grains on the cob should be small,
while the number of rows should be large, and they should
run parallel the full length of the cob, with little or no dimin-
ution in size either atthe butts or tips.
This paper will appear in full in the Bulletin of the North
Carolina Department of Agriculture, Vol. 24, No. 9.

14 ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC JOURNAL

The Forms of Sand-Dunes as Influenced by Neighboring
Forests. Collier Cobb, Chapel Fill. (Illustrated by photo-
graphs).

While the deforesting of the sandreefs is the primary cause
of the dunes along the North Carolina coast, there are several
instances in which, the trees are the obstacles which have
produced the dunes. In all these cases ‘The Banks” run
directly across the course of the prevailing winds, which
come from the southwest, and just as soon as the vege-
tation becomes so dense that it prevents this southwest
wind from blowing the wave-driven sand back into the
sea, a Sandwave forms equal in height to the height of
the forest. This is best shown in the high dune north
of Manteo, on Roanoke Island. It is also noticeable on-
Currituck Beach, and at several points opposite Masonboro
Sound; and forests were influential in forming the dunes
at Nag’s Head. On the Kinnakeet section of Hatteras
Island the dunes were started by the deforesting of a strip
next the shore, when they rose to the height of the forest
which they finally covered and destroyed. The barren sand-
waste there is still known as ‘‘The Great Woods.” Dunes in
many of these cases along our coast might be removed by
thinning out the forest and removing the tangle of vines and
undergrowth which prevent the west winds from driving the
sands back into the sea.

Even where the dunes are formed by the prevailing winds,
as between Fort Caswell and Lockwood’s Folly and on Shackle-
ford Banks, in every case where the forest growth is dense
the encroaching bank of moving sand is at the same height
as the tops of the trees. When the trees are sparse and scat-
tered in clumps the moving sands form irregular sandhills
instead of great waves.

Work on a List of Insects of North Carolina. Avanklin
Sherman, /r., Raleigh. (Abstract).

The author is endeavoring to compile a card-catalogue of
all species of insects actually known to occur within the State
of North Carolina, Three methods are being followed: (1)

- di
|

securing accurate identification of specimens now being col-
lected; (2) compiling lists of all species from North Carolina
found in the larger collections of the country; (3) making
lists from all authoritative published literature. The work
has only been in progress about one year, and only certain
groups have yet been catalogued at all.

Under the first head chief attention has been given to the
State collections at Raleigh in charge of the author, and the
private collections of Mr. C. S. Brimley at Raleigh, these
being the only ones of any extent known to be in the state.
Mr. Brimley’s work has largely contributed to make the cata-
logue as complete as it now is. The work of compiling lists
from the collections of the country and from the published
literature is under way, though being carried on at consider-
able disadvantage,

Life Histories of Some Southern Birds. 7. G. Pearson,
Greensboro.

List of the Cicindelldae of North Carolina with Notes on
the Species. Avanklin Sherman, Jr. (Abstract).

During the years 1901 and 1902 the author devoted ‘consid-
erable attention to collecting the Tiger beetles of the State.
The species where not known positively by the author were
identified by competent persons. The list, including species
recorded by others as well as those collected by the author,
contains nineteen distinct species and three varieties. Of
these all save one species and one variety are represented in
the collection of the N. C. Department of Agriculture.

The list contains the following:

1 Tetvacha carolina, Linn.

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC JOURNAL 15

2 ¥ virginica, Linn.

3 Cicindela unipunctata, Fab.

4 ? scuttellaris var. unicolor, De}j.
4a 27% var. modesta, De}.
abs) > scuttellaris var. rugifrons, Dej.
5 y 6-guttata, Fab.

a 4 var. Harrissi, Leng.

6 <§ patruela, Dej.

16 ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC JOURNAL

7 Cicindela purpurea, Oliv.

8 ie splendida, Hentz.

9 ‘) vulgaris, Say.

10 4 reponda, De}.

11 7 12-guttata, Dej.

12 3 hirlicollis, Say.

13 re punctulata, Fab.

14 ye dorsalis var. media, Lec.
15 5 marginata, Fab.

16 bf blandada, Lec.

17 $f gratiosa, Guer.

18 4 rufiventris, Dej.

19 Ms abdominalis, Fab. :

To be published in full in ‘‘Entomological Nesp”

Observations on the Cytology of the Phycomcetes. Adeline
C. Stephens, West Raleigh.

Rare North Carolina Birds. 7. G. Pearson, Greensboro.

After the presentation of papers the following resolution
was adopted: ‘That the North Carolina Academy of Science
hereby expresses its heartfelt appreciation of the many cour-
tesies extended to it by the President and faculty of the Uni-
versity, both collectively and individually.”

The Academy then adjourned.

At 8 o’clock in the evening a public lecture, complimentary
to the Academy, was given by Dr. Baskerville, President of
the Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society, in Gerrard Hall. Sub-
ject: ‘‘Fluorescence, Phosphorescence, Action of Ultra-violet
Light, Roentgen Rays, and Radium upon Minerals and
Gems.” (Illustrated by experiments and stereopticon. )

This was followed by a reception to the members of the
Academy by the ladies and faculty of the University in the
Zeta Psi Fraternity Hall.

J. EK. Arras
Temporary Secretary.

.
+
ad
'

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC JOURNAL 17

CONSTITUTION.

ARTICLE I.

NAME AND OBJECT.

Secrion 1. The name of this organization shall be the
“NortTH CAROLINA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.”’

Sec. 2. The objects of the Academy shall be to promote
study and scientific research and to furnish, so far as practic-
able, a means of publication of such articles as may be deemed
worthy.

ARTICLE II.

MEMBERSHIP AND DUES.

SECTION 1. Any persofi actively interested in science, or
the promotion of science, may, upon nomination by two mem-
bers, be elected a Member of the Academy by a majority vote
of the Executive Committee, and shall be entitled to all
privileges of the Academy.

Relatives of members, or others interested in science, may
become Associates for the annual meeting, upon the payment

of a fee of one dollar. Associates receive the proceedings,

and are entitled to all privileges of that meeting except vot-
ing and holding office.

Sec. 2. The annual dues for members shall be three dollars,
and for Associates one dollar, and any person in arrears at the
date of the annual meeting for presentation of papers, forfeits
all privileges of the Academy until the dues are paid.

ARTICLE III.

OFFICERS.

SEcTION 1. The officers of the Academy shall be a Presi-
dent, Vice-President, Secretary-Treasurer, and an Executive
Committee of five, including the President and Secretary, of

2

18 ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC JOURNAL

which three shall constitute a quorum. All officers shall be
elected annually, by ballot, by majority vote.

Sec. 2. The duties of all officers shall be such as usually
pertain to such positions.

ARTICLE IV.
MEETINGS.

SEcTion 1. The time and place of all meetings shall be
determined by the Executive Committee, but there shall be at
least one meeting annually for the presentation and discussion
of papers, and at least one business meeting annually.

Src. 2. Two weeks’ notice shall be given of all meetings
and those present shall constitute a quorum.

ARTICLE V.
PUBLICATIONS.

Secrion 1. The official organ of the Academy shall be
known. as the ‘‘Journal of the North Carolina Academy of
Science,” over which the Executive Committee shall have
general control, but the detail work shall be left to an Edito-
rial Committee of three, whom the Executive Committee shall
elect.

ARTICLE VI.

AMENDMENTS.

SEcTIon 1. This Constitution may be amended by a two-
thirds vote of those present at any regular meeting; Provided,
That such amendments be submitted in writing to the Execu-
tive Committee at least two weeks before the meeting at which
action is to be taken.

BY-LAWS.

1. The Executive Committee shall fill all vacancies occur-
ring between meetings of the Academy.

2. All elections to membership, which take place subse-

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC JOURNAL 19

quent to the annual meeting for presentation of papers, shall
apply to the following calendar year, and no regular dues can
be collected for the year of such election. All elections to
membership, which take place at or before the annual meeting
for the presentation of papers, shall apply to the calendar
year in which the election takes place, and dues shall be col-
lected accordingly; and dues regularly become payable on
January ist of each year.

RESOLUTION OF EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE.

Resolved, 'That upon the written request of three or more
members, the Secretary shall call a meeting of the Committee
to consider such matters as may be laid before it, said meeting
to take place within ten days from the time the reqeust is
submitted.

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Andrews, W. J., Raleigh.
Ashe, W. W., i:
Baskerville, Chas., Univ. N. C., Chapel Hill.
Battle, K. P., Raleigh.
Beardslee, Henry C., Asheville.
Binford, Raymond, Guilford College, ‘Guilford College.
‘Brewer, C. E., Wake Forest College, Wake Forest.
Brinkley, C. S., Raleigh.
Burkett, Chas. W. A. & M. College. West Raleigh.
Butler, Tait, Dept. Agr., Raleigh.
Cain, W. M., University N. C., Chapel Hill.
Chaplin. Spencer, Littleton.
Cobb, Collier, Chapel Hill.
Coker, R. E., Biological Laboratory., Beaufort.
Coker, W.C., University N. C., Chapel Hill.
Cooke, Fred K., Wake Forest College, Wake Eorest.
Duerden, J. E., University N. C., Chapel Hill.
Edwards, C, W., Trinity College, Durham.
Garrett, Mrs. R. U., Asheville.

| ees
run +. ‘

20 ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC JOURNAL

Gore, J. W., University N. C.,
Hammaker, J. T., Trinity College.,
Haskell, A. A., A. & M. College,
Henderson, A., University N. C.,
Hoffman, S. W.,

Holmes, Jos. A., Geological Survey,
Howell, E. V., University N. C.,
*Kesler. J. L..

Kilgore, B. W. Dept. Agr.,

Lake, Jas. L., Wake Forest College,
Lanneau, M. A., Wake Forest College,
Latta, J. E., University N. C.
Lewis, R. H., State Board Health,
Massey, W. F.,

“Meade, Miss A. M.,

Morrison, W. G., A. & M. College,
Myers, E. W.,

Pearson, T. Gilbert, Normal College,
Pegram, W. H., Trinity College,
Poteat, W. L., Wake Forest College,
Rankin, W. Si! S ns f
Roberts, G. A., Dept. Agr.
*Royster. H. A.,

Chapel Hill.
Durham.

West Raleigh.
Chapel Hill.
Statesville.
Chane Hill.

se

Raleigh.

Wake Forest.
Chapel Hill,
Raleigh.

ee

ee

West Raleigh.
Greensboro.
Durham.
Wake Forest.
Raleigh

ee

Sackett, W. G., Baptist Female University, me

Shermau, Franklin, Jr., Dept. Agr.,
Smith, Henry L., Davidson College,

* Moved to another State.

ee

Davidson.

APPROACHING SUNSPOT MAXIMUM.

J. F. LANNEAU.

The condition of the sun’s surface as to spots—when most
_ pronounced, most persistent—is clearly a matter of judgment,
and therefore must lack precision as to date.

The last maximum occurred in or near the year 1893.
Thereafter, for six or seven years the spots diminished in size
and number. During the past three years it has been a very
rare occurrence to see on the sun even a small spot. But be-
ginning last July, there is now a decided renewal of solar
disturbance.

My observations at Wake Forest are made with a five inch
equatorial. It has a clock work motor, and also two adjust-
ing rods at the eye end for movements in declination and right
ascenston.

A polarizing eye-piece is so used as to show the sun’s disk
reversed east and west, but normal north and south.

In default of a micrometer attachment for exact determina-
tion of size and location of spots, approximate measurements
are made by stopping the clock work, and then noting inter-
vals between transit of spot and transits of sun’s east and west
limb. Obviously, the distances are proportional to the inter-
vals of time.

Measurements are also made without stopping the clock-
work, by using each adjusting rod asa micrometer screw. To
so use them, I first find by careful repetition the number of
turns or partial turns of the declination rod to move the hori-
zontal wire of the eye-piece north and south the full breadth
of the sun’s disk; and in like manner, the number of turns of
the other rod to move the vertical wire east and west across
the disk.

Then, using the rodsin turn, relative distances at right
angles are found. Points are thus located, and lengths deter-
mined.

22 ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC JOURNAL

Observations of the sun during July and for the past thirty
days supply the material for this paper.

At noon of July lst there was a single small spot on the
sun’s disk. On the 9th there were 53—forming three groups.
Their relative positions, and that of others observed during
the month, are shown in the sixteen drawings which illus-
trated ‘‘Sunspots in July,” published in Popular Astronomy
for August.

By the courtesy of the publishers the drawings are here re-
produced; also a part of the matter of this paper. Fig. 1 rep-
resents the sun’s disk at noon July 9th. Group 1, on the left,
is simply indicated by three spots—the largest of its 21 spots.
Group 2, o: 17 spots, and group 3, on the right, of 15 spots,
are indicated each by its two chief spots.

By the next noon a half dozen spots had disappeared, or had
emerged with others. At noon July 11th several spots in
group 3 were much enlarged, as shown in the drawing for
that day. But of the 53 spots in view two days before, only
34 remained. ,

By July 14th group 1 had passed out of view beyond the
sun’s western edge; and of groups 2 and 3 there remained only
4 spots. By the next noon, July 15, all had passed beyond
view except a single spot north of the equator. But a new
group of 8 spots had appeared on the disk’s south-east quarter
(Fig. 5.)

This group, it is interesting to note, had evidently formed
since noon of the previous day—for then that part of the sun’s
disk was without blemish.

So too, before the next noon another new group formed in
the north-east quarter—group 5, shown in drawing for the
16th. And again, on the 24th, there appeared a newly formed
group of 11 spots. It was still conspicuous on the 29th, the
last day of my July observations.

Within that month as many as 90 spots marred the solar
surface—part of them north of the sun’s equator and part
south, in two fairly well defined belts or zones as shown in
the drawings.

Pig.d

July 94,1903. Noon July 10 Noon July 11 Noon Julyl4 Noon
Seven large «cts. Large spots little changed . More large spots Only four <= spots
re? In $ Wor: 2 spcts Tn group 1 onty M spots seen In ee 1 only, am aeen Group q w- Limb

RE" 4S | shag cnmaener rs = is rg bey re Hacer
(Small spots hati) }

rg bs} Fig6 Pigy fig.8
July 15 Noon. July16 Noon Tuly!7 Noon July18 Noor *
Group gone -passed wlrmb Group 3, one spot gett narrow Cloud-yells hinder sesing, Group 4 muck changed
4a one aa see nm 2) Ve nip Ont up pile and. Group 5 shows a new apot.
“ 12 the NES -
al othe north
Least eae ny e a sha ey : oe ‘i
W b
Fig FiglO . Figit Fig 12
JulyQO Noon JulyQi Noon July23 Noon July23 Noon
Group * Ste epote Group $74 aie Group 5 showe a single epdt! Gig Mee § 5 tame two
Fig Fig.l Fighd Figt6
| July24 Noon JulyQ5 Noon July 27 Noon JulyQQ Noon
: Gro h g in wigw.7
: up 2 s| anh es om fone “ > Gs sn dante Real ar shows mee grep © Only gai 6 on view. mach
apres alsin teeth oes fone
Big al a L007 were groupe 1 % a
ea

S

No such persistence and rapid succession of spots and groups
has occurred in the past five or six years. They were certain-
ly heralds of an approaching sunspot maximum.

These numerous July sunspots were indeed all relatively
quite small. And size as well as number is an element in such
a maximum. This element of size, however, has already be-
gun to appear.

In October a very large group of spots darkened the sun’s
disk. By using a shield of smoked glass, it could be seen
with the naked eye. My first observation of it was made at
noon on the 14th. It was then larger than any group seen
since the 13th of February, 1892.

By October 18th it reached the sun’s western limb and
passed out of view. But in due time—at its earth-rise—it re-
appeared to us on the sun’s eastern edge. It was there in full
view when I looked inthe morning of October 30th.

It had greatly altered in form. Earlier in the month it
was somewhat rectangular in shape. Its vast area excited
general interest. As estimated by good authorities it was
120,000 miles long and 40,000 miles broad. That is, it covered
an area more than 24 times the entire surface of our earth.

When again seen at Wake Forest, October 30th, just after
its reappearance, it had divided intothree great spots. Four
days later, when well advanced into view, it was more chang-
ed—one spot had almost closed; each of the other two had ex-
panded and about them were grouped 18 relatively small spots.
With like mutations it remained a conspicuous object until
yesterday, November 12th, when it again passed the sun’s
western edge out of view.

Meanwhile, two other extensive groups appeared. The
first of these was observed October 26th, just as it rounded the
sun’s eastern edge.

It was triangular in shape and about one third the size of
the great group which has now twice passed the western edge.
My notes record its varied aspects from day to day until it too
passed the sun’s western edge on the 7th of November.

24 ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC JOURNAL

—

4
4

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC JOURNAL 25

The other group—the third in order of these extensive dis-
turbances—was seen near the east limb Nov. 4th. Next day,
when more fully in view, it showed four very large spots with
15 smaller ones clustered about them. Its area exceeded tiat
of its immediate predecessor and its changes in form were
more surprising.

These three great groups, in view during the past thirty
days, had a total area more than 40 times the surface of our
earth.

They amply furnish the element of size, as the July sun-
spots gave that of number,

Number and size of spots indicate growing solar distur-
bance, and evidence unmistakably an approaching sunspot
maximum

The period from one maximum to the next being about 11
years, we may expect the one now approaching to culminate
in or near the year 1904—next year.

It is not intended in this brief paper to discuss the many-
sided subject of sunspots; still less to even question profundi-
ties of the sun’s constitution, or to consider the sources of its
seemingly exhaustless energy.

Iadd, however, asingle suggestion as to the nature of sun-
spots.

They are often referred to as furious solar storms or cy-
clones. Unquestionably, in spot arcas the surface material is
tossed and torn asunder and adjacent glistening facule con-
sist of solar matter thrown into wildly irregular ranges piled
many times mountain high.

But can there be at the sun’s fiercely hot surface any such
difference of temperature as is essential to movements in any-
wise analogous to storms terestrial?

Moreover we note on the sun a fairly sharp boundary be-
tween the dark disturbed areas and the adjoining bright re-
gions; while here, on the earth, there isa gradual transition
from regions of storm to regions of calm.

eae storms sweep the earth’s surface; but visible mo-

26 ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC JOURNAL

tion, in sunspots, or appearance of motion is mainly vertical.

In either view allowing remoteness of resemblance, may we
not liken sunspots to our earthquakes rather than to our
wind storms?

Is it objected that a sunspot covers a great area, and often
persists for weeks or months?

True our earthquakes usually produce vzszble results only
in small areas, and quickly subside; but often they are /e/t
throughout an extensive territory.

The earthquake of last week, Nov. 4th, which caused con-
sternation in the city of St. Louis, was felt in eight states—
Missouri, Illinois, Indiana, Kentucky, Tennessee, Mississippi,
Louisiana and Arkansas.

In the year 357 A. D. an earthquake in that ill-fated re-
gion which we now know as politically convulsed Macedonia,
was So wide spread that it swallowed up 150 cities.

The great earthquake of 1755 which destroyed Lisbon with
its 50,000 people, destroyed or damaged several other cities in
Portugal and some in Spain and in Morocco and extended its
disasters east to Arabia and west to the island of Madeira.

In 394 A. D. an earthquake in Europe wrought its destruc-
tion of city after city for fully one month; and one in Constan-
tinople in tiie year 480 A. D. convulsed that region for forty
days.

In point of fact, then, as regards both extent and duration
there zs analogy between the sunspots and the earthquake. —

From these several considerations—somewhat uniform sur-
face temperature, sharp demarcation, preponderance of verti-
cal motion, and analogy in extent and duration—we may say
the spots are in no sense solar surface storms, but rather deep
seated sunquakes.

As shown, the first great sunquake in October was of vast
extent, and displayed its vigor for more than a month.

The sunspot maximum at hand—swnguake maximum—
promises abundant opportunity for noting other such outbursts
of solar energy—some perhaps on a still grander scale.

THE BOX TORTOISES OF SOUTHEASTERN NORTH
AMERICA.

C. S. BRIMLEY.

The Box Tortoises (genus Terrapene Merrem 1820—Cistudo
Auctorum) comprise a group of six closely related forms, of
which one is known only from Mexico, while the other five
are found in the United States.

The described forms are:

1. Terrapene carolina (L), 1758.

2. Terrapene triungis (Ag), 1857.

3. Terrapene mexicana (Gray), 1849.

4. Terrapene ornata (Ag), 1857.

5. Terrapene major (Ag), 1857.

6. Terrapene bauri (Taylor), 1895.

The* characters of these species as given by W. E. Taylor
are as follows:

I. Three digits on the hind foot.

1. Zygomatic arch complete. Webs absent. Phalanges on
puersote 100t, 2..3,-3, 3,2; hind foot, 2,3, 3, 2,1. Baurz.

2. Zygomatic arch incomplete. Webs absent. (a) Number
of phalanges in the fore foot, 2, 3, 3, 2, 2; hind foot, 2, 3, 3, 2, 1.
Carapace tectiform MWewxzcana. (b) Number of phalanges in
the fore MIG Ions, 2027 Bind LOOt2)+3,.3, 2;+1.. Carapace
not tectiform 77zungis.

II. Four digits on the hind foot.

1. Zygomatic arch complete. Webs distinct. Phalanges
iecne.1ore Toot, 2,3, 2, 3, 2; hind foot, 2, 3, 3, 3,1. . Major.

2. Zygomatic arch rudimentary. Digits slightly webbed.
Phalanges in the fore foot, 2, 3,.3, 3,2; hind foot, 2, 3, 3, 3, 2.
Carapace keeled. Carolina.

3. Zygomatic arch absent. Phalanges in the fore foot,

*The Box Tortoises of North America by W. E. Taylor, Proc. U.S. N.
M., Vol. XVII., pp. 573-588. 1895.

28 ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC JOURNAL

2, 2, 2, 2, 2; hind foot, 2, 3, 3, 3, 1. Carapace not keeled.
Ornata.

The same year *Cope, relying on the same characters, di-
vided Terrapene into four genera, viz.:

1. Zerrapene Merrem, with four digits in the hind foot and
zygomatic arch incomplete (T. carolina and T. ornata).

2. Onychotrea Gray. Three digits in the hind foot and
zygomatic arch incomplete (T. mexicana and T. triungis).

3. Partemys Cope. Three digits in the hind foot, zygomatic
arch incomplete (T. bauri).

4. Toxaspis Cope. Four digits in the hind foot, zygomatic
arch complete (T. major).

Both Cope and Taylor use the word ‘“‘digit” in these tables
in a misleading manner. What is really meant is ‘‘claw” or
‘‘clawed digit”; all the species of Terrrpene having at least
four digits from an osteological point of view, the fourth
digit not being distinguishable in the flesh except when ter-
minating inaclaw. Taylor’s diagnosis of the species would
be satisfactory enough were it not for the fact that some of
the characters relied upon are subject to variation in the same
species.

Having been considerably puzzled by this individual varia-
tion in my endeavor to satisfactorily identify specimens of
these forms, I have taken pains during the past two or three
years to examine specimens of the various forms which have
passed through my hands in order to ascertain so far as pos-
sible with the material at my disposal their relation to one
another.

So far I have come to the conclusion that of the five forms
inhabiting the United States, three are undoubtedly good
species, viz., carolina, major and ornata. With regard to the
othertwo éau7rt may be identical with major, or it may be the
Florida local race of that species, or it may be extinct; I can-
not tell which. - Western /rzungis I believe to be at least a

*Taylor on Box Tortoises, by E. D. Cope, Am. Naturalist, 1895, August:

pp. 756-7.

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC JOURNAL 29

well marked race of cavol/ina and not unlikely a distinct spe-
cies. Z7riunguis from Georgia may be intergrades between
typical ¢riunguis and carolina, or they may be possibly in
part hybrids with daurz. I will now discuss the specimens I
have examined in detail.

Terrapene carolina. Specimens from Raleigh show the fol-
lowing characteristics: carapace marked with large yellow
spots, these often forming to some extent partially concen-
tric figures; keel of the carapace always present, but not
marked by a continuous yellow line. Plastron usually black
in adults, often showing light spaces, apparently due to abra-
sion; in younger specimens it is usually yellow more or less
marked with dusky, head usually with yellow spots. Hind
feet usually larger and stronger than in ¢rv7uwngzis, usually
with four claws, but I have seen three specimens with three-
clawed hind feet from this locality. Zygomatic arch incom-
plete, but the quadratojugal very variable in size and shape; in
five specimens examined Feb. 11, 1903, two had the quadra-
tojugal long nearly extending to the jugal, nearly completing
the arch; in two it was small and triangular, and in the fifth
absent altogther.

The newly hatched young of this species have the carapace
broad with the keel marked by a row of yellow spots, the
head is without yellow markings in the very young, though
usually marked with yellow spots in the adult.

Terrapene triungts. Five specimen of trvzungzs fromColmesneil
in Eastern Texas show the following characteristics: the
carapace is shorter and rounder than in any other species
examined, the ground color is light brown in all, but the
markings show an interesting variation—a living specimen
received Oct. 22, 1902, had the carapace marked with a few
radiating black lines only, no yellow spots; a shell of one of
the others shows very numerous rather faint yellow spots
arranged in radiating lines, the upper edges of the lateral
plates with some black markings and a few black spots inter-
spersed with the yellow spots; a third specimen has very

30 ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC JOURNAL

numerous distinct yellow spots arranged in radiating lines; a
fourth has a little black only, with faint indications of yellow
spots; a fifth is practically unmarked. All these five have
the plastron light brown unmarked and three claws on the
hind feet; the edge of the hind foot beyond the third claw is
straight in all five withont a notch showing the termination
of the fourth digit. Feet unwebbed in all five. One of the
five has only traces of a keel.

These were examined with regard to the quadratojugal. In
one of these it was absent; in the other two, small and trian-
gular.

Terrapene triungis (?) from Georgia. These are a very
variable lot and I am doubtful whether they are the same
species as those from Colmesneil, Texas. These Georgia
specimens appear to me to be probably a three-clawed form of
7. carolina but present some differences.

In twenty living specimens examined in May and June,
1903, five had the hind feet four-clawed and fifteen had them
three-clawed. Nearly all the latter had a notch on the hind
foot showing the termination of the fourth digit. This notch
was absent in one specimen and only slightly indicated in
several others. The markings on plastron and carapace are
quite variable. The former is usually more or less variegated,
the markings frequently assuming the regular pattern which
is characteristic of 7. carolina. Often, however, they are
irregular and the plastron is frequently all yellow, but in one
specimen only have I seen it all dark.

The carapace is dark brown usually marked with roundish
yellow spots which vary greatly in size, but are never as
small or numerous as in the Colmesneil specimens. These
spots sometimes largely coalesce forming irregular yellow
markings which may occupy the greater port of the shell to
the exclusion of the ground color.

The head is usually marked with large round yellow spots,
sometimes, hewever, these are small or mainly absent and
sometimes the head markings are similar to those of T. dau77.

——-—---

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC JOURNAL 31

The specimens I have seen average smaller than Raleigh
specimens of T’. carolina and the carapace is usually smooth-
er and less flaring behind.

The zygomatic arch is incomplete in all specimens exam-
ined, but the quadratojugal is variable, in six specimens ex-
amined it is absent in three, small and triangular in one and
in two others long and slender nearly completing the zygoma-
tic arch; one of these last two has the head and shell -mark-
ings nearly as in dauwrz, the other is an average /rzungis.

Hind feet narrower than in cavol/zna usually not at all web-
bed. A small specimen from Hancock Co., Miss., has the
hind feet unwebbed with three claws and notch; quadrato-
jugal small triangular; markings much as in the average of
Georgia specimens.

Two specimens just hatched, from Mimsville, Ga., are indis-
tinguishable from carolzna of the same age from Raleigh.

Terrapene baurt. ‘This species was originally described in
1895 by Taylor from a single three-clawed specimen with zyg-
matic arch present and may be identical with major or a local
race of that species, however, as Florida specimens seem to!-
erably constant in characters and as the few specimens of un-
doubted major that I have seen, do not agree exactly with
them, I think it best to treat it provisionally as distinct.
Nearly all Florida specimens I have seen have constant head
markings. These area yellow line from lower edge of orbit
crossing the corner of the mouth, a yellow line from posterior
corner of orbit backward down neck, a yellow line commenc-
ing just behind nostril and proceeding just above orbits, end-
ing just behind orbits, a yellow line down neck in line with
foregoing.

The carapace is usually darker brown than in the other
species, marked with narrow yellowradiating lines; some-
times these lines are broken into spots and sometimes the
spots are irregular and notin rows. This latter variation
seems to be due in some specimens to the animal having been
‘“‘burnt over” and the shell scarred, in which case the pattern

82 ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC JOURNAL

on the renewed dermal plates seems to be always irregular.
Keel always present, marked by a continuous yellow stripe.
Plastron usually yellow, unmarked, sometimes variegated
with brown. Hind feet usually slightly webbed but the
amount of webbing very variable, some specimens with feet
unwebbed, others with the webs comparatively well devel-
oped.

Hind claws three or four; of the earlier specimens received
from Florida nearly all were three-clawed, in those received
lately four-clawed hind feet seem to be more usual. Of four
typically marked daurz received November 12, 1903 from Or-
lando, Fla., one has the hind claws four on both feet, two
have them three on both feet, and one has four on one foot
and three on the other, zygomatic arch complete in every
specimen I have ever examined from Florida. Dr. Lonnberg*
however states that the skull of a specimen from Orange Co.,
Fla., in his possession, had no zygomatic arch, not even the
slightest rudiment of a quadrato jugal being present.

The carapace of T. daurz, I might add is narrower in pro-
portion than that of the other forms and has a less tendency
to flare outward behind.

Young T. daurz just hatched show the characteristic head
markings, narrower carapace, and yellow stripe down the
keel of the adult.

Terrapene major, 'Two specimens from Tallahassee in
continental Florida are the largest Terrapene I have ever had,
measuring 170 and 180 mm inlengh of shell. The shell is
not as narrow and flares outwardly more behind than in dau-
vi, the carapace is dark brown with yellow spots arranged
radially and a yellow stripe down the keel. Head with yel-
low markings, but not as in dau77. Plastron yellow with
more or less black round the edges of the plates. Zygoma-
tic arch complete, broad. Hind feet more strongly webbed
than in any other Terrapene I have had, the webs more exten-
sive in the smaller specimen. Hind feet with fourclaws. A

*Is the Florida Box Tortoise a distinct species by Einar Loennberg.
Proc U. S. N. M. XIX No. 1107.

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC JOURNAL 83

specimen from Riceboro, Ga., also apparently belongs here,
length 140 mm, shell dark brown with narrow radiating yel-
low stripes; yellow on the keel not forming a continuous
stripe, Plastron dark brown with light variegations. Head
with round yellow spots, no stripes, zygomatic arch complete,
claws on the hind feet three, anda notch showing termina-
tion of fourth digit, hind feet somewhat webbed, shape of the
shell much as in the two Tallahassee specimens, perhaps a
little shorter in proportion, flaring outwardly behind.

Terrapene ornata, 'This has the shell flatter and broader
than the other forms, always without a keel. Color light
brown with narrow radiating yellow lines on the carapace
plastron brown, marked with yellowish lines arranged in
regular pattern, posterior to the hinge they are mainly long-
itudinal while anterior to it they show a tendency to become
transverse, zygomatic arch always incomplete. Hind claws
always four. Hind feet always unwebbed. Some speci-
mens, apparently males, have the first claw on each hind
foot turned forward, while others, apparently females have
it normal in position.

I may mention apropos of nothing that male tortoise
have longer and thicker tails than the females, this feature
is strongly marked in the genus Kinosternon, for instance
and less strongly so in all Emydoid turtles I have examined.

Terrapene mexicana. 'This species I have not seen, its
range is apparently confined to Mexico.

The range of the different forms of Tarrapene is rough-
ly as follows:

Terrapene carolina. North-eastern U. S. east of the
Mississippi, south to the Carolinas.

Terrapene triungis. Gulf coast and Mississippi valley
from Georgia to the Rio Grande, North to Missouri.

Terrapene baurz. Florida and southern Georgia.

Terrapene major. Gulf coast, Georgia to the Rio Grande.

Terrapene ornata. Rocky mountains to Lake Michigan
and Indiana, south to Chihuahua; in the southern part of its
range it does not come east of Texas.

34 ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC JOURNAL

SPECIMENS EXAMINED.

Terrapene carolina. Eight alcoholic and numerous living
specimens from Raleigh, N. C.

Terrapene triungis. 33. living and7 alcoholic specimens
from Baker Co., Ga.; five living (three of them afterwards
preserved) specimens from Colmesneil, Texas, one alcoholic
from Hancock Co., Miss.

Terrapene baur:. Four living speeimens from Orange
Co., Fla., (three of them afterwards preserved), seven alco-
holics from Hastings, Fla.; one alcoholic from Orlando, Fla.,
and one from Baker Co., Ga.

Terrapene major. 'Two from Tallahassee, Fla.; one from
Riceboro, Ga.

Terrapene ornata. Several each from Waco, Texas, Aus-
tin, Texas, and Northern Chihuahua, Mexico. —

CHAPEL HILL LIVERWORTS.

W. C. COKER.

North Carolina liverworts were not been neglected by the
older generation of Botanists who brought so much credit to
our Southern States in the early and middle parts of the last
century. That excellent old Botanist, L. de Schweinitz, of
Salem, not only did brilliant poineering work in the Fungi,
but also found time to publish a valuable work on Hepaticeae
of America (1826), many of the specimens described coming
from this State. W.S. Sullivant. of Ohio, also described a
number of North Carolina Hepaticeae in his publication of
1845. Dr. M. A. Curtis, of Hillsboro, N. C., in his catalogue
of North Carolina plants* gives sixty-nine species of liver-
worts, twenty-three of which have so far been found at Chapel
Hill. The remaining nine species in the following list are
not given by Curtis.+ This work of Curtis’ is, so far as I know,
the only list of North Carolina Hepaticeae. In 1899 Dr. D.
S. Johnson collected a few Hepaticeae from around Beaufort,
N. C., among them the interesting tropical form, Cololejeunea
Jooriana, which has not been found further north.

In the steady of our list of Chapel Hill Hepaticeae, I have
been greatly aided by Dr. Alexander W. Evans, of Yale Uni-
versity, who kindly identified a number of forms, confirmed
my identification of others, and given informtion as to dis-
tribution. Species identified by Dr. Evans are so designated.
The list follows.

Frullania virginica, Lehm. On trees and rocks. Common,
often with rotifers in the saccate under lobes.

* Geological and Natural History Survey of North Carolina. Part III.
Raleigh, N.C. 1867.

7 There is a fault in the printing in my copy of this quite rare pamphlet,
by which several species are omitted. It is possible, therefore, that some
of the species mentioned as not given by him were really in his list.

forces

36 ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC JOURNAL _

Archelejeunia clypeata,(Schwein) Schiffner. On rocks near
streams.

Cololejeunia Biddlecormia (Aust) Evans. Bases of trees in
very damp places. Vegetative parts in the center of the cir-
cular growth forms numerous gemmae and disappears as the
outer part increases in circumference, in this respect resembl-
ing Lichens, which form soredia most abundantly in the cen-
tral dying region. Not found by Curtis. (Identified by
Evans. )

Radula obconica, Suliv. Given by Underwood in Gray’s
manual as extending from New Jersey to Ohio. Not found
by Curtis. (Identified by Evans. )

Porella pinnata, L. On rocks close to where the spray
reaches, or often immersed. Not found by Curtis.

Porrella platypnylla, Lindb. On trees and in woods, com-
mon. Vegetative branches closely oppressed, fruiting branches
becoming erect and so lifting the capsules from the substra-
tum. Not found by Curtis. (Identified by Evans. )

Trichocolea tomentella, Dumort. On ground along streams.
Very rarely forming fruit.

Bazzania deflexa, Underw. Not found by Curtis.

Cephalozia multiflora, Spruce. Not found by Curtis.

Kantia trichomanis, S: F. Gray. On ground by streams.
The tips of some of the branches bend upward and bear num-
erous gemmae on their tips. (Confirmed by Evans. )

Scapania nemerosa, Dumort. Common on ground in damp
places. Here the ordinary leafy branches turn up slightly at
the ends and bear dark masses of gemmae. Evanssays of our
Chapel Hill specimens, ‘‘Probably S. nemerosa although not
quite typical.”

Lophocolea heterophylla, Nees. (Identified by Evans.)

Diplophyllum albicans. Dumort. Var. taxifolium, Nees.
On rotten wood. Not found by Curtis.

Chilocyphus ascendens, Hook and Wills (7).

Chilocyphus polyanthos, Corda (?). Evans says in refer-
ence to these two last species, ‘‘The two species of Chilocy-

~ +

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC JOURNAL 37

phus I am in considerable doubt about. Number five is pro-

bably C. chilocyphus and number nine C. ascendens, but the

leaves are more sharply lobed than I have ever seen before.”

Plagiochila asplenoides, Dumort. On ground by brooks.
Not common. (Confirmed by Evans).

Liochlaena lanceolata, Nees. Not found by Curtis.

Fossombronia salina, Lindb. Identified by Evans who says,
‘Tt seems to be preferable to F. salina Lindb. This species
has a range extending from Connecticut along the coast tu
Florida and is apparently found in the West Indies also.”

Pallavicinia Lyelli,S. F. Gray. Not common. (Confirmed
by Evans).

Pellia epiphylla, Raddi. Common by streams.

Metzgeria conjugata, Lindb. Curtis gives M. furcata and
M. conjugata for North Carolina. Gemmae are produced in
abundance on marginal cells.

Anuera multifida, Dumort. In very damp places. I have
found this on the floor of a mill race in South Carolina cover-
ed by several inches of swiftly flowing water. (Confirmed by

Evans).

Aneura pinguis, Dumort. Forming large mats in springy

places. (Confirmed by Evans).

Anthoceros laevis, L. Common.

Notothylas orbicularis, Sulliv. Not common in this region.

Marchantia polymorpha, L. Very rare here. Found in

only one spot by Mr. H. A. Allard.

_ Fimbriara tenella, Nees. Not rare in low meadows.

| Conocephalus conicus, Dumort. Plentiful, but rarely fruit-
‘ing. The gametophyte contains abundant michoriza.

_ Asterella hemisphaerica, Beauv. Bases of stone walls on
i orth side, and in damp old fields.

_ Dumortiera hirsuta, Nees. With or without air chambers,
|'depending on location.

Riccia sp. Probably R. flutans. On damp open ground.
_ Sphaerocarpus terrestris, Smith. Edges of cultivated
‘fields. The spores remain united in tetrads. Male plants
‘Minute, purplish.

RECENTLY DISCOVERED MINERAL LOCALITIES IN
NORTH CAROLINA.

COLLIER COBB.

I have found the following minerals heretofore unknown in
North Carolina:

Prase, green quartz, with included crystals of black tour-
maline, one mile south of Franklin, Macon County.

Hausmannite and Braunite, Liberty, Randolph County, and
Siler City, Chatham County.

Braunite, Hiltop, Surry County.

Reported at 138th meeting of the Elisha Mitchell Scientific
Society, January 21st, 1902.

Let

Elisha Mitchell Scientific Societ

ISSUED QUARTERLY

OHAPEL HILL, N. ., U. 8. A.
iy To SE ENTERED AT THE posr STOFFICE AS SECOND CLASS MATTER.

4 4 2 oe

CONTENTS.

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY AND THE PHase RuLte.—Wilder _
| D. Bancroft

P
East AMERICAN THORNS.—W. W. Ashe .......

Inactive THorRIuM.— Fritz Zerban

- ‘

Ni

VOL. XX JUNE NO. 2
/

JOURNAL | nceune

OF THE

Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society.

ISSUED QUARTERLY

:
:
|

CHAPEL HILL, N. C.
PUBLISHED BY THE UNIVERSITY OF NORTH CAROLINA
1904

THE UNIVERSITY PRESS
CHAPEL HILL

JOURNAL
EvisHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY

(Organ of the North Carolina Academy of Science)
TWENTIETH YEAR LIBRAD

1904

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY AND THE PHASE RULE.*

WILDER D. BANCROFT, PuH.D.
Professor of Physical Chemistry, Cornell University.

As we look back over the history of chemistry, we see
always the result of the two opposing forces, one that compli-
cates and one that simplifies. The discovery of new facts
makes the science more complex and more difficult to grasp.
The discovery of new relations makes the science more simple
because it enables us to correlate facts and thus to get a bet-
ter grasp of the subject. The effect of the generalization in
simplifying a single science or in unifying a group of sciences
is overlooked by those who complain that the scientific man
of the future will be a narrow specialist, knowing only a small
part of a single division of one science. While this is always
possible, it does not seem probable to me and I think it is
much more likely that the chemist of the next generation
will be a much better all-round man than any of us can hope
to be.

In inorganic chemistry there is one great simplifying gen-
eralization with which we are all familiar, the Periodic Law.
It has its imperfections and there are some who think that its

*A lecture delivered before the Scientific Faculty and students, Univer-
sity of North Carolina, February 12th, 1904.

40 ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC JOURNAL

shortcomings over-balance its merits. Despite all hostile crit-
icism, the periodic law is today the basis of classification for
all advanced work in inorganic chemistry and its influence is
marked even in the teaching of elementary chemistry. The
periodic law enables us to correlate, more or less well, a large
number of facts in regard to the properties of the elements
and of their compounds. Yet people were slow iw recogniz-
ing the full bearing of the statements that ‘‘the properties of
the elements are a periodic function of their atomic weights”
and I do not know what would happen if the law were being
advanced today for the first time. There is a mathematical
sound about the words ‘‘periodic function” which I fear might
stamp the law as ‘‘too theoretical for the chemist.”

While the Periodic Law enables the chemist to predict what
the properties of certain substances will be, it concerns itself
with these only and has nothing to do with the methods of
preparation and separation in use by the chemist. This gap
is filled by the second great simplifying generalization, the
Phase Rule. So long as we are considering only the cases
most studied by the chemist, those involving changes of con-
centration, pressure and temperature, we may state the phase
rule in a relatively simple form: ‘‘When passive resistances to
change are eliminated, the degrees of freedom of the system
are two less than the difference between the number of phases
and the number of components.” Each chemically and physi-
cally distinct mass in the system constitutes a phase. ‘Thus
we may have the vapor phase, one or more liquid phases, and
one or more solid phases. With ether and water we get two
liquid phases; red and yellow phosphorus are two solid phases;
so are ice atid salt; while sodium sulphate decahydrate is only
a single phase.

The statement that ‘‘the degrees of freedom are two less
than the difference between the number of phases and the
number of components” does not sound like a very important
one. I can remember the time when I thought that people
made a good deal of unnecessary fuss over the phase rule. It:

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC JOURNAL 41

seemed to me an interesting mathematical relation but noth-
ing more. That was ten years ago, Today, I am willing to
say that the phase rule offers the rational basis for the classt-
fication of phenomena in inorganic chemistry and that it is
perhaps the most valuable instrument of research that we
possess. In view of the fact that probably ninety-nine per -
cent of the inorganic chemists make no use of the phase rule,
these may seem rather bold statements. I am going to try to
justify them. We will consider the phase rule first as a basis
of classification and then as an instrument of research.

There are two criteria by which we may judge a method of
classification. It must cover the whole ground and the divis-
ions must be rational and not arbitrary. Our first division of
’ the subject is by components. We consider separately sys-
tems composed of one, two, three, four or:more components.
Under each of these divisions we make further sub-heads
depending on the number of phases. Thus under one-com-
ponent systems we should take up first one-phase systems
and should discuss the general and specific properties and
characteristics of gases, liquids and solids. ‘When consider-
ing the specific properties of specific substances, these sub-
_ stances can be taken in an order based on the Periodic Law.
In the one-phase one-component systems and in all the other
divisions we can arrange our material, in so far asis desirable,
according to the Periodic Law. Under two-phase one-com-
ponent systems, we classify liquid and vapor or boiling-point
phenomena, solid and vapor or sublimation phenomena, liquid
and solid or freezing-point phenomena, solid and solid or allo-
tropic phenomena. Under three phases we describe such phe-
nomena as the freezing-point of water, the equilibrium
between monoclinic sulphur, rhombic sulphur and vapor or
melt. Under this same heading comes the general question
of monotropic and enantiotropic forms. .While chemical act-
ion appears to be excluded in one-component systems, such
polymerized vapors as acetic acid, sulphur and nitrogen diox-
ide introduce changes involving the law of definite and multi-

42 ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC JOURNAL

ple proportions, and form an introduction to two-component
‘systems.

Under two-component one-phase systems we have mixtures
of indifferent gases, dissociation of gases, mixtures of liquids
with and without formation of compounds, solid solutions.
With solid and vapor we can have a dissociating solid com-
pound, or a compound existing in the vapor only, such as the
oxides of carbon in equilibrium with carbon, or nickel car-
bonyl. Under solution and vapor we get Henry’s law, the
law of van’t Hoff and Raoult, the phenomena of osmotic
pressure, all boiling-point phenoma and the theory of electro-
lytic dissociation. ‘The other cases of two-phase equilibria
involve solubility under pressure. With three phases we have
the dissociation pressures of compounds such as hydrated
salts, calcium carbonate, etc.; solubility relations, freezing-
point determinations, etc.; while with four phases we get the
characteristic properties of the quadruple point.

With three components we get more of the characteristic
reactions of chemistry. The reaction between carbon monox-
ide and water belongs under the heading of vapor phase; the
formation of esters in organic chemistry is referred to systems
involving a liquid phase; the solubility of gases in solutions
belongs under two phases, liquid and vapor. With three com-
ponents and three phases, we get the precipitation of a salt
by another salt or by a liquid, the conditions of existence of
double salts, the blast-furnace reactions, the reduction of
chlorides or sulphides by hydrogen, the facts in regard to
shaking out, many of the facts concerning dyeing, fractional
crystallization, occlusion, theory of indicators, etc.

With four components we get the solubility changes with
two salts having no ion in common, fractional precipitation
and also many cases of fractional crystallization. A very
large number of chemical reactions involve only four compon-
ents and therefore come in here.

It will probably seem as though I have laid more stress on
physical chemistry than on inorganic chemistry. This is how-

:

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC JOURNAL 43

ever more apparent than real. Inorganic chemistry, as a
present practiced, consists chiefly in the preparation and study
of certain compounds, and to a lesser extent in the study of
reactions, usually a qualitative study. In so far as we are
dealing with single substances, all that is inorganic chemistry
as well as much more finds its place under one-component sys-
tems. The preparation of compounds involves phase separa-
tion by definition and is therefore included under what 1s
called physical chemistry. The study of reactions 1s physical
chemistry pure and simple. In fact, inorganic chemistry 1s
merely one part of what should be called chemistry, but
which unfortunately is called physical chemistry. I quite
appreciate that many people take physical chemistry to mean
the theory of dilute solutions. That is a very vatural mis-
take which is made even by some who call themselves physical
chemists, If one accepts my definition of physical chemistry
as the science of chemistry, it is clear that it includes inor-
ganic chemistry and that it includes very much more than the
theory of dilute solutions.

I have tried to show that the phase rule offers asatislactory
basis for the classification of practically all the phenomena of
inorganic chemistry. For the present, we cannot include
much of organic chemistry any more than we can include
potassium chlorate, because we are dealing with passive resis-
tances to change in tlrese cases. I look upon this as a tein-
porary limitation and I have hopes that some day it will be
possible to present organic chemistry as a system made up. of
carbon, hydrogen and oxygen as the independently variable
components, The recent work of Sabatier and Senderens on
the catalytic action of nickel and copper makes the applica-
tion of the phase rule to organic chemistry a problem of today;
but the work has not yet been done and for that reason I have
discussed the phase rule only in its bearing on the classifica-
tion of inorganic chemistry. It is now in order to ask
what use the phase rule has been and will be in promoting
research.

44 ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC JOURNAL

We will start with an apparently complicated case of solu-
tions containing three or more components. Here the phase
rule has brought order out of chaos. It is merely a question
of time to determine the conditions of existence for all the
possible compounds or solid solutions. The experiments of
‘van’t Hoff on the Stassfurt deposits have shown what the
composition of the original sea was, why the salts have come
down as they have, and even the temperature at which the
water was evaporated. His work has furnisned the scientific
explanation for the methods of separation worked out empiri-
cally at Stassfurt and led to new methods.

There are today many chemists who throw up their hands
in despair when they encounter a double salt which cannot be
recrystallized without change and yet this is a very simple
problem with the phase rule to guide one. The pbase rule
enables us to tell whether a given solid is a mixture, com-
pound or solid solution. When we reflect on the number of
imaginary double salts and basic salts which encumber the
literature, we see how sorely such a criterion has been needed
in the past. We are now able to attack the problems of frac-
tional crystallization and precipitation in a rational manner.

Today new methods of separating rare earths are coming
into use; but, in the past, it has been largely a matter of
fractional crystallization and of fractional precipitation.
These methods have been slow and not-very certain; but how
much of that is due to the man and how much to the method?
How many of those who have worked with rare earths could
take such a relatively simple problem as to separate NaCl and
KCl by fractional crystallization, getting the whole of each
pure? If one cannot do that, why should one expect to make
rapid headway in the separation of an unknown number of
unknown substances, which may or may not crystallize to-
gether as compounds or solid solutions? Here is a simple
instance of the confusion which may easily arise. If one
takes a certain solution of copper chloride, potassium chloride
and water, cool it to a certain temperature and filter, there

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC JOURNAL 45

will be left on the filter the redsalt KCICuCl,. If the solution
is cooled to a slightly lower temperature before filtering, the
crystals will be a mixture of the red salt and a vreen salt
CuCl,.2KC1.2H,O. If the filtration had taken place ata still
lower temperature, the precipitate would have been the green
salt alone. That is confusing enough but it is not all. If’
the red salt is washed with water, the green salt is formed
-while cupric chloride will go into solution. If the green salt
is washed with water, a white salt, KCl, isleft behind. This
is bad enough when the three salts are colored differently;
but it is nothing to the difficulties that would beset a man if
the salts were all colorless, had the same properties, and could
be distinguished chiefly by their unknown atomic weights.
This is not mere fancy. I could cite an instance in which
two distinguished chemists analyzed what was in all proba-
bility a mixture of two salts, believing it to be homogeneous.
They were thus led to assume the existence of two new ele-
ments, the presence of which could not be shown in any other
way.

The whole question of alloys has been put on a rational
basis by means of the phase rule. Roozeboom has outlined
the methods for studying iron and steel; Heycock and Neville
have cleared up the question of the bronzes. We can now
distinguish in a way tbat we uever could have done before
between states of hysteresis and states of equilibrium. When
we eliminate hysteresis, the densities of alloys vary with the
composition just as they should. It seems not unreasonable
to hope that the tensile strength and other engineering prop-
erties of annealed alloys will also vary regularly with the per-
_ centage composition. The experience we have gained with
salt solutions and with fused alloys will stand us in good
stead when we come to consider fused magmas. I feei cer-
tain that many of the problems of geology can be solved only
by an intelligent application of the phase rule. Recently
some people have tried to make certain minerals synthetically
by fusing together the components in the proportions in

46 ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC JOURNAL

which they occur in the mineral. This can be successful
only in case the chilled meit is annealed thoroughly. Merely
allowing the melt to cool will not give the desired result.

Another matter in which the phase rule has been of great
value is in analysis in cases where a pure compound cannot be
isolated. Under these circumstances, the ordinary methods
of gravimetric and volumetric analysis are inapplicable. By
methods based on the phase rule, it has been possible to deter-
mine with accuracy the composition of compounds crystalliz-
ing from a molten mass of metal.

Analyses of efflorescent salts containing water or acid of
crystallization are necessarily inaccurate because there is no
way of drying the compounds enough to remove all the mother
liquor without running the danger of removing some of the
volatile component. By the new methods this difficulty no
longer exists because the compound can now be aualyzed
while in the solution.

As yet no one has applied these methods to the analysis of
colloidal precipitates, but there seems to be no reason to sup-
pose that this cannot be done. The methods of the phase
rule have already been used with success in determining the
composition of hydrated beryllium sulphate. The whole
question of colloidal precipitates has taken on a new aspect
since van Bemmelen began the study of the equilibrium rela-
tions with reference to the phase rule.

No matter where one turns, in the whole field of inorganic
chemistry, one finds the phase rule useful as an instrument of
research. This has come about in the last few vears and ts
but an earnest of what is to be done in the future. When the
domain of the phase rule has been extended to cover the
whole of organic chemistry and of electrochemistry, ‘every
one will then admit the truth of my theses ‘‘that the phase
rule offers the rational basis for the classification of all chem-
ical phenomena and that it is perhaps the most valuable in-
strument of research that we possess,”

EAST AMERICAN THORNS.* | ;GRARY
NEW YORK
BOTANICAL
TOMENTOSAE. GARDEN

W. W. ASHE.

CRATAEGUS OBESA. A slender narrow crowned tree, seldom
exceeding 4m in height, with nearly black scaly bark on the
armed trunk and slender orange or russet pubescent twigs
sparingly armed with short 2-3 cm-long thorns. Leaves
broadly ovate or nearly orbicular, 7-10cm long, 5-7 cm wide,
rounded or broadly cuneate at base, with many pairs of short
ascending notches above the middle, dark green above, paler
and tomentose beneath, petioles margined above. Flowers,
appearing usually the first week in June in large compound
tomentose corymbs, are about 16 mm wide; stamens small,
20. Fruit, borne in large compound clusters, ripening in
September and falling after the leaves, is globose or slightly
oblong, 8-9 mm thick, scarlet, often capped by the very small
narrow reflexed lobes, or the lobes and tube projection decidu-
ous; fleshy pulpy, seed usually 2, hemispherical.

St. Louis County, Missouri. Dr. N. M. Glatfelter. Appar-
ently frequent in eastern Missouri.

TENUIFOLIAE.

CRATAEGUS UBER. A slender tree 3-6m high with thin
gray scaly bark on the trunk, and slender dull chestnut twigs
sparingly armed with 3-6 cm-long thorns. Leaves thin, glab-
rous, ovate or oval, 5-6 cm long, 4-6 cm wide, rounded or nar-
rowed at the broad, often oblique base, several pairs of short
acute ascending lobes from near the base; petiole slender,
3-4cm long. Flowers, appearing about the 20th of May in
small loose compound many-flowered pubescent corymbs, are
about 20mm wide; stamens 5-8, usually 5, anthers purple.
Fruit, borne in small compound clusters on long slender

* Issued June 15, 1904.

48 ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC JOURNAL

drooping pedicels, ripening late in September and falling
- with and before the leaves, is oblong, 14-18 mm long, 12-15 mm
thick, full and rounded at the ends, dark dull red, mottled
with orange at apex, capped by the long narrow brown
spreading or ascending lobes which are finely and sharply
serrate above the middle; flesh firm, white, juicy and sweet,
seed 4-5, 7-8 inm long, narrowed at base, the face narrow.

Summerville, St. Clair Co., Mich. W. W. Ashe, Oct., 1902;
C. K. Dodge and W. W. Ashe, Oct. 1903; C. K. Dodge, May,
1903: ;

CRATAEGUS .PERLEVIS. A shrub seldom 3m high, with
ascending branches and purple-brown twigs, armed with
numerous 2—5cm-long thorns. Mature leaves glabrous, pale
green, thin but firm, broadly to narrowly ovate, 3-5 cm long,
2.5-5 cm wide, rounded at the broad base, 3 to 4 pairs of short
acute lobes, sharply and finely serrate; petiole short but
slender. Flowers, appearing the middle of May in glabrous,
many-flowered compound corymbs, are about 15 mm wide;
stamens 8-10: anthers light red-purple. Fruit, ripening late
in September and falling in September and October with and |
after the leaves, borne in small compound or simple clusters
on very slender, rather long pedicels, is pyriform, obovate or
rarely oblong, 11-13 mm long, 8-12 mm thick, dark dull red
or scarlet, the apex usually much blotched with orange or
russet, the narrow entire glabrous lobes short-stalked and
appressed,

Berks County, Pennsylvania. Sept., 1901, W. W, Ashe;
May and Sept., 1902, May and Sept., 1903, C. L. Gruber; W.
W. Ashe, Sept., 1903.

CrRATAEGUS OTIOSA. A much branched shrub 3 m in
height with a large spreading crown, and slender glabrous,
dull red-brown twigs sparingly armed with 2 cm long thorns.
Leaves glabrous, rather firm, broadly oval to ovate, the blades
4-6 cm lone, 3.5-5 cm wide, truncate to broadly cuneate at
base, sharply doubly serrate; many pairs of short broad
ascending lobes from near the base; petiole slender, 2-3.5

es Oo eS

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC JOURNAL 49

cm long. Flowers, appearing the last of May in large loose
compound many-flowered glabrous ciusters, are about 16 mm
wide, stamens 5-8. Fruit, borne in loose compound many-
fruited pendent clusters, ripening from the first to the middle
of October, is oblong, 11-13 mm long, 8-10 mm thick, russet
or at length scarlet, the flesh firm, white and juicy; lobes
natrow, entire, reflexed or deciduous, seed 3 or 4, small.

Summerville, St. Clair County, Michigan; W. W. Ashe
and C. K. Dodge, September, 1902, and October, 1903; C. K.
Dodge, May and September, 1903.

CRATAEGUS RETRUSA. A shrubby tree seldom more than
4m in height with slender chestnut twigs and stout 2—4 cm-
long slender ascending thorns. Leaves thin, glabrous, ovate
or broadly ovate, 4-6 cm long, 3.5-—4.5 cm wide, rounded or
broadly cuneate at base, with several pairs of short broad notch-
es, finely doubly serrate. The flowers, appearing about the
20th of May in loose glabrous compound many-flowered clusters,
are about 22 mm wide; stamens 5-7, anthers pale purple.
Fruit, borne in loose few-fruited slightly compound long-ped-
iceled clusters and ripening late in September, is oblong or
usually obovate, full and rounded at the ends, 13-15 mm long,
12-14 mm thick, orange-scarlet, often mottled with orange at
apex, capped by the erect fleshy bases of the lobes; flesh thick,
sweet, orange; seed 3-4, thick and coarse, grooved on back,

about 7 mm long.

Summerville, St. Clair County, Michigan, where very com-
mon. C..K. Dodge and W. W. Ashe, Sept., 1902; Oct., 1903;
Cake Dodge, May, 1903, Sept., 1903.

CRATAEGUS GRAVIS. A tree 6-7 m high with thorny scaly
bark on the trunk, ascending fluted gray branches, and’stout
dull chestnut glabrous twigs, freely armed with stout 3-4 cm-
long slightly recurved thorns. Leaves thick, firm, bright
green, pubescent above when young, otherwise glabrous,
ovate to nearly orbicular, 3-5 cm long, 2.5—5 cm wide, rounded

. or obtuse at base, finely and obtusely doubly serrate, several

pairs of very shallow notches, turning dull yellow or brown

50 ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC JOURNAL

and falling in October. Flowers, appearing the last week in
May in small loose slightly compound glabrous clusters, are
about 20 mm wide; stamens 10, seldom 5-10, anthers rose-
purple. Fruit, borne in small nearly simple clusters on rather
long spreading pedicels and ripening in October, is slightly
oblong, 8-10 mm long and 7-9 mm thick, flattened at the ends,
dark red or crimson, seldom with orange spots at apex, capped
by the closely sessile appressed lanceolate entire lobes, which
are often appressed pubescent above; flesh firm, sweet, juicy,
pale yellow; seed 4-5, small, 5-6 mm long, sometimes grooved
on the back.

Port Huron, Michigan: common. W. W. Ashe and C. K.
Dodge, September, 1902, October, 1903; C. K. Dodge, May
and September, 1902, and 1903.

CRATAEGUS SEQUAX. Arborescent, 4 min height, with a
round crown of ascending flexuous branches; the purplish-
brown usually glabrous twigs armed with many 1-5 cm-long
rather stout thorns. Leaves soon nearly or quite glabrous,
firm, deltoid, broadly ovate or ovate, 3-6 cm long, 2.7-5.5 cm —
wide, rounded or truncate at the base, usually 3-4 short acute
lobes, sharply serrate, petiole slender, rarely puberulent.
Flowers, appearing the second week in May in small compact
slightly compound cymes, are about 20 mm wide; stamens
5-10, frequently 8, anthers purple. Fruit, ripening the last
of September and falling with and after the leaves and borne
in short compact usually simple clusters, is globose or sub-
globose 12-15 mm long and thick, dark red or crimson, often
blotched with green or russet at the apex, the narrow suben-
tire lobes spreading, reflexed or ascending.

C. L. Gruber and W. W. Ashe, Berks county, Pa.

CRATAEGUS VITTATA. Arborescent, 4-5 m high, with rather
stout red-brown glabrous twigs sparingly armed with 5-6
cm-long stout thorns. Leaves ample, thin, firm, soon glab-
rous, broadly oval, the blades 5-7 cm long, 5-6 cm wide,
rounded or truncate at the broad base, abruptly acute at apex, .
3-4 pairs of broad short lobes; petioles very slender, 2.54

ELISHA MITCHELL. SCIENTIFIC JOURNAL 51

emjong. Flowers, appearing the first week in May in glab-
rous simple or compound compact corymbs, are from 15-20
mm wide; stamens 5-10, usually 8-10;.anthers bright red-
purple. Fruit, ripening early in September and gradually
falling before the leaves, borne in simple few-fruited clusters
on slender 1-2 cm-long pedicels, is subglobose or short cylin-
drous, 14-18 mm thick and long, red scarlet blotched with
olive or russet, sparingly glaucous, capped with the narrow
glabrous entire or serrulate spreading or erect lobes; flesh
soft, thick, edible, acid, orange, often tinged with pink; seed
3-4, 6-8 mm long, deeply grooved on the back. 3

Pennsylvania, Berks county, frequent. W. W. Ashe and
Cy L. Gruber, Sept., 1902, and Sept., 1903; C. L. Gruber May
and Sept., 1902, and May, June and Sept., 1903.

CRATAEGUS MINIATA. A shrub 2-3 min height with ascend-
ing branches, with dark brown glabrous slender twigs armed
with 3-4-cm long slender thorns. Leaves thin, glabrous,
dark green, oval or broadly oval, 4-6 cm long, 3-5.cm wide,
rounded at the usually broad base, abruptly acuminate at
apex, 4-6 pairs of very short lobes beginning tear the base.
Flowers, appearing about the middle of May in glabrous com-
pound rather small corymbs, are about 15 mm wide; stamens
5-10, usually 8; authers pink. Fruit, borne in small compact
usually compound clusters, ripening early in September and
falling with the leaves, is oblong, 12-14 mm long, 9-13 mm
thick, scarlet, sometimes spotted with olive or russet at the
apex, glossy, capped with the small glabrous narrow entire
reflexed or spreading lobes, or lobes deciduous; flesh yellow or
pinkish; seed 2-3, 6-7 mm long, grooved on the back.

Penusylvania, Berks county. C. L. Gruber and W. W.
Ashe.

CRATAEGUS RUFiPES. A shrub about 2m in height with
glossy slender purplish-red @labrous nearly straight twigs,
armed with numerous 2-4 cm-long thorns. Leaves thin but
firm, bright green, lucid, when young silky, pubescent above,
but at length glabrous, the blades ovate to oblong ovate, 5-7

52 ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC JOURNAL

cm long, 4-6 cm wide, rounded, rarely truncate or acute at
base, acuminate at apex, 4-7 short very acute lobes beginning
near the broud ‘base; petiole stout, usually margined and
glandular, purplish, as is the midrib. Flowers, appearing
about the middle of Mzy in mauy 6-—20-flowered compound or
simple glabrous corymbs are about 15 mm wide; stamens 5-8,
anthers dark rose. Fruit, borne in small simple or compound
clusters, ripening about the middle of September, is oblong,
12-14 mm jong, 9-11 mm thick, scarlet frequently mottled
with green or russet at the apex; the linear subentire nearly
glabrous lobes reflexed; flesh soft, orange or reddish; seed
2-3, 6-7 mm long, 2—4 shallow grooves on back.

Pennsylvania, Berks county. C. L. Gruber and W. W.
Ashe, Sept., 1903, C. L. Gruber, May and July, 1903.

CRATAEGUS MULTIFIDA. A shrub 1-2 m in height, with
slender slightly zigzag red-brown glabrous twigs, sparingly
armed with 4-7 cm-long thorns. The leaves are thin, firm,
bright» green, soon glabrous, broadly ovate in outline, the
blades 4-5.5 cm wide, acuminate at apex, round or cordate,
seldom obtuse at the broad base, 3—5 pairs of deep acuminate
lobes, the lower pair spreading and with reflexed tips, sharply
serrate or doubly serrate. Flowers, appearing the last week
in May in rather small compact slightly compound glabrous
corymbs, are about 15 mm wide; stamens usually 10. Fruit,
borne in small compact compound drooping clusters, ripening
late in September and falling with and after the leaves, is
oblong, 11-14 mm long, 9-11 mm thick, rounded at the ends,
crimson, capped by the closely sessile appressed, narrowly
triangular usually entire lobes; flesh yellow, soft and pulpy,
seed 4-5 mm, 6-7 mm long.

Sandy soil near the St. Clair River, Port Huron, Mich.

W. W. Ashe, and C. K. Dodge, September 1902; Cre
Dodge May 1902, May and September 1903.

CRATAEGUS TENERA. Arboresceut in habit, about 3 m high,
with rather short spreading branches; twigs red-brown, freely
armed with short rather stout 2-3 cm-loug ascending thorns,

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC JOURNAL 58

Leaves glabrous, thin, ovate or broadly ovate, the blades 3-5
cm long, rounded or truncate at the broad serrate base, 3-4
pairs of short acute lobes, finely and sharply serrate. Inflor-
escence a many-flowered very compound glabrous drooping
corymh; stamens small, usually 5-8. Fruit, borne in large
compact compound drooping clusters, is oblong, 11-13 mm
long, 9-10 mm thick, brightscarlet, sparingly pruinose, ripeus
about the the first of October and at once falls; lobes very
long and narrow, usually entire, spreading, or are with decid-
uous tips and keeled base; flesh thick, pale yellow, white or
pink, at length soft and pulpy, seed 3, rounded on the
slightly grooved back, small, 5-6 mm long.
Sandusky, Ohio; E. Mosely and W. W. Ashe.

CRATAEGUS MARCIDA. Arborescent, 3-4 m high, with hori-
zontal branches, and red-brown ylabrous sparingly armed
twigs. Leaves thick, firm, dark green and lucid above, gla-
brous, ovate, narrowed to the acute point from the broad
rounded base, few shallow lobes, sharply doubly serrate, 4-6
em long, the lower pairs of thin veins, arched. Inflorescence
a large compound many-flowered glabrous corymb; stamens 10.
Fruit, borne in large loose compound drooping corymbs, is |
depressed globose, 13-15 mm thick, 11-12 mm long, dark
crimson with green apex, glaucous, lobes sub-entire, spread-
ing from a broad base; flesh deep orange, firm and juicy; seed
usually 4, shallow groved on the back.

Ohio: Leverettsburg, W. W. Ashe; Sandusky, E Mosely
and W. W. Ashe; Garrettsville, R. J. Webb and W. W. Ashe.
This beautiful thorn will probably prove to be common
throughout Northern Ohio.

CRATAEGUS PROPINQUA. Arborescent in habit, 2-3 m high,
branches slender, spreading, twigs slender, glabrous, red-
brown, armed with slender 3-4 cm-long thorns. Leaves gla-
brous, thin but firm, light green, broadiy ovate or rhombic,
rounded or cuneate at the subentire base, the blades 3-5 cm
long, very few shallow ascending lobes and deeply impressed
straight ascending primary veins; sharply doubly serrate.

54 ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC JOURNAL

Inflorescence a 5-10-flowered slightly compound glabrous
corymb; stamens 10. Fruit, borne in simple few-fruited

clusters, is globose, 12-13 mm thick, green, russet and dull
red, capped by the narrowly triangular, ascending, dry, sub-

entire lobes; flesh pale yellow, firm; seed usually 3, 7-8 mm
long, with shallow furrows on the broad rounded back.
Hillsides, Milan, Ohio. While this plant has characters
which ally it to the Pruinosae, as is the case also with the
preceding, it is probably best placed with the Tenuifoliae.

PRUINOSAE.

CRATAEGUS INGRATA. A bushy tree, 3-5 m in height, with
red-brown twigs, occasionally slightly pubescent the first

spring, but glabrous by fall, armed with numerous short 2-4

cm-long stout thorns. Leaves thin, pale green, pubescent
below, especially on the viens, when young, ovate or broadly
ovate, the blades 5-9 cm long, lobed above the middle with
few very short teeth, rounded at the base, sharply serrate,
petiole slender, pubescent, 3-4 cm long. Flowers, appearing
about May 18th, in nearly simple 5-10-flowered, pubescent
corymbs, are about 18 mm wide; stamens: 20, anthers white.
Fruit, borne in simple clusters on slender 2-3 cm-long pedicels,
is subylobose, 12-14 mm thick, dullred; tube slightly project-
ing, the narrow lobes reflexed or dccider ae: seed 3-5, the
large ones ridged on the back, 7-8 mm long, narrowed at the
base.

Near Pittsburg, Pennsylvania. J. A. Shafer, May 18, and
October 26, 1902. J. A. Shafer and W. W. Ashe, September,
1901.

CRATAEGUS SITIENS. A _ stoloniferous shrub, seldom arbor-
escent, forming thickets 2-4 m in height with thorny nearly
black scaly bark and very slender brown-purple geniculate
twigs, fully armed with slender 3-4 cm-long thorns. Leaves
glabrous, thin, broadly ovate, truncate or rounded at the very
broad base, 3-5 cm long and wide, with many pairs of deep
lobes above the base, coarsely serrate. Petioles slender, 2-3

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC JOURNAL 55

emlong. The flowers, appearing about May 20th in simple
glabrous, 3-5-flowered cymes, are about 24 mm wide; stamens
20, anthers purple. The fruit, solitary or in few-fruited clus-
ters on strict slender 1.5 to 2 cm-long pedicels, is obovate,
12-14 mmm thick, ereen mottled with russet; cavity very broad,
the short broad entire lobes reflexed; the tube long projecting
or often deciduous; flesh hard and green, seed 4-5, small, 6
mm long, lateral faces broad and flat.

St. Clair County, Michigan. Not common. W. W. Ashe
and C. K. Dodge, Oct., 1902; C. K. Dodge May 23, 1903, Oct.,
1903.

BOYNTONIANAE.

CRATAEGUS RESES. A many-stemmed shrub, forming thick-
ets about 2 m high, the rather stout chesnut twigs glabrous,
and like the stems almost unarmed. Leaves glabrous, thick,
soft, very dark green above, very pale beneath, the blades
elliptic or ovate or oblong ovate, 6-9 cm long, 4-6 cm wide,
gradually narrowed’ from near the middle to the narrow
rounded base, crenate, 2-3 pairs of short broad obtuse notches
above the middle, turning red bronze or yellow and falling
late in autumn; petiole short and stout, winged above. Flow-
ers appear about the middle of May in simple long-pedicelled
glabrous 5-10-flowered cymes; stamens 10; anthers cream.
Fruit ripening in October and falling largely after the leaves,
borne in 1-5 fruited clusters, on long stout, often strict pedi-
cels, is subglobose, usually slightly narrowed at the base,
13-16 mm thick, dark red mottled with russet or green, dull
and glaucous, or giossy, capped by the oblong, coarsely glan-
dulaI serrate glabrous lobes borne on the projecting tube, or.
often lobes deciduous; flesh firm, orange or reddish, bitter;
seed usually 4-5, 7-8 mm long, shallow 1-3 grooved on the
back.

Pennsylvania, Berks County: C. L. Gruber and W. W.
Ashe, Sept., 1903; C. L. Gruber, May, 1903.

Ie,

rf

2

56 ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC JOURNAL

AMARAE.

CRATAEGUS OLipA. A flat bushy tree 5 m in height, with
glabrous bright purple-brown twigs armed with numerous
slender 4-5 cm-long darker tiiorns. Leaves glabrous, thick and

‘firm, the blades 4-6 cm long, ovate, obovate or nearly orbicu-

lar, 2-3 pairs of shallow lobes above the middle, obtusely
serrate nearly to the base; petiole stout, J.5-2 cm long, broad-
ly margined and glandular. The flowers are borne in 5-12
flowered glabrous compound strict corymbs; stamens normally
10, filaments stout, 5-6 mm long, lobes narrowly triangular,
subentire, reflexed after anthesis. Fruit, falling after the
leaves, and borne in slightly compound clusters, is obovate or
pyriform, 15-19 mm long, 14-16 mm thick, golden yellow;
flesh yellow, firm, slightly bitter; seed 2-4, usually 3, 7-8 mm
long, thick and coarse, the broad back grooved.

J. A. Shafer, May 30 and Nov. 9, 1902; Pyler Falls, Penn-
sylvania. ae

a

iy

INACTIVE THORIUM.*

FRITZ ZERBAN, PH.D., (CARNEGIE RESEARCH ASSISTANT).

It was soon. after the discovery of the well-known X-rays
by Roentgen, that Becquerel, in Paris, observed that remark-
able property of Uranium potassium sulphate by which it
affected the photographic plate through light-tight black
paper, when the sun shone on the salt. At first he thought
that this action was brought about by the fluorescence of the
Uranium salt, but very soon discovered that nonfluorescent
Uranium compounds and the metal itself effected the same
action, and that the concurrence of the sun’s rays was not
necessary,-the aforementioned phenomenon appearing also in
a thoroughly dark room. He called this peculiar property of
the Uranium ‘‘radioactivity”, and for the rays, which produce
the blackening of the photographic plate, the name of ‘‘Bec-
querel rays” was adopted. It was shown then that the Uran-
ium compounds had still another remarkable property, namely
of diminishing the conductivity of the air for electricity, so
that a charged electroscope loses its charge more rapidly than
usual, if a Uranium compound is brought near it. Thirdly,
the Becquerel rays excite, like the X-rays, the fluorescence of
a Barium platinocyanide screen.

Three methods for testing the radioactivity of bodies were
thus acquired and. different investigators discovered, besides
the Uranium, some other radioactive substances. Mr. and
Mrs. Curie found in Pitchblende two such bodies;. Polonium,
which is similar to Bismuth, and Radium, which soon brought
to its discoverers great fame all over the world. The Radium
occurs with Barium, and is separated from it by very laborious
and protracted operations. _As Radium is the most strongly

* Read before the North Carolina Academy of Science, Wake Forest Meeting,
May 4th, 1904,

58 ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC JOURNAL

radioactive body, one can show with its salts in the best man-
ner the action of the Becquerel rays.

According to the investigations of Rutherford and his col-
laborators, the different actions of the radioactive bodies are
not caused by one kind of rays, but.by different ones. The
rays which cause the discharge of the electroscope he called
a-tays. ‘They are easily absorbed by different substances and
only slightly deflected by a magnet.

The B-rays on the other hand produce chiefly the photo-
graphic action, even penetrating thin metal sheets, wood, and
so on, and are deviated easily in a magnetic field. Rutherford
found also a third kind of rays, the y-rays, the source of which
is not clearly defined. Perhaps these, according to the sug-
gestion of Dr. Baskerville, are derived from the f-rays, as
the Roentgen rays arise from the cathode rays. <A discussion
of this matter need not hold our attention today however.

It is noteworthy indeed, that the radioactive substances
emit not only rays, but material particles too, in form of a gas.
It may be swept along by a stream of air blown over the sub-
stance and follows its course, unlike the light rays. It also
diminishes the conductivity of the air. Asareal gas it has
been condensed to a liquid boiling at about 135° below zero. |
Rutherford called this very interesting property of the radio- ,
active bodies ‘‘emanation”’.

Rutherford performed his preliminary experiments not with
Radium, Uranium or Polonium, but with another radioactive
substance, Thorium. Mrs. Curie and G. C. Schmidt had
found, independently of each other, that the Thorium com-
pounds are also radioactive. Some time later Debierne dis-
covered in Pitchblende a body similar to Thorium. It gave
all the reactions of real Thoria: precipitation by Ammonia,
Alkali, Ammonium sulphide, also by oxalic acid, strong acids
being present, and in neutral solution by Sodium thiosulphate
and Hydrogen dioxide. Its hydroxide was insoluble in hydro-
fluoric acid and Potassium fluoride. But differing from the
ordinary Thorium it was extremely and permanently active,

r * rm ‘

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC JOURNAL 59

Debierne assumed it to be anew clement and gave it the name
‘A ctininin”.

Now the question was raised, whether the radioactivity of
the Thorium compounds was caused by admixture of a little
quantity of Actinium, and whether Thorium obtained by any
means whatever is in every case radioactive.

Rutherford tried to answer the question, whence the activity
of the “horia came. He, by precipitation of Thoria with
ammonia, obtained a filtrate which was much more radio-
active than the precipitate. He said that the activity of
Thorium is due to the body contained in the liquid and
called it Th X. Subsequent investigations from this savant
indicate the continued regeneration of Th X. In the labora-
tory of the University of North Carolina we have experiments
planned which promise an explanation of this, so we may
defer further consideration for the present.

Professor Hofmann, in Munich, and I, attacked the problem
aud the results of our investigations are briefly presented
here. Incidentally it must be noticed that the Thorium, of
which J am talking, means the old Thorium, the elementary
nature of which is now getting very precarious by the splen-
did investigations of Dr. Baskerville which are astonishing
all the world.

To decide the questions mentioned above it was at first
necessary to study the minerals, from which the Thorium
preparations to be examined were obtained. AI] the preceding
investigations were made with commercial Thorium com-
pounds which came from monazite sand, exclusively I think.
We examined the Thorium obtained from the following min-
erals: bréggerite, cleveite, euxenite, samarskite, fergusonite,
xenotine, thorite, orangite, aschynite, monazite sand, gado-
linite, orthite and yttrotitanite. The Thoria was extracted
from these minerals by different methods according to their
composition. It was always separated from the other rare
earths by dissolving its oxalate in a hot solution of ammonium
oxalate and precipitating the Thoria in the cooled and diluted
filtrate by hydrochloric acid.

60 ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC JOURNAL

In this manner we obtained from the four first mentioned
minerals, bréggerite, cleveite,: euxenite and samarskite, some
strong and some very strong active Thorium preparations, far
surpassing the activity of the usual Thorium compounds.
The assumption of the presence of Actinium therein was ten-
able, so we tried then, like Mr. and Mrs. Curie with Radium,
to separate the Actinium by means of fractionation. And to
all appearance we succeeded in this way, for we could accum-
ulate the activity in one part of the fractions. It happened
by fractional precipitation with Potassium sulphate, Sodium
thiosulphate, Potassium chromate, Hydrogen dioxide, and
fractional solution in Ammonium carbonate.

Our work was suspended during the vacation in 1901. On
resumption of the investigations our previously very strongly
active preparations had lost nearly all their activity upon the
photographic plate and the electroscope. Thus it was shown
that the Thorium could not possibly contain a primarily active
body. For these, as for instance Radium and Actinium,
behave quite differently. Immediately after their separation
they show a certain quantity of radioactivity, which increases
within a few weeks to a maximum, and then remains constant
during several years, at least according to our measuring
methods. But Thorium behaved quite differently. Its activ- .
ity rather diminished, and then indeed it reserved constantly
a very little activity. The B-, or photographic action fell
down to an insignificant amount, whereas the o-radiation
assumed about the value of the weak Uranium radiation.

As therefore Thorium evidently is not a primarily radio-
active body, the further question was to be decided: where
does the activity of the Thorium compounds come from? ‘The
investigation of the other minerals gave us the key to this
problem. ‘The four first mentioned minerals contain a great
deal of Uranium in comparison with the amount of Thorium
present. We found furthermore: the more Uranium and the
less Thorium a mineral contains, the more active is the Tho-
rium obtained from it.

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC JOURNAL 61

It was quite important to secure Thoria from several min-
erals containing zo Uranium, as from Norwegian gadolinite,
orthite and yttrotitanite. Thorium separated from these
minerals is inactive upon the plate and the electroscope. Mr.
Curie was kind enough to make a control determination of the
activity of one of these preparations, and he also found it
practically inactive or if possessing any activity at all, its
value is only one seventh of the activity ever observed.

The inactive Thorium shows all chemical properties of
ordinary Thorium. To prove that it was really Thorium I
made an approximate determination of its atomic weight, and
found 222.7. This figuré is of value mainly, as it indicates an
element with an atomic weight above 200,

It is most probable that the Thorium itself-does not possess
any primary activity at all, but that it receives its activity
from other primarily active bodies like Uranium or Radium, or
even from the azr, which, according to the investigations of
Elster and Geitel contains a/ways and everywhere, more or less
radioactive particles. We succeeded in securing a further
very important proof of our opinion, by producing artificially
active Thorium from an inactive one, and by showing that
this artificially active Thorium behaves in every wey like the
natural active Thorium.

The experiments were made as follows: to a solution of
inactive Thorium nitrate a ten to twenty-fold excess of Uran-
ium nitrate in solution was addec; the mixture was then kept
about two weeks, and the thoria precipitated with oxalic acid.
The well washed and burned Thorium preparation behaved
then exactly like the thoria of bréggerite and cleveite. It
showed a very considerable amount of a- and f-activity. But
after a year the #-radiation disappeared nearly altogether,
and the a-radiation recovered gradually a small, but finally
constant value. Ina similar way as with Uranium, we ren-
dered thoria active by means of Polonium. __

Although Zer se inactive Thorim can be obtained of some
minerals, and although, on the other hand, the at first

62 ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC JOURNAL

strongly active Thorium loses the largest part of its activity
within a few months, we have not yet secured Thorium
entirely free from the last remnant of activity. In company
with Dr. Baskerville I made some experiments about this,
using the property of Barium and Lead to take with them the
activity. when precipitated in a mixture with an active salt
by means of sulphuric acid or Hydrogen sulphide. In these
experiments we did not use the original Thorium, but its three
components, about which Dr. Baskerville will speak to you in
afew moments. We dissolved a little quantity each of Ber-
zelium, Thorium and Carolinium salt, one of which must
surely be the bearer of the original Thorium activity, added
a large excess of Barium chloride, kept the whole during
three days and then precipitated the Barium with sulphuric
acid. The Berzelium, Thorium and Carolinium obtained from
the filtrate were then nearly inactive, but within two weeks
they regained their original activity. Nor did we succeed in
removing the activity from the original Thorium by adding a
large excess of Lead salt and precipitating the latter with
Hydrogen sulphide.

While one may secure inactive Thorium direct from certain
minerals, it has been quite impossible so far to remove the
last remnant of activity from Thorium that has once been
active. .

As in the meantime Dr, Baskerville happened to divide the
old Thorium into three constituents, it is very interesting
indeed to investigate what part the three new elements take
in the radioactivity of the old Thorium. So far it has been
found that all three, although not in the same degree, are
active. But possibly the new elements are not yet pure
enough; hence we hope by further methods of purification to
reach that point, so that we can give with the description of
all their properties also this of the degree of their activity.

a

SS ee RS er

In the list of members of the North Carolina Academy of
Science, published in the last issue of this journal, the follow-
ing names were omitted;

Stevens, F. L., West Raleigh.
Stevens, Mrs. F. L., West Raleigh.
Venable, Francis P., Chapel Hill.
Wilson, H. V., Chapel Hill.
Wilson, R. N., Guilford College.
Winston, Geo. T, West Raleigh.
Williams, C. B., ~ Raleigh.
avmecter, A. S., Chapel Hill.

TAC ei A RS Sn

—

JOURNAL
EvisHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY

(Organ of the North Carolina Academy of Science)
VOL. XX. : NOV. 1904

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ELISHA MITCHELL
SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY.

OCTOBER 13, 1903.

Professor Collier Cobé, President, in the chair.

The following papers were presented :

The Use of the Vector Diagram in Electrical Engineering.
J. BE. Latta.

Tanning. Charles Baskerville.

A New Indicator. &. V. Howell and A. S. Wheeler.

The Influence of the Spermatozoon on the Larval Develop-
ment of the Sea Urchin. A. V. Wilson.

CHARLES BASKERVILLE,
Recording Secretary.

BUSINESS MEETING, OCTOBER 13, 1903.

The following were elected as members: From Chapel
Hill—Wm. McK. Marriott, L. B. Lockhart, W. H. Oldham,
W. A. Whitaker, George MacNider, W. W. Eagles, Greene
Berkeley, F. H. Gregory; from Raleigh—Joseph Graham,
M. D.
~The following arrangement with the North Carolina
Academy of Science was approved: The Elisha Mitchell
Journal assumes the publication of the proceedings of the
Academy in its initial number; the Journal is to be enlarged
to 200 pages and to be issued quarterly; the Academy is to

[Issued 20th November. ]}

66 JouRNAL OF THE MitTcHELL Soctrery. [NVov.

pay annually the sum of one hundred dollars towards the sup-
port of the Journal; the editing and issuing of the Journal is
to remain in the hands of the Elisha Mitchell Society; the
Journal is to retain its name, but upon the title cover will
appear in small letters, ‘Official Publication of the North
Carolina Academy of Science;” each member of the Academy
is to receive gratis one copy of the Journal; associate mem-
bers are to receive only the first number of the volume follow-
ing the meeting at which the subscriber was an associate.
An invitation was extended to the North Carolina Academy
of Science to hold its next annual meeting at the University
November 12th and 13th. Professors Gore, Coker and Wheeler
were appointed a committee of arrangements.
The following officers were elected for the ensuing year:
President, Charles Baskerville.
Vice-President, /. &. Latta.
Recording Secretary, A. S. Wheeler.
CHARLES BASKERVILLE,
feecording Secretary.

JANUARY 12, 1904.

Mr. /. &. Latta, Vice-President, in the chair.
The following paper was presented :
Elements, Verified and Unverified. Charles Baskerville.
A. S. WHEELER,
recording Secretary.

FEBRUARY 9, 1904.

Professor Charles Baskerville, President, in the chair.
The following papers were presented :
Mendel’s Law of Heredity. W. C. Coker.
Incomplete Division in Vertebrate Animals. ZH. V. Wilson.
Composition of Coastal Plain Sands in Relation to Distance
from Existing Shore Lines. Collier Codd.
A. S. WHEELER,
frecording Secretary,

= —_
SS

ater BO an,

a Pe

ad Se gare, ert kes : an

—s

ae

a

as

zg04) ProceEpincs N. C. AcapEmy oF SCIENCE. 67

MARCH 8, 1904.

Professor Charles Baskerville, President, in the chair.
The following papers were presented :
Mercerisation. A. S. Wheeler.
The Work of the Digestive Glands. / H. Manning.
Kunzite, the New Gem; Its Unique Properties (with demon-
strations). Charles Baskerville.
A. S. WHEELER,
Frecording Secretary.

APRIL 12, 1904.

Professor Charles Baskerville, President, in the chair.
The following papers were presented :
The World’s Production and Consumption of Coal. C. ZL.
eaper.
Grafting in Vertebrate Embryos. A. V. Wilson.
Protozoa in Smallpox. A. H. Whitehead.
A. S. WHEELER,
Feecording Secretary.

BUSINESS MEETING, SEPTEMBER 12, 1904.

Professor /. P. Venable, Corresponding Secretary, in the
chair.

The following officers were elected for the ensuing year :
President, Wm. Cain.
Vice-President, 7. E. Mills.
Corresponding Secretary, 4. P. Venable.
Recording Secretary, A. S. Wheeler.
Editorial Committee on the Journal, W. C. Coker, /. E.
Latta, Archibald Henderson.
A. S. WHEELER,
feecording Secretary.

SCIENCE AND THE PEOPLE.*
CHAS. BASKERVILLE.

Opportunities beget responsibilities. On such an occasion
as this, he who has been honored with the opportunity is
tempted to address you upon a specialized subject to which he
has given years of thought and interest, but the opportunity
carries with it corresponding responsibilities beyond the nar-
row bounds of one’s limited investigations. The audience is
composed in part of the general public, which is more or less
informed, or misinformed through no self-fault, as to the
general trend of scientific thought and movement; in part of
students, some enwrapt with the beauty and majesty of
ancient art and philosophy, others versed in the history of
science and conversant with its latest conceptions; in part, my
hearers are specialists in the varied branches of science, so I
feel much like Moleschott in his address at the reopening
of the University of Rome, when he found himself ‘‘in
the face of an audience whom he had nothing to teach, but
from whom he had muck to learn.”

The groundwork of science may be thrown into three divi-
sions: (1) laborers who work; (2) tools they must employ; and
(3) that which constitutes the fields of their labors.

In the world we know there issuch a thing as progress; that
civilization is dependent upon something capable of increase,
evidently knowledge. Although, as Schiller has said, ‘‘Know-
ledge is to one a goddess, to another an excellent cow.” yet
the momentum of progress is largely, if not altogether, given

by science.
Variation in social conditions have caused variations in

* Retiring address of the president of the North Carolina Academy of
Science. Wake Forest College, May 18, 1904. Science, 29; 266-273. 1904.

68 [ Nov.

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1904) BASKERVILLE—SCIENCE AND THE PEOPLE. © 69

human standards of morality, but through all the ages mor-
ality has actually been a stationary thing. Different ages
have known mighty things in literature and art, but each was
the individual outcome of the pen or the brush of the genius,
who bequeathed a heritage of his own labors as a stimulus to
others; but the mastership passed with him. Not so with
science; for, as Whewell has said, ‘‘It is not a collection of
miscellaneous, uncorrected, unarranged knowledge that can
be considered as constituting science.”

Different ages have known mighty things in science, some-

times as the outcome of a genius, but equally as often the con-
sequence of talent building upon that which was learned
before. So, never was one more mistaken than President
Woodrow Wilson when he stated that science breaks with the
past. 3 i:
In order to appreciate the spirit of modern science, we must
take a hurried glance at the motives prompting the older
workers and consider their environment. We are aware, in
the historical development of things, that all present know-
ledge arose from a chaotic state enveloping itself in mystery.
This was due to the empirical means of observation, supersti-
tion attending any inquiry into the why of things, hampering
circumscriptions of religions, primitive and more recent, and
lack of means of communication. ‘The wise man, exercising
a little common sense, wrought cures wonderful in those dark
times, many simple for the youngest practitioner of today.
While, doubtless, some were prompted by an earnest desire to
do good, many were actuated by greed of power and gain,
even as today. Fearful of their loss once secured, they often
sought to hide their own shortcomings and take advantage of
the universal ignorance by their mysticism. These were not
the sole motives of all workers, however. The spirit of
inquiry has ever been present with mankind. For

‘‘Tonorance is the curse of God,
Knowledge the wings wherewith we fly to heaven.”

Although, three hundred years before Christ, the living

1) ihe JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY, [Nov.

and dead were dissected at the Alexandrian school, it was not
until the fifteenth century that the popes overcame popular pre-
judice about the sancity of the dead body and issued edicts per-
mitting dissection. The following century, Vesalius arose,
and then Harvey discovered the circulation of the blood. Greek
philosophers first endeavored to place science upon a purely
rational basis and they were accused of impiety. To be sure,
it may be said that such impeachments have not ceased to
sound for over two thousand years and cost the lives of many
good and noble men. ‘The church considered Galileo and sim-
ilar workers as rank heretics. Certain scientific endeavors
were tolerated, and the knowledge gained confined within mon-
astic walls. In the hearts of some was that yearning to make
known the truths they had dreamed; and monks like Roger
Bacon, Basil Valentine and Berthold Schwartz put forth writ-
ings so mysterious as to be incomprehensible to many, but
having hidden realities not previously made known.

Science was centuries acquiring its natural voice. In the
dark ages only a small band of learned folk made itself known,
yet the voice of Kepler, saying ‘“The scientist’s highest privi-
lege is to know the mind and think the thougts of God,”
sounded three centuries ago, has echoed with increasing rever-
berations to our own time. Science, harassed by ding-dong,
useless and unnecessary authority, was driven into rigid pious
paths. As the very spirit of science is inquiry, it lives upon
liberty and would not be bound by authoritative misconcep-
tions. It is not strange, then, that ina democracy of thought
permitting the widest range of opinions men should have been
borne away to the other extreme, and such catching expression
as ‘‘every one for himself and no god for any one,” became
prevalent. ‘‘Scientific arrogance” was a pet expression of

theologians who trespassed none the less than had the scien-

tists. ‘‘The abuse heaped upon Newton for substituting
blind gravitation for an intelligible Deity” that John Fiske
tells about, was nothing in comparison with the subsequent
treatment of geologists by theologians for disturbing the

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1904] BASKERVILLE—SCIENCE AND THE PEOPLE. 71

Bibical chronology. ‘The highest teaching of scientific veri-
ties is the absolute necessity for the existence of God. In fact,
one need not go far for a chemical confirmation of the resur-
rection, as death is but a phase of our continual internal
change; ‘‘so when this corruptible shall have put on incorrup-
tion and this mortal shall have put on immortality,” our
natural body sown in dishonor and weakness, shall be raised
a spiritual body, clothed in glory and power; ‘‘and as we
have borne the image of the earthly, we shall also bear the
image of the heavenly.” It is only in the most modern times
that the scientific spirit, which looks to the relative and tem-
porarily excludes the absolute, has begun to be fully. ae
and extended to ideas of every order.

I am by no means unmindful of the dogmatism of science
at times, for it may be recalled that Daguerre was actually
temporarily incarcerated in an asylum because he maintained
he could transfer his likeness to a tin plate; Franklin’s paper
on lightning conductors was laughed at and not published by
the Royal Society; and Galvani was attacked by his collea-
gues, designated a know-nothing, and called ‘‘the frog’s
dancing master.” ‘The Count de Gasparin even wrote in the
Journal des Debats, ‘“Take care; the representation of the
exact sciences are on their way to become the inquisitors of
our days.”

Science does not pretend to say the last word in regard to
the universe, but it builds hypotheses upon observed and
unobserved facts which are altered or cast aside in the light
of all new correctly obtained facts. It is ever ready to declare
the increasing uncertainty of many delightful and ideal con-
ceits, which is not to be taken as vacillation, but as evolution,
growth. The late distinguished Lord Playfair at the Aber-
deen meeting of the British Association said: ‘“The changing
theories which the world despises are the leaves of the tree
of science drawing nutriment to the parent stems, and enabl-
ing it to put forth new branches and to produce fruit; and
though the leaves fall and decay, the very products of decay

72 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY. [Nov.

nourish the root of the tree and reappear in the new leaves or
theories which succeed.” With this spirit, it will not hesitate
to attack any of our pet scientific, sociological or theological

dogmas, which are frail as all human system must be. These

attacks are without venom, however, for ‘‘Science * * *
requires for its satisfactory prosecution the employment of
our very noblest powers, and it is by them alone that we can
hope to attain a knowledge of the most supreme and ultimate
truths which our intellectual faculties have the power to
apprehend.”—( Mivart. )

Although Gough remarked to Dalton, ‘‘The human mind
is naturally partial to its own conceptions and frequently con-
descends to practise a little self-delusion when obliged by the
force of facts and argument to abandon a favorite notion,”
the supreme lesson in the history of science, most marked in
our own time, is the pursuit of truth. Much time has been
spent in defining a7¢ and casting that which did not fit a pet
definition into a rubbish box called scremce, or ‘‘natural know-
ledge” as a member of the Royal Society was pleased to term
it. Many of those insisting upon such a classification are
not without reason, for have not certain phylogenetics promul-
gated on the flimsiest excuse some Pan mixta, as Weisman’s
germ-plasm theory and then easily remembering the conclu-
sions, but forgetful of the evidence, maintained that it was a
law? Or has nota Tesla over magnanimously taken the
public into his confidential conversations with the inhabitants
of Mars?

It has been fashionable in years gone by to say that poetry
and truth were antagonistic. Coleridge and Poe, I think,
insisted that science and poetry were irreconcilable. Incon-
gruous statements, as when Shakespeare speaks of toothache
‘fas humor or a worm”, doubtless gave rise to such thoughts.
The Avon poet put it according to the scientific teachings of
his time. Civilization and methods ofinterpreting the truth
change and progress, but truth itselfis eternal. Science will

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4904) BASKERVILLE—SCIENCE AND THE PEOPLE. 73

no more replace literature than can a geometric diagram be
substituted for a landscape painting.

Science, to be sure, is destructive of conventions. Freedom is
the breath of science, and the unshackled movement of bound-
less human curiosity must effect literature. Men of science
look not pleasantly upon their scavenging camp followers,
who, riotous in thought, indulge in a license of speech which
provokes quite justly those who conscientiously differ from
them, and unfortunately inculcates ideas in those unable to
winnow the chaff from the grain.

Thus it may be seen that modern science makes for purity
and genuineness. ‘There is nothing more abhorrent toa man of
science than the pretenses of a scientific mountebank. This
elevation is dual in its effect, general and local. As an evi-
dence of the former there have resulted ameliorated conditions
of society by protecting food from, harmful adulterations,
improved sanitation, better and more reasonable treatment for
diseases, general distribution of the products of wealth among
all civilized peoples, and in many other ways too numerous to
mention. A reader after Count Tolstoy and his ‘‘recognition
of the bankruptcy of experimental science,” can not but be
impressed with his earnestness, and yet feel that he looks only
very close at home when he writes: ‘‘The men of science of
our time think and speak and the crowds follow them, while
at the same time there was never a period or a people among
whom science in its complete significance stood on so low a
level as our science to-day. One part of it, that which should
study what makes life of man good and happy, is occupied in
justifying the existing evil conditions, while another part
spends its time solving questions of idle curiosity.” He does
not apparently realize that science promotes a certain contin-
uity of ideas, as wellas the intellectual and moral education of
the nations.

.]
‘“There exist, indeed and always will exist, many deplor-

able things, much suffering, and much wickedness in the
world; but it is to the credit of science that, instead of lulling

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74 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SocrETy. [WVov.

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mortals with the feeling of their powerlessness into passivity
of resignation, it has urged them to react against destiny,
and has taught them the sure way by which they can diminish
the sum of woe and injustice, and increase their happiness
and that of their fellows. It has not accomplished this by
means of verbal exhortation or a priorz reasoning, but by vir-
tue of processes and words really efficacious, because they are
acquired from the study of conditions of existence and the
causes of evil.”

Further, as the editor of The Popular Science Monthly has
said:

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‘*The advance of science is evidenced in numberless ways,
but our weightiest proof of it is found in the gradual
acceptance of enlarged in place of narrower views of
the subject. New discoveries are important; the widening of
the ranges of research is important; the extension of general-
ization and better organization of positive knowledge are —
important; but more inportant still is the growing general
recognition that science is the grand agency in modern times
for reshaping the common opinions of the community.”

The local elevating effect of work in pure science is the
taking a man away from the sordid things of the world,
and

‘‘No life can be pure in its purpose, and strong in its strife,
And all life not be purer and stronger thereby.”

By this I would not be understood as placing him who
works only in pure science on a pedestal, or intimate that he
is superior to the other who makes a practical outcome of his
scientific work the main object. I am well aware of the elo-
quent statements about this being an industrial age and the
duty of young men te seek a technological education. Far be
it from my purpose to exhibit the least antagonism to the gen-
eralspirit of such appeals, for I endeavor to teach much of
the same thing, but in it all and with it all, I would urge
that the pure science be either kept ahead or abreast of com- —
mercial progress. Neither the pure nor the practical deserves
to be developed alone, They are inter-dependent and have

}

1904) BASKERVILLE— SCIENCE AND THE PEOPLE. 75

always grown together. The pure research has been utilized
later in practise. Industrial demands have stimulated inves-
tigation. Ilustrations abound. The destiny of nations has
been changed by scientific investigations prompted either by
search for research sake or by acommercialcall. The history
of indigo reads like a novel, for chemists have accomplished
the task, not of producing artificial indigo, but the genuine
indigo by artificial means. ‘The modern spirit of pure
science thus elevates man’s ideals and that of the applied adds
his comfort, pleasure and happiness.

_ In advocating Du Bois Reymond’s ‘‘Hellenism” or the love
%f humanistic and scientific culture for its own sake, apart
irom all considerations of profit and advantage, I would not
be understood as

‘‘Nourishing a youth sublime
With the fairy tales of science.”

While I maintain that the dollar should not be the guiding
star, there is no objection to dwelling upon the practical value
Of science; for, as Huxley has said: ‘‘it has become obvious
tk at the interests of science and industry are identical; that
Science can not make a step forward without, sooner or later,
ening up new channels for industry; and, on the other hand,
that every advance of industry facilitates those experimental
mvestigations upon which growth of science depends.”

_ It is well understood by those who have knowledge of the
broblem that the first line of defense in industrial warfare .is
the educational centers. We area great industrious and pros-
perous nation. Prosperity is the possession ‘‘of enlarging
*pportunities to secure the gratification of our material, intel-
e tual, social and spiritual wants.”

‘In the foregoing I have endeavored to show that science is
im evolution. In the past, “to be sure, at. times it has
Marched with crippled steps, at present it is gripped into the
( a of nations. T‘he modern spirit of science towards
eligion i is sane and healthy; towards literature it leans in
iffe og themes alive and seeking graceful modes for its

OD

76 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY.

expression; it fosters and grows with industry, so ‘‘to choke
the fountains of science is to dry the source of our pros-
perity.” :

The progress of science among us very largely depends, as
Draper has said, on two elements; first, our educational
establishments: and second, our scientific societies.

School men within the past decade have learned that it is
proper to send the whole boy to school and little by little
science has come into the curriculum. There is room for

and it should be better taught. Let us teachers then have more |
to do with pushing the proper recognition of science before!
the attention of school boards, insisting upon adequate com-
pensation, and let us have men and women ready-equipped for
the work. Pardon a personal illustration. I use it solely
because I know whereof I speak. Every year there go out!
from our laboratory at the university a dozen or more graduates
who, with rare exceptions, and they are mainly my ow
assistants, are offered position in other states, Wecan change
this, and I take it as one of the things this academy may
hold out for its accomplishments. How?

We teachers can and must get out and see the schools, con-
fer with the boards, speak to the people, in short, see thafj
wholesome works in science are placed in the libraries, tell
of common sense science, hygiene, assist the great work and
create like things to thé farmers’ institutes, popularize sciences
There is ‘‘no discredit in popularizing science,” as Mendenhall
said, ‘‘that popularizing what is not science is the thing sa
is to be shunned and avoided.” |

This brings to our immediate attention the instructor
in the various institutions that are making the teachers
making the preachers, the lawyers, the doctors, business mef
and the citizens. Boards of trustees must be made to clearly
understand that time and equipment for these things must b
had; boards of trustees must be made to understand that thé

7904) . BasKERVILLE—ScIENCE AND THE PEOPLE. 77

ject they would have better known and appreciated; boards
9f trustees must be impressed with the fact that with our
‘present arrangements, most researchers must steal the time
ecessary from rest, sleep, social concernments and family
pleasures and that is not right, it is not just to make them
mere teaching machines.

i There is no question whatever but that many of the teach-
ets in our institutions do the treadmill. Allofthis can not
| vv vith justice be laid at the doors of our honorable governing
bodies, however, for teachers are vain as other mortals. Some
insert in catalogues a vast array of special courses, which
either are solely for show, or, if they be given of necessity,
i can not be with that fresh vigor which should characterise in-
‘struction. The man who does that, voluntarily loves not
really his science. It is far wiser to offer a few courses, give

‘knowledge. Ido not know butthat the late Professor Row-
‘land was a bit severe, yet I wish to quote from an address of
his on a ‘“‘Plea for Pure Science”. Some children may be
oaxed, others require whipping.

“It is useless to attempt to advance science until one has
/ Mastered the science; he must step to the front before his
blows can tellin the strife. Furthermore, I do not believe
anybody can be thorough in any department of science, with-
Out wishing to advance it. In the study of whatis known, in
: e reading of the scientific journals, and the discussion therein

contained of the current scientific questions, one would obtain
) an impulse to work, even though it did not before exist. And
the same spirit which prompted him to seek what was
already known, would make him wish to known the unknown.
; And 1 may say that I never met a case of thorough know-
nC edge in my own science, except in the case of well-known in-
vestigators. I have met men who talked well, and I have
sometimes asked myself why they did not do something; but
further knowledge of their character has shown me the
s Superficiality of their knowledge. Iam no longer a believer
in men who could do something if they would, or would do
\§ fpmething if they had a chance. They are imposters. If

’ |
j

78 JouRNAL OF THE MrircHELL Society. [Vov.

the spirit is there, it will show itself in spite of circum-
stances.” |

Your speaker wishes to plead with his southern colleagues
for greater activity in research. Many have told me they
had no appliances. Liebig had none at first and later bought
most or that which he had from his slender stipend; Priestley {
utilized a lens and sun’s heat and discovered oxygen, W6hler |
distilled potassium, using a bent gun barrel as a condenser in i
in Berzelius’s laboratory. Where there’s a will, there’s a
way. There is much unknown, so much to learn, and, as |
Victor Meyer has said, there is ‘‘the gaining of gold from |
rubbish.” q

Yes, our equipment is meager; poorer than it ought to be |
for states now far richer than ever in their history; grown |
rich, too, as a result of the progress of industries. Science |
sowed the seed of the present prosperity and itis worthy of |
rememberance, thanks, reward. And these willcome. Ina
measure, they have come. Every scientific man in the state
takes pride in the growth of the new biological building at _
this institution, beneficent generosity of a prominent trustee |
at Trinity college equipping the physics department, the con- |
duct of the soil survey under the direction of the Department _
of Agriculture, the Beaufort laboratory, etc.

The importance of promoting science as the duty of the ©
states was well known to the ancients, especially the Greeks |
and Arabs. ‘The Prince Consort, in an address before the —
British Association in 1859, made the following statement:

‘‘We may be justified in hoping * * * that the legisla- —
ture and the state will more and more recognise the claims of —
science to their attention; so that it may no longer require the
begging-box, but speak to the state like a favored child toits |
parents; sure of his parental solicitude for its welfare; that —
the state will recognize in science one of its elements of —
strength and prosperity; to foster which the clearest dictates |
of self-interest demand.”

The endowment of any laboratory in any institution of the _
state but helps the others. There is no such thing as com- —

7904) BaSsKERVILLE—ScIENCE AND THE PEOPLE. 79

petition in doing good. The blanket of ignorance may be
lifted a bit higher here than there, but each lifts and gives
the fresh air of knowledge to those smothering beneath.

So, my friends, in fulfilling the responsibilities begotten of
the honor, allow me in closing to give my conception of the
destiny of this academy.

Man depends much for his happiness upon the sympathy of
those around him; ‘‘it is rare to one with courage to pursue
his own ideals in spite of his surroundings.” So science
thrives best where societies exist foritsadvancement. Science
speaks a universal language and knows no geographical, poli-—
tical or social boundaries, otherwise Humphrey Davy would
never have been so cordially entertained by his French col-
leagues when the shores of England and France bristled with
bayonets in bloody antagonism. ‘Then let us thank God for
the brotherhood of science, for the science, the spirit of mod-
ern science, is at war with war. The right spirit of science
is that of patient inquiry; of longing for the truth, cost what
it may in brain power, energy, money or self denial; it is the
spirit of cooperation as wide as the needs of man; of construc-
tive effort through slow accretion by many years. ‘The
touch of science makes the whole world kin.”

MOLECULAR ATTRACTION.*

(SECOND PAPER.)

BY J. E. MILLS.

REVIEW OF THE THEORY.

This paper presents additional evidence tending to show
that the attraction between molecules varies inversely as the
square of their distance apart and does not vary with the tem-
perature. Considering the attraction as a property belong-
ing to each molecule, or to be more exact, a mutual property
of each pair of molecules, it must vary as the mass, large
numbers of similar molecules being here considered. Briefly
therefore this paper is an attempt to show that the law of
gravitation holds, not only between masses, but between the
molecules of a substance, and that this law is alone sufficient
to account for the phenomena of the internal latent heat of
vaporization.

The assumptions upon which the present work is based are
stated in the original paper,’ and it would not be necessary
here specifically to call attention to them were it not for the
fact that certain reviews have overlooked the significance of
the preliminary statements to that paper. We may say that
the steps leading up to the present work are briefly:—

1. The kinetic theory of gases and van ’t Hoff’s applica-
tion of the gas law PV = RT to solutions.

2. The conclusion from the above theories and related
work that the average translational energy of gaseous and
liquid molecules must at the same temperature be equal.

*Reprinted from the Journal of Physical Chemistry, Vol. 8, No. 6,
June, pp. 383-415 (1904).

1 Jour. Phys. Chem. 6, 209 (1902).
80 [Nov.

1904] Mitts— MoLEcuLar ATTRACTION. 81

2. The belief based on the study of the specific heat of
gases, that the /ofa/ energy of a gaseous molecule, exclusive
of the energy which holds the molecule together and of
extraneous forces, is proportional to the translational energy.

4. ‘The inference, for it is somewhat more than a mere
assumption, the causes for 3 being considered, that the ‘otal
energy of a molecule of a liquid would similarly be found to
be proportional to its translational energy.

These four preliminary steps may be summed up by the
statement that the total energy per se of a molecule must be
the same in the liquid as in the gaseous state, the tempera-
ture being the same. If at a given temperature a given
weight of gas represents more energy than the same weight
of the substance as a liquid; the extra energy of the gas must
be energy of position only (assuming no intramolecular
change).

We made no attempt in the former paper, and we make
none in this, to prove the last statement above, or to give the
evidence for it. To do so even cursorily would require a dis-
cussion of the kinetic theory of gases, their specific heats
more particularly, and the modern theories of solution. The
statement is here made only as the belief of the author upon
which the present work is based. Many citations of closely
related belief might be given. Oswald’ gives a clear and
Succinct statement of 1 and 2. O. E. Meyer? shows the
grounds for 3. The author has published’ the study which
led him to conclude that 4 was a reasonable supposition. So
long ago as 1885, Ramsay and Young made practically the
Same statement.‘

1 Solutions pp. 147, 148.
2 Kinetic Theory of Gases, p. 117.
8 Journal of the Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society, Vol. 18 (1902).

#Phil. Trans. 1886A, Evaporation and Dissociation, p. 72, Section
4; c and d of that section not being necessary under the limitation imposed
above that there should be no intramolecular change, and e and the foot-
note being unnecessary in the light of the later work of van ’t Hoff.

82 JOURNAL OF THE MircHELL Socrety. [Nov.

Expressing the above belief in a different form, we may
say that the energy necessary to change a liquid into a gas
must then be spent solely in overcoming the external pressure
and in altering the distance apart of the molecules. (Unless
the molecule breaks apart also or nears the point of disrup-
tion.)

Denoting the energy spent in overcoming the external pres-
sure by E,, this energy can be calculated from the equation,

[1] E, = 0.031833 P(V —z) cals.,

where the unit calorie is from 15° to 16° C P is the pressure
in millimeters of mercury, V and wv are the volumes before
and after expansion. To obtain the constant, 0.0,31833, we
used the values: density of mercury, 13.5956; Rowland’s
value of the therm, corrected by Day, at 15° to 16° C, 41880000
ergs, aS unit; and gravity taken as 980.5966.

Denoting the total latent heat by L, we have L—E, as the
energy spent in overcoming the molecular attraction at any
particular temperature. .

On the further assumption:

5. That the molecular attraction varies inversely as the
square of the distance apart of the molecules, the equation 7
(p. 212) of the original paper was derived, which equation
readily takes the more convenient form,

L —E,
tie FID
for any particular substance, where L —E, is the internal
latent heat of vaporization, and d and D are the densities of
liquid and vapor at any particular temperature.

With regard to this equation, we will here say that it was
designed to test the assumption advanced in 5. Had it failed
to produce a constant or some function of the temperature,
the author hoped to substitute 5 by some other distance func-
tion of the attraction, obtain the formula similarly, and thus
repeat until the correct assumption was made.

As to the mathematics by which it was derived, the

= constant,

7904] Mii~s— MoLkcuLarR ATTRACTION. 83

vagaries of a particular molecule cannot of course be followed.
But in considering energy relations we commit no error by
considering the average molecule as was done. The formula
should therefore hold strictly true provided:—

(a) The molecules are evenly distributed.

(6) The number of molecules does not change.

(c) No energy is spent in intramolecular work.

_ (d) The attraction does not vary with the temperature.

Or, we might sum up a, 0, c, and d, by saying that formula
2 should hold, provided we are dealing with a stable chemical
compound whose molecules are not associated.

The first paper tested the formula so far as the direct
measurements of latent heat and the related data permitted.
The agreemeut appeared to be much too close to be the result
of accident, but where variations in the data as given by
different observers amounted often to five and ten per cent,
any close agreement was impossible. It being impracticable
to make direct measurements of the latent heat at widely
_ different temperatures, attention was called to the measure-
_ ments of Ramsay and Young and of Dr. Young. These

measurements give the vapor pressure and density of liquid

and vapor, at corresponding temperatures over a wide range
_ of temperature for thirty-one substances. The present paper
_ deals with twenty-one vf these substances, the calculations
_ for the ten esters being not yet completed.

THE MEASUREMENTS.

The complete measurements used are given in the appended
tables. ‘
_ The few exceptions to the following general statements are
| noted below.

(a) The vapor pressure, density of the liquid, and density
| of the vapor, are from the measurements, references given
| below, by Professors Ramsay and Young, or Young.
| (8) The vapor pressures from Biot’s formula were used in
_ preference to the observed values.

84 JOURNAL OF THE MrtrcHELL Socrety. (Woo.

(c) Where calculated the density of the vapor was obtained
from the formula,
Pm

[3] D=0.0,16016 =,

where P is the pressure in millimeters of mercury, m is the
molecular weight, oxygen equal to 16 as the standard, and Tis
the absolute temperature. The constant 0.016016 was
obtained by the use of the values 0.089873 for the density of
hydrogen at 0° C, 760 mm. pressure, latitude 45° and sea level,
and 0° C = 273° absolute.

(d) The densities of the vapor given are often carried one
place further than the accuracy of the measurements would
watrant. ‘This was because the density of the vapor was not
always given directly in the original paper, and in the neces-
Sary transposition the additional figure of the calculation
was retained.

(e) Making use of the well-known thermodynainic equation,

[4] Le = 37r a = a

the latent heat of vaporization for methyl, ethyl and propyl
alcohols, acetic acid, and ether, were calculated and given
in the original papers, where the method in detail may be
obtained. ‘The latent heat for water, 0° to 230° C, is from
Regnault. The latent heat for benzene, 0° to 270° C, is from
Tsuruta,* using measurements of Young.

(/) In all other cases the latent heats were calculated by
‘ the author, the following method being used. Biot’s general
formula for the vapor pressure,
[5] log P=a-+ bat + cf,
has been found with properly chosen constants accurately to
represent the vapor pressure, Differentiating and changing
base of the logarithms from natural to Naperian we get:

(6] EP =~. (blogast + clog Abt)

1Phys. Rev. 10, 2 (1900).

ee

1904] Mitus— MoiecuLar ATTRACTION. 85

~~

where m= 0.434294. Substituting this value of at in

equation 4, we get:

EN 2) 5 (blog aa? + clog BB");

and using values for P and J already adopted (p. 82), we have
finally:

[8] L=0.0,168775 P.Av.T (6 log aa’ + ¢ log BB*), cals.; or

[7] L=5.3019

[9] Piney cee aa
10
[10] A = 168.775 (6 log aat + clog B6*).

In this form the calculation of the latent heat is not only
theoretically correct, but is much shortened in comparison
with the usually adopted methods. The values for A were
obtained from the constants for Biot’s formula given in the
original papers, and the equations thus derived for each sub-
stance are given below under that substance.

(g) All calculations in this paper were checked and every
effort was made to make the calculations as accurate as the
data from which they were derived.

Ether. See Table 2. Data from Phil. Trans. 1887A, p. 57;
except density of liquid at 10°, 20° and 30° C, where the
values are from Oudemans. Molecular weight used 74.08.

Di-isopropyl. See Table 3. Data from Jour. Chem. Soc.
1900, p. 1126, except vapor pressure at 216° and 225° C (cal-
culated from Biot’s formula); and vapor density at 0° C which
is theoretical. Molecular weight used, 86.112. For calcula-
tion of the latent heat,

A = antilog (1.572552 — 0.000208002)
+ antilog (0.1268648 — 0.00466932z),
where /=7° C+ 10.

Dr-isobutyl. See Table 4. Data from Jour. Chem. Soc,

86 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY. [Nov.

1900, p. 1126, except vapor pressure at 274° C (calculated from
Biot’s formula); and vapor density at 0° C which is theoreti-

cal. Molecular weight used, 114.144. For calculation of the :

latent heat,

A = antilog (1.1739925 + 0.001044267)
+ antilog (0.2271234 — 0.003802252),
where ¢= 7° C— 10.

Lsopentane. See Table 5. Data from Proc. Phys. Soc. 1895,
p- 602; except vapor density at 0° C which is theoretical.
Molecular weight used, 72.10. For calculation of the latent
heat we have,

A = antilog (1.6310169 — 0.00031549/)
| + antilog (0.1373762 — 0.00515903¢ ),
where ¢= #° C+ 30.

Normal Pentane. See Table 6. Data from Jour. Chem.
Soc. 21, 1897, p. 446; except vapor density at 0° C which is
theoretical. Molecular weight used is 72.10. For calculation
of the latent heat, we have,

A = antilog (1.7496468 — 0.000733637)
+ antilog (0.0668185 — 0.00551392¢ ),
where ¢= 7° C+ 20, ,

Normal Hexane. See Table 7. Data from Jour. Chem.
Soc. 1895, p. 1071; except vapor density at 0° C which is
theoretical. Molecular weight used is 86.11. For calculat-
ing the latent heat, we have,

A = antilog (1.3604438 + 0.00042355¢)
+ antilog (0.2029359 — 0.004112557),

where ¢=/7° C+ 10.

Normal Hepiane. See Table 8. Data from Jour. Chem.
Soc. 74, 1898; except vapor density at 0° C which is theoreti-
cal, and vapor pressure at 266° and 266.5° C which is calcu-

- re

1904) Mitis— MoLEcuLaR ATTRACTION. 87

lated from Biot’s formula. The molecular weight used is
100.13. For calculation of the latent heat, we have.

A = antilog (1.3407071 + 0.000534087 )
+ antilog (0.2342860 — 0.00403623¢),
where ¢= 7° C.

Normal Octane. See Table 9. Data from Jour. Chem.
Soc. 1900, p. 1145; except vapor density at 0° C which is the-
oretical. The molecular weight used is 114.144. For calcu-
lation of the latent heat, we have,

A = antilog (1.3927781 + 0.000342913¢)
+ antilog (0.2497609 — 0.004006534/),
where ¢= 7° C— 10.

Benzene. See Table 10. Data from Jour. Chem. Soc.
1889, p. 486, and 1891, p. 125; except density of vapor at 0° C
which is theoretical. Molecular weight used is 78.05. Latent
heats were calculated by Tsuruta (Phys. Rev., 1900, p. 116),
except at 0° C, where the value found by Griffiths and Mar-
shall is used, and at 280° C where the calculation was made
by the author.

Hexamethylene. See Table 11. Data from Jour. Chem.
Soc. 1899, p. 873; except vapor density at 0° C which is theo-
retical. Molecular weight used is 84.096. For calculation of
the latent heat, we have,

A = antilog (1.2956115 + 0.00049715¢)
+ antilog (0.1878242 — 0.003912522),
where ¢=?° C.

Fluo-benzene. See Table 12. Data from Jour. Chem. Soc.
1889, p. 486, and 1891, p, 125; except the vapor density at 0°
C which was calculated. Molecular weight used is 96.09,
For calculation of the latent heat, we have,

A = antilog (1.13157974 + 0.000942654)
+ antilog (0.2224140 — 0.00363024),
where ¢= 7° C.

88 JOURNAL OF THE MiTcHELL SocIETy. [Vov.

Chlor-benzene. See Table 13. Data from Jour. Chem. Soc.
1889, p. 486, and 1891, p. 125; except vapor density at 0° C
which is theoretical. The molecular weight used is 112.5.
For calculating the latent heat, we have,

A = antilog (1.2268791 + 0.00075845¢)
, + antilog (0.1846519 — 0.003592272),
where ¢= 7° C— 30.

Llodo-benzene. See Table 14. Data from Jour. Chem. Soc.
1889, p. 486, and 1891 p. 125; except vapor density at 30° and
100° C which is theoretical. Molecular weight used was
203.9. For calculating the latent heat, we have,

A = 0.09891873 4 antilog 0.001421982z

+ antilog (1.28759778 — 0.003245742) },
where ¢= 7/° C— 30, a form of the equation less convenient
for calculation than the one usually adopted.

Brom-benzene. See Table 15. Data from Jour, Chem. Soc.
1889, p. 486, and 1891, p. 125; except vapor density at 30° and
100° C which is theoretical. Molecular weight used was
157.0, For calculation of the latent heat, we have,

A = antilog (1.8373717 — 0.000950922)
+ antilog 0,0763464 — 0.00489465z),

where ¢= 7° C — 30.

Carbon Tetrachloride. See Table 16. Data from Jour.
Chem. Soc. 1891, p. 911; except vapor density at 0° C which
is theoretical. Molecular weight used was 153.8. For calcu-
lation of the latent heat, we have,

A = 0.2358 +4 antilog 0.00026855z

+ antilog (0.7970507 — 0.00402434Z) },
where ¢= ?° C, a less satisfactory form of the equation than
the one usually adopted.

ns

Stannic Chloride. See Table 19. Data from Jour. Chem.
Soc. 1891, p. 911; except density of the vapor at 0° which is

1904] Mirzs—MorecuLar ATTRACTION. 89

theoretical, the molecular weight used being 260.8. For cal-
culating the latent heat, we have,

A = antilog (1.3282379 + 0.00026212¢)
+ antilog (0.2481708 — 0.00368282¢)
where ¢= f° C.

Water. See Table 18. See Phil. Trans. 1892, p. 107.
Vapor pressures, 0° to 100° C, are Broch’s calculations from
Regnault’s measurements, and other values are from Ramsay
and Young. Density of the liquid, 0° to 100° C are from
values in Landolt and Bornstein’s tables, p. 39, and 100° to
270° C are from Ramsay and Young. Density of vapor, 0° to
210° C are as given by Ramsay and Young from Regnault’s
heats of vaporization, and 230° to 270° are ‘‘recalculated”

values from their own measurements. Latent heats, 0° to
230° C are from Regnault, and 240° to 270° C were calculated
by the author from the formula,

A = antilog (0.1416514 — 0.0059507087 )

+ antilog (0.13884017 — 0.0016561382)
where ¢= 7° C+ 20, the constants used for Biot’s formula
being given by Regnault.

Methyl Alcohol. See Table 19. Data from Phil. Trans.
1887A, p. 313; except density of liquid at 0° C from Dittmar
and Fawsitt, and at 10° Caverage value of 0° and 20°. Inad-
vertently the observed pressures were used for the calculation
of E,, but the difference thus made is never more than 0.1 to
0.2 calorie. and the error thus introduced into the constant of
equation 2 could never exceed one-tenth of one per cent.

Ethyl Alcohol. See Table 20. Data from Phil. Trans.
1886A, p. 123; except vapor pressure at 241°, 242°, and 242.5°
C (calculated from Biot’s formula); density of liquid 0° to 30°
and at 100° Mendelejeff, 40° to 80° from Kopp’s formula, and

at 90° C estimated value.
Propyl Alcohol. See Table 21. Data from Phil. Trans.
_ 1889A, p. 137. Observed vapor pressures were used to calcu-

¢

90 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY. [Vov.

late E,. Density at 0° C is theoretical, the molecular weight
used being 60.06.

Acetic Acid. See Table 22. Data from Jour. Chem. Soc.
49, 1886, p. 790, and in 1891. Vol. 59. p. 903, preference being
given in all cases to the later measurements. For calculat-
ing the latent heat, we have,

A = antilog (1.9257964 — 0.001498982)

+ antilog (1.1390566 — 0.01304242),
where ¢= ?° C — 120.

APPLICATION OF THE THEORY.

For details of the calculations involved the appended tables,
2 to 22, must be consulted. A summary of the results
obtained for the constant by the use of the equation
ad ore
Vio D
mean values of this constant somewhat arbitrarily chosen are
given at the top of each column. All results not in agree-
ment with this mean value of the constant by as much as two
per cent. are in italics.

Since from 0° C to within 10° of the critical temperature
eleven of the substances show altogether, out of two hundred
and seventeen observations, only two divergences greater
than two per cent. from the average values, it is clearly evi-
dent that the relation given by the equation cannot possibly
be accidental. But zs the relation in these and im the other
cases as accurate as the excellent experimental data will permit ?
Only by such an agreement could the theory be finally estab-
lished. ‘To answer this question we must examine the man-
ner and extent to which errors in the observations will affect
the constant.

= constant, is given below in Table 1. Certain

ma 4

A cursory examination of the equation ea = con-

stant would make it appear that as the critical temperature is

1904] Mit~ts— MoLEcuLaR ATTRACTION. 91

approached and d@ approaches D in value, the diminishing
difference of their respective cube roots would enormously
increase the proportional errors of the observations. This is,
however, not the case. Substituting for L its value from
equation 4 and for E, its value from equation 1, we have,

0.0,31833 (V — v) Ce T —P)

“fit] = constant.

vd —V~vD
Next putting d=1/v and D=1/V, and simplifying, we get,
[12] 0.0,31833 (Vv% + V%v% + V%v) ae T — P) == eon

On inspection of the factor, Vvs + V%v% + Vv, we see:

1. That errors of observation occurring in the density of

the liquid have at low temperatures little effect on the con-

stant, but as the critical temperature is approached and v
approaches V in value, a percentage error in the density of
the liquid will cause about % of the same percentage error in
the constant.

2. That errors of observation occurring in the denszty of
the vapor cause at low temperatures about the same percent-
age errors in the constant, but as V approaches wv the percent-
age error caused in the constant is decreased to about % of

. the error of the observation.

To determine the error caused by an error in the vapor
pressure, we transform equation 12 into the form

dP Constant
vd oT cca 0.0,31833 (Vv% + V%v% + V¥%v)

The right-hand side of the equation is very small at low tem-
peratures, but increases with rise of temperature until as the
critical temperature is approached the function of the vol-
umes approaches 3V%3.

The relative magnitude of the terms on the left-hand side
of the equation must be considered. Taking water at 0° Cas

92 JouRNAL oF THE MircHELL Society. [WVov.

typical of a low vapor pressure (that it is typical will be seen

P
OT = 0, 329,

T = 273, P = 4.600, V = 211131, v= 1, and the equation

if other substances are examined), we have

Constant
Since 0.329 X 273 = 89.80, the influence upon the constant of
an error in the vapor pressure is relatively very small. T
may be assumed correct, and the determining error therefore

takes the form 0.329 & 273 — 4.600 =

8 : :
rests with the oi It is exceedingly important to note that

while an error of 0.01 millimeter in the vapor pressure is an-

error of only two-tenths of one per cent. in that observation,

, fi an éP
yet if the same error exists in the oT the error so caused

in the constant is three per cent.

For high vapor pressure considering water at 270° C (also
a typical case) we have a 614, T = 543, P= a05m
(from Biot’s formula as given by Regnault), and the
equation takes the form 614 x 543 — 40570 = etc. And since
614 & 573 = 351800, it again appears that an error in the

pressure produces only a very greatly diminished proportional —

error in the constant. It is again important to note that
while an error of 20 millimetres in the pressure means an
error of only 0.05 of one per cent. in that measurement, yet

sP
this error occurring in the =, would produce an error of

8T
more than three per cent in that constant.

The function — oF

yp was obtained from Biot’s formula (see

equation 5). Biot’s formula has stood the most severe tests,
and I do not believe the accuracy of that formula fer se can

F904) Mrrrs — MoLecurar ATTRACTION. 93

now be questioned.‘ But it is a purely empirical formula
fitted to the observations. It represents a curve and primar-
ily is but a more refined method of drawing a curve through
the observations. For all points along the line of this curve
one is guided by the observations on ezther side until the ends
of the curve are approached. But as the ends of the curve
are approached one has to be guided more and more by the
trend of the curve already established. ‘That is, along inter-
ior portions of the curve individual errors in the measure-
ment of the pressure are smoothed out and Biot’s formula is
far more accurate than the individual measurements, but at
the ends of the curve this smoothing is necessarily far more
‘imperfect and Biot’s formula cannot give greatly more accu-
rate results than the individual observations. (The fact that
the constants for the formula are mathematically calculated
makes this observation of course none the less true.)

Individual observations of vapor pressure could not be used

to obtain a correct idea of the ore because an error tn these

observations is multiplied proportionately anywhere from ten to

seventy tzmes in the — The method adopted will keep this

enormous multiplication of error from being greatly apparent,
except as either end of the Biot formula curve is approached.
_ But throughout the entire range of the observations it is

doubtless this multiplication of error in the ot that is most

often responsible for the variation in the constant.

_ Many illustrations taken directly from the measurements
_ enforcing the above remarks might be given, but attention
will only be called to the case of water. Ramsay and

1See Ramsay and Young. Phil. Trans. 18874, p. 82.

94 JouRNAL OF THE MrrcHELL Society. _ [Vov.

Young’s observations of the vapor pressure of water are in
beautiful accord (0° to 230° C) with the Regnault-Biot
formula, whose results they quote. But when this formula is
forced past the temperature (230° C) for which it was calcu-

t 8
lated, an error in the trend oo of the curve is at once

apparent.’ This error could neither have been suspected nor
provided for, had either set of observations below 230° C been
used to calculate the formula,

In this connection Prof. Young calls my attention to
Broch’s calculations of the vapor pressure of water, 0° to 100°
C. Broch used the formula,

W bt + ct? + dt? + et*+ ft

and made exceedingly careful and laborious calculations.
But unfortunately in obtaining his constants he used Reg-
nault’s data from —32° to 100° and the vapor pressures at the
lower temperatures were for the most part those of ice, not
water. Hence, remarks Prof, Young: ‘‘It is interesting to
notice that below 0° his calculated pressures are with trifling
exceptions, higher than the vapor pressures of zce observed by
Regnault—a striking proof, if such were needed, that the
vapor pressures of water are really higher than those of ice
at the same temperatures. Moreover, Broch makes the vapor
pressure of water at 0° = 4.569, whereas the mean of Reg-
nault’s actual observations, 12 in number, is 4.608.” Again
at 100° C, Prof. Young points out that the trend of Broch’s
curve is certainly wrong, and in proof of this he sends, and
kindly permits me to publish, the following calculations upon
the vapor pressure of water, made some years ago but never
published.

1 See Phil. Trans. 18924, p. 112.

1904] Mitts — Mo.EcuLarR ATTRACTION. 95

Vapor Pressures of Water

Temperatures From Regnault’s| From Broch’s | Pe
curve formula
DOO 4 760.00 760.00 0.00
120 1489.0 1544.7 SS Ay A
150 3572.0 4244.3 672.3
200 11660.0 31861.0 20201.0

Corrected for latitude, etc. and normal degrees C.

200° | 11660.0 | 31839.0 | 20179.0

Preliminary constants before employment of method of least
squares
200° | 11660.0 | 40547.0 | 28887.0

It surely cannot be necessary to give further illustrations
of the fact that the trend of no empirical curve can be trust-
worthy near its end point.

In conclusion therefore:—

3. Errors of observation occurring in the vapor pressure
will exert per se little effect upon the constant of formula 2.

'4. Errors in the vapor pressure may cause greatly multi-
plied error in the constant by affecting Biot’s formula used
for the calculation of the This source of error will be
greatly more apparent at the end points for which the Biot
formula was calculated.

THE EVIDENCE FOR THE THEORY.

The measurements considered in calculating the constants,
of which Table 1 gives a summary, include thirty-one sub-
stances, and cover a range of 290° in temperature. ‘The fore-
going discussion has shown that errors of observation may

96 JoURNAL OF THE MiTCHELL SocreTy. [Vov.

often be multiplied and are always compounded in their effect
upon this constant. To cover this range of temperature, the
number of substances, and the variously compounded errors
of observation in vapor pressure, vapor density, and density
of the liquid, errors which may be multiplied in the calcula-
tion, it has seemed to me reasonable to pass without discus-
sion all variations in the constant less than two per cent.
from the mean values chosen and given at the top of each
column. An agreement within two per cent. of this mean
value we therefore cousider satisfactory. All values not
showing this agreement are in black faced type.

Excepting values within ten degrees of the critical temper-
ature the eleven substances, ethyl, oxide, di-isopropyl, iso-
pentane, normal pentane, normal hexane, normal heptane,
normal octane, benzene, hexamethylene, fluo-benzene, and
carbon tetrachloride, show out of two hundred and seventeen
observations only ¢wo that are not within two per cent. of the

mean value adopted for that particular substance. The two.

exceptions are normal octane at 0° C and ethyl oxide at 180°
C, and both of these divergences, as well as those occurring
within ten degrees of the critical temperature, are, as shown
below, easily explained.

In six of the eleven substances above mentioned, the obser-
vations allowed the tests of the formula to be carried to
within one degree of the critical temperature, and in the case
of normal pentane to within 0.05 of that point, yet in no case
is the divergence greater than ten per cent. from the mean
value adopted for that substance. Nearing the critical tem-
perature an inspection will show that an error in the vapor
pressure will be multiplied proportionately some seventy times

: : : : 8
in the constant if the error likewise affects the a and, as

already explained (p. 93), at the end points of the Biot for-
mula curve these errors do affect, to a considerable degree,

2 oP
$T"

th

1904) Miiits— MoiecuLar ATTRACTION. 97

The same explanation will hold for normal octane at 0° C.

For ether at 180° C reference to the original data shows
that the Biot formula adopted differs from the observations
sufficiently to account for the divergence, and it is but proper
here to add that Prof. Young writes: ‘‘Above 180° the sub-
stance (ether) was heated with methyl salicylate which was
not quite satisfactory. In later work quinoline was used.”

I think it may be safely said that every error occurring in
these eleven substances could be entirely eliminated by
changes in Biot’s formula, in no case affecting any vapor
pressure so much as five-tenths of one per cent., and I there-
fore emphasize the fact that the only divergences from the
theory shown by these eleven substances are not errors of obser- .
vation, primarily, but of calculation.

It may be well to mention that of the 217 observations for
these eleven substances, 152 are within 1 per cent. of the
average value, and the 63 that are within 2 per cent. of that
value group themselves more largely at those poitits where
errors of calculation and observation would be the greatest.

These eleven substances. therefore, from 0° C to their criti-
cal temperature, show, it seems to the author, as perfect
accord with the theory as the method and observations will
permit.

Of the other substances, the following observations are not
within two per cent. of the mean values given.

Di-isobutyl, 120° to 190° C, inclusive, shows a divergence
amounting at the greatest to five per cent. from the mean
value. This may be caused by an error in the vapor density,
because PAV does not show a maximum value at 2000 mms
pressure, and the same value at 5000 to 6000 mms as at 500 to
600 mms, as is the case with similar substances.

Prof. Young has very kindly examined for me his original
notes and calculations upon di-isobutyl. The measurements
and calculations were abundantly checked, and there would

| seem to be no chance for unusually largeerrors. He suggests

98 JouRNAL oF THE MiTcHELL Society. [Nov.

that if a lower mean value were adopted the errors would be
shifted toward the end points of the curve.

The author would here remark that a theory by Crompton
to which attention will be called in a following paper, seems
to bear out this suggestion, but also points more strongly to
the fact that di-isobutyl does not give the results that similar
substances would lead one to expect.

Chlor-benzene, 240° to 270° inclusive, may easily be due to

the wrong trend es of the Biot formula at this, its end
point.

Brom-benzene at 30° C. The error here is due to the Biot
formula, as shown by the fact that at 100° C the constant,
from a theoretically calculated density is correct.

At 160° and 170° C the error may be due to the measure-
ment of the vapor density. Prof. Young writes: ‘“The
observed volumes of saturated vapor are generally much less
accurate at low temperatures than at high, because by the
method employed, a given error in reading would have much
greater influence at the lower temperature.” Also regarding
brom-benzene Prof. Young says: ‘‘After heating in ordinary
daylight at 180°, 190°, 200°, ‘brom-benzene slightly acted on
by mercury, small quantity of solid being formed, chiefly in
form of minute needle-shaped crystals.’ In a second series
the brom-benzene was ‘carefully shielded from the light, no
crystals formed.’ The volumes were read in the first series
only—the quantity of liquid in the second being small—and
the results do not seem to me so satisfactory as with the
other substances examined.”

Iodo-benzene at 190° to 210° C, inclusive, may be due to
measurement of vapor density. Dr. Young writes: ‘‘In the
ease of iodo-benzene similar crystals (to those with brom-ben-
zene) were found, although the substance was shielded from
daylight. All readings had to be taken by gas light and are
therefore less accurate than usual.”

The tendency towards continually increasing values of the

SSS ea

1904] Mii~ts— MoLEcuLarR ATTRACTION. 99

constant with rise in temperature in the case of chlor-ben-
zene, brom-benzene and iodo-bezene, may easily be without
significance, for in the first mentioned the tendency is not
marked, and in the last two the final values are not far from
the probable true values as shown by the results at 30° and
100° C. On the other hand, they may indicate progressive
changes commencing within the molecule, and the remarks of
Dr. Young above given are significant.

Stannic chloride may be said to be in agreement with the
theory from 0° C to 170° C, but the values from 100° to 280°
continually decrease, and there is little doubt that the cause
of the variation is operative from the first. I would call
attention to the high specific heat per atom that we find in
stannic chloride and the conclusion based on grounds having
nothing to do with the present theory, drawn therefrom by
the author,* viz: ‘‘A high specific heat per atom indicates
that the potential energy of the atoms is being rapidly
increased and that the molecule is Se el the point of
dissociation.” :

Prof. Young writes: ‘‘Stannic chloride spoils the surface
of mercury even at low temperatures and special methods had
to be used throughout. The accuracy is certainly not so
great as with most of the other substances, but this will not,
I think, explain the regular fall in the value of the constant.”

Water shows divergence 0° to 30° C and at 270° C. Both
may be explained by the multiplication of error through the

)
oo at the end points of the Biot formula curve. Ramsay

and Young’s observations of the vapor pressures at 230° to
270° are in themselves rather conclusive evidence that the
trouble at 270° C rests with the Regnault-Biot formula.’

See also remarks on page 94. The measurements of Grif-

1 Jour. Elisha Mitchell Scientific Soc. Vol. 18.
2See Phil. Trans. 18924, p. 112.

100 JoURNAL OF THE: MitcHELL Socre*ty. [Vov.

fiths would indicate that the divergence at the lower temper-
atures is but partly due to the vapor pressure used.

The divergence in ethyl alcohol at 0° C is probably due to
its being the end point of Biot formula used.

Methyl alcohol, 210° to 238.5° C, ethyl alcohol, 190° to
242.5° C, and propyl alcohol, 120° to 260°, evidently should
be grouped together. They are associated substances, as was
water, and the theory was not expected to hold for associated
substances, because the molecules may not be evenly distrib-
uted, the molecules are of different kinds, and the number of
molecules changes with changing temperature. The fact
that the theory does hold, to a very considerable degree, for
these substances also, is significant, and points strongly to
the conclusion that the cause of the molecular association in
these substances must be the attraction which we are discus-
sing and not some other attraction such as we might denote
by the term chemical affinity. And the fact that these asso-
ciated substances do not agree even more closely with the
theory may be entirely due to the supposition embraced by
the formula that the molecules are uniformly distributed
throughout the space occupied by them—a supposition prob-
adly untrue for associated snbstances.

Bearing in mind the comments above, we conclude that the
divergences shown by di-isobutyl, chlor-benzene, brom-ben-
zene, 10do-benzene, and water, all occur at such points and
are of such magnitude (none greater than 5.4 per cent.) that
they may easily be due to errors of observation, or the multi-
plication of such errors by the calculations. Stannic chloride
fails to agree with the theory. Water, methyl, ethyl, and
propyl alcohols and acetic acid are associated substances to
which the theory is not applicable a friorz, and yet these
substances, acetic acid excepted, appear within limits to
agree with the theory.

In conclusion, to prevent further misapprehension, I would
notice a review by Mr. G. N. Lewis’ of the former paper on

1 Jour. Am, Ohem. Soc. 3, 107 (1908).

1904]. Mitis— MorecuLtar ATTRACTION. 101

this stibject. This paper presents additional evidence in
favor of the theory, and it is the intention of the author to
extend the work to the ten esters for which measurements
have been made by Prof. Young. The ‘‘other assumptions of
doubtful validity” upon which the present theory is based,
referred to in that review, were mentioned in the original
paper as they are in this (here they are numbered, however,
so that he who runs may read), without attempt at proof.
True equations are seldom deduced from. wrong assumptions,
and if we can establish the truth of the equation the assump-
tions will probably be admitted by those who now doubt their
truth. All of the assumptions made, except possibly the law
of attraction assumed, are, we are inclined to believe, regarded
favorably by scientists on other grounds. Concerning. the
statement made in that review that ‘‘the author does not
point out the simple relations between the densities. of vapor
and liquid, and the difference in their specific heats, which
would be the direct consequence of his equations,” we would
Say that we are of course aware that the equations that we
have deduced can be combined with certain other thermody-
namical, empirical and rational equations, so as to produce
certain relations. (See for instance, equation 13 of this
paper, which equation is similar to the relation, p= d¢—a,
of Professors Ramsay and Young.) The theory itself here
given is capable of further direct and very promising applica-
tion. The author hopes shortly to complete and: publish-a
paper calling attention to some of these extensions of: the
theory.

For the measurements used we are indebted almost entirely,

to the labors of Profs. Ramsay and Young, and Prof. Young.
_ After months of laborious acquaintance with these measure-

ments we cannot conclude this paper without giving expres-

‘sion to the sincere admiration excited by the accuracy and.
_ completeness of the data they have furnished. And-we would

express a thanks, heartfelt, and echoed doubtless by hundreds
of workers elsewhere, for their labors.

102 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY. [Noz.

We wish further to express our thanks to Prof. Young for
some unpublished details of the measurements and for com-
ment upon the work, and we have taken the liberty of making
in this paper some extracts from his letters.

SUMMARY.
1. The equation, __u— i, | _ Gnsiani wane
fd —/~D

the purpose of testing the assumption that the attraction
between the molecules of any particular substance obeyed the
law of gravitation, i. e., varied directly as the product of the
masses, inversely as the square of their distance apart, and
does not vary with the temperature.

2. Twenty-one substances were examined. Of these,
eleven: ethyl oxide, di-isopropyl, isopentane, normal pentane,
normal hexane, normal heptane, normal octane, benzene, hex-
amethylene, fluo-benzene, and carbon tetrachloride were,
from 0° C to their critical temperature, making allowance for
errors of observation and the multiplication of such errors in
the calculation, in reasonably perfect agreement with the
deduced equation. The divergences in di-isobutyl, chlor-ben-
zene, brom-benzene, iodo-benzene, and water, all occur at such
points and are of such magnitude that they may easily be
due to the errors of observation (or the multiplication of such
errors in the calculation). Stannic chloride failed to agree
with the equation.

3. To the associated substances water, methyl, ethyl, and
propyl alcohols, and acetic acid, the equation was not sup-
posed applicable; but within wide limits the agreement of
these substances, acetic acid excepted, is such as to suggest
the conclusion that the molecular association with which we
are there dealing is caused by the molecular attraction whose
law we are considering.

2 =o sb
de | s3 | ze
HS Ro AA

06.6 |e:

109.0

eo

|

eo | 32 | Bo é
m4 2, aS ro] and
of od oD o 8 oo
Aad Aa Zs MN d¢
101.7 | 98.4 | 92.85 | 109.5 | 103.6

— —___ | —__._____

108.6 99.6 97.5 | 109.3 102.6

et) OF 2.
108.5 | 99.0 |________
mo 98411...
103.9| 98.2} 90.4
100 | 103.5| 97.8] 88.7
110 | 104.7. 97.4] 987.0
120 | 104.8] 97.6| 985.8
130 | 104.9! 97.7| 985.0
140 | 105.5| 97.7! 84.9
150 | 105.3| 99.7 84.6
160 | 104.4| 97.7! 85.1
170 . 103.0| 97.7. 85.7
180 | 101.0} 98.0| 86.2
190 | 106.3] 98.1] 868
193°
200 { 114.5| 92] 87.0
MO 97.3| 87.3
Pant o4.8 87.9
a {g9| 886
oe 89.0
oo SS 89.5
/ Se a 89, 4
gd ee 87.6
274°
280 | --------|-------- {56-4
290
SS a ee NO peal

temp. 194° | 227.35°| 276. 8°

187. 8° 197. 2° | 234.8° | 266. 9° | 296. 2° | 288.5° | 279. 95°

TABLE 1.— Continued.

ei 8 be | wale eee ss | isles
& ® uO 40 2 |o.e!] oe 5 em =g be 2
ge | 22 | 22 | 22 | 22 (383/22 | = | £2 | 28 | 22 | is
eS |&s | 08 | m8 | 88 |583/ a8 | © | Sa | AS | ag | <8
Mean :
Mean! 95.7 | 81.0 | 66.1 | 44.2 | 44.3 | 26.0 | 556.0 | 302.3 | 240.1 | 199.2 |_______
84.6) 81.6 |... ae 43.58 | 26.20! 585.7 | 304.7 |. 232.8 |; 208, ie ngee
ff eerie pares REN ATL NEEM CU RPNIDE oF, 4 be
RMN a ne WEP SN ee SRL CO AEC BUS, 575.2 | 308.6 | 237. 81.3
| Oa eS SHOE EP | BO) 4400022 uae 570.7 | 307.9 | 239. 83.8
a ee AELIERSS SAU SUE A NDIA F095: 566.6 | 307.4 86.1
BA ia lat cs eas be ee RE (co ae oe ae 563.0 | 308.8 87.8
2 ACE RS ARTO 1, ae ME? amma? FD rT 559.9 | 308.0} 243. 90. 4
HO cc 2 ee ca ee Pe ere it a eee hae 556.9 | 308.1 92.2
BO Ode lees umes Sl genes AUMNOES FIRE FY 554.5 | 307.8 94.7
COMIN sk OO Ce, SN ERB S | 48.58 fia 552.4 | 307.1] 244.6| 199.2] 96.4
100) 86.04 2 56.98 | 44.65 | 43.58 | 26.45 | 550.6 | 306.3] 244.8] 197.6] 98.5
10, > CORTESE gad 43.58 | 26.84 | 549.5 | 306.0| 242.7} 196.2] 100.7
TC RLM SB Ste STV) Sg RS | 43.64 | 26.24) 548.6 | 305.4] 2421] 193.6] 104.3
50) BEE GOB os on] | 43.67 | 26.16 | 547.8] 304.5 | 241:0] 191.3; 104.9
140| 86.0} 80:8 | asc|n-2 ee 43.79 | 26.00) 547.6 | 304.1 | 241:0| 191.1} 105.5
150°) 84.94 SI oe ae | 43.79 | 25.82| 5473 | 301.8 | 241.1] 187.8) 106.6
160| 84.7| 80.8 | 54.09 |_--.--_- 43.83 | 25.68 | 547.8} 303.1] 239.8] 185.6| 107.9
17O| 84.7 | Si.8)| Beae | 43.86 | 25.46 | 548.7 | 302.3 | 238.2] 1841] 111.7
180| 84.7! 81.2! 54.98 |_._.----| 43.92 | 25.13] 556.4] 300.9] 236.5] 182.7] 111.8
190| 84.8] 81.3! 55.21| 41.87| 44.00] 24.84] 551.8] 300.8| 233.3] 180.4] 113.3
200} 84.7] 81.3| 55.45 44.16 | 24.68 | 553.9 | 299.3 | 230.0] 178.6| 115.4
210| 85.1] 81.6 | 55.91| 43.06| 44.34] 24.45] 556.4 | 205.4) 226.3] 176.6] 117.5
220] 85.5 81.8! 55.87) 43.64 | 44.55 | 24.20] 559.1] 287.6 | 223.0| 173.2] 119.1
230} 85.8] 82.3 | 56.25| 43.73) 44.76] 23.96 | 563.0 | 276.5 | 219.7 8] 121.5
240} 86.2] 83.1} 56.19} 44.03) 44.94] 23.63 553.6 | {580 2°) 209.2] 164.1] 124.1
9 5o
250| 86.6! 83.6| 56.44) 44.38] 45.16] 23.95] 551.0 |______. {7975 | 160-2] 126.4
260| 86.8| 843) 5692| 44.68; 44.99] 22.96| 544.9 |_| 157.0 | 128.4
270 | 86.81 8&9 | ‘57.15 | 45.10) 44.47] 22.42 | 685.6 |a--—a|-—--oeoe) eee 130.0
BOA PRR i ice Ovi foe ae ioe } 48,90. | 915 || 131.5
BO | a a a Gna ROSA kereel MONEE MINE ES eRT st 131.2
eee pee | Se ee ee ee en Fe RAE
++) | |
pea 286.55°, 360.7° | 397° | 4ago | 283,15°! 318.70 | 3650} 240° | 243, 6° | 268.7° | 321. 65°

TABLE 2
Ethyl Oxide.

|
|
|
|
|

2 2

& % % S

5 x b b 2 AGE a: a

3 2 2 = = 51 A

Be OM BBY BRC A) ie nla tal er
Bi Ay A= As 4 a] 4 3 | Q/s
0° | 184.90 } 0.7362; 0.0008270 | 93.27) 7.11) 86.16 | 0.8091 106.5
10 | 291.78 | 0.7248 | 0.001264 90.77 | 7.33 | 83.44 | 0.7901 | 105.6
20 442.36 | 0.7135 | 0.001870 87.90 | 7.50 | 80.40 | 0.7704 | 104.4
30 647.93 | 0.7019 | 0.002677 85.60 | 7.68 | 77.92 | 0.7499 | 103.9
40 921.18 | 0.68944 0.003731 88.18 | 7.82 | 75.36 | 0.7283 | 108.5
50 | 1276.11 | 0.6764 | 0.005079 80.95 | 7.94 | 73.01 | 0.7059 | 108.4
60 | 1728.18 | 0.6658 | 0.006771 78.84 | 8.05 | 70.79 | 0.6840 | 103.4
70 | 2298.91 | 0.6582 | 0.008920 76.42 | 8.07 | 68.35 | 0.6608 | 103.5
80 | 2991.40 | 0.6402 | 0.01155 73.95 | 8.10 | 65.85 | 0.6359 | 103.5
90 | 3839.71 | 0.6250 | 0.01477 71.39 | 8.08 | 63.31 | 0.6096 | 103.9
100 | 4859.01 | 0.6105 | 0.01867 6885 | 8.02 | 60.33 | 0.5830 | 103.5
110 | 6070.38 | 0.5942 | 0.02349 65.98 | 7.91 | 58.07 | 0.5543 | 104.7
120 | 7495.78 | 0.5764 | 0.02934 62.63 | 7.72 | 54.91 | 0.5238 | 104.8
130 | 9157.42 | 0.5580 | 0.03688 59.11 | 7.49 | 51.62 | 0.4919 | 104.9
140 | 110782 | 0.5885 | 0.04488 55.52 |'7.21 | 48.31 | 0.4582 | 105.5
150 | 13981.0 | 0.5179 | 0.05551 51.18 | 6.80 | 4438 | 0.4216 | 105.3
160 | 15788.1 | 0.4947 | 0.06911 45.99 | 6.25 | 39.74 | 0.3805 | 104.4
170 | 18622.2 | 0.4658 | 0.08731 39.69 | 5.51 | 34.18 | 0.3315 | 103.0
180 | 21804.3 | 0.4268 | 0.1135 31.58 | 4.49 | 27.09 | 0.2687 | 101.0)
185 | 23532.4 | 0.4018 | 0.1820 26.78 | 3.82 | 22.96 | 0.2287 | 100.4)
190 | 25855.1 | 0.3663 | 0.1620 20.90 | 2.79 | 18.11 | 0.1704 | 106.3
182 | 26111,2 | 0.3448 | 0.1826 17.10 | 2.14 | 14.96 | 0.1339 | 111.6)
193 | 26495.0. | 0.8300 | 0.2012 13.67 | 1.67 | 12.08 | 0.1051 | 114.5)

EI DEE EE Ee ——_—

TABLE 3
Di-isopropyl

Ey

PAGS ODS OM Sal Naa SSS
ND DONG bo oD

mea DOOD DOW WR

2 a
y es
3 Bil & 3
£ 2 bs Ds fs
® 3 Lo a = ae
rh a Gx 2O x rae
g Ky as aa 3 le |
Rae | se (ar) «| 4
Ho |
0° 76.05 | 0.6795 | 0.00038840 | 54.05 |1.57468 985.11
50 584.1 | 0.6388 | 0.002551 | 73.64 |1.06573 78.47
60 806.8 | 0.6243 | 0.008448 | 77.49 | 0.99238 76.90
70 | 1090.3 | 0.6144| 0.004566 | 81.29 |0.92634 75.30
80 | 1444.8 | 0.6039 . 006006 84.05 | 0.86685 72. 86
90 | 1880.9 | 0.5931 | 0.007752 | 86.90 |0. 81327 70. 67
100 | 2409.7 | 0.5821] 0.009901 | 89.26 |0. 76498 68.28
110 | 3048.0 | 0.5708 | 0.01250 91.15 | 0.72144! 65.76
120 | 3793.2 | 0.5589 | 0.01555 93.18 |0.68219| 63.57
130 | 4673.0 | 0.5464 | 0.01923 94.54 |0.64677| 61.15
140 | 5697.0 | 0.5834 | 0.02358 95.28 |0.61479| 58.58
150 | 6879.0 | 0.5197 | 0.02825 97.46 | 0.58592| 57.10
160 | 8234.0 | 05049 | 0.08521 94.13 | 0.55982! 52.70
170 | 9781.0 | 0.4885 | 0.04292 92.05 | 0.536283} 49.36
180 | 11536.0 | 0.4705 | 0.05216 89.06 |0.51488| 45.86
190 | 18519.0 | 0.4508 | 0.06361 84.50 |0 49555| 41.87
200 | 15752.0 | 0.4274 | 0.07831 77.71 |0.47808| 37.15
210 | 18258.0 | 0.3988} 0.09862 67.28 |0.46213| 31.09
216 | 19905.0 | 0.3758 | 0.1163 57.80 |0.45881| 26.20
920 | 21062.0 | 0.3565] 0.1321 49.45 |0.44770| 22.14
225 | 22585.0 | 0.3198] 0.1649 33.04 |0.44099| 14.57
TABLE 4
Di-isobutyl
Q —
2 3 3 3
3 » F P=
i] be bm »
® S aa tea a q
LaF) Qn Qa mn (>| . oO
a go 158 :
2g a Ax as ale Ea 4
0° 7.11 | 0 7102 | 0.00004762 | 40.76 | 1.98712] 80.99
90 425.6 | 0.6328 | 0.002174 70.82 | 1.01836 | 72.12
100 581.1 | 0.6236 | 0.002967 72.70 | 0.95256 | 69.25
10 777.9 | 0.6143 | 0.003984 74.30 |0.89276| 66.38
120 | 1022.6 | 0.6046 | 0.005236 76.08 | 0.83846| 63.79
130 | 1322.5 | 0.5945 | 0.006757 77.98 |0.78921| 61.54
140 | 1684.9 | 0.5841 | 0.008532 80.37 |0.74460| 59.84
150 | 2118.2 | 0.5732 | 0.01072 82.06 |0.70425| 57.79
160 | 2630.6 | 0.5620 | 0.01319 84.30 | 0.66783 | 56.30
170 | 3281.3 | 0.5503 | 0.01610 86.30 | 0.63500! 54.80
180 | 3980.2 | 0.5388 | 0.01957 87.61 | 0.60549| 53.05
190 | 4738.0 | 0.5255 | 0.02370 88.39 | 0.57903| 51.18
200 | 5666.5 | 0.5117 | 0.02874 87.93 | 0.55589] 48.83
210 | 6729.5 | 0.4970 | 0.03484 86.80 | 0.53488! 46.38
220 | 7941.0 | 0.4810 | 0.04202 84.94 |0.51566| 43.80
230 | 9319.0 | 0.4638 | 0.05094 81.89 | 0.49918] 40.88
240 | 10883.0 | 0.4434 | 0.06223 77.10 | 0.48474 | 87.37
250 | 12654.0 | 0.4199 | 0.07680 70.40 | 0.47218] 38.24
260 | 14660.0 | 0.3912 | 0.09699 60.55 |0.46135| 27.93
270 | 16929.0 | 0.3482 | 0.1321 43.21 |0.45218| 19.54
274 | 18006,0 | 0.3187 | 0.1572 31.72 |0.44887| 14.24

at ed et ed et eT

ON®aDdITe PISO
RASSRSASSNRSRSSUSSSISES

Pet BOO WR ON OUT D2 D9 G2 Sd G9 GS? SS. S> S>. S

Temperature
Pressure
Density of
liquid

vapor

SSSS85

Temperature
Density of
Density of

Pressure
vapor

een ss
Sr

work, |
Oo

TABLE 5
Isopentane

0. 46942
0. 46882

TABLE 6
Normal Pentane

<

1.44799
1, 13456

Latent heat

Ey

on
ey

:

bet = BO BO BO 9 a A OSD ATT ST NI 0 G0 90.90 GO MOI III

PSSSLRRSLSSSRKESRSSSIBSS

—
©

Latent heat
L—E;
| a%—p%

E

ie)
ao

~~

FRENSSRAR

8 Oe oe ee Se eS SS Se SS

SHERSSA SINS

SSO PON GOB IR Og NII 31.9 G0 90 90 90 90 G0 GODOT
RSSSSRSIRSSESSRARRGSESNSSS

hapa cg GI Se

—)
JESEERERERY

Bees USSe

PEEL

TABLE 7

nN " oo
PLO PT) OM fae ies te RN cl See Lo tte raion
AA _|sidssdudseddsadddige ss
Coal fi ee ee ee Oe Oe Be ee oe ee oe ee |
ee See ep are DNS
4 d—P | PASE SSERh RAK eREONA NS
Ssesocsesosseososssssscscoss
SRAAgGhasoSsasaVarSgewseew
a— "I SERESSSSR RAR TIS RR aAAS"
thy SHSRSer 0 2 BB OBALIOSS
mieichhoaeneeice Pp ree
, + |Saeugee cangeangarauerss
WOOT TUT | SSEELER SSE Sadsseress
2A | a io | moo 7 eS :
: | Bone nuecsencuecsshaves
" V BoEORS DIB BIBID ARR ee
en] | Frscscosoosceocsoscsocososscsdsco
x
fa] !
a __20_ S8RR385R88 BIRR
|| =—_90l_| SSignssneqae plata iro lke bebe tal
E royal skeaaseess seedeuneneds
4 Pe Be ae Ui Sn tg Te Oe es — Lie
|
Ako fo os | lon To | A100 1.
sodvs | SEBSBRESEE SARS EESESS
jo 4yIsu0g ; SSS ssssaq SSoaanma
sssssssssssssssssssss5
nb RAN IAS conn Saicis as) 12 iz
vo ait | BERSEREBESS SEER ELE EY:
Seseooseoseossesssossosssosso
NESoooooSoSoSoSSoSSCSSS
3S 6 os oS id oS ron
ornsserg | 35 gheees Ronee =
d | SBZSS 20 ene saseher cess
ainyzeted way, eras Fd

TABLE 8
Normal Heptane

aa
srotat os tatat arate sahgleratet att eeaerane

Cyt eee at at a a ee er a em ee

7491
7319

8474

eT Se ee pee TR Se EC a a ay sek ee ae SoC

ooococoeocoeoceco
eo

Oo oocooo
SESESSRSSSRSSESSHSE
RESSCRSRSHOAS eee
tod OD

GRRSSSASASSSSESALRSSSSS

O80) .6. i948. 6.6. 0 50 8 6 §. 6. 28 Oe ew ee) eee

0

84.44 | 0
14
74 | 0.

peo, JU9}V'T

" |AaiSsddssssccdssssdasaas
— _swor_ | Seassagnsegsesteadagekes | -
Lay'd | NOR SRSSSSSRSESSERSSBLSELBRO
Reeogs Bie ON Nn rt
yo «fgdvs | BEERgSEb S22 Pei

Se 8 68) 6 WN 8 6) Oe 88 8 ee ee ee oe

pinoy | SSZ255S58SEBR
Ow

jo pw | f= Se i eee

mw ie

2 en Ss cooocooooseceocoejcjeEe ld
Pe oie POEL Dae i ise
ae i= ae S
unsord | >ERZBGEE web
o1nywstod WaT, “RBagsaeeae REASABRAARS
et OEE, = eS = 7 =

TABLE 9
Normal Octane }
<==
2 | | | : | i,
=} eH a | 3
~ lo} re) o
s 2 ba | Bb a | x nel SS
& 3 = irs | Et 5 | ey f=) flaQ
ee ae eA eee nee g ee
ov So ot 3
x oo D 1 = S a x x
= a AS as g, < J) eee eo |HAls
a eerie eee ee | ee ee
0° 2.90 | 0.7185 0.00001942 | 40.77 | 2.1942 89.46 | 4.75 | 84.71 | 0.8688 | 97. ‘
120 649.3 | 0.6168 0. 0033800 76.91 | 0.91869 | 70.27 | 6.24 | 64.083 | 0.7028 | 91.17
130 859.4 | 0.6071 0. 004292 80.16 | 0.85906 | 68.86 | 6.383 | 62.53 | 0.6842 | 91.39
40 1114.5 | 0.5973 0. 005464 83.47 | 0.80944 | 67.56 | 6.43 | 61.13 | 0.6661 | 91.
150 1426.9 | 0.5875 0. 006897 86.50 | 0.76440 | 66.12] 6.51 | 59.61 | 0.6471 | 92.12 ]
160 1802.4 | 0.5772 0. 008584 89.59 | 0.72354 | 64.82 | 6.58 | 58.24 | 0.6278 | 92.77 i
170 2249.0 ! 0.5667 0.01065 91.74 | 0.68649 | 62.98 | 6.59 | 56.39 | 0.6075 | 92.82 i
180 2775.4 | 0.5556 0.01314 93.41 | 0.65293 | 60.99 | 6.56 | 54.48 | 0.5861 | 92.87 |
190 8390.7 | 0.5441 0. 01608 94.82 | 0.62252 | 59.08 | 6.52 | 52.51 | 0. 93.10 |
200 4105.0 | 0.5317 0.01957 95.54 | 0.59501 | 56.87] 6.48 | 50.44 | 0.5406 | 93.30 |
210 4928.9 | 0,5189 0. 02364 96.17 | 0.57015 | 54.88 | 6.384} 48.49 | 0.5166 | 98.86 i}
220 5874.6 | 0.5053 0. 02874 95.00 | 0.54769 | 52.03 | 6.13 | 45.90 | 0.4902 | 98.63 !
230 6955.0 | 0.4901 0. 08484 93.41 | 0.52743 | 49.27 | 5.91 | 48.36 | 0.4618 | 98.90 i
240 8184.5 | 0.4782 0. 04237 90.29 | 0.50918 | 45.97 | 5.60} 40.37 | 0. 93.'78
230 9578.8 | 0.4554 0.05118 86.87 | 0.49276 | 42.80 | 5.29 | 87.51 | 0.8981 | 94.22 |
260 | 11156.0 | 0.4864 0. 06223 81.87 | 0.47802 | 39.14 ]4 89] 84.25 | 0.8622 | 94.56 i
270 | 12937.0 | 0.4123 0.07716 73.96 | 0.46480 | 34.38 | 4.33 | 380.05 | 0.3186} 94.32 |
280 14942.0 | 0.3818 0. 09833 62.388 | 0.45298 | 28.26 | 3.59 | 24.67 | 0.26389 | 98.40
290 17198.0 | 0.3365 0. 13846 43.18 | 0.44248 | 19.10 | 2.44 / 16. 66 | 0.1881 | 91.00 i
| | a]
|
i}
TABLE 10 !
Benzene
® |
5 ron a = } |
ae ro) c ) 1 eats *
ea a a | 1 |
AD a tae =: eats 2 of | ee |
a Z a @ S 3 | ]
f] 8 | Be ee ee ot |
a oy Ax AP Hq | A 4 hod hed .
ee seeks sche Nees WEP gus Sas Weapely | Nsee ya e =
ice 26.54 | 0.9001 0. 1215 | 107.05 | 6. 95 | 100.10 | 0.9160 109.3 }
80 753.62 | 0.8145 0, 002722 94.40 | 8.78 | 85.62 | 0.'7948 107.8
90 1016.1 | 0.8041 0. 003570 92.76 | 9.02 | 83.74 0.7771 107.8
100 1844.3 | 0.7927 0. 004690 91.05 | 9.07 | 81.98 | 0.7581 108.1
110 1748.2 | 0.7809 0. 006085 89.20 | 9.15 | 80.05 | 0.73888 | 108.3 :
120 2238. 1 0.7692 0. 007634 87.86 | 9.24] '78.12 | 0.7194 108. 6
130 2824.9 | 0.7568 0. 009515 85.43 | 9.83 | '76.10 | 0.6994 108.8 ;
140 8520.0 | 0.'7440 0.01174 88.48 | 9.39 | 74.09 | 0.6789 109.1
150 4334.8 | 0.7310 0. 01436 81.35 | 9.42 | 71.98 | 0.6577 109.4
160 5281.9 | 0.7185 0.017384 79.20 | 9.46 | 69.74 | 0.63868 109.5 /
170 6874.1 | 0.'7048 0.02087 76.90 | 9.48 | 67.47 | 0.6144 109.8 |
180 7625.2 | 0.6906 0, 02487 74.58 | 9.41 | 65.12 | 0.5920 110.0
190 9049.4 | 0.6758 0. 02977 71.93 | 9.25 | 62.68 | 0.5676 110.4
200 | 10663.0 | 0.6605 0. 03546 69.01 | 9.06 | 59.95 | 0.5424 110.5 a ||
210 | 12482.0 | 0.6482 0. 04207 65.80 | 8.83 | 56.97 | 0.5154 110.5
220 | 14526.0 | 0.6255 0.05015 62.82 | 8.48 | 53.84 | 0.4864 110.7 |
230 | 16815.0 | 0.6065 0. 06024 58.49 | 8.00 | 50.49 | 0.4545 111.1
240 | 193869.0 | 0.5851 0.07138 54.21 | 7.58 | 46.63 | 0.4216 110.6
22214.0 | 0.5609 0. 08554 49.40 | 7.01 | 42.39 | 0.3841 110.3 z
260 | 25376.0 | 0.5328 0.10388 48.76 | 6.27 | 37.49 | 0.38407 110.0 :
270 | 28885.0 | 0.4984 0. 1287 86.97 | 5.80 | 31.67 | 0.2880 110.0 §
280 | 32772.0 | 0.4514 0. 1660 27.48 | 8.98 | 23.45 '-0,2175 107.8 es
a as

TABLE ll

Hexamethylene
g afina
3 % 3 a |
g 2 |. b a | xX Saal xX
g 5 = = aH = “ A | aA
5 e | ay #5 | Sle 2 j aa
@ fe vo Va ij fan] ta) et
i) Ay Ax RE q, < i] ca) = | oc ays
0° 27.85 | 0.7967 0. 0001374 55.84 | 1.78860 | 96.22 | 6.45 | 89.77 0.8754 | 102.6
90 992.34 | 0.7106 0. 003759 95.82 | 0.90896 | 86.17 | 8.36 | 77.81 | 0.7369 | 105.6
100 1306.8 | 0.7003 0. 004902 98.77 | 0.84748 | 83.71 | 8.43 | '75.28 | 0.7181 | 104.8
110 1691.0 | 0.6898 0.006289 | 102.03 | 0.79610 | 81.23 | 8.48 | 72.75 | 0.6990 | 104.1
120 2155.4 | 0.6791 0.007968 | 105.01 | 0.74988 | 79.69 | 8.51 | 70.18 | 0.6793 | 103.3
130 2709.1 | 0.6680 0.01000 107.52 | 0.70695 | 76.01 | 8.49 | 67.52 | 0.6588 | 102.5
140 3362.0 | 0.6565 0. 01288 110.11 | 0.66844 | 73.60 | 8.49 65.11 | 0.6378 | 402.1
150 4124.5 | 0.6448 0.01508 112.90 | 0.63849 | 71.52 | 8.49 | 63.03 | 0.6168 | 102.2
160 5007.3 | 0.6325 0.01818 115.78 | 0.60188 | 69.68 | 8.51 | 61.17 | 0.5955 | 102.7
170 6021.9 | 0.6200 0.02183 117.938 | 0.57314 | 67.59 | 8.47 | 59.12 | 0.5782 | 103.1
180 7199.9 | 0.6067 0.02625 119.05 | 0.54721 | 65.15 | 8.36 | 56.79 | 0.5494 | 103.4
190 8494.5 | 0.5926 0.03140 118.62 | 0.52377 | 62.13 | 8.15 | 58.98 | 0.5245 | 102.9
200 9980.2 | 0.5780 0.03738 118.11 | 0.50263 | 59.37 | 7.95 | 51.42 | 0.4986 | 103.1
210 | 11651.0 | 0.5626 0. 04437 116.84 | 0.48358 | 56.50 | 7.70} 48.80 | 0.4715 | 103.5
220 | 18526.0 | 0.5456 0. 05249 114.82 | 0.46645 | 53.56 | 7.41 | 46.15 | 0.4427] 104.2
230 | 15622.0 | 0.5271 0. 06250 110.81 | 0.45107 | 49.98 | 7.01 | 42.97 | 0.4109 | 104.6
240 | 17961.0 | 0.5063 0. 07496 104.65 | 0.48732 | 45.76 | 6.49 | 39.27 | 0.8754] 104 6
250 .0 | 0.4820 0.09058 96.52 | 0.42504 | 41.02 | 5.87 | 385.15 | 0.33850} 104.9
260 | 23461.0 . 4533 0.1111 84.91 | 0.41409 | 35.16 | 5.07 | 380.09 | 0.2874 | 104.7
270 | 26680.0 | 0.4125 0. 1433 66.68 | 0.40441 | 26.72 | 3.87] 22.85 | 0.2210 | 103.4
277 +| 29140.0 | 0.3642 0. 1855 42.31 | 0.39829 | 16.85 | 2.45 | 14.40 | 0.1438] 100.1
279 | 29878.0 | 0.3598 | 0.2105 29.69 | 0.39664 | 11.78 11.71! 16.07 | 0.1026 98.1
TABLE 12
Fluo-benzene
| 1 |
2 | | | ean | |
3 ad eH | S | -
Be. | s. > | a | ae eS:
ee Ae CN eae
ay a Ze a8 | a | ca 7
Bie | es] ge. -| 46 MD id ca ae oa
= Sie AS AF S < eye 4 Se
0° 20.92 | 1.0465 0. 0001179 179 | 48.43 | 1.80422 | 87.39 | 5.65 81.74 | 0.9662 84. 60
80 645.98 | 0.9496 0. 002885 78.79 | 1.01612} 80.06 | 7.10 | 72.96 ! 0.8405 86. 80:
90. 879.73 | 0.9366 0.003831 83.03 | 0.95108 | 78.97 | 7.28 | 71.69 | 0.8219 87. 22:
100 1174.9 | 0.9233 0. 005040 86.46 | 0.89163 | 77.09 | 7.38 | 69.71 | 0.8023 86. 86:
110 1541.3 | 0.9096 0.006515 89.97 | 0.88781 | 75.33 | 7.48 | 67.85 | 0.'7821 86.75
120 1989.2 | 0.8955 0. 008383 92.94 | 0.78772 | 73.21 | 7.53.) 65 68 | 0.7611 86. 29:
180 2529.5 | 0.8811 | 0.01055 95.49 | 0.74249 | 70.90 | 7.54 | 68.36 | 0.7394 85. 69.
140 3178.0 | 0.86665 | 0.01321 97.67 | 0.70128 | 68.50 | 7.53 | 60.97 | 9.7170 85. 03
— 180 3981.4 | 0.8519 0.01634 99.78 | 0 66379 | 66.26 | 7.51 | 58.75 | 0.6942 84, 63
m. 160 4816.7 | 0.8363 0.01992 102.23 | 0.62970} 64.37 | 7.51 | 56.86 | 0.6711 84.73
» 170 5841.6 | 0.8203 0.02418 104.08 | 0.59878 | 62.32 | 7.48 | 54.84 | 0.6471 84,74
180 7018.9 | 0.8037 0.02911 105.28 | 0.57076 | 60.09 | 7.40! 52.69 | 0.6221 84.70
190 8368.5 | 0.7857 + 0.03496 105.84 | 0.54542 | 57.88 | 7.28 | 50.55 | 0.5958 84. 85
200 9890.5 | 0.7671 0.04184 105.71 | 0.52257 | 55.24 | 7.11 | 48.18 | 0.5688 84. 66
210 | 11617.0 | 0.7480 0.04968 105.43 | 0.50202 | 52.93 | 6.95 | 45.98 | 0.5401 85. 09
> 220 | 18561.0 | 0.7265 0. 05907 103.97 | 0.48856 | 50.28 | 6.71 | 48.57 | 0.5095 85. 51
— 230 | 15745.0 | 0.7036 | 0.07037 101.30 | 0.46708 | 47.32 | 6.41 | 40.91 | 0.4766 85. 84
240 | 18190.0 | 0.6789 0. 08403 97.32 | 0.45241 | 44.03 | 6.04} 88.00 | 0.4409 86.19
250 | 20924 0 | 0.6504 0. 1008 91.70 | 0.48941 | 40.29 | 5.58 | 34.71 | 0.4010 86. 88
260 | 23977.0 | 0.6163 0. 1226 83.50 | 0.42796 | 35.74 | 5.99 | 30.75 | 0.3541 86. 85
270 =| 27384.0 | 0. 5739 0.1535 70.96 | 0.41796 | 29.66 | 4.16} 25.50 | 0.2956 86. 26
280 | 31182.0 | 0.5133 0. 2084 51.20 | 0.40928 | 20.95 | 2.95 | 18.00 | 0.2126 | 84.69

TABLE 13
Chior-berizene

: |
5
2 S 3
Ma g bh b>
© 3 = al i=
= a @x aS Sie
| g ; 2s aA, 4c
2 a | oo 23 cal bis
> Ay | es A> g <
0° 2.56 | 1.1278 0.00001689 | 41.36} 2.12075
130 720.03 | 0.9886 0. 003409 84.81 | 0.86978
140 988.84 0.9723 0.004316 89.45 | 0 82021
130 1206.0 | 0.$599 0. 005394 94.06 | 0.77491
160 1528.3 | 0.9480 0. 006761 97.14 | 0.73356
170 1912.8 | 0.9854 J. 008312 101.00 | 0.69585
180 2367.2 | 0.9224 0.01020 103.97 | 0.66150
190 2899.4 | 0.9091 0.01240 106.80 | 0.63023
200 3518.3 | 0.8955 0.01500 109.08 | 0.60183
210 4233.0 | 0.8802 0.01798 111.36 | 0.57607
220 5053.8 | 0.8672 0.02145 118.27 | 0.55273
230 5991.8 | 0.8518 0. 02544 114.92 | 0.53164
240 7059.6 | 0.8356 0. 03000 116.36 | 0.51263
250 8270.5 | 0.8196 0. 0384 116.92 | 0.49553
260 9639.8 | 0.8016 0. 0417 116.74 | 0.48021
270 | 11185.0 | 0.7834 0. 0492 115.64 | 0.46653
+
TABLE 14
Brom-benzene
2 | |
Ss ong”
= o | Yo) S |
5 5 Le) bey =
= wi | 33 25 3 le
: Ne g2 [ae
= ey Oe ap & <
30° 5.67 | 1.4815 | _0.00004702 | 36.54 | 1.87985
100 141.23 | 1.3864 0. 0009519 55.30 | 1.13159
160 840.81 | 1.2994 0. 005255 68.99 | 0.79276
170 1071.6 | 1.2847 0. 006553 72.06 | 0.'75220
180 1849.3 | 1.2697 0. 008071 75.24} 0.71501
190 1679.9 | 1.2584 0. 009911 77.88 | 0.68085
200 2070.1 | 1.2385 0.01205 80.49 | 0.64942
210 2527.0 | 1.2210 0.01450 83.18 | 0.62046
220 3057.8 | 1.2037 0.01750 84.90 ; 0.59370
230 3670.2 | 1.1876 0.02080 87.21 | 0.56895
240 4372.5 | 1.1689 0. 02482 88.45 | 0.54600
250 5173.0 | 1.1510 0.02927 90.06.} 0.52467
260 | 6080.8 | 1.1310| 0.03427 91.72 | 0.50483
270 7104.8 | 1.1099 0.04016 92.59 | 0.48632
TABLE 15
Iodo-benzene
: |
E ee ae:
a ©
5 5 & & cy
= 2 az BS 3 le
| S as a2, 4ic
® ~ o o Qo fas} . ms
a Ay AS AP g, <
30° 1.48 | 1.8149 0.00001595 | 28.11] 2.0170
100 50. 23 | 1.7079 0. 0004400 42.57 | 1.2612
190 787.88 | 1.5627 0. 006020 60.37 | 0.74721
200 990.60 | 1.5470 0.007315 63.77 | 0.71100
210 1232.0 | 1.5316 0. 008889 66.51 | 0.67797
220 1517.1 1.5115 0.01070 69.37 | 0.64792
230 1851.5 | 1.4941 0. 01296 71.25 | 0.62066
240 2241.2 | 1.4764 0.01552 73.32 | 0.59602
250 2693.2 | 1.4581 0.01849 75.20 | 0.857874
260 8214.9 | 1.4384 0.02199 76.71 | 0.55395
270 8815.0 | 1.4172 0. 026 78.06 | 0.58614

Latent heat

87.72

73.77

73.37
|

Latent heat |

RBS | Latent heat
SREBS |

i
Sven
oo
we

a

4, 82
6.7

7.34

ae ee esad
oma wo
SINOSIAR

BE,

MANNA TNT TON SAT He 99
Bee Seow ASO de

-

fs

(bal al ala ae eames
SASTSALSR SR

ae

a a)

|

| Me

=| Ko]
82.90 | 1.0152
67.07 | 0.8440
66.48 | 0.8279
65.81 | 0.8111
64.12 | 0.'7933
63.02 | 0.7754
61.46 | 0.7566
59.97 | 0.7373
58.31 | 0.7178
56.81 | 0.6964
55.29 | 0.6757
53.83 | 0.6538
52. 43 | 0.6312
50.81 | 0.6075
49.09 | 0.5821
47.17 | 0.5554

ae

=

oa |

ae

J] So
64.84 | 1.1039
57.86 | 1.0166
49.62 | 0.9174
49.03 | 0.9000
48.51 | 0.8822
47.67 | 0.8634
46.85 | 0.8447
46.13 | 0.8250
44,93 | 0.8041
44.10 | 0.7840
42.80 | 0.7617
41.77 | 0.73898
40.82 | 0.7171
39. 60 | 0.6929

oO

et

me

| x

pa io)
53.75 | 1.1946
50.06 | 1.1198
40.97 | 0.9785
41.06 | 0.9624
40 72 | 0.9456
40.47 | 0.9272
39.72 | 0.9083
89.16 | 0.8893
38.59 | 0.8695
37.93 | 0.8486
37.29 | 0.8268

seeteesseee | — Bs
SRBSALESARS

gee mI popes gear onge once n3on | LL — By

yuggugusgeegee | L

ae

=

Toh SRILSRSSSS

g | a4—p%

SSESBSLSREVSSSER

~
~~"

a%—p%

—

—~—

Temperature

Temperature

S
oe
2 Dem
2 8S
Oy (=
38.08 | 1.6327

1117.0 | 1.4554
1464.8 1. 4848
1889.4 | 1.4124
2400.8 | 1.3902
8009.1 | 1.3680
8725.1 | 1.3450
4559.6 | 1.38215
5524.6 | 1.2982
6681.9 | 1.2734
7894.8 | 1.2470
9326.77 | 1.2192
10943.0 | 1.1888
12759.0 | 1.1566
14793.0 | 1.1227
17066.0 | 1.0857
19596.0 | 1.0444
22490.0 | 0,9980
25532.0 | 0.9409
28992.0 | 0.8666
82825.0 | 0.7634

S
z b>
3 So
@ as
2 oo
a ea

5.88 | 2.2789
498.5 | 2.0186
672.7 1.9916
891.4 | 1.9639

1162.0 | 1.9357
1491.0 | 1.9073
1888.0 | 1.8772
2359.0 | 1.8481
2914.0 | 1.8182
3061.0 | 1.'7873
4309.0 | 1.7556
5168.0 | 1.7224
6147.0 | 1.6866
7257.0 | 1.6488
8509.0 | 1.6090
9915.0 | 1.5667
11488.0 | 1.5221
13242.0 | 1.4747
15190.0 | 1.4219

TABLE 16

Carbon Tetrachloride

—
s $
‘a : A ' x ie
Sm S =| oy A | AA
gB 14. 2 i |x | thd
As & < a a le | Als
0. 0002984 | 30.27 | 1.71385 51.87 | 3.52 | 48.35 | 1.1107 48.58
0. 007974 50.56 | 0.89103 | 45.05 | 4.43 | 40.62 | 0.9334 43.52
0. 01026 §2.89 | 0.838580 | 44.20 | 4.52] 39.68 | 0.9105 43.58
0. 01304 54.99 | 0.78563 | 48.21 | 4.57 | 38.64 | 0.8866 43.58
0. 01634 57.08 | 0.73997 | 42 24 | 4.61] 87.63 | 0.8628 43. 64
0. 02024 59.05 | 0.69855 | 41.25 | 4.67 | 36.58 | 0.8376 43. 67
0. 02481 60.92 | 0.66093 | 40.26 | 4.70} 35.56} 0.8121 43.79
0. 03021 62.37 | 0.62679 | 39.09 | 4.67 | 34.42 | 0.7860 43.79
0. 08650 63.70 | 0.59581 | 37.95 | 4.67 | 38.28 | 0.'7592 43. 83
0. 04886 64.66 | 0.56775 | 386.71 | 4.64] 382.07 | 0.7312 43. 86
0. 05249 65.27 | 0.54234 | 35.40} 4.57] 30.83 | 0.7020 43.92
0. 06250 65.55 | 0.51927 | 34.04 | 4.52 | 29.52 | 0.6714 44.00
0.07418 65.42 | 0.49841 | 32.61 | 4.389 | 28.22 | 0.6391 44.16
0. 08787 64.88 | 0.47957 | 31.09 | 4.26} 26.838 | 0.6051 44,34
0. 1040 63367 | 0.46257 | 29.45} 4.10 | 25.35 | 0.5690 44,55
0. 1232 61.80 |} 0.44722 | 27.64] 3.91 | 23.73 | 0.5801 44.'76
0. 1464 59.01 | 0.43888 | 25.56 |} 3.65] 21.91 | 0.4875 44, 94
0. 1754 55.08 |} 0.42093 | 238.19 | 3.384} 19.85 | 0.4895 45.16
0.2146 48.99 | 0.409738 | 20.07 | 2.92 | 17.15 | 0.3812 44.99
0. 2710 39.92 | 0.39971 15.96 | 2.384 | 18.62 | 0.3063 44,47
0. 3597 26.68 | 0.39071 | 10.43 1.53 8.90 | 0.2027 43. 90
TABLE 17
Stannic Chloride
~~
% $
bs 4 x SU
Sie A g fe) A fq} A
zs BS Q | | |
o a <1 = 3 sal i | aS fa x
A> Sg <q 4 ica) 4 3 ho)
0.00008996 | 17.84] 1.98373 | 35.38 | 2.08} 33.30] 1.2711 | 26.20
0.005764 | 31.89 | 0.98455 | 31.40 | 2.72] 28.68 | 1.0845} 26.45 .
0.007684 | 3838.24 | 0.92427 | 30.72 | 2.76 | 27.96 | 1.0612 | 26.34
0.009940 | 84.54] 0.86900 | 30.02 | 2.80] 27.22 1.0873 | 26.24
0.01276 85.82 | 0.818385 | 29.382 | 2.838 | 26.49 | 1.0126} 26.16
0. 01616 86.95 | 0.77198 | 28.52 | 2.85 | 25.67 | 0.9878 | 26.
0. 02024 37.93 | 0.72941 | 27.67 | 2.85 | 24.82 | 0.9611 | 25.82
0. 02506 88.92 | 0.69047 | 26.86 | 2.86 | 24.00 | 0.9345 | 25.68
0. 08077 389.63 | 0.65482 |} 25.95 | 2.85} 28.10 | 0.9071 | 25.46
0.03759 40.00 | 0.62219; 24.89 | 2.81 22.08 | 0.8786 | 25.13
0.04545 40.380 | 0.59284 28.87 | 2.77 | 21.10 | 0.8494 | 24.84
0. 05450 40.65} 0.56504 | 22.97 | 2.74 | 20.28 | 0.8195 | 24.68
0. 06502 40.64 | 0.54009 | 21.95 | 2.68} 19.27 | 0.7882 24. 26)
0.07728 40.39 | 0.51730 | 20.89 | 2.61 | 18.28 | 0.7554 24.20
0. 09149 39.89 | 0.49648 | 19.80 | 2,52 | 17.28 | 0.7212 | 28.96)
0. 1083 88.96 | 0.47748 | 18.60 | 2.42} 16.18 | 0.6847; 23. 33)
0. 1280 37.79 | 0.46016 | 17.39 | 2.80 | 15.09 | 0.6463 | 23.35
0. 1520 36.07 | 0.44438 | 16.03 | 2.15} 18.88 | 0.6045 | 22.96)
0.1812 33.82 | 0.48001 | 14.54 | 1.98 12.56 | 0.5586 | 22.47)
0.2160 31.38 | 0.41694} 13.08 | 1.81 | 11.27 | 0.5087 | 22.15)

ZO Lt arpa re bela a padaeta er parte nor peach

sc-590 |BE Tre

reed YC TA TT eee ae OS ET ar DT ee fa ge SO a NL | ar er RET eee eT Ler

crest |B SESE EEESERESE EERENEAEEEEANE

.-y | 93989880 REezUSSERRESEESRSRERE

0 WH 88 6, 60 8 8 te See eg! 68 es ees ie) eee 8 8) es el we

Sedddexeddescesradecnecdaca te

Se) 6. 0h Mee) ere ee Ue ene, eid gece 7B) a oe 8h ie ee) 84 ©) 8

eoeeeenaeceiaeseecsatcesas

Se ee ae ee OO e) es ee) Oe es 6 Le) eB Le) Ae 8 t

TABLE 18
Water
TABLE 19
Methyl Alcohol

WRRBERERBRSARAIRSERS

einyered uray,

BP EEPE PPP Pr ePrPer Pheer iarErrE

i aaa

|paeeesesaraseat aeReabanansaney

CPR el ee” a ee ee ee ee eS ee le et PE i a ie Wa

Pea, bee. ee Pe ay VR vee Oe a OO era en es ee Per eg

a
Iodwva | t
Jo AYISueq |

pinby |SSSRRRRSRRSRSERSS

2° q
gee ekene aT) B82
30 Ailstod | 3 Pree eeeeeroo 10

SiS 8 “6. 8 i868) 88 6. 6 e518) 8p ie eee) ee Ee ee eee, ae

6160

oInssaid rds 5 S05 gg E95 ERREEEERESE gene
omuotuoy,| “SRS 3RBRB2S2R2S9Se9ae SAR RR ARAM

OOOO OOOO ay

TABLE 20

Ethyl Alcohol

a. | Pe
= 3 ra) ade,
£ | Na aes es | NG s aes
i ap 5 7/ 8 / RA
& | a ae 2o 5 x | |
Ree | ee pe tt) we tte
a Wi As AS | “siege eee 3 | Alo
0° | 12.24 | 0.8062 | 0.00003300 | 220.9 | 11.7 | 209.2 | 0.8986 | 232.8)
10 23.73 | 0.7979 | 0.00006207 | 221.2 | 12.2 | 209.0 | 0.8879 | 235.4
20 | 48.97 | 0.7894 | 0.0001110 | 220.6 | 12.6 | 208.0 | 0.8761 | 237.4
30 | 78.11 | 0,7810 | 0.0001910 | 220.1 | 13.0 | 207.1 | 0.8633 | 239.9
40 | 183.42 | 0.7722 | 0.0008150 | 218.7 | 13.4 | 205.3 | 0.8494 | 241.7
50 | 219.82 | 0.76383 | 0.0005060 | 216.0 | 13.8 | 202.2 | 0.8342 | 249.4
60 350.21 | 0.7541 | 0.0007900 | 213.4 | 14.2 | 199.2 | 0.8178 | 243.6
70 540.91 | 0.7446 | 0.001190 | 209.9 | 14.5 | 195.4 | 0.8004 | 244.1
80 811.81 | 0.7348 | 0.001740 | 206.4 | 14.8 | 191.6 | 0.7821 | 244.9
90 1186.5 | 0.7251 | 0.002500 | 201.6 | 15.0 | 186.6 | 0.7627 | 244.6
100 1692.3 | 0.7157 | 0.003510 | 197.1] 15.3 | 181.8 | 0.7425 | 244.8
110 2359.8 | 0.7057 | 0.004860 | 190.3 | 15.4 | 174.9 | 0.7209 | 249.7
120 3223.0 | 0.6925 | 0.006580 | 184.2 | 15.4 | 168.8 | 0.6973 | 242.1
130 4318.7 | 0.6789 | 0.008770 | 177.6 | 15.5 | 162.1 | 0.6727 | 241.0
140 5686.6 | 0.6631 | 0.01152 171.1 | 15.4 | 155.7 | 0.6461 | 241.0
150 7368.7 | 0.6489 | 0.01488 164.7 | 15.4 | 149.3 | 0.6198 | 241.1
160 9409.9 | 0.6329 | 0.01916 156.9 | 15.2 | 141.7 | 0.5910 | 239.8
170 | 11858.0 | 0.6165 | 0.02446 148.4 | 14.8 | 133.6 | 0.5608 | 238.2
180 | 14767.0 | 0.5984 | 0.03115 139.2 | 14.3 | 124.9 | 0.5281 | 236.5
190 | 18185.0 | 0.5782 | 0.03970 128.4 | 13.6 | 114.8 | 0.4919 | 233.3)
200 | 22182.0 | 0.5568 | 0.05080 116.6 | 12.6 | 104.0 | 0.4523 | 230.0
210 | 26825.0 | 0.5291 | 0.06550 103.2 | 11.4 | 91.8 | 0.4057 | 226.3)
220 | 32196.0 | 0.4958 | 0.08540 88.2] 9.9} 78.3 | 0.3511 | 223.0
230 | 38389.0 | 0.4550 | 0. 1135 70.6 | 81] 62.5 | 0.2849 | 219.7)
240 | 45519.0 | 0.3825 | 0.1715 40.3 | 4.7] 35.6 | 0.1703 | 209.2
241 46288.0 | 0.3705 | 0.1835 | 35.0} 4.0) 31.0 | 0.1499 8
242 | 47069.0 | 3.3546 | 0.1990 28.4| 38.3 25.1] 0.1239 | 202.6
242.5, 47463.0 | 0.3419 | 0.2164 | 2231} 256 19:5 | 0:0989 | 197.2)
i
TABLE 21
Propyl Alcohol
: A Ee ee NE
z ) 3 | . s x SS
© 2 Lie 2. 2 a gl A
q Z ae NON g | ‘ ! AS
2 oo o S ~ x RS
| Boas. | ae a{/a]a] s {APs
0° 3.44 | 0.8193 | 0.00001212 | 104.4 | 9.0 | 185.4 | 0.9127'| 203.1
80 376.0 | 0.7520 | 0.00104 173.0 | 11.4 | 161.5 | 0.8081 | 199.9
90 574.0 | 0.7425 | 0.00156 169.0 | 11.7 | 157.3 | 0.7895 | 199.2
100 842.5 | 0.7325 | 0.00226 164.0 | 11.8 | 152.2 | 0.7702 | 197.6
110 | 1206.0 | 0.7220 | 0 00320 159.0 | 11.9 | 147.1 | 0.7497 | 196.2
120 | 1683.0 | 0.7110 | 0.00443 153.0 | 12.0 | 141.0 | 0.7284 | 193.6)
130 | 2293.0 | 0.6995 | 0.00605 147.0 | 12.0 | 185.0 | 0.7055 | 191.3)
140 | 3074.0 | 0.6875 | 0.00805 142.4 | 12.0 |.130.4 | 0.6822 | 191.1)
150 | 4052.0 | 0.6740 | 0.01060 135.3 | 11.9 ["123.4 | 0.6571 | 187.8
160 | 5264.0 | 0.6600 | 0.01380 129.0 | 11.9 | 117.1 | 0.6308 | 185.6
170 | 6695.0 | 0.6450 | 0.01770 122.8 | 11.7 | 111.1 | 0.6034 | 184.1
180 | 8383.0 | 0.6285 | 0.0225 116.3 | 11.4 | 104.9 | 0.5743 | 182.7
190 | 10466.0 | 0.6110} 0.0282 109.6 | 11.4 | 98.2 | 0.5442 | 180.4
200 | 12801.0 | 0.5920} 0.0353 102.2 | 10.8 | 91.4 | 0.5117 | 178.6
210 | 15575.0 | 0.5715 | 0.0442 94.5] 10.4 | 84.1 | 0.4763] 176.6
220 | 18679.0 | 0.5485 | 0.0556 85.3 | 9.6 | 75.7 | 0.4369 | 178.2
230 | 22154.0 | 0.5230 | 0.0704 75.0] 8.7 | 66.3 | 0.3927] 168.8
240 | 26194.0 | 0.4920) 0.0904 63.4] 7.5 | 55.9 | 0.3406 | 164.1)
250 | 30785.0 | 0.4525 | 0,1180 50.6 | 6.2} 44.4 | 0.2772] 160.2)
260 | 36103.0 | 0.3905 | 0.1610 83.5 | 4.2 | 29.8 | 0.1868] 157.0)
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. VOL, XXI 1905

JOURNAL

OF THE

Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society

ISSUED QUARTERLY

PUBLISHED BY THE UNIVERSITY OF NORTH CAROLINA

OHAPEL HILL, N. O., U.S. A.

TO BE ENTERED AT THE POSTOFFICE AS SECOND CLASS MATTER

Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society.

H. V. WILSON, President.
ARCHIBALD HENDERSON, Vice-President.

A.S. WHEELER, Rec. Sec. F. P. VENABLE, Perm. Sec.

EDITORS OF THE JOURNAL:

W. C. COKER,

J. E. LATTA, ARCHIBALD HENDERSON.

Journal of the Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society—Quarterly. Price,
$2.00 per year; single numbers 50 cents. Most numbers of former vol-
umes can be supplied. Direct all correspondence to the Editors, at
University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, N. C.

CONTENTS.

_ A Descriptive Catalogue of the Mammals of North Carolina, Exclu-

: sive of the Cetacea.—C. S. Brimley.......cccccccccccsssssscssssscscescessseees 1
“The Methyl Group in Certain Lignocelluloses.— A. S. Wheeler...........000 33
f The Sponges of the ‘‘Albatross’’ 1891 Expedition.—H. V. Wilson.......... 35
The Atomic Weight of Thorium.—R. 0. E. Davis......ccccsscessesscseesessesees 45
_—"" er ARMOIINY Of, SCIOMCO) («<5 scdecersssecce sists cecesessececacssecace 57
_ The Science of Plant Pathology.—F’. L. Stevens.......cccccccecesccsseccusceesceecs 61

¥
t A Memoir on the Twenty-Seven Lines Upon a Cubic Surface.—

s) PETE MINEC TOE oo os Se hetcaccucocadavactuvdesathecoanacuedsdeseusscaves 76

‘

Molecular Attraction, IV., on Biot’s Formula for Vapor Pressure
5

and Some Relations at the Critical Temperature.—/. E. Mills...... 88
; Proceedings of the Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society........... 0... .......66 103
Some Problems in the Cellulose Field.— Alvin S. Wheeler..............cc00008 106

Experiments on the Production of Crude Turpentine by the Long-

eS EPs PLOY UY, ss ccgnisac cue sdagcecwacncacesdsensedcausee assess 115
A Memoir on the Twenty-Seven Lines Upon a Cubic Surface.—

EMEP EMM OTDM Toe da, vse ou dedusn coadauweteyodawun toes een vagaeed.vuecswe cerns 120
mood Adulteration.— Alivn.S. Wheeler ............06 cccccccccccsceccccesesscccsseeces 185

| Notes on the Scutellation of the Red King Snake, Ophibolus Doliatus
Coccineus, Schlegel.—C. S. Brimley .........cccccc cc sccecnceetececceeesenees 145

Notes on the-Food and Feeding Habits of Some American Reptiles.
IEE EMR IIR IE YELLS) Lorin sdlanoy save ga acee oral wea tatua med omce en deoveses dyash twnsne 149

The Southern Appalachian Forest Reserve —J. H. Pratt.........cccccccese eens 156

TUMNAL Ata
OF THE

_ EvisHaA MiTcHeLt ScIENTIFIC SOCIETY

(Official Publication of the N. C. Academy of Science)
mon. ch CC DEC, 1904 NO. 4

_ PROCEEDINGS OF THE THIRD ANNUAL MEETING
| OF THE

NORTH CAROLINA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
HELD AT

WAKE Forest, N. C., May 13-14, 1904.

FRIDAY AFTERNOON SESSION.

The meeting was called to order in Lea Laboratory at 3 P.
M. by the President, Dr. Chas. Baskerville, who at once
appointed the following Nominating Cnmmittee: Messrs.
4 Tait Butler, W. C. Coker and W. L. Poteat.

_ The Executive Committee had previously elected Dr. F. L.
_ Stevens Vice-President for the present meeting to fill the
-Vacaticy caused by the removal from the State of Dr. J. I.
_ Hamaker.

Dr. Baskerville explained delay in the distribution of the
last issue of THe Journat containing proceedings of the
previous meeting, after which the Academy proceeded at once
to the presentation of the following papers:

. 1. Fertmization oF ALBuGO IPoMOEA PANDURATA:
Ff. L. Stevens.

This fungousis multinucleate. The nuclei pass through
two mitotic divisions as in other speciesof the genus,
During these divisions all of the nuclei, except one,

{Issued January 28th, 1905.]

116 JouRNAL OF THE MITCHELL SocIETy. [Dec.

pass to the periplasm. One nuclus is retained by
the coenocentrum. The fertilization is simple, there- ~ |
fore, and not multiple as in some other species. |
Minor peculiarities concerning the formation of the
walls and development of the coenocentrum, etc.,
were described.

2. FORECASTS OF THE Sky, oR, EXPECTED NOTABLE
OBJECTS: Juno. F. Lanneau.

3. A LIRIODENDRON FROM THE DEEP RIVER TRIASSIC:
Collier Cobb.

The tulip tree is the lone survivor of an ancient race
known to extend back into Cretaceous time, from
which time its family history has been traced, and
‘“‘we find this history epitomised in the existing
species”. Holm considers the primitive ancestral
type of Liriodendron to have been asimple, magnolia- —
like leaf; for not only do all modern relatives of
Liridodendron have such leaves, but ‘‘there is a
progressive simplification and reduction in lobation
aS we proceed back in time, the most primitive forms
known having ovate or oblong simple leaves”. The
youngest leaves on our modern tulip trees are entire
or merely slightly notched, while the mature ones are
typically lobed leaves. Hence it is imagined that the
primitive tulip tree that grew in early Cretaceous or
Jura-Cretaceous time had simple ovate or lanceolate
leaves, short petioled and without stipules or bud
scales, and with venation much like the existing
magnolia leaf. The leaf here presented has the
lobate form common in the American Cretaceous,
when the modern form is supposed to have become
practically fixed in ZL. oblongzfolium of the Amboy
clays. But this specimen came from the light brown
shales of the Deep River Triassic at Cumnock
(Egypt), and is found in association with Macrotae-
niobterts magnifolia, somewhat common in the
Triassic coal measures of Virginia, and 7aenzopierts
Newberriana, a well-marked Permian plant. The
chief interest in the finding of this plant in the Deep
River beds, probably near the base of the Triassic,
lies in the fact that it is the mature form of leaf, and

Nate

1904) Procrrepines N. C. Acapemy oF SCIENCE. 117

that we must look still farther back in geological
time for the simple ovate form.

4. ANGIOSPERMS WITH EXPOSED OVULES: W. C. Coker.

Attention was called to some Angiosperms in which
the carpels are not completely fused, so that the seeds
are exposed directly to the air, In Tiarella the two
carpels, which are of unequal size, are not fused even
in the flower and the air has full access to the ovules at
the time of fertilization. Fruits of Sterculia platani
folia were shown with open carpels and the unripe
seeds completely exposed. In Cuphea the central
placenta bursts and ruptures the wall of the capsule,
exposing the seeds sometime before they are ripe.

5. WorkKING up THE ENTomMoLocicaL Fauna oF NorTa
Carouina: Franklin Sherman, Jr., and C. S. Brimley.
(Appears in full in this issue.)

6. SoLuTION oF A NEw MATHEMATICAL CURVE: :
Jas. L. Lake.

7. CLEISTOGAMIC PLANTS: W. C. Coker.

The frequent occurrence of cleistogamy was pointed
out, and the results of a study of the cleistogamic
flowers of Specularia perfoliata and Lamium
amplexicaule were presented.

8. ReEportT,—RECENT Sor, Wor:E: VW. G. Morrison,

The following were presented by title only, the author
being absent:

9. FurTHER NoTES ON THE REPRODUCTION OF RFPTILES:

C. S. Brimley.
(Appears in full in this issue.)

10. A CASE OF SNAKE-BITE, BY THE VICTIM:

C. S. Brimley.
(Appears in full in this issue. )

118 JouRNAL OF THE MITCHELL Soctrery. (Dec.
11. Nores on REARING Motus From THE LARVAE:
C. S. Brimley,

The experience of several years shows that caterpillars
of moths, such as the Grape Sphinx (Ampelophaga
myron) and the Ash Sphinx (Ceratomia undulosa’,
whose food is not succulent, may be more easily
reared in closed jars than ‘those which feed on
succulent leaves, such as Tomato Worms (Phlege—
thontius Carolina). Hawk moths are often attacked
and killed both by Braconid flies and Tachina flies.
The large Sphinx of the grape (Pholus pandorus) is
even more persecuted by these parasites, and the
Tomato Worm is much troubled by the Braconids.
The common Ash Sphinx (Ceratomia undulosa) and
Grape Sphinx (Ampelophaga myron), however, are
seldom molested. Five larvae of the Myron Sphinx
of the grape obtained in August all transformed into
pupae on consecutive days; two of these produced
moths in about sixteen days after transforming; the
other three overwintered; two of the latter died, but
the third produced a moth almost exactly nine months
after it had pupated—taking about fourteen times as
long to emerge as the first two. Tomato Worms and
some other “insects show similar peculiarities in
pupation.

NIGHT SESSION.

The night session of the Academy was held in Leigh Hall.
The address of welcome was made by Prof. Jno. F. Lanneau
and the response by Prof. Collier Cobb. Dr. Baskerville,
President of the Academy, then gave his retiring address, the
subject being: ‘‘Science and the People.”- At the conclusion
of the address the Academy was tendered an informal recep-
tion by the ladies and faculty of Wake Forest College.

SATURDAY MORNING SESSION.

The Academy was called to order by President Baskerville
and proceeded at once to the presentation of papers, as
follows:

190

12.
13.
14.

1S

Proceepines N. C. ACADEMY OF SCIENCE. 119

Tore Exvectronic THEory (by title): C. W. Edwards.
THE PHENOMENA OF FEVER: Fred. K. Cooke.

On SEEING THE RED CoRPUSCLES IN ONE’S OwN

Bioop: W. L. Poteat.

The paper gave in outline a research upon the

numerous vaguely bright little discs which pass
quickly across the field of vision in all directions
when the eye is turned toward a unitformally illumi-
nated surface, as the sky. These bodies are clearly
distinguishable from the m«sce volitantes and were
shown to be the red corpuscles floating in the capil-
lary vessels of the outer layers of the retina in the
region of the macula lutea. Certain streams of the
little bodies were definitely located in the field of
vision for each eye. ‘Then the distribution of the
blood vessels in the macular region was mapped. In
position in the field of vision. as well as in their
relation to one another, the vessels and the streams
of discs coincided precisely. [So much had betén
previously observed, first apparently by Vierordt as
early as 1856 and afterwards by Professor Rood,
Johannes Muller, Helmholtz, and others.] It
remained to discover some means of superimposing
the two systems upon one another, or of so projecting
them as to see streaming discs and branching vessels
at the same time. ‘This was done successfully in this
way; Through a pin-hole in a card revolved eccen-
trically a certain vessel projected against the flat
flame of an ordinary lamp was localized as passing
through the central prominence of the flame. Then
with the eye stationary the pin-hole was slowly
moved so that the designated vessel could be seen
just past the edge of the hole; whereupon the discs
(red corpuscles) were plainly visible moving within
the walls of the vessel.

INACTIVE THORIUM: fritz Zerban,
The paper gives first a brief account of the discovery

of radio active substances, of their properties and of
the methods for determining and measuring radio
activity. Special attention is given to thorium, the

120 JoURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY. [ Dec.

radio activity of which was discovered by G. C.
Schmidt and Mme. Curie. The question, whether
thorium is primarily radio active or whether its
activity is due to the admixture of other radio active
substances, is treated. The work carried out by
Rutherford and his co-laborers on this subject is
briefly stated. While these investigations were made
with commercial thorium without regard toits source,
Hofmann and Zerban paid strict attention to the
latter. From observations made with thorium from
all the important thorium minerals the conclusion is
drawn that thorium itself possesses no primary radio
activity.

16. ‘THortuM, CAROLINIUM AND BERZELIUM:
Chas. Baskerville.

This paper presents a brief historical account of the
discovery of thorium and the questions raised as to
its elementary character. The published evidence is
considered in conjunction with experimental data
obtained, and the conclusions arrived at that
thorium is not a primary radio active body. The
complex nature of thorium is proved by the conduct
of salts with certain organic bases, as phenylhy-
drazine, forexample. Fractions were added giving
atomic weights from 212 to 252, the original being
232.5. Pure thorium oxide from several sources was
converted into the chloride by heating it, mixed with
pure sugar carbon within quart tubes, during the
passage of dry chlorine. A volatile chloride, ‘‘weisser
dampff” of Berzelius, was obtained, decreasing in
amount according to the duration and temperature of
the reaction. The purified, delicately green oxide
obtained from this gave a specific gravity of 8.47 and
the element berezelium an atomic weight of 212
(tetrad). The temperature of the tube was raised
and thorium tetrachloride distilled away. ‘The
residue in the carbon boat on purification gave a
greyish pink oxide with a specific gravity of 11.26
and an atomic weight of (tetrad) 255.6 (carolinium).
The new thorium, or that in a large measure freed
from the berezelium and carolinium, gave an atomic
weight of 220.6, and a white oxide with a specific

7904) ProcrEpines N. C. AcapENY oF SCIENCE. 121

gravity of 9.2. The original thorium gave atomic
weights 232.5 to 232.6, and its oxide had a specific
gravity of 10.5. The original thorium dioxide phos-
phoresces under the influence of ultra violet light, as
does zirconium dioxide. Berzelium and carolinium
oxides do not respond to this stimulus, while the
new thorium glows with increasing luminosity
according to the decrease of the novel substances.
All these bodies are radio active. Certain chemical
differences are noted, as, for example, the conduct of
their salts with organic bases, fumaric acid, &c,
Carolinium oxide is soluble in concentrated hydro-
chlroric acid, while berzelium and carolinium oxides
are not. Spectral data are wanting; in fact, the
limited portions of the spectra (arc and spark)
mapped show the bodies identical. The materials
are not yet sufficiently pure, nor the spectral data
sufficiently complete, to warrant final acceptance,
although the preponderance of evidence is favorable
to the assumption of the existence of two new
members of the family of chemical elements. *

BUSINESS MEETING.

The Academy was called to order at 12:30 P. M. ‘by
President Baskerville.

Prof. Poteat urged a continuance of a joint meeting of the
Academy with the Chemical Section, and presented the
following resolution:

‘That the Academy reaffirm its desire that the scientific
societies and clubs of the State should hold each one session a
year in connection with the annual session of the Academy.”
Carried.

Secretary reported the election to membership of Messrs
William B. Streeter and W. C. A. Hammel, of Greensboro.

On recommendation of the Nominating Committee the
following officers were elected for the ensuing year:

President, F. L, Stevens, Raleigh.

Vice-President, Jno. F. LANNEAU, Wake Forest.

Secretary- Treasurer, FRANKLIN SHERMAN, JR., Raleigh.

122 JouRNAL OF THE MiTcHELL SoOcIeTy. (Dee.

Executive Commuttee:—President and Secretary ex officio,
Cuas. BASKERVILLE, Chapel Hill; C. W. Epwarps, Durham;
T. GILBERT PEARSON, Greensboro.

On motion it was resolved: ,

That the North Carolina Academy of Science and the
North Carolina Section of the American Chemical Society do
hereby express their pleasure and gratitude to the faculty and
ladies of Wake Forest College for the facilities placed at their
disposal and for the warm hospitality which they have shown
at this, their first joint gathering.

Secretary’s report was then presented showing a total
membership of forty-seven, embracing practically every
branch of science represented in the State.

Treasurer’s report sdowed a balance of $108.55 on hand.

Prof. Pearson extended an invitation to the Academy to hold
the next annual meeting at Greensboro. By motion it was
resolved to be the sense of the Academy that the next meeting
should be at Greensboro. During the meeting twenty-four
persons were in attendance.

The Academy then adjourned.

LIST OF MEMBERS AND ASSOCIATE MEMBERS.

Andrews, W. J., Raleigh.

Ashe, W. W., Raleigh.

Baskerville, Chas., Chapel Hill (removed).
Battle, K. P., Raleigh.

Beardslee, Henry C., Asheville.
Binford, Raymond, Guilford College.
Brewer, Chas. E., Wake Forest.
Brimley, C. S., Raleigh.

Brimley, H. H., Raleigh.

Butler, Tait, Raleigh.

Burkett, Chas., Raleigh.

Cain, Wm., Chapel Hill.

Chapin, Spencer, Littleton.

Cobb, Collier, Chapel Hill.

Coker, R. E., Beaufort.

Coker, W. C,, Chapel Hill.

1904] Proceepincs N. C. Acapemy or SCIENCE. 123

Cooke, Fred. K., Wake Forest.
Duerden, J. E., Chapel Hill (removed).
Edwards, C. W., Durham. |
Garrett, Mrs. R. U., Asheville.
Gore, J. W., Chapel Hill.

Hamaker, J. I., Durham (removed).
Hammel, W. C. A., Greensboro.
Hoffman, S, W., Statesville.
Holmes, Jos. A., Chapel H111.
Howell, E. V., Chapel Hill.

Kesler, J. L., Raleigh (removed).
Kilgore, B. W., Raleigh.

Lake, Jas. L., Wake Forest.
Lanneau, Jno. F., Wake Forest.
Latta, J. E., Chapel Hill.

_ Lewis, R. H., Raleigh.

Meade, Miss A. M., Raleigh (removed).
_ Myers, E. W., Greensboro.
Pearson, T’. Gilbert, Greensboro.
Pegram, W. H., Durham.

Poteat, W. L., Wake Forest.
Rankin, W. S., Wake Forest.
Sackett, W. G., Raleigh (removed).
Sherman, Franklin, Jr., Raleigh.
Smith, Henry L., Davidson.
Stevens, F. L., Raleigh.

Stevens, Mrs. F. L., Raleigh.
Streeter, Wm. B., Greensboro.
Venable, F, P., Chapel Hill.
Wheeler, A. S., Chapel Hill.
Williams, C. B, Raleigh,

ie) Wilson, H. V., Chapel Hill.
Wilson, R. N., Guilford College.
Winston, Geo. T., Raleigh.

ON THE GRAPHIC REPRESENTATION

OF THE
PROJECTION OF Two TRIADS OF PLANES INTO THE Mystic ©
HEXAGRAM.

BY ARCHIBALD HENDERSON, PH.D.

WITH PLATE I.

Cayley* has considered the following question: to find a
point such that its polar plane in regard to a given system of
three plaves is the same as its polar plane in regard to another
given system of three planes.

Let us designate for convenience the first three planes as a,
b, and c, the second three as f, g, and #: The line ad will
denote the line of intersection of the planes a and 38, and the
point abc will denote the point of intersection of the planes a,
6, and c; and so in other cases.

The conclusion reached (1. c.) is that there are four points
0., 0,, 0,, and 0,, which fulfil the required conditions. It was
shown, that from any one of tie points 0, it is possible to draw

a line Bean the ee af X bg X ch [1]
ag X bh xX of [2] .

6c sé ah x bf X ce [3]

i <i XK Ok Kee [4]

66 66 ag x bf X ch [5]

‘cc <6 ah x bg 4 cf [6]

and moreover that these six lines [1], [2], [3], [4], [5], and
[6] lie on a cone of the second order. Projecting now the
figure of the six planes a, 0, c, f, g, and # upon any arbitrary
plane (not passing through one of the lines [1], [2], [3], [4],
[5], or [6]), we obtain the Pascal configuration. ‘The twenty
points abc, abf, ... . fgh, are as follows, viz. (omitting the
two points abc, fgh) the remaining eighteen points are the

* Collected Math. Papers, Vol. VI., pp. 129-134.
124 [Dec. |

ood

£
-

PLATE, I.

TenDERSON — GRAPHIC REPRESENTATION.

; 4q °° HENDERSON—GRAPHIC REPRESENTATION. Si
q _Pascalian points (the intersections of pairs of lines each
_ through two of the points 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6) which lie on the
- Pascalian lines dc, ca, ab, oh, hf, fg cespectively; the point
abe is the intersection of the Pascalian lines dc, ca, ab, and
the point fez is the intersection of the Pascalian lines gh, hf,
ES the points in question being two of the points S (Steiner’s
_ twenty points, each the intersection of three Pascalian lines).* ©
q pa. The question with which I concern myself in the
9 _ present paper is:—May such a beautiful theorem be repre-
iy ‘sented to the eye in such a way as to show clearly the entire
- configuration? After some labor and thought, I am able to
: answer this question in the affirmative. The accompanying
plate (Plate I.), drawn to scale with great precision, repre-
| the sents ultimate result of the investigation.
, _ The initial problem was so to choose the two triads of
' planes as to give the point of projection 0 a position that
might be readily representable on a diagram, showing also
iy - the two triads of planes. Choosing to use quadriplanar co-or-
Bp dinates, I found it desirable for the point 0 to coincide with
one of the four vertices A, B, C, and D of the fundamental
_ tetrahedron ABCD. The point 0 was finally chosen, from
ti a -various considerations into which I shall not enter at present,
to coincide with the vertex D. The question that next pre-
r w sented itself was what plane to choose as the plane of projec-
i tion. The plane ABC was finally chosen as the most econom-
‘ical position for the plane of projection, as will appear later.
_ I now proceed to an analysis of the problem. The planes
__ were chosen in the following manner:

a

a

a: w=—0

b: 256 x — 384y — 962+ 459w = 0
e 964 — 64y — 2562+ 153w=—0
: 32a + 27H =

er 64y — 5lw=0

h: ‘ 32z2—17w=0

r a _ *It is to be understood that a point or line and its projection have the

_ same designation, and that the meet of a line such as tH with the plane of
Bprmuection 1 is denoted by 1.

a

126 JOURNAL OF THE MitTcHE Ly Soctrery. [ Dee.

The first step is to find the polar planes of a point 0 (%,, 1, 21) W:)
with respect to each one the two triads abc, fgh, then to
identify the equations of these two planes, in order to deter-
mine the position of the point 0.

First consider the triad abc, given by the equation

w (256 x — 384y — 962+ 459 w)
(96 x — 64y — 2562+ 153w)=0

which becomes, on clearing out,
F (4, y, 2, w) = 24576 («7° + yy? + 27) w+ 70227 w® — 53248 xyw

—74752 xzw + 83232 xw* + 104448 yzw

—88128 y w? — 132192 zu* = 0
The polar plane

: oF 8 F
aa + ay) tae? Pah oe

of the point (~,, y,, Z,, w,) with respect to this system of three
planes is

(49152 x, w, — 53248 y,w, — 74752 z,w, + 83232 w,7) x
+ (49152 y,w, — 53248 ww, + 104448 zw, — 88128 w,”) y
+ (49152 zw, — 74752 x. w, + 104448 yw, — 132192 w2) z
+ [24576 (w? + y? + 27) + 210681 w — 53248 x,y,
— 74752 x, Z, + 166464 x, w, + 104448 y, z, — 176256 y, w
— 264384 z.w,]w=—0 [1]

Also the polar plane
Sea Ly 4 Le 4 mo

of the point on Vo @ ie with rae is the system /gh,
given by the equation
(32.7 + 27 w) (64y — 51) (32z2—17 vw) =0
or f (x, y, 4 w) = 65536 xyz + 55296 yzw — 52224 xew
— 44064 zw* — 34816 xyw — 29376 yu”
+ 27744 xw* + 23409 uw = 0

1904] HenpErRsoN—GRAPHIC REPRESENTATION. 127

is given by the equation
65536 y, Z, — 52224 z.w, — 34816 y,w/ + 27744 w2) x
+ (65536 x, 2, + 55296 zw, — 34816 x, w, — 29376 w,’) y
+ (65536 x.y, + 55296 y,w, — 52224", w, — 44064 w,2) z
+ [55296 y,z — 52224 x, z, — 88128 z,w, — 34816 x,y,
| — 58752 y,w: + 55488 4,w, + 70227 w7]w=0 [2]
Now by inspection it is evident that the equations [1] and [2]
are identical (aside from the constant factor 3), if
(+, Vay Fy w,) — (0, 0, 0, 1).

2)

of the fundamental tetrahedron ABCD.

_ Ishall next write down the equations of the nine lines af,
| ag, ah; Of, bg, bh; cf, cg, ch. The first three may be written
as follows:

af: == 0 w= 0
ag: y=0, w=0
ah: = 0; w= 6

_ The line 6f may be written

: 3an+4y+z=0
a Sean = 0,

since the equation of plane d takes the form
a 17 (324+ 27w) —96.(3%+4y4+ 2) =0.
_ The line dg may be written
4 RNS ire a
64y —S5lw ==),

Since the equation of plane 0 takes the form
32 (8x + 6y — 3z) —9(64y — 51w) = 0.
The line 64 may be written

: 2x—3y +6z2=0
ee epee. = 0,

: ‘Since the equation of plane 4 takes the form
128 (24% —3y + 62) — 27 (322—17w) = 0,

bg:

128 JOURNAL OF THE MiTcHELL Society. [Dec.

In like manner, since the plane c may be written in any one
of the forms

17 (32% + 27w) — 64 (4x4 3y+4+ 12z) =0,

32 (3"+4y—8z)—3(64y—51w) =0,
32 (3*—2y+ 2) —9(322—174) =e
the equations of lines cf, cg, and ch are as follows:

ee Pipe AN 57

j 32“ + 27 yw == 6
3a+4y—8z2=0

tat) beet =—0
3x—2y+2=0
ch ewe — 0.

We have now to determine the equations of the lines 1, 2,
3, 4, 5, 6, each one of which passes through the point (0, 0,
0, 1) and is conditioned as stated in $1. Considering line 1,
its equations must be of the form

x+ Ay+ pz=0
e+rAy+tnz=—0

and since it meets line af, we have the condition

1 OB ea

CM | aaa | SBR |

1, A p», O

1,0A,, py 0 ’

giving A:A,=—pe:p, and hence line 1 may be written
x=0, Ay+uz=0

Since it also meets line dg, we have the condition
a DE RU eran
| 0, ee es

0,” Gag Pay eee
giving A = —2p, whence the equations of line 1 are

1; x=0, 2y—z=0

1904) §HenpDERSON—GraApPHIC REPRESENTATION. 129

That this meets the line ch is obvious by inspection. Deter-
mining, in similar fashion, the equations of the remaining
five lines, we obtain

y= 9), e+ 32=—0;
x=0, 3¥+ 4y=0;
x= 0, y—2z2=90;
y=0, 3e+ 2=0;
z=0, 4*+3y=0.

It is worthy of remark that the six lines=1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 lie
on the quadric cone, of vertex D, whose equation is

12 (4 + y° + 2) — 5 (62 — 82x — Sxy) = 0,

since the intersections of this cone by the planes «= 0,
y=0, 2 = Orespectively, have for their equations

“x =0, (y — 22) (2y — 2) = 0;
y =0, (n+ 32) (3*+ 2) = 0;
2=0, (3+ 4y)(4~+ 3y) =0.

§3. It is apparent that, since the lines af, ag, ah all lie in
the plane ABC (w = 0), the most convenient location for the
plane of projection is the plane of the face ABC of the funda-
mental tetrahedron.

I next calculated the co-ordinates of the points where the
six lines df, bg, bh, cf, cg, ch meet two faces of the tetrahe-
dron ABCD. In the case of the lines af, ag, ah no calcula-
tion has to be made, while for each one of the lines 1, 2, 3, 4,
5, 6, the co-ordinates of only one point have to be calculated.
These results are given below in tabular form:

ee eae

130 JoURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SocrEerty. [Dec.

bf meets BC

0-1 4 O|y=—883, z= 133.8
| “ ACD —27 0 81 82) c=—272, z=81-6, w =82.2
he Rapes AOC 8: 8 - 8 0) 2=—9728, <— we
* BOD 0 51 102 64] y=203, z=406, w=256
porwr AB 8 2 0 0 «=60, y=40
| “ BOD 0 84 17 82 y=35.5, z=17.7, w=33.4
ci meets BC 0 4 —1 0, y = 183.3, z= —33.3 )
| “-ABD|—27 36 0 Bi Angee y= 76, w= 676 |
‘egmeects AC 8 O 8 O|a=728, 2=27.2 |
BED tO: tee wes 128 | y = 314, z= 15.7, w=895 .
chmeets AB| 2 3 O 0/|2=40, y=60 |
| “ BCD) 0 17 -84 64) y=128, 2=25.6, w= 482 |
| 1 meets BO | O 1.23 Ofg=—888;, 2—Gey |
2. « AOL) 8 -0 +t) OES ieee )
ig ss AB 4—38 0 0O|z=400, y=—300 |
Faye ae 1 0 | y = 66.7, z = 33.3 Bey
i = 3 0|c#=—50, z= 150
|6 “ AB| -3 0 0O|«2=—300, y = 400

The right hand column of co-ordinates was made out for
convenience in the construction, the edge of the tetrahedron
ABCD (supposed regular) being taken equal to 100 units.
Whenever a point lies on an edge of the tetrahedron, the sum
of its co-ordinates is equal to 100, and when it lies in one of
the faces of the tetrahedron, the sum of its co-ordinates is
equal to 86.6, the altitude of the equilateral triangle forming
the face. 3

The argument leading to the conclusion that the projection
of the two triads of planes a, b,c; f, g, A from the point D
upon the plane ABC (w= 0) gives the Pascalian configura-
tion proceeds as follows. Consider the six planes a, 6, ¢, f, &
h and the point of projection D, and the plane of projection
ABC—then the line of intersection aé of the planes a and 6

1904) HENDERSON—GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION. 131

will be projected into a line ad, and the point of intersection
of the planes a, 4, c into a point adc; and so in the other cases
(recalling the fact that the lines af, ag, ah already lie in the
plane of projection as chosen). We have thus a plane figure,
consisting of the fifteen lines ab, ac,..... gh, and of the
twenty points abc, abf,..... fgh; and which is such, that
on each of the lines there lie four of the points, and through
each of the potnts there pass three of the lines, viz. the

points abc, abf, abg, abh lie on the line ad; and the lines dc,
_ ca, ab meet in the point adc, and so in the other cases.

-

Moreover, from an inspection of the scheme in § 1, we see
that the projections of the lines af, dg, ch meet in a point,
and the like for each of the six triads of lines; that is, in the
plane figure, we have six points 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, each of them

_ the intersection of three lines as shown in the diagram

i= a7 < be ch

208 < bh ® of

3 Gh OF & eg"

4=afX bh X eg

5=ag X bf X ch

62> ah xX: be XK cf
and these six points lie in a conic (the intersection of the
quadric cone by the plane of projection). It is clear that the
lines af, ag. ah; bf, bg, bh; cf, cg, ch are the lines 14, 25, 36;

. 35, 16, 24; 26, 34, 15 respectively.

Conversely, starting from the points 1, 2, 3, 4,5,6 ona

‘conic, and denoting the lines 14, 25, 36; 35, 16, 24; 26, 34, 15

(being, it may be noticed, the sides and diagonals of the hex-
agon 162435) in the manner just referred to, then it is possible

to complete the figure of the fifteen lines ab, ac,..... gh

and of the twenty points abc, abf, . ... fgh, such that each
line contains upon it four points, and that through each
point there pass three lines, in the manner already mentioned.

Of the fifteen lines, nine, viz. the lines af, ag, ah; Of, bg,

bh; cf, cg, ch are, as has been seen, lines through two of the

132 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY. [Dec.

six points 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6; the remaining lines are dc, ca, ab;
gh, hf, fg, ‘These are Pascalian lines

bc of the hexagon 162435,

ca © 152634,
ab“ “142536,
gh “152436,
hf * “© 142635,
fo“ “162534, °

which appears thus, viz.

line dc contains points bcf, bcg, bch,
= Of. cf, bg. te, enn
== 35. 26, 16 .°O4;))92aee een
that is, dc is the Pascalian line of the hexagon 162435; and
the like for the rest of the six lines.

The final conclusion has already been stated above in § 1.
The drawing explains everything; a few words of explana-
tion and interpretation, however, are perhaps not amiss. By
means of four separate scales and the employment of a num-
ber of principles of Graphics, I first laid down the tetrahe-
dron ABCD and the fifteen lines in space, af, ag, ah; df, bg,
bh, cf, cg, ch; and 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,6. In the drawing, the pro-
jection of the line afis written (af), and so in other cases. The
projection of the line df, for example, was found by joining
the meets of the lines 5 and 6f with the plane of projection,
and similarly for other cases. Only three of the Pascalian
lines, viz. dc, ca, ab were drawn, to avoid giving the figure a
too complex appearance. The projection of line a6, for exam-
ple, was obtained in the following manner: lines ag, dg lying
in planes a and 6 respectively intersect in a point P, say, on
the line ab; the projections of the points P and P, are the
meets of the projections of the pairs of lines ag, bg; ah, bh

respectively. The projection of line ad then is the join of the |

projections of the points P and P..
The Steiner point S (shown in the figure), the common
meet of the three Pascalian lines dc, ca, ab, is one of the two

Bs |
i HENDERSON—GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION. 133

Steiener points yielded by the projection, the other not being
.... for the reason mentioned above.

¢ ‘a A final consideration was the construction of the conic sec-
tion, given by the intersection of the quadric cone (containing
the lines 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6) with the plane of projection. The
six points 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 lie on this conic section and hence it
was construeted by points by means of the very theorem
under consideration, viz. Pascal’s Theorem.*

* To prevent unnecessary complexity on the drawing, only one branch
of the hyperbola (the conic, in the present instance) is shown.

WORKING UP THE ENTOMOLOGICAL FAUNA OF
NORTH CAROLINA.

FRANKLIN SHERMAN, JR., AND C. S. BRIMLEY.

The authors having joined in an effort to work up as com-
pletely as possible the insect life of the State, it is deemed
advisable to present a brief account of the work thus far
accomplished.

Owing to the vast number of species, the extreme difficulty
of classification, and the average comparative small size of
the subjects, the task of working up the entire entomological
fauna of a State is an unending one—we can only hope to
make a start, lay the foundations, and erect as much of the
final structure as possible. We can never hope to complete
the undertaking. By devoting ourselves more or less closely
to certain groups we have been able to get the list of species
within those groups fairly well represented in our collections
and records. When a species is cetermined positively to
occur within the State the name is written on a card and
placed in our permanent files, together with a brief note as to
the locality or localities where it is known to occur. To keep
this record complete, therefore, we must not only record our
own captures but must keep a close watch on the literature
and record all authentic observations of others who may at
one time or another make collections within our limits.

During 1903 we gave special attention to the Odonata
(Dragon-flies) and the Rhopalocera (Butter-flies). Of the
Odonata twenty-two species were added to the sixty already
known to occur in the State, the most noteworthy addition
being probably Zelagrion daecki, Calvert, only described for
the first time in February, 1903, and which was found by Mr.
Brimley to be locally abundant near Raleigh in June. The

134 [ Dec.

1904) SuEeRmMan—Ewnromotocican Fauna or N.C. = 135

- total number of species of the butterflies was raised to one

hundred and three, (this does not include, of course, the
‘night-flying moths), the most interesting additions being
_ Melitea phaeton, Drury, bred from larvae taken at Tryon,
- Polk county, by Mr. W. F. Fiske; Pamphila carolina,
_ Skinner, taken commonly at Raleigh from March 24th to
_ April 18th by Brimley and Sherman; Calephelis caenius, Linn,
» taken at Fayetteville, July 10th, by Mr. S. W. Foster;
_ Apatura celtis, Boisduval and Leconte, taken at Smithfield by
~~ Mr. Foster; and three not yet identified Hesperids taken by
my Mr. Sherman at Washington, Beaufort county, and Beaufort,
_ in Carteret county.
Some work was also done on the first three families of
_ moths, the Sphingidae, Saturniidae and Ceratocampidae, the
- last two families, which include nearly all of our largest
species of moths, being now represented on our records by
nearly all the species likely to occur in the State. A list of
; pall the species of these three families now known to occur in

a. Ei pri, 1904, by Mr. Brimley.

_ - Inthe order Diptera the most exhaustive work was done on
_ the Tabanidae (Horse-flies), forty identified species and one
not yet located having been so far secured. The species of
this family were identified by Prof. J. S. Hine, of Columbus,
ga Ohio, who has described as new two of the species collected

£4 tciey: in honor of the discoverer. The family Asilidae
2 _(Robber-flies) has been explored to some extent, thirty-two
Bepccies being now known to occur inthe State. One of these,

+ cc at Southern Pines j in late March, 1903.

_____In the Coleoptera (Beetles) the list of Cicindelidae (Tiger-
zi beetles) seems about complete. A list of these, comprising
nineteen species, was published in Entomological News for
| January, 1904. The Meloidae (Blister-beetles) are now repre-
_ Sented in our collections and records by eleven identified and

136 JoURNAL OF THE MrrcHEtty SocrETy. [Dec.

two not yet identified species, which probably include about
all that occur in the State. This order, the Coleoptera, has
been more thoroughly explored in a general way than any
other of the large orders. In all, one thousand and eight
species of Coleoptera are now recorded in our lists from the
State.

The order Hemiptera (True Bugs, Scale-insects and Plant-
lice) has been gone over in a preliminary way, but not in
detail as yet. In this order, the family Coccidae or Scale-
insects, which includes such important economic forms as the
Scurfy Scale, the Oyster-shell Scale and the San Jose Scale,
is now known to be represented by not less than thirty-two
species.

Among the Neuropteroid insects (excluding Odonata
already mentioned) some work has been done and a few quite
rare forms have come to light, among these being FPanorpa
rufa, Gray, previously known by only one specimen from
Georgia in au English Museum from which the species had
been described. Our specimen was taken at Wilmington on
Christmas day, 1902.

The entire list of true insects thus far known to occur in
North Carolina as shown by our records includes one thousand
seven hundred and ninety-seven species. A number of other
species have been collected but not yet identified,

As an incentive to others who may feel an interest in work
of this kind it may be stated that there yet remain whole
groups of insects in which little or nothing has been done,
and many unknown and interesting secrets await the investi-
gation of the patient, industrious, persistent collector.

\

A CASE OF SNAKE-BITE.

BY THE VICTIM, C. S. BRIMLEY.

On January 21, 1901, I was bitten by a small Cottonmouth
(Ancistrodon piscivorus) about 260 mm, or 10 2-5 inches long.
It happened thus: I had received a number of small snakes
tied up in bags to keep them separate, in the pail they were
sent in, atid there was nothing in the accompanying letter to
lead me to think a Cottonmouth was among them (the shipper
knew the species). After I had taken this snake out. of the
bag and seen what it was, I dropped him back again and took
hold of it in order to tie it up, when the snake immediately
struck at me and drove one fang into the fourth finger of my
left hand, on the under side of the last joint.

I sucked the wound well and then ligatured it below the
puncture, and immediately went to my doctor (A. O. Jones),
taking about one-half an hour to get there. He cupped the
wound with a bottle half full of ammonia, getting a good
deal of blood, and then injected potassium permanganate into
the finger just below the wound which caused it to pain me
exceedingly, flooded whole finger with the solution and
removed the ligature. I then returned home.

The pain was a sharp smart till about half way to the
doctor’s, when it nearly ceased. After getting back home
finger began to swell and a burning ache set in in wound,
which though not very violent kept me awake some time after
Ihad'retired. I got to sleep about 12, woke up at 4 A. M.
and swelling had spread considerably over back of hand but
finger hurt less; a slight feeling of soreness showed itself in
my arm both above and below the elbow and in the morning
there was a slight soreness at the shoulder. Permanganate
bandage was kept on finger till 4 A. M. January 22 and was
soaked twice with the solution (after coming home and before

1904) 187

138 JourNAL OF THE MrrcHELL Socrery. [Dec.

going to bed). Took no alcoholic or other stimulant.
Thumb, middle finger and index finger and part of hand and
wrist adjacent were not affected. Under side of hand did not
swell. My system was not affected at all, except the local
trouble in haud and arm.

Swelling on back of hand was all gone by morning of
January 24, and by January 26 theswelling and inflammation
was mostly confined to the neighborhood of the bite, but
there was still some stiffness in the finger and back of hand
was still somewhat tender.

The place where the permanganate was injected festered
and I pressed pus out of it on January 26. By January 28 my
hand was practically well and entirely so by February 1.

FURTHER NOTES ON THE REPRODUCTION OF
REPTILES.

BY C. S. BRIMLEY.

On July 18, 1903, five eggs were brought to me, which
proved to be those of Aumeces fasciatus (Blue-tailed Lizard),
‘these were about the size of Cnemidophorus eggs, measuring
20x12, 20x15, 22x11, the fifth, from which a full grown

embryo, ready to hatch and showing the usual markings of

the species, had been removed, was not measured. The eggs
were very smooth and the skin was very thin, almost trans-
parent, and of a dirty white in color; shape varying from a
tather short to a rather long oblong, one of the eggs was one-
sided; they were said to have been found near Swift Creek, in
this county.

On July 28, 1903, three eggs measuring 30 to 31 mm. long
were received. These were long and slender, and were
attached to one another on the side, so that their long axes
were parallel, one, which was opened, contained a snake
embryo too small to identify, and I was not successful in my
attempt to hatch them. The probability is that they were
the eggs of the Red King Snake ( Ophzbolus coccineus.)

In August, 1903, some Aznosternon flavescens in my
possession from Austin, Texas, laid two eggs. These were
hard-shelled like those of other Mud Turtles, and measured
25x16 and 26x16.

In my former paper read before the Academy in November,
1902, I omitted any mention of Zerrapene carolina and 7.
baurt, although both species have been hatched out in my
“Terrapin pen” from eggs laid in confinement. I have never
seen the female in the act of covering her eggs but once, and

_ then she was pressing down the earth as hard as she could.

The young of these turtles hatch out in October, unlike those
1904) 139

140 JouRNAL OF THE MiTcHELL Socrery. [Dec.
of our water-turtles, which mainly remain in the shell till
the next spring. The eggs which I have dug up in October
with young in them ready to hatch are about the size and
shape of the eggs of Deirochelys and like them are soft
Shelled.

I had the pleasure of examining last spring the eggs of the
Painted Turtle (Chrysemys picta) in situ. The ‘‘nest” was
situated on a sloping hill-side a little above the reach of the
inundations of Walnut Creek, and consisted of a hole in the
hard ground in which three eggs had been laid, and the
entrance had then been filled with earth and this pressed
down hard by the animal’s feet. The earth was notin contact
with the eggs, which were loose in the cavity below.
Externally the nest looked as if some one had thrown a little
‘‘pat” of wet clay on the ground and it had dried there. The
dirt was so hard it was quite difficult to dig through it to
the eggs. |

The eggs of Kinosternon on the other hand have the earth
packed down hard on them and the entrance to the nest is
closed so as to leave a slight depression.

With regard to Lizard eggs Sceloporus lays its eggs ia lots
of 10 or thereabouts, while the Sand Lizard only lays three |
at one time.

:

SOME INTERESTING INSECT CAPTURES.

BY FRANKLIN SHERMAN, JR.

Under this title we wish to record the occurrence in North

Carolina of a few of the interesting species of insects which
we find from time to time as we are able to study the fauna
of the State, and.our own collections, more closely.
_ From the tops of such mountains as Mitchell and Grand-
father, to the low swamps of Brunswick county, our State
supports a fauna which in richness is equalled by few. One
must actually traverse the ground, and study the forms of life
in the different regions, to fully realize how great this
Variation is.

Papilio cresphontes, Cramer, (The Orange Dog). This
butterfly, which is doubtless the largest that occurs within
our borders, is typically a southern species and is common in
Florida, where the caterpillar feeds on the leaves of the
orange, thus earning the popular name of The Orange Dog.
But in later years the species seems to have been gradually
Spreading northward and in 1898 the author took one specimen
in Maryland, eight miles from Washington. In 1900 three
Specimens were taken at Ithaca, N. Y., and we have been
informed that several others,as well as caterpillars of the
Species, have since been taken there. It has also recently
been taken in Ontario, and Mr. W. J. Holland records it as
father common about Pittsburg. My friend, Mr. C. S.
Brimley, who has for years been a thorough student and
collector of butterflies in the vicinity of Raleigh, has been
unable to locate this species. On August 9th, 1902, one
Specimen was taken on Shackleford Banks, near Beaufort,
Carteret county. It seems likely that in its northern migra-
tions it has remained near the coast, and when the cooler
regions are reached, it probably follows the warmer valleys

1904) 141

142 JoURNAL OF THE MITCHELL Society. [Dec.

along the watercourses from which specimens may wander
inland. It would still seem strange, however, that the species
should remain unknown at Raleigh.

Papilio palamedes, Drury, (Palamedes). This species is
even more southern in its distribution than cresphontes, and is
recorded to occur ‘‘from southern Virginia, near the coast, to
the extreme southern end of Florida, and westward to southern -
Missouri and Texas.” Like the preceeding, it is not known
at Raleigh, and in all probability never occurs there, but two
specimens were taken at Beaufort on August 11th, 1902, and
at least one or two others were observed at that time.

Thecla damon, Cramer, (The Olive Hairstreak). While this
Species is probably native to all parts of the State, it is not
likely that it is ever abundant, and but one specimen has fallen
to me in two years. Mr. Brimley, however, has two or three
records of its occurrence at Raleigh. Our one specimen was
taken at Durham, on R. F. D. Route No. 2, about 10 miles
from town. ‘The little butterfly is exceedingly active, darting
quickly in a zig-zag flight which we found it almost impos-
sible to follow with the eye. A peculiar feature which
pertains to most of the species of this genus is the very plain
unmarked upper surface of the wings, and the usually con-
spicuously marked under surface. The species can scarcely
be distinguished at all by examining the upper surface, but a
mere glance at the lower surface decides the matter quickly.

Thecla M-album, Boisduval & Leconte, (The White M-Hair-
streak). This pretty little species is said by Holland to have
been ‘‘taken as far north as New Jersey and Wisconsin, and
ranges southward to Venezuela” and that ‘‘its citadel is found
in the live-oak hummucks of the Gulf States and the oak
forests on the highlands of Mexico and more northern
countries,” ‘This would seem to indicate that in general, the
species is too southern in its range to be at all common in
North Carolina. Our only specimen, (which is somewhat
mutilated), was taken at Blowing Rock on August 29th, 1902,
Mr. Brimley does not find the species at Raleigh. Like the

'
é A
eed
"

yh"
pa

(1904) SHERMAN AND BrimiEy—Insect Captures. 143

‘preceding species it seems to be very active in flight.

Thecla halesus, Cramer, (The Great Purple Hairstreak.)
This, which we regard as one of the most handsome of all
our species, is said by Holland to be ‘‘Very common in Central
America and Mexico; it is not scarce in the hot parts of the
Gulf States, and is even reported as having been captured in
southern Illinois. It also occurs in Arizona and southern
California.” While it is thus assigned as typically a sub-
tropical species, we found it not at all rare at Lumberton on

‘September 6th, 1902. Three specimens, representing both

sexes, were captured, and one or two others were observed.
This is one of the largest species of the genus, and, unlike

_ the others here discussed, it is rather easily taken. One of

my specimens was swung at with the net not less than four

times, yet made no long flights. It may be that it was only

common in the one locality and for a short time, but it seemed

to be quite at home. We regard this as a significant capture,

indicating that many sub-tropical forms may hereafter be
taken in our southeastern section. It is not on record from
Raleigh.

Phyciodes nyctets, Doubleday & Hewitson, (Nycteis). The
Nycteis butterfly is recorded ‘‘from Maine to North Carolina

and thence westward to the foothills of the Rockies,” and

Seems to be found only in the western part of our State. Mr.

Brimley does not list it from Raleigh, and our one specimen
is from Blowing Rock, where it was taken in June, 1901. A
somewhat similar species, (Phyciodes tharos), is common in
all parts of the State.

Grapta faunus, Kdwards, (The Faun). Holland says that
Jaunus is ‘found from New England to the Carolinas, thence

_westward to the Pacific.” Itis not recorded from Raleigh,
_ atid seems to be very local in distribution and only found in

the higher colder localities. On August 30th, 1902, it was

found not uncommon along the turnpike road from Blowing
Rock to Linville. It was my good fortune to be accompanied
on that trip by a collector who had had considerable expe-

144 JOURNAL OF THE MiTcHELL Socrety. [Dec.

rience in the Adirondacks, and who stated that it was a
common species there. It is not on record from Ithaca, New
York, though that region has been very thoroughly
collected in.

Pomphopoea unguicularis, Leconte. Our present subject is
the largest of the Blister beetles (Meloidae) which we have
yet taken in the State. Mr. Schwartz, of the U. S. National
Museum, who is probably the best authority on beetles in the
country, tells me that it “‘is sometimes locally common in the
mountains.” Surely it was plentiful at Blowing Rock on
June 26th, 1901. They were feeding on the leaves and fading
flowers of the mountain laurel in great numbers. Their
scratching among the thick leaves and twigs of the bushes |
was plainly audible at a distance of a rod or more. Several
hundred were taken, and as many more might have been had
if desired. Only a few bushes were found to be infested by
them, others only a few hundred feet away being unmolested.
One party informed us that they had attacked the roses to
such an extent that it became necessary to spray them. We
also found them abundant on certain peach trees, where they
fed on the foliage, and noted the curious fact that they showed
a decided preference for leaves that had already been deformed
by the Leaf Curl. As many as eight or more were found on
a single curled leaf. This fact is also of interest as showing
one of the many means by which plant diseases may be
dispersed.

MOLECULAR ATTRACTION.*

(THIRD PAPER)

BY J. E. MILLS.

In a preceding paper’, making use of the measurements of
_ Profs. Ramsay and Young and of Prof. Young,: we applied
the theoretically derived equation,

a J Wt mand 2
a wd—-~pyDdD
to twenty-one substances, and: called particular attention to
variations in the constants obtained and to the range of tem-
perature covered by the measurements. (In the above equa-
- tion, L denotes heat of vaporization, E, is energy spent in
| ‘overcoming external pressure, and d and D denote density of
t 1 liquid and vapor respectively.) In this paper making use of
t the same measurements and the results there derived we wish
fo point out some further applications of the theory. But
fi st we call attention to several points bearing more directly
upon the results of the last paper.

_ The constant given by equation 1 above, as will appear
le ater i in this article, is an important property of a substance,
and depends upon the attraction of one molecule for another.
| We have to refer to this constant so often that a more specific
designation is desirable. We have hitherto called the abso-
lute attraction at unit distance from amolecule pw. The above
‘ onstant we will cally’. (Therefore »=c Ym m). Wecall
the internal latent heat of vaporization \ and therefore have,
ie A= (Wd —PD).
* Reprinted from the Journal of Physical Chemistry, Vol. 8, No. 9, Dec.
Pp. , 593 (1904).
AJour. Phys. Chem., June, 1904. Referred to in this article as ‘‘sec-
on 1d paper.”
1904) 145

be |

= constant,

146 JouRNAL OF THE MITCHELL Socrety. [Dec.

THE AT THE CRiTICAL TEMPERATURE.

ST

In the second paper we commented upon the difficulty of
obtaining correctly the es from Biot’s formula near the
critical temperature. We entirely overlooked the fact that
the constant 6 of the equation, = 4T —a, proposed by

Profs. Ramsay and Young, was also a ee and that at the

8
critical temperature (but only at that point, see p. 166) the a

of the two equations became identical. In work done to

; 5P
establish the truth of the equation, A= JdT—da, the 77
was obtained for three substatices at volumes practically iden-
tical with the critical volume. ‘The results are such as to
confirm entirely and quantitively the view that the diver-

genices at this point in w were due to the Biot formula used to

obtain the —— oF

ie
Thus isopentane gives at the critical temperature (volume
4.266) the = = 367.8, calculated from Biot’s formula. Prof.

Young, found from drawn isochors (at the volume 4.3) the
value 397, and a calculated value of 407. ‘Therefore Biot’s
formula gives results about ten per cent. too low, an amount.
just sufficient to explain the variations in pw’ near that point.

For normal pentane Biot’s formula at the critical volume,
4.303, gives 364,8 for the bk 7 Mr. J. Rose-Innes and Dr.
Young’ obtained 407.3 from drawn isochors. Biot’s formula
therefore shows results too low by about eleven per cent., an
amount which is sufficient to explain the low values obtained

1 Proc. Phys. Soc., 1894-95, p. 650,
2 Phil. Mag., April, 1899.

: 1904) Mitits— MoLecuLar ATPRACTION. 147

in the constant pw’ as the critical temperature was approached.
For ethyl oxide Profs, Ramsay and Young" obtained at vol-
dP

- ume 4.00 the ~~ = 413.7, and it is evident from their paper

6 T
on ethyl oxide’ that the values they used for calculating the
latent heat of vaporization point to a value at this point of
about 490, a fact which sufficiently explains the rise noted in

the value of w’. (The values Profs. Ramsay and Young used

for s at this point are not in accord with the Biot formula

they publish and this prevents quantitive comparison here.

See p. 175.)
We have therefore direct proof that the equation,
ws constant, is applicable in the immediate

neighborhood of the critical temperature.

THE PRODUCT OF THE PRESSURE AND THE VAPOR DENSITY.

In examining the data used to discover if possible the
immediate source of variations in pw’ it proved impracticable
to plot either the pressure or the volume of the vapor directly
against the temperature. But their product, PV, varied more
slowly and the values were plotted and gave regular curves
except for di-isobutyl, brom-benzene, iodo-benzene, hexa-
methylene, and water. This result is so interesting that the
curves are given below, Diagrams 1 to 3, The numerical
results are given in Tables 1to 21. For water the break in
the regularity of the curve occurs at 100° C, and since differ-
ent formulas were used for the vapor pressure above and
below that temperature it would seem certain, in view of
remarks already quoted (second paper, p. 396), that the
formulas for the pressure need adjustment, For di-isobutyl,

1Phil. Mag., May, 1887.
2 Phil. Trans., 1887A, p. 57,

(Dec.

JOURNAL OF THE MiTCHELL SOCIETY.

148

\

ee
La

LENS

Diagram 1.

Diagram 2.

1904] — Mirrs—Motecutar APTrRAcrIon. 149

>
| eal

O 50° 100° 150° 200° 250° 300°

Diagram 38.
_ For water, add 900 to the ordinates shown by the diagram.

benzene, iodo-benzene, and hexamethylene, the irregu-
Atities of the PV curve are more probably due to the vapor
le osity (see second paper, p. 400), and are especially interest-
ng because they occur at just the point where were obtained
ivergent values for w’. Reference to the preceding paper
vill show that di-isobutyl, brom-benzene, and iodo-benzene,
vere the only substances, except stannic chloride and the
Ssociated substances, giving divergences (which have not
een explained as due to multiplication of error in calculat-

ag the i) greater than two per cent. from the mean value

dopted for yp’. Hexamethylene shows likewise a smaller

150 JourNAL OF THE MiTcHELL SociFry. [De

though well marked divergence in yw’ corresponding to
concave sink in the PV curve.

It is clear therefore that these abnormal values of the PV
product must be carefully investigated before the correspond-
ing divergences in p’ can be regarded as in any way evidence
against the theory by which that constant is derived.

INTERNAL HEAT OF VAPORIZATION.
The internal heat of vaporization was plotted against the
temperature, Diagrams 8 to 10. ‘These curves are more fully

discussed later (p. 161). We would here call attention only to
one feature of these curves, viz.: Corresponding to diver-

used in the calculations,

DIAGRAM OF L, — E, AGAINST THE (’Y d —?/D.~

Ordinates give internal heat of vaporization in calories. Abscisse give
difference of the cube roots of the densities of liquid and vapor. —

Mitts — MoLecuLar ATTRACTION. 151

anes.

Diagram 5.

Ordinates give internal heat of vaporization in calories. Abscisse give
__ difference of the cube roots of the densities of liquid and vapor.

) 2 4
{ iy i Diagram 6.
rd in ates give internal heat of vaporization in calories. Abscissz give
_ difference of the cube roots of the densities of liquid and vapor.

substances examined, using the values of L—FE, for ordi-
ites and the values of 7 d — WD for abscisse. This is

152 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY. [Dec.

600

500

400

300

100

Diagram 7.
Ordinates give internal heat of vaporization in calories. Abscissz give
difference of the cube roots of the densities of liquid and vapor. .

L—E, nor fd — 7D vary uniformly with the tempera-
ture observations taken every ten degrees are consequently
not taken at equal intervals of the curve (a straight line) rep-
resented by that equation. ‘a
Through each set of observations, excepting for acetic acid,
the mean line is drawn. The constants for this mean line
were obtained by averaging, for any substance, all of the con-
stants recorded in Table 1 (second paper) that were within
two per cent. of the mean values adopted in that table. For
di-isobutyl the mean value adopted appeared probably too high
and we therefore choose the value 86.3 as being more nearly
in accord with the proper constant. The values for a
constants are given in Table 25 under the heading p’. P
For ethyl oxide, di-isopropyl, di-isobutyl, isopentane, nor-

Mir~ts— MorLecuLrar ATTRACTION. 153

mal pentane, normal hexane, normal heptane, normal octane,
enzene, hexamethylene, fluo-benzene, carbon tetrachloride,
Betty! alcohol, ethyl alcohol, propyl alcohol, and acetic acid,
sixteen substances in all, the observations are practically com-
ete, extending from near the freezing point of the liquid
nearly to the critical temperature. Among these sixteen sub
stances the only divergences appearing marked to the eye are
normal octane and ethyl alcohol at 0° C, di-isobutyl, those
for the alcohols as the lines approach the origin, and acetic
acid.
_ The curves for chlor-benzene, brom-benzene, iodo-benzene,
stannic chloride, and water, are not complete. All of these
incomplete curves show irregularities and yet it is made most
evident by the diagrams, as well as by what has already been
said, that with the exception of stannic chloride, the diver-
gences are not so pronounced as to be considered weighty
evidence against the theory.
In conclusion therefore we point out that, of the twenty-
one substances examined, stannic chloride and the associated
Substances (imethyl alcohol, ethyl alcohol, propyl alcohol,
and acetic acid) are the only substances that show variation
in w’ without at the same temperature exhibiting irregulari-
ties in the data used. ‘That these irregularities in the data
are due to the measurements is much to be doubted. But if
not so produced they are significant of unknown changes tak-
ing place in the substance under examination—changes which
were not taken into account in the theory of molecular attrac-
tion under discussion and to which that theory as outlined
would not be strictly applicable.

if THE LATENT HEAT OF VAPORIZATION.

It is interesting to examine more closely and to compare |

he heats of vaporization calculated by use of the following
et quations:

a

154 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SoOcIETY. [Dec.
¥ 5P

[3] CSV oe

[4] L=p (vd —wvdD)+ E..

[5] L = 2RT loge o

Using the constants we have hitherto adopted, the equa-
tions become:

[6] L = 0.031833 T (V — v) a cals:

[7] L=w' GYa — YD) + 0.031833 P (V— z) cals.

= T log a cals.,
m being the molecular weight, with oxygen equal to 16 as the
standard, and logarithms to base ten.

The equations are all theoretically derived.

Equation 3 rests primarily upon the first and second laws
of thermodynamics and is deduced therefrom by a familiar —
line of reasoning. No assumption is made as tothe nature or |
cause of the latent heat, or as to the nature of the substance
itself. The equation will serve as well to calculate the latent
heat of fusion or the energy absorbed during the change in
the crystalline form of a solid. It merely expresses the |
energy necessary to effect a change in volume under given _
conditions, and is silent as to the cause of the change or the
nature of the substance. So far as present knowledge goes,
there is no need for questioning the correctness of the results
obtained by this equation, the data being accurate. We can
therefore well use the latent heat so obtained as a check,
either upon direct measurements of the latent heat, or upon ~
other calculations involving relations and assumptions, which
perhaps are true, but which are not so fundamental.

We have already published (second paper, Tables 2 to 22;
the calculations for six or seven of the substances were, how-
ever, the work of others) the results obtained by the applica-

[8] L=

Mitts — MoLEcuLarR ATTRACTION. 155

‘ a Berirate where the data is correct, yet errors in the meas-
ements may, and oftentimes certainly do, (because of the

method necessarily followed for obtaining the os) produce

far greater proportional errors in the result. :
_ Equation 4 is derived by a simple transposition from equa-
tion 2 of the second paper. The assumptions upon which
that equation is founded and evidence bearing upon the equa-
tion, have been discussed in the preceding paper and here we
would only summarize by saying that this equation rests upon
5 the belief that the total kinetic energy of a molecule of a
a liquid and of its vapor, at the same temperature, are the same;
and upon the further assumption that the entire latent heat
-¢ Of vaporization is expended in overcoming the external. pres-
Sure and in separating the molecules against the action of an
3 tractive force varying inversely as the square of the
listance apart of the molecules. The equation is not appli-
“cable (a priore ) if (a) the number of molecules change owing
0 dissociation or decomposition; or if (4) the molecules are
4 n rot evenly distributed throughout the space occupied by
be th em; or if (c) for any reason the attraction between these
molecules varied with the temperature.
The constant »’ for the twenty-one substances examined
i given in Table 25 of this article under the heading p’ and
while the constants there given were obtained by a compari-
on of this equation with the thermodynamical results
Obtained by use of equation 3, it is easily seen that such a
ethod of obtaining the constant is, we might say, inciden-
4 and was only adopted for the sake of accuracy and con-
en ience. One accurate measurement at any temperature of
1 tt heat of vaporization of any substance to which the
lation is applicable, together with a measurement of its

156 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SocrEty. [Dee. |

vapor pressure and of the densities of liquid and vapor, would
enable the constant for that substance to be calculated. ‘The
equation has, therefore, no connection with the thermody-
namical equation 3, but rests independently, partly upon the
same and partly upon additional assumptions.

The results obtained for the twenty-one substances are
given later, Tables 1 to 21, in the columns marked Mills.

In comparing the latent heats so calculated with those
obtained from the thermodynamical equation we find that if
the five associated subtances be omitted, there are only four
determinations in which the results as calculated by the two
equations differ by so much as two calories, viz.: di-isobutyl
at 0°, normal octane at 0°, chlor-benzene at 270°, and brom-
benzene at 30°—in every instance the divergences being at |
the end point of the Biot curve and thus making it probable |
that all of these divergences are due to the thermodynamical |
equation. Excepting stannic chloride, there are only twelve
other substances in which the divergence is greater than one |
calorie. All of these divergences are marked with an asterisk |
in the tables. This comparison emphasizes more clearly than |
is possible in any other way the correctness of the law of
molecular attraction we have assumed.

Accurate calorimetric measurements are exceedingly difficult —
even under ordinary pressures and it is not too much to say ©
that where equation 4 is applicable, latent heats calculated
with its aid will be more accurate than direct measurements —
of.that quantity, unless very great care is taken in the meas-
urements. j

Equations 3 and 4 give with the associated substances and |
with stannic chloride an agreement which is partial but not
complete, divergences being shown at the higher tempera-
tures. One or more of the modifying causes mentioned on
page 155 may here be operative.

Equation 5 was deduced by Mr. H. Crompton. Mr. Cromp- ©
ton considers the change in density as if it were due to pres-
sure alone, then in order to keep the substance at that density —

a

without the excess of pressure doubles the amount of energy
required. ‘Thus he has,

[9] L= 2| piv = 2RT log, Dp"

v

q Mr. Crompton makes no supposition as to the true cause of
the change of density. But he proceeds on the principle that
in effecting a given change of condition the process pursued
is immaterial if the total energy change is alone to be consid-
ered, the idea being that the change in density could, theo-
} etically, have been produced by pressure. The law govern-
ing the change of pressure with the density is known, there-
fo e the amount of energy involved in the change of state
can be calculated.

}

>ressure with the volume, the gas equation, PV = RT. But
si ace Mr. Crompton deals with an ideal condition, from which
t! he action of forces other than the pressure are by assumption
femoved, his equation is not limited to those temperatures for
wh hich that equation holds true. It is necessary, however,
that PV = RT should represent the true law of pressure for
the substance, which is ideally considered only in a limited
sense. (The material size of the molecules or some effect of
the herature, etc., might, therefore, affect the exactness
of the law.) It will be further recognized that Mr. Cromp-
| a ‘8 equation, no less than equation 4 above, involves the
Ss Ssumption that the only energy change is that involved in a
hange in density—that is a change of potential energy, —
nd the total kinetic energy of the molecules of the liquid
nd of the gas must be the same. As a consequence it is to
e expected, though not with certainty owing to possible
Ompensation, that the theory would not apply to substances
nore associated in the liquid than in the gaseous condition.
n the tables below, 1 to 21, in the column headed *‘Cromp-
| on we give the results obtained from this equation for the

ubstances under examination. For additional evidence bear-
‘Ek

DNS
1904] f1LLs— MoLecuLarR ATTRACTION. 1S

Mr. Crompton uses as the law governing the change of:

os oe

158 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY. (Dec, eH

ing upon the theory see Jour. Phys. Chem., April, 1902, p. |
219 and Proc. Chem. Soc., Vol. 17, 233, 1901. i

It appears that at low temperatures, where the vapor pres-
sure 1s small, the results are invariably, and usually very con-
siderably, too large. But at the highest temperatures examined
for each substance the agreement ts good, the divergence at |
this temperature being greater than one calorie only in the |
cases of ether, normal octane, stannic chloride, and four of |
the five associated substances.

The results therefore merit detailed study, Of the twenty-
one substances, twelve, viz.: ether, di-isopropyl, isopentane,
normal pentane, normal hexane, benzene, hexamethylene,
fluo-benzene, chlor-benzene, brom-benzene, iodo-benzene, and
carbon tetrachloride, give results that are in all respects sim-—
ilar. With them at the lower temperatures Crompton’s ©
theory gives too high results, but as the temperature is raised
the results grow in the main continually closer to those given
by the thermodynamical equation. For these substances
after a vapor pressure of 7000 mms. has been reached, it may
be said that Crompton’s theory gives a very fair approxima- |
tion, usually within one calorie, to the results obtained ther-. }
modynatnically. |

Di-isobutyl, normal heptane, and normal octane, each show
a good agreement at the lowest temperature for which the
vapor pressure waS measured, viz.; 100°, 80°, and 120°.
Then with increasing temperature Crompton’s equation gives
results lower than those obtained thermodynamically.

Stannic chloride is similar to the above in showing better
agreement at the lower temperatures than at the higher, but
in this case Crompton’s results are uniformly the larger.

In the case of water the results of Crompton are always the
larger, but had the observations been-continued nearer the
critical temperature it is quite possible that good agreement
would have been reached.

With the three alcohols, Crompton’s equation gives entirely |
too high results at the lower temperatures, Then with rise |

1904] Mitits— Morxcuiar ATTRACTION. 159
in temperature the results from Crompton’s equation become
decidedly the lower, but near the critical temperature the
‘difference is not very marked.

: With acetic acid, Crompton’s equation gives results more
‘than twice too large at the lowest temperature. “As the tem-
perature is raised the disagreement becomes continually less.
It must be borne in mind that acetic acid vapor shows marked
association.

Comparing the three equations, the value of Crompton’s
t heory becothes doubly apparent. Crompton’s equation does
thot involve the vapor pressure and therefore, if trustworthy,
will act as a check upon the thermodynamical equation at the
end points of the curve, where, owing to the manner of

obtaining the vee the thermodynamical results are some-
what uncertain. On the other hand compared with equation
4, Crompton’s theory does not depend upon the attraction and
would not be affected by a variation of the attraction with
the temperature. It should therefore furnish a clue to those
substances in which the molecular attraction does not remain
constant with increasing temperature.

_ At low temperatures Crompton’s equation gives values uni- -
formly too high and it therefore cannot be used to check the
tesults of the other equations. But at the highest tempera-
tures the evidence obtained from the results is exceedingly
interesting. For ether, di-isopropryl, isopentane, normal
pentane, normal hexane, benzene, hexamethylene, fluo-ben-
zene, and carbon tetrachloride, Crompton’s equation gives
Tesults in better accord with the values obtained from equa-
tion 4 than with the thermodynamical results. For these
Substances at the highest temperatures considered, Cromp-
on’s theory gives results differing in no case from those of
equation 4 by so much as 0.4 of a calorie, and in several cases
the agreement is almost exact. This is splendid confirmation
of our belief that in these cases the divergence in the con-

is
;

160 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY. (Dec. :
stant of equation, Aue dic = constant, were due to the
vYdad—PpoD ;

: : §P <
Biot formula from which the sa was obtained.

For di-isobutyl, normal heptane, and normal octane,
Crompton’s equation does not confirm the results of equation
4 when the constants that we have adopted are used, but
points instead to lower values for these constants, and we
would here call attention to the fact that this indication
meets further confirmation (Cf results equations 20, 21 and 25).

For chlor-benzene, brom-benzene, and iodo-benzene, Cromp-
ton’s theory points to higher constants. This evidence can-
not be entirely trusted since the highest measurements for
these substances are considerably below the critical tempera-
ture.

For stannic chloride, Crompton’s equations confirms in a
measure the constant adopted. This was a surprise, and sug-
gsets the possibility of an error in the Biot formula used.

For the alcohols and acetic acid, Crompton’s equation con-
firms the belief that in these substances the molecular attrac-
tion changes at high temperatures. ‘

To consider the question as to why Crompton’s theory does ©
not give correct results at low temperatures we would call
attention to the fact that Mr. Crompton could as. well have
taken the law of the vapor pressure as PV = P.V, and have
obtained, ;
[10] L = 2P.V, loge fell
Here V, is the volume of the liquid and P, is the theoretical |
pressure of the liquid. In calculating this theoretical pressure it ©
will be seen that the equation cancels back to its original ©

form, 2 RT log, 43 We have here called attention to the |
transposition only that the equation might be recognized as
identically the same equation with which we have to deal in

the Joule-Thomson effect of the free expansion of gases. The

Glib caeeeneetieienrtt atone

4

1904) Mir1s— MoLEcuLarR ATTRACTION. 161

Joule-Thomson energy change is in reality a latent heat—

the very same effect of the Crompton equation, only the com-

‘pression is not carried to liquefaction. That effect has been
‘but little studied and is usually laid entirely upon cohesive
‘forces. This may not be the case, and certainly is not the

case when hydrogen, which gives negative results, is consid-
ered. We here point ont that ¢f it 7s experimentally possible,

acontinuation and extension of the experiments of Joule and
Lord Kelvin in connection with the theory of Crompton, should

enable Crompton’s theory to be understood and correctly

—_——_—<—<——$———— Ne ne a a a A le A AS eo
8 es od , w

‘modified.

If the PV curves, Diagrams 1 to 3, be examined in connec-
tion with Crompton’s equation, it will be noted that Cromp-
ton’s equation usually gives good agreement with the ther-

-modynamical results at points corresponding to the descending

portions of those curves.

THE VARIATION OF THE HEAT OF VAPORIZATION WITH THE
TEMPERATURE.

The discussion in this and the previous paper of the data
bearing upon the latent heats of vaporization obtained for

the twenty-one substances examined cannot have failed to

impress one with the wonderful accuracy of the measurements
by Profs. Ramsay and Young and by Prof. Young, upon
which that data is based. ‘The data upon heats of vaporiza-
tion here made available is therefore the most extensive and

_the most accurate yet published. The variation of the latent

heat with the temperature has always been a question of
interest, and we therefore attempt to show most clearly the
manner of this variation.

The function of a portion of the latent heat is well known.
It is expended in overcoming the external pressure. The por-
tion so expended can be calculated and neither theoretically
nor actually does it appear to be a simple function of the
temperature. We have called the energy so expended E, and

162 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL Soctrery.

dete -r = = — 3 =
O 50° 100° 150° 200° 250° 360°

Diagram 8.

Ordinates give internal heat of vaporization in calories.

have given its value for each substance and temperature ©
examined. (See second paper, Tables 2 to 22, under head-
ing E,).

It has been suggested that a is a constant, Since E, is

0.031833 P (V — v) and L, = 0.0,31833 T Be (V—v), this |

E,
pe
is not confirmed. Examination shows that E, first increases
and then decreases with the temperature, while the latent’
heat, almost invariably, decreases. E, thus varies independ-
ently of the latent heat and ranges usually between seven
and fourteen per cent. of its value.

It was therefore thought best to subtract from the total

would require that = rae eee = constant. This relation

$x

1904] Miiis— MoLgcuLar ATTRACTION. 163

O° "50° mor cae) ene’. sso" a 300"
Diagram 9.
Ordinates give internal heat of vaporization in calories.

lafent heat this variable amount of energy thus externally.
expended and to plot the internal latent heat of vaporization
against the temperature. The values are given in second
paper, Tables 2 to 22, under the heading L—E,. The
curves are shown in Diagrams, 8, 9, and 10. The observa-
tions are marked with dots, or crosses. The scale needs
no explanation except that for water 300 should be added
_to the ordinates to make the reading as expressed in calories
correct.

_ It will be noted:

i. That the internal latent heat cannot be regarded as a
linear function of the temperature except at low vapor pres-
sures and for a limited range of temperature. Water does

show a linear variation to 230°, but this is due to Regnault’s
linear formula from which the values were obtained. The
values obtained from Ramsay and Young’s observations above

164

Diagram 10.

Ordinates give internal heat of vaporization in calories.

30° show beyond question that the line for water should al
curve perceptibly before that temperature is reached.

2. The curves are all concave towards the temperat
axis. Hexamethylene, di-isobutyl, brom-benzene, and ioc
benzene would not always be concave if the observations wé
exactly followed. But the diagrams themselves add strong
to evidence already pointed out (p. 147, etc.) in indicating th
these values need further study.

3. Except in the case of acetic acid, the internal, late
heat always decreases with the temperature.

4. Several attempts to find a simple empirical formu
connecting the internal latent heat and the temperat
failed. The investigation was not pushed,

1904] Miiis— MoLecuLarR ATTRACTION. 165
‘ +

_ SOME RELATIONS RESULTING FROM THE LATENT HEAT
| EQUATIONS.

By combining equations 6 and 7 we get:

Py. 8P wey Gi DF)

P Far | - 0.031833(V —o)
_ _ 8P 31414 p!

7] P= gy) — Vom + Vii + Vio

» Equations 11 and 12 are not suitable for calculating accu-
itely the pressure, for that value appears as the difference
[two comparatively equal values. We give as an example
Of such application Table 22. Of the substances we
have discussed isopentane is one of the most carefully meas-
ed and the agreement is to within the limit of experimental

| Oe
ror permitted by the equation. The a is obtained from

E io t’s formula. we ses is given under the head-
ng ‘‘a”.
_ Equation 12 will recall the similar equation:
{13] p= ot —a,
Sroposed by Profs. Ramsay and Young", where 4 = a and

oF
@= constant. The equation is applicable where the volume
Mi the gas is kept constant. ‘‘a” has a value dependent upon
| che i
: The a of equation 12 shows the variation of the vapor
! : ssure of a liquid with a rise in temperature, the volume of

ered meanwhile undergoing change. ‘The aa of equa-
ion 13 denotes a change in pressure of a gas, the volume

1Phil. Mag., May, 1887. Phil. Mag., August, 1887. Proc. Phys. Soc.,
1894-95. Proc. Phys. Soc., Vol. 15, Phil. Mag., April 1899. Proc. Phys,
Soc., Vol. 17.

wwey

*

z
166 JOURNAL OF THE MircHety Society. —-[De

being kept constant. A liquid cannot exist above its critic
temperature, and above that point the liquid and its var
are identical. ‘The critical temperature therefore mar
the limit for which the a of equation 12 can be obtaine
; : 5P vie, sP el
but just at that point the ai of the liquid and the oP of
:

vapor at constant volume must be identical. ‘That the

obtained from the Biot formula could not in the nature of

case be accurate at or near the critical temperature we ha

already pointed out (second paper, p. 395). That the var
tion we were there led to expect is quantitively equal to :
actual variation as found for equation.13 we have subs

quently shown (p. 146). It remains to be seen if ‘‘a” of equ

¢ion 13 corresponds to the function ___— 31414 ee
i Vos + V%0% + Viko
equation 12.

At the critical temperature v = V, and therefore we hai

at that point, a
[14] sg = BE ae

Choosing isopentane as being one of the most caref
measured substances, we found for p’ the value 105.4 (Tal
25) and V is 4.266. ‘‘a” therefore becomes 159,400. T
values given by Dr, Young" at volume 4.3 are 157,880 fre
drawn isochors, and 162,890 when calculated from so
values of 6. The agreement in this instance is therefore
be regarded as perfect. if

That the laws of attraction we have assumed enable t
constants of the equation of Ramsay and Young at one poi
to be foreseen and calculated is proof of the most convinci
nature that the theory of the attraction outlined is corre
We are led to believe that, properly modified, the same cons!
erations will elsewhere be successful in a further calculati

1 Proc. Phys. Soc., 1894-95, p. 654.

ARS | Mrrrs—Morecutar ATTRACTION. 167
he se constants. The relation is so full of possibilities
for its adequate consideration will require so extended an
stigation that we postpone the discussion for a separate

ain, combining equations 6 and 8 we obtain:

¥ sP 287500 8

a wie i ma ar

ing to the inaccuracy of Crompton’s equation at low
“pressures at such points equation 15 cannot give accu-
esults. But as the critical temperature is approached
lieve that this equation offers the most accurate method

‘

s8P
Ve ‘ailable for finding the ae

cc ould be exined from direct observations of the pres-
sven when the observations are afterwards smoothed.

T able 23 we apply the equation to isopentane com-
g the results obtained by its aid with those obtained.
B iot’s formula.

giving results far better

Vv
the critical temperature the fraction ap assumes the
rr minate form > Evaluating by diffentiating the
and denominator we find the limit approached at
itical temperature to be see 0.4343 being the modu-
_the Naperian system of logarithms. Therefore we

pthe critical temperature,

2

5P 124860
a eb UIE i
“simple relation. For isopentane we thus get the

ery :
ol mr as 405.9, a result in exact accord with the

>,

397 to 407 as given by Dr. Young’, and thus confirm-
0c. Phys, Soc., 1894-95, p. 950.

168 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY. [ Dec.

ing every conclusion we have hitherto drawn relative to the

dP ; :
value of TE at this point.

Combining equation 16 with 12 and remembering that at |
the critical temperature V =w we have,
124860 T 10471 pw’
Wer Ay ies hel

Applying this equation to isopentane, we have, V = 4.266,
m = 72.1, T = 460.8, w’ = 105.4, and the pressure thus cal- |
culated is 27600 against 25000 observed, an agreement well |
within the limit of experimental error, since the pressure is !
found as a difference.

A more general equation is obtained by combining eqtia-
tions 7 and 8 to obtain

a eee je 9.1522
ny v

[17]

ee T log ~ —w (Wa—WD)t,

an equation which, owing to the divergence shown by Cromp:- |
ton’s theory is not applicable to low pressures. |

We have purposely omitted all reference to those equations |
connecting the latent heat with the specific heat of liquid or
vapor, as it is our purpose at a future time to point out a_
relation existing between the specific heat of solid, liquid,
and vapor, and to discuss such equations in that connection.

A FURTHER APPLICATION OF CROMPTON’S THEORY TO VERIFY |
THE PROPOSED LAW OF MOLECULAR ATTRACTION. }

Following a line of argument already advanced’, if we con-
sider any gas it is reduced to the liquid state by pressure and
by the molecular attraction. In nature the two, pressure and
attraction, act jointly and continuously. But theoretically
we can separate their action, since mechanically all forces are’
independent of each other. Legitimately then, we can con-
sider a liquid at its critical temperature as reduced to that

1 Jour. Phys. Chem., April, 1902, p. 2238.

aT ro 04) MiLt~ts— MoLEcuLaR ATTRACTION. 169

he 4 ensity: First, by the action of a pressure; second, by the
iction of molecular attraction. Accordingly the theoretical
lensity of the gas at its critical temperature and under its
ritical pressure was calculated. The gas would be reduced to
hat condition if there were no molecular attraction. The
mainder of the condensation, to the actual density, must be the
iork of the attraction alone.

| The theoretical critical density can be calculated by the

Y :
q ation,

|
R i
\

Pm
18 Sa 0, 16014 7

f the attraction obeys the law assumed we can use equation
|) 2 to calculate the energy necessary to overcome the attraction
ik nd expand the gas from its observed to its theoretical den-
sity. If to the energy so calculated we add the energy neces-
Sary to overcome the external pressure during the change in
olume, we have the total energy, A+ E,, required by the

Change. The equation will become,
(20) A+E=p' (WT —WD) + 0.031833 P( 5 — =) Cals.

B Crompton’s theory we can calculate the energy neces-
y to change the gas from its observed to its theoretical
d sity as if the change were produced by pressure alone, the
juation being:

2h te He eee d

T lo 0g FH Cals.

= these equations T is the critical temperature, d denotes
etitical density, and D is the theoretical density of the
ap or at the critical point.

| The results of equation 20 are given in Table 24
‘)) under heading Mills. The results from equation 21 are given
der the heading Crompton. ‘The difference is also given
The agreement is as perfect as could be desired. The dif-
gence is usually less than one calorie and amounts to a
vergence of more than four per cent. only in the case of
formal octane and the associated substances. (To these lat-

170 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SocIery. [Dec >

ter neither theory is applicable. )

With the three alcohols others have concluded that at the
critical temperature there 7s no association. With them the
molecular attraction, it will be recalled, changed with the
temperature. Using the values of p’, obtained nearest the
critical temperature, where the effect of the association could ©
be assumed zz/, we obtained the last values given, which are
in good accord with the results given by Crompton.

In Table 24 the critical data, except for water, are from the
measurements of Profs. Ramsay and Young or Dr. Young.
References have been given (second paper).

There is nothing in the method adopted to prevent the
application of equations 20 and 21 to other points than the
critical temperature. Had the equations been combined, an
equation similar to equation 18 would have been produced,
and the above results may be regarded as but a special appli-
cation of that equation.

EXTENSION OF THE THEORY TO THE ENERGY RELATIONS AT
THE CRITICAL TEMPERATURE.

Solving equation 6 of the first paper’ we get:
L —#; mes ree
[22] Rehr ArH m = Ch Ym

where c is the same constant for all non-associated substances,

L — k,

and m is the molecular weight... —————"“—. we have shown
Sey ay D

to be a constant for any particular substance, have called this ©

constant pw’, and have given the average constants for the
substances examined (Table 25). mw represents the absolute
attraction at unit distance from a molecule and: must be
regarded as an exceedingly important and a constant property

of the molecule. The values obtained for noo ele given in

Table 25.
1 Jour. Phys. Ohem., 1902, 4, p. 209.

1904) * = Mit1s—Mo.eEcuLar ATTRACTION. 171

We would here call attention to the fact that for bodies of
similar constitution and closely related chemically the values
of » may be the same, though the observations are not suffici-
ently extended to permit of any definite conclusion. Thus:

Normal pentane, - - - - 457.3
Normal hexane, - - - - - 454.2
Normal heptane, - - - - - 458.6
Normal octane, - - - - - 451.1
But isopentane, - - - - - 438.6

It is well also to note that for the associated substances,
water, the alcohols, and to a less degree for acetic acid where
it is less associated, the values for » are greatly larger than
for the other substances examined, and this very large attrac-
| tion is suggestive in view of the conclusion drawn in the sec-
_ ond paper that quite possibly the molecular association of
_ these substances was caused by the molecular attraction.
Resuming a line of argument followed in the first paper
_ (p. 228) we can test our conclusions further. In a gas indef-
_ inite expansion takes place as the pressure is decreased. This
_ shows that the attraction between the molecules cannot be
_ great enough to make the paths of the molecules closed
_ curves. In a liquid, while undoubtedly many molecules
__ whose velocity is above the average molecular velocity, are
_ .continually flying away from the surface, yet it must cer-
_ tainly be the case that most of the molecules are drawn back
_ by the molecular attraction. There must be for each sub-
_ stance a certain temperature at which the molecular attrac-
Ԥ| tion, without outside pressure, is just strong enough to over-
Ȥ balance the kinetic translational energy of the average parti-
/§ ~=cle and cause it to return to the liquid or solid substance.
7 ion At this point, if the attraction varies inversely as the square
_ Of of the distance between the molecules, we will have from
_ mechanics,

_ where V’ is the molecular velocity and R is the distance apart

‘4
}

172 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY. [Dec.

of the molecules. » is the absolute attraction at unit
distance.

It is a common text book idea that at the critical tempera-
ture the kinetic energy of the molecules of a liquid (gas)
under the critical pressure just balances the attraction.
The idea rests on the diminution and final disappearance of
surface tension at the critical temperature, and the fact that
a liquid at its critical temperature may be changed to a gas
without the addition of external energy, i. e., by an infinitesi-
mal change in pressure, the heat of vaporization being zero.
It must then be at this point that equation 23 will hold good.
Putting therefore for the molecular velocity, V’, its value at

this point vA — (derived as usual, Re being 83,250,000)

——

and for R its value c a — the constant c being unknown,

but equal for all for all substances, we get finally,

In this equation T and d denote respectively the critical
temperature and density, and c’ is the same for all substances.
Using the values for the critical constants as given in Table
24 we obtain for S the values given in Table 25.

Now if our ideas are correct and the absolute attraction p,
given in equations 22 and 24 are the same, and correctly
measured, we have a right to combine these equations and
get:

Bw L — HE,
ie Mae. fe fo.
—“T = constant = a /m » OT,
2 mv d
[25] co wh MS constant,

<i

-
a a

7904] Miris— MoiEecuLtar ATTRACTION. 173

where T must be the critical temperature and d must be the
critical density.

If therefore the values of — given in Table 25 be divided

ph
| me
prove constant for all non-associated substances. The result
of this division is given in Table 25.

The mean value for the non-associated substances is 10.76.
Since the values for »’ are uncertain by about two per cent.,
and since the critical data cannot be measured accurately, the
close agreement can be regarded as exceedingly satisfactory.
A review of the data leads the author to believe that isopen-
tane and normal octane are the only variations that are not
due largely to the values adopted for p’.

Associated substances, a priori, could not agree with the .
equations deduced and they do not. But considering them
more particularly, it will be seen that if at the critical tem-
perature the molecular association had vanished (as is said to
_ be the case for the alcohols), equation 24 would hold. If
instead of the average value obtained for p’ at the lower tem-
peratures, we use the values for the constant obtained near
the critical temperature, equation 22 should also hold, simul-
taneously with equation 24. For water the data near the
critical temperature is lacking, but making use of the proper
values for the alcohols, we obtain the results obtained in
Table 25. These results would evidently be somewhat better
if the observtions of w’ could have been obtained yet nearer
the critical point, and we are thus led to regard these asso-
_ ciated substances as giving a very remarkable confirmation of
_ the theory.

It should be noted that the constant obtained from equa-
tion 25 and given in Table 25 is just one-half of the constant

by the values of given in the same table, the results should

obtained in Trouton’s formula, ae = constant, where T is

the boiling point of a substance. That there is a reason for

174 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY. [ Dec.

this fact we propose later to show in connection with a paper
applying the law of attraction to the boiling point.

In conclusion we again point out that we are indebted to
Drs. Ramsay and Young and to Dr. Young, for nearly every
measurement used in this article. And we would again
express our great appreciation of the accuracy of these meas-
urements and acknowledge our obligation to them.

SUMMARY.

1. Several facts bearing upon the results of the last paper
are discussed. These facts confirm the law of attraction

assumed by making it most clear that py does equal
a constant (designated p’),. for normally constituted sub-
stances, and that the equation is applicable with equal exact-
ness in the immediate neighborhood of the critical tempera-

ture.
2. An equation, L = 2RT log, os proposed’ by Mr. H.

Crompton was investigated, and it was found that at low
temperatures, where the vapor pressure is small, the results
given by the equation are invariably, and usually very consid-
erably, too large. But at higher temperatures the results are
correct.

3. Crompton’s equation was shown at the critical temper-
ature to give results confirming the law of attraction assumed.
(Equations 21 and 22.)

V
log —

4. It was shown that, vid see pic ae id , within cer-
8 T m V—v

tain limits.
5. It was shown that at the critical temperature the fol-
lowing relations hold true:

_.8P 10471 p’
(a) ek i ee

— sestgog) = Mizts— Morecunar:Arrraction. ats 175

dP 124860
(2) ST. mV”
[ce] let = constant,

the last being an interesting confirmation of the law of
attraction assumed.

6. It was shown that at the critical volume ‘‘a” of the
equation, ~= dT —a, becomes identical with the. term,
10471 p’
eee

7. ‘The variation of the latent heat of vaporization with
the temperature is discussed.

University of North Carolina,
August, 1904.

ADDENDUM.

Since this paper was written, a letter has been received

from Dr. Young, giving the values of the nee

ide. The pressures ise in the origInal paper are correct as

for ethyl ox-

are the values of the Les below 180° C. The corrected val-

ues above that temperature are given below, together with the
corrected values of the heat vaporization and of wu’.

Temp. |< Pe eemeniod L L—E, pb’

oE
185° 354.9 26.18 22.36 yey:
190 374.1 19.21 16.42 96.4
192 382.2 14.66 12.52 93.5
193 385.8 LETT 9:53 90.7
194 389.8 —— es a
194.45 391.6 —— aay ari

176 JouRNAL OF THE MITCHELL SocrEty. [Dec.

Dr. Young gives 194.45° as probably very nearly the true
critical temperature, and 3.814 as’the true critical volume of
a gram. By interpolation of the results given by Profs. Ram-
say and Young (Phil. Mag. May, 1887, p. — for the equa-

tion P= 6T—a, the true value for the at this volume
appears to be 436. Thus the = from Biot’s formula at the

critical temperature is about ten per cent. too low, an amount
which is not quite sufficient to explain the decrease in the
value of »’ at the higher temperatures. But above 180° C,
owing to hydrolysis of the methyl salicylate used as a heat-
ing jacket, the data is somewhat uncertain.

It should be noticed that equation 16 of the present paper

gives 441.9 as the value of the oe

a result which agrees well with the value 436 given below,
thus confirming what has been said as to the wanigis sf of
that equation.

at the critical temperature,

November 1, 1904.

TABLE 1.

Ethy) Oxide.
g Heat of Vaporization. |
ie eee Sg
§ ua | 3
sal AG a q = ay
eee) ee le
= = P= 6) Ay

ks A aaa eS ; 110!
TABLE 38.
. Di-isobutyl.
g | Heat of Vaporization.
p [CLAS SEER al BOREL
8 ;
o | Ag S
Fi | g{ ge]
= S)
a = >
A | = =) 6 6
0 | 80.99 | 78.62*| 91.35 | 149
100 | «69.25 | 67,52*, 69, 46 | 196 |
120 =| 68.79 | 6415] 64.99 1195 |
140 | 59.84 60.70 ; 60.78 | 197 |
160 | 56.30} 57.01 | 56.57 | 199

180 53.05 | 58.10 | 52.28 | 201

TABLE 2,

Di-isopropyl.

Heat of Vaporization.'

a
3
~~
5 gaa
o
o o e gS
| o = °
a) fs! hay a
a = a 6)

0 85.11 | 85.40 | 94,24
60 76.90 | 76.42 | 79.91
80 72.86 | 72.66, 75.18

100 | 68.28 | 68.45; 70.15 |
120 | 63.57 | 68.85 | 64.98
140 | 08.58 | 58.75 | 59.46
160 52.70 | 62.87 58.23
180 45.86 | 45.90 | 45.99 |
200 | 87.15 37.16) 37.05
210 31.09 | 31.31) 31.16 |
220 22.14; 22.79 | 22.59
225 14.57 | 15.40] 15.23
DOT GO) |e e | LENS ER
|

+

TABLE 4.
Isopentane,

= Heat of Vaporization.
~ ly eee ee ee eee
5 a8
| ® = )

o oq q DA
| =~ = 6)

0 88.86 | 87.45* 95.92
20 82.91 | 83.52 | 89.98 |
40 78.69 | 79.44. 84.46 |
60 | 74.56 75.00 | 78.96 |
80 | 70.00 | 70.12 | 73.26 |

100 | 64.78 | 64.56 | 67.09
120 | 58.62 | 58.19; 60.16

140 61.07 | 50.52! 52.00
160 41.27 | 40.88 | 41.84
180 24.65 | 25.05 | 25.54
185 16.47 | 17.17 | 17.46
187 10.48 | 11.08! 11.25
187.4 8.07 8. 69 8.81
Se Gules eee eee

TABLE 6.
Normal Hexane.

TABLE 5,
Normal Pentane.

RRES5RRR8R

RRBBRESSLBR

SSERSSHSUSAE |
1

Heat of Vaporization.
=
=
90. 33

| ‘1OUL

eo
e1nyesed 19, | “SR8RSSR89R53

| coun

SAAPORE Dae ow |
‘0001’ Ad | SASSAARAR SAAS

EEE tO DDS Mim ’
re

“mo} Te a Se OO eS eee rv

“dwolg | SRR ESSRBAL™S

TABLE 8.
Normal Octane.

‘a1n} Rod UID, | oR LELSALS

“STIUIAL | NHS SSMSrsigsrad

| PAS wean wean
“OULD 8 65 S15 Boiss 18 iG S00
[= Sr OOO MON SS

‘Heat of Vaporization.

“TABLE 7
Normal Heptane.

|
}
|
|
|

for) one lor}

ES AAaR SSeS
A luo, |SBBSSRRSSN5 |
S| -dmoig | SRSSSRSASSE |
fe * * 1
J ; BsRESRREERS |
g | MUN SRSSERCISAS |
| -————--— -- —--_—_-- — Bt na eS
a
2) | |SR82S5852R9 |
C ON | ESSSEEASBAS

|
|

280
290
296.2 |_---

Loe Ae Be |

|
Geel - $ a o
. ot co 00 ~ ~~
wor/aa | SARRAARRSBANEE
| € ino, |RSSESRSRRARRS
S| dwoio | SSersdesesase
N
Rl iT
eH
E| | Ssesansesaaay
KR IN | ZERRESASSENS@
ae Say ny Se aaeeeee
°
S | SYSSALSHSVASB
au |e A SSB
: WL | SS SHEARS re igo

wo
swniodes “BESSS ESRF REAR

'

See wares 5 aoe

| 0r/ Ad | AARBEBRARAR ASH | coor/aa | aeeeeae 5 i

ec Sir ae ee \d | BEARRRAR IN®
1 7 % a

| Suny | SSBRSARRSIARS | El-un |S88sseass ||

a2 = = 1 Tee) (aa, eee a Le A Re ee et WE ee See i '

. F duroig | SESERESSSBRSS sf 3 “duo | EERRESSBS
aries = Pe = es 1. q | See |e ee ee ee
SE S| ne | eBBaNSSSSeae | Sei | RABeReeas’ | |
aS EASAS Bess Srl ; Ha | 3 “STITT | 2 i 4515 gi 0d mii
z : : ° etenicaa ae cS E < 3 | Sere SBeS5 :
ew i NAD ID ODONMIDD | 3 ° ees

ei] | wat|Soosedccaaded | He S| song | SBSSSSS8e | |

iH SSERSESSSBASZ | Oo} “| BERSSESEE i
See ed Lr ee ee oll '
wD
‘a.1n}¥.10d und, | = : 3
model | OBR SSSSRSSenRe semerodaial | “RE SRASaNAS
eeaeasa6y6y)66—=aooaa0»=_osasS eye ee — ——— =
0001 Ad | SAESRSSSSSELES | 0001 Ad /EXSRSSAR send
ARARSRSSARAAS aa | BARRSSRRRRSS
8 uo, |SSS8NSS8SRS5 | d CYRISAN ROM |
= | duo |HSESEAESSSSS | 2 | Ythor | Sasecededsde |
aon EE | 3 g -AULOI) SSSERSSHSBIBA
sa/ 5 |ebSereageene | a8 5 ~|gubengeeness |
RS] EF | oN ectcdadaceiee || a ee ee debetadntcl a
BE |S ESSeseesesgu | a 2 K] Secnsssssesa |
1 EES apeeeg ree: or ere ae 62:3 \- = lpawceceanates
$| wasleccrseecdaae | | EF) 2! rouz| SSSaSRSaRSES |
| SAR RXSSSSH . | I SSERSESBRTBA '
ean eo caesar
‘ainqeiod uray, SSSRLSLSIISR¥ .
Saus x ainyeied O18], | o o :
| i RERSSLSRRRRR

az8 |S
. ESRESRa
“du ga |

-
gi
6 |
ee, 4 -dmoig | SBI5S |
5 Pee Peete
ae laaesenn | |
: ; S| MUN Beases | |
Sl ——————
Regie! leexaege | |
mie | Un) geRGaSas | |
‘o1nye1od 19], a SERASERAS
ae PRE (5 38
wor/aalsaeeneen ea
Eu, |seaguaee ||
é F -Am01N | FSSGASRR | |
" a 8 \Rebeasana | |
g S| NN edaBdeass | |
PE eneananas | |
g | “dandasase |

|

-
‘ornyesod Ma, | SESSSRISRRS

TABLE 16.

Stannic Chloride.

ii Heat o:

TABLE 15.
Carbon Tetrachloride.

D.

| SRBRABBRRB
| “SU

SAIBLSEBS
PAL | RAgKKANRSS

f Vaporizatio:
a
|
4
2)
42.19
33.29
3L. 67

- 30.
28.

59 26.

; 24

| 22.99
20. 88

== Aas —
“Elan [Rae

‘000I/ Ad

acesare ach
MUM | gladsdedanas s

|BRARSIERRES
tid ta UERBBRARS

aaacadniae! oe
MOG OBR SRBA RRS

“Heat of Vaporization.

CaS ieee terete eo ene
| | 3 ) -du019 USAR RSA SS etS™
re ae

= 3] § aaegsenceesades .
HS S| UN IRARRRARRSERSESS |
'

a¢| % sHaRe MoSoraAAm eR |
a § tl | RARARAAA SEEPS |

'

| tees a

straper rd PWRISREASSSAR RARE

Siu | gareesuzsencaae |

q | -dmoun | RESSSSERBASEITE |

|
tell sngs seaagcedeas |
‘Sa E eee BBE SRASS SS SIRS |
F : rr ale tate arf
. =)
s NL | SEbRBadm aes SoBe

TABLE 20
Propyl Alcohol.

TABLE 19.
Ethyl Alcohol.

Heat of Vaporization.

Heat of Vaporization.

wor/ na | RBBRRRERERAS

a easaeeoeen |

BOERS

"m04
-duroip

HOD OD SH XH HCO OU re Pr CO 001

ICCB Pap aCe Ee
CON tt te

“STLEA

DPDOMAMAHANHANON ORS

‘IOUL | SSSSSSSESASESA

SSS See

ae

Le)
‘ernyerod ure, | PRISRSRISRSRIIS

TABLE 21,
Acetic Acid.

= Heat of Vaieribation, | g Heat of Vaporization.|
re | = ia an EE
Ss ° .
3 S| 5 | Ad ues
5 p | 8 | 2 | ee
= o | & a a cee ES
| 200 85.55 |_-_._..| 115.78 | - 264
| 220 82.02 |...------| 106.'72 286
'| 240 rc 97.21 |
260 (220) poe eee 86.44 284
280 63. 89" aie bee 73.61 | 272
300 48.95) se ae 56.86, 248
310 Ole dl) pase 44.37 | 216
320 1804) |e eee 22.67 | 164 .
321.65 | SESH OPER tee
| i
TABLE 22.
Isopentane.
7 AAT DMO eG PT Tn MRA n ts.
= ) Pressure.
| |
_
Sha) iE aa Oe oe
5 | a Nive
a ! 8 oe) 9

11.16 3047 2742 305 258
21.04 6165 5639 526 573
35. 66 | 2

55.73 | 18558 | 16634 1924 2036

ss88o

180 335.9 | 152163 | 132410 | 19758 22262
187.8 | 367.8 | 169480 | 159420 | 10060 25005

TABLE 28.
Isopentane.

3 | — i — — —— —————<————

M j

=

= | ] per BP trom OE eae

5 °F» OT on

Fi | a ° V—v pequati’n Biot

ea | 4 La

0 2.768 | 915.8 003022 12.05 11.16

20 2.419 422.4 005725 22. 83 21.04
* 40 2.126 | 221.5 .009598 | = 38.27 85.66

60 | 1, 868 126 2 . 01480 59. 00 55.73

80 1. 635 | 76.1 . 02147 85. 61 81.85
100 1.417 47.56 .02980 | 118.82 114.70
120 1. 206 30. 20 .03993 | 159.22 155. 18
140 9920 19.00 .05221 | 208.16 204. 42
160 7612 11.34 . 06712 267.6 264.0

80 - 4442 5.09 . 08728 ; 348. 0 335. 9
187.4 1508 1.503 1003 399.9 366.4

MeO eee sae e 1018 405.9 367.8

Substance.

Molecular
Weight.

ee 74.08

i | 84.10
Re ee | 96.09
enna | 112.5
i“ 157.0
te. | 203.9

TABLE 24.

104.4

co
°
J
on

TABLE 24—Continued.,

Critical.
' | o
I ov
ae =
ge i 8
BE | te
194.0 | 27060
227.35 | 23330
276.8 | 18640 |
187.8 | 25005 |
197.2 | 25063
934.8 | 22483
266.9 | 20399
296.2 | 18734
288.5 | 36895
279.95 | 30234
286.55 | 33912
360.7 | 33962
397.0 | 33912
448.0 | 33912

Substance.

—

BESZSSHS

REALHRS"

LD]
NZERSE

BSSES

Density.

TABLE 25.

. |
; be pb
Substance. | B& _ —
,
eG

Oar eh See NE TE a ee 104.4 438.5 42, 23

ID ABO PTO pyle 2 ee a 98.08 433.1 41.23

Diisebutyie.2 2 Ao oS 86.30 418.6 37.78

ene ENE 2 2 AGL TES | 105.4 438.6 43.14

ormal pentane 109.9 457.3 44.15

Morma) hexane .22 02 0) 1 ee a eee 102. 85 454. 2 42.24

Normal heptane 98.75 458. 6 40. 62

Iwerma lactam hee) 328 EU ane eee 93.00 451.1 39.34
demmerie: Gea. 2 See se Ns Se 109.5 468.0 43.415 |

Hexametigiene... 220 2 lo ee ee ee ee ae | 453.8 44,38

TGIG-DCNZOMR. — 228 0 ee EE a ee 85. 60 | 392.3 35. 86

Ohicgre-benvene- 2 20> 2 aes ee ee 81.19; 391.9 36.38
eom-benzene,. i670 hs Se ee 56. 12 302.8 27.76 .

TORO-DCN FOES. 03> 2h) 2 Se Sa eee 44.40 | 261.3 23. 64

Gatbon tesrachloridie) ot oo 0 ee eee eee 44.09 236. 2 22.32

Staunic chloride 2.22 2 ee ee eee 26.04 166.4 15. 28

(aster Ss. 5 fees 2 ee eee eee 553.3 1450.8 | 123.00

tiMeth yl alcohol 2260 ee ok ee ae ee 305.0 968.6 78. 56

tiny alcohol fb OR ee eee 241.2 864.5 61. 04

Proepy) aieohol oS en See eee 199.2 780.1 53. 64

Peat C caren ce es ee ee eee 130.0 509.1 55. 00
PinyLaleonol 8 es eee eee 823.8 js
Nihylaleanol 33:2 scsi ba ee 197.2 706. § 22 ee
Propylalcohol so ee ee lode 614.8 |. eee

—

1BR any
caw YORE
JOURNAL por anichl
: OF THE gaxva

EiisHA MircHeit ScieNTIFIc SociETY.
N (Official Publication of the N..C. Academy of Science)
VOL. XXI MARCH, 1905 . NO. 5

A DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE OF THE MAMMALS
BK OF NORTH CAROLINA, EXCLUSIVE
OF THE CETACEA.

BY C. S. BRIMLEY.
f This list is intended to represent our present knowlédge of
the Occurrence and distribution of the land Mammals found
Within the limits of the State of North Carolina, together
rith keys to the orders, families and genera, and brief descrip-
ti ons of the various species.
Bh: The keys are mainly adapted from Mr. G. S. Miller’s ‘‘Key
{ to the Land Mammals of Northeastern North America,” but
some use has also been made of Dr. Jordan’s well known
“Manual of the Vertebrates.”
ti ‘The material on which this list is based is as follows:

yh
aM

2
.

COLLECTIONS oF MAMMALS MADE 1n Nortu CAROLINA.

1. A collection of the smaller mammals of Bertie county
Hade for the author and his brother by Mr. T. A. Smithwick,
Jalke, and Mr. J. W. P. Smithwick, of Sans Souci, in
2, 1893, and 1894. ‘The collection comprised nineteen
€ cies, the largest being the Flying Squirrel and a list of
a was published by the author in the American Naturalist,
larch, 1897.
; ee otmnens received from Mr. J.S. Cairus (now deceased),

its i} 0 a ee

2 JourNAL oF THE Mrrcnett Socrety. [March

of the smaller mammals of that region, the largest being the |

Red Squirrel. A Starnosed Mole was also received from Mrs.
Cairns after ber husband’s death. (Collecting was done from
about 1891 to 1894. )

3. In 1872 Jr. Elliott Coues collected a number of natural
history specimens near. Fort Macon and published notes on
them, cighteen species mainly of the larger mammals being
observed. .

4. In 1897 Mr. R. T. Young collected small mammals in
Currituck and Perquimans counties. The results of his col-
lecting were published by Mr. S. N. Rhoads.

5. Collection from Roan Mt. in 1897 made by Mr. S.N.
Rhoads.

6. Collections from Roan Mt. in 1887, 1892, 1893 and 1894
made by and for the United States Biological Survey. |

7. Skulls and skins of a number of furbearing mammals |
trapped by Mr. Walton E. Stone from 1897 to 1900 in the |
neighborhood of Rosebay, Hyde county. |

8. From about 1888 to 1900 my brother and myself collected |
small mammals near Raleigh, in Wake county, alist of which |
was published in the American Naturalist, May 1897. |

9. Specimens received by the State Museum at Raleigh |
from various parts of the State. These have been mainly of |
the larger species.

II. ReEcorps oF NortTH CAROLINA MAMMALS.
Records of North Carolina mammals scattered through the }

papers of American Mammalogists. (A list of all papers con-
sulted by the author will be found at the end of the catalogue.) |

III. Lists oF THE LARGER AND BETTER KNowN MAmmaAts. |}

Lists of the larger and better known mammals of their |
vicinity received from Messrs. J. H. Armfield, Guilford county; |

>:
5) |§ Brimixy—CaTarocuy or Mammats. 3
ne :
Ww. Collett, Cherokee county; R. D. Foxhall, Edgecombe
a N. W. Fain, Buncombe county; K. KE. Shore, Forsyth
aty; T. A. Smithwick, Bertie county; Dr, J. W. P. Smith-
Lenoir county; Miss Maggie Wicker, Moore county; and
4 Basic Wilson, Cherokee county, to all of whom I am
‘y much indebted for the information furnished.
ees are also due to Messrs. H. H. Brimley, Curator
® Museum, Raleigh, N. C.; Dr. Witmer Stone, Academy
Bineal Sciences, Dus uaintie: G. S. Miller, Jr., United
tes National Museum; S. N. Rhoads, Philadelphia; Dr. J.
Allen, American Museum of Natural History, New York;
tam Bangs, Boston, Mass.; and especially to Dr. G. Hart
tiam, Chief of the United States Biological Survey, for
rim ation given and assistance rendered.
he class Mammalia comprises warm blooded vertebrates,
ally clothed with hair and never with feathers. A number
ther characteristics define the class, but the warm blood
ingtishes it from all other classes of animals except the
$ and these are distinguished from mammals by the
ence of feathers.
Bite following catalogue the orders and families are
nged in the same sequence as in *Jordan’s Manual.
it species and subspecies are credited herein to North
lina, and are numbered serially from 1 to 66. Nine other
ies, not yet known to occur are added in brackets without
bers, in their proper places. Some ofthe forms included
be really the same as other allied forms also included, or
1; ed different, but I have tried to use as good judg-
as Was possible in the matter.

rO THE ORDERS OF LAND MAMMALS OCCURRING IN NORTH
‘a CAROLINA.

oo!

a

211 male generally (always in our species) provided with a
pouch in which the young are carried for a time

A
nal of the Vertebrates of the Northern United States, by D. S.
n, » Chicago, 1899, A. C. McClurg & Co,

Sais)
. yi ; Mf
4 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL Soc :

b. Fore limbs modified to serve as wings. Order I
Cheiroptera (Bats).

bb. Fore limbs not modified to serve as wings.

c. Toes provided with hoofs. Order III]. Ungulata

(Deer, Cattle, etc.) |

cc. Toes not furnished with hoofs, but with claws oi

some sort. a

d. Front teeth chisel shaped and separated from jaa

teeth by a wide space. Order IV. Glire

(Squirrels, Rats, Mice, Rabbits, etc.)

dd. Front teeth not chisel shaped, tooth row neat
of quite continuous, .

large, eyes well developed, muzzle a
greatly clongated. Order V. Ferae
(The flesh eaters, Cats, Dogs, Foxe
Bears, ctc.)
ee. Brain small, not highly developed.

mentary, muzzle elonzate. Order ¥,
Insectivora. (Moles and Shrews.)

— —

ORDER I. MARSUPIALIA.

FAMILY DIDELPHIDAE (THE OPOSSUMS).

hind feet with five toes each, the outer one of which is cl
less and thumb-like. Our only genus is,

GENUS DIDELPHIS, L.

1. Didelphis virginiana, Kerr. Common Opossum. B ack

. ea
] Brimvev—Cararocur or Mammats. 5

ried with grayish white, ears naked, leathery. *L. 28. T.

The Opossum is found throughout the whole State even
the most thickly settled portions.

\

ORDER II. GLIRES.
(THE RODENTS OR GNAWERS.)

] ront teeth long, chisel-shaped; cheek teeth broad, short,
at-crowned, a wide toothless space between the front teeth
id cheek teeth.

Five of the American families of this group are found in
orth Carolina, and may be distinguished as follows:

FAMILIES OF GLIRES.

Upper front teeth four, the second pair small and placed
_ directly behind the first pair. Family Leporidae.
(Hares and Rabbits.)

a. Upper front tecth two.

‘b. Tail very broad, flattened from above downwards.

. Family Castoridae. (Beavers.)

bb. Tail round or flattened from side to side.

c. At least four well developed grinding teeth on each

side in each jaw. Tail bushy. Family Sciuridae.

(Squirrels. )

cc. Never more than three well developed griuding teeth
in each jaw, tail close haired or nearly naked.

d, Hind feet not greatly Mae Family Muridae.

(Rats and Mice.)
dd. Hind feet and tail greatly elongated. Family
Ks Dipodidae. (Jumping Mice.)

ee
‘an
y

¥.)

*] i=total length of animal from tip of nose to end of tail bone (not to
al 1 of hairs on end of tail).

T T=length of tail from root to end of vertebrae (not to end of hairs),
a surements are in inches.

6 JOURNAL oF ‘THE MrrcHELt, Society. "a

FAMILY LEPORIDAE. (THE RABBITS. ¥:

Upper front teeth four, the second pair small and a
directly behind the others, which are grooved in front, teeth
28 in all. Tail short, recurved, eyes large, ears long, soles)
furred. The family includes the single genus Lepus, two?
species of which are found in North Carolina.

GENUS LEPUS, L.

a. Post orbital process fused with the skull (subgenus
Limnilagus).

2. L. palustris, Bachm. Marsh Rabbit. Yellowish brown:
tail very short, ashy not white, below. L. 17. T. 1. Ear 2%:
Found in the marshes of the eastern part of the State, extend
ing’as far north as Hyde county and as far east as ‘Lenoir
county.
aa. Post orbital processes not fused with the skull, but touchin

it behind enclosing a-foramen (subgenus Sylvilagus.)

3. L. floridanus mallurus Thomas. Cottontail Rabbitt
Much grayer than the preceding, the tail twice as long,
cottony white below. L.18. T.2. Ear 2%, hind foot 3%
Common throughout the whole State. ‘

(The Southern Varying Hare, Lepus americanus virgin’
anus Harlan, a member of a third subgenus Lepus, whi
has the post orbital processes free behind, occurs in the Alle
ghanies-as far south as Virginia. This is rusty brown above,
the tail dull yellowish or whiti h below. L. 19. T. 2. Har 3.
Hind foot 5%.)

FAMILY DIPODIDAE (JERBOAS AND JUMPING MICE).

Front teeth two in each jaw, in our species grooved i
front, cheek teeth usually four on each side in upper ja
(three in one species). There is only one American gen us
two species of which occur in the State. 4

pate TS
» ae
neue

7905) | Brim~xy—CaraLocur or Mammats. 7

Bs iY GENUS ZAPUS, COUES.

a. A small, probably useless, tooth in front of first well devel-
_ oped grinder in upper jaw. Teeth 18 in number. Tau
.. an our species brown to the extreme tip (subgenus Zapus).

_ 4. Z hudsonius americanus Barton. Southern Jumping
Mouse. Back dusky brown faintly tinged with reddish buff,
_ sides reddish buff very slightly grizzled; under parts white
: tinged with yellowish. L. 7%. T. 4%. Hind foot 1%. Only
_ known in this State from Wake county (Raleigh), the most
southern locality it has been recorded from.

«+5. Z. hudsonius hudsonius Zimmermann. Northern Jump-
ing Mouse. Back yellowish brown; sides light grayish buff,
slightly sprinkled with black, belly white tinged with yel-
lowish. L.8%. T.5%. Hind foot 13-16. Known only in
this State from Roan Mt., the most southern locality from
which it is known.

-aa. Vo small tooth in front of first well developed grinder in
upper jaw, teeth 16; tail more or less tipped with white
3 (subgenus Napaezapus).

6. Z. insignis roanensis Preble. Roan Mt. Jumping Mouse.
Sides bright tawny ochraceous; yack much darker. Under
parts pure white. Tail more or less tipped with white.
“L. 83%. T.5%. Hind foot 1 3-16. Known only from the
evergreen forests of Roan Mt. /
FAMILY MURIDAE.

nm

_ Front teeth two, cheek teeth never more than three in each
jaw. In the species that occur within our limits the hind
b eet and legs are never greatly elongated for jumping. Ten
of the numerous genera occur in the State, one genus with its
three or four species being an introduction from the old
world, the remaining nine genera are all natives.

va. Grinding teeth with tubercles arranged in three transverse
rows, very distinct in teeth of upper jaw (subfam.
Murinae, Old World Rats and Mice). Genus Mus,

aa. Grinding teeth with tubercles in two rows or or without sé

) tinct tubercles of any kind. Bel
b. Crowns of grinding teeth with tubercles in LW row 7S
oh bb. Crowns of grinding teeth divided into loops or triangle: 3,
if (subfam. Cricetinae, American Rats and Mice).
wh) c. Upper front teeth grooved, size small.
GENUS RerTHRODONTOMNS,

cc. Upper front teeth not grooved. a
d. Tail as long as or longer than head and bode total
leneth of adults 9 inches or over, fur coarse. \

Genus Oryzomys. —

dd. Tail much shorter than head and body, total length
of adults 9/2 inches or over, form stout, fur

coarse. GENUS SIGMODON. ~

LER ddd. Total length of adults under 8 inches, fur fine and a
} soft, belly white. Tail as long. as head and — .
hat body orsomewhat shorter. Genus Peromyscus.
Lape e. Upper front teeth narrow, compressed; tail always ©
Meat eyes and ears large, belly white, (subfam. — y:

aa se Neotominae, Wood Rats and Cave Rats). i a
AAI Grnus Neoroma. ‘f
Ni ee. Upper front teeth broad; tail usually short; ears and —
bi | eyes small; belly generally not white (sub- ;
it fam. Microtinae, Voles and Lemmings). ©
f. Lower front teeth short, their roots terminating onl

ban inner side of grinders (upper front teeth 3
ey grooved in our species). a i
GENUS SyNAPTOMYS.

ff. Lower front teeth long, their roots extending under f
posterior erinding teeth into outer side |

eat } of jaw. eS
Ng g. Tail flattened sideways, size large. GENUS FIBER. f
A ge. Tail round, size small or medium. a
he h. Grinding teeth without roots (prongs).
GENUS MrcRores.

hh. Grinding teeth with roots (prongs) in adults.
GENUS Bvorouys

ys

GENUS us, L. (Introduced Rats and Mice).

7%. Mus musculus L, House Mouse. Brownish gray, paler
- below. L. 63%. T. 334. Very common in houses and largely
go in fields also.

8. M. alexandrinus Geoff, St. Hil. Roof Rat. Brown,
_ under parts white. Tail as long or longer than head and
Brody: about size of Mus rattus. Common at Raleigh and
probably the common house rat of the whole State.

(M. rattusL. Black Rat. Blue black darker on the back,
‘more slaty on the belly. L. 1534. T. 8%. Tail as-in the
Roof Rat about as long as head and body. The Black Rat
4 was formerly wide spread in the eastern United States, but
i has been in the north almost exterminated by the Brown Rat.

it very probably occurs or has occurred in the past, but we
4 have no records. ) | ‘
9. M. norvegicus Erxl. Brown Rat, Wharf Rat. Brownish
x above, grayish below, tail shorter than head and body. L.
a ) 15%. T. 7%. 'The common house rat of the north as
- alexandrinus is of the south, but the only record we have for
North Carolina is that of Coues, who says they were common
i in the vicinity of Fort Macon in 1870. ;

ee
> ©
4

en

GENUS SIGMODON (Cotton Rats).

| 10. S. hispidus Say & Ord. Cotton Rat. Upper parts
_ brown coarsely and irregularly varied with brownish black,
brownish white below. Form short and stout. L. 10%. -T.
4. Only recorded in this State from Raleigh, where it is
abundant, but undoubtedly occurs commonly tore het the
g eater part of eastern North Carolina.

r ' GENUS REITHRODONTOMYS, GIGLIOLI (Harvest Mice).
ee :
| 11. Lezthrodontomys lecontez lecontec Aud & Bach. Harvest

"Mouse. Light brown above, whitish beneath. L. 5. T. 236.

] V ch like a House Mouse but smaller and distinguished by
“tf

its s grooved front teeth and furry ears. Has only been taker .

10 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY. _ Ma
in Wake and Bertie counties, where it is common, but dou! b t-
less occurs throughout the greater part of the State.

(Re:throdontomys lecontet impiger Bangs. Virginia Har
vest Mouse. Russet brown above, dull white below. L. 4%.”
T. 2. Common at White Sulphur Springs, West Virginia, ©
and therefore probably occurs in the northeastern part of the’
State but seems scarcely distinct from the preceding.)

GENUS PEROMYSCUS, GLOGER (Deer Mice).

12. P. leucopus Raf. Deer Mouse. Tail 40 to 45 per cent.”
of total length. Chestnut brown above, pure white below
sharply defined against the color of the sides, tail bicolor.”
Young bluish gray. L. 6%. T. 3. Hind foot 1 3-162)
Common in Wake, Bertie, Buncombe, Perquimans and Curri-
tuck counties, and probably throughout the whole State.

13. P. canadensis nubiterrae Rhoads. Cloudland Deer
Mouse. Dull brownish above, white below, the two colors”
sharply defined; tail as long as head and body with a tuft of
hairs at tip. L.634. T. 3%. Only known from Roan Mt.
in Mitchell county.

14. P. gossypinus Leconte. Cotton Mouse. Dark browr
aboye with broad darker dorsal band, under parts gray, feet
and hands grayish white. Young blackish slate gray above,
slate gray beneath. L. 7. T.2%. ‘This species replaces its
smaller relative (P. iicosess in the southeastern United
States and in this State most probably occurs throughout the
whole southeastern portion but is so far only known to occut
in Bertie and Currituck counties.

15. P. nuttali Harlan. Golden Mouse. Golden cinnamon
above, yellowish white beneath passing gradually on the sides
into the color of the back. Tail unicolor. Young similat
to the adults in color. L. 6. T. 2%. An arboreal species
building its nest 6 to 12 feet high in reeds or bushes in low
land thickets. Probably common throughout most of the
State, as it has been taken in Bertie, Wake, Halifax, Per
quimans, and Buncombe counties.

i el
} ie
a 16. O. palustris Harlan. Ricefield Rat. Dark brown
_ above, whitish below, ears short, furry, tail about as long as
head and body, hind feet large. L. 9%. T. 434. A semi-
; aquatic species inhabiting cattail swamps and marshes from
Florida to New Jersey. In this State it has only been taken
- in Wake county (Raleigh), where it is not uncommon in
4 ‘suitable situations.

GENUS ORYZOMYS, BAIRD (Marsh Rats).

‘ GENUS NEOTOMA, SAY & ORD (Wood Rats. )

. 17. WV. pennsylvanica Stone. Alleghany Cave Rat. Grayish
above, white below. Tail sharply bicolor. L.16%. T. 734.
i Common in caves and rocky woods throughout the Allegha-
“nies. Only known in this State from Roan Mt., Mitchell
county.

) CW. floridiana Ord. Wood Rat. Brownish gray
“above, the sides more yellowish, white below, tail furry,
bicolor. L.16. T.7%. Ihave had nests described to me by
_ colored men, who said they had seen them many years ago in
4 the eastern part of the State, which might have belonged to
_ this species. So far as I know, however, it is not known to

occur nearer here than southern Georgia. )

GENUS SYNAPTOMYS, BAIRD.

>

gray and yellowish brown above, thickly sprinkled with black;
Sinty white below. L. 4%. T. 34. Only known in this State
from Roan Mt., Mitchell county, and Chapanoke, Perquimans
county. Tniiabits sphagnum bogs.

GENUS FIBER, CUVIER (Muskrats).

19. &. zibethicus L.. Muskrat. Color brown, much suffused
with yellowish and reddish (or black above and below, or
black above and paler below than in the common form). LL.
24. 'T. 1034. Common along streams throughout the State.

\

18. S. coopert Baird. Cooper’s Lemming. Color grizzled

Briuwtkeyv—CaTaLocué oF MAMMALS. VT

i]

- } | ; 3 Bea, < 4
12 JouRNAL oF THE MrtcHett Society. — [1 larch

The black form with pale belly is not uncommon at

Raleigh, and we have also had it from Hyde county. Theall — i

black form we have only seen from Hyde county.

20. /. macrodon, Merriam. Dismal Swamp Muskrat.
‘Color very much darker and teeth very much larger, other-.
wise as in /. zzbethicus” (Jordan’s Manual) described from ©

‘Dismal Swamp, Virginia, but undoubtedly has no respect for
State lines.

GENUS MICROTUS, SCHRANK (Meadow Mice or Voles).

21, MW. pennsylvanicus pennsylvanicus Ord. Meadow Mice.
Upper parts dark brown, much sprinkled with black, under
parts gray. L. 6%. T. 2. Common at Raleigh and in

Mitchell and Buncombe counties. ‘The common mouseof wet

meadows, but occurring sparingly on the uplands. Not
known south of North Carolina, except in the mountains.

22. M. pennsylvanicus nigrans Rhoads. Albemarle Meadow
Mouse. Above dark brownish slate black, dark brown on
sides, under parts dark brown. L. 7. T. 2. Only known
from Currituck, Currituck county, the type locality.

23. M. pinetorum pinetorum LeConte. Pine Mouse. Fur

dense velvety and mole like, eyes and ears very small, claws

on forefeet longest. Color above chestnut, ashy below, young
slaty. L.5. T. %. Common at Raleigh and in Bertie and
Currituck counties, and probably throughout the State. This
species digs burrows of its own or follows the mole runs under
ground, feeding on such crops as peanuts, sweet potatoes 7
and Irish potatoes without the damage being evident till the ~
crop is dug. |

24. M. pinetorum scalopsoides Aud & Bach. Northern Pine ©
Mouse. Adults reddish brown, lighter than in fpzmetorum. ia
One specimen from Magnetic City, Mitchell county, and two
from Currituck referred to this form by Bailey (JV. A, Fauna,
Vo. 17, 1900).

GENUS EVOTOMYS, COUES.

25. £. carolinensis Merriam. Carolina Redbacked Mouse. 4

Brimtey—CaTaLocur or Mammats. 13

; _ Ears large, projecting conspicuously above the fur, back dark
- chestnut fading insensibly into the brown of the sides. L.
| 5%. T.134. Probably found on the higher summits of the
- mountainous region of the State, but so far recorded only
_ from Macon and Mitchell counties.

FAMILY CASTORIDAE (THE BEAVERS).

, = Large, clumsily built, aquatic rodents with four broad, root-

_—. ; ; é :

™ less cheek teeth in each side of each jaw. ‘Tail very broad
™ and scaly, flattened from above, downward. |
Bs J

| & GENUS CASTOR, L.

is Me

| a 26. C. canadensis carolinensis Rhoads. Carolinian Beaver.
» Scaly portion of tail less than twice as long as wide, fur
relatively short and harsh. L. 35. In this State the beaver
occurs sparingly on the Dan River in Stokes county (the type
locality of the subspecies) and is also reported from Bertie
county. A specimen taken some fifteen or twenty years ago
at Weldon is in the State Museum at Raleigh, These locali-
ties are all on the Roanoke River or its tributaries. Mr. J. H.
Armfield reports a few occurring in Beaver Swamp in the
\ northern part of Guilford county and southern part of Rock-

Bat
¢

t
mt,

River, between Yadkin and Forsyth counties.
FAMILY SCIURIDAE (THE SQUIRRELS).

_ Upper front teeth two; upper cheek teeth four or five on
_ each side; lower cheek teeth four on each side. A well devel-
a oped bony process on skull above and behind eye socket (post-
: 4 orbital process); tail round covered with long hairs which are

q the North American genera occur in the State.

ao Sides with a densely furred membrane joining front and
By. hind legs (Flying Squirrels)....GENUS SCIUROPTERUS.
aa, Sides without membrane.

_ ingham, and Mr. K. E. Shore reports them from the Yadkin |

_ usually so arranged as to forma broad flat brush. Four of

- ’ he ied 2 ‘. J ser -
in von
14 JouRNAL OF THE Mrrcuen. Socrety. [March

b. Form stout and clumsy; tail less than half as long as
body; skull nearly flat on top (Woodchucks).

| Genus ARCTomys.

bb. Form slender and graceful; tail much more than half y

as long as body; top of skull distinctly rounded. |
c. Cheek pouches present; back striped (Chipmunks).
' _ Genus TAmMIAsS.
cc. Cheek pouches absent; back not striped (Squirrels).
Genus ScIuRUS.

GENUS SCIURUS, L. (Squirrels).

27. S. hudsonius logquax Bangs. Southern Red Squirrel,
Mountain Boomer. Back red, under parts white, edge of tail
yellowish. L.12%. T.5%. (The length of tail does not
include the distance the hairs project beyond the flesh but is
the length of the tail vertebrae only. This is important to
note in the case of the Squirrels and other mammals with
hairy tails.) The Mountain Boomer is found throughout the
mountains of the State from Cherokee to the Virginia line.

28. S. carolinensis Gmelin. Southern Gray Squirrel. Size
medium, back dark yellowish rusty-gray. L. 18. T. 8.
Common throughout the whole State. |

29. S. niger L. Southern Fox Squirrel. Largest of the
eastern Squirrels. Color very variable, gray, rusty or black,

but the ears and nose are always white. Feet andhands very . ©

large, fur coarse and harsh. L. 25. T.12. Said by Bangs
to be wholly confined to the great pine forest of the South
Atlantic and Gulf States. Only known in this State from
Tarboro and Craven county. Specimens from the latter
county are in the State Museum.

GS. ludovicianus Gray. Northern Fox Squirrel. Back
_mixed black and rusty, belly varying from pale rust color to

- rusty white; ears rusty (never white but the nose is some- a

times white). L. 23. T.1034. Fox Squirrels are recorded

from the neighborhood of Asheville by Mr. N. W. Fain, and 4
from Cherokee county by Dr. Donald Wilson and may be this —

species or the preceding. Dr. Wilson sent me a skin without

ae
a 4
he ge
ee

hae Bee it
Brel. Vay

Ht few “4 aN Y ¢
it ee \

ye ad

id
amt from his county which I sent to Mr. Outram Bangs
for determination, and he wrote me as follows: “About the
Squirrel Iam puzzled. If I had the skull I could be sure. It
looks to me, however, like neg/ectus rather than niger. There
is a great difference in size between them, and this skin seems
small, but of course I cannot tell how old it is. The color is
Variable in both species, but as you say, the ears in your skin
are not white enough. Although a very unsatisfactory
identification, I think I should call it Sctwrus ludovicianus
neglectus. I should hate, however, to publish this as positive
proof one way or the other, without seeing the skull.”

aiy

\ GENUS TAMIAS, ILLIGER (Chipmunks).

ig 30. 7: striatus. Chipmunk. Reddish brown, back with
five black stripes and two whitish ones. LL. 11. T. 4%.
The Chipmunk is found throughout the western half of the
State extending as far east as the western edge of Raleigh
township, in Wake county, and as far south as Cherokee in
the mountains.

GENUS ARCTOMYS, SCHREBER (Woodchucks).

31. A. monax 1, Woodchuck, Ground Hog. Grizzly
gray, varied with chestnut, yellowish and blackish; under
parts reddish. L. 18. 4%. Common throughout the
Meintainous region of the State.

‘
"

GENUS SCIUROPTERUS, F. CUVIER (Flying Squirrels).

32. S. volans L. Flying Squirrel. Back drab, somewhat
shaded with russet, belly pure white to extreme base of hairs.
a 9, T.4. Common throughout the whole State.

a ORDER III. INSECTIVORA.

‘
at.

ope i cheek teeth formed for chopping; toes. provided with

“S Sty . \.
5] tbe Se eae oF MAmMAIs. 15.

Canine teeth present, but usually not conspicuously devel-_

“
.
oa!

16 JourNAL oF THE Mrrénert Society. [March

claws; brain small. (Our species are all small, under 8 inches

in length, eyes and ears small or rudimentary, fur more or |

less molelike.) at
Two families occur in North America and another in the
West Indies, while no members of this group are known from) /
South America except the extreme northwest coruer only. |
a. Forefeet highly modified for digging; external ear absent |
(Moles) _ Famiry Tarprpasg.) |

aa. Forefeet not highly modified for digging; external ear |

present (Shrews) FAMILY SORICIDAE. > |
FAMILY TALPIDAE (THE MOLES).

Body thick and clumsy without distinct neck; eyes rudi- |
mentary or concealed; no external ear; front feet very large, ||
the nearly circular palm held lengthwise; fur very soft and”
velvety. ‘

a. Tip of muzzle with a fringe of fleshy projections; tail long; |
teeth 44. Genus CoNDYLURA, -
aa. Tip of muzzle without a fringe of fleshy projections; tail”
short. 4 |

b. Teeth 36; tail slender and nearly naked. GEenus ScaLors.
bb. Teeth 44; tail thick and very hairy.
GENUS PARASCALOPS.. a

GENUS CONDYLURA, ILLIGER.

33. C. cristata ,. Starnosed Mole. Dusky brown, paler |
and grayer below; tail nearly as long as head and body. L.
634. T. 27. Known only in this State from Mitchell county,
where it was taken at Magnetic City by the collectors of the
Biological Survey of the United States Department of Agri-
culture in 1892 or 1893, and from Buncombe county, where a™
single specimen was taken by Mrs. J. S. Cairns, at Weaver 7
ville, February 6, 1896. It is said to inhabit wet places. :

ie
GENUS PARASCALOPS, TRUE. og
2
ii

34. P. brewert Bachm. Brewer’s Mole. Dark lead gray ys

| ee eroeer oF MAMMALS. 17

fea if ever, tinged with rusty. Tail dark. L. 5 13-16.
-16. Like the preceding, a northern species extending
a southward in the mountains. Said to inhabit dry
oi . Known only in this State by the numerous specimens
ak sen by the collectors of the United States Biological Survey
1 1892 and 1893 at Magnetic City, in Mitchell county.

i

1 1 2

GENUS SCALOPS, ILLIGER.

35. S. aguaticus L,. Common Mole. Light glossy slate
jrown, tinged with rusty; tail whitish. L. 634. 'T. 1 1-16.
ri 1¢e Common Mole is abundant throughout the State.

a.

a FAMILY SORICIDAE (THE SHREWS).

Body usually slender and monse like with a distinct neck,
yes well developed but very small, a distinct external ear,
tont feet small, not mole like. Shrews are small animals,
ec like mice, but with pointed snouts and small eyes,
e Mole Shrews of the genus Blarina have, however, a casual
emblance to little moles, except in the forefeet. ‘Two
yen era occur in North Carolina.

» Ears completely hidden by the fur, tail short.
x GENUS BLARINA.

a. - Bars distinctly isle tail long. Genus Sorex.

GENUS BLARINA GRAY.

a Teeth 32, total length 4 inches or over (subgenus Blarina).

36. B. brevicauda Say. Mole Shrew. Color sooty slate
fown above, more ashy below. L. 434. T. 1. Found
rot ughout the mountains of the State from Cherokee to the
irgi ir ia line. hs

37. B. carolinensis Bachm. Carolina Shrew. Very similar
€ preceding, but smaller and more slender, being only
( it 4 inches in total length. Occurs probably throughout

sit SHAN Vikas Set Qi i eae 4 AN
rn i rm i mA: ae ‘ Tk if i ¢ 4 ‘ Ne a vib ” é
hey Ps y : ovat u eK
Wiens RNA: a mk? }
ie ee :

ie

ea 1s "Th —

ee Ls At x, -

| | eae

is JouRNAL OF THE MrrcHELy Socrety. [Mare
- - ay 4

vs
‘4%

38. B. delmalestes Merr. Dismal Swamp Mole Shrew v
About same size as brevicauda, but more plumbeous in color,
and with a narrower skull. Taken by Dr. Merriam at Disma’
Swamp, Virginia, and by Mr. R. T. Young, at Chapanoke,
Perquimans county, and Currituck, Currituck county. The
relationship of this and the two preceding forms to one
another does not seem clear to me and BEES I list them as
full species ‘‘without prejudice.”
aa. Teeth 30, in our species length about 3 inches. 4

39. B. parva Say. Little Mole Shrew, Color brownish
above, ashy below. L. 3. T. 9-16. Its range in the State
is probably about that of B. carolinensis, but it is at present)
only recorded from Wake and Bertie counties.

GENUS SOREX, L.

(a. Total length over 532 inches; hind feet conspicuously
fringed (subgenus Neosorex). S. albibarbis Cope®
Eastern Marsh Shrew. Upper parts blackish slate with
a slight hoary cast; chin and throat grayish white, rest
lower parts of dusky. L.6%. T. 234. The Mars a
Shrew inhabits marshes and the borders of streams,
south in the mountains to Pennsylvania and probably
further. ) )

aa. Total lengih under 5 inches, hind feet not fringed (sub
geuus Sorex).

40. S. fumeus Miller. Smoky Shrew. Smoky slate color,
slightly paler below. L. 4%. T_134

41. S. personatus Geott St. Hil. Masked Shrew. Uppet
parts dark brown, under parts whitish gray. L. 4%. To
19-16. This and the preceding have both been taken by th
collectors of the United States Biological Survey on Roa’
Mt., Mitchell county, in 1892. <

42. S. longirosiris Bach. Southern Shrew. Smallest of
the eastern shrews. Chestnut brown above, ashy tinged wi ‘h
drab below. L. 338. T. 1%. Rare at Raleigh and one
specimen known from Bertie county. The limits of the range

we wy Pe OSE at +, \ ate i A ak) a) ct a Ae Cea
‘hm Ayed ead ue cA wrk ; ; rs Hoe Day Peat nf my Avy be
mt, ia f ; Pe PGA
\ ? 4) et :

/

Brey fe i .
, | Brrey—Catarocur or MamMats. 19

f thi is species are unknown, the above specimens being the
fly ones known to have been taken anywhere, since the
species was described by Bachman from specimens taken in
‘the swamps of the Santee River, South Caroliua.

| 43. S. fishert, Merr. Dismal Swamp Shrew. Similar to
_ the preceding, but larger and coloration duller. L. 4%. T.
1%. This and the preceding have the third unicuspid tooth’
decidedly smaller than the fourth, whereas in S. fumeus and
US. personatus the reverse is the case. Described by Dr.
Merriam from Dismal Swamp, Virginia, and taken by Mr. R.
-T. Young at Chapanoke, Perquimans county. j

ORDERIV. CHEIROPTERA. (aars.)

t

Forelimbs greatiy developed, the elongated fingers sup-
‘porting a membrane by means of which true flight is
Performed.

. Tail included in the flying membrane nearly or quite to.
4 tip, nose without leaf-like fleshy growths.

- FAMILY VESPERTILIONIDAE.
‘aa. Tail in our species free from the membrane for its apical
half, Faminy EMBALLONURIDAE.
(One species of the Emballonuridae, Vyctznomus
cynocephalus Lec. The Florida House Bat, a small
brown bat with tail projecting for about half its
length beyond the membrane and with naked wings
is common in Florida and the Gulf States and may
possibly occasionally straggle as far north as this
State. )

FAMILY VESPERTILIONDAE. (The Typical Bats.)

a. Nostrils simple, at tip of snout; ears moderate; forehead
not grooved.

ib. Upper front teeth four, membrane between legs not
completely furred above,

20 JouRNAL oF THE Mircuets Socrery. [March

c. Fur blackish, frosted with white. a:
GENUS LASIONYCTERIS. —

cc. Mae not blackish, not frosted with white. a
. Total length over four inches, teeth 32.
Genus VESPERTILIO. _

dd. Total length under four inches. @

e. Color dull brown; ears rather long; teeth 38.
GrENus Myotis.

ee. Color light yellowish brown, teeth 34.

' 3 GENUS PIPISTRELLUS.
bb. Upper front teeth two. q
f, Membrane between hind legscompletely furred above, —
ears short and round. GENUS LASIURUS. ~

ff. Membrane between hind legs not furred above.
Genus NycTIcEIus. ©

aa. Nostril margined behind by grooves; cheeks with large ©
excrescences; ears very large, an inch high.
GENUS CORINORHINUS. ~

GENUS LASIURUS, GRAY.

44. L. cineureus Beauv. Hoary Bat. General color an
mixture of light yellowish brown, deep umber brown, and ©
white. L.5%. T.2. Spread of wing 14. Has been taken
by Cairns in Buncombe county, and the Smithwicks in Bertie
county and Coues records it as occasional in summer at Fort ©
gE E.
. L. borealis Muller. Red Bat. General color varying
aN rufus red to yellowish gray, a white spot at shoulder,
sometimes connected with its fellow by a white chest band.
L.4%. T.2, Spread 12. Common in Wake, Bertie, Bun-
-combe, and at Fort Macon, also at Magnetic City, and on
Roan Mt., and probably throughout the State.

GENUS NYCTICEIUS, RAF.

46. WV. humeralis Raf. Twilight Bat. Dull umber brown

BRIMLEY—CATALOGUE OF Mammals. 21
above, paler below. Common in Bertie, Wake and Buncombe,
and probably throughout the State. L. 3%. Spread 9.

/

GENUS MYOTIS, KAUP.

47. M. subulatus Say. Say’s Bat. Dull brown, slightly
paler and more yellowish below. Ear when laid forward
“teaching considerably beyond nose. L. 336. Spread 9. A
Single specimen taken at Raleigh September 13, 1902, is
‘referred by me to this species as it agrees with the foregoing
characters.

48. M. lucifugus Lec. Little Brown Bat. Ear when laid
forward barely reaching nostril, size and color as in /@.
mee aes. Mr. G. S. Miller, Jr., mentions a specimen from
Mitchell county, and has identified a specimen from Bun-
‘combe county, kindly loaned me by Mr. W. E. Snyder, as this
Species, and Dr. Witmer Stone refers to it a specimen from
etic county. Besides these, I have seen 6 from Buncombe,
2 from Bertie county, and 2 from Raleigh, which were either
Bis or the preceding, but at the time we had them, the two
species were confused, and I have been unable to locate the
» specimens and have them correctly placed.

GENUS LASIONYCTERIS, PETERS.

| 49. L. noctivagans Lec. Silver Black Bat. Blackish,
frosted with white, membrane between hind legs furred to
about the middle above. L.4. Spread of wing 12. This
dat apparently occurs all over the State, but does not seem to
be common in any locality. Six specimens are recorded from
Bertie county, a dozen or more from Wake, one from Bun-
combe, and one from Mitchell.

Diy?

GENUS PIPISTRELLUS, KAUP.

50. P. subflavus F. Cuvier. Georgia Bat. General color

mallest of our bats and is common in Bertie, Buncombe and
Wake, and probably throughout the State.

ight yellowish brown. L. 334. Spread 9. This is the _

"
22 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL Society. [March

GENUS VESPERTILIO, L.

51..V. fuscus Beauv. Big Brown Bat. Brown, paler
below. 436. Spread 12. ‘This species is known from Bertie,
Wake and Buncombe, but is not common ia either county.

GENUS CORINORHINUS, H. ALLEN.

52. C. macrotis Lec. Big Eared Bat. Blackish, fur soft
and long. L. 3%. Spread 11. One taken by Cairns at
Weaverville, Buncombe county, April 7, 1895, and three by
the Smithwicks in Bertie county, February 1, 1893, and
October 24, 1894, (two specimens) are the only records we
have of this southern species. (Since the above was writ-
ten the State Museum has received a specimen from Golds-
boro. )

ORDER V.: UNGULATA.

(THE HOOFED ANIMALS.)

Herbivorous mammals provided with one to four enlarged ©
and thickened hoofs on each foot. The order contains mainly ©
large species and includes such domestic animalsas the horse,
cow, hog, sheep, goat, etc.

Only one of the two groups of Ungulata, the Artiodac-
tyla or even toed Ungulates, is represented in our fauna, and
only two families of that.

Families of Ungulata now or formerly occurring in the”
State: j
a. Horns solid, usually branching, present in our species only

in the male (The Deer). F'amILy CERVIDAE.
aa. Horns permanent, hollow, each enclosing a bony core oF
process of the skull (The Cattle). Famiry Bovipa®.

FAMILY CERVIDAE (THE DEER).

Horns solid, shed every year; wanting in the female except

ee Eta oe SN ee AA eo \ iA Ne Ate bale
CU oi MONA UT US Beta aa NN dha. saat

a | BrimLEy—CaTaLocur or Mammats. 23
in the Béindeer. Only one species occurs in the State, but
another doubtless did in earlier days.

a. Horns large, curved mostly backward, the tines all directed
forwards, size large. GENUS CERVUS.
‘aa. Horns small, curved forward, the tines all directed
upwards, size smaller. GENUS ODOCOILEUS.

GENUS CERVUS, L.

(C. canadensis Eirxl. Eastern Wapiti, American Elk.
Reddish brown, paler in winter; height at shoulders five
feet; horns five feet long. Now extinct in the United States,
‘but probably occurred in the western part of the State i
years ago. )

-

GENUS ODOCOILEUS, RAF.

53. O. virgianus Bodd. Virginia Deer. Color in summer
Teddish, grayer in winter, under parts white. Not
uncommon in the eastern section of the State and in the
mountains, but rare or absent in the more thickly settled
portions of the center.

FAMILY BOVIDAE. (THE CATTLE AND ANTELOPES. )

- Only one genus, Bison, ever occurred east of the Mississippi,
the cow, goat and sheep belong to this family.

GENUS BISON, H. SMITH.

DCB. bison L. American Bison, Buffalo. The Buffalo was
io doubt found in the western part of the State in early

ORDER VI. FERAE.

Canine teeth well developed, cheek teeth formed for cutting,

(THE CARNIVORA OR FLESH EATERS. ) ney

i ; +,

24 JOURNAL OF THE MrtcHELL Society. | [dl ch

front teeth smallin a row between the canines. Toes pro-—
vided with claws. Brain large, well developed. x

a. Limbs modified for swimming and useless for walking, —
hind feet not capable of being turned forward (The ©

True Seals). FamiLy PHOCIDAR, —

aa. Limbs fitted for walking. %
b. Hind feet with 4 toes.

c. Claws capable of being withdrawn fake a sheath,
muzzle broad and short, teeth not more than 30

(The Cats). Famity FELIDAR.

cc, Claws blunt, not retractile, teeth 42 (Dogs, Wolves ©

and Foxes). Famity CANIDAE.

bb. Hind feet with five toes. x q

d. Entire sole applied to the ground in walking.

e. Size large, tail rudimentary (The Bears). 4
Famity URSIDAE. —

ee. Size iedities, tail well developed (Raccoons).

| FAMILY PROCYONIDAE, |

dd. Entire sole not applied to the ground in walking |
(Weasels, Minks, Otters, Skunks, etc.).

Famity MUSTELIDAE, |

FAMILY PHOCIDAE. (THE SEALS.)
Only one genus and species occur on the coast.
GENUS PHOCA, L.

54. P. vitulina L. Harbor Seal. Grayish or brownish.
L. five feet, female smaller. Occasional on our coast. A
female in the State Museum from Craven county.

FAMILY PROCYONIDAE.

Plantigrade carnivora of small size with comparatively :
slender body and well developed tail. Teeth 40. Only or le
genus and species occur in the eastern United States.

‘GENUS PROCYON, STORR.

Bes. 2 P. lotor Ey Raccoon, Coon. Grayish, hairs black
tipped with black rings, a black cheek patch. L. 33.
The Raccoon is still found throughout the State, but is
q quite rare in the more thickly settled districts.

on

FAMILY URSIDAE (THE BEARS).

_ Plantigrade carnivora of large size, with rudimentary tail.
Only one genus and species is known from the State.

GENUS URSUS, L.

56. U. americanus Pallas. Common American Bear, Hog
Bear. Color blackish or brownish, variable. Still not
acommon in the swamps of the eastern and mountainsof the
western parts of the State, but not now found in the central
pc ortion. }

FAMILY MUSTELIDAE (THE WEASELS).

.

Carnivora with the feet either plantigrade or digitigrade,
the toes five on all four feet. Most species are provided with
ands near the anus which secrete a bad smelling liquid.
Peeth 32 to 38. Our species are usually of small or medium
312.

a. Toes conspicuously webbed, snout short, high and blunt,
teeth 36 (Otters). ' Genus Lurra.
. Toes not much webbed, snout longer, teeth 34.

f be. a closely furred, claws short (Minks and Weasels).
GENUS PUTORIUS.

Bi. Tail bushy, claws long (Skunks).
i, c. Form stout and heavy. GENuS MEPHITIS.
cc. Form slender. GENUS SPILOGALE.

GENUS LUTRA, BRISSON.

. L. hudsonica Desm. American Otter. L. 3% feet.
4 6 inches. Colorliver brown. Our form is LZ. h. dataxina

Ro is
26 JouRNAL oF THE MrrcHELt Socrery. [March

(F. Cuvier), with colors lighter than in the Northern Otter.
The Otter is found throughout the State, but is apparently !
rarest in the mountains and most plentiful in the east. a

GENUS PUTORIUS, CUVIER.

4

58. P. vison lutreocephalus Harlan. Carolina Mink. Color '

dark chestnut brown. L. 27. T. 8%. The Mink is found ¥
commonly throughout the State, it being a semicaqualal .
animal living mainly along watercourses. q
rie eae ae PGES ‘acensis notius Bangs. Southern Weasel. 3 |
nes above, yellowish white below, tail brown, black for |
posterior half. L.16. T. 5%, the female much smaller, L.7§ §
123%, T. 4%. Rare in Wake (only two specimens seen im \
twenty years) and in Bertie, but rather common in Buncombe j |
and Mitchell counties, and probably in the mountains gener- |
ally. No Weasels are known in the eastern United “7 |
from south of Raleigh until we reach Florida. q |
60. AZ. elongata Bangs, . Large Southern Skunk. Polecat. I |
Color black, a patch on the back of the head and two Stripes) §
extending back from it white. These stripes may be so_
greatly enlarged that the animal is nearly all white, or soy
greatly reduced that it is nearly all black. Tail very bushy”
with a white tip, the white on tail as variable in amount ase
that on body. L. 24. T. 9. Occurs only in the southern)
half of the State from the coast tothe mountains. Very rare
in Wake county, and not found in Bertie, Forsyth, Guilford, ”
or other counties in the northern half of the State. The
secretions of the anal glands (not urine, as is commonly sup=
posed, ) are so abundant and offensive in all skunks as to be~
the animal’s chief weapon of offense.

GENUS MEPHITIS, CUVIER.

GENUS SPILOGALE, GRAY.

61. S. v7gens Merr. Little Striped Skunk. About the
size and shape of a mink, color black with four narrow,

ot iad : ay
t Brees.
» as a") _ Brimiey—Caratocur oF MAMMALS. ae

a rg
rallel, white stripes down the back, these breaking up on
he rump into spots and transverse bars. Tail black with
ig, white pencil at tip. L. 18%. T. 734. The Little Striped
1h kunk i is found throughout the mountains where it seems to
e é commoner than the large skunk.

4 4

haan FAMILY CANIDAE (THE DOGS).

Carnivora that walk on the toes only, never on the sole of
he foot; claws blunt; hind toes 4; teeth 42 in our species.

Bipper front teeth distinctly lobed, pupil of eye circular
: (Dogs and Wolves). GENUS CANIS.
aa. Upper front teeth not lobed, pupil of eye elongate not
ee) circtilar.

‘b. Tail without mane of stiff hairs, and with abundant
soft under fur (Red Foxes). GENUS VULPES.
bb. Tail with a concealed mane of stiff hairs and without
BP soft fur (Gray Foxes). GeENuS URocyon.
: GENUS CANIS, L.
62. C. occidentalis Rich. American Wolf. Back brownish
t blackish mixed with tawny, belly light tawny or dirty
Whitish. Total length nearly five feet. Found sparingly
hroughout the mountains. Dr. Donald Wilson reports it
rom Graham county, Mr. R. W. Collett says it is growing
@ry scarce in Cherokee, Mr. Fain says there are very few in
suncombe. Poor HH. Hy Bramley; \Curator) of the State
Museum, informs me it has been taken in recent years in
farcey, Caldwell and Watauga. Dr. Merriam states that in
1¢ e year of one of his visits to Roan Mt. a den of wolves was
scovered there and the young captured alive (in 1887 or

GENUS VULPES, RICHARDSON.

7 ish, tip of tail white. L. 40. ‘The commoner fox in the

63. V. fulvus Desm. Red Fox. Reddish, feet and ears_

ae .

Je

¥

RCE, Pee
Se ee Noe ey Fe en ee

Year ik aa
ei fe * ,
‘ nA ry fi
hes . | aa
vii 4 ‘ea
28 JOURNAL, OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY. [March

the State to Edgecombe (Foxhall). Not found in Bertie
(Smithwick’, Wake (Brimley), nor Forsyth (Shore).

GENUS UROCYON, BAIRD.

64. U. cinereo-argenteus Muller. Gray Fox. Back a
coarse grizzle of blackish and white, belly and region about
ears tawny. A black Ime along back of tail. L. 36. The
Gray Fox is the common fox of the State except in the moun-
tains where it is less common.

7s

a ee Pe ee eet ee eo

FAMILY FELIDAE (THE CATS).
Carnivora with short rouud head and retractile claws.
Heel never applied to the ground in walking. Teeth 28 or 30.

a. Tail long, teeth 30, ears not tufted. Genus FELIS.
aa. Tail short, teeth 28, ears tufted. _ Genus Lynx.

GENUS FELIS, L

. £. cougar Kerr. American Panther, Puma. Yellowish |
iene Mabe middle line of back darker, under parts whitish.
L. 8% feet. T.3 feet. A specimen killed near Rose Bay,
Hyde, county, some years before the war between the States,
according to Mr. Walton E. Stone, is the only authentic”
record from tiie State.

Sem ey =

GENUS LYNX, KERR.

66. L. ruffus Gueld. Wild Cat, Bay Lynx. Back yel-
lowish gray tinged with rufous, much spotted and streaked
‘with black, belly whitish spotted with black, a brownish
collar on throat. L. 3 feet. T. 7 inches. Found in the
wilder parts of the eastern and western portions of the State.
Large specimens of this species are frequently called cata-
mounts and supposed to be a different species, but in every
case where the State Museum has endeavored to secure a
‘‘catamount,” it has always proved to be this species and no
the Canada Lynx, which does not occur in the State.

a

RRO SN OTE LE OMAR UL Peay ge © eh AL! Le ee
PUTER S TO a Wiel. Va age Rae
Mowe eet ; i

mi eae OF MAMMALS. 29

[ST OF PAPERS RELATING MORE OR LESS TO NORTH CAROLINA
MAMMALS AND CONSULTED BY THE AUTHOR:

Allen, J. A., ‘‘Species of the Genus Reithrodontomys,” Bull.
A. M. N. H., Vol. XII., 1895, pp. 107 e¢ seg. (Mentions
R. leconted from Raleigh, North Carolina, but gives its
distribution erroneously, as ‘‘coast region of South
Carolina and Georgia”.)

Allen, J. A., ‘‘Revision of the Chickarees,” Bull. Am. Mus.
Nat. Hist., Vol. X., 1898, Article XIV. (Mentions
x Sciurus ares aes from North Carolina. )

Kien; J. A., ‘‘Five New North American Mammals,” Bull.
my AY M. Noo, Vols XIL., 1899; page 13. (Mentions
Lepus Rees caies nalilras from Raleigh. )

Jangs, O., ‘‘Three New Weasels From North America,”
. Proc. New Eng. Zool. Club, Vol. L, pp. 53-57, June 9,
'- 1899. (Describes as new. Putoricus noveboracensis
__— notius from Weaverville and Raleigh, North Carolina.)
3angs, O., ‘Notes on North American Mammals,” Proc.
» Boston Soc. Nat. Hist. Vol. XXVI., July 31, 1895.
gangs, O., ‘‘The Cotton Mouse (Peromyscus gossypinus),”
© Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash. Vol. X., pp. 119-125, Nov. 5,
1896. (Records specimens fans Bertie county, North
Carolina.)

Bangs, O., “A New Race of the Chickaree,” Proc. New Eng.
Zool. Club, March 31, 1899, Vol. I., pp.' 27-29. (Con-
tains references to the Red Squirrels or Chickarees, of
Roan Mt., North Carolina.)

angs, €).; “The Skunks of the Genus Mephitis of Eastern
a North America,” Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash. Vol. X., pp.
. 139-144, Dec. 28, 1896. (Mentions the absence of skunks
from parts of North Carolina.)

Ang ,O., ‘*The Land Mammals of Peninsular Florida and
P the Coast Region of Georgia,” Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat.
> Hist., Vol. 28, pp. 151-235, March, 1898. (Mentions a
be. ae of North Carolina mammals.)

angs, O., ‘‘A New Race of the Little Harvest Mouse From

{
“as

st

ee, a

.
a

ee

<=

it yn
>» — * = 7
Se ee

ie

at

a oo

30 Jourwat or Tax Mrrcnett Society.

We :
West Virginia”, Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash., Vol. XIL, p p.
167-168, August 10, 1898. (This fort may occut i
North Carolina.)

Bangs, O., ‘‘Notes on the Synonymy of the North Amerigal no
Mink With Description of a New Subspecies”, Proc,
Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., Vol. 27, pp. 1-6, March, 1896.
(Contains references ia Minks from North Carolina.) |

Bangs, O., ‘‘The Geographical Distribution of the Eastern
Races of the Cottontail (Lepus sylvaticus Bach.) With
Description of a New Subspecies”, Proc. Soc. Nat
Hist., Vol. 26, pp. 404-416. (Mentions specimens from
North Carolina. )

Bangs, O., ‘‘A Review of the Squirrels of Eastern North
America”, Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash., Vol. X., pp. 145-167;
Dec. 28, 1896. (Contains records of Sciurus niger, S
hudsonius, and S. carolinensis from North Carolina.) ©

Bangs, O., ‘‘The Eastern Races of the American Varying
Hare, With Description of a Subspecies from Nova
Scotia”, Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash., Vol. XII., pp. 77-82
March 24, 1898. (Mentions Lepus americanus virgins
zanus aS occurring as far south as White Sulphur
Springs, West Virginia.) ;

Bailey, V., ‘Revision of the American Voles of the Genus
Keene, N. Am. Fauna, No. 17, 1900. (Gives North
Carolina records of M7. pinetorum, M. p. scalopsoia
M. pennsylvanicus, M. penn. nigrans.)

Batchelder, C. F., ‘‘Some Unrecognized Mice of the Gert
Zapus”’, pee New Eng. Zool. Club, Vol. I., pp. 3-%
February 8, 1899, (Mentions 7. hudsonius americands

_ from Raleigh, North Carolina.)

Brimley, C. S., ‘‘List of the Mammals of Raleigh, Nort
Carolina American Naturalist, May, 1897. a

Brimley, C. 8., ‘‘An Incomplete List of the Mammals of Be 4
county, ‘North Carolina”, American Naturalist, Mare
LE07¢

Coues, Elliott, ‘“Notes on the Natural History of Fort Macot }

- Brimiky—CataLocurt of MammMats. 31

By, North Carolina”, Proc. Acad. Nat. Science, Phila-
Ss delphia, May 2, 1871, pp. 1-49.

- Elliott, D. G., ‘A List of Mammals Obtained by Thaddeus
Surber in North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia,
my and Florida”, Field Columbian Mus. Publ. 58, June,

1901.
- Howell, A. H., ‘‘Revision of the Skunks of the Genus

Chincha” (Mephitis), N. A. Fauna,_No. 20, 1901.,

(Mentions Crencha elongata from North Carolina. )
Merriam, C. Hart, ‘‘Remarks on the Fauna of the Great
Smoky Mouutains, With Description of a New Species
of Redbacked Mouse (Evotomys carolinensis)”, Am.
Journal of Science, Vol. XXXVI., December, 1888, pp.
"i 458-460. (Applies wholly to North Carolina.)
“Merriam, C. Hart, ‘Description of Twenty-Six New Species
of North American Mammals”, N. A. Fauna, No. 4,
4 1890. (Mentions SPzlogale ringens from Cherokee,
oe North Carolina.)
Merriam, C. Hart, ‘‘Synopsis of the Weasels of North
7 America”, N. A. Fauna, No. 11, 1896. (Mentions P.
¥ noveboracensis occurring in North Carolina. )
etriam, C. Hart, ‘‘The Occurrence of Cooper’s Lemming
Mouse in the Atlantic States”, Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash.,
Vol. VII., pp. 175-177, December 22, 1891. (Mentions
specimens from Roan Mt., North Carolina. )
Merriam, C. Hart, ‘‘Description of a New Subspecies of
© £Chipmunk”, Am. Naturalist, Vol. XX., No. 2, Feb-
ruary, 1896. (Mentions a specimen from Jackson
county, North Carolina.)
Merriam, C. Hart, ‘‘Revision of the Shrews of the Genera
Blarina and Notiosorex”, N. A. Fauna, No. 10, 1895.
(Mentions B. brevicauda, B. carolinensis, and B. parva
. from North Carolina.
N lerriam, C. Hart, ‘‘Synopsis of the American Shrews of the
Genus Sorex”, N. A. Fauna, No. 10, 1895. (Mentions

‘*

By Sorex fumeus, S. personatus, and S. longirostris fronr

North Carolina, )

a TY ig Ay

32 JOURNAL OF THE Mrrewen. Society. i

Miller, G. S., J., ‘“Phe Lougtailed Shrews of fhe Eastern
United States,” N. A. F., No. 10, 1895. (Mentions .S.
fumeus, S. personaius, and S. longirostris from North © |
Carolina.) ae

Miller, G. S., Jr., ‘““Key to the Land Mammals of North- j

eastern North America,” Bull. N. Y. State Museum, % J

1900. (Mentions a number of mammals from North ©

Carolina.) 4
Miller, G. S., Jr., ‘‘Revision of the North American Bats of | .

the Pail Vespertilionidae,” N. A. Fauna, No. 13, ©
1897. (Contains several North Carolina records.) SE
Preble, E. A., ‘‘Revision of the Jumping Mice of the Genus |
Zapus,” N. A. Fauna, No. 15, 1899. (Mentions 27.9
hudsonius, Z. h. americanus, and describes as new 2
insignis roanensis from North Carolina. ) \q
Rhoads, S. N., and Young, R. T., ‘“Notes on a Collection of
Mammals From Noréheaaimen North Carolina,” Proc,
Acad. Nat. Sci., Philadelphia, 1897, pp. 303-312.
Rhoads, S. N., ‘“The Marsh or Ricefield Mice of the Eastern)
United States,” American Naturalist, Vol. XXXVL,
August, 1902. (Mentions Oryzomys palustre 7s from
Bertie county, North Carolina, which is an error, as
the specimens actually came from Raleigh, Wake
county.) 4
Rhoads, S. N., ‘‘Contributions to the Zoology of Tennessoulll
No. 3, Miamete, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci., Philadelphiajy
1896, pp. 175-205. (Contains records of a number of)
species of mammals from Roan Mt., North Carolina. 4
Rhoads, S. N., ‘‘Contributions to a Retice of the Nortk
ieatiens Beavers, Otters and Fishers,” Trans. Am
Philos. Soc. N. S., XIX., pp. 417-439. (Describes
Castor c. Bie deaeh ies from North Carolina and refers
North Carolina Otters to Z. h. lataxina.) a
True, F. W., ‘‘A Revision of the American Moles,” Proc. a
Ss. Nat. Mus., Vol. XIX., pp. 1-112, 1896. (Contai
North Carolina records of Parascalops brewert, Condy.
lura cristata and Scalops agquaticus.) %

THE METHOXYL GROUP IN CERTAIN
LIGNOCELLULOSES.

ALVIN S. WHEELER.

_ Extended study of lignified tissue has led to the belief that
j it is essentially a chemical compound and the term lignocel-
‘lulose is applied to it. The molecule is a very complex one
and among the characteristic features of it is the constant
proportion of methoxyl, OCH, Benedikt and Bamberger*
first brought this fact into prominence. The proportion of
methoxyl, calculated to methyl, is approximately two and one
half per cent. I have extended the work, making determina-
tions in woods mostly native to this country. The Tree of
Heaven, China Tree and Paulownia originated in Eastern
Asia but are now found wild in this country. The Crab
Wood and Wild Lime are native to the Bahama Islands and
the West Indies and the samples were obtained from Dr. W.
». Coker. .
The determinations were made according to the method of
Feisel. In most cases the wood was taken from small stems.
It was cut into small chips, after removal of the bark and
dried to constant weight in a steam oven. The values
obtained correspond to those of Benedikt and Bamberger.
The results are as follows:

Bisimmon, Diospyros Virginiana, L. 1.95
Umbrella Tree, Magnolia tripetala, L. 258
esairas, | Sassafras Sassafras (L,) Kant 2.44
Shinquapin, . Castanea pumila, (L,) Mill 2.16
Buttonwood, Platanus occidentalis, L 2.23
; ‘itch Hazel, Hamamelis Virginiana, L, 2.67
"ig Nut Hickory, Hicoria glabra, (Mill) Britton 2.32

‘*Monatsh. of Chem. II., 260-267.

34 JOURNAL OF THE MiTcHELL Socrery.

(March

Sweet Gum, Liquidambar Styraciflua, L 2.24
Dogwood, Cornus florida, L 2.37
Honey Locust, Gleditsia triacanthos, L 2.47
Tree of Heaven, Ailanthus glandulosa, Desf. 2.52
China Tree, Melia Azederach, L 2.35
Paulownia, Paulownia tomentosa, (Thunb) 2.40
Crab Wood, Gymanthes lucida, 2.95
Wild Lime, Fagara flava, 2.19

The average is 2.39 per cent. I wish to thank Mr. Preston
Irwin for assistance in making the determinations,
Chapel Hill, N. C.

THE SPONGES OF THE “ALBATROSS” 1891 EXPE-
r DITION.

Memoirs of the Museum of Comparative Zoology at Harvard
College, Vol. XXX., No. 1. Reports on an Exploration
off the West Coasts of Mexico, Central and South America,
and off the Galapagos /slands, in charge of Alexander
Agassiz, by the U. S. Fish Commission Steamer ‘‘Alba-
tross,” during 1891, Lieut. Commander Z. L. Tanner, U.
S. N., commanding. XXX. The Sponges, by H. V.
Wilson. Cambridge, U. S. A., 1904. Pp. 164, with 26
plates.

The following synopsis of results is abstracted from the
ntroduction to the above report.

The collection of sponges with which the following report
eals has been found to include forty-seven species and sub-
pecies. Of these, twenty-six, representing thirteen genera,
all into the Hexactinellida, seven, representing three genera,
in the Tetractinellida, and fourteen, representing nine
enera, fall in the Monaxonida. No calcareous or horny
ponges and no Lithistids were taken. As was to have been
xpe cted, since the expedition was made in unexplored waters,
very large percentage of the forms (thirty-three species and
abspecies ) prove new to science.

:

;
|

LIST OF mHE SPECIES TAKEN.

yalonemea ovuliferum F. KE. Sch.
pedunculatum, sp. nov.
bianchoratum, sp. nov.
| pateriferum, sp. nov.
am sp. div.

ip Diectelia, sp.

gadrella, Sp.

a delicata, sp. nov,

85

72

2
p &6

36 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL Society. :

Caulophacus schulzez, sp. nov.
ee sp.
Bathydorus levis spinosus, subsp. nov.
Staurocalypius sp.
Farrea occa claviformis, subsp. nov.
‘* mexicana, Sp. Nov.
Sp. |
Eurete erectum tubuliferum, subsp. nov.
y cK mucronatum, subsp. nov.
gracile, subsp. nov.

ee

66 ee

sp.
Aphrocallistes vastus F. E. Sch.
Chonelasma calyx F. KE. Sch.
Bathyxiphus sp.
Flexactinella labyrinthica, sp. nov.
(4 veniilabrum Carter.
sy tubulosa KE. E. Sch.
Sclerothamnopsis compressa, gen. et, Sp. nov.
Thenea fenestrata(O. Schmidt) Sollas.
‘* echinata, sp. nov.
lamelliformis, sp. Nov.
pyriformis, sp. nov.
Poecillastra tricornis, sp. nov.
jig cribraria, Sp. nov.
Penares foliaformis, sp. nov.
Polymastia macandria, sp. nov.
Petrosia variabilis crassa, subsp. nov.
‘¢ similis densissima, subsp. nov.
Pachychalina acapuclensis, sp. nov.
Oceanapia bacillifera, sp. nov.
Gellius perforaius, sp. nov.
Tylodesma alba., sp. nov.
it vestibularis, sp. nov.
Lophon chilifer ostia-magna, subsp, nov.
‘* lamella, sp. nov.
lamella indivisus, subsp. nov,

ad

6

es

66

Witson—Sponczs. 37

Tophon indentatus, Sp. nov.
Phakellia lamelligera, sp. nov.
Auletta dendrophora, sp. nov.

_ In addition to the discovery of new forms, some results of
general biological! interest have accrued from the study of the
collection, and are discussed or stated under the respective
Species concerned. For convenience of reference the more
important of these facts may be here classified.

| Remarkable forms. Hyalonema pedunculatum is note-
worthy for the peculiar pedunculate form of body; Sclevoih-
a nopsis compressa for the shrub-like habitus in which it
tesembles the hitherto unique Sclerothamnus clausit Marsh.;
pe ecerella delicata for the character of the sieve-plate region,
which may be construed as representing a simpler (although
not necessarily a more primitive) phylogenetic condition than
the otherwise closely similar /tegadrella phoenix O. Schm.

| Distribution and Habitat. Thenea fenestrata O. Schm.,
hitherto known ouly from the Atlantic and Caribbean Sea, is
now recorded for the Pacific. Some of the Hexactinellids
from great depths have been found to live clustering upon
one another: Caulophacus attached to root spicules of Hya-
lonema; Bathydorvus attached to root spicules of Hyalonema
nd to stalks of Cau/ophacus or similar sponge.

_ Morphology mn general. Further evidence of a convincing
Bacar has been gained that the Hurefe and Harrea col-
Onies are derived ontogenetically from simple cup-like forms.
—The close similarity between the main afferent and effer-
nt canals and their apertures in Poecillastra tricornis is worthy
if remark.——The observations of Sollas and of Dendy on
he occurrence of a peculiar fenestrated membrane (Sollas’s
nembrane) in the flagellated chambers of certain sponges
lave been confirmed for two tetractinellid genera, /oecillastra
nd Penares.

Pathological phenomena in general. In Euplectella skeletal
epta of a reticular character have been found crossing the
if a

.
Lal

>
at
a

_ x cme ie ‘=

- ~_ . --
ee ee ee Pe

an

38 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY. [March

cavity of the sponge.

by Weltner, occur. In some cases such masses form layers
separating one part of the sponge from another. Possibly

all these phenomena are pathological and similar, in so far © |

as they may indicate an effort of the sponge to shut off one
one part (diseased?) of the body from the rest.

Morphology of spicules—variations and ‘‘pathological” con-
ditions. In Hyalonema pateriferum, pathological amphi-
discs such as have been observed by Marshall and Meyer and
F. E. Schulze occur. In these spicules several additional rays
of the hexact are developed. Certain details in the struc-
ture of the discohexasters of Caulophacus schulzet suggest
that a hexaster may arise from a hexact through the develop-
ment of /ateral branches on the hexact rays. Another case
is afforded by Hexactinella labyrinthica of what seems to be
the degeneration of an uncinate into an oxydiact. In scop-
ulae present in Sclerothamnopsis compressa, the arrangement
of the axial canals indicates that the spicule is equivalent to

a branched diact, as Schulze has supposed. —Abundant
transitional forms indicate that the protriaenes of 7henea ©

are modified dichotriaenes. In Thenea pyriformis a type of

metaster is common which may be interpreted as transitional ©

between spirasters and euasters. In Penares foliaformts
peculiar dichotriaenes are found which approach the shape of
the lithistid phyllotriaene.
cal branching oxeas is recorded for Petrosza.

Variation. 'The variability of sponges in regard to points |
of adult structure is universally recognized. O. Schmidtand |
Vosmaer, in particular, have laid stress on the phenomenon |

as bearing upon the problems of systematic classification.
The observations recorded in this report will fall under the
following heads:

Zz. Variation in body-shape and general anatomy.

Attention may be called to the difference in shape exhibited

The occurrence of pathologi-—

re sree

~ ae

Inv Chonelasma similar septa have an
been observed.—In Hexactinella labyrinthica skeletal masses |
of a reticular character, such as have been especially described ~ {

= ee Re ee ae ar

a

:

7905] WILSON—SPONGES. 39

by specimens of Hyalonema peteriferum, Caulophacus schulzet,

Thenea fenestrata, Petrosta variabilis crassa. In Hurete the
spiral form of body beset with cup-like outgrowths varies
towards a bilateral symmetry.— In 7ylodesma alba massive
and lamellate bodies occur, as parts of one continuous speci-
men.—In Gellius perforaius a uniform habit of growth may
result in very different body shapes. In 7henea individuals
the number and size of pore areas vary; also the spicular
fringe round the osculum. In Jophon lamella the character
of the surface varies in different parts of the same individual,
owing to the divergence in character of the main efferent
canals and their apertures, and to the varying amount of col-
lenchyma round such canals.

2. Variation in same individual in the skeletal framework,
or the skeleton in general.

In Chonelasma calyx the tuberculation of the beams of the
dictyonal framework varies. In Hexactinella ventilabrum
there is considerable variation in the way in which the hex-
acts combine to form the dictyonal framework. In Thenea
fenestrata there is variation in the development of the spicu-
lar fringes round the pore areas. In Petrosta variabilis
crassa and in Petrosza similis densissima a skeletal reticulum
remains undeveloped in spots. In Pachychalina acapulcen-
sts the skeletal framework in places is fairly regular, although
in general irregular. In Phakellia lamelligera the skeletal
lamellae vary in respect to branching.——In VPetrosza similis
densissima over some parts of the surface there are no projec-
ting spicules, while over other parts such spicules are present
in consideral number. In Gellius perforatus there is consid-
erable variation in the character of the spicular tufts which
project from the surface. In lophon lamella there is varia-
tion in the number of spicules which combine to form the
side of a skeletal mesh. |

3. Uncorrelated Variation in the megascleres of an individ-
wal, i. e. variation apparently not correlated with the structu-
ral peculiarities of the body-locality.

ere ee
y

40 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY. [March
As regards size of the spicules, there seems to be noticeable _
variation in all sponge species. The shape of one of the —
macramphidiscs varies considerably in Hyalonema bianchora-
tum. In Caulophacus schulzec the principal hexacts are
occasionally tuberculated, and in the same species the tuber-
culation of the pentacts varies. The character of the diact
ends varies commonly, e.g. in Lathydorus levis spinosus.—
In Farrea mexicana the pentacts vary in respect to tubercula-
tion. In Lurete erectum the character of the distal ray of
the gastral pinules varies extensively.——In FPetrosia variabt-
lis crassa the oxea sometimes assumes the shape of a stron-
gyle, or style. In FPenares foliaformis the triaenes vary
considerably.— In FPachychalina acapulcensts the size of the
oxea varies within wide limits.---—-In Phakellia lamelligera
the oxeas and the two kinds of styles all vary considerably in
shape.
4. Uncorrelated variation in the mzcroscleres of an indt-
vidual.
The microscleres as well as the megascleres very commonly
vary in size and detailed shape, although in them, as in the ©
megascleres, there is a size and pattern which are character- ~
istic of the individual (species), i. e. to which the majority of —
the spicules of an individual conform. .
Some striking cases of variation are afforded by the micro- ~
oxyhexacts of Hyalonema bianchoratum, plesiasters and spir- ~
asters of Thenea fenestrata, sigmata of 7ylodesma alba. 7
5. Correlated variation in the spicules. 4s
In some cases the variation of spicules is obviously not —
ungoverned by the rest of the body, but is correlated with ~
body-locality. a
Thus while the pentacts in Hexactinella labyrinthica vary ©
at large in respect to length of the several rays, the pentacts ~
overlying the larger inhalent canals commonly have noticeably
short proximal rays. Such a phenomenon would customarily ~
be referred to as ‘‘adaptive.’”——The variation of dichotriae- ~
nes towards the protriaene type, round the pore areas of —

‘ae
Rarer S
ne: s+
ete WI1LSON—SPONGES. 41
henea, is another instance of the same phenomenon.——A

complex instance of correlated variation is afforded by the
d ermal and gastral pinules of Cawlophacus schulzet, which
coat the opposite surfaces (pore and oscular) of the body.
The two kinds of pinules vary in the same direction in differ-
them is preserved.

- 6. Qualitative variation.

_ Two sets of individuals living together in the same locality,
bia which are, otherwise indistinguishable, differ conspicu-
ously i in respect to a single point. An instance is afforded by
Z urete erectum mucronatum, which differs from /urete ereclum
bubuliferum in having oxyhexasters instead of onychasters.
Another instance is afforded by Jophon lamella indivisus,
which differs from /ophon lamella only in the character of the
bipocillus, which is not chelate.——In order not to confuse
the facts with hypothesis, the two sets of individuals
have in each case been separated as subspecies. It is idle to
dogmatize or to speculate 7m extenso on the value, from the
standpoint of heredity, of the point of difference. Whether
this point is inheritable and thus marks off two races, or
whether ii merely marks off two sets of individuals which

which owe their difference to the action on the individual of
the environment, no one can say. ‘The recording of the dif-
Fe ev is the duty of the systematist, who, when he has done
, has pointed out an additional case suitable for the exper-
Rental study of heredity and environmental action.

7. Variation towards other species or subspecies.

ea class of spicules in one subspecies may vary in consider-
ble number towards a condition characteristic of a subspecies
nt abiting a different locality. An instance is afforded by
. wrete erectum gracile, in which the tuberculation of the gas-
il pentacts and hexacts is sometimes very similar to that
* und in the other subspecies of Hurete erectum.

Or a form of spicule characteristic of one species may occur

started out alike and the offspring of which are alike, and

ent individuals, and thus the proportionate difference between

42 - JOURNAL OF THE MrrcHELL, SOCIETY. [March

infrequently in a related species. For instance, in Caulopha-
cus schulzet the pinuli occasionally have the shape characteris-
tic of C. /atus and C. elegans. <A striking case is afforded by
Farrea occa claviformts, in which a few gastral clavulae were
found closely similar to the peculiar clavulae of Farrea
convolvulus.

8. Constancy of character tn spicules.

It often happens that while in a single individual the szze —
of a particular spicule may vary within wide limits, the char-
acter remains fairly constant—e. g. pinuli of Hyalonema bian-
choratum. The character of a spicule even in minute
details may apparently become fixed for the species. ‘Thus in
a specimen of Hyalonema ovulifernm the rays of the micro-
oxyhexacts have the same sudden terminal curving exhibited
by the corresponding spicules of Schulze’s type specimen,
although the two sponges were taken 49° of latitude apart.
——A form of spicule which in some sponges varies greatly
in size, in other species varies but little. -Thus in Gelhus
perforatus the sigmata vary only slightly, whereas in 7ylo-
desma alba they vary greatly.

I do not undertake a comparative consideration of the geo-
graphical distribution of the forms making up the collection. —
Such a consideration would demand a knowledge of the actual
systematic value to be attached to many sfeczes recorded in
the literature of sponges. And such a knowledge is not to be
had at present. In modern sponge literature, e.g.in the two ~
ereat monographs of Schulze and Sollas (Schulze, 1887; Sol-—
las 1888), the species conceived are, as it seems to me, what
H. M. Bernard contends for in his interesting recent discus- |
sions (Proc. Cambridge Phil. Soc. Vol. XI. Pt. IV.; Verhdlg. §j
V. Intern Zool.-Congress) of the species-question as affecting —
the method of recording certain data, viz. homogeneous mor- |
phological groups. ‘The sponge species are often very homo-—
geneous, because represented by single specimens. ‘That such
groups answer always to natural species, as we understand —
the word when we speak of the human race, Passer domestt-

* ~ a »
ae a te ae ore

eS ee

a

|
‘
+
|
|

WILSON—SPONGES. 43

cus, Littorina litorea, or other organisms which we know in
_ great number, is not only open to doubt, but is excessively
4 improbable. It is, I suppose, from this latter’ point of view
(the envisaging clearly the @ friovz probability that sponges
in general exhibit those individual and local differences which
all species known intimately exhibit) that O. Schmidt was led
to record in literature the existence of such species as Farrea
4 facunda. Perhaps Farrea facunda is a ‘‘natural species,” but
' the data at hand make such a statement only a subjective
' assumption. Or when the distinguished systematist Topsent
expresses the opinion that five species of /Poecillastra
recorded by Sollas probably represent the variations of two or
three species, one is justified in saying ‘‘perhaps, but the
known specimens differ in certain definite respects.” Such
subjective interpretations of differences perhaps always affect
the manner in which we record the occurrence of certain mor-
_ phological peculiarities in association with geographical and
_ bathymetrical site. But whereas once they were rampant,
_ today they are reduced to a minimum, with the result, as I
» have said, that the sfecces of modern sponge literature
are strikingly homogeneous groups, which need not be
thought of as always corresponding to natural races.

That this method of precise analysis is the only method
capable of yielding trustworthy data, seems to me incontest-
- able. That it may result in temporarily recording more
~ Species than exist in nature, will only trouble those who
_ incline to the view that the one excuse for systematic zodlogy
is to provide them with a handy collection of names for the
— animal kingdom.

| The data which are thus accumulating as to Me occurretice
of this or that peculiarity of structure in a certain locality
| are growing rapidly through the labors of systematists.
¥ Scarcely begun is the accumulation of the almost equally
i important data (comp. Poléjaeff, Report on the ‘‘Challenger
; _ Keratosa,” p. 85), as to what peculiarities of structure are
due to a difference in the physiological state of individuals

mre Se CEPA A ee eee
ii, ’ Kye ete ~ RA
OO Sa ae
vy. VS)
‘ 7 ‘

oy ry
v4 Wise 2

“«
Pa

. 44 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY. ~

Ci
haf,

:

:

belonging to the same race. Such knowledge, to be acquired 7
through continuous observation of living individual sponges

under normal and under modified conditions (experimental —
method) may be expected to bring about the union of many —
recorded sfecves. Another most important class of data can
only be revealed through the physiological study of the race, —
viz. through the breeding-of sponges. And with the increase
in the number of marine laboratories at which observations
may be carried on continuously throughout the year,

the inauguration of such studies may be anticipated.
The modern statistical method of considering the differ- —
ences between individuals of such groups as are procurable in
large numbers is a refinement of what is commoniy under- —
stood as systematic work, aud a promising field for those
acquainted with the structure of sponges, Such studies, by
revealing the kinds and the extent of structural modifications
which occur among individuals not separable into morpholog- —
ically definable groups, may be expected to provide invaluable ©
special cases for experimental study. It is through the —
combination of these several classes of data that we must ~
hope to learn the limits of the natural groups of sponges as —
as they exist today. When such trustworthy definitions of ©
natural groups are at hand, the facts of the geographical dis- —
tribution of the species will doubtless become intelligible.

THE ATOMIC WEIGHT OF THORIUM.*

BY R. O..#. DAVIS.

The atomic weight of thorium has been determined with
varying results. The values are dependent upon the analyses
of the oxalates, sulphates, formate, acetate and acetonyl-ace-
tonate. ‘The first value is due to Berzelius' and was obtained
from the sulphate and double sulphate of thorium and potas-
sium. The thorium was estimated by precipitation with
ammonia and the sulphuric acid as BaS04. The value obtained
was 234.8.

In 1861 Chydenius? published new determinations from
analyses of sulphates, acetate, formate and oxalate. The
mean of his determinations gave thorium, 233.1. Two years
later in 1863 Marc Delafontaine published some researches on
thorium’. His studies were particularly on the sulphates.
The thorium he estimated in two ways:(1) by precipitationas _
oxalate and subsequent ignition, (2) by direct calcination.
From his work a value of 230.3 for thorium was obtained.

The next determinations were those of Clevé*. His work
was with the sulphates and oxalates. Next came the work of
Nilson’ on the sulphates. ‘Then in 1887 Kruss and Nilson®
published determinations. Of the most trustworthy values
given by Clarke’ the value for thorium varies from 223.06 to
236.93, a mean giving the value 232.6.

*(Dissertation presented to the faculty of the University of North
Carolina for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy.

1Poggend Annal., 16, 398. 1829.

2Poggend Annal, 199, 55. 1863.

3Arch. Sci. Phys. et Nat. (2) 18, 348,

4Jour. fur Prakt. Chem., 93, 114.

5Ber. Deutsch. Chem. Gesell., 15, 2519. 1882.

6Ber. Deutsch. Chem. Gesell. 20, 1665, 1887.

7Constants of Nature, Part V.

1905) 45

?

46 JOURNAL OF THE MitcHELL Society. [March

Due to the great variation in values as given by different
authorities and determined by different methods, and also the
just criticisms which have been lodged against those methods
for other elements, it was deemed advisable to redetermine
the atomic weight of thorium. We began by first investigat-
ing the methods formerly used and then attempted a new
method, with what success the sequel willshow. In addition
to the criticism to which the various methods are subject,
recent investigations by Brauner? and Baskerville’, who have
been busied for years with the element, point to the complex-
ity of thorium. Moreover the radio-activity associated with
thorium is illy understood and appears not to belong to pure
thorium compounds.

Of methods used the value 232.6 depends on those of the oxal-
ate, formate, acetate and acetonyl-acetonate. With oxalate,
formate, acetate and acetonyl-acetate we have organic com-
pounds with a large number of atoms in the molecules and
varying number of molecules of water of crystallization pres-
ent. For instance, in the oxalate we have Th(C,O,),, 6H,O,
and the acetonyl-acetonate Th(C,H_O,),; molecules with thir-
ty-one and fifty-seven atoms in them respectively. It is at once
evident that such complex molecules are not satisfactory for
atomic weight determinations.

It is upon the sulphate method chiefly that the atomic
weight of thorium depends, but the sulphate determinations
are open to serious objections. There is objection to using
any hydrated salts, because of the uncertainty of the compo-
sition. The anhydrous sulphate is objectional because of its
porous and deliquescent nature. Yet there are other difficul-
ties of much more importance than these. In most cases the
ratio between thorium oxide and sulphate was established by
incinerating the sulphate. This is a difficult process and it
is extremely doubtful if all the sulphate can be decomposed,
as it forms a protective coating of oxide.

1London Ch. Soc. April, 10, 1901.
2J, American Ch. Soc., Vol. 23, No. 10., Oct,, 1901.

1905] Dayis—Atomic WEIGHT oF THORIUM. 47
In some cases the amount of sulphuric acid is determined
by precipitation as BaSO,. This is also a very objectionable
process, because of the well known property of barium sul-
phate to occlude foreign substances and hence should be
excluded from atomic weight work. While the values obtained
from the sulphate method may lie close to the real value of
thorium, they probably deviate from it by several points.
' From the above considerations it was first decided in this
work to make some determinations by the sulphate method in
order to test its accuracy. For the material used we are
indebted to Dr. H. S. Miner, of the Welsbach Lighting Co.,
Gloucester, N. J., who generously supplied us with a large
quantity of commercial thorium nitrate. This thorium we ©
purified by several of the accepted methods of purification.
Half kilo of the nitrate was dissolved in three litres of water
and precipitated as hydroxide withammonia. ‘This was thor-
oughly washed, then dissolved in HCl. The solution was
reprecipitated by ammonia. ‘The other part was neutralized
_ by ammonia until a slight precipitate persisted and the tho-
_ tium precipitated by the addition of sodium nitrite. The
precipitate was thoroughly washed, then dissolved in acid and
_ the precipitation repeated.

One portion we attempted to purify by changing to the
chromate, but on subsequent treatment, the chronium ws so
difficult to remove that this portion was not used in any of
- our work on the atomic weight of thorium.

Another half kilo, after precipitation by ammonia, was
_ purified by dissolving in ammonium carbonate solution, and
_ then precipitated by ammonia.

Then a portion of this precipitate was purified by the citrate
method. A saturated solution of citric acid was saturated
with thorium hydroxide and stirred for twenty-four hours.
_ After the citric acid would take up no more thorium hydrox-
_ ide, the undissolved hydroxide was filtered off, and the fil-
_ trate was heated in a water-bath with boiling water. A
_ heavy white precipitate came down. This was filtered through

adie tH

ur et AL ee ee OZ

vty ee 2

ee

& a1
ee, Wend Ore Wy f
3 t ay, Aa 1 yr
‘ t at % Mp
j oy Weds

48 JouRNAL oF THE Mrrcnett, Society. [March

a hot funnel with aid of suction and washed until free from |
acid. From each of these different sources the thorium va
used in the work to be described below. i,

In this work the crucibles were obtained specially for the ~
purpose and were never used for anything else. Thecrucible ©
in which the substance was weighed was counter-poised by a |
crucible as near the same'size and weight as possible. The ©
weights were specially standardized by the Bureau of Stand-
ards and Weights at Washington and were never used for
any other work than this. The balances were adjusted to a |
constant load and every weight made at that load. ‘The bal- ©
ances were not used for any other purpose after the beginning —
of this work. The weighings were made by the method of —
vibrations and were made to 0.000001 of a gramme.

After the purity of our thorium compounds was proven by ;
spectroscopic examination, we first turned our attention to ©
the determination of the atomic weight by the synthesis of —
the sulphate from the oxide. The method of Gerhard Kruss* ©
was used. The oxide was brought to constant weight by heat- 4 2
ing with a blast lamp, then evaporating with sulphuric acid ~
(1:1) several times to convert all the oxide into sulphate.
Then the sulphate was brought to constant weight at a tem-
perature of 360°C. In bringing the sulphate to constant
weight, a bath of platinum was used. This bath con- J
sisted of a cylindrical tube of copper, about four inches ©
in diameter, mounted above a rose burner, and lined inside —
with platinum and outside with asbestos. The crucible was sus- ~
pended in the.center of the bath by a ring of platinum wire. ©
The temperature was taken by inserting a mercury thermom- ~
eter beside the crucible. The mercury was under twenty
atmospheres of pressure by carbon dioxide, and the thermom-—
eter was graduated to 560°C. It was standardized at the
Reichs Anstalt. The results were not strictly concordant and
an investigation showed that the ratio between oxide and
sulphate varied with the temperature.

1C0hem. News, Jan. 30, 1898. Pp. 32,

49

©

SM CML

a
eal)" SDB: TPH U

= Sa ae Nk
ae
ae

‘

(1) Copper Cylinder, sheathed with Asbestos, resting on three-armed
Support, clamped to Bunsen Burner. (2) Platinum Plate, resting on Rose
Burner, (3). (4) Platinum Cylinder resting on Asbestos Mat. (5) Plati-

lined on the inside with Platinum; Hole in center for Thermometer.

inum Triangle, supported by Platinum Wire Hooks. (6) Asbestos Cover, ~

.. = “75 ta

2)

50 JouRNAL OF THE MrtcHELL Sociery.

Our work seems to indicate that in the formation of the —
sulphate a mixture is formed. The portion of the sulphate —
next to the crucible may have been decomposed while the —
inner portion would still be acid sulphate. Since the atomic ~
weight determinations carried out by other investigators were ©
not made at a definite temperature, then from our investiga- a
tions the values might have a wide range. Of course, if a | @j
series were carried out under exactly the same conditions, con- J

cordant results would be obtained. But still there would —
remain the question whether all the body was normal sulphate .
or acid or part acid and part basic. a
The determination of the equivalent from the acetonyl-acet- jj
onate next claimed our attention. ‘The crystals of acetonyl-
acetonate were made, but they showed two forms of crystal i
so that they were not used. The ‘obvious disadvantage of | |
using such a compound has already been mentioned. . |
After considering the various methods upon which the ]] |
equivalent of thorium is dependent we decided to try a news 1 |
method. Of the compounds of thorium considered the tetra-— |
chloride seemed to offer the greatest advantages. By its use |
the ratio could be determined between the oxide and the | |
chloride, and the values of only three elements would be |
involved. i |
The thorium oxide was ground upin an agate mortar with §
carbon (about one-tenth the weight of the oxide) and the mixture
placed ina carbon boat. ‘The boat was placed in a hard glass
tube passing through a combustion furnace and while heated to |
a good red heat, dry chiorine passed through the tube. Beaur
tiful crystals of the chloride formed on the walls of the “ll
just beyond and above the boat. Still farther, lighter an
feathery crystals formed in the tube, and a white vapor, Ber-
zelius’s ‘‘Weisserdampf”, was driven off and caught in alco-
hol.
The carbon used was obtained by heating crystallized roel
_ candy. ‘The boats were previously heated ina stream of
chlorine for several hours, ‘The chlorine used was taken from
i;

Davis—Aromic Weicut or THorRIUM. 51

an iron cylinder, and was analyzed for oxygen and other

: impurities. About two per cent. of an inert gas was found,

) was dried by passing over a train of eight towers and wash
bottles containing sulphuric, and two towers with glass beads
| and sulphuric acid, then finally through five towers with glass
» beads and sulphuric acid, this being the apparatus used by
Richards’ in his work on the atomic weight of cobalt and
Bickel,
_ The method of determining the ratio between the chloride
"and the oxide was to weigh the chloride, dissolve in water and
“evaporate in a platinum crucible, then ignite to constant
\) weight. The portion of the tube in which the crystals were
© formed was cut out and slipped quickly into a weighing bottle
! and then placed in an air bath at 160°C. to drive off the chlo-
‘rine. It was then removed and placed in a dessicator and
after an hour weighed. After weighing the chloride was dis-
“solved in water and then the tube returned to the weighing
bottle and brought toconstant weight. This gave the weight
a the thorium tetrachloride. |
_ The solution of thorium tetrachloride was evaporated in a
Bistinum crucible on the water bath, then ignited to constant
weight. In order to bring to constant weight the oxide had
| to be blasted about seventy hours. This gave the weight of
) the oxide derived from a given amount of the chloride. But
no constant relation could be obtained.
- Thinking that perhaps the difficulty lay in not being able
to drive off all the chlorine by heat and ignition, we turned
our attention to the determination of the halogen. A long
series of experiments investigating a new method for the
determination of the halogen was begun. Since silver chlo-
Tide is soluble in water to a certain extent, we decided to
; vestigate its solubility in alcohol.
_ The alcohol used was absolute and freed from aldehyde by

Ry HAP too. Amer. Acad. Arts & Sci. Vol. 34, No. 18, Pp. 332, 1889,
ee

but it was not deemed necessary to remove it. The chlorine

ractional distillation until it would not respond to the fus~

in pt 7 My Ms
‘i Oe
oo iy GE Pe,
520 JoURNAL oF THE MrrcHeLt Society. [March

chine test, which shows one part in a million. Silver nitrate ©
solution was made by dissolving pure silver prepared accord- —
ing to the method of Stas by Venable, in pure nitric acid. A

solution of * NaCl was made for determining the chlorine.

Several series of experiments were carried out to determine
the effect of an excess of silver nitrate in solution, of acidity,
and of temperature. The temperature was varied from boil-
ing to room temperature (about 23°C.).

One cubic centimeter should have precipitated 0.0143 gm.
of AgCl. The following are some of the results.

10.. AgCl found, 0.756, theoretical, 0.1716; Temp. 30; excess —

of AgNO, 0.1028; acidity, 18.5 cc. > acid.
12. AgCl found 0.1732, Temp. 30; excess AgNO. 0.2399;
acidity, 20.4cc. sti acid.

2 ‘
14. AgCl found 0.1800, Temp. 78; excess AgNO, 0.2183;
acidity 25.6cc. > acid.
18. AgCl found 0.1754, Temp. 60; excess AgNO, 0.0171;
acidity 25.6cc. a acid.
There were twenty-five determinations carried out, all giv- ©
ing too high results, as may be seen from the figures given. ©
By another series of experiments carried out at thirty degrees —
with rapid filtration, it was found that the results in general
agreed with the theoretical. But the conditions were very
hard to attain. |
We now returned to our thorium and made a series of exper-
iments to determine the chlorine of the tetrachloride. But
the results were not concordant, which fact was explained by
finding that even aldehyde-free alcohol decomposes silver
nitrate, causing finely divided silver to deposit. Of course
this method was immediately abandoned.
Now once again we turned our attention to determining the 2

4
<

evaporation of the chloride solution and the subsequent igni-
tion of the residue to the oxide. But noting that the hard
' glass tube, in which the chloride was formed, seemed to be
) attacked by the chlorine at the temperature required for the
4 formation of the chloride, it seemed possible that the disa-
' greement of our values might be due to the formation of other
_ chlorides from the glass. A series of experiments confirmed
_this view that the glass was causing a contamination of our
thorium compound. Hence we set about to eliminate this
trouble.
Quartz tubes were imported especially for the work. These
} were about 2 cm. in diameter and 25 cm. long. In one end of
one of these was placed the carbon boat with the mixture of
carbon and thorium oxide, and the whole inserted in a porce-
lain tube and placed in the furnace. The porcelain tube was
heated while a stream of dry chlorine was passed through.
The ‘‘Weisser-dampf{” settled on the walls of the porcelain

For weighing the chloride, special weighing bottles, 39 cm.
_ long, were obtained. Into one of these the quartz tube was
" quickly inserted on withdrawing it from the porcelain tube,
_ and after removing the carbon boat. A second weighing bot-
_ tle was used as counter-poise. The solution of the chloride
was evaporated and the final ignition to constant weight was
_ the same as when the glass tubes were used. ‘The water used
for the solution of the chloride was purified by redistillation
ina platinum still.
The quartz tubes also showed signs of attack by the chlo-
Tine.at the high temperature used, and so the oxide, after
becoming constant in weight, was treated with hydrofluoric
acid and the loss in weight, usually very small, applied as a
_ correction to the weights of both the chloride and oxide.
Using every precaution in the work we still failed of con-
_ Stant values, most of them falling between 221 and 230; yet

54 JouRNAL oF THE Mircuett Socrery. [March

some came lower and some higher than those values. The
crystals that seemed to be purest gave values within the lim- ~
its named. From the inability to obtain a constant value, it ©
seemed that the crystals of chloride must be contaminated. It
will be remembered that the crystals of chloride were the mid-
dle portion in the formation of the chloride: that is, a light —
‘‘Weisser-dampf” passed to and condensed on the front of the —
tube, just beyond the boat were the crystals of the chloride —
used for the work, and there still remained a residue, mixed
with the carbon in the boat, that could not be volatilized. In —
other words, by distilling thorium oxide in chlorine, three
fractions were obtained.

After the first distillation was performed, a determination —
of the equivalent of each of the end products was made by the ©
sulphate method. The following results were obtained:

Oxide from non-volatile part. sulphate. At. Wt.
1.636725 gm. 2.595223 241.44.
Oxide from most volatile.
0.794692 1.309245 212.70.

As the complexity of thorium had been indicated by Basker- —
ville and the name ‘‘Carolinium” proposed for the heavier ele- —
ment, we have applied the name of Carolinium to the heaviest —
portion. For the lightest the name ‘‘Berzelium” was used, —
and Thorium for the middle portion.

After the redistillation of our carolinium, thorium and ber- —
zelium fractions three times, a determination of the atomic
weight of each was made by the sulphate method. Inchang- ~
ing the oxide into sulphate, sulphuric acid (1:1) was used.
This was then carefully evaporated. The berzelium seemed
_to be rapidly changed; but the thorium and carolinium were
more persistent, requiring about four evaporations. In every
case sulphuric acid was added and evaporated at least four
times, to be sure that all the oxide was converted into sul-
phate. The carolinium sulphate was perfectly soluble in

190: J Davis—Atomic WEIGHT OF THORIUM. 55

_ water, thus showing that all the oxide had been converted
into sulphate.
Two determinations of each, carolinium, thorium and ber-
zelium were run at the same time and subjected to the same
conditions as nearly as possible. The sulphate of each was
heated at 350°C. to constant weight. The platinum bath
already described was used and also some large porcelain
_ crucibles with a platinum ring suspended in the center to hold
_ the crucibles. ‘The crucible with the sulphate was placed
onthis ring, the large crucible covered with a punctured
_ clock glass, and a thermometer suspended through the hole
_ in the glass just above the sulphate inside the small crucible
containing it. The results obtained are given below.
The oxides of the three fractions were different in appear-
ance. The carolinium invariably was gray with pink tinge,
the thorium slightly greenish, and the berzelium a little more
pronounced green. ‘The sulphates of all are pure white when
cold, but that of the thorium is yellow while hot.

The following are the results from the determinations:

(1) Carolinium.

Oxide. Sulphate. At. Wt.
1.559290 2.434914 255.5
0.524254 0.819365 255.9
0.549331 0.854810 255.6

(2) Thorium.

Oxide. Sulphate. At. Wt.
0.425456 0.694936 220.62.
0°740052 1.210405 220.1

(3) Berzelium.

Oxide. Sulphate. At. Wt.
0.306778 0.507505 213.6
0.320618 0.530890 212.0

From this it seemed that we were accomplishing the sepa-

ration of the thorium into three frabtieits of ee nt
weights. The atomic weight of genuine thorium is
fore not yet established. _

kerville not only for his sympathy and assistance in —
but for the privilege of taking part in an investigation, whi
has been so fruitful in its results. | ee

University of North Carolina.

a

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JOURNAL

OF THE

Ls ISHA MircHELL SCIENTIFIC SocieTy.

JUNE, 1905
NO, 2

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FOURTH ANNUAL MERTING |
a 4 aie OF THE
_ NORTH CAROLINA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

HELD AT

MAY '13,. 1905.

a eeting called to order by President Stevens at 8:30 P. M.,
ut adjourned for informal conference during which a PN
of | i matters were discussed.

MAY 14,1905,

; Meeting called to order at 10 A. M. by President Stevens,
: hi once appointed Messrs. C. S. Brimley and W. C.

Upon proper presentation of names, Messrs. G. M. Bentley,

a the North Carolina Department of Agriculture, at Raleigh,

ys ay G. Boomhour, of the Baptist Female University also
| Raleigh, were elected members.

‘he Academy then proceeded to the presentation of papers,

whi rich were given in the following order:

[Issued September 20th, 1905. ]

58 JouRNAL OF THE MITCHELL Society. [ June

1. ABNORMALITIES IN THE EMBRYO-SAC OF LILLIUM TIGRI-
NUM: F. L. Stevens.

Three abnormalities were noted. In one case the
nucleus at the micropilar end of the embryo sac was
undergoing constriction while in the spirem stage
without any sigu of spindle formation. In another
case five nuclei, three of these cut off by walls, were |
in the antipodal end of the embryo sac. Another
slide exhibited an excessively long nucleus in the ©
micropilar end of the embryo sac. No explanation ©
was offered. Slides showing the structures referred —
to were exhibited to the Academy. .

ley a & <0 @ =o

2. NoTeEs ON THE FoopD AND FEEDING-HABITS OF SOME ~
NortH AMERICAN REPTILES: C. S. Brimley. —

Personal observation describing how a snake swallows
an animal or egg apparently too large for such pro- —
cess. Mentions the food upon which snakes, lizards —
and turtles have been observed to feed. Describes ©
how a king snake kills another snake. ;

3. ON THE RECORDED DISTRIBUTION OF CERTAIN INJURIOUS
InsEcTs In NortTH CAROLINA: F. Sherman, /r.

Attention was called to the value of positive data con- —
cerning the distribution of injurious insects determin- —
ing the probable results of sporadic out-breaks andin- —
forming the prospective planter or orchardist of the ©
pests to be encountered in any particular locality. —
The Division of Entomology of the North Carolina
Department of Agriculture has been keeping accurate
records of all reported insect outbreaks for over four ©
years. Some species appear to be generally dis-
tributed, others so meagrely recorded as to furnish
no conclusions as yet, while still others show fairly :
well-defined limits. ,
Notes and maps to illustrate distribution were given —
as follows:—Chinch Bug occurs probably throughout
the state east of the mountains, but most destructive
in the piedmont section. Corn Sill-beetle, probably —
occurs throughout eastern half of the state, but is —
chiefly destructive along rivers and streams subject —
to overflow in the eastern section. Oyster-shell
Bark-louse, probably occurs throughout the moun-

}
‘
*
a

1905] ProcrEpincs N. C. Acapemy or SCIENCE. 59

tain and piedmont sections, but chiefly destructive in
the mountains. San Jose Scale, occurs in various
localities in all sections of the state and has been
spread largely by shipment of infested plants,
Strawberry Weevil, occurs in the strawberry-growing
region in the southeast with questionable records for
the counties of Wilson, Richmond, and Buncombe.

4, A New APPLE-TREE DISEASE. fF. L. Stevens.

A disease designated as scurf was described. It is an
infection of the bark on young twigs, causing a
wrinkling and cracking, somewhat resembling the
San José scale in appearance. The fungus causing
this disease was exhibited in pure plate and tub cul-
ture before the Academy. Inoculation experiments
are in progress, and a canvas of the state is being
made in order to determine the extent of distribution
and seriousness of the disease.

Remainder of the papers were withheld to be read at the
Joint Session with the North Carolina Section of the Ameri-
can Chemical Society.

The Academy then proceeded with the business of the
regular business meeting and upon report of the nominating
committee and by ballot the following officers for the next
year were elected:

President, Pror. Jno. F. LANNEAU, Wake Forest.

Vice-President, Dr. Tarr ButLER, Dept. Agr. Raleigh.

Secretary- Treasurer, Dr. F. L. Stevens, A. & M. College,
West Raleigh.

Executive Commitice:—Pror. Jno. F. LANNEAU, ex officio,

Dr. F..L. STEVENS, Pror. COLLIER Coss, Chapel Hill; Mr.

H. H. Brimixry, Dept. Agr., Raleigh; Mr. F. SHERMAN, Jr.,
Dept. Agr., Raleigh.

At this point the members of the Chemical Society entered
and the Academy proceeded to the business of the joint ses-
Sion, at which the following papers were presented:

1. THe Screnck or Prant Parsorocy, (Presidential
Address of President) 4. L. Stevens for the Academy,
(Appears in full in this issue. )

60 JOURNAL OF THE MrrcHELL Socrery. [ June

2. A New Cotor REACTION FOR LIGNOCELLULOSE:
A. S. Wheeler.

PHYSICS OF SHOOTING STARS: Jno. F. Lanneau.
CORROSION OF IRON: R. O. FE. Davis.

CONDENSED Form oF Fat ExTRACTOR AND ETHER
RECOVERER: J. M. Prickel.

6. BuTrerFLIES OF RaLeicn, N. C.: C. S. Brimley.

In this paper the number of species belonging to each
of the families of butterflies was enumerated. Paper
was illustrated by specimens prepared in Riker |
mounts. af

7. A PHARMACIST’S VIEW OF PATENT MEDICINES: (summar-
ized only) E.V. Howell.

At the conclusion of this program President Williams of
the Chemical Section announced the adjournment of both
bodies to Giersch’s Café where a lunch was tendered the visi-
tors by the Raleigh members of both organizations.

FRANKLIN SHERMAN, JR.,
eetiring Secretary.

THE SCIENCE OF PLANT. PATHOLOGY .*

BY PROFESSOR FRANK LINCOLN STEVENS, PH.D.,
North Carolina College of Agriculture.

From the time men first had interest in plants, knowledge
of their imperfections or premature death has existed, with-
out, however, definite conception that the imperfections in
question really constitute a condition of disease.

The Bible and the early writings of the Greeks and Romans
contain references to what we now recognize as wheat rust,
fig blight, insect galls and other of the more strikingly con-
Spicuous plant ailments. Such references are more abundant
in the literature of the seventeenth century, and in the latter

- part of that and the eighteenth century a few papers giving

careful descriptions of malformations due to insect invasion
appeared. Even the law was invoked to aid in combating
the wheat rust in France as early as 1660. Prior to the nine-
teenth century, however, knowledge of plant diseases can
hardly be said to consist of more than mere observation of the
fact that such diseases occur, and the little real knowledge
that did exist was swamped by rampant superstition.

It is natural that the first attempts to explain imperfections
were founded upon climatic and soil relations. Vestigial
beliefs prevail to this day throughout the country among the
untutored to the effect that the various blights, rusts, rots,

_ mildews, etc., are cattsed solely by untoward conditions of

weather, or the unpropitious position of celestial bodies or
some other occult influence.

The significance ef one great factor in the production of
plant disease, namely the parasitic fungi, remained quite
unrecognized until the second decade of the nineteenth cen-

*Reprinted from The Popular Science Monthly, September, 1905.

1905) 61

62 STEVENS—SCIENCE OF PLant Paruotocy. [/une

tury. Fungi had been seen upon the plant and had been
described in some detail during the preceding decade, but
instead of being recognized as casual agents of disease they
were, as was the fate of bacteria in the case of animal dis-
eases, by many regarded as products of disease. Before the
study of plant diseases could be scientifically undertaken, the
basic facts of plant nutrition were to be discovered, the para-
sitic habit of the fungi proved, the minute anatomy of the
plant disclosed. Epoch-making in the disclosure of these des-
iderata, which may be said to have given birth to plant
pathology as a science in the second decade of the nineteenth_
century were the investigations of the early Dutch, French,
German and English botanists. Like bacteriology, plant
pathology is an infant science of the last century, owing its
being to the perfection of the microscope.

In the last two decades of the last century, scientific effort
concerned itself chiefly with accumulating knowledge con-
cerning fungi and insects. Vast numbers of these were clas-
sified, catalogued and described. In other words, the means
of diagnosis were perfected and diseases were grouped into
natural classes according to their casual agents. Attempts
toward the development of methods of treatment by the use
of various sprays were more or less effective. Indeed, spray-
ing had been advocated to some slight extent for a century or
more as a remedy for insect and other plant diseases. The
variety of spraying substances ranged from clay, ashes and
cow manure to sulphur, lime, salt, etc. One writer recom-.
mended ‘‘The applying around the base of the tree; flax, rub-
bish, sea weed, ashes, lime, sea shells, sea sand, mortar, clay,
tanner’s bark, leather scraps, etc.”—evidently not a homeo-
pathic prescription. The variety of substances recommended
raises suspicion that the efficiency of no formula was demon-
strated. In 1787 we find the heroic advice, ‘just wet the trees
infested with lice, then rub flowers of sulphur upon the
insects, and it will cause them all to burst.’ Some decided
progress was, however, made. As early as 1842, a whale

7905] JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY. 63

soap was used and retained favor; quassi, hellebore and
tobacco were standard insecticides as early as 1855, Sulphur
was used for the mildews and bluestone for wheat smut.

The last twenty years of the nineteenth century mark the
beginning of a new epoch in plant protection. For this there
are three reasons: first, the increased aggressiveness of a
certain fungous disease, the grape mildew, in Europe; sec-
ond, the rapid spread of the potato bug, somewhat pedanti-
cally termed the Colorado beetle, and, third, resulting from
these two, revolutionary changes in materials and methods
for treating plant diseases, both fungous and insect, in the
new world and in the old. It is a matter not entirely without
interest that the revolution in European methods may be
definitely traced to typical American aggressiveness, inas-
much as the activity arousing fungus was of American
importation.

In Europe the invasion of the downy mildew of the grape
in 1878 was unchecked by the most vigorous fungicides then
used, All are familiar with the story of the great benefit
conferred upon humanity through the predatory habits of the
French boys in the vineyards that produce the famous Bor-
deaux wines. The rows lying nearest the roadway were
sprinkled with verdigris or a mixture of lime and bluestone,
to give the impression that the fruit was poisoned. In 1882
Millardet, of the faculty of the sciences, noticed that the
vines thus treated held their leaves while others succumbed
to the mildew. He ascribed this effect to its proper cause,
and conducted carefully systematized experiments, which
resulted in giving to the world bouzlle bordelaise, Bordelaiser
Bruhe, or Bordeaux mixture, a proved fungicide of great effi-
ciency; one that has not yet been surpassed.

In the new world the extension of the potatoe belt west-
ward connected the eastern potato belt with the region of the
native food plant of the familiar potato bug. Finding the
potato plant a more abundant and wholesome food than the
wild solonaceous plants that it had formerly fed upon, the

“a

9

64 STEVENS—SCIENCE oF PLant Patuorocy. [/une —
potato bug began its eastern migration. In 1859 it was
found east of Omalfa City, in 1868 it had reached Illinois, in —
1870 Ontario, in 1872 New York and in 1874 it was upon the _
Atlantic seaboard. The potato bug ate ravenously and man ~
was stimulated to new activity in the search for more effec- —
tive means to overcome insect pests. The use of Paris green —
and London purple followed as a direct result of this stimu- 7 9
lus. .

The development of efficient fungicides and insecticides in —
Europe and America led naturally to the perfection of the ©
machines used in applying these mixtures, and not the least —
important part played in the development of a practical plant ;
pathology is concerned with the evolution of spraying
machines. The first sprayer consisted of a bunch of switches. —
This was dipped into the spraying mixture which was dis- —
tributed over the foliage by vigorous shaking. It gave place 9
to an improved spraying broom or brush with hollow handle,
the liquid flowing from a reservoir to the brush, from which
it was applied to the leaves. Sprayers and pumps followed
in turn. Then came the improvement of the nozzle.

We may recognize two periods in the development of plant
pathology: the first or embryonic period extending from pre-
historic times to the beginning of the truly scientific investi-
gations in the middle of the eighteenth century, and contrib-
uting chiefly observations, collections, descriptions; the sec-
ond or formative period, during which the foundations of the
science were laid, the chief factors of it determined, and the
chief lines of future progress marked out.

It is in no way my purpose to call attention to the part the
Carolinas have played in botany as a science, yet I can not
refrain in passing from mentioning that prominent place in —
the history of American mycology is assured to de Schwein- ©
itz, a minister of Salem, N. C., who in 1818 published the
first important paper on American fungi; to M. A. Curtis, a
tutor in Wilmington, N. C., who in 1830, with Berkeley in

i)

«]

‘i

(1905) JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY. 65

England, described many fungi of the Carolinas; to Ravenal, |
of South Carolina, the first to publish exsiccati of American
’ fungi, and to Louis Bosc, of South Carolina, who published a
descriptive list in 1811.
_ ‘The embryonic and formative period prepared the way for
_the third period, beginning about 1885, which may be called
the period of growth. It is marked by the development and
' perfection of the rudimentary principals and discoveries of
_ the preceding periods. It was during this period that the
most spectacular conquests were made; that popularization
' and extension of methods occurred. So great, so numerous,
so wonderful were the advances made during the past decade,
that we frequently see the statement that little or no progress
had been made in plant pathology prior to 1885. The pres-
_ ent day student should, however, bear in mind that it was
| the persistent, arduous, patient work of the preceding years
_ that rendered possible the progress of the closing years of the
century.
_ My denomination of this period as ‘the period of growth’
indicates the nature of the changes which it inaugurates;
growth in every direction and concerning every phase of the
subject. There has been growth in the list of plant mala-
' dies. New diseases have been discovered by scores, and old
diseases have been found to affect new plants, and diseases
hitherto insignificant have taken prominent places as danger-
ous foes. The alteration of the plant constitution by .high
selection and breeding, the bringing of plants into new cli-
“matic or soil relations, the more intensive cultivation, the
bringing of a susceptible plant into a region where a parasite
‘is already growing upon one of its botanical relatives, thus
exposing it to a possible new foe, are conditions that operate
to admit of the evolution of new diseases. The growing of
plants in large quantities in solid blocks, rather than spar-
ingly in scattered gardens, brings about a congested condi-
_ tion comparable with the crowding of our cities, and favors

66 STEVENS—SCIENCE OF Plant PatHoLtocy. [ /une

the development of epidemics* by furnishing abundant mater-
ial for the parasitic organisms to attack, abundant nutriment
upon which they may multiply, and abundant opportunity for
them to reach new hosts and spread the contagion. With
potatoes, for example, raised merely as garden crops, the
probability of an epidemic affecting the majority of gardens
is not so great as when potatoes are raised in vast fields. A
single field crop, once infested, so contaminates the air with
spores that other fields are almost sure to become infected.
The contagium becomes sufficiently multiplied to break the
quarantine, and a general epidemic results. Any factor
which tends to increase the occurrence of epidemics may
quickly raise a given disease from obscurity to a position of
commanding importance. ‘So, too, dces the increase in value
of hitherto comparatively insignificant crops. The pecan and
cranberry are at present objects of particular solicitude by the
plant physician.

With the importation of plants from foreign countries and
the transportation of plants from one part of the country to
another comes the possibility of increased disease transfer-
ence. Recent years have seen the San José scale spread from
the Pacific to the Atlantic; the asparagus rust from the
Atlantic to the Pacific; the hollyhock rust has invaded us
from Europe; the chrysanthemum rust from the Orient; the
watermelon wilt is now moving northward and the peach yel-
lows southward. In nearly all cases where the soil is dis-
eased the affected region is annually enlarging, so that soil

diseases a decade ago insignificant in the territory of their

occupation are fast assuming control of alarmingly large
regions. The growing of plants in larger quantities also
increase the amount of germ-bearing refuse to the ultimate
end that the very air and soil become germ laden.
Civilization, higher culture and community life, especially

*The use of the word epidemic in relation to plant diseases while ety -
mologically incorrect, seems justified since no other word conveys the
desired meaning and the meaning of this word is clear to all.

a ge Ore eae ye ae

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1905] JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL, SOCIETY. 67

if it verge upon congestion of population, exacts an inevita-
ble forfeiture by increased mortality. ‘Thus does the list of
diseases that comes within the horizon of the practical men
enlarge. Wonder, often scepticism, is expressed at the exist-
ence of unfamiliar diseases of man, other animals and plants,
as though these afflictions were conjured up by the examina-
tion of the over zealous practitioner. The increase of afflic-
tion is more apparent than real, as it is in the case of appen-
dicitis, which is now recognized, named and cured, conse-
quently, heard of, whereas under the old régime it was not
recognized as a distinct disease, therefore it was unheard of,
though the patient died. Parallel cases might be cited
among the plants.

The work of DeBary on polymorphism among the fungi is
being extended. Knowledge of the life histories of various
pathogenic fungi is being slowly expanded. Summer forms,
are connected with winter forms, and thereby the hibernating
condition, often the most vulnerable point of attack, exposed.
The discovery of heteroecism in the rusts, the alternation
from wheat to barberry, from apple to juniper is of classic
antiquity in the annuals of plant pathology. It emphasized
the need of close study of life histories of all parasites. Such
study has given abundant fruit, notably in disclosing the

_ relation between the apple cankers and the bitter rot of the

apple, and revealing the winter condition of the brown rot of

the peach. The lead so fortunately made in the discovery of

the Bordeaux mixture has been assiduously prosecuted. The
original Bordeaux mixture has been greatly modified,
changed, indeed, from a thick paste to a thin solution, and so
thoroughly tested in all its modifications, that it has now
reached its ultimate perfection. Hundreds of other chemi-
cals, both dry and wet, have been tested as fungicides, with
the adoption of a few adapted to special conditions, ¢. g., sul-
phur and sulphides for powdery mildews and the ammoniacal
copper carbonate for use as the fruit ripens, thus avoiding
unsightly spotting. A happy combination of insecticide and

68 STEVENS—SCIENCE OF PLANT PATHOLOGY. [ Juné |

fungicide has been found in the various sulphur washes.

There has been very remarkable growth in the perfection of —

spraying appliances; pumps and dusters of many kinds are
upon the market. Particularly is the improvement in nozzles
to be noted. Nozzles constructed upon scientific principles,
capable of applying the liquid in the form of the finest spray
to the tops of the highest trees. In the place of the old hand
pump and pail we find barrel pumps on wheels, tanks on
wheels with pumps operated by gearing attached to the
wheels, and finally for the larger fruit farms and for munici-
pal care of shade trees are multiple pumps driven by steam
power.

The treatment of seeds to kill adhering spores has been
improved upon in many details. It illustrates especially well
the nature of the development during the present epoch of
plant pathology. Originally the treatment for wheat smut
was based purely upon superstition. Pliny, for example, says
that ‘if branches of laurel are fixed in the ground the disea 3
will pass from the field into the leaves of the laurel.’ Tull
in 1730 says that there are but two remedies proposed, brin-
ing and changing the seed. The avoidance of certain kinds
of manure because of their effect upon the host plant and
because they carried the smut spores was also advocated
about that time. The scientific demonstration by Brefeld
that the plant is susceptible only when very small, gave rise
to the thought that by hastening the early growth the period
of susceptibility could be shortened, and methods of planting
and tilling in accord with that idea were advocated. In addi-
tion to cultural methods mechanical treatment of seeds, such
aS passing the wheat loosely between millstones, violent fan-

hy

ning, etc., were suggested about 1786. The chemical treat-

ment of seeds, says Tull, was accidentally discovered about ~

1660 by the sinking of a shipload of wheat at Bristol, and

afterwards, finding it unfit for breadmaking, it was used for

seed wheat. The following harvest in England was very
smutty except in the case of this accidentally brined seed,

He Aa tn a ei ag Sh es Wi at

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7905] Journal oF THE MrrcHELy Society. 69

which made aclean crop. Then followed brining with lim-
ing and liming without brining, soaking in lime, arsenic,
salt, arsenic and lye, and various other treatments, none of
which, however, came into general use. Accident coupled
with acumen again aided in hastening a discovery. Provost
while attempting to germinate some spores placed some of
them in water distilled in a copper vessel. These failed to
germinate, though similar spores placed in water which had
not touched copper germinated well. Following this lead he
and numerous other investigators experimented extensively
with copper compounds during succeding years.

Such is the history of the development of a treatment effec-
tive for smut of wheat and barley, but not for that of oats.
The next marked advance was made by Jensen, a Dane, who
in 1887 developed the famous Jensen hot water treatment, a
treatment which though requiring considerable accuracy of
manipulation was thoroughly effective. This method, if no
easier were to be had, was well worth to practical agriculture
all that the experiment stations of the world have ever cost.
Within only a few years, however, the Jensen treatment was
supplanted by the formalin treatment; a treatment so simple,
inexpensive and effective that, save for minor improvements

of detail, the end seems to have been reached in the search

for preventives for the particular diseases to which the
method applies.

Growth of knowledge concerning bacterial diseases has
occurred, beginning with the pear blight which baffled all
horticulture prior to the assertion of its bacterial nature by
Professor Burrill. The proof that bacteria can and do cause
plant diseases has been definitely adduced, and a large num-

_ ber of such diseases have been recognized upon many plants.

Not only from the scientific side have these ailments been
studied, but from the practical as well. and preventive and
palliative measures have in many instances been found.

The soil is often spoken of as the living earth. Not only
may it live, but it also partakes of those chief accompani-

70 STEVENS—SCIENCE OF Prant Paruoroecy. [ /une

ments of life, viz., health, sickness and death. A _ healthy
soil may, from an agricultural point of view, be regarded as
one capable of fulfilling all its vital functions; a sick soil, one
in which some functions are impaired. Of only one class of
soil sickness may I speak, namely, that which results in pro-
ducing sick plants by harboring pathogenic germs. The cot-
ton wilt, the Texas root rot, the watermelon, tobacco, tomato
and cabbage wilts, the cabbage club foot and the onion smut
are conspicuous examples of diseases so propagated. Dis-
eases of this type not only destroy the crop, but they preclude
the possibility of successful culture of the plant in question,
or of its close botanical relatives for many years. Such foes
to agriculture have completely destroyed the possibility of
tobacco growing on many farms otherwise eminently adapted
to this crop and ill adapted to any other, resulting in great
depreciation in the value of the land. This encroachment
upon valuable soil will proceed yearly, and with geometrically
increasing rapidity, until means of prevention are discovered,
as they have now been in sonie instances, and the method of
prevention becomes common knowledge. Soil diseases, the
most dreaded of all dangers to the plant, are prevalent to
much greater extent in the south than in the north. One
field is known to exist in South Carolina upon which neither
melons, cotton nor cow-peas can be grown. It is conceivable
that many other germs could infest one and the same field,
but no greater affliction concerning such staple crops seems
possible.

Growth in popular appreciation of the importance of plant
diseases and of the value of remedial and prophylactic meas-
ures is perhaps the most striking characteristic of plant path-
ology in the last twenty years. At the beginning of this per-
iod spraying was in no wise general. It was of rare occur-
rence. Man sufferea unresistingly the attacks of the molds,
mildews, rots and blights. The circulation of thousands of
state experiment station bulletins and similar bulletins from

1905] JourNAL OF THE MrrcHELt’ Society. 71

the national department of agriculture, the vigorous cam-
paign of farmers’ institutes, farmers’ reading circles, farmers’
extension courses, and the extended use of farmers’ periodi-
cals and agricultural papers have served to bring the latest
discoveries of science to the use of him who will heed. As is
to be expected, it is the man who most closely studies his
business, he who has most at stake, the large specialist in the
culture of any crop, who first embraces the offered aid. The
orchardist or vineyardist leads the way in the adoption of new
methods and new machinery. The revolution looking toward
recognition of the value of plant treatment is now so thor-
oughly inaugurated that the treatment of such diseases, -both
insect and fungous, in the case of fruit and trucking crops is
of general occurrence. The movement, too, is world-wide.

The practical outcome of all the investigation and propa-
ganda up to the present time is that many hundreds of plant
diseases have been recognized; for a hundred or more have
been prescribed remedial or preventive measures, many of
which are eminently successful; witness, the treatment of
cereal smuts, the peach curl, the grape black rot, the powdery
mildews. The saving occasioned by any one of these, as is
true of scores of others, would amply suffice to pay all the
expense of investigation and propaganda incurred in the
development of the whole field of plant pathology. By oat
smut alone the estimated damage in the United States yearly
is $26,766,166, a loss avoidable by an annual expenditure of
less than four cents an acre. The saving actually made in
Dakota, Minnesota and Wisconsin in one year is placed at
$5,000,000.

The future problems of plant pathology are manifold.
The period of growth must continue long before the work
now undertaken is done. Many diseases of even the culti-
vated plants are not yet recognized. ‘The diseases of wild
plants, particularly the weeds, must too be studied to ascer-
tain the possibility of intercommunication of diseases between

72 STEVENS—SCIENCE OF PLANT Parsoxtocy. [June

weeds and crop plants. The life histories of all disease pro-
ducing fungi must be closely studied, particularly to deter-
mine their hibernating condition. As yet the merest begin-—
ning has been made. The interrelation of host and parasite
must be studied, the periods, points and modes of infection ©
made known. The biology of the fungi, their life habits, —
conditions of spore formation, characters of growth, relation —
to light, heat, moisture, nutriment, etc.; their resistance to
adverse conditions, their longevity under various conditions
of environment are all problems of ultimate practicality.
The question of species is unsettled and the recent demon-

stration of biologic varieties among the rusts, mildews and j
fusariums opens a large and important field of research. The ©
agencies operating as disease distributors, the wind, insects,
soil, man, water or what not must be known that such distri- ©
bution be more readily controlled. The causes of resistance
and susceptibility to certain diseases rest in obscurity, except ©
in a few cases where the responsibility has been fixed upon
some particular structure or chemical. The breeding of
plants resistant to specific diseases not readily amenable to_
other means of control must proceed. Such work is now in —
progress with cotton, melons, tomatoes, tobacco, grains, flax —
and other plants. The relation existing between many root —
fungi and bacteria and the roots they inhabit remains to be
studied. Aside from parasitism there is also mutualism, a ~
kind of beneficial disease falling to the province of Pasi
pathology. It needs much further study. i

Specific problems also abound, the peach yellows and ros-

ette, the mycoplasm theory of rusts, the grape Brunnisure. q
Differences of opinion now exist or the technique or scientific
data are insufficient for an adequate solution of these ques-
tions and many other similar oes. Work on timber protec-
tion, while not strictly a question of disease, but rather a
post-mortem problem, falls to the lot of the pathologist for
the want of a more appropriate place. That intensive stumay 4

1905] JouRNAL oF THE MrtcHErtr, Socrery. 73

of a disease, however thoroughly it may seem to have been
studied before, may lead to important development is well
illustrated in the case of the familiar pear blight, which,
though known for ages and the topic of masterly classic
research, has recently, under trained observation and critical
interpretation and experimentation, revealed new secrets
leading to more masterful and complete control. The large
fields of plant pathology, grouped under the term ‘physiologi-
cal disorders,’ are still practically unworked; diseases due to
false nutrition, absorption or assimilation, or to impaired car-
bon assimilation owing to improper enviroument, to crowding
or shading or to hereditary inabilities. A start has been
made sufficient to show the importance of the results await-
ing.

The recent discovery of the ultramicroscopic organisms or
filterable enzymes which has robbed the bacteria of the dis-
tinctioin of being the smallest of living things opens a new
field in both plant and animal pathology comparable in kind,
though probably not in magnitude, with the creation of bac-
teriology by Pasteur. It is yet unknown whether we have to
do here with organisms or enzymes, and contemplation of the
problems awaiting in this realm places us in a position to
appreciate more fully than ever before the great controversy of
spontaneous generation as fought in the sixties. The
announcement in a recent periodical of the discovery of solu-
ble protoplasm emphasizes the existence of a vast unknown
covered by the words protoplasm, enzymes, invisible organ-
isms. Is it coincidence of fate that with the growing impor-

tance of the problem of the invisible organism there comes

the invention of a microscope of surpassing excellence with
which the seeing of molecules is a hoped for possibility?

The science of plant pathology is indeed young. It has
yielded much, and it is still full of promise. In the achieve-
ment of the results to come draught will be made upon the

sister sciences even more than in the past. Plant physiology

a
~~

74 Stevens—Sciznce oF Prant Patuonocy. [ June

waits upon chemistry; plant pathology upon plant physiol-
ogy, and chemistry in return receives valuable contribution
from both. Mathematics, physics and geology all contribute
to the general upbuilding. The sciences, though becoming
more divergent instead of becoming more independent, are
yearly becoming more dependent, each using the discoveries ©
of the others to gain new foothold or new tools in the search ©
for truth. Often it is the frontier territory lying between —
two sciences which, belonging distinctively to neither, is —
least worked, and therefore presents most promising territory —
for conquest, Such is the history of the comparatively new
sciences of physical chemistry, physiological chemistry and
biometrics.

Nor does the field belong exclusively to either the devotee
of pure science, so-called, or of applied science. The study
of problems seemingly most remote from any practical ends
has often proved fundamental in the upbuilding of vast indus-
trial growth. Bacteriology was born of crystallography.
The father of galvanic electricity was derided as the frog’s
dancing master. Nor does the avowed object in view give a
sure key to the ultimate outcome. Alchemy, though never
attaining the end sought, hastened immeasurably the era of
industrial chemistry. Nor may it be said that applied science
is inferior, for without the application the fundamental prin-
ciples are of no avail in the promotion of the welfare of man.

Intensive laboratory study with no object other than the
increase of knowledge of molecular construction has led to —
the commercial production of many important compounds.
The present oat smut treatment by formalin owes its prac- ©
ticability equally to pure science in the chemical study that —
rendered the production of formalin practicable at moderate ©
cost, and to pure science of the botanist who from mere
interest in fungous growth discovered the nature of para-
sitism, and to the practical scientist who applied the know-
ledge of the chemist and the botanist to the solution of a

1905] JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY. 75

definite agricultural problem. The distinction between pure
science and applied science is invidious. It is not a differ-
ence based upon the nature of the knowledge; rather upon
the motive of the worker. All true science is practical,
either remotely or directly, and the man of applied science is
but completing the work of the pure scientist. Especially
does the future of plant pathology rest with both.

A MEMOIR ON THE TWENTY-SEVEN LINES UPON
A CUBIC SURFACE.

ARCHIBALD HENDERSON, PH.D.

HISTORICAL SUMMARY.

Although it is probably true that the classification of cubic
surfaces is practically complete, the number of articles yearly
appearing upon these surfaces furnish abundant proof of the
fact that they possess much the same fascination as they did
in the days of the discovery of the twenty-seven lines upon
the general cubic surface. The literature of the subject is
very extensive and in a bibliography* on curves and surfaces,
compiled by J. E. Hill, of Columbia University, the section
on cubic surfaces contained 205 articles.

The first paper that deals specifically with the cubic surface
is one by L. Mossbrugger,{ ‘‘Untersuchungen tuber die geo-
metrische Bedeutung der constanten Coefficienten in den all-
gemeinen Gleichungen der Flachen des zweiten und dritten
Grades,” which appeared in the first volume of the Archiv der
Mathematik und Phystk, 1841.

The theory of straight lines upon a cubic surface was first
studied in a correspondence by the English mathematicians
Salmon and Cayley and the results were published, Camb. and
Dublin Math. Journal, Vol. TV. (1849), pp. 118-132 (Cayley),
pp. 252-260 (Salmon). ‘The observation that a definite num-
ber of straight lines must lie on the surface is initially due to
Cayley, whereas the determination of that number was first
made by Salmon.{ ;

*Bull. Am. Math. Soc. Vol. III. (1897) pp. 186-146.
;J. E. Hill, lc.

tSalmon, Geom. of Three Dimensions, 4th edition, 6580, note. Of. also
Oayley, Ooll. Math. Papers, Vol. I., note p. 589.

7905] HrENDERSON—A MeEmorr. 77

The basis for a purely geometric theory of cubic surfaces
was laid by Steiner* in ashort but extremely fruitful memoir,
containing many theorems, given either wholly without proof
or with but the barest indication of the method of derivation—
a habit of ‘‘ce celebre sphinx,” as he has been styled by
Cremona,

On account of the ‘‘complicated and many-sided symmetry”
among the relations between the twenty-seven lines upon the
cubic surface, great difficulty was at first experienced in
obtaining any adequate conception of the complete configura-
tion. The notation first given by Cayley was obtained by
starting from some arrangement that was not unique, but one
of a system of several like arrangements, yet it was so com-
plicated as scarcely to be considered as at all putting in evi-
dence the relations of the lines and triple tangent planes.
Hart gave a very elegant and symmetrical notation for the
lines and planes, au account of which is to be found in the
original paper of Salmon,{ who also gave a notation of
limited usefulness. Schlafli? it was who invented the nota-
tion that might be called epoch-making—that of the donble-
six,|| which has remained unimproved upon up to the present
time. This notation is one out of a possible thirty-six of like
character among the twenty-seven lines. Taylorj has recently
given a notation for the lines independent of any particular,
initial choice but this cannot be regarded as an improvement
upon the Schlafli notation.

The foundations for subsequent analytic investigations con-
cerning the twenty-seven lines were laid, as has been seen,
by Cayley and Salmon, and in fact Sylvester§ once said in

*«‘Ueber die Flachen dritten Grades,’’ read to the Berlin Academy, 81st
January, 1856; Orelle, Bd. LITI.

tInfra, §4.

PQuarterly Journal, Vol. 2 (1858), pp. 55-65, 110-120.

||For, the history of the double-six theorem see infra, §6.

+Philos. Trans. Royal Soc. Vol. OLXXXYV., (1894), part I. (A), pp. 37-69,
§Proc. London Math. Soc. Vol. 2, p. 155,

78 JoURNAL OF THE MrrcHELL Socre'ty. [ June

his habitually florid style, ‘‘Surely with as good reason as
had Archimedes to have the cylinder, cone and sphere
engraved on his:tombstone might our distinguished country-
men leave testamentary directions for the cubic chosineta
gram to be engraved on theirs.”

The first significant papers on cubic surfaces from the syn-
thetic standpoint, after Steiner’s memoir above mentioned,
were by Cremona and Rudolf Sturm. These were two of the
four papers submitted in competition for the prize offered by
Steiner through the Royal Academy of Sciences of Berlin in
1864, which was divided between Cremona and Sturm on
Leibniz Day, 1866. The beauty and simplicity of many of
the methods employed in these papers eminently justified
Steiner’s original remark, ‘‘Es ist daraus zu sehen, dass diese
Flichen fortan fast eben so leicht und einladsslich zu
behandeln sind, als bisher die Flache zweiten Grades.”
Cremona’s ‘‘Mémoire de géométrie pure sur les surfaces du
troisieme ordre” is found in Crelle’s Journal,* whereas Sturm’s
paper was subsequently expanded into a treatise.f

Schlifli (4 c.) first considered a division of the general
surface of the third order into species, in regard to the reality
of the twenty-seven lines, but he then contented himself with
a mere survey of the problem. This was in 1858. But in
1862, F. August} gave a rather extended investigation of the
subject. In 1863 appeared a valuable memoir by Schlafli,§
treating the subject in great detail. He also,’as the title
indicates, makes there a division of the surface into types,
depending upon the nature of the singularities,—a classifica-

*Vol. LXVIII. (1868), pp. 1-183.

+“Synthetishe Untersuchungen iiber Flachen dritter Ordnung.” B. G.
Teubner, Leipzig, 1867.

+*‘Disquisitiones de superficiebus tertii ordinis,’’ Dissert. inaug. Berolini,
1862.

§On the Distribution of Surfaces of the Third Order into Spegies, in
reference to the presence or absence of Singular Points and the reality of
their Lines,’’ Philos. Trans. Vol. OLIII. (1863), pp. 193-241.

8

905] HENDERSON—A MeEmorr. 79

tion used by Cayley* in his ‘‘Memoir on Cubic Surfaces.”

If Cayley and Salmon had wished to follow Sylvester’s
advice and to insert a clause in their wills, directing that a
figure of the cubic eikosiheptagram be engraved upon their
monuments, they would have had no certainty of the correct
fulfilment of their directions until the year 1869 when Dr.
Christian Wiener{ made a model of a cubic surface, showing
twenty-seven real lines lying upon it. This achievement of
Dr. Wiener, Sylvester? once remarked, is one of the discov-
eries ‘‘which must forever make 1869 stand out in the Fasti
of Science.” Since that time, there have been constructed
models of all the various types of the cubic surface, showing
the lines lying entirely upon them. The list of those who
have written on the mechanical construction of the configu-
rations of the lines upon a cubic surface and the general sub-
ject of the collocation of the lines upon the surface includes
the names of Salmon, Sylvester, Cayley, P. Frost, Zeuthen
and Blythe.||

The configuration of the twenty-seven lines is not only of
the highest interest Der se, but also on account of its close
association and relation to other remarkable configurations.
It was also in the year 1869 that Geiser§ showed the mutual
interdependence of the configurations of the twenty-eight
bitangents to a plane quartic curve and the twenty-seven
lines upon a cubic surface, and the method of derivation of
each from the other. By making use of Geiser’s results,
Zeuthent obtained a new demonstration of the theorems of
Schlaflijf upon the reality of the lines and tripletangent planes

*Philos. Trans. Royal Soc. London, Vol. OLIX. (1869), pp. 231-326.

$Of. Oayley, Trans. Oamb. Philos. Soc. Vol. XII. Part I (1873), pp.
366-383, where a description of the model is given.

PProc. London Math. Soc. Vol. 2, p. 155.

\|Of. infra, §§18-21.

§Math. Ann. Bd. I. (1869), pp. 129-138.

+Math. Ann. Bd. 7 (1874), pp. 410-482.

+7Quarterly Journal, Vol. 2, (1858); Philos. Trans. Vol. 153 (1863),

80 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY. [ June

of a cubic surface. Indeed, it is*feasible to derive the proper-
ties of one configuration from the known properties of the
other.*

In 1877 Cremonat first showed that the Pascalian configu-
ration might be derived from the configuration of the twenty-
one lines upon the surface of the third degree with one coni-
cal point (Species II., Cayley’s enumeration) by projection
from the conical point.

The theory of varzeies of the third order, that is to say,
curved geometric forms of three dimensions contained in a
space of four dimensions, has been the subject of a profound
memoir by Corrado Segre.? The depth of this paper is
evinced by the fact that a large proportion of the propositions
upon the plane quartic and its bitangents, Pascal’s theorem,
the cubic surface and its twenty-seven straight lines, Kum-
mer’s surface and its configuration of sixteen singular points
and planes, and on the connection between these figures are
derivable from propositions relating to Segre’s cubic variety,
and the figure of six points or spaces from which it springs.f

Other investigators on this beautiful and important locus in

space of four dimensions and some of its consequences are
Castelnuovo and Richmond.§

The problem of the twenty-seven lines is full of interest
from the group theoretic standpoint. In 1869 Camille Jordan||
first proved that the group of the problem of the trisection of
hyperelliptic functions of the first order is isomorphic with

*Crelle’s Journal, Vol. 122 (1900), pp. 209-226.

tReale Accademia dei Lincei, Anno COLXXIV. (1876-77). Roma. Also
cf. infra, §§47, 48.

PpAtti d. R. Accad. di Scienze di Torina, Vol. XXII. (1887), pp. 547-557.
Memorie d. R. Accad. di Scienze di Torino, Series 2, Vol. XXXIX.
(1889), pp. 3-48.

7Richmond, Quarterly Journal, Vol. XXXIV. No. 2 (1902), pp. 117-154.
§Of. Richmond l. c. for references.

|\Comptes Rendus, 1869. Of. also Traite des Substitutions, p. 216 et seq.,
p. 365 et seq.

oe

7905] HENDERSON—A MeEmorr. 81

the group of the equation of the twenty-seventh degree, on
which the twenty-seven lines of the general surface of the
third degree depend. Felix Kleinf in 1887 sketched the
effective reduction of the one problem to the other. In
1887-9 Maschke} in a series of papers set up the complete
form-system of a quaternary group of 51840 substitutions,
and in 1893 Burkhardt,|| on the basis of Klein’s paper above
mentioned, these papers of Maschke and one by Witting,§
carried out the work sketched by Klein—the reduction of one
problem to the other.

Since Jordan’s first paper appeared in 1869, a number of
writers have studied the Galois group of the equation of the
twenty-seven lines. Dickson** has led in this investigation,
publishing a number of papers on the subject. Other writers
on the same subject are Kithnen,}}t Weber, {{ Cartan and, more
recently, Kasner. ‘This last paper is in close contact with
the investigations of Moore and Slaught on the cross-ratio
group of Cremona transformations.

INTRODUCTION.

The problem of the twenty-seven lines upon a cubic surface
is of such scope and extent and is allied to so many other
problems of importance that to give a veswme of all that has

+Extrait d’une lettre addressee a M. C. Jordan, Journal de Liouville,
series 4, tome IV. (1888), p. 169 et seq.

tMath. Ann. Bd. XXX. (1887), pp. 496-515; Gott. Nach. (1888), pp. 76-86;
Math. Ann. Bd. 33, (1889), pp. 317-844.

||Math. Ann. Bd. 41 (1898), pp. 309-848.
§Math. Ann. Bd. 29 (1887). °
**Trans. Am. Math. Soc. Vol. 2 (1901), pp. 187-138; Quarterly Journal

Vol. 33 (1901), pp. 145-173; Bulletin Am. Math. Soc. Vol. 8 (1901), p. 68 et
seq.; Linear Groups Ch. XIV. pp. 303-307.

+7‘‘Uber die Galois’che Gruppe der Gleichung 27 Grades, von welcher die
Geraden auf der allgemeinen Flache dritter Ordnung abhangen,’’ Diss,
Marburg, 1888.

ttMath. Ann. Bd. XXIII., pp. 489-503.

82 JOURNAL OF THE MrrcHELL Society. [ June

been done upon the subject would enlarge the present paper
into a book. It was found impossible to cover even the
geometrical phases of the problem, in their extension in par-
ticular to the cognate problem of the forty-five triple tangent
planes, although the two subjects go hand in hand. In this
memoir, however, is given a general survey of the problem of
the twenty-seven lines, from the geometric standpoint, with
special attention to salient features, i. e., the concept of
trihedral pairs, the configuration of the double-six, the solu-
tion of the problem of constructing models of a double-six
and of the configurations of the lines upon the twenty-one
types of the cubic surface, the derivation of the Pascalian
configuration from that of the lines upon the cubic surface
with one conical point, and certain allied problems.

In §§ 1-4 are given certain preliminary theorems concerning
the existence and number of the twenty-seven lines and forty-
five planes for the general cubic surface, and upon the-first
notation employed. In §§ 5,6 and 7 are given an account of
Schlafli’s notation, a history of the double-six theorem and an
analytic proof of it, independent of cubic surfaces; in §8 follow
certain interesting results on the anharmonic ratios of the con-
figurations. In §9 appear two conditions that five lines lie upon
a cubic surface and in §10 is the description of the formation,
and the tabulation of the thirty-six double-sixes. In §11
occur certain auxiliary theorems for special features of the
general configuration of the twenty-seven lines.

In §12 are given the definition and number of trihedral
pairs, and in §13 the actual formation of the tables of the 120
forms. In §14 these are grouped together in such a way (sets
of three) as to determine in forty ways all the twenty-seven
lines.

In §16 is given a discussion of a special form of the general |

equation of the cubic surface and the determination of the
equations of the forty-five triple tangent planes.
In §§18 and 19 the methods for the construction of a model

et a ieee I i ce ee ee ed

— - ~—)
ce eS ee

Si Pt em On a

Tate = et es ee

|
|

|

ee re

eee

7905] HenNDERSON—A MeEmorr. 83

of a double-six are discussed and a practical method is there
- given in detail.

In §§20 to 45 the general problem of constructing thread or
wire models of the configurations of the lines upon all twenty-
one types of the cubic surface is fully considered, and a com-
plete solution of the problem given.

In §46 is given a discussion of the derivation of the
Brianchon configuration from two spatial point triads, and
in §§47-8 the discussion of the derivation of the Pascalian
configuration from that of the straight lines upon the second
species of the cubic surface (Cayley’s enumeration) and a
graphic representation of the same.

Finally, in §49 appears a theorem on the number of cubic
surfaces with one conical point passing through the lines of
mutual intersection of two triheders.

CHAPTER I.

PRELIMINARY THEOREMS.

§1 Existence of Straight Lines upon a Cubic Surface.

In order to find the conditions that any straight line, whose
equations are

MRED ile Are OS TUT sey KAO

r nf wen
lie entirely upon a surface, we substitute x = x, -+ Az,
y=y,+per, 2=—2,+ in the equation of the surface,
arrange the terms of the resulting equation according to
powers of v and then set all the coefficients of 7 equal to zero,

84 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY. [ sune

since the equation in 7 must be identically satisfied, i. e., for
all values of 7. Since in this case the equation of the surface
is of the third degree, there result four conditions. But the
equations of a straight line involve four disposable constants,
and, as the number of conditions to be fulfilled is exactly
equal to the number of disposable constants in the equations
of the straight line, it follows that every surface of the third
order must contain a finite number of straight lines, real or
imaginary, lying entirely upon it. .

§2. Mumber of Straight Lines upon a Cubic Surface.

Suppose we pass a plane z through a point P outside the
surface and through a straight line / lying upon the surface.
Then 7 meets the surface in the line 7, and a conic C besides
(since the curve of intersection is a degenerate cubic), i. e.
meets the surface in a section having two double-points and
therefore by definition is a double-tangent plane. These
double-tangent planes z to the cubic surface are also double-
tangent planes to the tangent cone, vertex P. Now since to
every plane z corresponds one straight line / lying entirely
on the surface and as there are twenty-seven* (7 = 3) double-
tangent planes to the tangent cone, vertex P, therefore there
are twenty-seven straight lines / on the cubic surface.f

§3. Triple Tangent Planes.

By properly determining the plane passed through any
straight line / upon the cubic surface, the conic C (§2) will

*Salmon, Geom. of Three Dimensions, 4th edition, §286 gives
F(n — 1)(n — 2)(n8 — n? + n — 12)

as the number of double-tangent planes, drawn through a point P toa
surface of the nth degree.

+For other proofs compare R. Sturm, Flachen dritter Ordnung, Kap. 2,
§20, and Cayley, Ooll. Math. Papers, Vol. I., No. 76 (445-456).

|
|
|
f
f
{
[

1905) | HxEnpERSON—A MeEmotrr. 85

degenerate into a pair of straight lines. Here the plane
intersects the surface in three intersecting straight lines (a
degenerate curve of the third order having three double
points) and the points of intersection of the lines taken in
pairs are the points of contact of the plane with the surface.
Now through each of the three lines in the plane there may
be drawn, besides the given plane, four triple tangent planes.
For these twelve new planes give rise to twenty-four new
lines upon the surface, making up with the former three lines,
twenty-seven lines upon the surface. It follows that every
straight line on the surface is met by ten others.

If all the twenty-seven lines intersect in pairs, there would
be 351 points of intersection. But since each line is met by
ten other lines, there remain 16 lines by which it is not met
27 X 16

2
not intersect. Consequently there are 135 points of inter-
section.

Since these 135 points, by threes, determined the triple tan-
gent planes, there are 45 triple tangent planes.

Consider the three lines a, 6, and c say, the complete inter-
section of the triple tangent plane 7 with the surrace. Then
every other line / upon the surface must meet the triple tan-
gent plane in a point upon one (a say) of the three lines a, d,
and c, and accordingly must lie in a plane 7,, passing through
a. Since the intersection of the surface by the plane 7; must
be a cubic curve, which is already composed of two straight
lines, the plane 7; meets the surface in a third straight line
/, and therefore must be a triple tangent plane. Hence /’
must be one of the given 27 lines and it appears that there
can be but 27 lines upon a cubic surface.

aud therefore there are = 216 pairs of lines that do

$4. Salmon’s Notation for the Twenty-Seven Lines.*

Lemma. The general equation of the cubic surface may be

*Qamb. and Dublin Math. Journal (1849), Vol. IV., pp. 252-260,

86 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY. [ June

reduced to the canonical form uvw — &f = 0, where u, "
v, w, &, n, £ are linear polynomes.

The number of independent constants in the general equa-

tion of the third degree is 9 ME for z= 3}.
Since the linear polynomes wu, v, w, €, y, £ contain 18 ratios of
coefficients and there is one other constant factor implicitly
contained in one of the products uvw, &f, therefore the forms
uvw — yf — 0 contains 19 constants and is one into which
the general equation of a cubic surface may be thrown.

It will appear later (§15) from geometrical considerations
that the problem to reduce the base cubic to the form
uvw — nf = 0 is soluble in 120 different ways.

Noration. Consider the canonical form of the surface of
the third degree ace — bdf = 0, where a, 8, c, d, e, f are
linear polynomes. By inspection it is patent that this surface
contains the nine lines ad, ad, af, cb, cd, cf, eb, ed, ef where
ab, for example, represents the line of intersection of the
planesa@=0,6=0. If we suppose a = pd to be the equa-
tion of one of the triple tangent planes through the intersec-
tion of the planes a and 4, the plane a = ué meets the surface
in the same lines in which it meets the hyperboloid
pce — df = 0, that is, the two lines in the plane are gener-
ating lines of different species, and consequently one of them
meets the pair of lines cd and ef, and the other of them meets
the pair of linescfanded. Let us now denote each of the remain-
ing eighteen lines by the three lines which it meets, the line
meeting ab, cd and ef being denoted by the symbol ad - cd - ef.
Since » has three values, there are three lines that meet ad,
cd, ef. Applying the same reasoning to the planes through ©
bc and ca, we employ the following symbolism for the twenty- —
seven lines ab, ad, ----- ef; (ab-cd-ef):, (ad-cf-eb)i,
(af-ch-ed);, (ab-cf-ed);, (ad-ch-ef)i, (af-cd-eb);,

where «= 1, 2, 3.

. g - lel =
Pac: oe) eeleks
J

1905] HEeNDERSOoON—A MeEmorr. 87

Unfortunately our information as to how these suffixes are
to be applied is inadequate and certain postulates have to be
made as to how the intersections occur.* This notation of
Salmon was the first one that was given for the twenty-seven
lines, and was superseded by a very superior one to be
explained in the next article.

*Of. Salmon, 1. c.

MOLECULAR ATTRACTION, IV., ON BIOT’S FORM-
ULA FOR VAPOR PRESSURE AND SOME |
RELATIONS AT THE CRITICAL
TEMPERA TURE.*

J. E. MILLS. —

nog oF og
HE yay OF A LIQUID.

In a preceding paper* we examined the following equation,
which had been proposed on theoretical grounds by Mr. H.
Crompton,

Vv

[1] 2| piv =2RT og. a ee cals.
(L is heat of vaporization, v and V denote volume of liquid
and vapor, d and D the density of liquid and vapor, pis pres-
sure, T is temperature, 7 is molecular weight, R is the con-
stant of the gas equation, PV = RT.)

It was there shown that this equation gives at low temper-
atures where the pressure is small, results for the heat of
vaporization that are invariably and usually very considerably
too large. But at the higher temperatures examined, that is
as the critical temperature is approached, the results given
by the equation appeared to be correct. The evidence there
given as to the correctness of this equation at high tempera-
tures was very considerable and justified further use of the
equation. Therefore in this paper we combined the usual
thermodynamical equation for calculation of the heat of
vaporization,

1Reprinted, with omission of a Table, from Jour. Phys. Chem., 9, p. 402,
1905.

2Jour. Phys. Ohem. 8, 593 (1904).

88 [June

1905) MiLLs—MOoLEcuLAR ATTRACTION. 89

Sy sP 5P
[2] Lo= ain (V a vam = .0,31833 Ai (V oa ~) Ar cals.

with the equation of Crompton given above, and obtained
equation 15 of that paper, viz.:
13] 8P _ 287500 °°

ST: om 'V—v
We there showed that the limit approached by this equation
as the critical temperature was approached and V approached
v in value, was,

SP 124860
[4] 8T mv
We at that time overlooked the fact that this equation 4
could be expressed in the very simple form,

oP ZR

2 37
Here V is the critical volume and R is the usual gas constant,
and we have ea striking conclusion that at the critical tem-

ir perature the = * of the liquid (vapor) ts exactly twice kvhat at

would be for ee substance as a perfect gas occupying the same
volume. Expressed in this form the bearing of equation 3, or
its limiting forms, on the kinetic relations of a liquid and its
| vapor, assumes more importance and justifies a closer study.
Accordingly by means of equation 4, we calculated, and

| give in Table 1, the values of the ee at the critical temper-

ature for twenty substances. The critical data used is that
given by Dr. Young’. This data is more correct than that
given in earlier papers. (We would here note that in the third
paper on Molecular Attraction* we overlooked this corrected
_ data, but have since repeated the calculations there given

1Phil. Mag., [5], 50, 291 (1900).
2Jour. Phys. Ohem., 8, 593, (1904).

90 JouRNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY.

using the corrected data and find no material change in the
results or conclusions there expressed. ) ,

8

For comparison with these values the a3 can be calculat

from any equation connecting vapor pressure and tempera
ture. Of the numerous equations that have been propose
the one usually known as Biot’s has proved by far the mos
serviceable. It takes the form,

[6] Log P=a+ b.at+e. P.
By differentiating and changing to Naperian logarithms
get,

dP

[7] yy — 95-3019 P(O. log a.a!+ c. log B. B*).
Since we had previously used Biot’s formula for calculating
heats of vaporization more directly, we found it easier t
throw equation 7 into the form,

[3] ae — 031414 PA,

where, A = 168.775 (6. log a.at+ clog 8. B*). The constants

for this equation have already been given’ for all of the sub:
1Jour. Phys. Ohem., 8, 383 (1904).

stances examined except those noted below.

Ethyl oxide. § A = antilog (1.9882227 — .001725412)

+ antilog (1.7399799 — .00869664 )

fie i.

Benzene. A = antilog (1.4256719 + .000130202972) —
+ antilog (0.1799122 — .00410411

i— 5 a :

Methyl alcohol. A = antilog (1.5561254 — .000115847)
+ antilog (.2.51667 — .00400204 Z)
eh ae bs
Ethyl alcohol. A = antilog (2.3965216 + .00337753872)
+ antilog (0.3342413 — .00317576#)
pF ey 2
a

1905) ° Mit1rs—MorEcuLar ATTRACTION, 91

'Propyl alcohol. A = antilog (2.8340346 + .001641423 2)

| + antilog (.03135244 — .00342975 2),

ye = 2° C — 20,

_ The constants for ethyl formate and methyl acetate were

kindly sent me by Dr. Young (work yet unpublished) and the
tants for methyl formate I have calculated and will pub-

hich later.

|

|

The values of the ee at the critical temperature as obtained

from these Biot equations are shown in Table 1.
Of the ed substances compared in Table 1 it will be

‘seen that the <x from equation 4 has a higher value than the

& 7p calculated from Biot’s formula in all cases except di-iso-
‘butyl, normal octane, and ethyl alcohol. The difference is
usually very marked.

In work done upon an equation of the ah P= 6T — a,
Ramsay and Young" made a study of the =~ : a any ether at con-

stant volume, Young’, later, a similar study for isopentane,
nd Rose-Innes and Young? corresondingly for normal pen-
ane. At the critical volume the values of the = obtained
at constant volume becomes identical with the value of the
tx denoting the increase in vapor pressure of the liquid.
herefore it is possible in these three cases by comparison

ith the values of the 7 obtained in the above papers to

letermine whether the values of the _ calculated from Biot’s
1Phil. Mag. [5], 28, 435, (1887).

2 Ibid, [5], 38, 569, (1894).

3 Tbid. [5], 4'7, 858 (1899).

yy

ie y

a
4
‘a
-.

92 JouRNAL OF THE MrtcHELL Socrery. [ June

—‘i ie

TABLE 1
|
our, HK |
a é s |
7 aA |
S ‘3S = i
SUBSTANOE ah g 8 = A A {
3 g ) 5 e y
(>) im 4
Bo = sa Md
2H Oy Ou le = |
ie) al\ce a\ea :
Ethyl oxide... ................ 194.45°O} 441.9 391.6 50.3 . 46068
Di-isopropy] .............c000+ 227.35 849.6 321.0 28.6 48798
Di-isobuty] ..............cc000 276.8 258.8 261.6 —2.8 446
Tsopentane .........cc.ccceeeee 187.8 405.7 367.8 37.9 4682
Normal pentane ............ 197.2 402.3 864.8 37.5 46383
Normal hexane.............. 234.8 839.9 315.9 24.0 4482
Normal heptane............ 268.85 291.9 286.9 5.0 4478
Normal octane.............0. 296.2 254.5 256.8 —23 4364
BONZONG. ...iasdcceantekamadesn 288.5 487.0 445.4 41.6 38961
Hexamethylene ............ 279.95 406.0 376.0 80.0 89583
Fluo-benzene .............6+- 286.55 460.1 480.7 29.4 -4042
Carbon tetrachloride...... 283.15 452.7 416.7 ° 36.0 .B8808 |
Stannic chloride............ 818.7 855.2 382.5 22.7 8768
Methyl formate............ _.| 214.0 725.6 619.2 106.4 48872 |
Ethyl formate............... 235.8 545.0 479.7 65.3 4809
Methyl acetate............... 233.7 548.3 502.38 46.0 4545
Methy] alcohol............... 240.0 1061.1 971.1 90.0 51729
‘Ethyl alcohol................. 243.1 747.0 796.7 —49.7 52998 |
Propyl alcohol............... 268.7 568.3 562.4 5.9 4718
ACebIC AGId..........-.-.000<s 821.65 729.2 574.6 154.6 42068
a
a

| 1905) MiLis—MoLEcULAR ATTRACTION. 93

formula or those obtained from equation 4 are correct. The
| SP
‘result is shown below, the value of the Er at the exact crit-

‘cal volume having been obtained from the above mentioned
dapers by interpolation and entered in the column marked
/‘Observed”.

Substance Volume |From Biot|Equ’tion 4| Observed
3.815 SUL.6 441.9 436

4.268 367.8 405.7 |401 to 411
Rormal pentane 3.305 364.8 402.3 406.7

jor these liquids are associated and equation 4 depending on
jhe molecular weight, could not give correct results.

ul

ON BIOT’S FORMULA FOR VAPOR PRESSURE.

| It seemed to us reasonable to conclude from the above com-
j sP

yarison that the ratios of the Tr calculated from equation
‘at the critical temperature and shown in Table 1 were the
‘orrect values and that the values obtained from Biot’s
rmula were in error. Fortunately we hada means of veri-
‘aimed this conclusion directly.

iL. to the curve. Assuming that Biot’s formula does cor-
betly represent the vapor pressures until the critical temper-
(ture i is approached (an assumption justified by a very careful
\Samination of the curves over the entire range of tempera-

jare) it is evident that if the ee calculated from Biot’s form-

~

[June
ula then becomes too low it must be because the vapor pres-
sure curve as calculated from Biot’s formula is below the true
vapor pressure curve. We accordingly subtracted the observed —
vapor pressures from the calculated in the immediate neigh-—
borhood of the critical temperature. (These results are
shown in detail in Table 2, Jour. Phys. Chem. 9, p. 402 [1905]).
In every case except normal octane, stannic chloride, and the
associated substances (methyl alcohol, ethyl alcohol, and
acetic acid), the calculated minus the observed vapor pres-
sures does give negative differences at the highest tempera-
ture compared (usually the critical temperature itself). With
regard to these five exceptions, the associated substances can-
not give exactly correct results by the use of equation 4 |
their evidence does not therefore bear upon that equation.
Normal octane and stannic chloride are the only substance:
whose divergence can be considered as evidence against the
conclusion above derived and it is sufficient to point out i
explanation a remark made by Dr. Young* when the vapor
pressures of normal octane were published. He there ae
that the observed values of the vapor pressure above 280°C
for normal octane, stannic chloride, and acetic acid, are prob
ably éoo Jow owing to an error in the temperature scale, i. €.,
in the boiling points of the liquids used as a heating jacket
A close examination of the observed and calculated vapo
pressure curves reveals the fact that no matter how the con
stants for Biot’s formula be altered they cannot exactly re
sent the true vapor pressures in the neighborhood of the crit-
ical temperature. The deviation is very slight, usually neg
ligible when the vapor pressure is considered, because

94 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY.

: : sP
proportional error is very small. But when the TT is

sidered the proportional error is very large.

Since Biot’s formula was empirical and in the immec
neighborhood of the critical temperature was forced to fit 2 a
curve it could not exactly follow it usually happens that the

1 Jour. Chem. Soc., 77, 1147 (1900).

Ey ;

905] Miiis—Mo.LecuLar ATTRACTION. 95
TABLE 2.
® fo]
5 2 q
» £ aS PV
Oo +» m
SUBSTANCE B . “a | gal g $7

els) el g |/£e\ee

q = E ® oe Fa

= ‘o) Zi B21 “
Betti) OMIGS .... 22.25.0058 000 198 | 90.7 |102.0 |104.4 {194.4 |102.1 | 16860
PPLAIBODTODY!,......0cccccccecesss 225 | 92.0 |} 96.8 | 98.1 |227.4 |.96.5 | 16660
Le 274 | 86.4 | 82.3 | 86.8 |276.8 | 80.7 | 16370
Tsopentane ..................0685 187.4} 99.8 |107.0 |105.4 {187.8 |107.0 | 16710
Normal pentane............... 197 | 98.8 {109.9 |109.9 |197.2 |109.4 | 16570
Normal hexane................. 234 | 94.2 | 99.5 |102.85/234.8 | 99.2 | 16290
Normal heptane.....:......... 266.5) 90.8 | 91.0 | 98.75/266.9 | 90.8 | 16170
Normal octane .................| 290 | 91.0 | 84.8 | 98.0 |296.2 | 84.2 | 16140
Ree ccc ccsccace occeee 280 |107.8 |111.2 |109.5 |288.5 |110.5 | 16610
Hexamethylene ..... ......... 279 | 98.1 |104.7 |108.6 [280.0 |104.5 | 16820
Fluo-benzene .................. 280 84.7 | 85.75) 85.6 |286.55| 85.2 | 16440
NNT oo coe oer ch Losbinencs biassccdunlocvccdace 81.2 |860.0 | 81.5 | 16490
SMPNNECLINOMEMOTIG oo oes. cc cscslevesccseslesccvvccelecccceces 56.1 (897.0 | 56.8 | 16880
a gos ckcachosasxvadsledesecassleucive dee 44.4 |448.0 | 43.8 | 16500
Oarbon tetrachloride......... 280 | 48.9 | 45.5 | 44.1 |288.15| 45.8 | 16940
Stannic chloride............... 280 | 22.15) 26.96] 26.04/818.7 | 25.87] 16680
Methyl formate ............... 213 .5}101.2 |120.1 |121.5 |214.0 |119.8 | 15910
Ethyl formate.................. 284 | 94.0 1104.4 |107.2 |285.8 |108.9 | 16040
Methy] acetate................. 283 | 96.6 |108.8 |109.5 )283.7 |103.6 | 15800
Methy! alcohol.................| 238.5,259.4 |264.3 |805.0 1240.0 |262.4 | 13705
Ethyl alcohol.................... 242 .5/197.2 |178.9 |241.2 |248.1 1179.9 | 15495
Propy] aleohol.................. 260 (157.0 |144.6 |199.2 |268.7 |148.7 | 15590
Acetic acid....................... | 820 |116.4 |150.6 821.6 |150.7 | 12502

eeeeessee

>

96 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SocIETy.. [ June

curve of observed vapor pressures cuts the curve of calculated
vapor pressures in the neighborhood of the critical tempera-
ture, the observed vapor pressure curve haying, of course, the
steeper trend. This is at once evident by the change from
positive to negative values of the differences between the
calculated and observed vapor pressures.

We would here point out the great accuracy of these meas-
urements made by Drs. Ramsay and Young and by Dr. Young
and his co-workers. The conclusion that the calculated
minus the observed vapor pressure should be negative near
the critical temperature was wholly theoretical on our part.
That we should be able at once to verify this conclusion from
the measurements when the differences were so small as to
have been laid by the observers themselves on the errors of
measurement (the regularity of the differences having escaped
observation) speaks for itself as to their accuracy and skill.
The observed and calculated vapor pressure lines are almost
indistinguishable even at the critical temperature and when
drawn to a large scale.

In order to show that equation 4, or the more general form
equation 3, does give results in accord with Biot’s formula at
points considerably below the critical temperature we have
published in Table 2, Jour. Phys. Chem. 9, p. 408 (1905),

the values of the ee calculated from both formulas at inter-

vals for some 50° C below the critical temperature. We have
already pointed out that equation 3 itself becomes inaccurate —
at yet lower temperatures.

CORRECT VALUES FOR p’ NEAR THE CRITICAL TEMPERATURE.

Since equation 3 enables us to obtain in the neighborhood
of fag critical temperature more nearly correct values for the

7 aan we had been able to obtain in previous papers when

7905] Mirits—MoLEcuLAR ARTRACTION. "97

working with Biot’s formula we concluded to use these values
and test more thoroughly the equation,

. L-EK, _ Aha
[9] Yroes constant = yp’.

: dP
discussed in previous papers’. If the value of the = oT from

equation 3 be substituted in the thermodynamical equation 2,
the values of the heat of vaporization so calculated are the
same as those obtained from equation 1. Therefore using
these values and substituting them in equation 9 we obtain
the corrected values for the constant. The results so obtained
at those points nearest the critical temperature are given in
Table 2 under the heading ‘‘New”. For comparison we give
under heading ‘‘Old” the values that we had previously

obtained for p’ at this same temperature when using the S

obtained from Biot’s formula in calculating the heats of
vaporization thermodynamically. Also we give, under the
heading ‘‘Mean”, the average value of the constant pre-
viously adopted. Agreement is not of course to be expected
for the four associated substances last shown in the table.
For the other substances there is little question but that the
constants so obtained agree with the mean values to within
the limit of experimental error except in the cases of di-iso-
butyl, normal heptane, normal octane, and methyl acetate.
We are unable to explain the smaller values obtained from
these four substances, but the proof that equation 9 does hold
as near the critical temperature as it is possible for measure-
ments to be made is now complete for ethyl oxide, di-iso-
propyl, isopentane; normal pontane, normal hexane, benzene,
hexamethylene, fluo-benzene, carbon tetrachloride, stannic
chloride, methyl formate, and ethyl formate.

1Jour. Phys. Ohem., April, 1902; June, 1904; Dec., 1904.

98 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY. [ June
THE VALUE OF » AT THE CRITICAL TEMPERATURE.

It is possible to extend this proof quite to the critical tem-
perature itself. Substituting in equation 9 the value of L
given by the thermodynamical equation 2, and the value of
E, = .03183 P(V — v), we have

ty) éP
agus (118 —)(v—2)

ee & es
and obtaining the limit of this equation as V approaches v7 in

value we have for the equation at the critical temperature,
where V = v, the form

[10]

w= yr, pO P can ye)
[11] .0,955 V4 (iE P| =p’.

As we have shown the most correct value for the = availa-

ble at this temperature is that given by equation 4 and sub-
stituting this value in the equation we get,

11.924 T
m

[12] p = Vis = o9ssPV),
This equation is the same as equation 17 of the third paper’.
Here V, T, and P, are the critical volume, temperature, and
pressure respectively, and m is the molecular weight of the
substance under consideration. The equation is interesting
because it gives a method for calculating the constant of
molecular attraction, »z’, in terms of the critical constants and
the molecular weight of the substance. Since the molecular
weight enters into the equation it evidently cannot be applied
to associated substances. Again using the critical data,
already referred to, given by Young, the values obtained
from this equation are shown in Table 2 above. Except for
di-isobutyl, normal heptane, normal octane, methyl acetate,

iJour. Phys. Chem., Dec., 1904.

7905] Mirt~ts—Mo.ecuLar ATTRACTION. 99

and to a less degree for ethyl formate, the agreement with
the mean values of w’ is excellent and we may therefore regard
the truth of equation 9 as having been established at the
critical temperature itself for fifteen of the nineteen sub-
stances under consideration. (Ethyl formate decomposes
slightly at the higher temperatures which is sufficient to
account for the divergence, three per cent., there observed.)
We have already shown that normal heptane and normal
octane give constant values for »’ in equation 9 over a range
of more than 200° C in temperature. We have unpublished
results showing the same to be true for methyl acetate. Di-
isobutyl did give a variation of several per cent. at low tem-
peratures, a divergence that we think was sufficiently
explained’. It would seem probable therefore that the diver-
gences shown by these four substances at the critical temper-
ature must be due to some change or decomposition taking
place in the substance at that temperature and that equation
9 is applicable for all normal substances quite up to the criti-
cal temperature.

RATIO OF THE THEORETICAL TO THE ACTUAL CRITICAL
DENSITY.

In a preceding paper*® we showed that the molecular attrac-
tion at unit distance, w, was equal to cy’ f/m. ‘Therefore we
have from equation 12,

[13] w=cPmv ae

— 0,955 pv}

In the same paper on the assumption that the critical tem-
perature was the point where the kinetic energy of the mole-
cules was just balanced by the molecular attraction we
derived equation 24 of that paper, viz.:

1 Jour Phys. Chem., 8, 595 (1904).
2 Jour. Phys. Ohem., 8, 630 (1904).

100 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL, Soctrety. [ June

[14] a mv i Ke

where T is the critical temperature and d is the critical den-
sity. Wecan now combine this value of » with the value of
» giveu in equation 13 and obtain,

Tih ate a O24
[15] Avert wae mv pga — agssPV}
whence,
[16] Sa = constant.
Vm

We show the values of = in Table 2 and it will be seen

that hexamethylene and carbon tetrachloride alone (the
associated substances being excepted) give a value more than
three per cent. from the average value 16293.

sate Ba th is the theoretical critical density and equation
16 is really the ratio of the theoretical, D., to the actual crit-
ical density, d,, and can take the form,

[17] De = constant.

de

The relation in this form has been fully discussed by Dr.
Young’. It here appears as a necessary consequence of the
ideas that we have advanced though we did not foresee that
such would be the case, and hence are justified in considering
the deduction of this relation as further evidence that those
fundamental ideas upon which this series of papers is based
are correct.

It may seem unusual that we should have been able to
derive two different equations for » (equations 13 and 14) in
terms of the critical constants. This is due to the fact that
the critical temperature besides possessing the property that
the molecular attraction just balances the kinetic energy of
the molecules—the relation upon which equation 14 is based

Phil. Mag., [5], 50, 291 (1900).

1905) Mitis—Mo.EcuLar ATTRACTION. 101

—can also be viewed as the boiling point and from this point
of view permits the deduction of equation 13. We hope
shortly to complete a paper applying these ideas of molecular
attraction more fully to the boiling point.

We should also point out that by combining equation 11
with equation 14, we get,

[18] 5 nV (te -?}

where cis aconstant. This equation can be solved so as to
give any one of the variables at the critical temperature in
terms of the others and the molecular weight. It is not feas-
ible now to further examine this equation, since the only cor-

rect values for the ee AY are obtained from equation 4 and this

at once reduces the equation to the form of equation 16.
Dr. Young has shown that the average constant of equa-

tion 17 is say Since the theoretical critical pressure is

therefore 3.827 times the actual critical pressure it follows
from the gas law and equation 5 that at the critical tempera-
ture,
OP 7.654?
[19] Ne re
This equation can be obtained directly from equation 18
but the constant is then unknown.

SUMMARY.

1. It is shown that the Pe for a liquid (vapor) at the crit-

ical temperature is exactly twice what it would be for the
same substance as a gas occupying the critical volume.

2. It is shown that Biot’s formula for vapor pressure can-
not be made exactly to fit the true vapor pressure curve in the
immediate neighborhood of the critical temperature. When

102 JouRNAL oF THE MrircHeLt Socrety. = [ June

*
the pressure is considered the proportional error is very small. _

When the a is considered the proportional error is large, e

and the values obtained from Biot’s formula are too small. ia

3. The equation, gt =v', where p’ is the con-

7%

stant of molecular attraction, is shown to be applicable with
exactness in the immediate neighborhood of and at the criti-
cal temperature for fifteen out of nineteen substances consid-
ered. The equation has already been proved accurate at
lower temperatures. |

It is shown that the constant of molecular attraction, p’,
can be calculated from the critical constants and the molecu-
lar weight.

5. The known fact that the ratio of the theoretical to the
critical density is a constant for all substances is shown to
follow necessarily from the fundamental ideas and equations
upon which this series of papers is based.

University of North Carolina,
April 8rd, 1905.

o_,
rae
rae

JOURNAL
EvisHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY,

NOVEMBER, 1905
VOL. XXI NO. 3

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ELISHA MITCHELL SCIEN-
TIFIC SOCIETY.

155TH MEETING, OCTOBER 11, 1904.

Professor William Cain, President, in the chair.
The following papers were presented:
The Construction of a Double Six—A. Henderson.
The Geological History of Currituck Banks—Collier Codd.
A. S. WHEELER,
Recording Secretary.

156TH MEETING, NOVEMBER 8, 1904.

Professor William Cain, President, in the chair.

The following papers were presented:

Molecular Attraction—/. &. Mills.

Experiments on the Development of the Skeleton in Sponge
Larvae—H. V. Wilson.
_ The Theories of Dyeing with Special Reference to the Con-
stitution of Cellulose—A. S. Wheeler,
: A. S. WHEELER,
Recording Secretary,

104 JOURNAL OF THE Mrrcueity Society. (Noo.

157TH MEETING, JANUARY 10, 1905.

Professor William Cain, President, in the chair.
The following papers were presented:
The Theory of Metal or Re-enforced Concrete Domes—
William Cain.
Steel Hardening Metals—/. H. Pratt.
A. S. WHEELER,
feecording Secretary.

158TH MEETING, FEBRUARY 14, 1905.

Professor William Cain, President, in the chair.

The following papers were presented:

Mode of Inspection of the Hookworm Disease—f. Z.
Whitehead.

The Mystic Hexagram—Archibald Henderson.

Statistics of Cotton Manufacturing in the South—C. Z.
Reaper.

A. S. WHEELER,
keecording Secretary.

159TH Mretinc, Marcu 14, 1905.

Professor William Cain, president, in the chair.

The following papers were presented:

Normal Paper—A. S. Wheeler.

The Mutation Theory—W. C. Coker.

Chemical Affinity: A Method for Distinguishing Chemical
Energy from Simultaneous Physical Energy Changes—/. Z.
Mills.

A. S. WHEELER,
frecording Secretary.

160TH MEETING, APRIL 11, 1905.

Professor William Cain, president, in the chair.
A motion was made and carried that the old arrangement

7905) ProckEepINGs oF THE MircHeEtt, Society. 105

with the North Carolina Academy of Science be changed to
read as follows: The Mitchell Journal to publish minutes
and abstracts of papers for the annual meeting of the North
- Carolina Academy of Science for the sum of fifty dollars a
year and that The Journal be sent to all members of the
Academy, but not to the associate members.

The following papers were presented:

The Edison Storage Cell—/. 2. Latta.

The Organization of the Ovum—H. V. Wilson.

Autophytographs— Collzer Cobb.

A. S. WHEELER,
Recording Secretary.

BusINESS MEETING, SEPTEMBER 27, 1905.

Professor William Cain, president, in the chair.

Officers for the ensuing year were elected as follows:

President, H. V. Wilson.

Vice-President, Archibald Henderson.

Corresponding Secretary, ¥. P. Venable.

krecording Secretary, A, S. Wheeler.

Editorial Committee on The Journal: W.C. Coker, Chair-
man; Archibald Henderson, J. E. Latta.

A. S. WHEELER,
FReecording Secretary.

SOME PROBLEMS IN THE CELLULOSE FIELD.*

‘

BY ALVIN S. WHEELER.
Professor of Chemistry, University of North Carolina.

The vegetable cell is a laboratory in which are carried out
a most remarkable series of chemical reactions. As we con-
template the immense number of organic compounds of all
degrees of compounds which are formed within the walls of
the plant cell we are convinced that this is the chemical lab-
oratory par excellence. Two features impress us particularly:
first, the silence in which the operations are carried on; sec-
ond, the narrow range of medium temperatures required.
Notwithstanding this apparent simplicity of conditions the
products are of the most various kind. Some of these man is
able to synthesize in his own crude way; others are still the
secrets of nature. It is utterly impossible for man to prepare
certain naturally occurring compounds except at a tempera-
ture which would burn the plant tissue. We are led to wonder
whether forces exist of which we are unacquainted or whether
we are merely unable to control the forces already familiar to
us. It would be difficult to say which supposition is the more
probable. It will be granted that investigation into the
activities of the cell is of profound importance. In fact it
has been said that ‘‘it is in the plant cell where synthetical
operations are predominant that we have to look for the foun-
dations of the ‘new chemistry’ which may be expressed broadly
as the relation of matter to life.”

Among the products which result from the activities of the
cell is cellulose, an essential constituent of all plant tissue.
Plant physiologists have been accustomed to identify cellulose

*Reprinted from The Chemical Engineer, Vol. 1I., No. 3, July. 1905.

106 [Nov.

7905) WHEELER—PRoBLEMS IN CELLULOSE FYELD. 107

with the cell wall, but modern investigation has demonstrated
the error of this belief by showing that the ultimate products
of hydrolysis of different cell walls are not the same. Cotton,
for instance, yields dextrose; the cell wails of the seeds of
Lupinus lutevs, and many other plants give galactose, while
the seeds of the cereals and leguminous plants yield arabinose
and xylose. It is clear that cell walls are not of uniform com-
position. How they actually differ has not yet been deter-
mined, their differentiation being an extremely difficult prob-
lem. The name cellulose does not apply to a single individual,
existing in only one form, like ethyl alcohol. Analyses of
various bodies regarded as cellulose give figures leading to
the empirical formula (C,H,,O,)n in which the carbon percent-
age is 44.2 and the hydrogen is 6.3. ‘The highest percentage
of cellulose is obtained from cotton, the yield being approxi-
mately ninety per cent. Most of the remainder is water, and
there are very small amounts of ash and complex organic
compounds. Flax, hemp and ramie also give large yields of
cellulose. Again, cellulose is used to designate combinations
of the body already mentioned with highly complex radicals
of unknown constitution. These are compound celluloses and
are more specifically termed lignocelluloses, muco-celluloses,
pectocelluloses, adipocelluloses and cutocelluloses. Some pro-
gress has been made in the constitutional study of these com-
pounds, more especially the lignocelluloses. Cross and Bevan
have studied the lignocellulose of jute, selecting this form
because it seemed likely to be the simplest representative
since jute matures in one season. They recognize the follow-
ing general constituents: (a) a-cellulose, an oxidized cellulose;
(b) B-cellulose, a less resistant form and yielding a large
amount of furfural on hydrolysis; (c) lignone, a radical con-
taining the carbonyl group and about one-third of which is of
the benzeneoid type.

The difficulties surrounding the experimental study of the
celluloses are very great. Their insolubility in the ordinary
solvents precludes purification in the usual way and renders

108 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY. [Vov.

impossible any molecular weight determinations by the freez-
ing or boiling point methods. They dissolve in a concen-
trated aqueous solution of zinc chloride and in cuprammonium,
forming colloidal solutions from which they may be precipi-
tated as gelatinous hydrates. The fact that they are colloids
presents one reason why chemists have not been more
attracted to their study. Colloids have been very unmanage-
able, but it is very noticeable that an increased amount of
work is being done upon them. In the year 1890 only three
communications upon colloids appeared, while in 1900 there
were twenty-three. A brief statement of their properties is
sufficient to show their unattractiveness. They possess little
affinity, do not crystallize, dissolve to an indefinite degree in
a very limited number of solvents, are filtered by animal
membranes and form gelatinous precipitates. According to
one view which is held by many we have in the colloidal solu-
tion not a solution at all, but a suspension of very finely
divided particles which are much iarger than simple mole-
cules. In view of their precipitation by electrolytes their
study is being prosecuted by electro-chemists and, although
more attention is being paid to the inorganic colloids, the
whole subject is undergoing development. As new light is
obtained, a deeper insight into the character of the celluloses
will necessarily follow. It will help to make possible a scien-
tific classification, something which is lacking at present.
The formation of the celluloses is one of the most interest-
ing problems connected with them and a very fundamental,
one, too. What is the antecedent of cellulose? Durin has ~
observed the formation in beet juice of a white insoluble sub-
stance, possessing the characteristic of cellulose. If this
substance is transferred to a pure cane sugar solution, more
of it is formed. These observations point to cane sugar as
the predecessor of cellulose. The more elaborate investiga-
tions of Brown and Morris point more clearly to the same con-
clusion. Their study of foliage leaves persuaded them that
starch is not the raw material ont of which cellulose is built

1905) WHEELER—PROBLEMS IN CELLULOSE FIELD. 109

up, but that is rather a reserve material to be drawn upon in
case of cell starvation, that is, when all the cane sugar has
been translocated as dextrose and levulese. The problem can
not be regarded as settled and further work in this direction
is highly desirable.

As already stated, the simple celluloses are represented by
the empirical formula (C,H,,O.)n, the letter n standing for a
number which is wholly problematical, although Bumcke and
Wolffenstein have suggested 12. As for a constitutional for-
mula this has yet to be worked out. How much progress has
been made and what remains to be done? The great stability
of cellulose, made familiar by its almost universal use as a
filtering medium, has precluded in the minds of many of us a
realization of the chemical activity which it really possesses.
Its attraction for water is very strong, cotton cellulose retain-
ing from six to twelve per cent, in the air-dried condition,
and if this water is driven off, it will be reabsorbed on expos-
ure to the atmosphere. This hygroscopic property bears an
undetermined relation to the presence of hydroxyl groups
because it decreases as the number of hydroxyl groups is
diminished by substitution of acid radicals. Since the tetrace-
tate seems to be the highest normal acetate, it is probable
that there are four hydroxyl groups. The other oxygen atom
is combined with carbon to form a carbonyl group, although
this is not in the usual reactive condition. In the easily
derived hydro- and oxy-celluloses it appears at once in natural
character of a reducing agent. The large proportion of acetic
acid obtained when cellulose is fused with alkaline hydroxides
indicates the presence of CO-CH, groups. Its resistance to
the action of halogens and alkalies shows it to be a saturated
compound. Owing to the similarity of the empirical formula
of cellulose and starch and to their association in the pro-
cesses of nature, it has been customary to regard them as
very closely related in constitution. However, there is
undoubtedly a fundamental difference between them. Vignon
has subjected purified cotton and starch to hydrolysis with

110 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SocrEty. [Vov.

dilute hydrochloric acid at 100°. The percentage yields of
reducing products equal to dextrose were as follows: cotton,
3.29; starch, 98.6. Fenton and Gostling have brought out
another striking behavior. Cotton cellulose is acted upon by
dry hydrobromic acid in ethereal solution producing w-Brom-
methylfurfural, a 33 per cent. yield being obtained. Under
the same treatment potato starch yielded only 3.7 per cent.
The belief is growing that cellulose does not belong to the
straight chain compounds with the sugar and starches, but is
instead a ring compound. Three formulae have been proposed
for the unit group, C,H,,O., as follows:

10°" 5?
CO
rite
CHOH CHOH

Cross and Bevan’s, _| |
CHOH CHOH

Py
CH,
O——-CH—-CHOH
b ee :
du —du—cHo#
CHOH—-CH—CHOH

Green’s, . | O O

|
CHOH—CH—CH,

Vignon’s,

Any general theory of dyeing must take into account the
constitution of cellulose. The three theories which have been
held are (a) the mechanical, (b) the solid solution, and (c)
the chemical. In view of the diverse chemical character of
the three most important textile materials, silk, wool and
cotton, it seems improbable that one theory will ever occupy
the field to the exclusion of the other two. There are
no reasons a priori for not combining the three by select-

7905) WueEter—Prosiems In CeLLutose Freup. 111

ing what truth there may bein each one. ‘The attempts to
hold to one theory have been attended with serious difficul-
ties. As for cellulose (cotton and linen fabrics) its nature as
a chemical compound comes into play in certain dyeing pro-
cesses. It behaves as a weak acid and if this acid character
is increased by conversion into oxycellulose, it exhibits an
increased affinity for basic dyes. On the other hand, Vignon
has caused cotton by treatment with ammonia under various
conditions to take up as much as 2.86 per cent. N which is
not extracted by dilute hydrochloric acid and now, possessing
basic properties, it will take an acid dye from an acid bath.
These reactions seem to be cases of simple salt formation. As
for the solid solution theory Witt regards substantive dyeing
aS a case of one solid dissolving another. The dye, being
more soluble in the fibre than in the water, is extracted there-
from by the fibre and in the fibre the dye exhibits the same
characteristics which it shows in aqueous solution. Accord-
ing to this view the chemical nature of the textile is of no
consequence except as it affects its solvent capacity. The
behavior of cellulose with certain dyes does not seem to mili-
tate against this view. The general question is constantly
under investigation. .

Although cellulose is distinguished by its permanence, it is
attacked by a great variety of oxidizing agents. The pro-
duct, called oxycellulose, is not uniform in character and
experimenters seldom agree in their analytical data. Bumcke
and Wolffenstein recently discarded the term oxycellulose and
re-opened the whole question. The action of hydrogen perox-
ide upon filter paper was studied. They came to the conclu-
sion that cellulose can not undergo simple oxidation without
hydrolysis. They substitute the name hydracellulose for
oxycellulose, this name indicating the hydrolytic production
and aldehydic properties of the product. It bears the same
relation to cellulose as glucose to cane sugar. Tollens has
also recently investigated the oxycellulose and proposes the

112 JouRNAL oF THE MrrcHEL Society. (Wow. ;

name celloxin for a body with the formula C,H,O,, or C,H,,O,
believing that the oxycelluloses are varying mixtures of cellu-
lose with celloxin. Attempts to isolate celloxin have been
unsuccessful. Vignon suggests that oxycellulose consists of

three molecules of cellulose associated with the group
CHO(CHOH),CHCO
NZ
O

which is at once an aldehyde, an alcohol and a lactone. The
unsettled state of this part of the field is apparent.

The fermentation of ceilulose, although an important ques-
tion, has been studied by a few investigators only, notably
Hoppe-Seyler, Tappeiner, Omelianski and Van Senus. Insuf-
ficient work has been done upon pure cellulose and I have
undertaken this phase of the investigation. Van Tieghen
states that the cellulose ferment corresponds in properties
with ‘‘amylobacter,” a bacterium described by him, and it
has been commonly asserted siuce that this was the cellulose
ferment. Van Senus regards this as extremely doubtful,
since these bacteria do not attack cellulose suspended in a
meat extract solution. The fermentation is anaerobic and
the products of decomposition are hydrogen, carbon dioxide,
methane, acetic and butyric acids, the proportions varying
with the conditions. If the fermentation can be carried out
so that an intermediate product like alcohol is obtained, a
discovery of tremendous importance will have been made.
The subject of fermentation is also important in its relation
to digestion not only in the human species but more especially
in herbivorous animals.

Through the decomposition of cellulose by chemical rea-
gents there are obtained oxalic acid, alcohol and sugar,
according to the conditions employed. Classen has gotten
out a number of patents for the production of sugar (dextrose)
from wood and he makes the startling claim that sulphuric.
acid converts all of the cellulose in wood into sugar. When.

OS GG A

i905) WuxrrLer—Prostems tm CxLLuiose Frei. 113

we consider the vast waste of cellulose in the form of sawdust
(acres of it about a single saw mill) the possibilities of a new
source of sugar (and from that, alcohol) are extremely inter-
esting.

Cellulose is acquiring a greater and greater importance in
the arts and manufactures. Its use as a paper stock and as a
raw material for clothing place it in the front rank of indus-
trial products. Some of its derivatives also find extensive
application, the nitro-celluloses for explosives, artificial silk
and celluloid, and the thiocarbonate for artificial silk. The
tetracetate has been found to possess insulating powers supe-
rior to gutta-percha and it is now a commercial product. If
a solution of the acetate is allowed to evaporate a film of
great tenacity is obtained which may be used in photography
and for laquering metals. An acetate may also be obtained
in the form of a powder, soluble in chloroform and nitro-
benzol. This is used for preparing substances resembling
celluloid and as a substitute for collodion. Its advantages
lie in the fact that it is odorless and is not inflammable. Two
problems which have not been seriously attacked are the con-
ductivity of pure cellulose and the use of cellulose as a mem-
brane in osmotic work. Many other questions of varying
degrees of importance might be mentioned.

In concluding this brief survey I wish to express my agree-
ment with the idea now often expressed that the demarcation
line between the scientific and the practical has hitherto been
too sharply drawn. Professor Jordan recently said: ‘‘It is
often a temptation to distinguish radically between pure
Science and applied science and to look upon the latter as
unworthy the attention of the philosophically minded. True
science can admit of no such distinction,” and President Jor-
dan says, ‘‘Applied science can not be separated from pure
science, for pure science may develop at any quarter the
greatest and most unexpected economic values, while, on the
other hand, the applications of knowledge must await the

114 JouRNAL OF THE Mrreueii Socmty. ho ky

acquisition of knowledge before any high achievement i in any
quarter can be reached. * * * Whatever is true is lke

sometime to prove useful and all error is likely sometimes t
prove disastrous.”

UNIVERSITY OF NORTH CAROLINA,
Chapel Hill, N. C. ¥

EXPERIMENTS ON THE PRODUCTION OF CRUDE
TURPENTINE BY THE LONGLEAF PINE.

BY CHAS. H. HERTY, PH.D.

With the hope of improving the method of distillation com-
mouly practiced in the production of spirits of turpentine
from the crude resin of the Longleaf Pine, the writer, at that
time connected with the University of Georgia, began a sys-
tematic study of conditions throughout the turpentine belt.
Information was gathered from publications of the U. S.
Department of Agriculture and from correspondence with
leading men in the naval stores industry, railroad officials and
others.

It. soon became apparent that the industry, which had
started on a rather small scale in eastern North Carolina, had
grown to large proportions, affording employment to thous-
ands of laborers and furnishing the world with at least nine-
tenths of the spirits of turpentine and rosin used in manufac-
tures. It also became evident that during this period of
growth the forests of North Carolina and South Carolina had
been almost completely exhausted, while those of Georgia
were being rapidly destroyed. Throughout the territory
methods of operation were absolutely uniform. A visit to
different sections showed at once the explanation of the com-
plete destruction of the forests in the Carolinas, for in addi-
tion to the removal of timber by the lumbermen, fires and
storms following in the wake of the turpentine operator had
completed the destruction. It needed no close observation to
determine at once that the chief cause of this destructive
action by fires and storms was the ‘“‘box”, a large and deep
hole cut into the trunk of the tree at its base to receive the

1905] 115

116 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY. [Nov.

resin which exudes during the spring and summer months
from the freshly scarified trunk above.

In the cutting of the ‘‘box” or ‘‘boxes” in the base of the
tree its trunk is partly severed and in storms splits off at the
top of the box, breaking usually three or four feet higher.

Again, the turpentine belt is characterized by a complete
ground covering of ‘‘wire grass’ whose exposed blades die
during winter and are annually burned off in the early spring
months to furnish better grazing for cattle. So long as tur-
pentine operations are active, these ground fires do not dam-
age the trees, for during the winter the laborers remove with
hoes all wire grass and fallen strawa safe distance from each
tree; but when the forest is abandoned, this precaution is
no longer taken and with the next fire the resin which has
gradually accumulated in the old ‘‘box” takes fire, the heat
melts the resin on the scarified surface above which, flowing
into the box, adds fuel to the flames until the tree falls; or if
the case is not so extreme, until the tree is weakened to.such
an extent that it can no longer resist the attacks of injurious
insects which soon kill it.

The evident loss from this factor was so much greater than
from imperfections in the method of distillation that common
sense prompted that immediate efforts be diverted from the
matter of distillation to that of a practical device for collect-
ing the resin which would render unnecessary the cutting of
the ‘‘box”. Many evidences were found of unsuccessful efforts
to introduce a form of a cup system, some of these being iden-
tical with the cup system used in the turpentine forests of
France since 1860. But none had found any permanent place
in the industry.

With a simple apparatus somewhat like the French, con-
sisting of a cup and two metallic troughs, preliminary experi-
ments were begun during the summer vacation of 1901 at
Statesboro, Ga. The metallic troughs or gutters, consisting
of two inch strips of sheet galvanized iron, bent along the
middle to form a trough, are inserted in inclined shallow cuts

1905] HERTY—PRODUCTION OF TURPENTINE. 117
across flattened surfaces of the tree and serve to lead the resin
to acentral point. One of the gutters is slightly higher than
the other, delivering its resin into the lower gutter, from the
- end of which all the resin drips into the cup suspended on a
nail just below. Such an apparatus can at the end of each
season be easily raised to a point near the scarification sur-
face. With this apparatus tests were made primarily of its
practicability and effectiveness. Further, the quality of the
resin exuding from the trees in successive years of operation
was determined. Under the ‘‘box” system the resin of the
second, third and fourth years of operation shows gradually.
increasing coloration and the rosin left after distillation of
the volatile spirits of turpentine is a deeper red and less valu-
able. With the cup and gutters placed near the freshly scarified
surface, it was proved that the quality of the resin so far as.
concerns color is as good in the fourth as in the first year, the
color of the resin from the old ‘‘boxes” being due to absorp-
tion of the highly colored oxidized resin on the long surface
above the ‘‘box’”’.. Quantitative experiments were made upon
‘the loss of resin which falls outside of the ‘‘box”, due to
trunks not perpendicular, and of the loss of volatile spirits of
turpentine during the long flow to the ‘‘box’”. It was also
shown that different portions of the circumference of a tree,
in many cases, vary greatly in ability to produce resin, and
that the underside of a leaning tree is much more productive
than the upper side. The daily rate of flow after scarifica-
tion was studied and it was found that in general, sixty per
cent. of the flow takes place during the first period of twenty-
four hours, twenty-five during the second and after seven
days, the flow practically ceases. Numerous other studies
were projected and some were partly carried out, but the sum-
mer vacation being ended, it was necessary to discontinue the
work in the field.

The interest of the U. S. Bureau of Forestry was aroused
by these preliminary experiments and by the promise of prac-

118 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SocrEety. [Mou

ticability in the simple apparatus used. This led the writer
during the following winter to accept a commission from the
Bureau to undertake field experiments on a commercial scale
to test further the usefulness of the appartus in the hands of
the average turpentine laborer, and to determine the import-
ant question of whether or not the cutting of the box
decreases the productive power of the tree.

Crude turpentine (resin) is a pathological product, result-
ing from the wound given the tree in scarification.. It is nec-
essary to wound the tree to get the flow of resin, but the cut-

ting of the ‘‘box” is an unnecessary and intense wound and it

seemed reasonable to expect that in comparative experiments
trees which are not ‘‘boxed” would, with all other conditions
equal, show an increased yield.

These field tests were carried out at Ocilla, Ga., on the
place of Messrs. Powell, Bullard & Co. About twenty-five
thousand trees were used during the first year. From one-
half of these the resin was collected in the usual ‘‘box”; on
the other half cups and gutters were placed. Four distinct
sets of experiments were made corresponding to first, second
third and fourth years of operation, five thousand cups and
five thousand boxes in each set. Every precaution was taken
to insure uniformity of conditions between the two halves of
each set, or ‘‘crop” as designated in turpentine operating.
Careful record was kept of the yield from all of the eight half
‘‘crops”, each being separately distilled and the products sold
separately. The results of the year’s tests were published
by the Bureau of Forestry as Bulletin No. 40, entitled ‘‘A
New System of Turpentine Orcharding”.

After the first year, the experiments were continued only
on one of the four sets, that designated ‘‘first” above, for
only in this set did full conditions for comparative results
obtain, one-half of the trees in this set never having been
‘‘hoxed”, while in the other three sets, all of the trees had
been boxed in previous years of operation.

After conducting the tests three years, the experiments

~~ nig? oor is

ag wit el

1905] | Hurty—Propvcrion oF TURPENTINE. 119

were discontinued and the results published by the Bureau of
Forestry as Circular No. 34 entitled ‘‘Practical Results of the
Cup and Gutter System of Turpentining”. The summary of

‘these results shows the total value of the products (spirits of

turpentine and rosin) trom three years of operation to have
been from

fue cupped half-crop...................:..$2,688.55
Beremoned Halfecrop. 166.052 ich. ey ees. «<> 2046.53

Gain from cupped half-crop.....$ 642.02

an iticrease of about 32 per cent over the ‘‘box” system.

The results of the first year of operation of these two half-
crops, during which time conditions were identical in each
except that in one half crop ‘‘boxes” had been cut in the trees,
showed an increased yield from the unboxed trees of 23.5 per

cent., thus confirming the hypothesis that the cutting of the

box decreased the productive power of the tree.

The publication of these results has resulted in the com-
mercial introduction of the system on a large scale, and in
many cases the results obtained with the apparatus have
exceeded those obtained in the experimental tests.

But the introduction of the cup system cannot of itself save
the forests of Longleaf Pine from destruction. If too great a
proportion of the circumference of the tree be removed in
scarification, or ‘‘chipping” as it is termed, the tree will die
whether a ‘‘box” has been cut or acuphung. Further exper-
iments have, therefore, been begun by the Bureau of Forestry
to determine to what extent the wound given in ‘‘chipping”

. can be decreased in width, height and depth without decreas-

ing the production. It is possible that by moderate reduction
the production may even be increased. These experiments
are now in progress. |

A MEMOIR ON THE TWENTY-SEVEN LINES UPON
A CUBIC SURFACE. y

1
,*

r Ny
PART II.

eS

i
ARCHIBALD HENDERSON, PH.D.

CHAPTER II.

THE CONFIGURATION OF THE DOUBLE-SIX. AUXILIARY —
. B
THEOREMS.

$5. The Double-Six Notation.

Let us write down, in Salmon’s notation, two systems of —
non-intersecting lines 4 .

co, cd, ef, (ad - ee eb),, (ad - fs eb), (ad - of - eb).
cf, €b, ad, (ab - - ef), (ab - - of), (ab - cd + & aR

In this scheme, according to former postulation (§4), each —
line of one system does not intersect the line of the other sys- —
tem, which is written in the same vertical line, but does —
intersect the five other lines of the second system.
The configuration was first observed by Schlafli* and wasq
given by him the name it has since borne—a ‘‘double-six
The concept of the double-six lies at the very basis of the 4
study of the lines upon a cubic surface and the notation

*«*An attempt to determine the twenty-seven lines upon a surface of the —
third order, and to divide such surfaces into species in reference to the ©
reality of the lines upon the surface’’, Quarterly Journal of Math C888) i
vol. II, pp. 55-65, 110-120.

Nov.) 120

7905] HENDERSON—A Memoir. 121

derived therefrom is the most simple and convenient that has
yet been discovered for the 27 lines and 45 triple tangent
planes.

Notation. Starting with the double-six, written

A, Ay Ay Ay Ay A

b,, b, by By by b,

we are enabled to express the complex and diversified symme-
try of the 27 lines and 45 triple tangent planes in unique and
simple form.

Returning to the double-six, written in Salmon’s notation,
it appears that the lines ad, cb, and ed lie in the same plane
and are the only three of the 27 lines that lie in the plane 3.
In like manner cd, cd, and cf all lie in the plane c and hence
the line that lies in the plane of ad and ed is identical with
the line that lies in the plane of cd and c/, viz., the line cd.

In the new notation, we shall call the third line in the
plane of a,, and J, which intersect, the line c,, and the trian-
gle so formed shall be designated by 12. As has been shown
above, the side c,, forms with a, and 6,a triangle, designated
21. Hence we have 15 (=,c,) lines c, each of which inter-
sects only those four lines a, 0 the suffixes of which belong to
the pair of numbers forming the suffix of c. For suppose c,,
should intersect any other line, say a, of the eight lines a,
a, @, 43; 6,6, 6, 6, Then c,, intersecting a, 6,, a, and 6,
already, c,,a,6, and c,, a, 6, form two triangles, and since
they have two lines in common, their planes are identical and
consequently 4, intersects 6,, contrary to hypothesis.

Any two c’s, the suffixes of which have a number in com-
mon, do not intersect. For suppose c,,, c,, intersect; they
form a plane in which a, and 0, lie and therefore a, meets 3,
contrary to hypothesis. It may also be shown that any two
cs, the suffixes of which have no number in common, do inter-

sect.

oo:

122 JOURNAL OF THE MrtTcHELL SociEry. Nov.

These facts may be briefly put as follows:

c;; intersects ai, 6;; a;, 6; )
cy intersects Cy / ee
c; does not intersect cx (4 J j a a ue PAS
Cij — Ci : 9 f3 a
Aj; is not equal to Aj; J i

We see then that there are triangles of the form c¢,,, c,, €.
which may be briefly represented by 12 - 34 - 56. Hence
there are thirty (,/) triangles of the type 12 and fifteen of
the type 12 - 34.- 56. The latter arises from the fact that, 2.
if we fix our attention upon 12, the other two sets may be
written in only three ways.

§6. History of the Theorem.

In 1858 Schlafli (/. c) proved the double-six theorem inci-
dentally in connection with his investigations on the 27 lines
on the cubic surface. He enunciated the theorem in the fol-
lowing form:— 3

Given five lines a, 6, c, d, e, which meet the same straig 1b
line X: then may any four of the five lines be intersected by
uioiher line. Suppose that A, B, C, D, E are the ie lin es
intersecting (b, c,d, e), (c, d, é, a), (d, €, a, b,), (é€, a, 6 , 6a
and (a, b, c, d) respectively. Then A, B, C, D, Ewill all be
met by one other straight line x.

The double-six in this case is written

Fae Ngee ant EP

Ais, C, TA, te,
Schlafli then proposes the question—‘‘Is there, for this e 2
mentary theorem, a demonstration more simple than the one

derived from the theory of cubic forms?”
Sylvester* states that the theorem admits of very simple

*Note sur les 27 droites d’une surface du 3¢ degré,’’ Comptes Rendu 1s S,
vol. LII (1861) pp. 977-980.

‘

#905) Henpzrson—A Memoir. 123

geometrical proof but he did not give the proof. Salmon* has
given a method for geometrically constructing a double-six
but I do not understand it to be a proor of the theorem, inde-
pendent of the cubic surface.

In 1868 Cayley? gave a proof of the theorem from purely sta-
tic considerations, making use of theorems on six lines in
involution. Again in 1870 Cayley{ verified the theorem,
using this time his method of the six co-ordinates of a line.
Kasner|| has recently given a proof by using the six co-ordi-
nates of a line.

The method I have adopted in the following is indepen-
dent of the theory of cubic surfaces.

{Notgr. This proof and a model of the configuration constructed in Nov.
1902, were presented by me before the Chicago Section of the Am. Math.
Society on April 1ith, 1903. I had not at that time seen Kasner’s article in
the April, 1903, number of the American Journal, an article having points
of contact with mine. |

§7. Proof of the Double-Six Theorem.

Representing the double-six in the Schlafli-Cayley notation

B32 s.4 5 &
5 J ay 4’ 5/ 6’
it is seen that these 12 lines have the thirty intersections Py’,

*Geometry of 8 Divisions, 4th edition, p. 500.

+‘‘A ‘Smith’s Prize’ Paper; Solutions’’, Coll. Math Papers, vol. VIII
(1868) pp. 430-431.

+**On the Double-Sixers of a Cubic Surface’’, Coll. Math. Papers, vol.
VII., pp. 316-330; Quarterly Journal of Mathematics, vol. X, (1870)
58-71.

\|‘*The Double-Six Configuration Connected with the Cubic Surface, and

a Related Group of Cremona Transformations’’, American Journal of

Mathematics vol. XXV, No. 2 (1903), pp. 107-122.

124 JouRNAL OF tHE MrrcHELL Socre’y. [Nov.

Nine flak
ee
Q' | e ag e
geet Fide oa
meee es
stat
ie Daas Fa °

and determine thirty planes I,;', (formed by the lines z and
7’).

Using quadriplanar co-ordinates, I choose for the lines 1’,
3’, 4’, 5’, 6’ the following equations:

I’: 88Cx 4+ 80’ Az — (a'y'd — ayd’)w=0, y=0

3’: yy Dy — (fyi — KBy'8)z + y/ Bu = 0, x =0

4’: ea el eee

So: 8e&—dw=0, yy— fz=0

6: &&—aw=0. yy — Be =0
where we set
Ag, hy ede = (a’ — Ke), (p’ — AB), (y’ 7% Fy), (o a FB) ;
respectively.

These five lines have a common tractor* since the determ-
inant

*Cayley uses the word ‘tractor’ to denote a line which meets any given
lines.

2 a
4 4
i

——

ee nae

(a eS ET pegs ga ME

ns =)

i905] Henpersox—A Memon. 125

iP
I

(21), 0, (23), (24), (25)
(31), (32), 0, (34), (35) |

Gi C0e Chany: (T4),.' (15) | =21\0

(41), (42), (43), 0, (45)
| (S51), (52), (53), (54), 0

this being the condition* that any five lines 1,-2, 3, 4, 5 say,
have a common tractor, where the equations of lines7 and 7
are

eet eee. ene
ey + ye + yw 0 {ee OF)
and

(a xtbhytogoz+dw=0 |
Ay tet Beso ec)

respectively, and we understand by ( 77 ) the determinant

Qi ys b; , Ci a; |
| Wig ys este ayy |
Gia Opes COR Os |
Sy eae aaa

The fine lines 1’, 3’, 4’, 5’, 6’ constituting the co-tractorial
quintuple do not mutually intersect, since in forming the
determinants ( 27 ), none of them are found tovanish. A pos-
sible difficulty arises from the fact that the hyperboloid through
any three of these five collinear lines might touch a fourth,
that is to say that certain four of the lines might have a dou-
ble tractor.t That such is not the case appears in the
sequel.

Determining now the common tractor, 2, of these five lines,
we find it to have the equations

*Sylvester, ‘‘Note sur l’involution de six lignes daus l’espace’’, Comptes
Rendus, vol. LIT (1861), pp. 815-817.

Cayley, ‘‘On the Six Co-ordinates ofa Line’. Trans. Oamb. Phil. Soc.,
yol. XI, part IT (1869) pp. 290-323.

i36 JourNAL oF tHE MrtciEett Socrmty. [Now

{ YB8'n — aw) — 8A (yi— Beh 0
1 he (8x — aw) — 8A (yy — Bz) = 0

nN

Now, in general, four given lines have a pair of tractors.
Since the five lines 1, 3’, 4’, 5’, 6 already have a single trac- —
tor 2, they have, in sets of four, five more tractors, thus:— a
the. lines: 1, 3,-4, 5,6 are, tractors ofthe, -sets_ (3.455.000
(, oe a5 6’), (AG ai a. 6’), (1, S; 4, 6), fag 3, 4, 5’) respec- 4
tively.

_ Let us proceed to determine the equations of the five lines

1, 3, 4, 5, 6. Recalling the values of A, B, C and D above, it
is obvious by inspection that the equations of lines 1 and 3,
meeting the quadruples (3’, 4’, 5’, 6’) and (1’, 4’, 5’, 6’) respee-
tively, are

dS #=0, w=0
on: y=0, z= 0.

The equations of line 4, since it meets the lines 5’ and 6’, are
of the form

x ¥ w |

ey Ae A ee ee '
MO A A
x y z w

a B r 8

The conditions that this line meet the line 1’, written in. q .
the form a

x a: wrt iM
a ‘Bie dete ¥
are given by

A=], pet
Then the line 4 has the equations

1905] Hrnpgerson—A Menmorr. | 127

[ #« y Ba a0 |
EE sik a lee PSS a
a B Y 8
4
ee oe Bop
is) 25k LAN a

and we see by inspection that this line meets the line 3’ when
we write its equations in the form

™

ae ea
i f — — — -— — & — — + — + = 0,
Bp’ y’ 8’ Bs B Y 8 B's’

== OF

Line 5, since it meets the lines 4’ and 6’, has equations of
the form
z—Aw= 0 |

A ah coe

Meeting line 3’ (see form last written), it is necessary to
identify the equations
p ns rn w i
een Sas CT
B Y eh:

-(- — =) (B's — ky’ B8) w
= y+ ————#— — =0
8 \B' — kB vv 8(8" — &B) 8

wherefore
ue — 28 1 (yB'8' — hy’B3)
a ___., eat ts eee
8 — kB ys Bp’ — &B

giving y:y=6:8B

128 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY. Nov
y (8 — =
for which i + rd
8 \ y' — ky

and accordingly

Applying similar reasoning to the equation
z—aAw—0

with respect to the lines 1’ and 3’, we finally obtain

U =

Y
A= —.
ey
Then the equations of line 5 are
vz—yuw=—o0
Be
| BOBx — aw) — aD(yy — Bz) = 0.

Determining in a precisely similar fashion the equations of
line 6, we find

| 8z — yw = 0
B Cex — a’w) — a’ D(7'y — B'z) = 0

It remains to show that the five lines 1, 3, 4,5, 6 have a
common tractor (in other words are collinear).
Writing out the various determinants (77) and substituting
in the formula for 4., we obtain (after reduction)

4.= 0
and hence these five lines have a common tractor (but are
mutually intersecting, since no (7) = 0). |

Determining now the equations of the line, called 2’, which
meets these five lines, we find

EE eS OO gee ee Oe

ee ST a ee

PFE ee a

1905] HENDERSON—A MEmoIR. 129

2! | (ap! — a'B)88' Cx + (78 — 7'8)aan’ Bu = 0
LGB — eB) yy'Dy + (8 — 78) BR Az = 0

Hence we reach the following conclusion, which is
Schlafli’s theorem:—

The five lines determined from five co-tractortal lines by
choosing the remaining tractor tn each set of four of the latter
lines, are themselves co-tractorial.

In the above proof, the complete set of lines was derived
from the five co-tractorial lines 1’, 3’, 4’, 5’, 6’, but it is imma-
terial from which five of the primed or unprimed lines we
start. Moreover the relation between the sets 1’, 3’, 4’, 5’, 6’
and 1, 3, 4, 5, 6 is a reversible one—the lines of one set are
the tractors of the other set by fours and vice versa.

§8. Anharmonic Ratios.

Let us next find the co-ordinates of the points of intersec-
tion of the lines 2’, 3’, 4’, 5’, 6’ with the line 1. Determining
these in the usual way and writing down also the co-ordinates
of the vertex C of the fundamental tetrahedron ASCD, we
tabulate them as follows;—

Pz: 0 BB(Yi—y8)A yy (eB! —e'B)D

0
P 0 pi'y— EBs yD 0
13/ Fs

er: 0 1 0 0

r4/
oe a 0 B’ y’ 0

15/
, a - 0 B Y 0
EE 0 1 0

_ The anharmonic ratio of the four collinear points P ,P , P
12/ 13/ 15/

FP is identical with the anharmonic ratio of the four para-

> 16/

meters

I A ee

130 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY.

yy (aB’ — a'B)D yD
BB (Yi — y8)A _B'B'y — HBS
4—-A AHA,
Calculating the value
A, aR tig “Netto

ratio of these four parameters numbered in the order in which 4

they are written, we find

(P gy. OP sie Des
J? - 16/ Ft B8

intersection of the lines 1, 2, 3, 5, 6 with the line 4’.

follow in the table below:

Bly o dig — 7 (Ph —a pj)

le ‘3 0 1

7 A B
24!

P 1 0
34/

} Ai ayD BSC
sa

SUC ay’ D BIC
64

The anharmonic ratio of the four collinear points P , P ,
24) 34h

54!
parameters
B
ae 0,
A
ph,
Calculating the value
Nias

ratio of these four parameters numbered in the order in which |

they are written, we find

BC BL

DDI Nhe
et:

i HB,

0
0
0
0
0

[Nov.

ps’ —| B(y'8 — y8')A — y(ap! — a'B)D

These { :

0
0
0
0
0

pol

vi

P ,P , is identical with the anharmonic ratio of the four _
64! Bi)

Ree a RS

x a u.
of the anharmonic P

a

a

2

ad
\
te

.

1905] HENDERSON—A MeEmorr. 131

Bs ( BSAC—ayBD
er Ae ye) Ya mr

24! 34! 54! 64/ BS BSAC a4: a'y’ BD
Recalling the fact that
A, B, C, D= (a — Ka), (8 — KB), (7 —Ay), (8 — £8)

respectively, it is easily verified that

B73 — y8)A — 7 af’ — o'B)D
B's’ BSAC — ayBD '

aa Bs BSAC — ay BD

pe | Blvd — 8')A — yap’ — a’B)D

KBD

Accordingly
Pee Pi Pi yes PPP’),
1s/ 16/ 24/ 34/ 54’ 64!

12/ 13/
or expressing this in a briefer fashion

(2', a Bi 6’), = (2, By 5, 6)

Since the configuration is a symmetrical one, we have the
general conclusion

Pb bree AP Raa ey
(2, t 9 Z. b Z, di I == (2, Ly Pe) a,)4 2?
and this theorem may be phrased as follows:—

The anharmonic ratio of the points in which any four out of
jive co-tractorial lines cut the common tractor of all five ts equal
to the anharmonic ratio of the points where the fifth line ts
intersected by the correspondents of the first four.

Let us designate the anharmonic ratio of the four planes
formed by the plane z,’ with the lines z,, z,, z,, 7, by the symbol
(2, 2, 2 %)i',, Recalling next the known theorem concerning
the two tractors of four lines, viz. that the four points of
either tractor and the four planes of the other tractor have

the same anharmonic ratio, we obtain

i33 JouRNAL oF THE MrtcH#LL Soctery. (Now.

(25, diy Ls tei! = (2,, ly 2, t5)i' s
and have by our last theorem
ry Ge ah Tee iu. peers aca oe ee ae :
(2,; a) 2. ’ Z5 Ji eet (2, Les Zs Te ge
which may be phrased as follows:—

The anharmonic ratio of the four points, on one of five
co-tractortal lines, which are collinear with three of the rematin-,
ing lines is equal to the anharmonic ratio of the four planes
determined by these remaining lines and their common tractor.*

For other interesting results on the anharmonic ratios con-
nected with the double-six configuration consult the paper of
Kasner just referred to.

$9. Five Co-tractorial Lines as Primitive.

Given any five co-tractoriai lines, these determine uniquely,
as was shown in § 7, the double-six configuration. Then if
we consider the plane of 27’, it will be met by the lines z, 7 in
points which lie on the line 77. Since ,P, = 15, the 12 lines
of the double-six together with the 15 new lines make up 27
in all, the total number upon the cubic surface.t Then the
condition A. = 0 (§7,), which is the condition that five lines
be co-tractorial, is likewise the condition that five given lines
may lie in a cubic surface. ‘The result of Sylvester, viz. that
A. = 0 is the condition that five given lines be co-tractorial,
is found in a paper on the ‘‘Involution of Six Lines”,{ a sub-
ject first studied by him in connection with a theorem in the
Lehrbuch der Statik, by Mobius (Leipzig).

If we are given five lines, defined by their six co-ordinates

*Kasner, Am. Journal Math. vol. XXV, No. 2 (1903), p. 114.

+Sylvester, Comptes Rendus, vol. LII (1861), pp. 977-980. Cf. also Sal-
mon, Geom. of Three Dimensions, 4th edition, pp. 500-501 and R. Sturm,
Flachen Dritter Ordnung, pp. 57-59.

tOomptes Rendus, vol. LII (1861), pp. 815-817.

’

i905] | HenpErson—A Meworr. i33

(2,, b., eet ay He’) cee (@,, b., Co tha &s) h.), then the condi-
tion that these five lines be co-tractorial is also

0,12, 13,14,15 [=0,
21, 0, 23, 24, 25

31, 32, 0, 34, 35

41, 42, 43, 0,45 |

51, 52, 63, 54, 0 |

where we set

af-+a@af,+62,+ 62,+ ¢6,+ ¢6,=12, &c.,*
which is also the condition that these lines may be in a cubic
surface.t

The virtual identity of this condition with that of Sylves-
ter (A. = 0 of §7) is on account of the fact that Cayley’s
determinant at the fifth order above written is the square root
of Sylvester’s 4..{

*Cayley, Coll. Math. Papers, vol. VII (1867), pp. 66-98.
+Cayley, Coll. Math. Papers, vol. VII (1870), p. 178.
$Sylvester, Comptes Rendus, vol. LII (186:), p. 816.

<> 4

ie CROPS vin 8. Whee

ts

z

*_ =

<<?
an 4

JOURNAL
- EutsHa MitcHett ScenTIFic Society,

} DECEMBER, 1905
VOL. XXI NO. 4

FOOD ADULTERATION.

BY ALVIN S. WHEELER
Associate Professor of Chemistry, University of North Carolina.

The human body is a chemical laboratory in which fires are
kept up at night as well as by day. Init the most complicated
' chemical reactions are carried out, many of which man can
' neither reproduce nor understand. Some of the complex sub-
| _ stances can be made by man at very high temperatures, but
the body needs only its own moderate temperature. Here we
_ come face to face with one of the wonders of nature. The
) food which we eat constitutes the fuel which feeds the fires,
andif this is not what it purports to be, then abnormal sub-
- stances are produced, the machine is thrown out of gear—in
» Short, we are sick. The question of pure food is a vital one.
) That we do not always get itis absolutely certain. 'To quote
_ arecent writer: ‘In these days of butter not traceable to the
) cow, of wine innocent of the grape, of beer estranged from

a hops and malt, of coffee-berries made in a mold and not grown
_ ona bush, of honey not made in a beehive but in a factory,
= and a thousand and one audacious frauds, we consume one
= hundred million dollars’ worth of fraudulently prepared food

136 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY. [ Dee.

a year. Fraud has been officially detected in more than three
thousand samples of food. From the cheapest and most ordin-
ary article of diet, such as French sardines (caught off the
coast of Maine ) and canned salmon (with apologies to the
swordfish) to such costly delicacies as Russian caviare (collect-
ed in Delaware Bay) and imported Lucca oil (from the cotton
fields of Georgia), there is imposition.”’ But Americans do
not object to this very seriously, perhaps on account of a trait
of character portrayed by Dr. Wiley before the Franklin In-
stitute. He spoke as follows: ‘‘Barnum made a colossal for-
tune by acting on the principle that Americans liked to be
humbugged. There is something soothingly seductive in be-
ing led to the circus by lurid posters showing unattainable
attitudes of impossible monsters. This attractiveness is in-
creased by the knowledge that, like the limited express, it im-
plies an extra charge. Were the feats of legerdemain of the
mystic Herman actual performances of supernatural powers,
they would lose for us half of their charm. To be cheated,
fooled, bamboozled, cajoled, deceived, pettifogged, dema-
gogued, hypnotized, manicured and chiropodized are privileges
dear to us all. Woe be to that paternalism in government
which shall attempt to deprive us of these inalienable rights.”

Notwithstanding that food adulteration has caused a good
deai of discussion and legislation throughout our land, there
is considerable suspicion that it is much ado about nothing.
Sooner or later the public will realize the tremendous extent
of the fraudulent practices which are inoperation. Not only
is there danger to the life and health of the consumer, but
honest industry is seriously injured. For many years a Pure
Food Bill has been before Congress, but so far it has failed to
pass. Most of the states, however, have laws which are ap-
plicable within their borders. Theselaws are based upon the
English Food and Drug Act, which became a law in 1875.
Last November Secretary Wilson, of the Department of Agri-
culture, approved and proclaimed the Official Food Standards,
which had just been formulated by the United States Food

we

+, -
wari? SS ep ps

—

|

1905] WHEELER—Foop ADULTERATION. 137

Standard Commission and a committee of the National Asso-
ciation of Pure Food Commissions. It is no simple matter to
say what the standard of any particular food shall be, and this
‘recent action only partially covers the ground. The standards
consist of definitions and chemical limits, and embrace meat
and its prodycts, milk and its products, sugar and its related
substances, spices, cocoa and cocoa products. It is hoped that
this work will be completed within two years.

The adulteration of food is not asin of modern times. In
London, eighty-five years ago, grocers sold tea made of thorn
leaves, dried on copper and colored with log wood and verdigris.
Milk was largely made of chalk and water, and sugar was
mixed with sand. Only a few years ago a member of my fam-
ily while in London returned toa grocer some sugar which
only partly dissolved in water. The grocer appeared horrified
and made the exchange with remarkable rapidity. In the
United States the granulated white sugar is as pure as the
manufacturer can make it.

The demand for pure food becomes more and more insistent
each year, as realization grows of the far-reaching extent of
adulteration. A recent bulletin of the North Carolina Board
of health reveals how extensively food is now adulterated.
_The report says that 29 percent of the vinegar examined was
untrue to name; 33 per cent. of the honey was adulterated;
37.5 per cent. of the jellies and jams, and every single sample
of apple butter, catsup, and sauces. AsI have already said,
most of the States have adopted pure food laws, and an im-
mense amount of good has been accomplished through them.
Each State has a Food Commission, which keeps a watchful
eye upon every variety of food sold within the boundaries of
the State. Samples are bought in the open market and care-
fully analyzed by the chemist of the Commission. Where
adulteration is found the violator is prosecuted, and prosecu-
_ tions are usually successful. In Ohio, during 1901, there were
252 prosecutions. The jury disagreed in only seven cases
and there were only nine acquittals. It is interesting

138 JOURNAL OF THE MiTrcHELL Soctrery. (Dee.
also to note the decrease in adulteration. In Massa-

chusetts in 1883 the percentage of samples of adulterated
milk was 83. This fell to 28 in 1900. The percentage of
adulterations of foods dropped from 31 per cent. to 14.

Milk is most liable to fraud of all the different kinds of food,
because the chief adulterant is water, which costs nothing.
In Massachusetts three-fifths of the entire appropriation is de-
voted to the inspection of milk and its allied products, butter
and cheese. In the city we are more apt to be confronted with
blue milk than in the country. The law in most States re-
quires the presence of twelve parts of solid matter, since the
natural product of the cow does not contain less than this,
though it may contain much more. Thecream rises ina cow’s
udder the same as if in a milk-pan, and, unless the cow has
violently exercised just before milking, the first milk is less
rich in butter fat, and this, by some, is sold to the consumer.
The last of the milk,called the strippings, is nearly pure cream.
The milkman is apt to keep this for his own private butter-
making.

Owing to the fact that milk is such a splendid medium for
the growth of all kinds of bacteria, which bring about its de-
composition, it is an exceedingly common practice for the milk

dealer to add some antiseptic, especially formaldehyde, so that ~

it will keep in hot weather and may be transported long dis-
tances. On account of the physiological action of formalde-
hyde it is a menace to the health and its use in milk should be
condemned. But this form of adulteration is dangerous from

another standpoint: it becomes a substitute for cleanliness —

and sanitary precautions, which are so essential to the health-
fulness of milk. The requirement of cleanliness is appre-
ciated by the modern it dairy, which is a model of

purity.
In Connecticut the collection of ‘milk samples i is made by

agents, who are provided with bicycles carrying in the frame

a case containing eighteen vans of a half-pint capacity each.
The construction is such that one can may be removed with-

1 EE Sap ESS

Rags Fg He SE SE

a

co

en ne

1905) WHEELER—Foop ADULTERATION. 139

out disturbing the others. Between four and seven o’clock in
the morning the agent rides from street to street and buys a
pint of milk from every milkman whom he meets, without
making known the object of his errand. He notes the name
of the milkman or of his dairy given on the wagon.

Eggs, of course, cannot be adulterated, but they may be of
varying quality, and now substitutes for them are being man-
ufactured. ‘The reasons for this are that eggs are high priced
in winter, while in summer they deteriorate too rapidly. On
the Boston market one has the privilege of buying eggs of
different ages—‘‘strictly fresh eggs,” ‘‘fresh eggs,” and
“eggs.” An egg may be preserved by evaporating its contents
down to the solid state. By maintaining a low temperature,
the water, which is the largest constituent, is driven off. This
preparation is called La Mont’s crystallized eggs. It is an
important product, for in one year alone 100,000 pounds,
equivalent to 4,800,000 eggs, were shipped to South African
miners. In New York they are now manufacturing an egg
substitute, called ‘‘ovine.” It is said to ‘‘take the place of
fresh eggs in baking.” Analysis, however, shows that it re-
sembles the white of an egg in composition, and not the whole
egg.

Coffee offers a good field for the fraudulent operations of
the manipulator. The coffee berry is imitated not only in the
green state, but also in the roasted condition. There are more
than six firms in this country regularly engaged in the manu-
facture of coffee-bean making machinery. Bogus _ berries
are ground out by the ton, and they are better looking than
those that grow on the bush. A paste is made of chicory,
starch, pea meal, caramel, and molasses, molded into the
proper shape and dried. The pure-food laws have had a very
beneficial influence upon coffee adulteration. In one State the
percentage of adulterated samples fell in two years from 63 to
25. The adulterants of ground coffee are peas, chicory, wheat
rye, and bean hulls. So-called coffee compoundr are mixtures
of coffee with other substances, such as cereals, Sometimes

140 JoURNAL OF THE MitcHELL Socrety. [Dee.

the packages are properly labeled, and again they are not.

Another indispensable beverage is tea. The extent of its
use is indicated by the statement that in a recent year ninety-
four million pounds were imported into the United States.
Tea is adulterated with soapstone, gypsum, iron dust, and
sand; also with lie tea, the trade name of a mixture made up
of tea dust and other matters made into lumps with starch
paste and colored. Tea is also mixed with exhausted tea
leaves and leaves of the beech, willow, elm, rose, and wistaria.
Finally, all of the green tea and a good deal of the black tea
is faced or coated to impart a gloss and an attractive color.
Prussian blue, indigo, and soapstone are used for green teas,
and plumbago or black lead for black teas.

Cocoa and chocolate are making remarkable headway as
beverages. Coffee and tea have been objected to on hygienic
grounds, and substitutes are being extensively used. Cocoa is
more nourishing than any other beverage, and perhaps as
sustaining. Cocoa beans are reddish brown in color and re-

semble lima beans in shape and size. ‘They are first roasted,

a chemical change occuring which developes a very desirable
flavor. They are next crushed by machinery to separate them
from the shells. The broken cotyledons, free from shells, are
known as cocoa nibs. These are ground, and the heat of
grinding melts the fat which makes up one-half of their
weight, and the ground product runs out asa thin paste. This
is allowed to cool in molds, and constitutes our unsweetened
chocolate. Cocoa is prepared by removing a part of the fat
by pressure and reducing the residue toa powder. Cocoa is
made inferior by grinding the beans with the shells on. Itis
adulterated by adding extra shells as well as wheat flour, corn-
starch, and sugar, and this is a common practice.

Beneath the beautiful exterior of the soda fountain sit en-
throned a host of frauds. We complacently enjoy the beauti-
fully colored drinks with the idea that they are made of nat-
ural fruit juices, such as strawberry, cherry, raspberry, and
many more. Some dispensers use the real fruit, but very com-

al i Sah geen Cher ;

—

a
A

1905) WHEELER—Foop ADULTERATION. 141

monly the syrup is made by dissolving granulated sugar in
water colored and flavored with substances made in a factory
and, finally, in some cases, soap bark is added in order to pro-
duce a fine foam. The variety of drinks is very extensive,
one wholesale house alone offering an assortment of three-
hundred and thirty-three syrups. The artificial extracts made
to imitate strawberry, raspberry, and certain other fruit juices
are especially obnoxious and give rise to indigestion. Coal-
tar dyes are used for coloring purposes, especially for the
brilliantly colored drinks seen at State fairs and summer re-
sorts. In Minnesota recently it was discovered that an alleged
sweet-apple cider came ‘‘ fresh from a cider-press ” to which
the juice was delivered by an underground pipe.

The most palatable and costly sugar is maple sugar. It is
an important product, about five million pounds annually com-
ing mostly from Vermont, New Hampshire and Ohio. The
great metropolis of the West is also noted for its prodution.
A small quantity of the pure article serves to produce large
amounts of ‘‘maple syrup.” To such an extreme is this
carried that there is not left even a smell of the real maple.
Adultertion is extraordinarily extensive, and it has invaded the
maple woods. ‘The reasons are succinctly stated by the IIlin-
ois Food Commissioner as follows: ‘‘First—It is so easy any
one can do it. Second—It is profitable. Third—Adultera-
tion being common, the manufacturer is compelled to follow
suit in order to compete in price. Fifth—The production of
maple syrup is less than the demand. Sixth—The undoubted
demand for a syrup with a slight maple flavor at a less price
than the pure product commands. Seventh—The questiona-
ble fact that certain varieties of maple (Canada, North Minn-
esota)yield a syrup of stronger flavor than consumers demand.”
The adulterants or substitutes for the maple sugar are cane
sugar, beet sugar, glucose, and dextrin. To produce the maple
flavor extracts of walnuts, butternuts, and corn-cobs are used.

A pure fruit jelly is made entirely from the fruit juice with.
the addition of cane sugar, The adulterants are numerous

142 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL Society. [ Dee.

The jellying quality may be imparted by starch paste, gelatin,
or agar-agar, a gelatinous material obtained from sea-weed.
These, of course, have no taste, but by adding a coloring mat-
ter and some flavoring extract we have at once currant jelly,
grape jelly, or any kind whatsoever. Glucose is much used
for sweetening purposes, although it is’ less sweet than cane
sugar, the ratio of sweetness being about three to five. In one
year the Connecticut station found twenty pure jellies and
forty-three adulterated, the first being home products, while
the adulterated were factory products. Jams also are not
always what they seem to be. A sample of strawberry jam
recently analyzed.in Nebraska was found to consist mostly of
pumpkin, tinted with coal-tar dyes, preserved in benzoin, with

grass seed thrown in to make the jam look like the real thing. ©

Honey in the comb probably cannot be adulterated except
by the bee itself, which seems to have a monopoly on capping

the cells. That the inventive American has made many at- —

tempts to produce a machine which would do this work there
canbe no doubt. Strained honey is readily adulterated, glu-
cose being the usual adulterant. Sometimes only sufficient
real honey is added to impart a slight honey flavor. A glass
jar of glucose with pieces of honeycomb floating in the liquid
makes a beautiful deception and a very profitable one.

Spices afford a very attractive field for the sophisticator.
Allspice has been found in some cases to contain as much as
85 per cent. wheat and nut shells. Cayenne is adulterated
with corn, wheat, ginger, and ared aniline dye. Cloves may
contain wheat, sawdust, charcoal, and factory sweepings.
Ginger is adulterated with wheat, rice, and pepper. Mustard
is liable to contain mustard hulls, corn, wheat, and rice some-
times to the extent of 90 percent. Pepper is adulterated with
wheat, ginger, pepper shells, olive stones, and buckwheat,

The labeling of food products is a matter of considerable
importance, because it is from the label that we usually get
our ideas of the character of the goods. Labels are wholly
deceptive. Such words as ‘‘high quality,” ‘‘high grade,” ‘‘ex-

a -™

— -

—— —- =<

7905] WHEELER—Foop ADULTERATION. 143

cellent quality,” ‘‘pure,” and ‘‘unadulterated,” are often found
attached to articles of the most worthless character. Various
devices are employed to lead the unwaryastray. Here is a
label:

LEMON EXTRACT

Alcohol, 415. Aqua, 450. Oil Lemon, 15.

The resort to the Latin word is a fraud of low order. The
extract actually contained more water, less alcohol, and no oil
of lemon whatever. On a box of powdered borax put out by
a New York house was found the following caution: ‘‘Avoid
the many spurious imitations of our borax with which the
market is flooded, and which can only do harm to those who
use them. See that our trade mark is on every package.”
The chemical examination of this borax showed that every
package was seriously adulterated with bicarbonate of soda.

Again on a pickage of coffee, the statement ‘‘Made of pure
coffee and cereals” is placed perpendicularly, and the instruc-
tion to ‘““Open this end” placed at the opposite end.

The food laboratory in the Bureau of Chemistry, United
States Department of Agriculture, is now engaged in investi-
gations of the highest importance. Under Dr. Wiley a squad
of men take their meals at the Bureau's laboratory, the food
being doctored with borax, salicylic acid, and other substances
which are said to be deleterious to health. The experiments
are extremely interesting, and the results promise to be im-
portant.

In conclusion it may be said that all adulterations are not
harmful; in fact, many are actually wholesome. A watchful
eye is required to detect the serious abuses, which are all too
common, and it is necessary to distinguish between the harm-
less and harmful frauds. The press is prone to exaggeration
—a practice vividly portrayed by Bob Burdette in the fol-
lowing poem, entitled ‘‘A Victim of Delusion:”

Placid I am, content, serene;
I take my slab of gypsum bread,

144 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY...

_ And chunks of oleomargarine
Upon its tasteless sides I spread,

The egg I eat was never laid
By any cackling feathered hen;

But from the Lord knows what ’tis made
In Newark by unfeathered men.

I wash my simple breakfast down
With fragrant chicory so cheap;

Or with the best black tea in town—
Dried willow-leaves—I calmly sleep.

But if from man’s vile arts I flee,
And drink pure water from the pump,

I gulp down infusorie

And hideous rotatoriz

And wriggling polygastrice

And slimy diatomacez

And hard-shelled orphryocercinz

And double-barrelled kolpodz

Non-loricated ambreeilze

And various animalcule

Of middle, high and low degree;

For nature just beats all creation

In multiplied adulteration.

{By permission of the Outlook Company. |

NOTES ON THE SCUTELLATION OF THE RED
KING SNAKE, OPHIBOLUS DOLIATUS
COCCINEUS, SCHLEGEL.

Cc. S. BRIMLEY.

“Body color scarlet, completely encircled by pairs of black
rings, with interspaced white in the young, yellow in the
adults: no lateral spots, top of head red, with the first black
ring crossing the parietals. The pattern is formed by the
obliteration of the lateral portion of the black borders of dor-
sal spots, and the extension of their transverse portion entirely
around the body. The lateral spots have disappeared” (From
““A Review of the Genera and species of North American
Snakes, North of Mexico,” by A. E. Brown, Proc. Acad. Nat.
Sci, Phila, Jan. 1901). According to Brown the normal scut-
ellation would seem to be 21 rows of scales, loreal present, one
temporal in the first row, the rows of scales occasionally vary-
ing to 19, and the loreal sometimes absent, this extreme form
being the Osceola elapsoidea B. and G.

Cope treats the two forms as a distinct species, Be gives
the scutellation as loreal present, two temporals in first row,
and rows of scales 21 for coccineus, and loreal absent, one
temporal in first row, row of scales 17 or 19 for elapsozdea.
(Crocodilians, Lizards and Snakes of North America, by E.D.
Cope, Report of U S. Nat. Museum, 1898.)

My experience is that the normal formula is, scales in 19
rows, occasionally 17 or 21, one temporal in first row, occa-
sionally two, and loreal usually present, but sometimes absent
on one or both sides.

The specimens that I have examined with reference to some
or all of these points are

1905) 145

146 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY. [Dec.

A. Specimens from Bay St. Louis, Miss.

No. Length. Loreals Temporals Scales Examined

1,21 anches uae, ..1-1 . 19... Mechaiieos
OD ohak 810 ee 1-1.. ..1-1 i De
Ce ae. meted .. 0-0 Seeraes 2. LD 6
Ao i os ..1-1.. i.de1). 2.619)
Ses. Be be) ee Bert et Ce ..-19 se
Boe es 1-1.. Heres (=) Uda ,.19 . See
8.240 mm 1-1.. Rp El Gani alcoholic 3607
9.. 1-1.. ey 3 ae ..19 “. » 33604
si) ae pes se) A Oe EN 3 3055
16 .. 1-1 es 4) een ee ie | net 3058
TZ es .. ik 1-1.. ne Ih - 3045
14.. ..1-1 1-1.. Pe !, a 3057
its ape ed od oe cay RRA Se i 3056
16 ..0-0.. 1-1.. ee | f 3044
B. Specimens from Raleigh, N. C.

ae 0400 4s.) 1.
£3. Pe COURIER A elite
i .6--O-0.....0..-. 0 0. aa” |
20.180 mm __...... 1-1". 0... | a ae
Aviso" ** Ree Coy earner I eo i “ 5523
2o450 | ** TOP eee ee 3682
23.200 °° 26 OXO a eee ot 3683

C. Specimens from Florida.

18 from Orlando.0-0...0 2). =e sk 2330
17 from Tatponsp 1-1. 02) oie tie een et 2488

NOTES ON THE ABOVE SPECIMENS,

.
i oe ee

No. 2 has the nuchal yellow collar.divided in. the center. by
a longitudinal bar of black.

7905] BrimitEy—Nores on SCUTELLATION. 147

10 has both red and and white rings more or less interupted
on the belly by black.

13 has the adjacent black rings uniting on the belly, en-
closing the red dorsal spots.

20 has the white rings mainly interrupted more or less on
the’belly by black blotches, while the red rings are uninter-
rupted.

21 is typical coccineus, in color, but has the loreal reduced
on one side toa small triangular plate at the junction of the
prefontal, nasal, and ist and 2nd upper labials.

22 is neariy typical cocineus, but has black spots on the belly

opposite the white rings. Several of the head plates peculiar.
The loreal is absent on one side and represented on the
other by a triangular plate cut off front of prefontal and ex-
tending to the labials.
* 23 has red spots closed by a partially divided black tract on
middle line of belly. Black spots on belly opposite the white
rings are present on latter half of belly only. Sixth upper la-
cial on each side reaches to the parietals and suppresses the
temporals.

Summary. The Mississippi specimens all have 19 rows of
scales, except two not examined for that point, twelve of them
have the loreal present on both sides of the head, and two of
them have it absent on both sides: eleven have one temporal
in the front row on both sides, one has two temporals on both
sides, one has one temporal on one side and two on the other,
and the last has two temporals on one side and the scutella-
tion could not be made out on the other.

Of the Raleigh specimens four have 19 rows of scales,
and two have 21, while a seventh was not examined for that
point. Two have a loreal on both sides, three have the lorea]
absent on both sides, while of the remaining two, one has
loreal present on one side and represented by an abnormal
plate on the other, and the other has loreal absent on one
side and represented by an abnormal plate on the other. As
to the temporals two specimens have one in first row on each side

148 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL JOURNAL. (Dee.

and two more have two on each side, a fifth has two on one

side and one on the other, while the sixth has the temporals
completely absent. The seventh was not examined on that
point.

The obvious conclusions are that the normal scutellation is
19 rows of scales, loreal present, and one temporal present in
the first row. The most curious feature is the large percen-
age of Releigh specimens with the loreal absent or abnormal
on one or both sides, a feature we would naturally expect in
the more southern specimens rather than in the northernmost
of those examined.

2 retire se

NOTES ON THE FOOD AND FEEDING HABITS
OF SOME AMERICAN
REPTILES.

Cc. S. BRIMLEY.

The following notes are from personal observations made
during the past ten or twelve years on various reptiles, both
wild and in captivity.

Taking the snakes first, their method of ‘swallowing their
prey deserves attention, and to understand this it must be re-
membered that both the upper and lower jaws and the teeth-
bearing bones of the palate are united by ligaments only, thus

‘rendering the mouth capable of very greatdilation. Further-
more, any ordinary harmless snake has four rows of sharp back-
wards pointing teeth in the upper jaw and two rows in the
lower.

Now, when a colubrine snake,a Spreading Adder ( Heterodon
platyrhinus) for instance,seizes its prey, in this species always
a toad, it at once commences, so soon asit has a good hold, to
work one side of the jaws forward over the animal with a chew-
ing motion;then when it has worked that side as far as possible
it takes a firm hold with that side and works the other side for-
ward over the animal alternately until itis well within the
mouth, when it is pushed down into the stomach by the muscu-
lar contraction of the body; the snake in fact literally glides
over its prey,after it is once safely inside,often pushing it down
by crawling forward with its side pressed against some hard
object.

In the case of Coluber obsoletus or any other of the chicken
snakes swallowing a hen’s egg, an apparently impossible feat
when one sees the snake and egg side by side, the modus ope~

1906{ 149

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150 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY. [ Dec.

randi is exactly the same, except that the snake has to get the
egg in a position where he can push his mouth over it without
it rolling away, in the corner of a box for instance. The egg so
far as I can make out passes into the snake’s stomach whole and
unbroken and the shell being dissolved by the digestive fluids,
its contents are released and digested.

Those harmless snakes which have but little constricting
power, such as the various species of Water Snake, the Garter
Snakes, Green Snake, and Spreading Adder,simply catch their
prey and swallow it alive and whole without further dallying.
The Snakes of the genera Ophibolus (Lampropeltis,) Pityo-
phis, Coluber (Callopeltis, ) Bascanion and Spilotes, commonly
known as King Snakes, Bull Snakes, Chicken Snakes, Black
Snakes, Coachwhips, and Gopher Snakes have however very
considerable constricting power as may be easily proved by al- ~
lowing a good sized specimen of any of these genera to coil it-
self round ones wrist, but to what extent they habitually kill
their prey by this means I do not know. Thecommon black
King Snake with white rings whose food consists of rats, mice .
and other snakes kills the latter in its coils beforeswallowing ~—
them, but how it treats the former I donot know. On one oc-
casion I had placed a King Snake, possibly some 18 inches or 2
feet long in a box with a number of other snakes all consider-
ably larger than itself, almost immediately it glided up toa
large Black Snake and seizing it by the head wrapped itself in
a tight spiral coil round the forepart of the latter’s body. The
Black snake however thrashed about so violently that the King
had to let go,and when the latter again attempted to seize him
the Black Snake struck him on the head which cooled off his
ardor and there was no further trouble between them. Onan-
other occasion I placed a large King Snake ina box witha
smaller Black Suake, and the former seized the latter by the
head and crushed the life out of himin his coils, but releasing
the Black Snake’s body little by little as he swallowed it.
I once saw a Chicken Snake,I think it was the striped southern
species Coluber quadrivitiatus, kill a young fledgling bird

Rm

De igr ipa teas! Rag ey 1 eles te Be 2 BARS Ogee agree

|
|

1905) BrimuEv—Frxrpinc Hasits or REPrILEs. 151

which I had placed in the same box with it crushing it to
death in a U-shaped fold of the snake’s body. These snakes
all swallow their food in precisely the same way as the Spread-
ing Adder, which is the usual method withsnakes. The con-
stricting power of the genera Ophibolus and Coluber is much
greater than those of the genus Bascanion (Black Snakes and
Coachwhips).

Of the amount of food consunied by snakes I have tour rec-
ords. The first is that of a poisonous snake, a Copperhead
(Ancistroden contortrix) an average sized adult, which grew
fat and improved greatly on the following diet: 1897, Aug 7,
small bird; Aug 12, ditto; Aug 19, ditto; Aug 25, ditto; Aug
30, 1 mouse, Sep 10, 14, and 19, one small Cotton Rat on each

date. In 44 daysit ate nine times, never eating more than

one small bird or animal on any one day, though more than
that number were sometimes offered it. All the specimens
were dead. The snake improved in girth and color and some
chafed places on its neck entirely disappeared.

The second record is that of a 33 inch Rat Snake or Spot-
ted Racer (Coluber gutiatus) which did well on the following
rations:—1897, July 29, one bat; Aug. 7, one small bird; Aug.
10, 12, 17, and 19, one bat on each date; Aug. 23, one small
bird; Aug. 30, one bat; Sep. 14, one mouse; Sep. 20, one shrew
In 54 days it ate ten times, in 31 days it ate seven times.

The third and fourth records are of the Spreading Adders,
one of which ate ten toads from Aug 6 to Sep 11, 1897 (ten
toads in 86 days,) and another twelve toadsfrom Ang 6 to
Sep 9, 1897 (twelve toads in 34 days).

The food of the various species of snake that have come
under my notice is as follows, so far as my observations go,—

Spreading Adder(Heterodon Platyrhinus): toads (Bufo) only.

Water Snake (JVatrix sipedon): fish, toads.

Garter Snakes (Euitaenza sirtalis): toads.

Ribbon Snake (Hutaenia saurita): smail frogs, small sala-
manders.

Chicken Snakes (Coluber obsoletus, C. o., conjfinis, C. 0.,

152 JouRNAL oF THE MiTCHELL SocrETy. [Dee.

lindheimert, C. quadrivittatus): rats, mice, small birds up to

size of quail, young birds, bird’s eggs, hen’s eggs.

The Bull Snakes (Pityophis say? and P. melanoleucus) same

food as the Colubers.

Spotted Racer (Coluber guttatus) has not been observed to
eat hen’s eggs, but otherwise its food seemsto be much the
same as the other Colubers, although I think it shows a much
greater preference for rats and mice: and the same remarks
apply so far as my experience goes, also to the Black Snake
(Bascanian constrictor) and the Coachwhip (Bascanzan
filagellum).

King Snake (Ophzbolus getulus): rats, mice and other
snakes.

Brown King Snake (Ophzbolus rhomboamaculatus): rats,
mice and lizards.

Red King Snake (Ophibolus coccineus): lizards, (Kume-
ces and Liolepisma).

Green Snake (Cyclophis aestivus): large insects such as lar-
val katydids and the caterpillars of the Silver-spotted Skip-
per.

Brown Snake (Ha/dea striatula): earthworms.

With regard to the food of lizards, I cannot say much.
The smaller species however eat insects of various kinds, the

common rusty Fence Lizard (Sceloporus undulatus), and the —

Green Lizard (Anolis principalis), commonly though erro-
neously known as ‘‘Chameleon,” having been observed in con-
finement to eat house flies, young grasshoppers, and small
butterflies, while the Bluetailed Lizard (Eumeces fasciatus)
commonly known as ‘‘Scorpion” in the South, has been ob-
served to eat house flies, butterflies, small carabid beetles,
earthworms, cockroaches and large, smooth caterpillars, but
bright colored butterflies were not liked. The so-called Glass
or Joint Snake (Ophzsaurus ventralis) has been observed to eat
Katydids, large Bird Grasshopper (.Schistocera americanum)
and large butterflies such as the swallowtails. The other
legless lizard of the eastern United States, the curious Flor-

"4
nigra) Quinn -

ow >

GOI 9 ATE

|
|
|

1905] BrimLEY—FrEpING Hasits oF REPTILES. 153

ida Blindworm (/’Aineura floridana) which superficially looks
more like an earthworm than a lizard, apparently eats earth-
worms, as in 1900 I kept some for several months and used to
put earthworms in the box of earth in which they were kept,
and the said worms uniformly disappeared without leaving
any trace behind.

Only one other lizard has come under my notice in captiv-
ity,viz.: the big Gila Monster( Heloderna suspectum) of Arizona
and this in captivity seems to confine itself mainly, if not
entirely to hens’ eggs, which when broken on a plate are
lapped up by its broad fleshy tongue. My notes on this
species are as follows:—1898, July 9, one large one received,
drank water; July11, ate 3 eggs; July 12, ate two; ate noth-
ing from July 13, when he ate one egg, till July 22, when he
ate another, not in the meanwhile eating eggs when offered
tohim. From July 23 to Oct 25 he ate 25 eggs, eating one
every three or four days and fattened on the diet. 1899,
three Heloderma received May 2, sent off May 9, ate 17 eggs
in 8days. 1899, three more received May 23, sent off May
30, ate 21 eggs in 8 days.

The Testudinata, of which the different species are indis-
criminately known as turtles,tortoises, and terrapines the last
name being in the South applied to nearly all species except
the Snapping Turtle, comprise both omnivorous, carnivor-
ous, and herbivorous species.

The Gopher of Florida (Xerobates polohemus) is a good ex-
ample of the first group, feeding only on succulent plants of
various kinds, those I had showing most partiality to nut-
grass, although they would also eat corn leaves, zinnia leaves
and stems, sowthistles (Sonchus) and also apple peel and pieces
of apple. Several of the aquatic species are also mainly her-
bivorous, especially the Painted Turtle, Chrysemys picta,
which in 1900 ate greedily of cabbage leaves,although they
also have been observed to eat raw flesh, chicken offal, corn
bread, pieces of watermelon and canteloupe. They usually
drag their food into the water and eat it with the head under

154 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SocrEty. [Dec

water. On July 16, 1900, however, I saw one eating a piece of
canteloupe on land without taking it into the water. Pseud-
emys concinna, the large smooth terrapin of our rivers, is also
apparently herbivorous, at least I have never detected one in
the act of eating flesh. Our other species of Pseudemys, how-
ever, the Rough Terrapin (Pseudemys scripia) is an omnivorous
feeder eating raw flesh, ripe fruit, and the leaves of succulent
plants. Like the two preceding it eats its food, mainly at least,
under water. Theterrapins of the genus Chelopus seem to
be more omnivorous than Chrysemys or rather to show a less
decided preference for vegetable food; The Speckled Terra-
pin (Chelopus guttutus) has been observed to eat apple, pieces
of watermelon, sonchus leaves, dead snakes, fish scraps, etc,
usually taking its food into the water to eat it; the other two
species of the genus, however, (Chelopus insculptus and C.
muhlenbergit) seem tc eat their food mainly on land, but are
however more terrestrial than C. gutfatus which is in its turn
less aquatic than Chrysemys picta.

The Box Tortoises or Highland Terrapins of the genus
Terrapene (Cistudo) which are terrestrial and not aquatic have
been seen to eat raw flesh, dead birds, ripe and unripe fruit
such as apple, tomato, watermelon, canteloupe, plum and
persimmons and also occasionally the leaves of succulent
plants. June bugs are also eaten during the period of their
abundance. Their usual method of eating isto stretch the
head forward towards their food,seize a piece in the jaws,and
then jerk or pull the head backward so as to tear or cut the
piece away, the forefeet being usually braced against the food
or placed on it, while the portion to be swallowed is torn
away. The morsel of food is then crushed sufficiently by the
masticating surfaces of the jaws (turtles have no teeth) and
swallowed. ‘There is no difference so far as I have been able
to observe in the food of the different species of 'Terrapene,
and I have had opportunities for observing 7. carolina, T.
major, T. triunguis, T. ornato, and 7. bauri.

The Mud Turtle (Aznosternon pennsylvanicum) is apparently

1905] BrimLEyY—FEEDING Hasits oF REPTILES. 155

like the rest of its family carnivorous, never having been

' observed: by me to eat vegetable food. This species.and the

others of the same genus are the only turtles that cannot sup-
port themselves in deep water without something to rest on,
and if one is placed in a tub of water where it cannot support
itself on something so as to get its head out of the water, will
soon become exhausted from its struggles to reach the surface
anddrown. All our other genera of turtles both aquatic and
terrestrial, including the nearly related Aromochelys which
by the way is thoroughly aquatic, float without any difficulty
whatever.

Of our other species of eetiidlincita I have no observations to

record except that a Suapping Turtle in the posession of the

State Museum used to eat live toads, dragging them under
water to swallow them.

THE SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN FOREST
RESERVE.

BY JOSEPH HYDE PRATT.

ee

The forest wealth of North Carolina and Tennessee makes
the establishment of a Southern Appalachian Forest Reserve
of very great interest to these States; but as these forests
affect industries throughout all of the Southern States, and
thus affect the industries of the entire country, the estab-
lishment of this Forest Reserve is a matter also of national
interest and concern. One hundred years ago there was lit-
tle or no attention given in this country to the method or
means by which its forests were cut away; that is, whether
they were cut for lumber or ruthlessly destroyed in the clear-
-ing of land for agricultural purposes. ‘There was no thought
paid to the prevention of forest fires because they were harm-
ful to the forests themselves; and no thought whatever was
given to the influence that forests exert on the flow of
streams and rivers. At that time there seemed to be a super-
abundance of lumber for all purposes, the wasteful destruc-
tion of which could not then be felt. Forest fires were not
considered as doing any particular harm as long as they did
not come too near the habitations of men. The streams and
rivers always contained plenty of water and for a quarter of
a century not enough land was cleared of their forests to
demonstrate the effect their removal had upon the water sup-
ply. |

At the beginning of the 20th century, however, there has
been a decided change in the views and ideas regarding the
value to a country of its forest resources. Thus, our leading

156 [ Dec.

wre ee eS

oe

1905] §PRatTt—APpPaALACHIAN Forest RESERVE. 157

statesmen and our citizens realize and appreciate not only the
commercial value of the perpetuation of our forests, but also
the vast influence that these forests exert in the preservation
of the water supply of the country. Perhaps their most
noticeable influence is in mountainous and hilly countries,
which, when covered with abundant forests, prevent the soil
from being washed away and by the decay of their leaves
form a loam which prevents the waters from running off the
surface toorapidly. Itis these forest-covered mountains that
are extremely valuable because of the effect they have upon
water supply and water powers.

By the removal of the forests there is no longer a protec-
tion for the soil on the slopes of the mountains and hills
except that produced artificially in the form of ditches, etc.
There is no longer a layer or bed of leaves to act as an
absorbent for the water and a preventive to its evaporation
and it runs off for the most part as fast as it falls, causing

high freshets and floods and periods of extreme low water;

causing the streams and rivers to be higher at times of floods
but very much lower the greater part of the time than they
were before the removal of these forests. This is well illus-
trated at the present time in many parts of eastern United
States where many of the rivers are not navigable to the
extent that they formerly were and many of them are a con-
stant expense to the government in keeping them open to
navigation due to low water. While a greatdeal of harmhas
already been done in this way, a still greater harm will be
done if the remaining forests are not protected. It is not
only the navigation of the streams and rivers that is hurt by
the removal of the forests but also the water supply for our
cities and towns. Many of our largest cities are already
beginning to find some difficulty in storing a sufficient supply
of water for their use.

This preservation of the forests means also the mainte-
nance of the water powers, which, if reduced or destroyed,
will seriously injure many of our manufacturing interests,

158 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL Society. (Dee.

These defects in the watersupply are not due to the lack of
rain but to the removal of the natural agencies that nature
has provided for the storing of this water which has resulted
from the removal of the forests. Again, these defects are not
due to any considerable extent to the clearing of land for
farming purposes for the farmer must of necessity protect the
soil from being washed away and the only loss to the water
supply that he would cause would be the greater evaporation
to which it would be exposed. They are, however, due to
the wasteful and destructive removal of the forests by the
lumber companies who leave large tracts of land stript in
some cases of every vestige of a tree.

The present method of cutting timber and the subsequent
forest fires is causing a scarcity of lumber, especially of the
hard woods, and there are now but few sections in this coun-
try where virgin forests of this character are to be found.
This total destruction of a forest in lumbering is not neces-
sary but it is a wasteful destruction of property, and a forest-
covered area which should be a constant source of revenue,
becomes in the end waste land and in many cases an impover-
ished, barren tract.

This scarcity of hard woods can be remedied by the appli-
cation of practical forestry which would be adopted in any
forest reserve established in the Southern Appalachian Moun-
tains and is now being practiced in the forest reserves of the
western part of this country. ‘There is little or no doubt but
that the forests of the Southern Appalachian mountains can,
by systematic and conservative measures, be made to yield
profitable returns to the State and country. The forests of
North Carolina and Tennessee are, and have for many years,
been one of the chief resources of revenue to the people of
these States and thus their preservation and perpetuation
means a constant source of revenue to these States.

Thus the two main and vital reasons for forest reserves are
first, the protection of the water supply of our streams and

Wg! goa A amy

1905] PratTr—APPALACHIAN Forest RESERVE. 159

rivers; and second, the protection of our supplies of lumber,
especially the hard woods.

The region that is to comprise the proposed Appalachian
Forest Reserve lies for the most part in Western North Caro-
lina and eastern Tennessee, with smaller areas in southwest-
ern Virginia, northeastern Georgia and northwestern South
Carolina. The slopes of the mountains in this region are the
sources of many large rivers, as the Tennessee, the Savan-
nah, the Broad and the Catawba. The water-power and
navigation of these rivers are seriously affected by the removal
of the forests in the mountainous districts as is also the water
supply for the towns and cities in the vicinity of the moun-
tains and of these rivers. This southern section of the
United States has not been subjected to glacial action as the
northern States have and there are, therefore, no glacial drifts
in this region to act as storage reservoirs for water. Thus,
in the removal of the forests we are practically removing all
the natural resources for storing water.

In speaking of forest reserves and particularly of the pro-
posed Southern Appalachian Reserve, President Roosevelt in
his address at Raleigh, N. C., October 20, 1905, pointed out
how vital the preservation of the forests is to the welfare of
every country and that the upper altitudes of the forested
mountains are most valuable to the nation as a whole, not
only on account of their commercial value as supplies of lum-
ber, but especially because of their effects upon the water
supply. He further said: ‘‘Neither state or nation can
afford to turn these mountains over to the unrestrained greed
of those who would exploit them at the expense of the future.
We cannot afford to wait longer before assuming control, in
the interest of the public, of these forests; for if we do wait,
the vested interests of private parties in them may become so
strongly intrenched that it may be a most expensive task to
oust them. If the Eastern States are wise, then from the
Bay of Fundy to the Gulf we will see, within the next few
years, a policy set on foot similar to that so fortunately car-

160 JouRNAL OF THE MITCHELL Socrety. (Dec.

ried out in the high Sierras of the west by the national gov-
ernment. All the higher Appalachians should be reserved,
either by the states or by the nation. I much prefer that
they should be put under national control, but it is a mere
truism to say that they will not be reserved either by the
states or by the nation unless you people of the South show a
strong interest therein.”

North Carolina, which would give the largest area to the
Appalachian Forest Reserve, is unequalled in its variety of
hardwoods and conifers by that of any other State or Terri-
tory. Throughout the whole area of the State, the great
variety of soils and climate has brought together trees from
all parts of eastern America so that 24 kinds of oaks are to be
found in the State, which is three more than occur in any
State to the north of this one, and two more than are to be
found in any State to the south; of the nine kinds of hickories
known to occur in the United States, eight have been found
in North Carolina; here are all six maples of the eastern
United States; all the lindens; all six of the American magno-
lias; three of the birches; eight pines out of eleven; both spe-
cies of hemlock and balsam-fir; three elms out of five; six
arborescent species of plum and cherry; and three of pyrus
(apple). .

The bleak and exposed mountain summits, bear forests of
trees which there find their southern limit, but extend north-
ward through northern New York and New England to Can-
ada. Such trees are the black spruce (the balsam), striped
and spiked maples, mountain sumac, which is really an apple,
balsam fir and aspen, all unless sheltered by other trees
or by, the slopes of the mountain above them, rugged and
dwarfed from the cold and constant wind to which they are
exposed.

‘The commercial forest trees are on the slopes of the moun-
tains and in the ravines and valleys. Some of these trees
have wide distribution to the north of North Carolina or to
the south of it, or in both directions, and some of them are

‘
OU Ey tr em.

7905] PRATT—APPALACHIAN ForEST RESERVE. 161

restricted in their distribution to North Carolina or to the
region around the southern Appalachian mountains,

The mossy cup, yellow and shingle oaks, white linden and
big shag-bark hickory, prominent trees of the central States,
extend as far to the southeast as central North Carolina;
while trees of the north, like hemlock, sugar or hard maple,
northern red oak, cherry, birch and white pine, and of the
northeast, like the pignut hickory, chestnut, northern pitch
pine aid balsam enter more or less largely into the composi-
tion of the forests of the western parts of the State.

Many trees of wide distribution, and among them some of
the most valuable, extend from this State in all directions,
the white, post, black, scarlet and Spanish oaks, the red and
white maples, the white hickory and brown heart and shag-
bark hickories, short-leaf pine, yellow poplar, red cedar, black
chetry, and black walnut. The cypress, water and willow
oaks, downy poplar, swamp-white oak (Q. Michauxii, Nutt.)
southern elm, and planer trees are trees having a great range
to the south and southwest. A few trees are found only in
this State, or extend but a short distance beyond its bound-
aries, the yellow-wood, the large-leafed umbrella tree, the
Carolina hemlock, the clammy locust, the last being entirely
confined to this State.

Altogether there are 153 kinds of woody plants, which form
a Simple upright stem and attaining arborescent proportions
growing naturally within the State; and of these over seventy
are trees of the first size, and fifty-seven are trees of great
economic value. Fourteen of these are known to attain in
this State a height of over 100 feet, three of them a height of
_ over 140 feet, sixteen of them reach in this State diameters of

five feet or over; and five reach diameters of seven feet or
over.

The areas of the other States included in the proposed For-
est Reserve also contain a large variety of trees and thus this
region contains the greatest variety of hard woods to be

162 JOURNAL OF THE MitcHE ii Socrery. (Dee.

found anywhere on the American Continent for it is here that
there is an intermingling of the sylvaof the north and south.
Here trees that are common to New England are found in
close proximity to those that are common to the more South-
ern States. Here is the largest area of virgin forests to be
found in the Southern Appalachian region. Here are trees
from five to ten fieet in diameter which often tower to a
height of 140 feet. The destruction of such a forest would
be an almost irreparable loss, for once destroyed it would
take generations for its restoration, with a great probability
of failure; and then again the chances are that it would not
be attempted. |

These areas of timber are being rapidly acquired by those
whose one object is to make the most profit possible out of
them at the present time with no thought for the future.
Many of the older countries, as Germany and England, have
suffered to such an extent by the destruction of their forests
that they, especially Germany, have begun already to take
measures to preserve their forests and to make them such
that they will be a constant source of lumber, and Germany
has shown that by her system these forest reserves become
self-supporting. England has become so depleted of her tim-
ber that she is obliged to import the greater part of her lum-
ber. ‘

The only remedy for the protection and preservation of our
forests is for the National Government to obtain possession
of them and to care for them by the application of scientific
methods.

Such a forest reserve under the management of trained for-
est experts will demonstrate how these forests can be perpet-
uated and at the same time be made to pay. Such an exam-
ple will have an influence on the several States and individ-
uals by encouraging them to practice forestry and to use
those lands for growing timber that are more suited for this
purpose than for farming industries, It will be an object les-

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eee)

1905) Pratr—APPALACHIAN Forest RESERVE. 163

son and a laboratory for those studying or interested in for-

. estry.

The acquirement of this land by the national government
for a forest reserve will not be setting a precedent for,
‘nearly 50,000,000 of acres of forest covered lands have been
set aside (in the Western States) as National Forest Reserves
and parks for the purposes of perpetuating a timber supply in
the Western States and territories and for preserving forever
the sources of their more important streams.” Thus what is
now proposed is not new either in principle or practice.
There are a number of reasons that can be given why this
should be a National Forest Reserve. First, the problems
and dangers that it is intended to meet are national; second,
this tract of land lies in several States and the streams that
rise in them flow through many States and it would be diffi-
cult, even if possible, for these States to control and operate
such a reserve successfully; third, these States are not so sit-
uated financially that they could even make the attempt to
carry out this plan. Thus if the forest reserve such as is
contemplated is established it must be done by the National
Government. The several States have conferred upon Con-
gress the necessary authority to acquire land within their
respective borders. These lands can at the present time be
purchased at a very reasonable price; but they are increasing
in value from year to year. While there are these fifty mil-
lions of acres in National Forest Reserves and Parks in the
West there is not a single National Forest Reserve in the
East. (There are a few State Reserves. )

The withdrawal of this large amount of land and putting it
into the hands of the Government will not prevent the devel-
opment of its other resources (mineral and agricultural) for
these can be developed as fast as capital desires but under the

judicial guidance of the Government and it is possible for

large industries to become established in them.
Besides being a forest reservation, this tract of land will
also be a large National Park, though this is a secondary

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164 JOURNAL OF THE Meee Sc ae ;
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