ir:.# i- ^Hf J I^rbraro of iht fflusntm OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY, AT HARVARD COLLEGE, CAllRRIDGE, DASS. The gift of tJa (^LXx [Ibdk/jdt No. II yUo. tip-^Mass^M^I'ii^U^ JOURNAL OF THE ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY, VOLUME X— PART FIRST. JANUARY— JUNE. 1893. POST-OFFICE CHAPEL HILL, N. C. E. M. UZZELIv, STEAM PRINTER AND BINDER, RAI.EIGH, N. C. 1893. OFFICERS. 1893. PRESIDENT: Joseph a. Hoi^mes, ------ Chapel Hill, N. C. FIRST VICE-PRESIDENT: H. L. Smith, Davidsou, N. C. SECOND vice-president: J. W. Gore, Chapel Hill, N. C. librarian: Collier Cobb, Chapel Hill, N. C. secretary and treasurer: F. P. Venable, Chapel Hill, N. C. library and place of meeting: CHAPEL HILL, N. C. TABLE OF CONTENTS. PAGE. Notes on the Forest Resources of North Carolina. W. W. Ashe 5 Notes on the Deflective Eff"ect of the Earth's Rotation as Shown in Streams. Collier Cobb 26 The Stone Arch. William Cain, C. E. 32 JOURNAL OF THE Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society, NOTES ON THE FOREST RESOURCES OF NORTH CAROLINA. BY W. \V. ASHE. BOTANIC DIVISIONS. North Carolina can be divided topographically into three fairl}- well-marked divisions: T. An eastern or coastal plain region, extending inland from the coast a distance of one hundred to one hundred and fifty miles and having an aggregate area approximat- ing 24,000 square miles. Its surface is that of a gently undulating plain of less elevation (ten to twenty feet above sea-level) and a more nearly level surface eastward, and becoming more elevated (three hundred to five hundred feet) and rolling along its western border. Its soil is gen- erally a sandy loam or sand, though in limited areas clav predominates. In the more eastern portion of this region are numerous extensive swamps or marsh areas surround- ing small lakes or bordering the streams. In some of these the soil is mainly an admixture of sand and vegetable mold, while in others it is a fertile loam. In this district the normal annual temperature is about 61° F.,. and the normal annual rain-fall about fiftv-five inches. a JOUKXAL OF THE 2. A middle district, which extends westward to the Blue Ridge, two hundred miles beyond the coastal plain, and extends across the State parallel to it, having an area of about 22,000 square miles. In the east it is rolling, but towards the western border is rugged and hilly, and in places ev^en mountainous, being penetrated by mountain spurs from the Blue Ridge. It has an average altitude of eio^ht hundred and fiftv to nine hundred feet, but rises at its highest peaks to a little over 3,000 feet, while along its extreme eastern border it is not over four hundred to five hundred feet. On the uplands the soil may be classed in o-eneral terms as a loam, which becomes sandv in some places and clayey in others. Along the streams there is usuallv a rich, dark-colored loam with an admixture of humus. This region has an average temperature of about 58.5° or 59° F. , and an annual rain-fall of about fifty inches. 3. The western district is an elevated, mountainous region, with an average altitude of 3,500 feet, but rising (at Mt. Mitchell) to 6,711 feet. This region includes the Blue Rido^e, which forms its general eastern boundary, and the Great Smoky Mountains, which border it on the west. Numerous cross ridges, separated by irregular valleys, con- nect these two mountain ranges. The area of the region is about 6,000 square miles. Though the mountain slopes are often steep, and the valleys quite narrow, the soil is exceedingly fertile, being a loam generally rich in organic matter. The average temperature for the counties of this western district probably approximate 50° F. , varying from 57.8° at Hot Springs to an estimated temperature for the top of Mt. Mitchell of less than 38°,* and the normal annual precipitation is about fifty-seven inches. There are three fairlv well-marked botanic divisions coin- *Climatolf)gy nf Sorth Carolina— N. C. Agr. Kxp. Sta. Report. Raleigh, 1892; p. 166. ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. / ciding in general with these topographic districts. The lower botanic division, however, extends a few miles west of the sandv coastal plain boundary line, and the third botanic division begins in the damp "coves'' and the higher mountain spurs lying just east and south-east of the Blue Ridge. It must not be inferred from the above statement that these botanic divisions are separated by any sharp lines on the two sides of which radically different conditions of soil and climate and vegetation exist, for while there are cer- tain places where these conditions do change abruptly, generally such is not the case; but, on the contrary, these divisions are separated by what may be called transition zones, in which the conditions of the two adjacent regions commingle to a greater or less degree. Thus in the fol- lowinor counties we find transition conditions between the eastern and middle districts: Northampton, Warren, Vance, Franklin, Durham, Wake, Chatham, Moore, Montgomery, Richmond and Anson. And the tier of counties just east of the Blue Ridtje ma\- be reg-arded as the transition zone between the western and middle botanic districts. Here in the valleys we find physical conditions and plants such as characterize the middle district, and on the slopes of the higher ridges are found a climate and vegetation much like those of the mountain district. These differences in topography and elevation, with accompanying differences in soil, corresponding in a general way to geological formations, have given this State a wonderful variety of woods, and have placed in juxtaposi- tion trees normally separated by many degrees of latitude. Thus are found in North Carolina eight species of pines out of the thirteen given in the Tenth United States Census Report as occuring in the United States east of the Missis- sippi River; twenty oaks out of twenty-three; all of the six maDles; three elms out of four; all seven magnolias; 8 JOURNAL OF THE five hickories out of eight, and four out of the six species of ash. Eastern District. — The eastern or low^er district, having its climate tempered by the near approach of the gulf-stream, has a decided southern or subtropical flora, as pronounced in the larger forest growth as among minor plants. The trees confined to this district, or but slightly entering the others, are: Magnolia grandiflora Z,.* (Mag- nolia); M. glaiica L. (Sweet Bay); Pntnus Caroliniana Ait. (Mock Orange); Biimclia lycioides Gcrrt.; Gordonia Lasi- antJius L. (Bull Bay); Nyssa aquatica L. (Black Gum); N. uniflora Walt. (Tupelo Gum); Tilia piibesccus Ait. (Linn.); Gary a aquatica Niitt.; Planera aquatica Gmel. (Planer Tree); Qiiei^cus laiirifolia Michx. (Laurel Oak); Q. cinera Michx. (High Ground Willow Oak); Q. virens Ait. (Live Oak); Q. aquatica /^^^//^v (Water Oak); Q. Catesbcei Michx. (Turkey Oak); Q. macrocarpa Michx. (Mossy Cup Oak); Q. lyrata Walt. (Over Cup Oak); Q. Michauxii Nutt. (Swamp White Oak); Pinus Australis Michx. (Long-leaved Pine); P. Taeda Linn. (Rosemary, Loblolly, or Short- leaved Pine); P. scrolina Michx. (Pond Pine or Savannah Pine); Ghamcecyparis sphcEvoidea Spach. (Juniper or White Cedar); Taxodium distichuni Rich. (Cypress); Sabal Pal- metto Todd. (Palmetto). Middle District. — In the middle section the prevail- ing growth is the hickories, oaks, elms, and short-leaved pines, common to all the Atlantic States, and these extend into the other sections and enter largely into the composi- tion of their forests. The common trees through this district are Magnolia umbrella Lam. (Umbrella Tree); Asimina triloba Dunal. (Papaw); Liriodendron Tulipifera L. (Yellow Poplar); Amelanchier Ganadcnsis L. (Sarvice); *The names used in this paper are, with few exceptions, those given in Curtis' IVoody Plants of North Carolina; Raleigh, i860. ELISHA MITCHELL .^lEXTIFIC SOCIETY. 9 Cornus Jiorida L. (Dogwood); GleditscJiia triacanthos L. (Honey Locust); Acer dasycarpinn EJirJi. (Silver Maple); A. riibriun L. (Red or Swamp Maple); Negiindo aceroides Moench. (Box Elder); Ilex opaca Ait. (Holly); Oxydendriim arboreiim D. C. (Sour Wood); Nyssa imiltijiora Wang. (Black Gum); Diospynis Virginiana L. (Persimmon); Frax- iniis Americana L. (White Ash); F. piibescens Lam. (Red Ash); F. viridis Michx. (Green Ash); Sassafras officinalle Nees. (Sassafras); Platanns occidentalis L. (Sycamore); Ulmiis fulva Michx. (Slippery Elm); U. Americana L. (Elm); U. alata Michx. (Winged Elm or Wahoo); Gary a alba Nntt. (Shell-bark Hickory); C. tomentosa Niitt. (Hickory); C. glabra Torr. (Pig Nut); C. viicrocarpa Nntt.; Jnglans nigra L. (Black Walnut); Qnercus phellos L. (Willow Oak); Q. nigra L. (Black Jack); Q. tinctoria Barr. (Black Oak); Q. coccinea Wang. (Scarlet Oak); Q. falcata Michx. (Spanish Oak); Q. obtusiloba Michx. (Post Oak); Q. alba L. (White Oak); Fagns ferriiginea Ait. (Beech); Carpinns Americana Michx. (Hornbeam); Ostrya rirginica Willd. (Iron Wood, Hop Hornbeam or Water Beech); Betula nigra L. (Black Birch); Salix nigra Mars. (Willow); Popnlns angnlata Ait. (Cotton Wood); P. hete- rophylla L.^ P. monilifera Ait., Pimis mitis Michx. (Short- leaved Pine); P. rigida Mill. (Pitch Pine); Juniperns Virginiana L. (Red Cedar). Mountain District. — In this district occur, as charac- teristic forest trees: Magnolia acitminata L. (Cucumber); M. macrophylla Michx. (Magnolia); M. Fraseri Walt. (Wahoo); Prnnns serotina Ehrh. (Wild Cherry); Robinia Pseudacacia L. (Locust); R. viscosa Vent. (Clammy Locust); Cladrastis tinctoria Raf. (Yellow Wood); Ilex mojiticola Gray; Fraxiniis Americana Linn. (White Ash); ^Fscnhis Jlava Ait. (Bucke\e); Tilia Americana L. (Linn.); T. heterophylla Vent. (Linn.); Halesia tetraptera L. (Snow- drop Tree); Stuartia pentagyna F Her.; Betula In tea Michx. i{^\ .lor UNA L OF Till': (Yellow Birch); B. leuta L. (Sweet Birch); Ouerais im- bricaria Michx. (Water Oak); Q. rubra L. (Red Oak); Q. prinus L. (Chestnut Oak); Castanea vesca L. (Chestnut); Popiihis grandidcntata Michx. (Aspen); Pimts pungens Michx. (Table Mountain Pine); P. Strobus L. (White Pine); Abies Fraseri Lindl. (Balsam Fir or She Balsam); Tsiiga Canadensis Carr. (Hemlock); T. Caroliniana Eiigel. (Hemlock); Picea nigra Link. (Black Spruce or He Balsam). In addition to the above there are to be found in one or more of the botanical divisions of the State over two hundred minor trees, shrubs and vines of more or less value for fruit culture or floriculture, etc. There are four species of grape ( \ If is aestivalis^ J \ labrusca^ I \ viilpina^ \\ cordifoiia)^ from the first three of which cultivated varie- ties have sprung. There are also found in these several sections of the State several hundred herbs, various parts of which are extensively used for medicinal purposes, a discussion of the more important of which will appear in a future number of the Journal. ECONOMIC WOODS. In the above statement a small number of the trees named as occurring in the different regions have timber of but lit- tle value, owing to a lack of strength and durability, and are of such small size as to have little economic value, and there are a few others of such infrequent occurrence as to be commercially unimportant. But in each region there are many valuable forest trees, and the following notes will * contain a brief statement of their distribution, abundance, size, and uses: Magnolia acuminata L. (Cucumber): Two to four feet in diameter, eighty to one hundred and twenty feet high. Frequent in the upper district with Yellow Poplar. Not over 5,000,000 feet standing in the fifteen counties through which its distribution extends. Has the same use as Yel- low Poplar. ELISHA MITCHPZLL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 11 J/. Fraseri Walt. (Wahoo) is a small tree, one to two feet in diameter. Very common in western district; used medicinally, rarely for lumber; very ornamental. Liriodendron Tiilipifera L. (Yellow Poplar): Four to eight feet in diameter, one hundred to one hundred and twenty feet high. Occurs in all districts; very common in western. Lumber is used in building verv extensively, for interior wood-w^ork and cheap furniture. The chief bodies standing are in Watauga, Yancey, Mitchell, Swain, north- ern Graham, ]\Iacon, Jackson, Transylvania, Wilkes and Alleghany. Altogether there is 50,000,000 feet of poplar lumber in these counties. The trees have been removed adjacent to the large rivers and around towns, as it is the building material of this section. Still abundant in the western tier of the midland counties, except along the railroads. Tilia Americana L. (Linn.): A middle-sized tree, fre- quent in the higher mountains and mixed with T. Jietero- pliylla Vent. (Linn.), which is very common throughout the mountains, except around thick settlements, where it has been cut in winter, so cattle could feed upon its buds. Very abundant in Swain, Jackson, Macon, Transylvania, Yan- cey, Mitchell, W^atauga and Ashe. The w^ood is light, soft and white; rarely sawn for ceiling. It is useful for making paper. T. pubescens Ait. (Linn.): Very frequent in rich alluvial places along the coast. Same uses and character as the above species, but smaller. .^scnlus Jiava Ait. (Buckeye): Very abundant as a large tree on damp soil throughout the mountain district. It is not used commercially except around Bryson City, Swain county, where it is manufactured into excelsior. Acer saccharhinum Wang. (Sugar ]\Iaple or Sugar I'ree): Very common throughout all mountain counties, where it reaches a height of ninety to one hundred feet and a diame- 12 JOURNAL OF THE ter of three to four feet; and it is found also in the swamps of Pender and Onslow and in low grounds of other eastern counties. It has been cut to a small extent for floorino and furniture, and in the northern counties small quanti- ties of sugar are made from the sap. A. dasycarpitm Ehrh. (White or Silver Maple): A small tree, rarely more than two feet in diameter, sparsely dis- tributed in all portions of the State, usually in moist places; more abundant in the mountain counties. A. rubrum L. (Red or Swamp Maple): Tree two to three feet through and rarely sawn, and then for ceiling; abun- dant, especially in moist places, in all portions of the State. Robinia Pseudacacia L. (Yellow Locust): Once very com- mon through the mountain counties, though it has been very largely used up for posts in thickly settled regions. It is still widely distributed and abundant in Rutherford, Polk and other south-western counties, and occurs spar- ingly in the middle district. In Haywood and Swain there are factories making from it insulating pins for telegraph poles. The trees are one and one-half to two and one-half feet in diameter; sixty to eighty feet high. The wood is yellow, hard, and resists exposure and decay. Cladraslis tinctoria Raf. (Yellow Wood): A small tree, one and one-half feet in diameter; forty to sixty feet high, with a deep yellow hard wood; it is mostly confined to rich "coves" of Graham, Macon, Clay and Cherokee counties, but is very frequent through these. It has been used in Cherokee county for making furniture. Pruniis serotina Ehrh. (Wild Cherry): Occurs all over the State, but only in the mountain counties does it reach sufficient size and abundance to become a valuable timber tree. There in rich, cold "coves" it becomes a tree two to four feet in diameter and eighty to one hundred feet high. It is a fine-grained, medium hard, red wood, taking a fine ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 13 polish; laro^ely used for furniture and interior work of all kinds, and is one of the first trees removed, when easily accessible, on account of its high value. Large quantities of it still remain in certain regions, as in the north-western part of Ashe county and around Grandfather, Beech and Roari mountains. About the head-waters of Caney river there are probably 1,000,000 feet standing; in north Swain, especially on Ocona-Lufty River, about 3,000,000 to 4,000,- 000 feet; small quantities are found in other mountain regions; and in the north "coves" of the east slope of the Blue Ridge there is still some cherrv timber remainino^. Amelauchier Canadensis L. (Sarvice): Occurs abundantly in the mountains, where it is a small tree, and is used there in turneries in some of the towns. Hamamelis l^irginica L. (Witch Hazel): A shrub or small tree, very common throughout the middle and upper districts. It is use medicinally. Liquidambaj' Sty racif alia L. (Red or Sweet Gum) is com- mon throughout the middle and lower districts, becoming in the swamps and low grounds of the latter a very large tree, four to five feet in diameter and ninety to one hundred feet high. It forms with c}-press and black gum about one- half of the growth of the deeper swamps in many portions of the eastern counties, and has been cut out in only a few places, as around Bladenboro, Wilmington, Newbern, Goldsboro, Hub, and in limited portions of Northampton, Perquimans, Pasquotank and Camden counties. The wood is hard and heavy, fine-grained, red; used for furniture. Cornus Jiorida L. (Dogwood) is common over the whole State. It is a small tree, with hard, compact, white wood; has been largely removed in many portions of the middle district, around larger towns, for shuttle-blocks, etc. Nyssa niultiflora Wang. (Black Gum): A middle-sized tree, found all over the State, in all soils. Its wood is very compact, with fibers interwoven, and is rarely used, except occasionally for hubs, mallets, etc. 2 14 JOURNAL OV THE N. aquatica L. (Black Gum) is a very large tree, four to five feet in diameter, common throughout deep swamps of the lower district. The wood and its uses are much the same as A^. multifiora. Nyssa iinifiora WalL (Tupelo Gum): A medium-sized tree, common in deep swamps in the section along and south of Neuse river. Its wood is very light, white, but with fibers interwoven as in the other species, and hence is very difficult to split, tasteless; used for wooden-ware of all kinds. Very little has been removed and only in a few counties. Oxydcndrnni arborcum D. C. (Sour Wood) is a small tree, very common through mountains and the middle dis- trict. Its wood is firm, fine-grained and of reddish color, and is being used for making certain parts of furniture — chair rounds and legs, newel posts, balisters, etc. Kahuia latifolia L. (Ivy): A large shrub, very common in mountains, growing generally in dense thickets; its matted roots, forming large "stools or burls," are gotten out around Cranberry, Elk Park, Magnetic City, and in several counties south of the French Broad river, and used for making tobacco pipes, handles, etc., and the branches are used for rustic furniture. The wood is hard and fine- grained. Ilex optica Ait. (Holly) is a small tree one to two and one-half feet in diameter; common in wet, sandy soils of lower district, but found also in the other districts. The wood is very fine-grained and white; it has been largely removed in the north-east counties, but has not been touched in the south-eastern counties. Diospyros Virginiana A. (Persimmon): A small tree with very hard, tough wood. It is common through the eastern and middle counties, but has been largely removed from Wilkes, Surry, Caldwell, McDowell, Lincoln, Ca- tawba, Guilford, F'orsyth and Union counties, being used in the manufacture of shuttle-blocks. ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 15 Fraxinus Americana L. (White Ash) was once common in wet or damp places over the entire State. A large tree two to four feet in diameter and eighty to one hundred feet high. Its wood is white, very elastic, and strong; and in the western counties it is used for making wagons, fur- niture, and especially the curled wood. In the eastern counties it is used for oars, barrel heads, and lumber. In the middle district it is used for making paper and lumber and furniture. It has largely been removed from the fol- lowing mountain counties: Ashe, west Yancev, south Madison, Buncombe, Haywood, north Jackson and north Macon, Graham (except along Tuskeegee creek), Cherokee and Henderson. Has been removed in middle district when accessible to railroads and larger streams. F. platycarpa Michx. (Water Ash) is abundant in many of the larger swamps of lower district, to w^hich it is confined. The counties of Pender, Sampson, Hyde and Pamlico still have very large bodies, but it has been removed where turpentine orchards have been worked. F. viridis Michx. (Green Ash) and F. piibescens Lam. (Red Ash) are middle-sized trees, found only in middle dis- trict and used for lumber and making paper. Along lines of transportation they have been largely removed, but in inaccessible places they are still abundant. Carya alba Xutt. (Shag-bark Hickory) is frequent in the middle and upper districts. C. amara Xiilt. (Bitter-nut Hickory) is common in wet places in the upper districts. C. glabra Torr. (Pig-nut Hickory) abounds in dry soils in all portions of the State. C. tomentosa Nutt. (Common Hickory) is very common in dry soils through the lower and middle districts. All of these hickories have been cut away, more or less, around towns for fire-wood, and for the manufacture of spokes, handles, and wagon material, especially around laree towns in the middle district. 16 JOURNAL OF THE Juglaus nigra L. (Black Walnut) is largely removed in all niouiitain counties, except Wilkes and Madison and in a few other counties where.it has been especially preserved on limited areas; and in neither of these counties is it very abundant, though there are many trees of large size. It is also found occasionally in many counties of the middle and lower districts, at a distance from means of transporta- tion, but it is there a tree of medium size. J. ciiicra L. (Butter Nut) is frequent in most mountain counties and extends but a short distance below the moun- tains. The curly wood is used for furniture and interior finish. Qiierais alba L. (Whijte Oak) and Q. ohtiisiloba MicJix. (Post Oak) are common over the whole State except in the extreme east, although they have been largely removed in middle district for fuel, cross-ties, wagon material, staves and lumber. But large quantities yet remain, and a vig- orous second growth of equal density and strength to the original is coming on, so that it appears that there will be an abundance of both at all times over the larger part of the State. Q. Tine tori a Bartr. (Black Oak), Q. cocci nea Wang. (Scarlet Oak), and Q. falcata Michx. (Spanish Oak) are all most abundant in the middle district on dry soil. They are generally not used where good white oak can be obtained; rarely used for staves and wagon material; more frequently for fence rails, furniture and clap-boards. Q. viacrocarpa Miclix. (Mossy-cup Oak), Q. Lyrata Walt. (Over-cup Oak), and Q. Michauxii Niitt. (Swamp White Oak) all occur in swamps of the eastern section, and where contiguous to large turpentine orchards have been used for staves, and they are also used to some extent for rails, clap- boards, etc. Q. laiirifolia Michx. (Laurel Oak) and Q. aqitatica Gates. (Water Oak) are trees still very common in lower districts, ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFK" SOCIETY. 17 where they are rarely used, except for rails, the timber being open and porons. Q. Rubra L. (Red Oak) occurs in the cool, fertile soils of the middle and mountain districts, and sparingly in the eastern counties. It reaches, under favorable conditions, a diameter of four feet and a height of seventy to eighty feet; the wood is reddish, open, and rather coarse grain, but strong, and is used extensively for clap-boards, cooperage, and articles of furniture. Q. imbricaria Michx . (Water Oak, Laurel Oak or Shin- gle Oak) is infrequent, occurring only in counties west of the Blue Ridge; a medium size tree, with rather open, porous wood, rarely used, where better material can be obtained, for clap-boards, staves, etc. Q. Priniis L, (Chestnut Oak) is common on dry ridges through mountain and more elevated parts of the middle section. It is used for furniture, wagon material, and the bark is used for tannin or. It has been lars^elv removed around Cranbury, Asheville and Morganton. Castanea vesca L. (Chestnut) is very abundant through all mountain regions and is found sparingly in some of the Piedmont counties, though the best trees have in many places been removed for rails. It is sawn for lumber at Dillsboro and Asheville, and has been removed largely from Graham, Ashe and Buncombe counties. Popiilus graudidentaia Michx. (Poplar), P. heterophylla L. (Cotton Wood), P. angiilata Ait. (Cotton Wood), and P. monilifera L. (Cotton Wood): All except the first occur frequently in lower or middle districts,, though in the neigh- borhood of turpentine orchards they have been used for making barrel heads. The first named species is confined to the upper part of the middle district. Of the eight pines occurring in this State five are of the first economic importance. They are Piniis Strobiis L. (White Pine), P. australis Michx. (Long-leaved Pine), 18 JOURNAL OF THE P. Taeda L. (Short-leaved or Old Field Pine), P. rigida Mill. (Black Pine), and P. niitis MicJix. (Short-leaved or Yellow Pine). P. scroti na Michx. is very rarely used. P. puiigcjis and P. inops Ait are practically worthless for tim- ber purposes. P. Strobus L. (White Pine) extends in a narrow belt alonsr the Blue Ridoe from southern Ashe to Macon, also occurs in Graham, north Haywood, and adjacent parts of Madison, and in northern Madison and western Mitchell. It is locally used for shingles. Has been removed only around Marion, in parts of Jackson, Transylvania and Macon counties. P. australis Michx. (Long-leaved or Turpentine Pine) extends over a large part of the sandy land of the lower district, but occurs only sparingly north of Roanoke river and west of Wake and Richmond counties. It formerly existed as a pure forest over the sandy lands of this area. But the inroads which have been made through it for the past century to supply naval store products, ship timber and build- incr material have removed or destroyed most of the forest adjacent to the railroads and immediately along the larger water courses. The largest bodies still standing are in Montgomery, Sampson, Robeson, Harnett, Cumberland, Johnston and Richmond counties. Large bodies of virgin pine forest are rare except along the extreme western bor- der of the pine belt. /-: Taeda L. (Rosemary, Loblolly, Short-leaved or Old Field Pine) is found over the whole of the eastern district, but growing originally on wet clay lands and often form- ing considerable clumps in small swamps. When the long-leaved pine is removed this species takes its place on the sandy land and is there called old field pine. In its original growth in swampy places it is decidedly the largest pine in the State, having a height of one hundred to one hundred and twenty feet and a diameter of from three to five feet. Here it has a fine, even grain, heart very large, ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 19 with but little resin, and a strong, durable wood. The high price paid for large stocks for ship material causes its removal where accessible, even in advance of P. aiistralis; but it is still abundant where transportation facilities at pres- ent are not suitable for its removal. Its second growth on dry, sandy land is a smaller tree, sappy, with very coarse grain, and little or no heart, the wood decaying rapidly on exposure; but as it makes a beautiful wood for interior finish it is largely sawn around large towns and kiln-dried for that use. The general character of the trees growing on drv, sandy soils is so different from that of those growing about the wet lands that the two trees are usually (though erroneously) believed by lumbermen to belong to different species. P. serotinn Michx. is common over wet lands in the south- east counties and is sometimes sawn with P. Taeda; but the lumber is gummy and of poor quality. P. miiis Michx, (Short-leaved or Yellow Pine), formerly common over the whole area of the middle district and extends through the southern part of the mountain district, being mixed with deciduous trees. It has been largely removed for lumber around the larger towns and thick set- tlements, and along the lines of the railways; and through Catawba, Lincoln and Gaston counties large quantities of it have been cut and used for making charcoal. Wilkes, Caldwell, Alexander and Rutherford counties contain the finest bodies of this timber to be found in the middle dis- trict. This tree frequently reaches two to three feet in diameter and seventy to eighty feet high. - P. rigida Mill. (Black or Pitch Pine) is a tree slightly smaller than the preceding and making inferior lumber, but largely used along with it. Surry, Wilkes, Caldwell, Burke, McDowell and Polk counties contain the larger part of what is known to occur east of the Blue Ridge; but there is also a great deal in the mountain counties south of the French Broad river. 20 JOUKXAL OF THE Tsiega Canadensis Carr. (Hemlock) is a large tree; abun- dant in moist regions through nearly all of the mountain counties. It has only been removed in northern Mitchell, where it has been barked for tanning purposes, and along the Little Tennessee river. T. Caroliniana Engcl. (Hemlock) is frequent on ridges along the Blue Ridge from eastern Ashe to Macon. It has been cut in only a few localities, for frames for houses, etc. Picea nigra IJnk. (Black Spruce or He Balsam) forms twenty square miles of virgin forest in Watauga, Mitchell, Yancey, Haywood and Swain counties. Has been cut only in some places about Roan mountain. It is a tree of three feet in diameter and sixty to ninety feet high. Abies Fraseri Lijidl. (Balsam, or She Balsam) covers the summit of the highest mountain peaks. CJiamcEcyparis sphceroidea SpacJi. (Juniper or White Cedar) occurs in many of the large swamps in the eastern district, especially in Harnett, Tyrrell, Gates and most of the other extreme eastern and north-eastern counties. It has been largely removed from Pasquotank, Perquimans and Camden counties, and about the larger eastern towns. It is a medium-sized tree and is very valuable for making pails, tanks, boats, shingles, etc., for which purposes it is largely used. Taxodiuni disticJuim Rich. (C\-press) occurs abundantly in the swamps of the eastern section. It has been worked up around larger towns and in the north-eastern counties of Currituck, Perquimans, Hertford and Camden. It is a very large tree, four to five feet through and from eighty to more than one hundred feet hifrh. Its wood is light, and is used largely for lumber, shingles and boats, and to a small extent for furniture. Sabal Palmetto Lodd. (Palmetto) occurs somewhat abundantly on Smith's Island, at the mouth of the Cape Fear river. It is a small tree about one foot ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 21 ill diameter and thirty or forty feet high. It has been fonnd to serve an excellent purpose for piling, and this is about the only use to which it has been put. Jiinipenis l^irgiuiana L. (Red Cedar) is a common but rather small tree throughout the State, but most abundant in the south-eastern counties. It is used mainly for boxes and posts. Transportation Facilities. — Railroads penetrate the State in every direction, there being but few counties which are not touched by them. For marine shipment material from all north-eastern counties goes readily by way of Norfolk. For counties drained by the Tar and Neuse New- bern is the natural shipping point, while for the whole southern and central sections Wilmington is the central point, vessels drawing over twenty feet being able to enter its harbor. Accessibility of Existing Forests. — While there is no large bod\- of timber in the State valueless on account of its inaccessibility, there are many so situated that removal is not feasible with the existing means of transportation. But the experience of the past ten years is sufficient to prove that these large bodies of virgin forests to be found in the State will be penetrated by railroads in the near future, as the demand for the timber increases. The hard wood forests in some of the counties west of the Blue Ridge are naturally tributary to Tennessee, and the timber in the form of logs is being removed by floating down the creeks and rivers with the aid of flood dams. Many of these mountain streams are of sufficient size and rapidity to afford ample means for logging. East of the Blue Ridge tracts not adjacent to large streams or railroads are being reached by short timber roads. A number of such roads are now in operation and others are being constructed. In the eastern district, on pine lands where the country is flat, wooden and iron tramways are laid to be operated by horse- 3 ' . 22 JOURNAL OF THE power or narrow gnage steam engines. In the eastern swamps, to get at the c\'press, white cedar and other trees, the plan adopted by larger companies is to dig canals by hand or with dredges parallel to the drainage streams of the swamps. The logs are floated through these canals to some central point and there worked up. FOREST MANAGEMENT. Up to within the past few years forest management in North Carolina was deemed quite a useless business, but lately prudent individuals have placed large estates under foresters, one of whom was trained in European schools of forestry. As yet, however, this is little more than an experiment. During the past two years the North Carolina Geological Survey has made a careful examination of the forests of the State with a view to the inauguration of modern methods of forest management, and the securing of such laws as will best encourage forest protection and improvement. During the present year (1893) the Survey, recognizing the fact that the long-leaved pine {P. palustris Miller^ or P. australis Michx.)^ a most valuable tree in this State, does not, under the existing conditions, extensively reproduce itself, has begun an examination of the causes operating against its increase and means by which it can be planted and economically cultivated, so as to make use of the waste lands formerly entirely occupied by this tree but now bar- ren or covered with the loblolly pine {Pi'nits Tadea L.). Experiments are now under way for the purpose of deter- mining the relative fertility of its seed as compared with those of other pines; causes why other species are so widely disseminated over cleared lands, while the long-leaved pine does not appear to be so; methods of planting, rais- ing and protecting young pines; insects and fungous ene- ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 23 inies, and the damage done to the young pines by hogs, cat- tle, fires, etc. WOOD-WORKIXG ESTABLISHMENTS. A few facts, taken largely from the "Hand-Book" of North Carolina,* concerning wood-working establishments should be stated in this connection. Although little of the lumber sawn in North Carolina, other than for build- ings, is worked up in the State, yet the number of wood- working factories is constantly on the increase. The most numerous concerns are manufactories of carriages and buggies. "Of these xVlamance county has two, Alexander two, x\she one, Beaufort one, Bertie three, Caldwell one, Chatham one, Cleveland one, Cumberland tw^o, Davidson two, Durham one, Forsyth six, Gates two, Guilford two, Haywood one, Halifax one, Hertford three, Lenoir two, Lincoln two, Moore two, Pasquotank one, Randolph two, Sampson two, \^ance one, Wake one, Warren three, Wash- ington three, Wilkes two, Wilson one, Yadkin four — in all fifty-eight, established in thirty out of the ninety-six counties of the State, and representing every section in it. Among them there is wide range of excellence, defined and governed largely by experience and time. Man}' of them are new, the product of the new industrial revolu- tion. A few are old and are meritorious, not only for the character of the work done by them, but because of the courage and foresight which gave them existence far in advance of similar enterprises in the State. "Not less important, and of much wider application, is the manufacture of wagons, carts, etc., conducted by thirty- two different establishments in almost the same number of counties, as follows: Alamance has one, Alexander two, Anson three, Cabarrus one, Caldwell one, Catawba one, ^Hand-Book of North Carolina — Raleigh, 1893, pp. 273-275. 24 JOURNAL OF THE Clav one, Cleveland one, Cumberland two, Pamlico one, Pender one, Rutherford one, Surry one, Stanly one. Wake three, Yadkin one. One of the largest of these is at Waugh- town, near Winston-Salem, founded in 1834. Another large one is at Hickory." "Of furniture factories, there are twenty-five, of which one is in Ashe, three in Buncombe, one in Davie, two in Forsyth, one in Gaston, two in Guilford, one in Henderson, three in Lincoln, one in Macon, one in Martin, one in Mecklenburg, one in Montgomery, one in Moore, two in Rowan, one in Surry, one in Wake, one in Wayne, and one in Yadkin. "For the making of hubs, spokes, and handles there are six factories, viz. : Bertie has one, Guilford one, Mecklen- burg one, Montgomery one, Rowan one, Rutherford one. "Of sash, door and blind factories there are twenty- four, viz. : Buncombe has two, Burke one, Cabarrus one, Caldwell one, Catawba two, Davidson two, Durham one, Forsyth one, Gaston one, Guilford three, Johnston one. Rowan three, Stanly one, Surry one. Wake two, Wilkes one. "Of another variety of wood-working factories is that at Newbern for the manufacture of plates and dishes made out of sweet-gum, and also berry baskets. "At Wilmington a somewhat similar establishment was operated by steam and employed one hundred and twenty- five people. The material chiefly used is gum logs, and the product is butter plates and baskets, berry baskets and crates. "Of the other simpler and ruder establishments for the conversion of the product of the forest there are, as nearly as can be ascertained, in operation in the State one hundred and fourteen steam saw-mills, eighty turpentine distilleries (undoubtedly below the actual number); and, as largely connected with the products of the forest, a very large ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFK" SOCIETY. ZO number of tanneries, the best and largest equipped of which is the one at ]\Iorganton, constructed and conducted on the most advanced scientific application of theory to intelli- gent practice. ''In connection with paper manufacture it may be said that originally using only the w^aste of textile fabrics, the immensely increased consumption of paper demanded other raw material, for the supply of which human ingenuity was heavily taxed. The additional material has been found in wood-pulp, mechanically or chemically prepared. The abundance in North Carolina of soft woods suitable for such purposes has led largely to the combination of wood- pulp with cotton, flaxen and hempen fiber; and the facto- ries now in operation in the State are able to supply as good a material for book, printing and wrapping paper as can be made elsewhere. There are three principal paper-mills in North Carolina — that at Salem, in Forsyth county, at Falls of the Neuse, in Wake county, and at Long Shoals, in Lincoln. The product of these mills is bristol-board, writing paper, book and newspaper, and wrapping paper of all kinds." XoTE. — On page 6, six lines from the bottom, •approximate" should read approxi- mates. And on page ii, eleven lines from the top, '•50,000.000" should be 500,000,000. 26 JOURNAL OF THE NOTES ON THE DEFLECTIVE EFFECT OF THE EARTH^S ROTATION AS SHOWN IN STREAMS. BY COLLIER COBB. So early as 1837, Poisson produced his general equations for determining the influence of the earth's attraction and rotation on the apparent motion of a projectile, and he applied them to the case of a material point constrained to move on a given curve and attached to the surface of the earth, omitting the effects of friction and the resistance of the air. In 1859, Ferrel published in Riinkle^ s Mathematical MontJily his celebrated paper on the Motions of Fluids and Solids on the Earth'' s Surface^ in which he stated that, "In whatsoever direction a body moves on the surface of the earth, there is a force arising from the earth's rotation which deflects it to the right in the northern hemisphere, but to the left in the southern." Karl E. von Baer, in a paper, Ueber ein allgenieines Gesets in der Gestaltitng der Flussbetten^ published in the bulletin of the Imperial Academy of Sciences of St. Peters- burg, in i860, showed that the observed changes of posi- tion in streams might be explained as a consequence of the earth's rotation ; yet the makers of our scientific text- books have not taken the pains to give a correct, or rather, a complete, statement of the true value of this deflective force. Dana states it clearly and correctly in his Manual of Geology;* but Geikief speaks of it as an easterly^ a westerly deflection, seeming to regard it as a getting left behind, and the same expression is used by ReclusJ in speaking of the rivers of Gers. Von Baer's explanation does not account for the fact that Third edition, p. 650. fThird edition, 1S93, pp. 15, 16. % La France, pp. 115, 116. ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 2i rivers flowing east or west have their banks worn away in the same manner as those flowing north or south. \ bod>' at rest upon the earth, and free to move in any direc- tion upon it, ''is maintained in equilibrium by attraction directed towards the earth's center, and centrifugal force directed away from the axis. If the centrifugal force ceased, the body would evidently move towards the nearest pole as down a hill. From the poles to the equator m.ay therefore be regarded as uphill — bodies free to move being prevented from going down towards the poles by centrifu- gal force. Suppose now a body to move from f^est to east — that is, in the same direction as the earth revolves; the centrifugal force of the body is increased, and there is a tendency to move uphill towards the equator. If the motion be from east to west, the centrifugal force is dimin- ished and the body tends towards the pole. In each case the tendency is towards the right in the northern hemi- sphere and towards the left in the southern."* Admitting the sufficiency of the terrestrial rotation for the deflection of streams, we must look for our examples to those regions where the strata are essentially horizontal and horizontally homogeneous. McGee, in his paper on the geology of the Chesapeake Bay, says: "It may be noted in passing that, throughout its gorge, the Susquehanna River hugs its left shore the more closely, and apropos to the hypothesis of the dextral deflection of rivers by terres- trial rotation (commouly known in Europe as Baer's law), specifically applied by Kerr to the water-ways of the Mid- dle Atlantic slope, and recently discussed in more general terms by Gilbert, Davis, Hendricks, Bains, and others, it may be mentioned that the difi'erent water-ways of the Mid- dle Atlantic slope are not only inconsistent in their behav- ior at and above the fall-line, but in many cases the same stream has not behaved uniformly since the excavation of its gorge was initiated, "f * A C. Bains, in a paper read before the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, New Zealand, October 4, 1877. t Seventh annual report of the Director of the United States Geological Survey, p. 554. 28 .lOUKXAL OF THE McGee's objection is done away with by the fact that the Susquehanna River is not situated in a region of the required horizontal homogeniety, and tliat if it now shows a preference for its left bank, that preference is probably an inheritance from the time when the favoring conditions did exist, before its superimposition upon the Wiconisco and Tuscarora-IMahanoy synclines, when the course of the river was the reverse of what it is now, and its present left bank was its right bank.* Turning now to the regions of horizontal homogeniety, we see that their streams all show this right or left deflec- tion, according as they are north or south of the equator. Such a region is that where the phenomenon was first observed, in the middle and lower courses of the Volga. Here all of the conditions are most favorable; the river has a considerable length of course, and the mass of water is powerful enough to clear away any obstacles; ''there are enormous floods which periodically increase the force of erosion in the currents, and the cliffs are composed of fria- ble rocks, "t Two centuries ago the principal mouth of the Volga flowed directly to the east of Astrakhan; since that time the great current has successively hollowed out for itself fresh beds, tending more and more to the right, and at the present day the branch navigated by vessels turns to the south-south-west. The Volga, up to its near approach to the sea, has a high right bank, and the erosion- valley, which slopes gently on the left, is bounded by rather abrupt cliffs on the right. Fic. I.— The Volga and the Rwjaga. *See Rivers and Valleys of Pennsylvania, W. M. Davis, National Geographic Maga- zine, Vol. I, p. 47, 1S89. fVon Baer. ELLSHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 29 In the diagram, which is taken from von Baer, we have at X the Volga. Its left bank is flat, or only gently slop- ing; the right rises irregularly to a considerable height and falls down on the other side, not nearly so far to the river Rwjaga at Y, and then rises slowly again. The Volga is flowing from the observer, and the Rwjaga towards him, and there is barely room for a habitation between them, "where it depends upon the wdiims of the kitchen maids w^hether the dish-water which is daily poured out flows immediately into the \^olga, or whether it reaches the same destination in a round-about course of four hundred versts. This statement may seem exaggerated, but it is literally true."* Fig. II. — Rivers of Gers, Scale, 1:150,000.1 In the southern part of France, in the province of Gers, we have a gently sloping plain, an old river delta that has been lifted up, where streams can flow off in every direc- tion down the slope, and take such courses as they may. Here the right-hand tendency is shown to perfection. The streams have their longer tributaries on the left, and their right banks rise in bluffs. *Von Baer, St. Petersb. Bull. Sci. II., 1S60, col. 230. tFrom la Carte d' Etat- Major, reprinted in Reclus's Nouvelle Geographie Univer- selle. 2. 30 .lOUKNAL OF THE Turning to the United States and selecting a few places where the necessary horizontal homogeniety is found, we have no trouble in pointing out examples. "The south side of the island of Long Island is a plain of remarkable evenness, descending with gentle inclination from the moral nic ridge of the interior to the Atlantic Ocean. It is crossed by a great number of small streams which have excavated shallow valleys in the homogeneous modified drift of the plain. Each of these little valleys is limited on the west or right side by a bluff from ten to twenty feet high, while its general slope on the left side merges imper- ceptibly with the general plain. The stream in each case follows closely the bluff at the right."* The peculiar to- pography of the east- ern portion of the Carolinas, where the necessary conditions exist, has been point- ed out by Tuomey and by Kerr. Here the streams have cut through the Quater- nary and Tertiary formations, and well into the Cretaceous, and in every instance they present the high right bank, with the ow sloping country on the left; and, as may be seen by the sketch-map, the tributaries of the Roanoke, the Tar, Map of a PORTION Of HoRTH Car^olina Fig. III. (;. K. (Gilbert. Am. Joiir. Set. 3d xxvii. 431. ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC S(3CIETY 31 the Neuse, and the Cape Fear run well back to the streams lying to the northward. In the case of these streams the dip of the strata is not such as to aid in the making of the Such conditions are represented in Fig- right bank higher Fig VI. ure IV. In Figure V the arrangement of the strata is such as to hinder rather than help the deflective effect of rota- tion; and yet this is the structure of the Carolina region, as shown in Figure VI, which is taken from Kerr.* But the rocks here are imperfectly lithified, and so friable as to yield readily to the influence. The Mississippi River does not act consistently through- out its course, but in most instances its right bank is higher except where the prevailing winds are from the north-w^est. At Burlington, Iowa, the east or left side is low, and the trains of the C. , B. & Q. Railroad reach the bridge over embankments and trestle-work, but run directly into the town on the high right bank of the river. x\t Dubuque just the opposite conditions exist. Turning to regions south of the equator, we find in the plains of Canterbury, New Zealand, the requisite condi- tions. The Rakaia River cuts through Quaternary strata and into late Tertiary, and its left bank is its steeper bank. This is also shown in all the rivers entering Tasman Bay through strata of the same age, and there are doubtless many other cases in the same region. I have not at hand the maps and geological report for that region. * Geology- of Xorth Carolina, Vol. I, 1875, p. 10. 32 JOURNAL OF THE Those who are familiar with the map of South America, where the older rocks have been decomposed for great depths /;/ situ^ and where the }Ounger rocks are but imper- fectly lithified over great areas, must recall the fact that nearly all the streams have their longer tributaries on the right, showing a left-hand deflection of the main streams. The cases cited serve my purpose of showing that wher- ever the conditions permit the influence of the earth's rota- tion is perceptible. THE STONE ARCH. BY WILLIAM CAIN, C. E. The theory of the voussoir arch has long exercised the ingenuity of mathematicians, and it may prove interesting, before giving the results of some recent investigations by the writer, to give brief statements of some of the leading theories that have been proposed, from time to time, as indicating the path followed in such original investigations. As we should naturally expect, the theories proceed from the simplest, where the arch is assimilated in its action to a wedge, to the most complex, where the deformation of each individual stone under stress is considered. In most of the theories hitherto proposed the arch is regarded as inelastic and the stones infinitely strong, so that the resultant thrust of one part of the arch against another can take place along the very edge of a joint with- out crushing ensuing. These simple hypotheses unfortunately do not express the actual conditions, which involve the consideration of the elasticity of all the materials entering into the con- struction of the arch, the fit of the stones, thickness and ELISHA MITCHELL SCIEXTIFIC SOCIETY. 33 degree of hardness of the morter joints (if any), settlement and time of striking of the centers, the manner in which the loads are transmitted to the arch ring, the relative density of the various stones, and finally the dynamic effect of moving loads. The true conditions are thus seen to be so complex as to make the true solution of the stone arch one of the most difficult, if not the most difficult, in all the range of the application of the laws of mechanics to engineering structures. The latest theory, given further on, includes the most essentia] of the conditions just outlined, but not all of them; so that it is not proposed as a final and complete solu- tion of the problem, but as one sufficiently near to make the results of decided practical value, approximating to the exact trutli, as the hypotheses are more nearly realized in the construction of the arch ring. Recurring now to earlier theories of the arch, Lahire, at the beginning of the last century, considered that the arch would break along "joints of rupture," half way betw^een the crown and the springing, and he assimilated the action of the upper part to that of a solid wedge, tending to slide downwards along the joints of rupture, which l^st were considered perfectly smooth, so that the pressure there was directed normally to the point. This very crude hypothesis was adopted by Eytelwein, who, however, found that joint of rupture for which the pressure exercised against an abutment was a maximum. As a matter of fact, friction can be exercised at any plane joint, which Eytelwein only imperfectly considers; but admitting it, the direction of the thrust at any joint of rupture becomes indeterminate, so that apart from other defects, the theory gives no definite solution. Coulomb, in 1773, made a great advance by considering that an arch could not only fail by sliding along some joint, but also by rotation along the edges of certain joints. 34 JOURNAL OF THE He assumed the horizontal thrust at the crown always to pass through either the upper or the lower edge of the joint and found its minimum value, so that uo rotation ivould occur about the lower or upper edge of any joint below the crown and such that no sliding^ could occur along- any joint. It is not necessary to explain the ingenious method by which the true thrust, after his theory, was ascertained. The theory was a marked improvement over the wedge theory, and it has been followed by a host of authors, with various improvements, even up to the present day. As the thrust either at the crown joint or the lower joints of rupture cannot act along an edge without crushing ensuing, it is evident that the true positions of the thrusts at these critical joints has not been correctly ascertained; further, there is nothing in the theory to raise the inde- termination. The next advance in the theory was made by certain authors who used a funicular poIygo)i in studying the resist- ance at the various points, a method which is still the basis for the analytical treatment of the arch. It required but an additional step to see that tlie curve connecting the centers of pressure on every joint of the arch ring (to which the proper "funicular polygon" approxi- mates for segmental arches) was a surer test of the stability of an arch ring and that, in a stable arch^ it must always be possible to draw some "curve of resistance" (as the curve connecting the centers of pressure is called) within the limits of the arch ring, or, for safety, within much nar- rower limits. The exact location of this curve, for any arch, loaded in any manner, will completely solve the problem for that arch; but where an infinite number of possible curves of resistance can be drawn within the arch ring (or narrower limits), all varying in the point of application, direction or KLISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 35 intensity of the thrust at the crown, it is evident that some additional principle must bet introduced to enable us to choose the true one. Mosely introduced for this purpose the principle of the least resistance^ which at once fixed the true curve as the one corresponding to the minimum hori- zontal thrust. This caused the results to agree with those of Coulomb, in most cases, though not in all, as the curve so determined does not, for some arches, pass through either edge of the crown joint, as Coulomb's theory requires. In this and previous theories the arch and load were taken as symmetrical with respect to the vertical through the crown which thus restricts the theory to structures having fixed loads and rendering it of little service in the investigation of the strength and stability of road or rail- road arch bridges subjected to a moving load, which pro- duces a maximum distortion when placed over one haunch of the arch; further, the theories demanded incompressible voussoirs of infinite strength, which do not exist. Scheffler developed very completely the theory of curves of resistance for the least horizontal thrust, for both sym- metrical and unsymmetrical arches and loading; but as his theory requires the thrusts at the critical joints to pass through the very edges, it cannot apply to ordinary stones, where crushing would result, as a matter of course. Now, as crushing does not occur at the joints in well-designed arches, it follows (without other considerations) that Schefiler's theory must, at least, be modified. The writer did this in introducing the theory to American readers in 1874, by empirically limiting the curve of resistance to the middle third of the arch ring. With such a restriction, for a joint with mortar, there would be no. tension exerted anywhere along the joint, and for a joint without mortar there would be a compression throughout the whole length of the joint, so that no joint would open. Such restrio tions had alreadv been sucrorested bv Rankine, Woodburv SQ^, .lOUKNAL. OF THE and others, as leading to safer results in proportioning an arch. The writer, however, called attention to the fact that, as in most well-bnilt arches, the joints did not open, therefore, by experiment on a big scale, it was shown that the trne curve of resistance in arches, as g-enerally built, did not leave the middle third; hence, for usual depths of key-stone and usual loads, the true curve of resistance was found somewhere in the middle third. Its position in the middle third of the arch ring could be provisionally found by the principle of least resistance, though it was admitted that its exact position was dependent on the deformation of the arch ring under stress, due to its elasticity, the laws of which were not known at the time. However, after mathematicians had developed a true theory of the so/id elastic arch^ "fixed at the ends" in position and direction, it seemed possible to apply it to the voussoir arch, and thus locate accurately the true curve of resistance, provided the following conditions were fulfilled: 1. No mortar was to be allowed between the arch stones or voussoirs; 2. The arch stones must be cut so perfectly that they will fit exactly, when not under stress, in place on the "center" — supposed unyielding; 3. Under these circumstances the curve of resistance, determined after the theory of the solid arch for the full sections of the arch ring, must lie in its middle third. If this last condition does not obtain, the solution is still pos- sible, though the full sections cannot be used at certain joints, which involves a tentative method of finding the parts of the joints under stress and the resulting resistance curve, which makes a practical solution of the case much more difficult. Under the conditions assumed above the deformation of the voussoir arch is exactly that of the solid arch and there can be no question as to the theory applying. ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC S0CII:TY. '-U It is admitted, however, that it is difficult to cut the stones with the exactness demanded, and in addition, there 'will be a slight )-ielding of the centers, though the stones can easily be cut to bear along the whole length of joint when placed in position on the centers after they have yielded somewhat, as it only requires a close fit of the key- stone after the other stones are in place. If thin cement mortar joints be used, that are allowed to harden perfectly before the centers are removed, the arch ring is assimilated completely to a solid arch, except that in the theory the successive blocks of cement and arch stones with their different moduli of elasticity must be con- sidered, making the solution very complex. It would seem though that for very thin joints the theory pertain- ing to a homogeneous arch of stone should approximate sufficiently near to the truth to give results of practical importance. For thick mortar joints of common mortar or for brick arches the theory proposed may be a rude guide, but it is not pretended that it can be anything but a rough approxi- mation to the truth, so that the depth of key for such arches had better be increased empirically over the depths given by the theory above for a homogeneous solid arch. The theory of the solid arch supposes immovable abut- ments and it requires three conditions to be fulfilled when the a?r/i ring is under stress from its own weight and the weight of backing, roadway, etc., and any loads that may be placed on it in any position: 1. The end tangents, at the springing, to the center line of the arch ring, must remain fixed in direction; 2. The deflection of one end of the arch ring below the other, due to its deformation under stress, must be zero; 3. There must be no change in span due to the deforma- tion of the arch rinsf. 38 JOURNAL OF THE Analytical theories of the solid arch have been devel- oped by Winkler, Greene and others, and the graphical soln- tion has been given by Prof. H. T. Eddy, to which the writer has contribnted his mite. In Vail N'osh'aud' s Ejigineeriiig Magazine for Jannary and November, 1879, the writer claimed that the theory of the solid arch was the most exact solntion of the vonssoir arch, and a graphical treatment was given in the last naijied article. In the same year Castigliano, Winkler and Greene referred the treatment of the vonssoir arch to that of the solid arch, and finally, in 1893, the writer, in the second edition of ''Theory of Vonssoir Arches," has given extended applications of the theory of solid arches to vons- soir arches by two distinct methods, one fonnded on the analytical method in part and the other entirely graphical. These methods were independently applied to a nnmber of stone arch bridges, whose rise was one-fifth the span, for a loading known as Cooper's "Class Extra Heavy A," so placed as to prodnce the maximnm departnre of the resistance cnrve from the center line of the arch ring, and the resnlts appear to be of snch importance as to offer some apology for writing this article. In the stone arch bridges examined the specific gravity of the voussoirs was assnmed at 140 pounds per cubic foot, and the density of the spandrel backing was taken at eight- tenths that of the voussoirs. The weight of this backing and any loads on the bridge was assumed to be transmitted vertically to the arch. It is true that this may not be exactly true; in fact, the spandrel may act as an arch itself to some extent, still such additional security may be sup- posed to neutralize the dynaiuic effect of moving loads, the static effect of the loads being met by designing the arch ring, supposed of constant section throughout, so that for the most unfavorable position of the load, for <7;2v joint, the line of the centers of pressure on the various joints should ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 39 be contained within the middle third of the arch rinsr, and for the joint where the departure was greatest this line should just touch the middle third limit. A slight decrease in the depth of key would thus cause the true resistance curve to pass slightly outside the middle third at some joint or joints. The proper depth of key to meet this last condition was found tentatively by assuming successive depths of key for the same span until one was found in which the true resist- ance curve could just be inscribed in the middle third for the most unfavorable position of the live load. Only two trials were needed in any case. It was found for the arches so desio^ned that no slidinor could occur along any joint. The maximum stress, in tons per square foot, at the most compressed edge, varied from nine for the twenty-five foot span to thirty-six for the 150 foot span. Thus the arch ring possessed the requisite stability for anarch of sandstone or limestone and an excess of stability for granite, whose weight per cubic foot is over the 140 assumed. For material weighing over 140 pounds per cubic foot the depth of key given below can be slightly diminished or a heavier load can be assumed. The live load assumed is known in Cooper's Specifica- tions as "Class Extra Heavy A." We give below the distances in feet from the front pilot- wheel to each pair of wheels in turn, and on the same line the weight of the pair of wheels in tons of 2,000 pounds: Pair of Pilot- wheels o feet 8 tons. Driver-wheels 8.1 " 15 " 13-83 " 15 " 18-33 " 15 " 22.83 " 15 " " Tender-wheels 29.92 " 9 " 34-75 " 9 " 40.42 " 9 " 45-25 " 9 " Pilot-wheels 54.25 " 8 " 40 JOUKNAL OF THE The second locomotive can be located from the last pair of pilot wheels. For spans of fifteen feet and under, a pair of wheels car- rying forty tons was used as producing a more hurtful effect. The above load was placed over one-half of the arch, roughly speaking, the heaviest part being over the center of the haunch. Its exact position, however, was determined very carefully so as to produce the most hurtful effect upon the arch ring. An approximation to this load was made by omitting the pilot-wheels in some of the computations. Also by the independent partly analytical treatment, used as a check, the load on drivers was supposed uniformly distributed as well as that on the tenders, and for convenience the lengths of each portion were slightly changed to suit the divisions of the arch required in the theory. The pairs of wheels were supposed to bear on cross-ties eight feet in length, so that only one-eighth of this load was supposed to bear on a slice of the arch contained between vertical planes per- pendicular to the axis of the arch and one foot apart. The depths of key so determined for arches of constant section and rise = I span are given in the following table, the determinations for the spans 12.5, 25, 50, 75, 100, 125 and 150 having been found directly, the others by interpolation from these values. All dimensions are in feet. RISE EQUAL ONE-FIFTH THE SPAN. Span. KEY. vSpan. Key. vSpan. Key. 5 1.96 55 3-7 no 5.80 10 2.12 60 3-9 115 5-95 12.5 2.20 ' 65 4.1 120 6.10 15 2.27 70 4-3 125 6.25 20 2.43 75 4-5 130 6.40 25 2.60 80 4-7 135 6.55 30 2.77 85 4-9 140 6.70 35 2.95 90 51 145 6.85 40 3''^3 95 5-3 150 7.00 45 3-30 100 5-5 155 7.15 50 3- 50 105 5-65 160 7.30 ELLSHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 41 Stone arches of the dimensions given should be perfectly safe against rotation or sliding anywhere for the very heavy rolling load assumed; but the depth of key should not be less than the values given, as the true line of resistance, for certain positions of the moving load, will then pass outside the middle third at certain joints, and although the arch may be stable, the factor of safety is reduced too much and the joints of rupture may open, thus admitting the infiltration of water, w^hich is not desirable; besides, for the larger arches, the maximum intensity of stress at the edges of the joints of rupture may exceed safe limits. In fact, this intensity for the 150-foot span for a 7-foot key is 36 tons per square foot — an admissible value for good solid voussoirs, well laid, though not at all for rubble construction or for brick, except, perhaps, the very best pressed brick. From experience it would seem that an outside limit for this intensity for good granite should be about 46 tons per square foot. The arch can preferably be built by increasing the radial length of joint as we go from the crown to the springing, as is done in arches of large span, in which case the depth of key-stone can be decreased somewhat below the tabular values with the same security against overturning, sliding or crushing. In case the abutments or piers yield somewhat at the top from defective foundations the depth of key should be greater than as given in the tables. The formulas that have been proposed for depth of key by many authorities are not founded on theory, but on the successful practice of the past, particularly for common road bridges and railroad 'bridges subjected to the lighter loads of several decades ago. The writer has been convinced for a number of years that the dimensions given by many of these formulas (in current use to-day) are very inadequate for stone arches sub- jected to the very much heavier rolling loads of to-day, and that arches so proportioned probably are saved from destruc- tion only from the extra resistance afforded by the span- 42 JorifXAL OF TIIK drels. On that account he was led to undertake the very serious labor of computing the depths of key for a number of arches after the theory proposed, and to compare with the results given by some of the empirical formulas. The results are shown graphically in the figure, the line through the small circles (which is nearly straight) being- plotted from the values given in the table above. J 8 f^7 ^D ^- ^ ii- > ^^ -^ ^ T r^ k H Q 2 1- ^ ^ r=ff° ■'^^ i^ ^ — ■ i::^ - — .^^ ^ b n v^^ -^ ^ ^ ^ f 20 40 60 80 100 SPAN IN FEET RISE=-i-SPAN 120 140 160 The depths of key proposed by the following authors are given by the ordinates to the various lines for the corre- sponding spans given by the horizontal lines : Trantwine (line T), Croizette-Desnoyers (line C-D), Perouet (line P), SchefHer, by interpolation from his tables (line S, dotted) and Dejardin (line D). These results refer to materials of only average strength (second-class masonry for the Trantwine line) and vary very greatly; thus for an arch of i6o feet span and thirty-two feet rise Trantwine gives a depth of key of 4.3 feet, whereas Dejardin requires eight feet and then increases the radial length of joint according to the secant of the incli- nation of the joint to the vertical as we approach the abut- ment. ■ The theoretical depths of key agree more nearly with those of Dejardin and Scheffler than with any of the others, though it is in excess for the smaller spans over any of the empirical results, as should naturally be expected. ELISHA MITCH KLL SCIEXTIl-IC SOCIETY. 4:> It is respectfully submitted to constructors that most of the formulas in current use are inadequate to give a proper depth of key for the very heavy rolling loads of to-day, although it is thought that such formulas may still serve the purpose of a rough guide in the design of common road bridges, unless heavy concentrated loads, as steam road-rollers, are to pass over them. In all cases it is best to use the formulas for an assumed key and then by a theo- retical treatment determine the proper key by one or two trials. JOURNAL OF THE Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society VOLrUME X— PART SECOND JI^I^^^.-DJSOi^JVlEiEM^ 18Q3 post-office: CHAPEL HILL. N. C. ISSUED FKOM THE UNIVERSITY PRESSES, CHAPEI. HII.I., N. C. 1894. TABLK OF CONTENTS. PAGE. A Comparison of the Methods of Separation and Estimation of Zirconium. Chas. Baskerville 45 Primitive Streak and Blastopore of the Bird Embryo. H. V. Wilson. 69 Additions to the Erysipheai of Alabama. Geo. F. Atkinson. . 74 Some Septoriye from Alabama. Geo. F. Atkinson 76 Additional Note on the Fung-i of Blowinf^ Rock, N. C. Geo. F. Atkinson 78 An Examination of the Chlorides of Zirconium, F. P. Ven- able 79 Some attempts at the Formation of Ethyl Glucoside. J. R. Harris 87 On the Geolog-ical History of Certain Topog-raphical Fea- " tures east of the Blue Ridg-e. Collier Cobb 94 Do Snakes Charm Birds? Collier Cobb 98 JOURNAL Elisha yiitchell Scientific Society. A COMPARISON OF THE METHODS OF SEP- ARATION AND ESTIMATION OF ZIRCO- NIUM. CHAS. BASKERVILLE. The object of the research, whose results are recorded in this paper, was to compare some of the more prom- inent methods in use for the determination of zirconium. The directions, as found in the literature of the subject, were as closely followed as possible. At times however the}" were so indefinite that wide limits were g^iven the analyst. In such cases, several experiments were car- ried out under varying- conditions, so that the accuracy of the method mig-ht be fulh^ tested. It was further desirable in this work to examine an}' sugg-estion arising, by which a new method of deter- mination mig-ht be devised and its accuracy as well tested. Whenever it seemed necessary the purit}" of the reag-ents was carefully proved. Two solutions were used: 1st. A solution of zirconium chloride purified by cr3"s- tallization from hydrochloric acid. This con- tained free acid. 2nd. A solution made by saturating dilute sulphuric acid (4:1) with zirconium hydroxide. This solu- tion was acid to litmus. 46 JOURNAIv OF THE The strength of each was determined by evaporating* to dryness, ig-niting' the residue and weig-hing- the ZrOg obtained. Amounts taken for the experiments were measured from these solutions by means of a calibrated standard burette with a small outlet. THE deter:.iination oe zirconium. /. Expcriniods ijitli Amynouiurn Hydroxide. Ammonium hydroxide precipitated the zirconium com- pletely from a cold solution in either a small or larg-e excess. If the solution be hot, however, the excess of ammonium hydroxide must be boiled off, /. c, the pre- cautions taken when aluminium hydroxide is precipi- tated must be heeded. The precipitate is white and flocculent, settles quickly, is easily filtered and washed with hot w^ater. In most of the experiments carried out this precipitate was washed until the wash water g-ave no further precipitate, or only a sligfht cloudiness, with silver nitrate. The precipitate was ignited and heated over the blast lamp until there was no further loss of weig'ht, the residue weig^hed being- taken as pure zirconium dioxide. The following- results were obtained: Numbers, Found. Used 20 0.1082 0.1083 21 0.1624 0.1626 22 0.e081 0.1083 23 0.1618 0.1626 24 0.1098 0.1083 25 0.1647 0.1626 26 0.1090 0.1083 27 0.2812 0.2808 28 0.2832 0.2815 ELISHA MiTCHEIvL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 47 No:3. 20-26 inclusive were made 'from the chloride solution aud Nos. 27-28 with the sulphate. No. 20 was carried out in the cold with a large excess of ammo- nium hydroxide. The solution was diluted to about 150 c.c. and the precipitate washed w^th cold water. No. 21 was also cold, the precipitate being- obtained b}^ ammonium h^^droxide (sp. gr. 0.97) drop at a time. On addition of the fourth drop the precipitation was com- plete. No. 22 had also only a slight excess of amnao- nium hydroxide, but the zirconium was precipitated hot. No. 23 shows the necessity for boiling off the excess of ammonium hydroxide. It was precipitated from a hot solution b}^ a large excess of ammonium h}^- droxide (10 c.c. sp. gr. 0.97j. Nos. 24- and 25 respectively contained a slight aud large excess of am- monia, but the boiling was continued for fifteen min- utes in each case. No. 26 was diluted to about 100 c.c. (the others were diluted to about 150 c.c.) and 20 c.c. of concentrated ammonia water (sp. gr. 0.92) added and that boiled for fifteen minutes. No. 27 was car- ried out hot, the slight excess of ammonium h3^droxlde added being boiled until there was only a faint odor of it left. No. 29 was precipitated by adding 50 c.c. con- centrated ammonia water (sp. gr. 0.92). The w^hole solution in this case amounted to about 100 c.c. This w-as boiled twenty minutes. Most of the ammonia had disappeared. Since zirconium is frequently precipitated in a chlor- ide solution w^hen the alkaline chlorides are also present, it seemed advisable to note the effect ' the presence of these substances had on the determination by means of ammonium hydroxide. Experiments were therefore made with the zirconium chloride dissolved in ten per cent, solutions of ammonium, sodium, and potassium 48 JOURNAL OP THE chlorides. These solutions were at first clear, but on boiling- 5 — 15 minutes, at first a slight turbidity was noticed. This increased on boiling* until a g-ood precip- itate was formed. With potassium chloride this pre- cipitate was curdy and incomplete. PaykulP speaks of the formation of double chlorides in the dry way. These precipitates which are very probably similar compounds are now being* investigfated in this labora- tory. It was noted that ammonium chloride did not interfere with the determination, as it was easily volatilized when the crucible was igfnited over the blow- pipe. The fixed alkalies however interfered, g-iving" higfh results. These compounds are of interest. The following- determinations were made in the pres- ence of ammonium chloride : Numbers. Found. Used. 59 0.1106 0.1104 30 0.1070 0.1070 31 0.1077 0.1070 //. With Sodium Thiosulphitc. Sodium thiosulphite, if added as solid crystals to a zirconium chloride solution, previously neutralized with ammonium hydroxide, and then boiled for several min- utes, caused complete* precipitation. The solid thiosul- phite was added up to ten and even twenty per cent, of the solution. The precipitate did not form immediate- ly on addition of the solid thiosulphite, even if the so- lution was hot, but was rapidly produced after a few moments heating-. The precipitate, which settled quickly, was filtered hot and washed with hot water (1) Ber. VI. 1467. EIvISHA MiTCHELIv SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 49 until the wash water amounted to about twice as much as the orig-inal solution. This amount of washing- was arbitrarily^ chosen, as it was found that if it was consid- erably less the results ran hig-h, showing- imperfect washing-, due to the presence of sulphite, no doubt. The presence of free acid (one per cent, and less) interfered considerable^ preventing- complete precipitation (39 and 4-0 -vi'd. below). Moreover the precipitate was finely divided and ran throug-h very close filter paper (S and S, No. 590) along- with much free sulphur. The precipitation was made in the cold as well, but in that case, it was found necessary to let the solution remain covered for at least twent^^-four hours with occasional stirring-. The larg-er portion of the flocculent precipi- tate collected well at the bottom of the beaker, but a small portion clung- persistently to the stirring rod and sides of the beaker, refusing- to come off, even on the most vig-orous rubbing- with a "policeman." This reag-ent will not serve as a precipitant for the zirconium sulphate solution, since the precipitation was found to be incomplete on addition of as much as twen- ty per cent, of solid sodium thiosulphite to a thoroug-h- ly neutralized solution. Preliminary experiments were made with more or less free sulphuric acid present and varying- amounts of the thiosulphite (two to twenty per cent.) in solution and solid form, hot and cold. These determinations were made : Ninnbers. Found. . Used. 33 0.1102 1 34 0.1101 y 0.1104 35 0.1106 J 36 0.1645 0.1635 37 0.1079 0.1104 38 0.1641 0.1635 50 JOURNAL OF THE 39 0.0645 0,1104 40 0.1538 0.1635 41 0.1107 0.1104 42 0.1093 0.1104 44 0.1080 0.1083 45 0.1215 0.1296 Nos. 41 and 44 were carried out as iirst recommended above. Nos. 33 and 34 were in the cold, the former with one per cent., and the latter with three per cent, of sodium thiosulphite. No. 36 had also three per cent., but was boiled. No. 37 shows that a very small amount of sodium thiosulphite will throw down most of the zir- conium, as onl}^ live drops of a ten per cent, solution were added in the experiment. The precipitation was complete on addition of the thiosulphite up to two per cent. (No. 38,) but the precipitate crept and only a portion settled well. Nos. 39, 40 and 42 show the vary- ing-interference of free hydrochloric acid, and No. 45 was a neutralized sulphate solution with twenty per cent, of solid sodium thiosulphite. ///. With Potatassiinn Sulphate. The very old method for separation, which Berzelius^ used for want of a better, and one recommended for use in a g-reat number of text books now, is the precipitation of a zirconium sulphate solution as a basic zirconium po- tassium sulphate, which according- to Paykull* may have the formula, K,S04.2[2rO..Zr(S04)2] + 14Hp. "^ This would be best broug-ht about by adding- an excess of a saturated potassium sulphate solution to a neutralized concentrated solution of zirconium sulphate. The pre- 3. Pog-g-. Ann. III-208. 4. Ber. VI-1467, and XII-1719. ELISKA :^:iTCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 51 cipitation however was incomplete even in neutral solu- tions. The text books vary in reg^ard to the properties of this double sulphate ; sonie'^ state the precipitate to be insoluble or sparing-ly soluble in either water or hy- drochloric acid; another" states its solubility in water alone and points out the danger of loss in the necessary washing-. Rose' referring- to Berzelius*^ avoids this loss by washing- with dilute ammonium or potassium hy- droxide. These contradictory properties were all noted in Watt's Dictionary. An experiment was carried out to learn the actual deportment of this salt in the presence of water. A fairl}^ concentrated solution of zirconium sulphate, con- taining- ten per cent, of ZrO,, was completely neutral- ized with ammonium hydroxide until a permanent pre- cipitate was formed and this dissolved in two or three drops of dilute sulphuric acid. This was done with a boiling solution. To this was added an excess of a saturated potassium sulphate solution. The beaker was placed in cool water. When cold the supernatant liquid, the flocculent precipitate having- settled well, was decanted throug-h a tared filter. This filtrate, was tested with more potassium sulphate, boiled and cooled, but no further precipitation occurred. On addition however of some ammonium h^^droxide a white precipi- tate was thrown out, showing either that the potassium sulphate did not precipitate the zirconium completely or the precipitate was soluble in water. The precipi- tate was washed several times b}' decantation and the filtrate in each case showed the solubilitv of the salt. Roscoe and Schorl, vol. II, part II-p. 271., and Reg-nault Chimie 11-285, and Wohler Handbiich Anorg-. Anal, p. 117. Pelouse et Frem_Y Traite de Chimie Generale III-523 2nd Ed. Anah't. Chem. translated by Griffin. Pog-g-endorff's Annalen, IV. -136. 52 JOURNAIv OF THE There remained to learn the completeness of the pre- cipitation, Another experiment similar to the above was carried out bearing- in mind the sug-gestion of wash- ing with a solution of ammonium hydroxide, at first with potassium sulphate to be sure that there was an excess of that reagent present and then with ammonium hydroxide. The precipitation had not been complete. After several washings, when the original solution might well be presumed to be removed, or the major por- tion at least, the wash water (very dilute ammonia water) g*ave no evidence of the presence of zirconium. Several experiments were carried out, but in only one case was the double salt weighed. It gave about nine- t}" per cent, of the zirconium really present. The fil- trates from several were examined and it was learned that from one to ten per cent, was always lost, the amount depending* on the exact conditions of precipita- tion and the amount of washing* succeeding*. The ob- jection to using ammonium hydroxide as wash water when it was desirable to separate zirconium from iron, aluminium or titanium, is easily seen. The conclusion arrived at was, that the precipitation of zirconium as a double sulphate with potassium afford- ed no quantitative means of determination for that metal, nor of separation from aluminium, iron or titanium. /v. By SodiicDi Carbonate. Sodium carbonate precipitated solutions of zirconium salts completely. A great difficulty arose, however, in the exceeding slowness of filtration and practical im- possibility of washing the precipitate free from the alkaline carbonate. A single result, obtained from sev- eral analyses, was ELISHA MITCHKLIv SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 53 Found. Used. ^rO-j 0.1785 0.1723 V. By Ammo)iinm Carbonate. When a saturated solution of ammonium carbonate ^vas added gradually to a zirconium chloride solution, at first a white flocculent precipitate was thrown down. This seemed to be produced by the free ammonia pres- ent, but on a further addition the solution became clear again. If this was boiled, a clear flocculent precipitate came down. The boilmg- was continued for about fif- teen minutes, when the carbon dioxide had ceased to come off. The appearance of this precipitate was exactly that produced by ammonium hydroxide, yet the filtration was very slow, as in the case with the other alkaline carbonate. In some hundred and more precipitations by means of ammonium hydroxide, I have never failed to secure the zirconium h^'droxide in such a condition as to filter rapidh\ This was xQvy likely a basic carbonate, which required continued heat with the blow pipe for constant weight. Such a precipitate when ignited g-ave 0.1733g. ZrO^ when 0.1723g. was used. VL By Ammonium Oxalate. L. Svanberg,*^ because oxalic acid failed to gfive a complete precipitation of zirconium, thought the solu- tion contained a new element, which he called iiorlum. Sjog^ren^'^ in his analyses of the mineral catapleiite said; *' Kine nicht saure Losung der Erde aus dem Katapleiite 9. Ofversigt of R, V. Akad. Forhandl. 1845, p. 37. 10. Pog-g- Ann. 1852, Erg-anzung", III, p. 469. J. Prak. Ch. 55, 298. 54 JOURNAIv OF THE wird wohl von oxalsaurem Ammoniak gfef allt, aber dieser Niederschlag" losst sich iiiclit nur in einem Uberschusse des Falking-smittels, ^ondern atich in einem g-ering-en Zusatz von Oxalsaure." Berlin/^ however, also said: "" ^' " dass der durch dieser Salz (ammonium oxa- late) in einer Ivosung- von Zirkonerde bewirkte Nieder- schlag bei einem Ueberschusse des Fallung"smittels wieder verscliwindet. " " " Atis dieser Auflosun^ schlag"! Ammoniak die Zirkonerde vollstandig- nieder.'* Hermann'' repeated all previous experiments, and not only corroborated Berlin's observations, but determined the best conditions for this precipitation. He noted that in an excess of the precipitant (ammonium oxalate), only four-tenths of all the zirconium was precipitated. Such has been the result of my own experiments, save the determination of the rate of precipitation as done by Hermann. V/I. By Potassii{7)i Hydrog-oi Oxalate. Behrens(13) in his "Contributions to Micro-Chemi- cal Analysis " notes that zirconium can be detected with extreme delicacy (0.0005 m.g-r.) by that means. For quantitative purposes, however, potassium hydrog-en oxalate could not be used, as the precipitate formed was soluble in an excess of the precipitant, but an incom- plete precipitation took place on boiling-. VII. By Hydrogoi Peroxide. (See Separation Zirconium and Titanium.) IX. By Sulphur Dioxide. Because of the analog-y of the elements, I was led to 11.. J Prak. Ch. 58—145. 12. J. Prak. Ch. 96—332. (13) Zeit. Anal. Chem. translated in Ch. News, XLIV— 124. ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 55 try a method commonly used with titanium, viz.: pro- long-ed boiling- of a potassium hydrog^en sulphate fusion in dilute solution with sulphur dioxide in excess. On application of this method, however, on the prepared sulphate (see above), I failed even after boiling* four hours with an excess of sulphur dioxide, to obtain a precipitate, if the solution was acid. If the solution was nearly neutralized with ammonium h^^droxide, and then boiled with an excess of sulphur dioxide, after being- greatly diluted a precipitate was produced. This precipitation, however, was incomplete, even after boil- ing- six hours or passing- steam through the same for two or three hours. The precipitate too was very finely divided, running through the closest filter papers at m}^ command. Therefore this method could not be used. But on addition of sulphur dioxide to the chloride solution, even in the cold, and if it was acid, a dense white precipitate was immediately^ noted. On boiling- with an excess of sulphur dioxide in a neutralized solu- tion, /. 6\, the chloride solution, neutralized by ammo- nium hydroxide until the slight precipitate was no longer dissolved by boiling-, and this precipitate then taken up with tAvo or three drops of dilute dydrochloric acid, the separation of the zirconium was complete. The accuracy of this method is shown b}^ the follow- ing- results : — Number, Found. Used. 81 0.1074 ) 0.1077 81 0.1078 i 82 0.1043 0.1038 83 0.1070 0.1077 84 0.1047 0.1050 56 JOURNAL OF THE The precipitation took place immediately an addition of sulphur dioxide and after two minutes boiling- the precipitate settled quickly and was easily filtered. This method then is applicable to the chloride only and a sulphate would have to be first chang-ed to chlo- ride by precipitation with ammonium hyhroxide and resolution in hydrochloric acid. Th's was done and 0.2815 g-. Zr02 was found when 0.2812 g. was used. The presence of largfe amounts of such salts as am- monium chloride did not aid the precipitation of the sulphate. The presence of free hydrochloric acid must be avoided and it is best to use a fresh solution of sul- phur dioxide or the g-as direct. SEPARATION OE ZIRCONIUM FROM IRON. /. By Ariii}io)iini)i SulpJiidc i)i an Annnouiacal Tar- trate Solution of their Salts. Rose" knew the property tartaric acid possesses of' rendering- solutions of a number of metallic oxides inca- pable of precipitation by alkalies. However he made use of just such a solution, b}^ adding- to it an excess of ammonium sulphide, to separate iron from zirconium. He said, "If to the solution of these two bases a sufficient quantity of tartaric acid has been added, the addition of an excess of ammonia produces no precipitate. "I found five times as much tartaric acid as iron present was a "sufficient quantity," but an excess, five per cent, of the whole solution, had no ill effect, althoug-h such a larg-e excess is not necessary. If the iron was present in the same amount as the zirconium, the separation was found to be incomplete, if only one precipitation of 14. Analyt. Chem. translated by Griffin, p. 58. ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 0/ the iron was made. The zirconium dioxide could not be obtained perfecth' white, but possessed from a yellow to a brown color due to the iron present. However, if the amount of iron be small, five per cent, and less, as it occurs in the mineral zircon, the separation was thoroug'h and the ig'nited zirconium dioxide obtained was sno^v white and iron free. Two analyses are g'iven : — Found. Used. ^rO.— 0.1119 0,1118 0.2815 0.2818 The process was as follows : To the solution of the salts, tartaric acid, best solid, to five times the amount of iron present, was added, and this neutralized b}^ an excess of ammonium hydroxide, and then ammonium sulphide in excess. This was warmed slig'htly, covered, and set aside to settle. The supernatant liquid must acquire a yellow color before filtration. To avoid this delay, one experiment was carried out by boiling' and direct filtration. Time was thereby saved. The pre- cipitated iron sulphide was washed quickly with a di- lute ammonium sulphide solution. The filtrate was evaporated in a porcelain dish on a water bath until it became of small bulk, when it was transferred to the crucible, in which the final residue was to be weighed. Sometimes it was noticed that there was a further sep- aration of iron sulphide during- this evaporation. This was filtered off before the concentration became too g-reat without causing- anv error in the final result. The crucible when apparentl}^ dr}^ was heated for several hours in an air bath at 100 "C. and then ig-nited, top on. After the volatile portion of this residue was driven off, the lid was removed and all the carbon burned away. 58 JOURNAL OP THK The crucible was then heated with the blow pipe until the weig"ht was constant. This required at least an hour if a porcelain crucible was used. The method was carried out by the writer as g^iven above and accurate results, as noted, obtained, when the iron was no more than hve per cent of the two metals present. The iron was not determined. The g'reat amount of time required was the only objection to be noted. //. By Ainnioiiiuni Hydroxide, Aiumoiiiiini Sulphide (Did SulpJiurous Acid. Berthier^' said that if a mixture of the salts of iron and zirconium in solution be precipitated by an excess of ammonium hydroxide and then an excess of ammoni- um sulphide be added, that the ferrous sulphide formed could be dissolved out with a sulphurous acid solution. Several experiments were carried out. The solution was precipitated by an excess of ammonium hydroxide, — in one the excess was boiled away^then an excess of freshly made ammonium sulphide was added and the whole allowed to settle. (Experiments were made with both the colorless and yellow ammonium sulphide). The supernatant liquid was drawn off, or the whole filtered, and the precipitate boiled with a strong- sul- phurous acid solution. Most of the black sulphide be- came immediately decolorized. After a five or ten minutes boiling", the solution was filtered and washed with hot water and a weak sulphur dioxide solution. The precipitate remained ' brown however, strongh^ colored by the iron which had not been dissolved. In one experiment this impure precipitate was redissolved 15. Booth's Enc3'cl. Chem. ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 59 in dilute hydrochloric acid and the process repeated. There was only a slight diminution in the amount, of iron left. If the h^^drochloric acid solution of this pre- cipitate was neutralized b}' ammonium hydroxide and then an excess of sulphurous acid added, the zirconium separated out perfectU' white and free from iron, Found. Used. ZrO.— 0.1070 0.1070 The method of Berthier as I carried it out did not g-ive satisfactory results. ///. By Sodium Thiosulphite. With proper precautions zirconium was completely separated from iron by means of sodium thiosulphite. The directions given for this method were not always specific.^** It was noted ihy the writer) that unless the solution be neutralized, the precipitation would be incomplete; also if it be neutral and the boiling long continued, the precipitate might be ver}^ finely divided and hard to catch on the filter paper; also if all or the greater part of the sulphur dioxide be boiled away the oxide of iron separated immediate!}^ on access of the air after the removal of the clock glass used to cover the beaker. Xo accurate separation was obtained if the solution was rendered neutral with ammonium hydroxide or the precipitation was made when the solution was hot. But the method of ChanceP' and Stromeyer^** gave accurate results. B}^ this method the solution was rendered neutral with sodium carbonate, the beaker 16. Rose, and Schorl. II— si— 271., and Miller's Chem. II— p. 643. 17. Ann. Ch. Pharm. CVIII 237. 18. Ibid, CXIII-127. 60 JOURNAL OF THE placed in cold water, and when the solution was cooled, an excess of sodium thiosulphite was added. After the solution became decolorized, it was boiled, and the white precipitate (zirconium hydroxide according- to Stromeyer) settled out well. This precipitate was easily filtered, washed with hot water, burned and ignited to constant weigfht. These results are reported : — iVjonbcrs. Found. Used. 140 0.1315 0.1333 141 0.0552 0.0565 143 0.1640 ) 145 0.1613 f 0.1614 Nos. 140 and 141 were in solutions in which there was present free acid — No. 140 hydrochloric — and No. 141 sulphuric. No. 143 was not properly neutralized and on addition of the sodium thiosulphite, a heavy floc- culent flesh-colored precipitate settled out. This on warming- became white, but when the precipitate was burned showed the presence of some iron. No. 145 was carried out exactl}^ according' to the directions given above. IV. By Amnioiiium Sulphite. As I carried out the experiments, I failed to succeed in perfecth^ separating iron and zirconium b}^ this method, which is also recommended by Berthier.^^ So- lutions of the chlorides of these two metals were made with equal and varying amounts of each, then an excess of freshly prepared ammonium sulphite was added. The zirconium sulphite precipitated was soluble in an 19. Booth's Encycl. Chem. 1850. ELISHA MITCHEIvL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 61 excess of the precipitant, but zirconium hydroxide was thrown down on boiling. If the boiling- was kept up until no more sulphur dioxide came off, immediately on permitting the liquid to come into contact with the air, a scum of oxide of iron formed. Next, the boiling was not continued so long — the precipitate when burned, however, still contained some iron. Besides the results obtained were low, as may be seen b}' these analyses: — Number. Found. Used. 150 0.0463 0.0535 152 0.0871 0.1070 156 0.0453 0.0535 The hydroxide is, doubtles-, parth^ soluble in an ex- cess of the sulphite, even after boiling. V. By Sulphur Dioxide. The method of precipitation of zirconium from a chloride solution on addition of sulphurous acid in ex- cess affords an excellent means of separating zirconium from iron. The zirconia precipitated b}^ sulphur diox- ide in larg-e excess and boiled two to three minutes, was, after filtration, washed four or five times with hot water. The further necessar}^ precautions have been given above. The iron was titrated in the filtrate. The experiments gave these results. Number. Found. Used. 100 \%^- 0.1047 0.1043 0.0830 0.08225 i« : ^p?^ 0.1074 0.08248 0.1070 0,08225 .« j ^f: 0.1078 0.1070 0.0820 0.08225 \ ZrO. 0.1043 0.1043 ) Fe 0.04380 0.04225 \ ZrO. 0.0537 0.0535 i Fe^ 0.04334 0.04225 62 JOURNAIv OF THE 1()3 1()() SEPARATION OF ZIRCONIUM FROM AIvUMINIUM. /. By Sodu(]ii Hydros^'oi Carbonate, Having- noted the property of zirconium of being- re- precipitated from a solution (at first precpitated but soluble in an excess of sodium hydrog^en carbonate) on boiling- with ammonium chloride, Pelouse and Fremy~« proposed it as a method of separation of that metal from aluminium. Ssverale 'xperiments were carried out by the author of this paper, but the conclusion arrived at was that it was a qualitative separation, which could not be used for quantitative purposes. //. By Sodiuiii lodatc. Davis"'^ g-ives a neat and accurate method for the sep- aration of zirconium and aluminium. The directions, as g-iven by him, for the process must be most carefully followed in order to obtain accurate results. Moreover the process is inapplicable when iron, be it in a ferrous or ferric condition, is present. The method therefore offers but little of practical value in ordinary analysis. "Their" (aluminium and zirconium) solution in hydro- chloric acid is treated with sodium carbonate until a permanent precipitate is formed. This precipitate is ZvO. Traits de Chimie G^n^rale, III-523, 1854 Edition. 21. Am. Ch. J., XI-26. 22. Ibid. p. 29. KLISHA MITCHELIv SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 63 dissolved in the smallest possible quantity of dilute li3Tlrochloric acid and sodium iodate (NaI03) added in excess. The solution is heated for about fif- teen minutes. It is then allowed to stand twelve hours filtered, washed down with boiling- water, dissolved in hvdrochloric acid and finallv precipitated with ammon- ia, ignited and weig^hed." I found in an analysis 0.0515 g-.ZrO, when I had used 0.0520 g. Analyses were made also according to his recom- mendation of the use of from five to ten per cent, of sodium chloride. The results obtained were high, doubtless due to imperfect washing. An example : Found. Used. ZrO, 0.0595 0.0520 The numerous experiments made served mereh' to confirm Davis' work. It was necessar}^ to avoid a too far neutralization with sodium carbonate as the separated zirconium was contaminated with varying amounts of aluminium. The permanent precipitate formed b}^ the sodium carbonate was diificult at times to redissolve in a small amount of dilute hydrochloric acid. Yet an excess of acid must be avoided, for it was learned by experiments, as Davis had noted, that the presence of even 0.1 per cent, bv ^veight of hydrochloric acid would cause low results. Four hours was a sufficient time for complete separation however. An experiment with the sulphate solution showed no action whatever. Kven the small amount of sulphuric acid in an alumin- ium sulphate solution was found to interfere, hence the necessity of having- a hydrochloric acid solution, free from sulphuric acid, was apparent. Davis evidently noted this as he was particular in having' a pure solu- tion of aluminium chloride in his experiments. 64 JOURNAL OF THK ///. By Sulphur Dioxide, Sulphurous acid ma}^ be used for the separation of zirconium and aluminium as well. The process is es- sentially the same as for the separation of iron and zir- conium (see above). The analyses proving- this are aL:,o g-iven. Xuviber. Found. Used. ^... \ ZrO. 0.1042 0.1043 --^^ ) A1.6 0.0608 0.0610 r,r.^ \ Zrb 0.1070 0.1070 ^^' \ AI2O 0.0316 0.0305 SEPARATION OF ZIRCONIUM AND TITANIUM. As is well known, titanium and zirconium are metals possessing- many properties in common. Their deport- ment with reag^ents is very similar, varying only in de- gree, as a rule. This fact, and that of the properties of each being- further altered by the presence of the other in the same solution, "^'^ renders their separation extremely difficult. An example of this alteration of properties was noted on boiling a solution of sulphates of these metals. On long- continued boiling- titanium sulphate, when in solution alone, is completely precipi- tated. Zirconium sulphate, under the same conditions, produces no precipitate, whereas a mixture of these permits of only a partial precipitation of the titanium, the larger portion remaining- undissolved (Berzelius'O- /. By Potassiu))i Sulphate. It was not found possible to use the precipitation of 23 Rose Analyt. Chein, p. 172. 24. Pogg-. Ann. VI., 232. ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 65 the zirconium as the basic potassium sulphate, for the reasons above noted. For want of a better method, however, this was for a long- time used. //. By Boiling' an Acetic Acid Solution. Franz and Streit claimed complete separation if the solution, neutralized by ammonium hydroxide, were rendered strong-ly acid with acetic acid and boiled sometime. The usual preliminary qualitative experi- ments were carried out by the writer, and he obtained a precipitate in both cases. The titanium was precipi- tated directh^ and in larg*e amounts, whilst the zircon- ium was also precipitated, but in small amounts. Of course solutions of approximately known strength were used in these experiments. When this was noted the completeness of the titanium precipitation was not tested. This method, therefore could not be recom- mended. ///. By Aninwninni Oxalate and Amnioiiiuni Car- bonate. The experiments of Hermann'' were very carefully repeated. The zirconium chloride solution was diluted to contain one part in one hundred parts of water, and to this was added double the weig-ht (of zirconium) of ammonium oxalate. I did observe, as he says,"^" " Dabei- enstand anfang-lieh eine Triibung", nachdem aber die g-anze Ouantitat des Oxalats zug-esetzt worden war, klarte sich die Fliissiofkeit wieder vollstandiof auf . Man 25. J. Prak. Ch. 9^ 26. Ibid, 337: 66 jourJjal of the g^ass jetzt diese Losung" von oxalsaurer Ammoniak- Zirkonerde in elne concentrirte Ivosungf von kohlensau- rem Ammoniumoxyd." But I did not observe, " Dabei blieb die Pliissig'keit gfanz klar und setzte auch nach lang-erem Stehen keine Spur eines Niederschlag-s ab." A chloride solution of titanium, treated in the same manner as above, g'ave a heavy precipitate, when the double oxalate formed an addition of the ammonium oxalate, was poured into a saturated solution of ammo- nium carbonate. As noted above a precipitate was obtained with the zirconium chloride solution as well; nevertheless an analysis was made and 0.0327 g-. tita- nium was found when 0.0302 g". had been used. This proved to the writer that advantag-e could not be taken of this for a complete separation of zirconium from titanium. Hermann" noted this incompleteness in his further remarks concerning* an experiment he performed: "Die g'ering-e Differenz von 0.18 Theilen Zirkonerde zu wenig- und 0.18 Theilen (used 6, found 6.18) Titansaure zu viel kam daher, dass die Titansaure beim Fallen durch kohlensaures Ammonium.oxyd ein g-eringfe Mengfe Zir- konerde mit niederg*erissen hatte." I}^. By Hydrog-e)i Peroxide. So no g-ood and accurate method was known until Bailey^** noted the effect of adding- hydrog-en dioxide to a zirconium solution. This is the only thorougfhly accu- rate method yet proposed. Its neatness and rapidity in application are to be especially noted. At the same time consideration must be g-iven to the difficulty in obtaining- perfecth^ pure h3^drog-en dioxide. 27. Ibid, 439. 28. J. London Ch. Soc. Trans. 1886, p. 149. ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 67 He proceeded"'"' by adding- an excess of h^'droofen diox- ide to a moderately acid solution of a mixture of iron, zirconium and titanium. After twenty-four hours standing- in a stoppered flask, the precipitated oxide (Zr^Os) was caug-ht and Altered, washed and ig-nited. In carrying- out this method the writer noted the neces- sity of having an acid, yet not too acid, solution. If the solution was first neutralized with ammonium hy- droxide or sodium carbonate, the precipitated zirconium oxide was higfhl}' contaminated with iron, which could not be washed out. Analyses ofave these results: Xionbers. Found, rsed iZrO, 0.1111 0.1118 'Fe ■ 0.0135 0.0138 ' TiO 0.0302 0.0302 ZrO. 0.2425 0.2424 The precipitation was found to be complete on boiling- the solution two or three minutes to avoid the twent\'- four hours delay b}^ standing- cold. After filtering- from the zirconium oxide, the filtrate was rendered alkaline with ammonia water, filtered and the precipitate dis- solved in dilute hydrochloric acid. The excess of acid was neutralized and the titanium determined b^^ precip- itation on boiling- with sulphur dioxide.'" The iron was determined from the filtrate from this. The hydrog-en dioxide obtained from the manufac- turer^^ was found to contain a large amount of silicic acid in solution along with the other ordinary impuri- 29. Ibid p. 482. 30. The author J. Am. Ch. S. 31. Dr. Merchand, 28 Prince st., New York. 68 JOURNAL OF THE ties. The streng'tli of this solution was 72 volumes, being" broug-ht to this streng-th according* to Thenard's method"'"'^ (Marchand). I further purified and concen- trated this to 111 volumes by distilling- in partial vacuum, according' to Talbot and Moody.""' I found the potassium sulphate present interfered very much with the reaction by the formation of the more or less solu- ble basic zirconium potassium sulphate. So nothing- definite could be learned from my experiments, which were many, with either the 111 or 72 volume hydrog-en peroxide. To avoid the formation of the compound with potas- sium sulphate, hydrochloric acid''* was used. By this method was obtained a solution of the dioxide practi- cally free from silicic and sulphuric acids, but one weaker, being* only 55 volumes. It was with this solu- tion the analyses above reported were made. This method of using- hydrog'en dioxide is the only accurate method g-iven'for the separation of zirconium and titanium. 'It is direct and rapid, delicate and eleg-ant, but expensive and by no means always convenient. I cannot close this summation without expressing- my g-reat indebtedness to Dr. F. P. Venable, for his ever ready sympathy with and kindness to me in this work. I wish also to express my thanks to Dr. Chas. Mar- chand, 28 Prince st., New York, for six pounds of 72 volume hydrogfen peroxide, with which he kindly pre- sented me. 33. Mass. Inst. Technolog-y Quarterly, V-123. 34. Ibid, 131. 32. Anneles de Chemie de Physique, [2] 10-114, 335, 11-85. ELISHA MITCHELIv SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 69 PRIMITIVE STREAK AXD BLASTOPORE OF THE BIRD EMBRYO. BY H. V. WILSON. Embryologistrj, with but few exceptions, recognize in the bird embryo a g-astrula stag-e. There is, how- ever, a very considerable diversity of opinion as to just what constitutes the g-astrula. Leaving aside certain interpretations for which at present there seems no g-ood ground, we find there are two ver}^ different views held regarding the nature of this embryonic stage. According to the older view, advanced b}^ Balfour and Rauber, the essential difference between the bird gastrula and the fish gastrula is that a part of the original edge of the blastoderm, is in the bird turned in to form the primitive streak. Thus while in the fish the blastopore is represented b}^ the blastoderm edge, in the bird it is represented by the primitive streak plus the blastoderm edge. This theoretical view receives the support of the well known researches of Duval on the germ layers of birds\ Duval finds that the verv 3^oung blastoderm of the bird is similar to that of fishes. In both, the ectoderm and entoderm are continuous round the edge, which therefore corresponds to the blastopore. But this precise similarit}^ is onlv tran- sient, for in the bird the primitive streak soon makes its appearance. The manner in which the primitive streak is formed proves conclusively that it is onlv a modified part of the blastoderm edge. The voung blastoderm (fish-like stao-e) grows centrifusfallv at all 1, De la formation du blastodertne dans I'oeuf d'oiseau. Annales des Sciences Nat. Zoolog-ie. T. XVni.. 1884. 5 70 JOURNAL OF THE points except at that which corresponds to the future tail end of the embryo. By this means a certain por- tion of the blastoderm edoe becomes turned in on each side of the median line in the posterior reg-ion, the two portions running forwards side by side to the point already mentioned, where no centrifugal growth occurs. These two portions fuse and form the primitive streak, which thus at first extends to the very edge of the blastoderm. Now, however, centrifugal grow^th be- gins at the posterior pole of the blastoderm, and the primitive streak gradually takes up its well known position at a distance from the edge. In opposition to this view Oscar Hertwig, Rabl, and others claim that the blastoderm edge is not a part of thegastrula mouth, but is a peculiarity of certain meso- blastic ova, and that the blastopore is represented ex- clusivel}^ by a structure known as the sickle plus the primitive streak. This doctrine is based on the belief that an ingrowth or invag'ination of cells takes place onh^ in the region of the sickle and streak, and not round the edge of the blastoderm. In a paper on the develop- ment of teleost fish I have already attempted a criti- cism of this view^ and will onl}^ add that it is to my own mind in direct contradiction with the admirable account given by Duval of the formation of the primi- tive streak. On the other hand it receives support from the discoveries of Kupffer on the reptilian embryo, and from Roller's description of the way the streak is formed in the bird embryo. According to Roller's account^ which is adopted by 2. The Einbrvology of the Sea Bass. Bulletin U. S. Fish Commis- sion. Washing-ton. 1891, pp. 268-271. 3. Beitrdg-e zur Kenntniss des Hiihnerkeims in Beginne der Bebrii- tung. SB. der Konig. Akad. d. Wiss Wien. 1879. — Untersuchungen iiber die Blatterbildung in Htihnerei. Archiv fiir Mikros, Anat. Bd. XX. 1881. KI^IGHA MITCHELI. SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 71 Hertwio- in his text book, there very early developes a sickle-shaped thickening' which lies between the area pellucida and the area opaca, in the po sterior reoflon of the blastoderm. A g-roove, the sickle g'roove, is present in this thickening, and in the median line there is a short anterior projection called the sichel-kuopf. The prim- itive streak is produced b}' the continuous g-rowth in the median line, of the sichcl-kuopf\ and is therefore an outg'rowth of the sickle. Since neither the sickle nor the primitive streak is at an}- time connected with the blastoderm edg-e, the latter structure cannot be reg-arded as a part of the blastopore, which is repre- sented exclusiveU^ by the two former structures. The, contradiction between Duval's and Roller's ac- count concerns a fundamental feature of the process of g-astrulation, and more facts on the early history of the bird blastoderm are much to be desired. Duval him- self, in his criticism of Roller's papers (1. g.), states it as his opinion that the sickle is an inconstant feature, of no morpholog-ical importance, belong-ing- in the same categ'ory as other local thickening-s of the blastoderm. I may mention that I have myself looked througfh very 3^oung- blastoderms, in which the primitive streak was from one-half to two-thirds the leng-th of the area pellucida, without discovering^ in the majority of them any trace of the sickle. I am aware that Roller describes the sickle as becoming' much less conspicuous with the continued g'rowth of the streak, but his fig-ures of blastoderms^ corresponding- in ag'e to mine, show an evident remnant of the sickle, while I can find no trace of such a structure in the majority of ni}' embryos. Roller, it will be remembered, kept his eg'gfs at a 4. SB. d. Konig-. Akad. d. Wiss. 1879, Beitrag". &c.. fig-s. IV. a. IV. b. V 72 JOURNAL OF THE temperature below the normal temperature of incuba- tion, in order to lessen the rapidity of development. A certain percentag'c of abnormalities was to have been expected from the use of the temperature below the normal, and I have satisfied myself that at 35° various kinds of abnormalities do occur. Out of a considerable number of young- blastoderms, incubated at 35°, while the majority showed no trace of the sickle, in a few cases the primitive streak exhibited abnormalities sugf- g-esting- more or less strongfly the sickle. Surface views of two of these blastoderms are g-iven in Fig's. 1 and 2. In the primitive streak of Fig\ 2, I could not make out the primitive gfroove, but the g-roove was very evident in the sickle at the posterior end of the streak. (Kupffer and Benecke'^ g-ive a wood-cut iig-ure of a chick blastoderm, quite like m}^ fig-ure 2, except that the primitive gfroove is shown. While they incline to the belief that the sickle in such a blastoderm is of morpho- log-ical importance, they admit that it was only rarely that such blastoderms were found.) In the blastoderm shown in Fig*. 1, the g-roove was conspicuous, both in the streak and in the transverse outgfrow^ths of the streak. This blastoderm was sectioned long'itudinally. A median section througdi the streak is shown in Fig\ 3. The transverse g-roove is deep; the hypoblast is differentiated as a distinct layer; the epiblast and meso- blast are mdisting-uishably fused. In Fig-. 4 is repre- sented a section l3^ing- in the plane x-y of Fig- 1. In this reg-ion the transverse g-roove is as deep as in the median section, but the three layers are separate. Mv feiilure to find the sickle in blastoderms where, according- to KoUer it should be present, and the obser- 5. Die ersten Entwicklung-s vorg-ang-e am Ei der Reptilien. Koiiig-s- berg. 1878. p. 11. ELISHA MITCHEI^Iv SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 73 vation of abnormalities resembling in a measure the sickle, incline me to accept Duval's view of this struc- ture, and with him to regard it as an inconstant feature of no morphological importance. Hertwig, in his paper on " Urmundraiid Spina bifi- da,'' (1892), touches on the question of meroblastic gas- trulation, and it would seem that he no longer believes in the existence of Roller's sickle. For in his brief sketch of the manner in which the primitive streak is formed, he follows Duval, and represents the streak as arising by the coalescence the blastoderm edges. He therefore comes to regard the edge of the young blas- toderm as the blastopore. Hertwig does not look on the entire edge of the young blastoderm as the blastopore, but for some reason unknown to me divides it into a blastoporic part and a part designated as the Uinvjachsungsrand , hy which name he formerly (text-book) meant the entire blastoderm edge. The edge of the teleost blastoderm is likewise divided into blastopore and iimzjachsiDigs- raiid. This division is surprising, for round the entire edge of the teleost blastoderm there is an ingrowth of cells, just as there is round the blastopore lip of the amphibian embryo. And the existense of such an in- growth is undoubtedly a ver}^ strong argument for re- garding the whole edge as the blastopore* It would be interesting to learn the facts that have induced Pro- fessor Hertwig to divide the edge of the teleost blasto- derm in this manner. But if Hertwig has come to regard the edge of the blastoderm, or any part of it, as representing the ur- miDidraiid in the bird embr3^o, it would seem that he must have abandoned his former views on eastrulation 74 JOURNAIv OF THE in the Sauropsida, and have taken a long- step towards the position of Balfour and Rouber. Chape:l Hill. North Carolina. Explanation of the fig-ures illustrating- Mr. Wilson's pa- per on "Primitive Streak and Blastopore of the Bird Em- bryo": Fig-. 1. Surface view of abnormal chick blastoderm. + 1^^. Fig-. 2. " " + 16. Fig-. 3. Median long-itudinal section through the primi- tive streak of Fig. 1. X 90. Fig. 4. Longitudinal section through line x-y of Fig. 1, X 90. a.— anterior. p. ^posterior. ep.— epiblast mes.— mesoblast. hyp.— hypoblast. Pr. str. — primitive streak. ADDITIONS TO THE ERYSIPHEiE OF ALA- BAMA. BY GEO. F. ATKINSON. In Vol. VII, II, of this Journal was published a list of the Erysipheae, collected b}^ the writer, from the Carolinas and Alabama. During the following 3^ear several more species were collected in Alabama by the writer and one of his students. The former list was accompanied with quite full notes of a descriptive character. In the present list only such notes are added as seem necessary in addition to the characterizations found in descriptive works: ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. /O Spccroiheca casfag'jiei Lev. On Erectites hieracifolia, Nov. 5, 91; and Bidens frondosa, Nov. 3, 91, B. M. Dug-g-ar, collector. S, IcDiestris Hark. On Quercus alba, Dec. 91, G. F. A. The conidial stage only was found. jErisip/ic cichoraccaruni D C. On Helianthus annuus, Oct. 19. 91, B. M. D. Aster tradescantia, Nov. 31; A. diifusus, Nov. 30; Mikania scandens, Oct. 26. and Solanum carolinense, Nov. 10, 91, G. F. A. E. galcopsidis D C. On Verbena urticifolia, Oct. 23, 91, B. M. D. E. Uriodei2dri Schwein. On Iviriodendron tulipifera, Oct. 28, 91, B. M. D. Phyllactinia siiffulta ("Reb.^ Sacc, On Cornus florida, Nov. 3; Cornus sp. undtd, Oct. 18. Podospcrra biiDicinata C. & P. On Hamamelis virginiana, Oct 28, 91, B. M. D. P. oxaccnitha' fDC). Prunus americantis var. mollis, Oct. 31, 91, B. M. D; Crata^g-us. Nov. 9, D. H. Benton. Microsphara son Host a B. & C. Tecoma radicans, Oct. 19, 91, G. F. A. This species has heretofore been reported onl}^ on Cephalanthus occi- dentalis. The perithecia are a little larg-er than those I have observed on Cephalanthus, measuring- 90 to 115. The appendag-es in well matured specimens are very characteristic. M. cuphorbicc B. & C. On Euphorbia preslii, Oct. 21, 91, B. M. D. M. ravenelii B. On Gleditschia tricanthos, Oct. 13, 91, G. F. A. 76 JOURNAIv OF THE M. vacciuii C. & P. / On Vaccinium, Oct. 18, 91, B. M. D. M. gross tilarice (Wallr.)- On Sambucus canadensis, Oct. 13, 91, G. F. A. In the previous list this occurred as was g-iven as M. van- bruntiana Ger. The measurements are tjfiven in terms of the micro- millimeter. Botanical Department, Cornell University. SOME SEPTORLE FROM ALABAMA. BY GEO. F. ATKINSON. The species of Septoria enumerated in this list were collected during- my connection with the Alabama Poly- technic Institute at Auburn, Ala. The list is not larg-e, perhaps from the fact that no especial effort was made to collect the members of the genus. Where nt> name is g-iven as collector they w^ere collected by myself. Where no locality is g"iven Auburn should be under- stood . Scf)toria brtincllce E. & H. On Prunella vulg-aris, July 16, 90, Shorters. The specific name of this plant was given from a mistaken spelling- of the g-enus Prunella which has crept into many American botanical works. See Coville, Bot. Death Valley Expedition, p. 176. S. cerastii Rob. et Desm. On Cerastium arvense. Mar. 25, 91. Perithecia not very black, probably because they are not very old. The spores are a little stouter than the description calls for, and are faintly 1-5 septate. The spores in the EIvISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. t i specimen in Roumo-. Fung-. Gall. Exs. 2485, are also faintly 1-5 septate; the perithecia are very black but a^ree with the Alabama specimens in being- rather an- gfular in outline. S. rubi West. On cultivated Rubus, Aug-. 8, 90. S. riibi var alba Peck. On Rubus trivialis, Apr. 91, Mobile, Zimmer Bros. The leaves are also affected with Cercospora rubi West, and Caeoma nitens. S. virg-aHvci' Desm? On Solidag-o seratina. There is some doubt about the correct determination of this plant. It seems near this species, but the spores measure 30 - 40 and are f ainth^ 3-5 septate. Perithecia small 50 - 75. Spots small, whitish, depressed, dark bordered. S. erechtites E. & E. On Erechtites hieracifolia, Sept 10, 91, B. M. Dug-g-ar. S. oenotJiera West. On GEnothera biennis, S. dianthi West. On Dianthus barbatus, S. specular ice B. & C. On Specularia perfoliata, Mar 28, 90. S. jiissicecc E.'& K. On Jussisa leptocarpa, July 24, 91, Dug-g-ar and New- man. S. sambucina Pk. On Sambucus canadensis, Aug- 24, 91, B. M. D. S. sojiclihia Thiim. On Sonchus oleraceus, Feb. 25, 91, B. M. D. S violce West. Viola primulsefolia. Julv 16, 90, Shorters. 6 78 JOURNAL OF THE S. xcDiUiii Dcsm. On Xaiithium, Jul\^ 11, W, Uiiiontowii. ^V. graniiuum Desm. On Panicum sano-uinale, Aug-. 19, 91, B. M. D. Spots brown, elon<^ate, irret>fular or involving* the larg-er part of the terminal portion of the leaf. Perithecia amphi- g-enous, more abundan,tly epiphyllous black, frequently depressed when dr3% 80 -90. Spores hyalines, slender, larg-er at base, soon tapering- into a long-, very slender, strong-ly curved flag'ellum, 2- 10 septate. Very young- ones are narrowly obclavate with the smaller end little curved and 1-2 septate, lli in diameter at base, 30 - 70 long-. S. alabaincusis n. sp. OnNepetag-lechoma, Jan. 29, and Feb. 27, 91. Spots indefinite, occupying- irregfular portions of the leaf. Perithecia 80-90. Spores 20-30x1 or less, some- times faintly 1-3 septate, staig-ht or slig-htl}^ curved or flexuous. The measurements are g-iven in terms of the micro- millimeter. Botanical Department, Cornell University. ADDITIONAL NOTE ON THK FUNGI OF BLOWING ROCK, N. C. In making- out the list of fung-i from Blowing- Rock, which was published in Part 2, Vol. IX, of this Journal, two species were overlooked. They are as follows: Cordxccps acicularis Rav. On larva of elaterid beetle. C}io))io)uclkt coryli (Batsch.) Sacc. On leaves of Corylus. Geo. F. Atkinson. ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 79 AX EXAMINATION OF THE CHLORIDES OF ZIRCONIUM. BY F. P. VENABLE. A chloride of zirconium of definite composition would prove a v^aluable compound for determining* the atomic Aveig'ht of the element. There are several difficulties in the way of securing- such a result: 1. The tendency to form basic chlorides. 2. The ease with which h3^drochloric acid is lost throug-h the action of heat and of dehydrating- ag-ents. 3. The presence of free hvdrochloric acid. 4. The deliquescent nature of the chlorides. It is particularly desirable that the conditions under which a definite chloride can be formed should be dis- covered, as zirconium seems to yield no very satisfac- tor}^ compounds for the determination of the atomic weig-ht. There have been many efforts at finding- out these exact conditions. Most text-books state that anhydrous, pure zirco- nium tetra-chloride can be prepared by passing- drv chlo- rine over a mixture of charcoal and zirconia heated to a hig-h temperature. Hermann used this sublimed zirco- nium chloride for the determination of the atomic weig-ht. As Clarke says, however, little confidence can be placed in his results. Bailey'"' has recorded that even with g-reat care to avoid the presence of moisture, he was unable to prevent the formation of ox3xhlorides. He also says that in no case was it found possible to prepare the chloride free from iron and silica. The *Chem. News. EX.. 17. 80 JOURNAL OF THE necessity for the presence of these in the materials used or in the resulting- compound is not very apparent. I have as yet had no opportunity of repeating his experi- ments. The chh)rides most commonly worked with have been those formed by the solution of the hydroxide in hydro- chloric acid, followed by precipitation or crystallization from concentrated hydrochloric acid. Berzelius attempted to remove the excess of hydro- chloric acid b}^ heating- the salt to 6iP C. but was not able to obtain a definite compound. Two analyses gave: ZrO. 0.332 0.485 AgCl 0.661 1.076 The silver chloride should be about two and one- third times as much as the oxide. Paykull dried the salt between filter paper and found the composition of the cr3^stals to be ZrOCL. 8H2O, the amorphous form precipitated by hydrochloric acid being 2ZrOCl,. I3H3O. Endemann has described basic or oxychlorides ZraOCU; ZrOClOH, and Zr808Cl7(OH)9; Troost and Hautefeuille have described others, Zr203Cl2 and Zr2- OClo- In fact water is so easily taken up and hydro- chloric acid lost that a large number of such indefinite compounds might be prepared by slightly varying the conditions. Nylander'^' made a series of attempts at dehydrating- the chloride. He prepared the chloride by dissolving- the hydroxide in hydrochloric acid and evaporating- to crystallization. The salt formed white needles, easily *Bidrag- till kinnedomen om Zirkonjord. Inaug-. Diss. Lund 1864. ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 81 soluble in water. They were washed with alcohol and for analyses I. and II. were pressed between filter paper. III. and IV. were dried over sulphuric acid. The results were as follows: %r 27.56 95.69 30.11 31.78 CI 21.58 21.58 23.06 23.80 Loss (H2O; 50.86 52.78 46.83 44.12 or calculated on a dry basis: Zr 56.08 54.41 56.63 57.18 CI 43.02 45.59 43.37 42.82 Again preparations were made as before. I. was dried between filter paper, II. over sulphuric acid, III. was pressed between filter paper and then dried over sulphuric acid, IV. was dried a long-time over sulphuric acid. The analyses crave the following-: Zr 28.52 34.91 37.78 35.69 CI 21.93 26.09 25.87 21.74 IvOSS 49.55 39.10 36.35 42.57 or calculated on a dry basis: Zr 56.93 57.23 59.34 62.14 CI 43.07 42.77 40.66 37.86 Lasth' he allowed a solution of the chloride to evapo- rate over sulphuric acid, washed the crystals obtained with alcohol and pressed them between filter paper. Analyses crave: I. II. Zr 27.94 28.74 CI 27.32 26.67 Loss 44.74 42.62 82 JOURNAL OF THE or, calculated on a dr}' basis: Zr 50.36 50.04 Zr 38.50 CI 49.44 49.96 cu 61.50 The above results show that his preparations were indefinite oxychlorides or mixtures, in varying- propor- tions of zirconium tetrachloride and oxychloride. Bailey repeatedly crystallized the chloride from hy- drochloric acid, washed it with hydrochloric acid and then removed the free acid. 1. By washing- with a mixture of one part alcohol and ten parts of ether. 2. B\^ g-ently heating- the salt. 3. By exposing fhe finely divided salt at ordinary temperatures in a vacuous, dessicator over potash, until no hydrochloric acid appeared when air passed over it. The analysis was performed by dissolving- the salt in water and precipitating- the zirconia with ammonia, then acidulating- with nitric acid and precipitating' the chlorine l\y means of silver nitrate. B}^ method 2 a constant and prog-ressive diminution of chlorine was observed. Therefore no analyses were made. For the other methods he gives the results of the analyses by a statement of the ratio of Zr02 to A^-Cl: ZrO Berzeliu's determination Bailey's method 1: Method 2: Method 2 without washing-; ZrOCl Ag-Cl 1.991 2.260 2.206 2.179 2.226 2.260 2.264 2.245 2.309 2.285 2.350 ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 83 These preparations are evidenth^ mixtures also. Hermann'- states that the hydrated chloride, gotten in crystals on evaporating- its aqueous solution, becomes opaque at 50° C, g-iving- oif part of the water and half of the h3''drocliloric acid, and leaving- a basic chloride or oxychloride, ZvCU.ZrO,. I8H,0 or ZrOCl2.9H,0. The same compound is obtained in stellate g'roups of white silky prisms on evajDorating- a solution of the chloride. These cr3^stals, when heated, become w^hite and turbid and are converted into the anhydrous dioxy- chloride ZrCl4.2^r02. The conditions here are inexact, and thoug-h Hermann may have obtained these compounds, he would find it difficult to prepare them ag-ain. While it is perfectly true that an oxychloride is formed on the evaporation of an aqueous solution of the chloride, I have been unable to obtain the compounds he mentions. Ivinne- mann+ maintains that crystallization from hyhrochloric acid (sp. g"r. 1.17) and treatment with alcohol and ether g-ives a fine, crystalline, snow white, silky bodv, leaving- 50 per cent, of its weig-ht on ig-nition, and there- fore very nearly pure ZrCU which should leave 52.5 per cent. He claims that this is ''chiefl}^ a neutral, not a basic compound." My own experiments on the dehydration of this salt have extended over the past two ^ears, as opportunity was afforded. Several series of experiments were un- dertaken; some along- the lines attempted by others, and others b}' methods not tried before. In all the purified chloride, obtained by repeated crystallization from hy- drochloric acid was used, the salt being- still wet with "Watts Diet. V. p. 180. fChem. News. LH. 224. 84 JOURNAL OF THE the excess of the acid. There was no attempt at dry- ing this between filter paper. The method of prepar- ing- this salt has been fully described in a previous pa- per in \)i\^ Journal of Aiialytical and Applied Qliemis- Iry, 5, 551. In the first experiment this chloride was washed once with water and then put in a dessicator and dried over calcium chloride (porous dessicated). It remained in the dessicator about seven months. Kven after this lapse of time it still continued to show a slight loss in weight. It yielded, on analysis, 48.84 per cent. TaxO^. Another portion was placed in a jar over solid lumps of sodium hydroxide. After six weeks the loss was very slight. Careful ignition left a residue of Zr02, equivalent to 42/)9 per cent, of the original weight. There was found to be 24.44 per cent, of chlorine present. Again a portion was placed over calcium chloride and dry air was drawn over it at the rate of about fifty litres in the twenty-four hours for six months. After the first two months it was examined weekly by the interposition of a flask containing silver nitrate to see whether hydrochloric acid was still coming off. Kven after the lapse of so long a time as this it was found that the loss of hydrochloric acid continued, although it was slight. On analysis this gave TaxO^ 42.28 per cent, and CI. 24.35. Although the results in this, and the experiments immediately preceding, correspond fair- ly well they are unsatisfactory, as they point either to a mixture of chlorides or an oxychloride of very compli- cated formula, and hence unsuited for the ultimate aim of the research. Lastly a portion was placed over concentrated sul- phuric acid and the atmosphere above it exhausted occa- ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 85 sionally. This was kept up duringf two months of sum- mer weather. The loss in the last fifteen days was about .02 per cent, of the whole. The mass was pow- der3% with a slig-htly discolored crust. It was all sol- uble in water, however, and j^ielded a clear colorless solution. It contained 53.30 per cent of ZrOi. This corresponds ver^' nearly to the formula ZrCL and is altog-ether at variance with the results obtained by Ny- lander and with the assertion made by Hermann, that half of the h3'drochloric acid was lost over sulphuric acid. This last experiment showed the possibility of secu- ring- pure zirconium chloride, provided the excess of hy- drochloric acid could be removed. It was thoug-ht that this mig-ht be done by heating- in an atmosphere of hy- drochloric acid. A weig-hed flask was so arranged that it could be kept at a definite temperature while a stream of dry hydrog-en chloride was passing- throug-h it. The temperature rang-ed from 100<^ to 110° C.and the chlo- ride placed in the flask melted, solidifying- agfain after the loss of the water and excess of hydrochloric acid. If the dr^^ing- was done slowl}' enoug-h fine crystals of zirconium chloride were g-otten which lost no further weig-ht on being- kept at 100° C. A more rapid drying- left a hard white mass which was quite hygroscopic. Heating this mass for several days did not cause any diminution in weight, provided the flask was kept full of hydrogen chloride. If the mass was heated even a short time in the absence of h^^drogen chloride then further heating caused a continuous loss of weight even in the presence of a rapid stream of h3'drogen chloride. After this it was impossible to secure a constant weight. This method of drving has been tried repeatedly on 7 86 JOURNAL OF THE various preparations, and I reg^ard them as'showing- con- clusively that a neutral chloride of zirconium can be prepared and dried. Analyses of this chloride ^ave the following- percent- ag-es of ZrO^: 52.7(» 52.78 52.63 Experiments have already been beg^un with a view of utilizing* this b(xly in a series of experiments looking" to a revision of the atomic vveig'ht of zirconium. In connection with this subject it may be well to mention some improvements in the method of purifying" zirconium chloride. (See Journal of Analytical and Applied Chemistry, 5, 551). In the first place the separation from silica by evapora- tion to dryness is not complete. It is impossible to heat this chloride to the necessary temperature without such a decomposition as will render the zirconium chloride also insoluble. It is best then to make this preparation as thoroug-h as possible by heatingf, then to chang-e the chloride into oxide by ig-nition, and to treat this several times with hydrofluoric acid until the trace of silica is all driven off. This silica is too small in amount to interfere with ordinary uses but would have to be re- moved where perfect purity was demanded. Ag-ain, where the hydroxide is dissolved in dilute hy- drochloric acid, or contained so much water that the acid was g-reatly diluted b}^ it, it will be found that more or less of a white insoluble powder will form on evaporation as recomfnended on a water-bath and on subsequent treatment with boiling- strong" hydrochloric acid. By a careful arrangfement of g-lass wool in a hot water funnel the dissolved chloride can be filtered ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 87 awa}' from this soluble mass. It seems to be quite in- soluble in hydrochloric acid thoug-h easih' dissolved b}^ water. Anal^'sis shows that this mass is ^rOCl2 and with it was found as an impurity whatever silica the separation by heating- failed to remove. Lasth% my assistant. Dr. Baskerville. has shown that much time and hydrochloric acid will be saved if in the solution containing much iron the zirconium h}'- droxide be first precipitated out by means of sulphur dioxide. This precipitate can then be dissolved in acid and purified b\' cr^'stallization as already- recommended. Of course it need scarcely be mentioned that if silica has been removed by ignition and treatment with hydro- fluoric acid, it will be necessary to fuse once more with caustic alkali and repeat the ordinarv purification. University of North Carolina. SOME ATTEMPTS AT THE FORMATION OF ETHYL GLUCOSIDE. J. R. HARRIS. Glucosides are substances ocurring in nature in plants and are supposed to be ethereal derivatives of the g-lucoses. Under the action of dilute acids or ferments they break up into g-lucose and other bodies. A num- ber of these ethereal derivatives of glucose can be pre- pared synthetically in the laboratorv. A. MichaeP obtained them by the action of alcoholic solution of acetochlorh3'drose upon the alkali salts of phenol. 1. Compt. rend. 89, 355. SS JOURNAL OF THE The formatian of Helicin according^ to the following: equation would be an example of this method: CgHt- ClO.fC H30)4 -h C7H3O.K -h 4aH.O = Ci3Hi60-+KCl-h 4CzH5C2H30,. Emil Fischer^ has recently discovered a new method of formin^f these derivatives, and has prepared com- pounds of methyl, ethyl, propyl, amyl, isopropyl, alh'l and benzo}^ gducose. Also analoo^ous compounds of arabinose, methyl-arabinoside. These do not reduce Fehlino-'s solution; they break up into g-lucose and the corresponding alcohol on treat- ment with dilute acids or ferments, and behave in every way similarly to the natural ^lucosides. I proposed to form them by the action of alkyl iodide upon the sodium o-lucosate according- to the fol- lowing- equation: C^Hi.NaO, + C,HJ - C,H,,0,.C,H, + Nal. For this experiment, the ethyl g-lucoside was chosen, as the materials for its preparation were already on hand, and because in all probability the method would work as well for this one as an}' other member of the series. The insolubility of sodium g-lucosate in all neutral anhydrous mediums on hand, was recog-nized at the outset of this work to be a g-reat obstacle in the way of the successful operation of the method. As a preliminary test, 15 g-rs. of anhydrous g-lu- cose was taken and g-ently boiled for some time with 150 c. c. of about 97 per cent, alcohol. This so- lution, when saturated, was poured off into a largfe flask in which the precipitation was to be made, and kept warm by standing- in a water bath, in order to prevent the g-lucose from crystallizing". 2. Ber. 26, 2400. ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 89 Another portion of 150 c. c. of alcohol was poured upon the residue and g-ently boiled as before. When the hot alcohol seemed no longer to have an}^ solvent action upon the residue, it was carefully decanted off into the precipitating- flask. About half the amount of glucose taken went in solu- tion by this treatment. The alcoholic solution was then precipitated with an excess of sodium alcoholate, and allowed to stand over nig-ht. An amount of ethyl iodide equivalent to the sodium alcoholate used was then added direct to the alcoholic solution containing- the suspended precipitate of sodium gflucosate. The mixture was now g-radually warmed up on a water bath, with a reflux condenser attached to prevent loss of eth\^l iodide. At about 75° C. the mixture begfan to deposit a red- dish brown substance upon the bottom of the flask, and the solution to changfe to yellow color. At about 80° C. the mixture boiled, and the deposition on the bottom of the flask was more rapid, it being- complete in about twenty minutes, leaving- a dark brown supernatant liquid. A portion of the liquid was taken out and allowed to stand for some time over freshly ig-nited potassium carbonate, but no absorption of iodine was noticed. This, and the remaining- portion in the flask, was then filtered throug-h animal charcoal. A liquid of a pale brown color was obtained, which reduced Feh- ling-'s solution. It was not thought that the change would be com- plete, so it was impossible to tell by this means whether or not the glucoside had been formed. It was then evaporated in a water bath to a syrupy consistence, and the syrup extracted several times with acetic ether. 90 JOURNAL OF THE The acetic ether extract was evaporated in a dessicator over sulphviric acid. By this means beautiful crystals were obtained, how- ever, colored somewhat by the brownish syrup. These crystals were tested by the flame test for sodium, and starch paste for iodine. They were clearly shown to be sodium iodide. The g'lucose used in this experiment was thoug-ht to be impure, and besides it was probable that another test, under somewhat different conditions, would ^ive more satisfactory results. In his work on g-lucosides, Fischer^ dissolves the g\u- cose in a little water, and besides, water is formed in the reaction which he made use of, hence I concluded that it was not absolutely essential for the materials used to be water free. It accordingly started another experiment, using- pure anhydrous o;lucose* of my own preparation dissolved in a little water. Fifteen g-rams of g"lucose was dissolved in 5 c. c. of hot water and the solution added to 300 c. c. of 98 per cent, alcohol. This solution was precipitated by an equivalent amount of sodium alcoholate. The precipitate was rapidly filtered off by means of a pump, exposed to air as little as possible, washed with 98 per cent alcohol and transferred to the precipitating- flask. The precipitate was now suspended in 300 c. c. 98 per cent alcohol and an amount of ethyl iodide added equivalent to the sodium ethylate. The mixture was now carefully heated up on a water-bath, with frequent shaking-. 3 Ber. 26, 2400. 4. Made by the method of Soxhlet J. pr. ch. 21, 245, as g-iven in Emil Fischer's book on Org-anic Preparations, and purified by recrys- tallization from stron^r alcohol. ELISHA MITCHELL SCIEXTIFIC SOCIETY. 91 It was noticed that the chang'e beg"an [to take place as before, at about 70° C, b}^ the brownish deposit at the bottom and sides of the flask, as the flask was this time immersed in hot water, taking- care that the mixture should not come to boilmg-. The g-reater portion collected on the bottom as a dark brown semi-syrup at that temperature, and the super- natant liquid was straw colored. The chang-e w^as complete on heating" for 30 minutes just below the boiling- point of the mixture. The liquid in the flask now had a strong- smell of eth\d iodide, and reduced Fehling-'s solution. About half was poured into a smaller flask provided with a reflux condenser and g-ently boiled in a water bath for three hours. At the end of this time the smell of the ethyl iodide did not seem to have dimin- ished, and it still reduced Fehling-'s solution. It was then evaporated on a water bath to a syrupy consistency, and the S3^rup extracted with a mixture of equal parts alcohol and ether, benzen, petroleum ether and acetic ether. No crystal of sodium iodide could be obtained, and only a thick syrup which powerfully re- duced Fehling-'s solution. The other portion of the liquid was then transferred to a distilling- flask and fractioned. A few c. c. came over between 74° and 78° C. and was mainly C2H5OH. Most of the alcohol comes over between 78° and 82° C, leaving- a dark brown syrup behind in the flask. The dark brow^n substance obtained as a deposit in the ope- ration was set aside for examination. Meanwhile an- other experiment was started, varying- the conditions somewhat. Fifteen g-rams of anhvdrous g-lucose was dissolved in 400 c. c. boiling absolute alcohol. The solution 92 JOURNAIy OF THE cooled somewhat, and an equivalent amount of sodium ethylate added, and rapidly cooled to the same tempera- ture. The precipitate was filtered off by means of pump and washed with absolute alcohol, avoiding- all exposure to the air possible. It was then transferred to the pre- cipitating- flask and an equivalent amount of eth}^ iodide added. The mixture in the flask provided with a reflux con- denser, was g-radualh^ warmed up to boiling*. The chang-es first noted were the formation of a dark brown deposit on the bottom of the flask at about 70° C, a coloring- of the liquid, and at the same time a diminu- tion of the precipitate. Finally, at the boiling point of the mixture, the precipitate appeared to become sticky, and to collect into one mass, instead of being; flocculent, and to gradually get smaller and smaller, both going into solution and coloring- it a dark brown and melting- down to a semi-syrup on the bottom of the flask. The, time, in this test, for the chang-e was one hour; much longer than in the former experiments. The liquid in the flask was divided into two portions, one of which was boiled in a flask with a reflux condenser for several hours, and no chang-e was observed. It reduced Fehling-'s solution and had a strong- smell of eth^d iodide. The portions were now combined and submitted to fractional distillation. About half of the amount of eth}^ iodide used was recovered in the fraction coming- over between 74° and 780 C. The alcoholic fraction emitted still a strong smell of the iodide. Hence it seemed that the ethyl iodide had played no part in the change undergone by the sodium glucosate. The residue left in the flask from the experi- ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 93 ment was treated withbenzen. ether, petroleum ether and chloroform, but none of these had any appreciable sol- vent action. It was then dissolved in water, a portion of the solution evaporated to dryness in a platinum dish, dried to constant wei^'ht, and then i^rnited at a low red heat. Weight of dish and substance, - - 24.9115 gr. AVeio-ht of dish, ------- 23.8732 Weicfht of substance taken, - - 1.0383 '^^ Weio-ht of ash and dish, - - 24.1276 ^r. Weio-ht of dish, . - . - 23.8732 . Weig-ht of ash, - - - - 2644 To ash, 34.50 per cent. This was recog"nized as sodium carbonate, and is equivalent to 10.63 per cent sodium. The percentag^e of sodium calculated for sodium g"lu- cosate is 11.37 per cent.; found in this syrup 10.63 per cent. Hence it must be a modification of gflucosate. In conclusion it is hardh^ necessary to say that the neg"ative results of the above experiments do not prove the impractibility of the reaction proposed. It remains, however, to find some neutral anhydrous medium in which sodium g-lucosate is soluble and b}^ which it is not decomposed, as in most chemical reactions of this character the reacting- bodies must be either liquid or in solution. 94 JOURNAL OF THE ON THE GEOLOGICAL HISTORY OF CER- TAIN TOPOGRAPHICAL FEATURES EAST OF THE BLUE RIDGE. COLLIER COBB. The peculiar forms of the topoofraphic outliers of the Blue Ridg-e. extending- across North Carolina from Kinof's Mountain on the south to Pilot Mountain on the north, attracted my attention when a boy, and in May, 1892, I visited the region and beg-an a study of the King-'s Mountain district under the direction of Profes- sor N. S. Shaler. The entire summer was spent on the field, as well as the larg-er portion of the follow- ing- summer and two of my winter vacations. The precipitous faces of the mountains, lying- at two well-marked levels, sug-g-ested to me wave action, and I beg-an mv work upon the hypothesis that these out- liers had been islands in a sea of no g-reat depth, at a date comparatively late, when the ag-e of the rocks com- posing- the mountains Is taken into consideration. The accompanying- g-eologfical section, from what was form- erly known as Bird's Quarry, in the present villag-e of King-'s Mountain, westward across the mountain, I have adapted from Lieber, putting- in the quartzite which forms the crest of the mountain, lying* above Lieber's " mica slate." The order of succession of these rocks is, beg-inning- with the newest, limestone, talc-schist, a white sandstone passing- into a slig-htly flexible variety, micaceous shale, diorite-schist, talc-schist, quartzite, and micaceous shale, the last resting- on a g-ranitic rock which outcrops on Crowder's creek at the eastern foot of the mountain. SECTION EAST AND WEST THROUGH KING'S MOUNTAIN. [There is a marked unconformity' between the limestones and the schists not shown in Lieber's section.] ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY: 95 Kinuf's Mountain, Crowder's Mountain, and the hills to the north on the old Lincolnton road, are the western members of a southward plunging syncline while the hills to the east of H'.gh Shoals, Dallas ami Gastonia, are the eastern members, the same hard crest making the crest of them all. On the eastern side of the s^^ncline the dip to the west is not great, averaging not more than fifteen degrees; while the eastward dip on the King's Mountain side is usualh' between thirty degrees and forty-five degrees. The eastern hills are low, rising very little above the surrounding country, which varies little from nine hundred feet above tide, and they show none of the topographic features so prominent on the western side, where King's Mountain rises to a height of 1692 feet, and Crowder's Mountain 1606 feet. The level of nine hundred feet is a base- level of erosion, clearly marked, and extending entirely across the State, from north to south, and just above " the fall-line " to the base of the Blue Ridge moun- tains. The evidences of wave action upon and at the base of these cliffs is clear and unmistakable. They con- sist of sea-caves, pinnacled rocks — man}- of the Devil's Pulpit type — washed-out dykes, crevices of the spout- ing horn sort, below which ma}' even yet be made out the old beaches which lav below the cliffs. These wave-markings are shown in the photographs of va- rious portions of King's and Crowder's mountains. These features are nearly all on the west side, the side awav from the dip. The best marked of these old sea-benches varies little from 1400 feet above sea-level. The next one that can be made out distinctly at all points is about 1000 feet above sea. I then made a search for the frag-mental material that % JOURNAL OF THE had accumulated durlntr the island existence of these mountains. There is a ^ood talus all around, rather more on the eastern side, where it is shino'h', than on the west. A search for the stratified deposits imme- diately around the mountains was not at first so suc- cessful; but in the cut of the Charleston, Cincinnati and ChicajLJfo railroad, at Blacksburg-, S. C, just back of the Cherokee Inn, is a ver}^ g-ood exposure showing- two or three feet of quartzite pebbles covered with about the same thickness of mottled clay closely resem- bling- the Miocene clays of eastern North Carolina. Later, I found the same strata of quartzite pebbles and clays in the old cutting- at the Catawba Gold Mine, about one mile from the mountain, and also pebbles, clays and reg-ular stratified sands in a basin like regfion on the road from All Healing- Springs to Gastonia, two miles southwest from Gastonia. The general absence of these deposits, however, is to be explained by their looseness, and the ease with which they could be washed awa}^ by the currents. The taluses have in every case, I think, been formed since the sea departed from the reg"ion, as the materials composing- them are ang-ular frag-ments, and never the round pebbles to be found in the deposits mentioned above. Not onl}^ have the de- posits of this time been largely washed away, but the older crystallines, which are here decayed to g-reat depths, have yielded readily to the rains wherever the land has been deforested. The accompanying- photo- g-raph, taken on the Gastonia road two and a half miles from All Healing Spring-, shows a gully twenty to thirty feet deep made b}' the rains since the Civil War when the field was abandoned. It ma}^ be noted that the trees which have come upon the field since its ELISHA MITCKKLL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 97 abandonment are none of them more than thirty years old, as shown by their ring-s of annual g-rowth. I could find in the King-'s Mountain reg'ion no means of determining- the approximate ag'e of these deposits, but when I extend my observations across the State to the Dan River and Pilot Mountain regions, I found there the same pebbles of quartz and qviartzite resting unconformably upon the brown sandstones of the New- ark s3'stem, while above the pebble-beds, and con- formable with them, were the same mottled clays that I had found in the King's mountain region. This established their date as certainly post-Triassic, and I should have been inclined to call them Cretaceous, had not an examination of the border of the Cretaceous in Harnett, Cumberland and Moore counties, convinced me b}^ the coarseness of the materials there that there was the western border of the Cretaceous, and that the beds of that age could not have extended as far westward as the region under consideration. It led me to the belief, however, that the base-levelling of the piedmont reg'ion must have been accomplished while the shore-line lay near the present western border of the Cretaceous rocks, or in Cretaceous time. And, while I am as vet unable to determine the exact ao-e of these deposits, I have at least found out that the pecu- liar shaping of these topographic outliers was the work of waves, and that it was accomplished in post- Cretaceous time. 98 JOURNAL ELISHA MITCHKLL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. DO SNAKES CHARM BIRDS? COLLIER COBB. On the 15th of May I happened upon an interest! nof thino- which throws some li^^-ht on the alle^'ed power of snakes to charm birds. A few days before this, a snake, ag-arter, {^Eutcoiia), about the size of a man's fing-erand little over ei«-hteen inches in leng'th, had been killed in the walk leading- from the New East Building- to the eastern side of the Universit}^ campus, at Chapel Hill. The head of the snake had been pushed into the hole made by the end of the cane with which it was killed, and the snake was in this position with its head pressed down in the hole, when I came upon it, surrounded by seven quails {Ortyx virj^'hihuMt). The quails were g-azing- upon the snake, very much as "charmed" chickens will g-aze upon the chalk line or the crack in barn floor, taking- no notice whatever of my presence until I lifted the snake up with a stick. They remained in the position in which I found them long- enoug-h for a boy to run from the Episcopal church to the walk, which must have taken two or three minutes. This observation is valuable as showing- that, in this instance at least, the "charming-" is in the bird itself, and is not a power possessed by the snake. >IPI 3 2044 106 256 ^^00 Date Due ^♦^ ir' X ^