—
-

mF Vos

~

FORTHE PROPLE
FOR EDVCATION
FOR SCIENCE

LIBRARY
OF

THE AMERICAN MUSEUM

OF

NATURAL HISTORY

LIBRARY

JOURNAL:

~J7
*

OF THE

Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society

VOL. XIV
1897

CHAPEL HILL, N. O.
PUBLISHED BY THE UNIVERSITY

Journal of the Mitchell Society.

CONTENTS.

VOL. XIV.

1897.

Notes on the Natural History of the Wilmington Region.—H. V.

PIE ee RI Os os RE sake oscars Ae te, kd. ne aac cad Re oe es 1
The Oxalates of Zirconinm. —F. P. Venable and Chas. Baskerville........ 4
The Halogen Salts of Zirconium.—I/". P. Venable and Chas. Basker-

ENON te cae Sih SAMMI Is Me aire Shaw og SCin 6 us Sade ha SL 12
The Glabrous-Leaved Species of Asarum of the Southern U. S.

og SOIL © oR oe RR A: SER OT a A SAE OER RNR ok Dy SOE 21
A Review of the Atomic Weight of Zirconium.—/’. P. Venable........... 27
Notes on Darhya and Buckleya.—W. W. Ashe... cece hice cceccecceccceceecs 46
Habs weyntoni pp. NOV.—W.-W. Ashes... 2.0. do xne Ronde eo oecdacenccedes 5L
On the Origin of the Vertebrated Sense Organs.—H. V. Wilson........... 56
nremeyare NAG MOEN eT AIS —— 5 FT COR. sos. 35005 So bees econ DN ee eS wk
Wellstite, a New Maneral. sik t AShe. a ea a ee 62
MP MN es rei Nace sick esc dskiensn ia odes awece etwas i PEE me Agee el omeeae 70
IMEEM eS Ga Pune Ne es fh IRR As v6 cau d goe Bua aed GeV ewhera ne oo EEE tae 72
Anthophyliite............. et es ARON ER ERE (SP. 24 Ge
TET GA RO ES a ee i SURED DoS a, Pk 75
HIMStAG (CBTONZICC):5. jiccoccce cccedassicaeeteccreses a deiddela deere sala aia Soe eemeneets Pama ts. ft
Pomerald Wary sve Ma 3 aes [See RUS ROE SIA MER Se FE 2 Sle Rep 89
UNS 02S ae ee Se i eP y ae eae Fe Phar thee eg ey Bey 80
© LUCIAN i SAMS Nore a8 Wy a RRS Ph abet NCEA (SP oy ch 82

3)

JOURNAL
OF THE

Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society.

VOLUME XIV. me eee PART “FIRS.

JANUAR Y-- JUNE.

1897.

POST OFFICE:
CHAPEL HILL, N. C.

ISSUED FROM THE UNIVERSITY PRESS
CHAPEL HILL, N. C.
1897

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

Notes on the Natural History of the Wilmington Region.

Fa OW ge WAlSODD. 5 gic ie oo a ik a, ponies) ae ne 1
The Oxalates of Zirconium. :

i; P. Venable and Charles Baskerville, ............5.0ee 4
The Halogen Salts of Zirconium. i

F. P. Venable and Charles Baskerville................ 12

The Glabrous-Leaved Species of Asarum of the Southern United
states. 1.) W. W. ASHE... 065, . 60% Sees 5 + a steels anna ens ena a1

JOURNAL

Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society.

FOURTEENTH YEAR—PART FIRST.

1ISO7.

NOTES ON THE NATURAL HISTORY OF THE
WILMINGTON REGION. _

H. V. WILSON,

A brief collecting trip to the vicinity of Wilmington,
N. C., made about the middle of April, oreatly impressed
me with the natural history advantages of the résionw.:, T
publish these few notes in the hope that they may be of
service to other naturalists who think of visiting the
Southern coast.

In Wilmington itself no one can fail to notice the ad-
mirable shade tree, the laurel oak (Quercus laurtfolia
Michx.), socommon along the streets. This tree in Wil-
mington passes under the name of water oak; in South
Carolina it is known as the Darlington oak. Its straight
bole, symmetrical top and moderate size vive it an ele-
gance of shape well suited to city streets, and the im-
pression of finish is heightened by the glossy aspect of
the toliage.

From the city there runs a most excellent road, eight
miles long, to Wrightsville, a settlement on the coast.
The road is a well kept shell road, smooth, hard, and
good for bicycling. Scrub oaks, elms, long-leaf pines
and cypresses edge it, and near the sound the full @reen
heads of the live oaks are seen on all sides. In the open

2 JOURNAL OF THE

meadow-like places (savannahs) to the right and left of
the road there grow in great abundance insectivorous
plants, the most interesting members, to the general bi-
ologist at least, of that rich Wilmington flora made
known through the labors of Curtis, Wood and other
systematic botanists. The yellow-flowered pitcher plant,
Sarracenia flava, dots the savannahs in all directions;
its great flower (four inches wide) upheld by a scape one
to two feet, making ita conspicuous object. The fly-trap,
Dionea, and sun-dew, Drosera, neither in flower at the
time of my visit, are scattered thickly about. Intermin-
g@led with these are a blue and yellow species of butter-
wort, Pinguicula, their bright flowers standing out
clearly against the (at this time) brownish savannah and
often leading one to patches of Dion@wa and Drosera,
which otherwise would have been passed by unnoticed.
These five insectivorous plants may sometimes be found
growing together in a little patch of ground, scarcely
larger than a square foot.

The topography of the Wrightsville district is that
characteristic of the Carolina coast, and in a less degree
of the Southern coast in gezeral. A sound separates the
mainland from a seaward strip of land, known as the
‘banks.’ Wrightsville, largely made up of houses occu-
pied only during the summer, is on the mainland. Oppo-
site it, on the banks, is a newer summer settlement.
Between the twe, the sound is crossed by a railroad tres-
tle, the piles of which afford good collecting.

The sound something less than-two miles wide, is
divided into a narrow outer portion, adjoining the banks
and known as the banks channel, and a wider inner por-
tion, studded with sandy-mud shoals. The banks chan-
nel 1s a narrow but pretty boating ground, opening out
to sea through two inlets, one recently made in a heavy
storm. Alone the inner edge of the channel lie some ise
lands, the ‘hammocks,’ wooded with live oaks, about

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 3

which jackdaws (Quéscalus major) were flying. This
bird is said to spend the winter here.

At high water one can sail over many of the shoals of
the inner part of the sound, but at low water the course
from the mainland to the banks channel is a meandering
one. ‘he shoals are alive with worms, Arezicola, Dio-
patra, Clymenella and other annelids, along with the
ereat Balanoglossus, were dug up in quick succession.
The reddish egg masses of Arenicola lay about in abund-
ance on the flats. The low water collecting in the shoal
part of the sound is very easy. Pushing along in a skiff
through the shallow channels between the flats, one finds
starfish (As/eréas), the red and white sea-urchins (Aréa-
claand Toxopneustes), abundant crabs and other common
bottom forms. Scattered about over the bottom in great
numbers is the interesting anemone, Certanthus america-
nus. ‘The tubes that were dug up were something over
a foot in length; they contained animals, which of course
had greatly contracted, about six inches long. This dis-
tinctively Southern actinia, originally found on the South
Carolina coast by Professor Louis Agassiz (Verrill, Re-
vission of the Polypi of E. Coast of U. S., p. 32. Mem.
Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., Vol. I.), has been observed by
Mr. Wm. Stimpson and Professor McMurrich at Beau-
fort, N. C., where I have seen it myself. It is, however,
far more abundant at Wrightsville, and any one wishing
to work out the life-history of this remarkable form could
find no better locality than the latter place. I may add
that the reproductive organs of the specimens I collected
were very small. The breeding season probably comes
on later.

Just before high water I towed in the neighborhbod of
the old inlet. As I had anticipated from previous expe-
riences in Beaufort harbor at this time of year, not much
of interest was in the water. Small hydromeduse, crus-
lacean larve, abundant Sagi//as, make up the tow stuff.
Later in the year, doubtless as at Beaufort, the towing is

4 JOURNAL OF THE

excellent. I am told that abundant large jelly-fish and
Portuguese men-of-war make their appearance in August
and September. rah

The sea-beach has a very gentle slope, and judging in
part from specimens sent me by. Mr. Chas. M. Whitlock,
of Wilmington, many things of interest are to be had just
beyond the line of breakers, where the sea is frequently
caJm enough to permit collecting. In the main the
Wrightsville fauna is evidently very similar to that of
Beaufort (see the lists in Studies of Biol. Lab. Johns Hop-
kins Univ., Vol. IV., No. 2, and the list of annelids by
Professor Andrews, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. Vol. XIV,,
No. 852). I may add that some of the local collectors
would recognize, froma description, many of the striking
forms, such as Chacloplerus, Chalina arbuscula, Lepto-
gorgia virgulata, all of which may be had here.’

1From Science N. S., Vol. VI. No. 135. July.30, 1897.

(CONTRIBUTIONS TO THI CHEMISTRY OF ZIRCONIUM. NO. 6.)

THE OXALATES OF ZIRCONIUM.

BY F. P. VENABLE AND CHARLES BASKERVILLE.

The text-books of chemistry make either very little or
no reference to the oxalates of zirconium. Beyond an
occasional reference to the oxalate or basic oxalate gotten
by precipitating oxalic acid or an oxalate, we can find lit-
tle mention of these compounds. Behrens, in his micro-
chemical work, speaks of an oxalate prepared as colorless
pyramids by precipitating a solution of zirconium sulphate
with potassium binoxalate, but no analyses are given, and
the crystals cceuld scarcely have been the pure oxalate.
Paykull’ speaks of double oxalates being prepared with

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 5

the alkaline oxalates (1:2) and of his failure to prepare
the neutral oxalate. His methods, and indeed full results,
are unknown to us, as we did not have access to the orig-
inal paper.

. We may summarize the work which follows in the suc-
ceeding pages by saying that we found it possible to pre-
pare the basic oxalates by precipitation. This was usu-
ally in the form of Zr(C,O,),, GZr(OH),, though other ratios
were gotten. The neutral oxalate we did not succeed in
preparing, but instead the tendency seems to be toward
the formation of the acid oxalate, Zr(C,O,),.H,C,O,.8H,O.
This tendency toward the formation of acid salts “was
shown also in the double oxalates. T'wo.of these were
prepared. For sodium, Zr(C,O,),,3Na,C,O,.H,C,O,.5H,O,
and for potassium the salt [Zr(C,O,),],.(K,C,O,),. H,C,O,.
8H,O.. The oxalate with amonium as a constituent was
not so easy of preparation in a pure state. The com-
pound secured was Zr(C,O,),.2(NH,),C,O,. The experi-
ments and analyses are given in detail.

ZIRCONIUM OXALATES.

The Oxalate Gotten by Precipfitation.—On the addition
of a saturated solution of oxalic acid to a slightly acid
solution of zirconium chloride until no further precipita-
tion occurred, a gelatinuous precipitate formed which had
very nearly the composition Zr(C,O,),.2Z4r(OH),. Analy-
sis I gave Zr, 46.39, and C,O,, 30.89, instead of the theo-
retical 46.40 and 30.93 respectively. The filtrate from
this was turbid, and on standing yielded another precipi-
tate which had nearly the composition 2Zr(C,O,),.3Zr
(OH),. :

The basic oxalates are very difficultly soluble in acids,
and of extremely fine subdivision, settling slowly and
passing through even the best filters. It does not seem
probable that they could be secured of very constant com-

1O0fv. af. Vet. At. Forhandl. ref. in Ber. d. chem. Ges., 12, 1719,

6 JOURNAL OF THE

position. Probably basic oxalates with many different
ratios between the oxalate and the hydroxide might be
secured. On drying at 100°, or even a little lower, the
oxalic acid is gradually volatilized and lost. This is true
of all the oxalates and double oxalates prepared so that.
the only mode of drying these preparations was between
filter paper.

The Acid Oxalate Prepared by Crystallization.—In
preparing this oxalate, zirconium hydroxide was dissolved
in oxalic acid. The hydroxide is quite soluble in oxalic
acid, and aconcentrated solution is readily obtained. <A
considerable excess cf the acid is required to hold the oxa-
late thus formed in solution. If this solution be acidified
by means of hydrochloric acid a very fine precipitate is
obtained settling very slowly, easily passing through the
best filter papers and insoluble even in a considerable
excess of the acid, but soluble in concentrated sulphuric
acid. ‘This precipitate was not analyzed, nor were the
exact conditions of its formation determined, as its exam-
ination did not promise results of sufficient importance to
justify overcoming the difficulties in the way.

Onevaporating the acid solution of the oxalate the excess
of oxalic acia first crystallized out. In the various prep-
arations made, the first one or two crops of long crystals
were found to be nearly pure oxalic acid, and were rejected.
Th n the form of the crystals changed to small granular
or prismatic masses, and with each succeeding crop of
crystals the percentage of zirconium increased, reaching —
speedily an approximately constant ratio. No difference
in the form of the crystals in these different crops could
be detected on superficial examination, and hence it was
impossible to distinguish between the zirconium oxalate
and the oxalic acid almost free of zirconium, except by
analysis. In no case was the normal oxalate secured.
The analyses showed a tendency toward the formation of
an acid oxalate and to mixtures of this with the normal
oxalate. These mixtures were gotten in the later crys-

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. bi
tallizations, but the last crystallization, when nearly the
whole would solidify into a crystalline mass, showed
decreased percentages of zirconium. It is possible that
larger amounts than we had at our disposal would enable
one to so fraction the crystalizations as to secure a pure
oxalate. It is, however questionable whether the normal
oxalate can exist in solution without admixture with some
oxalic acid. |

Four series of crystallizations were made, and in two
cases fairly abundant crops of crystals corresponding to
the acid oxalate were obtained. In each series enough of
the zirconium hydroxide was taken to form about twenty
erams ot the oxalate. |

First series. Second series.
Sixth faaction. Fifth fraction.
5 Il. mr. Zr(CagO4)o.HeCoO,q.
ES ae acaiese teks Glee UN, « 6 os > Se 25.28 20.53
ys AS ee 2 74.55 W512 74.47

These are calculated upon the water-free basis. The
crystals contained 29.34 and 29.27 per cent. of water
respectively, where the salt Zr(C,O,),.H,C,O,.8H,O con-
tains 28.90 per cent. Other crops of crystals contained
percentages of zirconium not ‘varying greatly from those
@iven above as 28.14, 27.62, 24.9, 23.83. The percentage
of zirconium in the normal oxalate is 33.96.

ZIRCONIUM SODIUM OXALATE.

The addition of sodium oxalate toa slightly acid solu-
tion of zirconium chloride gives a gelatinous white pre-
cipitate. Most of this dissolves in an excess of the oxa-
late. ‘The undissolved portion settles to the bottom, and
after prolonged standing, a second layer of a more pow-
dery appearance forms. This can also be gotten by con-
centration of the filtrate from the first precipitate. An-
alysis showed that the first gelatinous precipitate was
chiefly Zr(OH),. The second precipitate was a double
oxalate of zirconium and sodium, but was either of incon-

8 JOURNAL OF THE

stant composition (varying ratios of sodium to the zir-
conium), or was decomposed by the washing.
The analyses, calculated on a dry basis, gave:

IV. Wie VI.

Pere oreo pe es 53.12 46.86 41.98
ier ab eperan , 9.16 4.10 1.07
ea hanmetes NS Gam 38.06 39.64 42.95

If the solution made with the excess of the sodium oxa-
late was diluted considerably with water, a gelatinous pre-
cipitate was formed, very fineandinsoluble. Precipitates
were also formed by the addition of hydrochloric acid.
This mode of forming the double oxalate was abandoned,
and the following method was adopted with greater suc-
cess. Zirconium hydroxide was dissolved in an excess of
oxalic acid, and to this a concentrated solution of sodium
hydroxide was added, bringing it nearly to neutralization.
When the solution was concentrated an abundant
crop of crystals was obtained on cooling, a good dal ef
heat being evolved in the mixing. Further evaporation
yielded other crops of crystals. These were washed, dried
between filter paper andanalyzed. The results are given
in the following table:

VIL. VIII. OS. Calculated.
iC ere os - 18.14 17.46 WS 18.19
Pi Go os Wats. eile 12.59 12.66 12.78 11.93
an Od ae cae Oe 69.27 ° 66.89 69.47 69.88

These resuits show a somewhat wide variation from
those calculated. This probably arises from the fact
that the fractions were not composed of the crystals of a
single kind of oxalate, but had other oxalates mixed with
them in small amounts. Examined under a magnifying
olass they seemed to be homogeneous, but the different
crops could not be distingu’shed from one another. They
were all small, hard prismatic crystals, somewhat difh-
cultly soluble in water. One set of crystals, the aualy-
sis of which is reported under VII in the above table, was

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 9

redissolved in water and recrystallized. On analysis it
yielded the following results:

WHE; 1ige
ember, Gents Sh Aye Se ed ANS 18.14 18.19
oy ss sale aay iia OR PT ae 12.59 12.71
See, aes eee PPE IE eat 69.27 69.10

These were calculated upon a water-free basis. The
crystals from the various crops mentioned above did not
contain a very constant amount of water, but ranged from
9.13 to 11.06. The calculated amount of water in Zr
fe, 3Na,),. 5.0 is 10,62. It would seem, there-
fore, that the tendency, when this method of formation is
adopted, is toward the formation of crystals containing
free oxalicacid and with the sodium and zirconium oxalates
bearing a ratio ot three to one.

ZIRCONIUM POTASSIUM OXALATE

Tie curdy precipitate gotten by precipitating zircon-
inm chloride with normai potassium oxalate is iusoluble
in an excess of either of the substances. The precipitate
first obtained is an impure zirconium hydroxide, contain-
ing only small amounts of oxalic acid. The supernatant
liquid on concentration yields needle-like crystals of po-
tassium oxalate, carrying only traces of zirconium. Af-
ter the separation of a good deal of this potassium oxalate,
further concentration yielded a gelatinous substance
having thecomposition (XII): Zr, 39.34; K, 5.06; C,O,,
43.05; which seems to be a basic zirconium oxalate, mixed
or united with a small proportion of potassium oxalate.
If the potassium be calculated as potassium oxalate and
subtracted, the composition of the remainder would be
approximately Zr (OH),. Zr(C,O,)..

On adding potassium binoxalate to a solution of zircon-
ium chloridea white curdy precipitate was obtained which
was not completely soluble in excess of the binoxalate.
The somewhat turbid solution was filtered and evapor-
.ated. Large crystals resembling those of oxalic acid
formed. ‘These were separated, and on analysis proved

10 JOURNAL OF THE

to be oxalic acid. At the same time a number of small
crystals were formed, which were mechanically separated,
washed and dried. ‘These were analyzed and are report-
edunder XIII. A further crop was gotten from the
mother liquor, and the analysis is given under XIV.

XIII. Vie
7 PRG LSS A ian) RON SA 19.59 17.99
BO e ee Ok ts aS 16.18 13.91
GRRE GAR Ne. 2 8 64.23 68.09

The curdy precipitate, which first formed, was also ex-
amined and found to have the composition Zr(C,QO,),.
201 OH)...

The addition of a solution of potassium tetroxalate to
zirconium chloride gave a gelatinous precipitate of zircon-
ium oxalate (basic), carrying a little potassium oxalate.
Subtracting the potassium oxalate, the percentages (X VI)
Zr, 39.09 and C,O,, 38.63 are left, which are not very dif-
ferent from the hgures gotten for the precipitate from
potassium oxalate (neutral).

This curdy gelatinous precipitate was dissolved in ex-
cess of tetroxalate and the solution placed over sulphuric
acid to crystallize, and yielled crystals having the com-
position (X VIL); Gr, 20.85; K,.16.72; and C,O)462.8 bone
will be seen, these are not far from the 1:2 zirconium
potassium oxalate, with excess of oxalic acid.

When potassium hydroxide was added toa solution of
zirconium oxalate in oxalic acid until nearly neutral and
then set aside for crystallization, various crops of crys-
tals were gotten, as inthe case of the double sodium oxa-
lates. These crops of crystals were similar in appear-
ance to the sodium crystals. They were analyzed and
showed fairly constant composition.

(Zr(C2O4 )2)e-
XVIII. De Boe XX. XXI. (KeC204)9.HeCoOnw.
AY. 3 otek. 08 19.25 19,53 18.47 18.95
Beets he A 16.41 16.35 14.84 14.46 16.34
C204. .66.51 64.40 65.33 67.07 64.71

The three previous analyses may also be referred to

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. f |

here as having approximately the same composition. See
analyses XIII, XIV, XVII. These are calculated as
water-{rce. In the analyses XVIII and XIX the per-
centages of water were 12.99 and 12.38. These would
correspond to the formula (Gr(C,O,)2).(K,C,O,)5. HeC,O,.
8H,O. In thiscase, as in the zirconium oxalates and the
sodium oxalates, the crystals seem to form only along
with free oxalic acid, giving acid salts.
ZIRCONIUM AMMONIUM OXALATES.

The addition of a solution of ammonium oxalate to the
slightly acid solution of zirconium chloride gave a_ heavy
evelatinous precipitate which was soluble in excess of am-
mouium oxalate and proved to be zirconium hydroxide
with more or less zirconium oxalate and small amounts of
ammonia. ‘The filtrate from this precipitate was evap-
orated slowly and a fine crystalline powder obtained.
This contained (X XII) Zr,42.17 per cent. and C,O,, 39.86
ver cent. This isin fair agreement with Zr,(C,O,),.Zr
(OH),. When ammonium oxalate is added until the first
gelatinous precipitate is redissolved and then evaporated
to crystallization, different crops of crystals can be got-
ten containing various amounts of ammonia. These did
not seem to have any regular composition in our experi-
ments and were looked upon as basic zirconium oxalates
with varying. amounts of ammonium oxalate present.
Thus for one of these the figures (XVIID Zr, 31.48;
NH,, 7.14; and C,O,, 61.38 were gotten.

Abandoning this method and using the one adopted in
the cases of the sodium and potassium double oxalates, a
more favorable result was optained. Zirconium hydroxide
was dissolved in excess of oxalic acid and then this was |
nearly neutralizel by means of ammonium hydroxide,
Analyses of these crops of crystals follow:

Zr.(C gO i)o-
XXIV. SRV: 2 (NEw sCeOy:
CS ee ene ee ae ae a 16.55 16.66 17.58
1 RS ia ee ae 14.46 fy 35 13.28

Fe 2 ne a se 69.99 69.99 (8.94

12 JOURNAL OF THE

While these do not show that the crystals had been
thoroughly purified, the restlts indicate that the compo-
sition is one Zirconium oxalate to two ammonium oxalate.
On recrystallizing one of these crops of crystals, zircon-
ium hydroxide was observed to separate when the solu-
tion was heated (to evaporate to crystallization), and the
crystals which were obtained consisted of ammonium ox-
alate alone. rs 1

In general it may be stated that the zirconium oxalate
fails to show any decided tendency to enter into clearly
defined combinations with the alkaline oxalates, exhibit-
ing rather a power of crystallizing along with them in
mixtures of any proportions, It can be said at best that

under the conditions of our experiments certain ratios |

seem to be preferred, and appeared more presistently. In
all cases the crystals formed from oxalic acid solutions,
and this free oxalic acid crystallized with them, giving
acid oxalates.

THE HALOGEN SALTS OF ZIRCONIUM.

F. P. VENABLE AND CHARLES BASKERVILLE.

I. DECOMPOSITION OF THE ZIRCONS.

It may be well to give in detail the method (Jour. An.
and Ap. Chem. 1891.551) as modified by an experience of
several years. The zircons are ground in an iron mortar
soas to pass a 90 mesh sieve. The proportions used
ina fusion are 150 grams zircons, +00 grams sodium hy-
droxide 4).grams sodium fluoride. The sodium hydroxide
and fluoride are fused in a nickel crucible (400 cc) then
heated for fifteen or twenty minutes with the water blast

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 13

The zircons are introduce: in portions of five or six grams.
If the temperature is high enough there is a rapid evolution
of.bubblesof gas. It must be stirred to prevent foaming
over (the stirrer being a strip of nickel fastened toa glass
rod.) After the introduction of three-fourths of the
zircon the temperature should be increased by adding
other lamps as the mass becomes pasty and sluggish to-—
wards the close of the reaction, making the escape of
bubbles somewhat explosive. The success of the opera-
tion depends on the high temperature, especially at the
close. With a lower temperature much.will be left un-
acted upon. After the introduction of all the zircon the
mass should be heated and stirred until no more bubbles
escape. This stirring can only be imperfectly carried
out towards the close. The mass should then be im-
mediately removed by means of a nickel spatula. and the
lumpy pieces allowed to cool on crucible tops or sheets of
nickel. The crucible should be scraped as clean as pos-
sible before cooling. It is best then to quench it with
water before the adhering pieces’ of the melted mass cool,
and crack the crucible incontracting. A number of cruci-
bles crack during the fusion. If they escape this they al-
most infallibly crack in the cooling unless cooled down
filled to the brim with water. Of course due care
must be taken in introducing the water. It can be safe-
ly blown in from a distance with a wash bottle. As there
is much spitting of melted caustic soda during the fusion
the hands should be gloved and the handle of the stirrer
‘should be long enough to secure the face and eyes from
danger. Saas Ba

The lumps, while still hot, are removed from the nickel
sheet and placed in water in acasserole (1 litre capacity).
After a few minutes the water becomes muddy on agita-
tion. Pour off this water with the suspended particles
into a large settling jar. Lefill the casserole, heat to
boiling, stir and pour off again, thus removing gradually
the finer masses. This is the best way of disintegrating

14 JOURNAL OF THE

and washing the mass. The particles settle best from
hot water. After a while they settle slowly. It is best
to use two or three settling jars, pouring off from the
first to the others before a second washing is added from
the casserole. Nearly all settles in the first jar and that
which settles more slowly may be allow to take its time
inthe other jars. After a while the disintegration may
be helped by breaking with a glass rod or rubbing with
a pestle. Five gr six gallons of water should be used
in washing as ‘this removes the sodium silicate and it is
far easier and better to get ridof itin this way than to
be worried by its presence later on. Of course it is_ not
entirely removed and some little of the zirconate is also
lost. | ’
After washing the sodium zirconate must be de-
composed by the ,addition of hydrochloric acid. Strong
acid is used and it is boiled with the zirconate in the
casserole used for washing. Usually all dissolves up ex-
cepta few grams of undecomposed zircon. It is not
necessary to filter the solution. It may be immediately
transferred toa large evaporating dish and carried down
to dryness, first over the naked flame and then, as silica
etc., begin to separate out, on the sandbath. It is neces-
sary to watch the temperature of the latter and to stir
the mass up occasionally to prevent overheating but a
great deal of time may thus be saved. It is usually pos-
sible to begin a fusion in the morning and have the hy-
drochloric acid solution of it ready for evaporation before
the day’s work is over.
If the washing was well-done the amount of silica sep-
arating is not large. Hydrochloric acid is added to the
dried mass, then water and it is filtered. The clear fil-
trate is again evaporated to dryness to remove the last
traces of silica. We have uniformly adopted this precaution
but seldom found any silica separated by the last evap-
oration. After this second evaporation and filtration the
solution is ready for the separation of the iron.

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 15

The larger portion of the iron may be separated by the
use of sulphur dioxide. The impure zirconium chloride
is made up into a moderately dilute soiution in a large
jar. This is nearly neutralized with ammonia and sul-
phur dioxide is passed through. The zirconium is pre-
cipitated out as a basic sulphite. This is filtered away
from the solution containing most of the iron. In most
cases it is advisable to dissolve again in hydrochloric acid
and precipitate once more with sulphur dioxide. The
filtrate containing the iron also contains much of the zir-
conium. A good deal of this is precipitated on boiling.
The filtrate from this is then evaporated toa small bulk
and a good deal of the iron will crystallize out as the dou-
ble chloride of iron and ammonium in deep red crystals.
The concentrated filtrates from several fusions, thus part-
ly freed from iron, may be again treated with sulphur
dioxide and the zirconium recovered.

The sulphite after draining in large funnels is dissolved
in hydrochloric acid and boiled until all sulphur dioxide
is driven off. It is then precipitated as hydroxide by
means of ammonium hydroxide and well washed. This
hydroxide is drained upon filters and dissolved in the
least amount of concentrated hydrochloric acid. The
remaining impurities are gotton rid of by repeated
crystallizations from strong hydrochloric acid. This
must be managed with some care as it is quite easy to
form an oxychloride insoluble in the strong acid, for in-
stance by the addition of strong acid to a somewhat concen-
trated aqueous solution. [In evaporating the hydrochloric
acid solution to crystallization it is therefore necessary to
add concentrated acid from time to time as the watery
acid evaporates so that the first crystallization shall be
from strong acid. After that there is little trouble in
subsequent crystallizations from strong acid. The crys-
tallizations are best made from a casserole and one hun-
dred grams or more of chloride may be crystallized at
atime. Generally twelve or fifteen crystallizations will

16 - JOURNAL OF THE

suffice. There will be little loss of zirconium if fust
enough acid is used each time to bring the soluble chloride

into solution (some little insoluble chloride is nearly al-
ways present.) The acid poured off each time from the
crystals may be saved and evaporated to recoyer the zir-
conium or used in the decomposition of other portions of
zircons.

‘II. ZIRCONIUM CHLORIDES.

Large number of compounds of zirconium with chlorine .
or chlorine and oxygen have been described and these
compounds have been the subjéct of much investigation.
The object in many cases has been to secure a zirconium
chloride of definite composition which would prove a.val-
uable compound for determining the atomic weight of the
element. ‘Thére are several difficulties in the way of se-
curing such a conipound.

1. The tendency to form basic chlorides.

2. The ease with which hydrochloric acid is lost
through the action of heat and of dehydrating agents.

3. The presence of free hydrochloric acid.

4, The deliquescent nature of the chlorides.

It is particularly desirable that the conditions under
which a definite chloride can be formed should be discov-
ered, as zirconium seems to yield no very satisfactory
compounds for, the determination of the atomic weight.
There have been many efforts at finding out these exact
conditions.

Most text-books state that anhydrous, pure zirconium
tetrachloride can be prepared by passing dry chlorine
over a mixture of charcoal and zirconia heated toa high
temperature. Hermann used this sublimed zirconium
chloride for the determination of the atomic weight. As
Clarke says, however, little confidence can be placed in
his results. Bailey (Chem. News., 60, 17.) has recorded
that even with great care to avoid the presence ot moist-
ure he was unable to prevent the formation of oxychlo-

’

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 17

rides. Healso says that in no case was it found possible
to prepare the chloride free from iron and silica. The
necessity for the presence of these in the materials used
or in the resuiting compound is not very apparent. We
have as yet had no opportunity of repeating his experi-
ments.

This tetrachloride has also been prepared by passing
dry chlorine over zirconium or over zirconia and charcoal.

Troost and Hautefeuille [Compt. rend, LX XV., 1889. ]
have prepared it by the «ction of silicon chloride upon
zirconia. Smith and Harris [Am. Chem. Soc. 1895. 654]
succeeded in preparing this same chloride by heating zir-
conta with phosphorus pentachloride.

The chlorides most commonly worked with, have been
those formed by the solution of the hydroxide in hydro-
chloric acid, followed by precipitation or crystallization
from concentrated hydrochloric acid or from water.

Berzelius attempted to remove the excess of hydrochlo-
ric acid by heating the salt to 60°C. but was not able to
obtain a definite compound. ,
Two analyses gave

Bene oe oS 1 0,332 0.485
Ean aries Shot Ad a 2 ake a4 «2 0.661 1.096

The silver chloride should be about two and one-third
times as much as the oxide.

Paykull dried the salt between hlter paper and found
the composition of the crystals to be ZrOCl,.8H,O. Ac-
cording to Melliss (Zeitschr. f. Chem. [2], VI. 196) this salt
‘crystallizes with 43H,O instead of SH,O. The amorphous
form is precipitated by pouring the aqueous solution into
strong hydrochloric acid. This ts insoluble in boiling
concentrated acid but easily soluble in water. Paykull
(Ber. VI. 1467) assigns to this the formula 2ZrOC1,.13H,O.

Endemann has described basic or oxychlorides Zr,O,
Cl,, ZrOC1OH, and Zr,O,C1,(OH),; Troost and Hautefeu-
iile have described others, Zr,O,Cl, and Zr,OCI,. In fact
water is so easily taken up and hydrochloric acid lost

3

18 . JOURNAL OF THE

that a large number of such indefinite compounds might
be prepared by slightly varying the conditions.

Nylander (Bidrag till kinnedomen om Zirkonjord Inang.
Diss. Lund 1864.) madea series of attempts at dehydra-
ting thechloride. He prepared the chloride by dissolving
the hydroxide in hydrochloric acid and evaporating to crys-
tallization. The salt formed white needles, easily soluble
in water. They were washed with alcohol and for analy-
ses I and II were pressed between filter paper; II and
IV were dried over sulphuric acid. The results were as
follows:

i I. III. IV.
Pat Vac tors Sn see DO 25.69 30.11 31.78
“ae re 21.58 21.58 23.06 23.80
Loss(H 2 O).. 50.86 52.78 46.83 44.12
or calculated on a dry basis:
Be Dee 56.08 54.41 56.63 57.18
eal, gees 43.02 45.59 43.37 42.82

Again preparations were made as before. I was dried
between filter paper, II over sulphuric acid, III was
pressed between filter paper and then dried over sulphu-
ric acid, IV was dried a long time over sulphuric acid.
The analyses gave the following:

if Il, III. IV.
PER te 28.52 34.91 37.78 35.69
Sb ae 21.93 26.09 25.87 21.74
oss. ccee 49.55 39.10 36.35 42.57

or calculated on a dry basis
Bales 56.93 57.23 59.34 62.14
Eee lay os 43.07 42.77 40.66 37.86

Lastly he allowed a solution of the chloride to evaporate |
over sulphuric acid washed the crystals obtained with
alcohol and pressed them between filter paper. Analyses

gave:
DA Se padre oe Ee 27.94 28.74
Rete: Cae Dee Cee 27.32 26.67
POSSanlt Se. . FOU See ees 44.74 42.62
or calculated on a dry basis:
——F ound——— Theory.
Te, , 80-56 50.04 Tit. eaten 38.50

) Praeeeiy abe 49,44 49.96 Cha eee 61.50

ELISHA MICHELL, SCIENTIFIC SOCIBTY. 19

Nylander’s description of this salt is correct. Very
large handsome crystals can be secured on evaporating an
aqueous solution of the chloride prepared by dissolving
the hydroxide in hydrochloric acid. If this evaporation
is too rapid gelatinous masses separate out, re-dissolving
on stirring. There is a considerable loss of hydrochloric
acid during this evaporation. The best crystals may be
obtained by evaporation over sulphuric acid. These
crystals easily dry on porous plates or on filter paper.
There is no necessity for the elaborate methods of drying
adopted by Nylander. There is however a constant
though shght loss of hydrochloric acid. Nylander’s an-
alyses (marked I) agree very closely with one made by us.

BER Bee as en ee os all oe OED
Be (IS REIS» inne nn SEE ALS 8
Boss 0 se ce. soe oo. 48

There is then manifestly a definite compound obtained
inthis way. It is unquestionably an oxychloride and the
loss (50.46 per cent.) represents both water and combined
hydroxyl or oxygen. At ordinary temperatures there is
a -ontinuous loss from day to day which makes it impos-
sible to get a fixed initial weight. This loss is shown by
the following weighings.

Date eco) “Oct. 1h. Cet 12.) ? (Oat. 13.9; Wert eeaeeierane.
Weighings 1.2806 1.2796 1.2792 1.2787 1.2779 1.2758

By heating to 135°-140° for six hours a large amount
of chlorine is driven off and yet not all of the water. ‘The
mass leit is insoluble. Heated to 100° under a stream of
hydrogen chloride the weight was constant and the loss
corresponded to 26.84 per cent. of the original weight.
The residue is entirely soluble in water. While these
data are not altogether sufficient it will be seen that they
correspond fairly accurately with the formula ZrOCl,
8H,O. Five molecules of water are lost at.100° and the
compound left is ZrOC1,.3H,O. The first formula is the
formula assigned by Paykull and confirms his results as
against those of Melliss. The formula gotten by Herr-
mann, ZrOCl,.9H,O was manifestly obtained from imper-
fectly dried crystals.

20 JOURNAL OF THE

Bailey repeatedly crystallized the chloride from hydro-
chloric acid, washed it with hydrochloric acid and then
removed the free acid.

(1) By washing with a mixture of one part alcohol and
ten parts of ether.

(2) By gently heating the salt.

(3) By exposing the finely divided salt at ordinary tem-.
peratures in a vacuous desiccator over potash until no
hydrochloric acid appeared when air was passed over it.

The analysis was performed by dissolving the salt in
water and precipitating the zirconia with ammonia, then
acidulating with nitric acid and precipitating the chlorine
by means of'silver nitrate. By method (2) a constant and
progressive diminution of chlorine was observed. ‘There-
fore no analyses were made. [For the other methods he
eives the results of the analyses by a statement of the
relation of ZrO, to AgCl.

ZrOo: AgCl

Berzelinsideternination +... ....eeusee les? See
4 SES SEES. tt UR eee «5 che eee pS 2.260
Bailey Se Method! Fi ie tetra... eee eee be 1 2.206
4 45 we a Wik tae Se Oe ee 1 2.179
am ‘ os a te aa’ id ke aa 1 2.226
Ae AES te TER EP ME oy BLE ot - 2.260
: } Se AED ve SEA PRINS oe a) St 1 2.264
” without washing...... 1 2.245
i ee oe a ee ee j 2.309
Clb Mate baie ihe REL ded ee AM oon = TP TR 1 2.285
PR gy cto eae le ke ee bb ee ae Il 2.350°

In all of these the drying has gone too far and some of
the chlorine has been lost or the crystals still retained
hygroscopic spa SG This salt, as will be seen later
on, is not cae but ZrOC]1,.3H,O and the true ratio is
Ao RoC: 12.327.

Hermann pies Dict., 5, 1080.) states that the hydra-
ted chloride, gotten in crystals on evaporating its aqueous
solution, becomes opaque at 50° C., giving off part of the
water and half of the hydrochloric acid and leaving a basic
chloride or oxychloride, ZrCl,.ZrOQ,.18H,O or ZrOC1,.9H,

O. ‘The same compound is obtained in stellate groups of

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. Dib

white silky prisms on evaporating a solution of the chlo-
ride. These crystals when heated become white and
turbid and are converte into the anhydrous dioxychloride,
ZrCl,.2ZrO,.

Linnemann(Chem. News., UII, 224.)maintains that crys-
tallization from hydrochloric acid (sp. gr. 1.17) and treat-
ment with alcohol and ether gives a fine, crystalline, snow
white, silky body, leaving hfty per cent. of its weight on
ignition and therefore very nearly pure ZrCl, which should
leave 52.5 per cent. He claims that this is ‘‘chiefly a
neutral, not a basic compound.”’

Our own experiments on the dehydration of the salt
obtained by crystallization from water extended over two
years, as opportunity was afforded. Several series of ex-
periments were undertaken, some along the linesattempted
by others, and others by methods not tried before. In
all the purified chloride obtained by repeated crystalliza-
tion from hydrochloric acid was used, the salt being still
wet with the excess of the acid. There was no attempt
at drying this between filter paper.

In the first experiment this chloride was washed once
with water and then put in a desiccator and dried over
calcium chloride (porous desiccated). It remained in the
desiccator about seven months. Even after this lapse of
time it still continued to show a slight loss in weight. It
yielded on analysis 48.84 per cent. ZrQO,.

Another portion was placed in a jar over solid lumps of
sodium hydroxide. After six weeks the loss was very
slight. Careful ignition left a residue of ZrO, equivalent
to 42.99 per cent. of the original weight. There was
found to be 24.44 per cent. of chlorine present.

Again a portion was placed over calcium chloride and
dry air was drawn over it at the rate of about fifty liters
in the twenty-four hours for six months. After the first
two months it was examined weekly by the interposition
of a flask containing silver nitrate to see whether hydro-
chloric acid was still coming off. -Even after the lapse

ae JOURNAL OF THE

of so long a time as this it was found that the loss of hy-
drochloric acid continued, although it was slight. On
analysis this gave ZrO, 42.28 per cent., and Cl 24.35 per
cent. Although the results in this and the experiment
immediately preceding correspond fairly well, they are
unsatisfactory as they point either to a mixture of chlo-
rides or an oxychloride of very complicated formula and
hence unsuited for the ultimate aim of the research.

Lastly a portion was placed over concentrated sulphuric
acid and the atmosphere above it exhausted occasionally.
This was kept up during two months of summer weather:
The loss in the last fifteen days was about 0.02 per cent.
of the whole. The mass was powdery with a slightly
discolored crust. It was all soluble in water, however,
and yielded a clear colorless solution. It contained 53.30
per cent. of ZrO,. This corresponds very nearly to the
formula ZrOCl,.3H,O.

This last experiment showed the possibility of securing
pure zirconium chloride, provided the excess of lhydro-
chloric acid could be removed. It was thought that this
might be done by heating in an atmosphere of hydro-
chloric acid. A weighed flask was so arranged that it
could be kept at a definite temperature while a stream of
dry hydrogen chloride was passing through it. The
temperature ranged from 100° to 110° C., and the chloride
placed in the flask melted, solidifying again after the loss
of the water and excess of hydrochloric acid. If the dry-
ine was done slowly enough, apparently crystalline oxy-
chloride was gotten whick lost no further weight on
being kept at 100°C. A more rapid drying left a hard
white mass quite hygroscopic. Heating this mass for
several days did not cause any diminution in weight, pro-
vided the flask was kept full of hydrogen chloride. If
the mass was heated even a short time in the absence of
hvdrogven chloride then further heating caused a continu-
ous loss of weight even in the presence of a rapid stream
of hydrogen chloride. After this it was impossible to
Secure a constant weight.

-—=-_— 7. <1" ""” —

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 23

This method of drying has becn tried repeatedly on
various preparations and I regard the facts stated above
as showing conclusively that a neutral zirconium chloride
can be prepared and dried.

Analyses of this chloride gave the following percent-
ages of ZrO.

~

tn *

2.10 Bh 52:63

Believing that a simple compound of zirconium and
chlorine had been obtained corresponding to the formula
ZrCl, a series of determinations were undertaken with a
view to securing data for calculating the atomic weight.

This chloride obtained by recrystallization from con-
centrated hydrochloric acid had also been analyzed by
Linnemann (Lond. Chem. News LII, 233-240) and the
percentage of zirconium found led him to believe that it
was the tetrachloride. The determinations made by one
of us with a view to securing data for recalculating the
atomic weight were ten in number. They were made
with great care and yielded a mean of 52.986. This
would have corresponded to an atomic weight of 91.75 if
the body were really the tetrachloride. To settle its
exact composition the chlorine was determined in a sample
dried also in hydrogen chloride. Two determinations
gave the mean percentage of chlorine as 35.26. This
result is entirely too low for the tetrachloride which would

require 61.01 per cent. of chlorine. The substance anal-

yzed was then manifestly an oxychloride but none of sim-
ple composition could be calculated from the results.
The formula which seemed nearest to it was Zr,(OH),
Cl,.5H,O. (see J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1895. p. 842). The
subject was then allowed to drop for two years, except
that the chloride was tested for water and found to give

: 3 it off abundantly at 180°—210°.

During the past summer the accuracy of the chlorine
determination was brought into question. Determinations

~ were made on other samples and the percentage of chlorine
was found to be 29.98. ‘The error af the previous deter-

24 JOURNAI, OF THE

mination may have been due to the sample or to manipu- —
~ jJation. Which was at fault cannot well be decided now.

The new determinations give
Calc. for ZrOCl,.3H,O.
Zr. 38.99 39.12
Cl. 29.98 30.66

This oxychloride is therefore, after drying, identical
with the one obtained by crystallization from water after
it also has been dried.

The amorphous (7) form, insoluble in concentrated hy-
drocloric acid but easily soluble in water has been anal-
yzed by Paykull and he has calculated the formula
27rOC1,.13H,O. This insoluble oxychloride is nearly
always present during the process of purification by re-
crystallization from hydrochloric acid. Repeated boilings
with hydrochloric acid fail to dissolve it. A sample was
prepared by allowing a very concentrated aqueous solu-
tion of the oxychloride to fall drop by drop into concen-
trated hydrochloric acid. It was washed with hydro-
chloric acid and then boiled. After pouring off the
acid the mass was washed with a mixture of nine parts
ether and one part alcohol. It was dried between filter
paper. Little assurance could be felt that this mode of
drying removed all the hygroscopic moisture. It was
analyzed in this condition. Another portion was placed
over caustic alkali (after pressing between filter paper)
and yet another portion was dried at 105° in a stream of
hydrogen chloride.

The analysis of the portion dried between filter paper
was as follows: (no difference was observed in that over
caustic alkali after two days).

Cale. for ZrOCl»s.6H9O.

Zr. 31072 31.70
Cl. 20.81 21.01

This is therefore in close accord with the formula
ZrOCl,.6H,O. The portion dried under hydrogen cilo-
ride was small and only the zirconium was determined.
The percentage of this corresponded fairly with ZrOCl,.
3H,O.

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. pas

Summarizing our examination of these oxychlorides
then, we find that there are three.

1. An oxychloride gotten in large, well-formed crystals
by crystallization from water. These crystals lose
slowly both water and hydrochloric acid on exposure to
the air. Their formula is ZrOC1,.8H,O.

2. An oxychloride gotten by precipitation by hydro-
chloric acid from an aqueous solution. This is insoluble
in hydrochloric acid. It is seen in silky crystals or a
white mass of very fine crystals. The formula is
ZrOCl,.6H,O.

3. An exychloride gotten by crystallization from hy-
drochloric acid. This has the formula ZrOCl1,.3H,O.

When any one of these is dried at 100—125° with a
stream of dry hydrogen chloride passing over it three
molecules of water of crystallization are left and the oxy-
chloride has the formula given under 3. namely ZrOCl..
3H,O. These last molecules of water are lost at a tem-
perature of 180—210°.

Weibull (Ber. 1887. 1394) gives the measurements of
the crystals of the oxychloride formed from water. They
belong to the tetragonal system, are optically unaxial
with double refraction.

Several times during the examination of these oxychlo-
rides the formation of a hvdrogele was observed. ‘The
exact conditions under which it was formed were not de-
termined. ‘The tendency to form this hydrogele is much
less than in the case of the bromides and iodides. Similar
compounds will be mentioned there.

III. ZIRCONIUM BROMIDES.

Zirconium tetrabromide, ZrBr,, is formed by conducting
bromine vapor over a heated mixture of zirconium and
carbon. A stream of carbon dioxide may be used tor
carrying the bromine vapor. It forms a white crystalline
(microscopic) powder which can be sublimed but is de-
composed by water, (Melliss J. 1870. 328:).

Zirconium oxybromide may be formed*by decomposing

26 JOURNAL OF THE

the tetrabromide with water and also by dissolving zirco-
nium hydroxide in hydrobromic acid (Gmelin, Handbook,
6th ed’n. Il. 1. 7060.) It crystallizes from the aqueous
solution in fine transparent needle like crystals contain-
ine water of crystallization (Melliss, Mats Weibull B.
1887. 1394).
Weibull gives the following analyses:
Calc. ZrOBrg.8H2O

Zr 20.35 20.83 21.87
Br 41.16 38.70 39.05

He says that the crystals are isomorphous with those
of the oxychloride which seems to be true. They are
much more hygroscopic. His two analyses are decidedly
discordant and one would judge that the amount of water
of crystallization had been decided upon from the analogy
to the oxvchloride.

The oxy-bromides described in the following experi-
sents belong to two types with varying degrees of hy-
dration—ZrOBr, plus x H,O. where x equais 3, 13, or 14
and ZrBr(OH), plus yH,O where y equals 1 or 2. All of
these compounds are deliquescent and decompose on ex-
posure to moist air, the clear white crystals, often col-
ored pink by free bromine present, melting to a eum,
frequently with the evolution of hydrobromic acid. ‘The
salts are unstable even in dry air as was found on expos-
ine dried crystals upon a watcheglass in a desiccator con-
taining suiphuric acid. Much hydrobromic acid was
evolved in the decomposition.

The crystals were prepared in two ways:—either by
dissolving pure Zr(OH), in dilute hydrobromic acid evap-
orated upon water bath with subsequent additions of 48
per cent. hydrobromic acid and repeated evaporations, or
a concentrated solution of hydrobromic acid was saturated
with Z1(OH),, evaporated and the crystals obtained on
cooling.

As a rule the crystals obtained were quite soluble in
the hot acid but separate at once on cooling. In the
heating necessary tor the thorough saturation of the hy-

=—s—

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. o7

drobromic acid by the Zr(OH), the solution first becomes
straw colored then a deeper red depending upon the time
of the heating. This is evidently due to bromine from
the decomposition of some hydrobromic acid by organic
matter in the air.

A difficult problem was the removal of the strong hy-
drobromic acid mother liquor and the free bromine nearly
always present with the crystals. Of the methods tried
to effect this none proved satisfactory. The crystalline
mass wads in one case six times washed with ether, the
yellowish red solution, due to dissolved bromine, being
decanted. Filtering proved too slow permitting a rather
lone exposure of the crystals to the moisture of the air.
After this washing with ether the crystals still slightly
yellow colored were placed ina ‘‘vacuum’”’ desiccator for
the removal of the remaining ether. ‘I‘he small @lass dish
containing the material was allowed to remain 36 hours
in the vacuum desiccator. The substance was then re-
moved, dried between filter paper and analyzed.

Found Calc. for ZrOBrg.13H 20
ZrO 2 24.15 24.50 24 GORA Nettie ¢ so4.0!
Br ee eet aN Sis eee we ee tives Sted 2 31,93
HO 124°C 24.44

This substance gave evidence of decomposition after
being placed in the weighing bottle.

Another method used for the removal of bromine was
washing the colored crystals three times with strone (48
per cent.) solution of hydrobromic acid. Most of the
bromine was thus removed, although the salt remained.
shghtly vellow, possibly due to the remaining hydrobro-
mic acid. An interruption of the work at this point re-
quired the salt in this state tobe placea in a desiccator
over sulphuric acid. [It remained there for sevéral days
when the werk was resumed. AIl moisture seemed to be
removed and great volumes of hydrobromic acid were
given off when the desiccator was opened. The sub-
stance had taken on a browuish-red color around the edges

28 JOURNAI, OF THE

but the central portion was perfectly white. To remove
the excess of acid the substance was washed quickly three
times with small amounts of water. <All of these salts
are exceedingly soluble in water and the utmost care 1s
necessary to avoid the entire resolution of the substance.
The wash-water was deeply colored by the bromine re-
moved and the salt remained pinkish. It was dried on
hlter paper and an analysis gave:—
ZrO 24.54

This shows that the method of removing the bromine
and hydrobromic acid and drying the crystals did not
materially alter their composition. Alcohol did not give
satisfactory results.

The ether-washed crystals after being allowed
to stand in a glass stoppered weighing bottle in the bal-
ance case tor several weeks showed evidence of absorbed
moisture. They were dried again by pressure between
folds of bibulous paper, but they could not in this way
be brought back to the same state as before, as shown by
the analysis:—

Found Previously Found Cale. for ZrOBry.14H,O
ZrO 9 23.49 24.50(av. ) 23.70
Br 30.58 30.82

About 4 grams of these crystals were dried in a glass
stoppered flask under a rapid stream of dry lhydrobromie
acid at a temperature varying between 100° and 120°.
The average temperature was about 110° and the drying
lasted continuously through three and a half days. After
cooling, perfectly dry air was drawn through the flask
for a little over ten minutes. This was evidently not
long enough as all the free hydrobromic acid had not been
removed as shown by the analysis. The substance dried
down toa hard white crystalline state which was quite
soluble in water. ‘The composition of this residue was
as follows:—

ZrO » 34.91 34.82
Br 50.05

It an allowance of 4.5 per cent. be made for the extra

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 29

hydrobromic acid not removed, for thirty minutes should
have been allowed for the removal of all the acid as
was found in the work on the oxychlorides we have:

Found Cale. for ZrOBry.4H20.
ZrO 36.31 36.21
Br 47.80 47.30

Of course such a calculation is not allowable and 1s
given merely to show the possible composition of the
dried mass. The experiment was not repeated on ac-
count of expense as to both time and materials.

One hundred cubic centimetres of 48 per cent. hydro-
bromic acid solution were saturated with Zr(OH), by con-
tinuous boiling. The volume reached at least 500 cubic
centimetres before the hydroxide ceased to be taken up.
The solution was never perfectly clear until it was twice
filtered through compact filter paper doubly folded. The
clear yellow solution was concentrated by evaporation on
the water bath. The more concentrated 1t became the
redder it was, finally the color was so deep that it ap-
pearea almost black. This was due’ to decomposition of
the hydrobromic acid by organic dust in the air no doubt.

After concentration the liquid was cooled and white
crystals separated out. On allowing it to stand 24 hours,
or always when made too concentrated by further evapo-
ration, a red jelly separated on top the crystals. In trying
to wash this red jelly from around the crystals, for it was
very soluble in water, the crystals were also dissolved.
The whole was therefore redissolved and after several
attempts a set of prismatic needles 1—2 millimetres in
length separated out free from the jelly. This jelly was
not silicic acid as feared. The mother liquor was poured
off, the crystals quickly washed three times with small
amounts of water, dried between filter paper and anal-

yeu. —
Found Calc. for ZrBr(OH)32H,O
ZrO». 34.90 34.434 35.23
Br 30:79 31.01

The solution was further evaporated and another crop

30 JOURNAL OF THE

of needle crystals, similar to, but much smaller than, the
above obtained. ‘They were washed four times with cold _
water, dried to a powder between filter paper and anal-
yzed :—

Found Cale. for ZrBr(OH)3.H2,0O.
ZrO 2 36.86 36.35 ofro1
Br 32.49 33.33

An investigation of the gelatinous oxybromide of zirco-
nium showed that it was a hydrogele. On dialysis the
small amount of crystalline oxybromide present passed
through the membrane. At the same time the gelatinous
compound, if it may we so termed, slowly decomposed
into zirconium hydroxide and hydrobromic acid, the lat-
ter gradually passing through the septum while the for-
mer remained behind.

ZIRCONIUM IODIDE.
Zirconium tetraiodide has been prepared by Dennis and
Spencer (Jour. Amer. Chem. Soc. XVIII. 673) by passing

hydrogen iodide over heated zirconium. I: 1s singuiarly
lifferent from the corresponding chlorine and bromine

(
compounds. It forms a white crystalline sublimate in-
soluble in water and acids, not hygroscopic and showing
no tendency to form oxyiodides with water.

According to Melliss = zirconium oxyiodide
is not formed by dissolving Zr(OH), in HI. Hinzberg (An-
nalen 239. 253) secured an oxyiodide by precipitating a
solution of Zr(SO,), with Bal, in equivalent amounts.
The solution was evaporated oyer H,SO, and the crystals
washed with carbon bisulphide and the analysis gave
ZrO) 3,0.

In our experiments we found that zirconium hydroxide
when precipitated cold was soluble to a small extent in
strong aqueous hydriodic acid or could be dissolved by
passing hydrogen iodide into water in which the zirco-
nium hydroxide was suspended. Evaporation of this
solution over sulphuric acid or calcium chloride gave

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. ae

needle like crystals strongly colored with iodine and very
hygroscopic. Every attempt failed at getting these
freed from excess of iodine and properly dried. Wash-
ing with ether or with carbon bisulphide was ineffective.
A hydrogele was gotten by acting upon zirconium hy-
droxide with hydrogen iodide which formed on drying a
hard horn-like, slightly colored mass, insoluble in water
and acids. ‘This contained
Zr 32.14 To oe H,O(by difference) 28.64

It lost only 11.07 per cent. of its weight after three

hours heating at 100—120°.

THE GLABROUS-LEAVED SPECIES OF
ASARUM OF THE SOUTHERN
UNITED STATES.*

W. W. ASHE.

The following notes on the glabrous-leaved group of
the genus Asarum are based on a field study of the genus

*While this paper was intended for this JOURNAL its earlier publica-
tion as a separate with no credit to this JOURNAL has rendered a few
changes necessary in regard to the glabrous-leaved group, while the
references to the Canadense group have been entirely omitted since
Mr. E. P. Bicknell is at present working on this group.

Since this article was put in type I have received a letter from Mr. E.
G. Baker, of the Kew Gardens, in reply to one I wrote him, which may
throw some additional light on the identity of the Linnean Asarum
Virginicum. A comparison of my plants with the Gronovian specimen
in the British Museum, on which the Linnean species is based, was
made for me by Mr. Baker. It showed that the Gronovian specimen
was more like 4. minus, but was a smaller plant than that and with a
smaller flower. There isan Asaruwim found in the coastal region of
North Carolina belonging to this group, and having smaller leaves
than any of the Appalachian species, but I have not yet been able to
secure flowers from it. It is possible that it may approach in the size
and shape of the calyx more closely to the Gronovian specimen than
does A. minus; but this is mere speculation, so that for the present it is
probably better to regard A. minus Ashe as A. Virginicum L.

38 JOURNAL OF THE

extending over several years, so that I have been able to
examine growing all the species described except A.
heterophyllum ochrantium, and A. callifolium.

Herbarium material, unless carefully prepared and not
too heavily pressed, is unsatisfactory, and gives only a
slight idea of the natural shape of the calyx, in which
lies the chief difference between these species. For the
coriaceous-leaved species the shape of the prolongation of
the style beyond the stigma offers good group-characters
for determining herbarium material. I have found
scarcely any difference in the seeds; and have been un-
able to secure capsules for satisfactory examination, so I
cannot say what characters they offer. Neither the
roots nor bracts offer any specific character. The leaves
of all the species of this group are at times spotted with
white; more frequently this is the case when the plant
e@rows in the shade.

The coriaceous-leaved species are southern Appala-
chian, with the centre of their distribution in the moun-
tains of North Carolina. One species only, A. art/oliume,
extends into the coastal plain region of the Atlantic
States. All the species except A. arz/olium are rather
local.

The nomenclature of the Virginicum group presents
some difficulty as to which species represents the original
Asarum Virginicum of Linneus. Plukenet’s figure
(Alm. 55. t. 78. f. 2.) to which Linneus refers might
represent any species of this group: it poorly figures A.
macranthum; somewhat better A. mezrvus; and might
have been intended to represent either A. Memmingeri
or A. heterophyllum. ‘The Gronovian description does
not add any information. I have thought it preferable
to follow the practice of several Kuropean botanists and
ignore, in such a case of uncertainty, the Linnean name,
as it represents a group of at least four species rather
than a single plant.

I have to thank many friends tor material furnished

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 33

me at different times or for permission to examine their
material or material placed under their care.

SYNOPTICAL ARRANGEMENT OF GLABROUS-LEAVED
SPECIES.

Annual leaf solitary, glabrous, thick, the single flower from the axil
of the ovate or reniform subtending bract; calyx glabrous without; the
very short epigeal erect or ascending rootstock several times dichoto-
mously forked; roots clustered, thick, numerous, fleshy; anthers oblong-
linear, sessile or nearly so, the filaments not prolonged; the 6 thick di-
vergent styles usually 2-forked or notched, bearing the extrose raised
stigma below the summit.

(a.) Leaves round-cordate ‘at base; the styles not cleft to the top of
the stigma; anthers pointless. (These species except the last consti-
tute the dsarum lirginicnm of Linneus.)

(b.) The stout prolongation of style barely notched, much wider than
the small orbicular stigma.

(c.) Calyx cylindro-campanulate, somewhat contracted at the throat.

2. ASARUM MACRANTHUM (Shuttlw.) Small, Mem.
seorr, © 1., 5:136.

Flomolropa Macranthum Shuttlw.; Small Mem. Torr.
Cl., 4:150, as synonym.

Asarum Virginicum var. grandiflorum, Mx. in D. C.
Prodr. 15:426.

2. ASARUM MINUS W. W. Ashe, Contrib. from Herb.
me (1897). .

Leaves as in the above but rarely orbicular; tube of
calyx cylindro-campanulate, about lcm wide, about the
same length, the very short lobes spreading; peduncle as
long as the flower, the large bract pointed; projection of
the style very short; the seed oblong.

North and South Carolina and Tennessee. Local. In
North Carolina it occurs as low as 150m above sea level.
Type locality: Chapel Hill, N. C.

(c) Calyx Campanulate or oblong-campanulate, not
contracted at the throat.

3. ASARUM HETEROPHYLLUM, W. W. Ashe, Contrib.
from Herb. No. 1. (1897).

Leaf-blades orbicular, ovate or triangular in outline,
cordate at base (or occasionally almost hastate), about

34 JOURNAL OF THE

the same size as in the above; calyx campanulate, rounded
at base, the tube .7-lcm long, the lobes nearly equaling
it in length, .8-icm wide at base; orange-purple. or pur-
ple-brown without, brighter within; the very stout barely
notched style much prolonged beyond the minute round
stigma; capsule short, cvlindrous, barely as long as the
stamens, scarcely distending the calyx; seed oval.

Mountains of North Carolina, Tennessee and Virginia.
Frequent. At once separated from the preceding species
by the campanulate calyx, and from A. Memmingert by
its open throat and longer calyx lobes.

ASARUM HETEROPHYLLUM OCHRANTHUM, W. W.
Ashe, Contrib. from Herb. No. 1. (1897).

Calyx yellow or orange, oblong-campanulate, the
spreading lobes as long as the lem long tube. No. 18,263
U..S. Nat. Herb.; Kast: Tennessee : EH. E. Parry:

(b) Calyx urceolate or somewhat contracted at the mouth,
the oval stigma thicker than the slender deeply 2-parted
projection of the style, and placed near the base of the
style.

4. ASARUM MEMMINGERI, W. W. Ashe, Contrib.
from Herb. No. 1. (1897).

Leaf-blades about the size of those of A. macranthuaa,
nearly orbicular and retuse, or less commonly ovate, their
margin entire; petiole often scarcely longer than the leaf-
blade; calyx 1.2-1.5cm long; urceolate or urceolate-cam-
panulate, the mouth 7mm or less wide, the short lobes
barely 3mm long; the large oval stigma near the base of
the style, the very slender, deeply bihd or rarely entire
projection as long the stigma; capsule short-cylindrical,
when mature vreatly distending the calyx; seed sharply
triangular.

West Virginia to North and South Carolina. Frequent
above 700m altitude. Type locality: Mitchell county, N.
C. Named for Mr. EK. R. Memminger.

5. ASARUM CALLIFOLIUM Small, Bul. Tor. Cl. 24:7,

Leat-blades ovate, crenulate on the margins; petiole 2-3

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 35

times as long as the leaf-blade, slightly pubescent;
bracts reniform; peduncles not longer than the calyx;
calyx urceolate, 1.5-2.5cm long, dark green without,
purple within, the seements broadly ovate; the large oval
stigma at the base of the style, the slender projection
deeply 2-cleft.

West Florida. A species recently described by Dr.
Small from Dr. Chapman’s collection.

(a) Leaf-blades, or some of them, halbert-shaped at base; the projec-

tion of the style cleft to the top of the large ovate stigma; anthers
short-pointed.

6. ASARUM ARIFOLIUM Michx. Fl. Bor. Am. 1:279. ©

Asarum Virginicum Walt., Fl. 143.

Leaf-blade 6-10cm long, 5-12cm wide, ovate or trian-
gular in outline, halbert-shaped, or rarely round-cordate
at base, rounded or pointed at the apex; petiole short or
long; calyx from 1.5-2.3cm long, urceolate, rounded at
base, much contracted at the throat, the triangular lobes
spreading, firm in texture, greenish-purple without, pur-
ple-brown within; stigma large, ovate, at the base of the
stvle, the prolongation cleft to the top of the stigma.

Virginia to southern Georgia and Alabama. Common
throughout its distribution. Extends in the Carolinas
from the sea level to an altitude of about 600m. Prob-
ably does not occur in the mountains of Virginia, all
specimens which I have seen from there being referable
to the next. A very variable species both in habit and
form.

7. ASARUM RuTuHi, W. W. Ashe, Contrib. from Herb.
_No. t. (1897).

Leat-blades halbert-shaped, usually broader than long,
commonly larger than in the preceding, deep green; calyx
cylindro-ovate, rounded and larger at the base, gradually
narrowed toward the mouth, 2.5-3cm long, 1-1.2cm wide,
the rounded lobes barely 5mm wide at base, not spread-
ing, purplish-green without, duller within; stigmas and
styles similar to those of the preceding,

36 JOURNAL OF THE

Southwestern Virginia to Alabama in the mountains,
but not occurring above 800m. Named for Prof. Albert
Ruth, who sent the species to me. At once separated
from A. arz/olium by its cylindrous calyx, its tube not
being contracted at the throat as is that of A. artfolium.
Type locality: Morristown, Tenn.

JOURNAL

OF THE

Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society.

VOLUME XIV. TT TR PART SECOND.

JULY--DECEMBER.

IS 7.

POST OFFICE :
CHAPEL HILL, N. C.

ISSUED FROM THE UNIVERSITY PRESS
CWAPEL Hib, N.C,
1897

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

A REVISION OF THE ATOMIC WEIGHT OF ZIRCONIUM.
BP Wena ble... feed ste ses Sa pa gree ee Se
NoTES ON DARBYA AND BUCKLEYA. WOW: Ash. os eee
ROBINIA BOYNTONII sp. nov. W. W. Ashes. ci8 oo. x45
ON THE ORIGIN OF THE VERTEBRATE SENSE ORGANS............
NoreEs ON NORTH CAROLINA MINERALS. J. Bi Prat
WELLESITS; A Nw - MINERAL. «oi Hes 6
CORE MART oe ie do aemig wlntn oo Rae. pete wee KE RU SS Sid sale Di cs) alee een cao
PRPC i oma k she poses asa a ee, c cee RA Oia nt pin cca Ste: eont 2e
Vs beigs Ce) i= by gO 6s Cy: RR gS eR PPB Pe S esle lovee oss da ye Rinse Ae
BOOT ARVO oe iat avd v4 bo 0's eon ee aS GRE A ee el
TONSTATITE (BRONZIDE). 1068 eels cae eee ety pe be se
BETO DD) RECREV on 0 ey pis none hve are tea Puree dtp awe we 5 kip ait
GRASS GREEN. CVADBEPE «0 600 cp 5% 07s Swe cinviete odo wate ness ae
PPROON. hice ka eas iwaaien re uns 4 ik ial ieee puke La oki. nn

JOURNAL

OF THE
Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society.
FOURTEENTH YEAR—PART SECOND.

1897.

A REVISION OF THE ATOMIC WEIGHT OF
ZIRCONIUM. '

BY F. P. VENABLE.
PREVIOUS DETERMINATIONS OF THE ATOMIC WEIGHT.

It is perhaps best to give here a brief outline of pre-
vious determinations of the atomic weight of zirconium.
Six such series have come under my notice. In three of
these the sulphate was used, and in the others the chlo-
ride and the double fluoride of zirconium and potassium
were used, and 1m one the selenate.

The determinations of Hermann,* by means of the chlo-
ride, can be dismissed as untrustworthy, because of his
failure to overcome the difficulties inherent in the use of
the chloride as shown by Bailey’s work and my own.

The work of Marignac upon the double fluoride I am
net in a position to criticise properly, except in so far as
to say that his analyses are not very numerous, and that
they show a range of nearly three units in the atomic
weight.

In 1825 Berzelius ignited the sulphate and gave six de-
terminations of the ratio of the sulphate to the oxide. In>

1 Read at the Washington Meeting American Chem, Society.
af Prakt. CHEM... 31, 77

38 JOURNAL OF THE

some of the experiments he also precipitated the zirconium
hydroxide by means of ammonium hydroxide and deter-
mined the sulphuric acid in the filtrate by precipitation
with barium chloride.

Mats Weibull also used the sulphate and reports seven
experiments with an entire consumption of 8.2335 grams.
Bailey’s own determinations number eight, using in all
more than sixteen grams. He gives full data as to his
work, and it is well done and merits verv careful atten-
tion. The following table is copied from his article.’
The figures have been recalculated to the basis of O=16.

Mean Maximum Minimum

Ar Cl 88.77 Sea Ligh Hermann
ZrO, : HCl 90.14 90.98 89.29 Hermann
KoZrFs : KeSO, 90.53 92.80 90.06 Marignac
ZrOs.: Ke SOx 90.64 91.26: 90.24 Marignac
KoZrFs : ZrOg 90.8 91.3 89.9 Marignac
Zr(SO4)o : ZrO 89.45 92.65 89.27 Berzelius
Z1(SO4)2 : ZrOo 89.48 90.38 89,13 Mats Weibull
Zr(SO4)9 : ZrOg 90.65 90.78 90.46 Bailey

It is manifest that the determinations based upon the
ignition of the suiphate are the only ones worthy of fur-
ther attention. A brief criticism of these is necessary.
First, as to Mats Weibull, Bailey says that the tempera-
ture used by him in freeing the sulphate from the excess
of sulphuric acid was some 50° too low. This would of
course give him variable and low results. Berzelius does
not give exact data as to temperature used, but he seems
to have heated the sulphate too high in driving off the
excess of acid. Possibly more stress is to be laid upon
the question of the purity of his sulphate and the correct-
ness of the assumption that he had in hand the normal

‘

sulphate.

Bailey concludes from his experiments that the sulphate
is stable up to 400° C., and that the excess of sulpnuric
acid can be completely driven off by the use of a temper-

3Chem,. News, 60, 17.

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 39

ature between this and 350° C. He further states that a
mixture of the salt and free acid, as prepared by him,
when heated to this temperature until constant, yields
the normal sulphate. It must be said that he gives no
proofs of this bevond the amount of zirconia found in his
atomic weight determinations.

Whilst certain criticisms of the work of Bailey have
occurred to me, I will refrain from mentioning them until
I have had opportunity to repeat his experiments and so
make myself more familiar with the details of his method.

One criticism I can venture upon now, however. I
doubt whether it is possible to ignite, without loss, zir-
conia along with ammonium carbonate, as was done by
Berzelius and by Bailey to remove the “‘last two or three
milligrams of sulphuric acid.”’ I have not ventured to
use this method in getting rid of the chlorine which is
held just as tenaciously as the sulphuric acid. as I feel
sure that it could net be done without loss. Bailey
adopted extraordinary precautions to prevent this loss,
but it seems to me that it is not the currents of the exter-
nal atmosphere, as he maintains, which are to be most
avoided, but the mass of escaping vapor of the ammonium
salts. It is easily possible for him to have lost several
milligrams of the finely-divided zirconia in this way, and
as he states, each milligram was equivalent to a variation
of 0.25 in the atomic weight.

THE WEIGHINGS.

In the following experiments the amounts of substance
used varied from one to five grams. To avoid the disad-
vantage of a small error causing a large variation in the
result, I would gladly have used larger amounts of the
chloride, but many difficulties met me there. The puri-
fication of the zirconium oxychloride is slow and costly. It
is best carried out in small portions of a few grams at a
time. Some fifty grams have constituted the stock at my

40 JOURNAL OF THE

command. The drying of large portions and the subse-
quent ignition would be exceedingly tedious and time con-
suming, besides requiring such apparatus as could not be
well afforded. Five or six grams have been about the
largest amounts that could be well handled at one time.
Even such an amount as that required from sixteen to
twenty days for the completion of the experiment. It
could not safely be hurried through in shorter time.

The weighings were carried but upon an excellently ~
constructed Sartorius balance, intended for a load of 200
grams. The heaviest apparatus used weighed less than
sixty grams. ‘The weights were corrected by one which
had been compared with the standard at Washington.
All objects were weighed against a tare of as nearly the
same size, form. and weight as possible, all of the flasks,
crucibles, etc., being made in pairs. This partly avoided
the necessity for a reduction of the weighings toa vacuum
and corrections for moisture, pressure, etc. Such ¢or
rections would have kad little meaning in comparison with
the other inaccuracies of the process and manipulation,
and could only serve to give a false appearance of excess-
ive accuracy. The objects were left one-half hour in the
balance-case before weighing, experiments having shown
that this time was sufficient. Of course the adjustment
of the balance was carefully watched, and the balance,
which has been used very little, was put to no other use
during the progress of these experiments.

METHOD OF WORK.

The purified oxychloride was introduced into a small
olass flask having a capacity of 100cc. This was provided
with a glass stopper ground to fit, and aiso a second one
with two tubes arranged for the passage of the hydro-
chloric acid gas. The arrangement of the tubes was
similar to that in an ordinary ether wash-bottle, though
both tubes outside were bent downwards and had little

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 41

bulbs blown in them for catching moisture, etc. <A
Thérner bath was found to be very convenient for keep-
ing these flasks at 100° C. The hydrochloric acid was
prepared by allowing sulphuric acid to drop into a large
flask containing the hydrochloric acid. The gas thus
obtained in a regular stream, was passed through a wash-
bottle coutaininge sulphuric acid and then through towers
filled with glass beads kept moist with concentrated sul-
phuric acid. ,

The drying took from fifty to one hundred hours (in
some extreme cases.) If the stream of gas was rapid the
temperature could rise to 110° or even higher without
decomposition of the chloride. A much lower tempera-
ture caused this decomposition if the stream was insuffi-
cient to keep the flask full of gas. A number of experi-
ments were carried out showing these facts. Indeed, two
in the series of determinations were lost by the stream of
gas becoming too slow or altogether ceasing for a short
while. (Experiments VI and VIII.) It was thought
from experiments at first that where this decomposition
had begun it was impossible to secure a constant weight
of the residue, but this is certainly not true where the
decomposition has been only slight. Of course this intro-
duces a chance for error in the method. The drying
must be watched quite closely, and not more than eight
or ten hours of drying could be easily managed in a day.

At first it was feared to remove the atmosphere pre-
paratory to weighing, and efforts were made at weighing
the flasks full of hydrogen chloride. These results were
too low and varied among themselves, so that it was evi-
dently impracticable to carry out the experiments in this
way. It was found that the hydrochloric acid could be
replaced by dry air. The flask was removed from the
bath and dry, pure air passed through it for half an hour.
It is of course essential that tthe air be carefully dried.
The tubes were then removed and the glass stopper quickly

42 | JOURNAL OF THE

fitted in its place. It was then ready for placing in the
balance-case. The chloride is deliquescent and some
trouble in weighing was experienced. If the stopper was
well ground there was no appreciable change in the
weight in from twenty to forty minutes after placing
upon the balance. The loss of weight in the latter part
of the drying was very slow. The weighines were taken
at intervals of from six to eight hours’ heating. The
number of weighings necessary before constancy was se-
cured served as a safeguard against error. <A. series of
such weighings is given further on.

After drying, the chloride was dissolved in a small
amount of water (redistilled) and this solution, with rins-
ings, transferred to a platinum crucible. It was evapo-
rated to dryness upon a water-bath, with due precautions
against dust, etc., was next heated gradually upon a
sand-bath until most of the chlorine had been driven off,
and was then slowly raised to the highest temperature
attainable by the Bunsen burner. During this latter part
of the operation the cover was kept on. Three or four
days were thus consumed, the gradual heating giving a
coherent flinty mass of elistening semi-translucency which
could be safely heated by the water-blast without loss.
During the driving off of the chlorine the platinum cruci-
ble was more or less attacked, but as this was before the
lid was on, there was little chance of loss from this source.
This corroded platinum was probably the reddish-brown
decomposition product mentioned by Bailey as coming
from the ignition of the oxychloride.

The last of the chlorine was driven off by heating with
a water-blast for from forty-five to seventy hours. The
last weighings were made at intervals of from six to
twenty hours and were recorded as constant if they agreed
within 0.00005 of a gram. A series of weighings is here
given as an example. Experiment No. II, or the first

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 43

- one successfully carried out in the series, is taken for the
purpose.

Weights of zirconium oxychloride: March 28..........5.25910
“3 a so 3 . i oS ea 5.25786
+4 % : BOR Ye 58. 2B O
ie ote ef + Aigerts tdree: 325. east: 5.25762
Weiehts‘of sircomumoxide April dhs ele 2.78759
5 a ik of ie ae 7-5 De ee gaa oe arg 2.78724
FS i de *s pa Eb Rw ee ee a 2.78583
ee ee se ee ce 15 9.78517

ef rt ve ‘. Sy Para Arete ees 2.78452 ~
Ay i - ‘ 1 ES LEN et he 2.78451

This zirconia was examined for chlorine in most of the
analyses and was found to be free from it. In the last

three experiments reported in the series, the ignited resi-
due was treated with hydrofluoric acid. Ignition after
this treatment was very difficult, as the mass was not
compact and coherent. The finely divided zirconia was
lost in spite of the most careful treatment. The first was
lost altogether and the weighing was not carried out.
The second showed, upon the lid signs of the powdered
zirconia having been swept out. The total loss of weight,
however, was less than one milligram. This could read-
ily be attributed to the zirconia and pointed to the absence
of silica unless in insignificant traces.

I think great purity may be claimed for the prepara-
tions used in the analyses. Crystallizing trom hot hy-
drochloric acid is apt to remove most known impurities,
and they were eliminated beyond the possibility of detec-
tion by the ordinary tests. The analyses were not made
from the same preparation, but from small quantities
prepared at different times and some crystallized ten or a
dozen times more than others, yet no appreciable differ-
ertce could be detected in the resuljs. That these results
are not in close accord with one another, is due in part to
the deliquescence of the chloride and to the risks involved
in the prolonged heating of the oxide.

44 JOURNAL OF THE

SOURCES OF ERROR.

Five main sources of error have occurred to me apart
from any question as to the purity of the material.

1. The deliquescence of the chloride.

2. The loss of the finely divided zirconia.

3. The corrosion of the platinum crucibles. |
4. The attack of the glass flasks by the gaseous and
aqueous hydrochloricacid. Itis very evident that the glass
vessels would suffer when subjected to the action of hy-
drochloric acid during such prolonged periods. The
weighings easily revealed the extent of this action. It
was found to vary. with different flasks. For instance,
flask I lost 0.00116, 0.00031, 0.00023, and 0.00078 gram.
On the other hand, flask IV weighed after the first ex-
periment only 0.00011 gram less, and after the next two
experiments the loss was 0.00013, and the total loss during
three experiments was 0.00024. This is probably trans-
ferred mainly as alkaline chlorides to the crucibles and is
there volatilized. Sodium could readily be detected upon
the lid of the crucible after partial ignition. Of course
if all is volatilized then no error is introdued into the ex-
periment, but there may be some non-volatile material
also transferred from the flasks. The total amount is so

small that the error cannot be a large one.

5. Substances carried into. the drying flasks by the
stream of gas. Much care was taken to avoid error from
this source. ‘The main danger lay in the necessity for
the use of some rubber connections. Vulcanized rubber
was used. It was freed from excess of sulphur and was
replaced by a fresh piece when sttacked by the gas. The
dry gas does. not attack rubber very rapidly. Gaseous
sulphur compounds, coming from the sulphuric acid, used
in preparing and drying the hydrogen chloride, were
probably carried through the drying flasks, but there
seems to be no probability of their causing a decomposi-
tion of the oxychloride. 7

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 45

THE DETERMINATIONS.

All analyses which were completed under the proper
conditions of the method, as already given, are here re-
ported. Experiment III became contaminated trom the
iron support during the prolonged heating and came out
consequently a little high, giving the ratio of ZrO, :
ZrOCl,.3H,O as 53.12. In most of the subsequent anal-
yses the ignition was carried out with the crucible sus-
pended ina platinum wire cage from a glass support.
Experiments VI and VIII were dried with an insufficient
stream of gas, as already stated, and hence were partially
decomposed. They gave 53.57 and 53.8, respectively.
The remaining analyses follow:

ZrOC1,.3H,0. ZrO 9. Ratio.
OUST: ees cay ool Oooh 2.78459 52.961
a Sas ee ee 3.53994 1.87550 52.981
erie vert eit. 40 tse MET TS 3.25036 1,72435 53.051
I anys Sia ins cms 1.52245 0.80708 53.012
Mi eee ee ae ae so ee OOS 1.58274 52.969
MME Te RIES «ule Se ef h'n 201 SF 1.11820 52.949
Peeretieg Sc.0h ye fs; ues! 2.38139 1.26161 52.978
MEE ard ais aes os use 1.90285 1.00958 93.055
RE ee a ascend e's tie ,s 8.61847 1.38658 52.024
Ee eRe an x xm one 1.07347 0.56840 52.951

26.64828 14.11953 52.986

Calculating these for the ratio ZrOC1,.3H,O : ZrO,,
taking H=1.008, O=16, and Cl=35.45, we have the fol-

lowing:

Maximum ratio...... 93.055 Adtoeic weight... ... 1: 91.12
Mean Ai Pe: 52.986 r OS Fe come ee eae
Binur p85 oy. 52.951 ? See RS >t Age” 90.61

The atomic weight as determined by Bailey is 90.65.
The mean valne given in Clarke’s Recalculation is 90.40.
I purpose repeating the determinations with the oxychlo-
ride, with such modifications as have occurred to me since
the completion of the above work.

2

NOTES ON DARBYA AND BUCKLEYA.

(a 4

W. W. ASHE.

The limited and localized distribution of Darbya and
Buckleyva, two genera of southern Appalachian plants
(Darbya a monotypic genus and ABuck/eya with one Jap-
anese species and the east American plant which is uuder
consideration) has frequently since their discovery been a
subject of comment among American botanists. Among
the chief factors which have limited their distribution, as
Professor Sargent’ has pointed out in the case of Auck-
feya, are the tact that the sexes are confined to diff-rent
plants, and the rapid degeneration of the oily albumen
surrounding the embryo: the first being an obstacle to the
formation of seed; and the latter injuring or destroying
the germinating powers of the seed unless they early
reach a suitable place for sprouting. Both thus check
the increase of new plants.

Another fact which has apparently been overlooked in
connection with these plants and which is probably also
in a large measure accountabie for their localized distri-
bution, is that no efficient means is provided for seed-dis-
semination. <All animals that I have tried with the seed
reject them; in regard to birds I cannot speak. The
heavy fleshy seed have evidently been developed to sprout
and grow near the parent plants. The seed of Buckleya,
it is true, since it is found only along and near streams,
are apt to be transported by the stream. ‘This 1s evi-
dently the case with Backleva along the French Broad
and Pigeon rivers. Kearney’ records it as growing at an
elevation of 30m above the river on the side of a wooded

1Gard. and Forest 3: 236.
»

Bil; “Tor, Bot, ‘Cl, 21.56%.

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. ‘47

bluff near the original station at Paint Rock. J have
noticed it, however, only a few meters at most away from
the river or from some stream. ; |

But what I regard as restricting the distribution of the
plants fully as much as any of the above assigned causes
is the heretofore unrecorded fact of their parasitism.
Although Dr. Gray* dug up uckleya te remove it to
Cambridge for the botanical garden at that place; and
more recently Professor Sargent’ has carried both seed
and young plants from Paint Rock to the Arnold Arbor-
etum, where a few of the plants were induced to grow, it
was not noticed by either that Backleya formed root-
attachments to other plants. Great difficulty was en-
countered in inducing the plants to grow, and what its
not strange, all means of propagation failed. Mr. J. G.
Jack writes me that one of the plants of Bauckleya which
Dr. Gray took to Cambridge lived for a great many years
beneath a hemlock where it was planted in the Botanic
Garden and to the roots of which I think it had un-
doubtedly formed attachments.

I have been aware of the parasitic nature of these plants
for several years. The parasitism of Darbya was first
discovered, and subsequently that of Buckleya. In the
autumn of 1894 Mr. F. E. Boynton and I collected speci-
mens of Darbya near Salisbury, N. C., where I had pre-
viously noticed the plants. He had already suggested
the parasitism of Pyrularia, as recently published,’ and
which I was soon after able to verify. We consequently
suspected the parasitism of Darbya, knowing that many
of the San/alaceae are root-parasites."

4Gard; and Forest, 1.c.

4Tbid.

5Distribution from Biltmore Herbarium: /Pyrularta oletfera Mx,
parasitic on roots of trees etc.

6 dieronymus (Die Natuerlichen Pflanzenfamilien von Engler und
Prantl, 203) gives only the following genera as being root-parasites:
Osyris, Santalum, Commandra, Thesium, Arjona, and Quinchamalium,

48 JOURNAL OF THE

On carefully digging up the plants the roots, or what I
rather regard as prolonged subterranean stems, were
found to be very much as Miss K. A. Taylor’ has de-
scribed them. The plants propagate by these under-
ground stems which are 8-15mm in thickness and similar
to those of Commandra, but larger., These, in the cen-
tre, are frm, tough and woody. This core of wood is
covered with a thick, tough, though rather corky bark,
3-4mm in thickness. Krom the lower side of this are fre-
quent small roots, none of them over 3mm in thickness
which form attachments to the roots of the trees and
shrubs growing around. These slender roots are attached
to the host by disk-shaped haustoria, somewhat similar
in structure to those described for Commandra.*

Miss Tayior’ gives the length of the ‘troots’’ dug up at
Columbia, S. C., as being only a few yards. They are
frequently very many yards in leneth, however. One
plant I recently had dug up, had an unbroken stem
measuring nearly 10cm, and as there wasa growing-point
at only one end the length must have exceeded this. The
vegetative stems are apparently developed in no regular
order and from no evident buds. though this will bear
farther examination. The stems lie from 12-15cm below
the surface and fork at frequent but irregular intervals.
The underground stems are tipped with a growing-point
in appearance not unlike that of many of the large roots
of plants. As this growing-point pushes forward during
the season of growth, many small roots are developed
from tne lower side of the newly formed stem. These
penetrate either straight down or somewhat laterally
until they reach the roots of some tree or shrub suitable
for attachment, where haustoria are formed. ‘The longest
of these roots tound was about 3cm in length. While

‘Gard. and Forest, 7: 94.
8 Von Schrenk, Bul. Tor. Bot. Cl. 12.

9Gard. and Forest, 1. c.

ELISHA MITCHELL, SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 49

developing and before attachment 1s secured they are cov-
ered with thin-walled cells, but old roots which have been
attached to a host-reot for some time, appear to have en-
larged while the walls of the epidermal cells have become
thickened. It is possible that the newly developing root
is capable of absorbing from the soil, while the older ones
that have already made attachment are no longer able to
absorb; but neither of these statements is yet definitely
known to be true. And since the seedling plant of Buck-
leya as I have recently found out by planting them, is
thus able to exist for some time without the intervention
of attachments, it is quite possible that not only the young
plants of Darbya may do the same, but that newly devel-
oping roots as well may possess this ability to derive nutri-
ment from the soil. This, however, is merely conjecture.
These roots showed few forks and no roots could be found,
except those developed * the spring, which had not
formed an attachment or were evidently broken, so it is
probable that those roots which do not find attachment
soon lose their vitality and die.

Polygamous plants seem to mature fruit only when
fertilized by staminate plants or perhaps by other seed-
ling polygamous plants. Near Chapel Hill in the lower
valley of Morgan’s creek polygamous plants are found
for three or four miles along the narrow strips of alluvial
soil that border the creek, but no seed are produced. This
would seem to indicate that all the groups of plants along
Morgan’s creek have a common origin and are vegetative-
ly produced from a common stock. The staminate plant
is not found near Chapel Hill.

Near Salisbury, N. C., many groups of the sterile plants
are to be found within an area of two or three square
miles, but as no trace of a polygamous plant has been
found within twenty miles of these groups I am inclined
to trace these, as well, to a common plant and derived
from it vegetatively. This view is further strengthened

50 JOURNAL OF THE

by the fact that in the few localities where seed are pro-
duced both sexes occur abundantly, though usually the
plants are separated into more or less evident groups, as
Miss Taylor’ observed at Columbia, 5S. C.

If these disassociated groups of plants are of common
origin, Darbya would seem to be, under its natural con-
ditions, a plant which readily and rapidly propagates.
In one place the underground stem seemed to have made
as much as three feet of growth in one year.

I have extended the distribution of Darya as far north
as Halifax county, southern Virginia. Dr. Mohr has
found it as far west as northern Alabama; and in Geor-
gia it has been found as ‘ar south as Macon. The most
eastern place where it has been found is near Willardville,
Durham county, N. C. I have recorded trom my own
observation thirteen stations for the plant in Virginia
and the Carolinas, the numerou§ groups of plants around
Salisbury and Chapel Hill, and similar groups at other
places, being regarded as constituting a single station.
At only three of these stations are seed known to be pro-
duced. The staminate plants are much more abundant
than the polygamous.

As in the case of Commandra attachments are made to
the roots of most trees and shrubs. The following have
been verified to serve for Buckleya: Quercus alba, Q.
minor, Q. velutina, Q. Marylandica, Q. nigra; Pinus
echinata, P. Virginiana; Hamamelis; Vaccinium corym-
bosum, V. vaccillans; Hicoria Carolinae-Septentrionalis,
H. alba; Crataegus sp. ign.; Acer rubrum. It is probable
that this list could be extended by carefully following
the roots. |

Darbya, 1am convinced, can be grown by planting the
seed among trees or shruvs that will serve as hosts in a
place where it will not be necessary to move it. If it is
desired to move the plants the seed should be planted in

10Gard. and Forest, 7: 94,

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 5]

jars with seedling oaks or pines, and when large enough
to set out remove the contents of the jar without disturb-
ing the roots of the plants.

Buckleva, since it sometimes reaches the size of a
small tree, is the largest known American parasite. It
has many more fibrous roots than Darbya and the sub-
terranean stem is not so extensive. The clasping disks
by which attachments are made are larger and somewhat
more cup-shaped than are those of Darbya. It is chiefly
parasitic on the small roots of hemlock, beech, sugar
maple, birch (sp. ind.) and red oak. It can be cultivated
in the same manner as Darbya.

The manner of propagation of Pyrea/aria is like that of
Darbya but the underground stems are shorter and more
abundantly supplied with small roots.

ROBINIA BOYNTONII sp. nov.
ICON TRIBUTION FROM MY HERBARIUM. NO. ITI.
W. WILLARD ASHE.

For many years a plant which was originally described
by Pursh’ as Robinia hispida var. rosea has been con-
fused with the Robinia hispida of Linneus by both
American and Kuropean authors. This confusion origi-
nated from the inadequacy of Pursh’s’ description; and
has been continued by later writers who, having no spec-
imens of Pursh’s plant for comparison, transferred its
name to smooth or nearly smooth forms of PR. hispida
which seemed in part to agree with the description of
the variety rosea. Asa matter of fact the variability of

1 Recieved March 18th, 1898.
2Flora Amer. Sept. 2: 488.
3 Robinia rosea B, R. foliolis plerumque alternis, ramulis glabriusque.

52 JOURNAL OF THE

hispida in those characters which were usually relied
upon for segregation has justified it.

Pursh, in spite of his brief and unsatisfactory technical
description, in making some general references to the dis-
tribution, etc. of the plants he had just described, com-
pares the relative sizes of A. hispida and PR. hispida var.
rosea in such a manner as to leave no doubt in regard to
their identity: ‘‘The variety B is less hispid and grows
to a considerable large upright shrub, whereas the orig-
inal Aéspida is a low stragline plant.’’ This acurately
presents the salient features of the habit of the two plants,
and enables one, familiar with both in the field, to easily
differentiate the true rosea.

But while usually a form of 2¢sAzda is referred to rosea,
in the last edition of Gray’s Manual of Botany* the de-
scription of Azspzda includes not only all the true forms
of hispida, but the rosea of Pursh as well, the latitude
of the description embracing plants with ‘‘less bristly or
naked branches, smaller flowers etc.’’ than the immedi-
ately preceding technical description covered. The allu-
sion to small-flowered forms can only be interpreted asa
reference to rosea, as a comparison of the description of
the two plants which follows will show.

It is probable that Marshall as well included both
plants in his rosea, which is usually referred only to h7s-
pida, as he mentions the large size that some specimens
of his plant attain, whereas the true Azspida is always of
small size.

American botanists, when separating the two plants at
all, have retained the rosea under its original name, and.
where first placed as a variety of Aésfida but the two
plants are so different that rosea is eminently worthy of
specific rank.

As no additional names have been proposed by Kuro-
pean botanists there is no tortuous synonomy to be traced.

4Sixth edition, 134.

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIEY. 53

Robinia dubia Fouc.’ and the other names included in its
Synonomy refer toa plant which has long been cultivated
in Kurope, and which, if not a hybrid’ between /?. Pseud-
acacia and Ff. viscosa, is a garden variety of 7. viscosa.
It is separated from the plant under consideration no less
by its stout spines, than by the presence on its twigs and
pods of the viscid secretion so characteristic of véscosa.
Since Pursh’s name rosea is excluded by the previous
use of it by Marshall and du Monceau for P. hispida, and
no other has been published, I propose the name Loyr-
tonit, complimentary to Mr. F. . Boynton of Biltmore, N.
C., an observer having a most extensive acquaintance
with the southern Appalachian flora.
The proposed species is characterized as follows:
Robinia Boyntonit, sp. nov. |
Robinia hispida var rosea Pursh, Fl. Amer. Sept.
2:488.
Robinia rosea D. ©. Prod. 2:262.
Robinia hispida (in part) Gray, Man. Fifth ed. 131.
Mature twigs 3-4mm thick, terete, a bright varnished
brown, glabrous; stipules minute, awl-shaped,
caducous; shoot of the season at first minutely pubescent,
at length glabrous or nearly so. Leaves 10-16cm long,
leaflets 9-13, mostly placed alternately, short-stalked,
oblong or oblong-ovate, 2-4cm long, 1-2cm wide, tipped
with a slender mucro. Petiole and leaflets minutely pu-
bescent when young, soon glabrous. LRacemes axillary,
erect or nodding, 7-9cm long, one-half to two-thirds the
length of the leaves, rather loosely 8-12 flowered. Flowers
on slender, erect or spreading pedicels 4-5mm long, rose-
purple, pink, or purple and pink on the outer portion,
white or much paler towards their base, when expanded

5In Desv. Journ. Bot. 4: 204.

6 London (Trees and Shrubs Brit. 236) stated that it is a hybrid which
originated in 1730.

3

54 JOURNAL OF THE

barely 2cm long; blade of wing abruptly contracted into
the slender claw; keel rather broad, (each portion). spat-
ulate in outline. Calyx short, 6mm in length, as broad
as long, the very short, broad lobes, 2-3mm long, abrupt-
ly acute, smooth, or minutely pubescent when young,
Pod slender, many seeded, smooth, even when young.

A shrub with virgate branches, 1.5m to 2.5m in height,
or exceptionally larger and assuming an arborescent
form. Mountains of Virginia (7) and western North Car-
olina to Georgia, usually at high elevations. It is one of
the handsomest of the Appalachian species of the genus,
equalling in brilliance of color and abundance of flowers
R. viscosa. Growing specimens of this plant have been
extensively distributed by the Kawana Nurseries of Ka-
wana, N. C.

Specimens examined:
Kelsey: Mitchell county, N.C.
J. A. Tatham: Cherokee county, N. C.
Ashe: Randolph county, N. C.
Ashe: Greenville-county, 5S. C:

The plant is local, but fairly abundant where it occurs,
and it should be frequent in cultivation. Pobsnia hispida
L. with which it has been confused has the following
characters:

Robinia hispida ., Mant. 1: 101.
Robinia rosea Duham., Arb. 1. ¢. 18.
Pobinia rosea Marsh., Arb. 134.
Robinia montana Bartr., Trav. 335.
Pscuducacia hispida Moench, Meth. 145.
Aeschynomene hispida Roxb. (7%)

Mature twies rather stout, 4-5mm thick, terete, dark
brown, bristly-hispid, papillate, or nearly smooth. Shoot
of the season from densely bristly-hispid with stiff pur-
ple hairs to nearly smooth; stipules, minute early decidu-
ous. Leaves rather large, 12-20cm long, petiole usually
hispid; leaflets 7-11, rarely 13, mostly opposite, short-
stalked, ovate or orbicular, 2-3cm wide, 2-4cm long,

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. a,

tipped with a short, stout mucro, cordate or subcordate
at base, more or less pubescent when young, soon smooth.
Racemes axillary, nodding or drooping, 3-5 flowered, 4-5
em long, one-fifth to one fourth the length of the leaves,
peduncles usually hispid. Flowers purple-blue in the
bud, becoming on expansion deep purple or red-purple,
but lighter-colored at the base, when open 2.5cm or more
long; blade of wing projecting beyond point of union with
claw, so as form a narrow but deep sinus between them;
each division of keel oblong, abruptly contracted into the
claw. Calyx 8-10mm long, the 4-7mm long acuminate
lobes much longer than the short broad generally hispid
tube. Pod short, steut, few-seeded, glandular-hispid.

A low straggling shrub, 1-3 feet in height. It occurs
from Virginia to Georgia and Alabama’ in and near the
mountains. In tke mountains it is for the most part con-
fined to the crests and dryer southern flanks of ridges,
and is not uncommon. Its altitudinal distribution 1s from
300m to 1500m. It seems to pass gradually into the low-
country form which is nearly destitute of bristles and
more or less pubescent.

Robinia Boynlonii is separated from fF. hispida Li. by
its greater size, smooth pod, oblong leaflets, many-flow-
ered racemes, short calyx-lobes and smoothness.

From Fr. v7éscosuw Vent. it is separated by having only
about one-half the number of leaflets, a smooth pod and
the absence of viscid secretion.

In many characters it is nearly allied to A. Pseudaca-
cia lu: The leaflets are about the same number, twigs
and pods are smooth; but the flowers are rose-colored
and smaller than in A. Pseuwdacacia and no stipular
spines are developed.

Since the above was put iri tvpe I find that Hodznza
Boyntonii has been distributed by the Biltmore Herba-
rium, but without a name, as No. 3268: Near Highlands,
Macon county, N. C.

ON THE ORIGIN OF THE VERTEBRATE
SENSE ORGANS.

BY: H. V. WILSOM:

The belief that the chief sense organs of vertebrates
have been evolved from a longitudinal series of simple
and superficially situated organs rests on morphological
evidence, which 1f not conclusive is yet very considerable.

Beard’ in 1885 described in selachian embryos a series
of rudimentary sense patches (ectodermal thickenings),
on eabove each gill cleft. These he termed the branchial
sense organs. Similar organs have been found by Beard
and several observers (Froriep, Kupffer etc.) in the em-
bryos of other Ichthyopsida, birds, and mammals. It
may be confidently asserted that a phylogenetic signifi-
cance attaches to these formations, and that the ancestors
of existing vertebrates had a series of sense organs (two
series, one more dorsal than the other: Kupffer) situated
in the anterior (branchial) region of the body.

The sense organs of the lateral line, and of the mucus
canals of the head, found in adult fishes, tailed amphibia,
and in anuran larvae, are known to arise by the prolifer-
ation of the above mentioned embryonic organs, which
thus became extended far beyond the seat of their origi-
nal appearance.

The position and mode of origin of the embryonic nasal °
and auditory invaginations led Beard to regard these or-
vans as homologous with his series of branchial sense or-
gans. And this conclusion has been in general. accepted
by later investigators. |

It might some years ago have seemed impossible to in-

1Branchial Sense Organs of Ichthyopsida. Quart. Journ. Micr, Sci,
1885,

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 57

clude the eye in this lateral series of homodynamous or-
gaus. But while the eyes (optic vesicles) ordinarily orig-
inate as diverticula from the fore-brain, it 1s now known
that in many forms they make their appearance as invag-
inations of the surface ectoderm, long before the neural
folds have closed. In this condition the optic vesicle is a
circular depression, substantially like the auditory or
nasal pit. . Later these depressions are carried inwards
with the invaginating neural plate, and then appear as
outgrowths of the brain. ‘The early appearance of the
optic vesicles has long been known in mammals, but until
within recent years it has been regarded as a peculiar
and precocious feature of this group. Through the ob-
servations of Whitman’, Eyclesheimer’, and Locy', we
have learned that the optic vesicles originate in this man-
ner in several amphibia, in selachians, and the chick.
These observations at least lend us a basis for the com-
parison of the eyes with the other segmentally arranged
sense organs, and meantime (Locy lc. p. 556) ‘‘we are in
the attitude of awaiting further facts.”

The scattered integumentary sense organs (taste buds,
touch corpuscles) have not been shown to be derived from
anlages, serially homologous with the anterior segment-
ally arranged series.

The derivation of the chief vertebrate sense organs
from a longitudinal series of superficial neuro-epithelium
patches, might at first thought be construed into a sound
argument for the annelid-theory of vertebrate ancestry.
But when it is borne in mind that the vertebrate series
is, in the embryo, confined to the anterior (branchial) re-
gion, whence the organs spread back over the trunk and
forwards over the head by proliferation, it will be recog-

2Journal of Morphology, 1889, p. 593.

3Journ. Morphology, 1893, Vol. VIII, No. 1, p, 189.

4Contributions to the Structure and development of the Vertebrate
Head. Journ, Morphology, 1895,

58 JOURNAL OF. THE

nized that this series of organs differs at any rate in the
matter of distribution, from the segmentally arranged
organs extending alone the side of the body of certain
annelids (Capitellidae, Kisig’; leeches, Whitman’. )

The small number and local distribution of the seg-
mental sense organs of the vertebrate embryo, as com-
pared with the condition after the lateral line has become
well developed, suggests inevitably the question: If so
much of the metameric character of these organs in the
adult (or larva) is clearly secondary, how decply seated
is, the metameric arrangement of the primitive (few, em-
bryonic) branchial sense organs? Is it possible that this
series of organs has arisen from a single pair (one on each
side of the body), as some (Brooks’) believe the gill clefts
to be traceable to a single pair?

There exist certain observations which it is possible to
interpret as supporting this idea. In 1891 I described*
for a teleost (Serranus embryos) a sensory anlage on the
side of the head. The reference to these observations in
Minot’s Human Embryology (1892) is succinct, and indi-
cates the state of our knowledge on this point at the time:
“This thickening (the anlage on each side of the head)
torms a long shallow furrow, which subsequently divides
into three parts, of which the first becomes a sense organ
over the gill cleft, the second. the auditory invagination,
and the third, the anlage of the sense-organs of the lat-
eral line. This peculiar development confirms the notion
that all these organs belong in one series, but the appear-
ance of a continuous thickening as the anlage of them all,
has as yet been observed only in this fsh, and may not
indicate a corresponding ancestral condition. Unfortu-

§ Die Segmental-organe der Capitelliden. Mitt. a. d. Zool. Sta. zu
Neapel, 1879.

6 Some New Facts about the Hirudinea. Journ. Morphology, 1889,
7The Genus Salpa. Baltimore, 1893.

8 Embryology of the Sea Bass. Bull. U. S. Fish Comm. Vol: IX,

~

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 59

nately Wilson was unable to make out anything as to the
connection of the sensory plate with the ganglia. The
sense organ above the gill cleft, although differentiated,
is a larval structure only, and disappears in the adult’’
(quoted from Locy lc. p. 548). | |

Locy writing on elasmobranch development (A895, ie.)
goes on to show the advance of our knowledge in this
matter
tain in some elasmobranch forms. Mitrophanow in 1890

‘‘A quite similar condition is now known to ob-

published a preliminary report of his observations on the
lateral line-of Acanthias and other elasmobranchs. In
1893. he published a full report of the same, illustrated
by many figures. He describes a continuous thickening
of the epidermis along the sides of the head, embracing
the territory of the roots of the seventh to tenth nerves.
From this thickening there is separated the material for
the auditory saucer, the branchial sense-organs, and the
beginning of the lateral line. My observations on this —
region in Squalus agree with those of Mitrophanow.”
Locy’s observations are briefly described further on in his
paper (p. 517), the author mentioning that “a considera-
tion of the so-called branchial sense-organs and_ their
ganglia is reserved to be published later.’ }

The discovery that the common anlage was not a pecul-
iar feature of a teleost species, but existed in widely dif-
ferent Ichthyopsida (Mitrophanow" describes the anlage _
not only for selachians, but for teleosts, cyclostomes, and —
amphibia as well), indicated that the point was one worth
tollowing up.

The Serranus egg is a small, pelagie egg. In it the
common anlage is more sharply differentiated from the
general ectoderm, than in the selachian and cyclostome
forms studied by Mitrophanow and Locy. In Serranus”
the anlage is a furrow, in the latter forms it isa thicken-

>)

®Eitude embryogéniqute sur les Sélaciens. Arch. de Zool. exp. et gen
1893.

60 JOURNAL OF THE

ing. In the teleost forms studied by Mitrophanow (spe-
cies not stated) the anlage develops in same way as in
Serranus—as a furrow.

The salmon egg is very different from that of Serranus.
It is large, and with relatively firm yolk. At my sug-
gestion Mr. J. E. Mattocks undertook the problem of
ascertaining in the first place, whether the common anlage
existed in the salmon embryo, and if so, what was its
character. The result of Mr. Mattocks’s work (pub-
lished in Anat. Anzeiger XIII Bd. Nr. 24), was to show
that the common anlage does exist in the salmon; that it
is not a furrow, as in Serranus, but a thickened stripe of
ectoderm as in selachians; that it divides into three parts,
the middle becoming the auditory sac, the posterior the
rudiment of the lateral line, and the anterior remaining
as a very noticeable thickening situated above the anterior
gill clefts. It thus turns out, as might have been ex-
pected, that the peculiarly distinct, furrow-like character
of the analge in Serranus, is not universal in teleosts.
The difference in the character of the anlage between
Serranus and Salmo is perhaps associated with the dif-
ference in the character of the two eggs. One is small,
light, the embryo cosisting of comparatively few cells,
the other large, heavy, the embryo relatively massive and
of many cells. Without dwelling on this point (which
like other similar questions can be cleared up only by an
extensive comparative study of closely related forms,
aided, where the method is practicable, by intelligently
put” experiments—in this connection see Davenport’s
very suggestive ‘‘Catalogue of the processes concerned
in Ontogeny.’ Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool. Vol. XXVII.
No. 6), it is safe to say that comparative embryology
lends some support to the generalization that in embryos
of the former type invagination or evagination is apt to
occur, while in embryos of the latter type the invagina-
tion or evagination is frequently represented by solid in-

ee

ELISHA MIECHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 61

growths or ontgrowths (1. e. thickenings)—compare for
instance the formation of the mesoblast of Amphioxus
with that of other vertebrates, the invaginate gastrula of
Leucifer with tie cor Sata stage of such a form as
the lobster.

If we suppose (as a basis for further work. rather
than for any other purpose) that the common lateral an-
lage in the ichthyopsidan embryo indicates the presence
in the chordate ancestors of a single elongate sense-organ
on each side of the hean, then what was the character of
this organ? Was it a sac (groove), or merely a superfi-
cial sensory area? It is worth while often. to put the
question, even if the answer is not forthcoming. Cer-
tainly the answer is not now at hand. Though merely
putting the qnestion calls to mind the cephalic slits of
nemerteans, and Hubrechi’s ingenious, if not very pop-
ular theory of chordate ancestry.

NOTES ON NORTH CAROLINA MINERALS.*
PY J. HB. : PRALFTL.

CONTENTS. PAGE.
eee I NOT M BB AT Sok i ee ce eee lab hae enon es 62
IDET BAP LTS SEA WEI 6788 oS Oe Pe SAYA LS oad devine Od i tkhdae tie Cree 70
Nh LR ie ee Ly sisid ob pide dia hegdath es 72
INNES, oe ee eee SE So oct wie oe dos gis bine De ars 73
en ie ee eee dh gine ches Conte ee oe 75
EEE MIRON EIT Ic) ele i elec fee dake vee ee dee ae 76
PNM eo iat handy Le Wd e ahead » Gow shady ped Geen wee 79
I I TE aed calc ced jelaca vs ive ta dnssae owabeee nee 80
i ak. ec Kd ck wees bee 220 hing Patan oe ee 82

INTRODUCTORY NOTE.

The contents of this paper are notes on the North Car-
olina minerals that have been collected during the past
few years. Some of these have already been published

*By permission of the Director of the N. C. Geological Survey.

4

62 JOURNAL OF THE

during the past year, ana reference is made to this under
the head of these minerals.

These notes are intended primarily for a Bulletin on
the Mineral Resources of North Carolina, but the more
important of these are published as occasion offers.

WELLSITE, A NEW MINERAL.”

Occurence.—This mineral occurs at the Buck Creek
(Cullakanee) corundum mine in Clay Co., North Carolina,
and was collected by Professor S. L. Penfield and the
author during the summer of 1892 while engaged in work
on the North Carolina Geological Survey.

The corundum vein in which the mineral is found is
composed chiefly of albite feldspar and hornblende, and
penetrates a peridotite rock, dunite, near its contact with
the gneiss. The peridotite outcrop is one of the largest
in the State and has been thoroughly prospected for cor-
undum. <At only one of the veins opened was the new
mineral found, although a carefui search was made for it
at all the openings, especially those affording feldspar...
No mining has been done at the locality since 1891, but if
work is resumed and the veins uncovered, more of the
materia] will undoubtedly be found,

The mineral is found in isolated crystals mostly at-
tached to the feldspar but also to hornblende and corun-
dum, and is intimately associated with chabazite, (see p.
70°, which occurs in small transparent rhombohedrons.

The largest crystals that were observed were not over
1™ in diumet: r and 2"™ in length.

Crystalline form.—The crystals belong to the mono-
clinic system and they are twinned similarly to those of
harmotome and phillipsite. The common habit is shown
in fig. 1, which represents a combination of twinning
about c, 001 and ec, 011. The crystals dre practically
square prisms, terminated by pyramidal faces, thus imi-

*Am. J. Sci. Vol. III, p. 443, 1897.

> ELISHA MITCHELL, SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 63

tating closely a simple combination of a prism of one order
aud a pyramid of the other in the tetragonal system. The
apparent prismatic faces are formed for the most part by
the pinacoid faces, 4, but the crystals interpenetrate each
other somewhat irregularly so that portions of the base
c, 001, coincide with 4, fg. 1. The lines of twinning on
the pinacoid faces between 4 and / twinned are generally
regular, while those between 4 and cand also those which
cross the prism faces vz, 110 (the apparent pyramid) are
generally quite irregular. The 0 faces do not show the
striations parallel to the edges 6 and a. which, meeting
along the twining lines, often reveal the complex nature
of such crystals, nor were any reéntrant angles observed
parallel to the edges of the apparent prism as are common
on phillipsite and harmotome.

Fig. 2 represents another habit of the crystals where
m, 110 is wanting and a, 100 is in combination with 6,
O10. The method of twinning ts similar to that already
described, but the crystals being terminated by a, 100
instead of wz, 110 show prominent reéntrant angles at
their ends. These crystals are very similar to those of

_-harmotome from Bowling near Dumbarton on the Clyde,

ie ee a Bs 5 8 le Cll

Ps

described by Lacroix.*

The only forms that were observed were a, 100; 6, 010;
¢, 001 and mw, 110, with e, 011 only as twinning plane.
‘The faces of the crystals are somewhat rousded and

*Bull. de la Soc. Min. de France, No. 4, p. 94, 1885,

64 JOURNAL OF THE

vicinal so that the reflections were not very perfect.
The angle of the apparent prism J/Ad twinned is approx-
imately 90°. Also the angle mAm over the twinning
plane 011 could be measured only appreximately, varying
from 0°49 to 1°25. The approximate angles are given
below, and from those marked with an asterisk the fol-
lowing axial ratio was calculated:

@ :b:¢ = "768 21: 1°245; B=53°27’ =001A100
Measured Calculated.
bAb, 010A010 *90° (Cover twinning plane)
ada, 1OOALO0 *73°O (over twinning plane)
bam, 010A110 *58°19'
cho, 001A100:, 53°27 =p
cam, 001A110 60°, 59°45', 59°57’ 59°sa

Physical properties.—The crystals are brittle and

show no apparent cleavage. The luster is vitreous.
Many of the crystals are colorless and transparent while
others are white. The hardness is cetween 4 and 4°5.

The specific gravity taken on a number of separate cry-
stals, by means of the heavy solution, varied between
2:278 and 2°366. This variation was probably due to the

difference in the ratio of the barium to the calcium in the

different crystals.

A section parallel to the pinacoid
faces 6, 010, the apparent prism, 1e-
.ealed in polarized hght the struct-
ure shown in hg. 3. The parts I
and I extinguish simultaneously, as
also I] and II; while portions III,
which are parallel to the basal
plane, show parallel extinction.
The section showed something of a
zonal structure, so that the extinct-
ion could only be measured approxi-

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 65

mately, Using the Bertrand ocular, this was found to
be 33° frem one pinacoid on to the other over the twinning
plane. The axis a makes an angle of 52° with the verti-
cal axis C in the obtuse angle B.

The double refractien is positive and weak. The acute
bisectrix ¢ is at right angles to the pinacoid 010, and the
divergence of the optical axes is large. 214 probably
varies from 120° to 130°, but this could not be measured
directly.

Chemical analysis.—The mineral was purified for
analysis by means of the heavy solution and that which
was used varied in specific gravity from 2°278 to 2°360.

The analyses were made by Mr. H. W. Foote,** who
describes the methods used as follows:

‘Water was determined by loss on ignition, and silica
and alumina by the ordinary methods after fusion with
sodium carbonate. The filtrate from the alumina pre-
cipitation was evaporated with aqua regia to remove the
large excess of ammonium salts and a small amount of
ammonium chloride was again added. Calcium, barium
and strontium were then precipitated together, with a
considerable excess of ammonia and ammonium carbo-
nate, and magnesia was determined in the filtrate. The
mixed carbonates were dissolved in’ kydrochloric acid
evaporated to dryness and taken up in about 300°° of wa-
ter. The method used for separating barium was that
recommended by Fresenius.* To the hot solution, a few
drops of acetic acid were added and 10°° of a 10 per cent
solution of ammonium chromate containing a_ small
amount of dichromate. After standing until the solu-
tion became cold, the clear liquid was decanted and the
precipitate of barium chromate was washed with a weak
chromate solution and with water. The precipitate was

*Zs. Anal. Chem., xxix. 426.

**Of the Chemical Laboratory of the Sheffield Scientific School,
New Haven, Conn.

66 JOURNAL OF THE

dissolved in 2°° of pure dilute nitric acid, which was then
partly neutralized with ammonia. Ammonium acetate
was added and 10° cf chromate solution as before, and
after standing, the precipitate was filtered on a Gooch
crucible and weighed as BaCrQ,.

‘The filtrate trom the barium precipitation was con-
centrated somewhat, and calcium and the small quantity.
of strontium precipitated as before. They were ignited
and weighed as oxide. Strontium was then separated
by treatment with amyl alcohol and determined as sul-
phate.

Tahe alkalies were determined bya Smith fusion 1 in the
ordinary way.

The results of the analyses are as follows:

I. i; Average. Ratio.
53 8 SOBRE gh 04 44°11 43°86 i fok — 3°00
AS ie os ee 24°89 24°96 W44 ea
6 aa |. oh bo tbe 4 i FAR VE Be
» AG nas ASB 1.180 F298!" -O1 41
1 @ eae oe 2 a 5°84 21 5380 "10 Fe) ge
MgO . 0-61 062 60:62 “015 (i440 ae
ie Reale eee 3°40 3°40 ‘030 |
ie ee 1°80 1°80 029 |
(Fi © aerate: 96,9 13,39 4) dagas *742 = 3.04

100°01

The ratio of SiO,: Al,O,: RO: H,O is very close to
3.:1:1:3, which gives the formula R”’A1,Si,0,,.. 3H,0%
The ratio of BaO : CaO : K,O+Na,O in the above analy-
ses is nearly 1:3:2 and the theoretical composition cal-
culated fer this ratio is given below together with the
analysis after substituting for Na,O its equivalent of K,O
and for MgO and SrO their equivalents respectively of
CaO and BaO and then recalculating to 100 per cent.

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 67

Theory for R’A1,Si,O,, . 3H,O
where R is +Ba, 32Ca, 2K.

aki iiek 4 ABW 42°87
Bihiks ligt.) 94; 54 24:27
Eek) Ca ierts Bak O65 6°62
CaO a el oat VOLO FEF
BO a uta). oy SOB 6°10
ae eee A 3-10 12°87

100.00 100°00

Experiments were made to determine at what temper-
atures the water was driven off, and the results are
given in the following table, the mineral being heated in
each case until the weight became constant. The last
trace of water could only be driven off by heating the
mineral over the blast lamp.

Loss.
Pee ee Re Priinething.
‘OS eR SRE A IES Aarts Pere | 1°93 }
Whe bs Ao as 1°48 } 4°33
200 Bhi Ole ace LAA ht 300 1
260 LENE UP be eg ee et Oe! Eee ee fe sm peer
alt Si EE ere a WY ea
MSN neat ei teh. ph ta one 14) 4°9G5) 5.99
Raper ae WAM oo vn a}. fag Sart.
28 ta IDS Sg Ti ie tre Se FP Ze

As 18 seen from the above, about one-third of the wa-
ter, or one molecule, is given off between 100° and 200°,
anether third approximately between 200° and 300°,
while the remainder is expelled only at an intense heat.
This would indicate that the water exists in three differ-
ent conditions in the molecule. If only that which is
expelled below 200° be regarded as water of crystalliza-
tion, the composition would be H,R’ Al, S1,O0,,+ 4,0.

That the new mineral would be closely related to the

68 JOURNAL OF THE

phillipsite group of the zeolites, was expected from the

first on account of its crystalline form, and this relation

is very satisfactorily brought out by a comparison of the

crystallographic properties and chemical composition.
They all have very nearly the same axial ratios:

0 OG as

Wellsite....°768 T 23485) p55" ae
Philhipsite :*70949: > BET" 2563 °: P= 535aF
Harmotome.*70315 °: : 7°2310 =p=55 10
Stiblite .... °76227 :1:1°19401 B=50 493

In their habit and method of twinning, they are also
very similar, all the crystals being uniformly penetration
twins. This is especially noticeable between the new
mineral and phillipsite and harmotome which are common
as dowble twins with c, 001 and e, O11 as twinning planes.

The place of the mineral in the phillipsite group is
clearly shown by a comparison of their chemical compo-
sitions. Arranged in order of their proportions of silica
and water to the bases, we have the following interest-
ing series, in which R represents the bivalent elements:

Wellsite........RAIS1,0,,.3H,O
Phillipsite......RAI,Si,O0,,.43H,O
Harmotonmre..... RAT S07 55.0
Stilbite ......... RA1Si,0,,.6H,O

The ratioof RO:AI,O, is constant, 1:1, in the series, while
the proportions of silica and water have a constant ratio,
1:1, between themselves, except in the case of phillipsite.
As there is, however, considerable variation in the analy-
ses of phillipsite, it is not improbable that the ratio of
S10,:H.O, given as 4:45, should be in some cases at least,
4:4, The minerals then form a gradual series, increas-
ing in the proportions of SiO, and H,O from wellsite to
stilbite.

Fresenius® has shown that this group of minerals may
be regarded as a series in which the ratio of RO:A1,O, is

#75, Kr., III, 42, 1878,

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 69

constant, 1:1, while the silica and water vary between
certain limits. He has assumed as these two limits:
RAI,Si,O,,+6H,O and
R, Al,Si,O,,+6H,O

The first would be a hydrated calcium albite and the
last a hydrated anorthite. From a comparison of the
wellsite-stilbite series, 1t seems more probable that the
anorthite end would be RAI,Si,O,+2H.0, or doubling this
for better comparison with the formula of Fresenius,
R,A1LS1,0,,+4H,0O.

It is not unreasonable to expect that the first or anor-
thite member of this series may be found in nature and
the completed series would then be:

Anorthite limit... RAI,Si,0O,+2H,O (not yet identified)

Wellsite.........RAI,Si,0,,+3H,O
Paulipsite .......- RAIS1,0,,+43H,0 (perhaps 4H,0)
Harmotome ......RAI,Si,O,,-+5H,O
Siilbite ....++....-RAI,Si,O,,+6H,O

It is also interesting to note that the formula of the
new mineral wellsite is the same as that assigned to
edingtonite, but the latter is essentially a barium mineral
and being tetragonal shows no crystallographic relations
to wellsite.

Pyrognostlics.—When heated vefore the blowpipe, the
mineral exfoliates slightly and fuses at 2°5-3 to a white
bead, coloring the flame slightly yellow. In the closed
tube, water is given off at a low temperature. It is very
readily decomposed by hot hydrochloric acid with the
separation of silica, but without gelatinization. When
the water in the mineral is driven off below 265° C., it is
nearly all regained on exposing the mineral to the air. If
the water, however, is driven off at a red heat, none is
regained by the mineral.

Name.—The name Wedls¢te is given to this mineral in
honor of Professor H. L. Wells of the Sheffield Scientific
School, Yale University.

70 JOURNAL OF THE

CHABAZITE.

Occurrence.—As described on page62, this mineral is
intimately associated with the wellsite, at the Buck
Creek (Cullakanee) corundum mine in Clay Co., occurring
as a mass of small crvstals coating the feldspar, horn-
blende and corundum. ‘Thus far this mineral has been
found only at the large open cut on the eastside of Buck
Creek, just northwest of the shaft.

The crystals are transparent to white and very small,
no crystal being found that measured over one millimeter
in diameter. |

The only form observed on any of these,crystals was
the unit rhombohedron, 1011, which occurs as simple
crystals and also as penetration-twins, with c, as the
twinning axis. .

Chemical analysis.—In obtaining material for analysis,
the crystals of the chabazite and wellsite, freed as far as
practicable from the feldspar and hornbleude were
crushed and sifted toa uniform grain. By means of the
heavy solution, the chabazite was separated from the
wellsite and also from any feldspar or hornblende that
may have been attached to them. All of the chabazite
Hoated, when the specific gravity of the solution was 2./-
278, while the weillsite and heavier minerals sank to the
bottom of the separatory funnel. These were drawn off
and the solution diluted toa specific gravity of 2.244, but
only a small per cent. of the mineral sank. This being
drawn off, the solution was further diluted to a specific
-gravity of 2.203, when nearly half of the remaining min-
eral sank. This was removed and saved for analysis,
(II, below) and the solution again diluted. When the
specific gravity had been lowered to 2.147, all, but a small
amount of the mineral came dawn, and this was saved for
anatysis. (1) <A preliminary experiment had been made

-with the crystals of the chabazite and these were found
to vary considerably in specific gravity.

ae

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. ral

The mineral was analyzed by Dr. Chas. Baskerville*
with the following results: |

I ae
Sp. Gr. Sp. Gr.
2 °147-2°203 Ratio 2°203-2°244. Ratio
mo, ..45°08 “751 3°79 46:15. “769 259-70
Al,O, .19°68 -193 =k, OU 20°94 203 = 100
FeO 2°00 = -028 | 2.00 :028 |
CaO mee 7129" ) PE a he PR PS ea oe
BaO AB OL PO. OR DRO ogy BAS ey
MgO "23.005 ) 22? OOS)
K,O 4°34 -064) .,. pi thirde.0.'2 043 4
2 Ls hep e () = om e i Xe lo it tee eA
a0 . 3:35 -0544 1°° oe BBS OBS Ha Te
H,O ..18.00 1:000 — 5:02 16°30 .905 —- 4°46
100°08 100°02

The ratio of Al,O, : SiO,: H,O is near to 1:4:5 and
Beeb ( WK, Na,)Ovis ,close to 4:5.

Usually in the composition of the chabazites the ratio

meni), : (Ca; kK... Na,)O is.near to-1 :,1.

In the present

analysis, no attempt was made to separate any strontium
present from the calcium. As a small amount of this
element would’ cause considerable variation in the per
cent of CaO, this would readilv account for the excess of
this oxide in the analysis.

The composition of the chabazite has always been some-
what uncertain as there 1s often a wide varation in the
analyses of specimens from the same locality. The hy-
pothesis advanced by Streng,?+ that the chabazite is an
isomorphous mixture of

{ m(CaNa,) Al,Si,O,+4H,O
| 2(CaNa,)Al,S1,0,,+8H,0.

explains satisfactorily the variations observed in this

*Of the Chemical Laboratory, N. C. Geological Survey.

+Ber. Oberhess. Ges. 16, 74, 1877 and Dana Mineralogy, sixth edi-
eon, 1892, p. 591. ‘

dae JOURNAL OF THE

mineral. This is analogous to the composition of the al-
bite—anorthite feldspars.

The approximate ratios deduced from the above analy-
ses,of SiO, : Al,O, :(Ca.Na,)O°: LO =4.: 1: l= See
give for the formula of this chabazite wz: 2, but with a
low amount of water.

The variation in and the high specific gravity of the
mineral is without doubt due to the varying proportions
of barium and strontium in the molecule.

The occurence of the chabazite at Buck Creek is in-
teresting as being the only known locality of this miner-
al in North Carolina.

ANORTHITE.”*

The occurrence of this feldspar at Buck Creek, Clay
Co., N. C., has been described by J. V. Lewis.** The
mineral forms with olivine a mass of forellenstin (trocto-
lite) rock, outcropping over an area of about two acres,
at the extreme eastern border of the peridotite outcrop.
The particles of feldspar vary in size from that of a pea
to some nodules that were an inch anda half long by
three-quarters of an inch broad and are separated from
the olivine by a zone of fibrous silicates, composed partly
of enstatite.

The two cleavages are well developed in all the spec-
imens of the mineral and in many of these the striations
on the basal cleavage are very distinct.

The feldspar has suffered some kaolinization but the
interior of the larger nodules is apparently free from all
decomposition. By means of the heavy solution a pro-
duct was obtained for analysis that varied in specific
gravity from 2°0995 to 2°7440.

*Am. J. Sci. Vol.; ¥,,.1998,, p. . Vas.
**N. C. Geological Survey, Bulletin 11, p. 24.

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. To

The results of the analysis made by Dr. Chas. Bask-
erville* are as follows:

Ratio,
rere (okt Pn args 734 a-23
Oe elt Lr WBF *302 ‘92
BO EP FA. 84 ‘OT1 |
a iit. dita ck di 90 308 ~ °328 =1°00
LOD Picea ets as "36 “09 |
Be. ase] B65 ‘O57
a Be ee 83 ‘O09

MOIS Ure: 2). +: an
Loss on ignition 1°60

99°85

Phe ratio of SiO, : Al,O,: CaO, 1s near to '2 :1:: 1,
which identifies the feldspar as an anorthite.

With the exception of a small amount of this mineral
found at Shooting Creek, Clay Co., under similiar con-
ditions, this is the only occurrence of anorthite in this
State.

ANTHOPHYLLITE.

In 1890 Prof. S. L. Penfeldt described this mineral
which was reported as having come from the Jenks
coumdum mine near Franklin, Macon Co., N. C.

During the summer of 1892, while engaged with the
North Carolina Geological Survey, Prof. Penfield and
the author visited an outcrop of dunite rock near Bakers-
ville, Mitchell Co. On breaking open one of the loose
boulders of decomposed dunite rock, anthophyllite was
exposed, which Prof. Penfield at once recognized as iden-
tical with the specimen he had described.

As there has been no mention of the correct locality of

* Of the Chemical Laboratory N. C. Geological Survey.

tAm. J. Sci. XL, 1890, p. 394.

74 JOURNAL OF THE

the anthophyllite and as this name is often applied to an
enstatite occurring at the corumdum mine, it has been
thought that a description of the occurrence of these two
minerals would be of interest.

At the Woody place two and a half miles south of Ba-
kersville on the Marion road, there is a large outcrop of
dunite rock extending from near the road to the top of
the hill, a lenticular mass about 600 by 300 feet. The
hillside, where it occurs, is quite barren and thickly scat-
tered with loose fragments and boulders of the altered
dunite. The outcrop has been carefully’ examined but
the anthophyllite has only been found in the boulders.
The mineral occurs in. prismatic crystals imbedded in
penninite. Nearly all the crystals are seamed and cracked
while those near the outer part of the boulders are some-
what decomposed and stained a dirty brown. The purest
crystals are transparent, and vary from pale clove brown
to a flesh color. |

The crystals measure from 2™" to 6™" in the widest
diameter and in length, some were found that were over
three centimeters.

A great many crystals were examined but no termina-
ted ones were observed. The unit prism, 110, occurring
alone, or in Combination with the brachy pinacoid, 010,
were the only forms observed.

Although the boulders containing the anthophyllite are
composed almost always Of this mineral and penninite,
there are other minerals, resulting from the alternation
ef the chrysolite, which occur at this locality. ‘These
are magnetite in pertect octahedrons 1"™" in diameter,
e@reen actinolite, chalcedony, druzy quartz, talc, serpen-
tine and genthite. Chromite occurs in grains in the
chrysohte.

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 75
An analysis of the anthophyllite by Dr. Baskerville is
given below, together with the results obtained by Prof.

Penfield.*

I (Baskerville). II (Penfield).

Bee ee 1 ,. . 50.40 57.98
Me eka tate ace hy LS .63
ee SU LE AO 10.39
Bie Acs inte E41
eh tas os 5 3-28.68 28.69
a nan)
Be ye oy 163 1.67
Loss at 100° eae eh

99.76 99,99

The two analyses are very similar, and confirm Prof.
Penfield’s conclusion that the specimen described by him
was from the Bakersville locality.

One specimen of a true anthophyllite was found at
Corundum Hill by Prof. Penheld; but this was more
fibrous and not of such good quality as that from the
Bakersville locality.

ENSTATITE.

The enstatite from Corundum Hill that is commonly
called anthophyllite, occurs as a rock composed of a mass
of interlocking bladed grayish crystals of the mineral.
The rock is very tough and tenacious and forms a per-
fectly continuous mass with the dunite. The outcrop of
the dunite at Corundum Hill is very similar to that near
Bakersville. The hill of nearly ten acres in extent ha
the dunite exposed over nearly its entire surface, and the
enstatite is found at the lower south end of the outcrop
in the zone of alteration products developed near the
contact of the dunite with the hornblende gneiss.

Saw, J. Sci. X1L,, 1890, p. 396,

76 JOURNAL OF THE

The analysis of this mineral by Dr. Baskerville” is as
follows:

Ratio
SiO, 51.64 861
Al,O, 40 001
FeO 9,28 129 |
MnQO 56 008
MeO 31.93 og f°
Coat) 045 008 |
H,O 5.45 303

99.43

It is evident from the amount of H,O found, that the
material analyzed was not pure, but was probably a mix-
ture of the enstatite with serpentine and talc.

As is shown by the calculations below, the ratio in the
above analysis would be satisfied by a mixture of 44.5
per cent. enstatite, 35 per cent. serpentine and 20.5 per
cent. talc. The analysis is also given below after sub-
stituting for MnO and CaO their equivalents of MgO,
deducting Al,O, and recalculating to 100 per cent.

44.5 per cent. 35 per cent. 20 per cent. Recalculated

Enstatite. Ratio. Serpentine. Ratio. Talc. Ratio. Total. Analysis.
SiOg..2442 .407 14.87 .246 13.02 .217 —52.31 52,79
FeO; . 7.68 (205 1.84 025: 44+ - —— '9,42 ee:
MgO... 12,50 312 13.83 .346 6.51 .163 ——32.84 32.91
ne... = * 4.46 .246 .97 .054 — 5.43 SW |
44.50 35.00 20.50 100,00 100.00

ENSTATITE (BRONZITE. )

The occurence of this mineral in any considerable
amount in North Carolina was first mentioned by Dr. G.
H. Williams** who described specimens of a bronzite-di-
opside rock, to which he gave the name websterite.

*N. C. Geol. Survey, Bull. 11, p. 27.
** American Geologist VI, pp. 43-4, 1890.
+J. V. Lewis N. C. Geol. Survey, Bull. 11. p. 27.

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 77

These specimens were collected near Webster, Jackson
Co., by Mr, Geo. P. Merrill of the U. S.. National Mu-
seum.

On the road from Webster, following up the Tucka-
seegee river valley and about one half mile from the
town, a mass of dunitet is exposed for over 1500 feet on
a hillside facing the river. In the midst of this outcrop,
the websterite occupies 1 width of nearly 300 feet. This
outcrop of dunite is very similar to that near Bakersville
and at Coumdum HiJl, described above.

This rock as described by Williams,* is composed en-
tirely of bronzite and an emerald-green diopside, The
ground mass of this rock is composed of the brilliant
ereen grains of the diopside through which rounded crys-
tals of the pale brown bronzite are disseminated. The
relative amount of the bronzite is variable as it shows a
tendency to concentrate in nests or bands.

Lewis** speaks of this rock as a compact granular
rock closely resembling the dunite with which it is asso-
ciated,

Near the north end of the dunite outcrop, at the side
of the road, boulders were observed, which when broken
open were found to be composed almost entirely of bron-
zite. Besides the boulders a mass of the same rock was
observed apparently @ sz¢z.

The bronzite composing this rock is of a resinous brown
color, and of a bronze like luster, even on the unaltered
surfaces. On the cleavage surface tie Juster is decidely
pearly. No distinct crystals were observed, the speci-
mens being a mass of interlocking crystals making a very
tough rock similiar to the enstatite described above. In
most of the specimens, the crystals were so interlocked
that no crystal outline of these could be distinguished.
In a few of the specimens the crystals were much larger

*American Geologist VI, pp. 43—4, 1890.

N.C. Geol. Survey Bull. 11. p.' 27.

5

78 JOURNAL OF THE

in their development and their outline could readily be de-
tected. Some of the crystals measured 2°™ in the direc-
tion of the d, axis.

Associated with the brouzite is the emerald-green di-
opside mentioned by Williams, which is sparingle scat-
tered through the rock in very small, clear, green grains.

While the websterite is composed of a base of diopside
grains with the rather large rounded crystals of the
bronzite penetrating through it, the bronzite rock is es-
sentially interlocking prismatic crystals of the bronzite
with a few grains of the diopside disseminated through
it. This rock, also, does not show any of the granular
character of the websterite; but on the contrary it is very
compact and tough.

The material for analysis was hand picked and that se-
lected showed no impurities or decomposition when exam-
ined with the magnifying glass.

The results of the analysis by Dr. Baskerville are giv-
en below:

Ratio
SiO; seorskiue “1/1 uS3"68 “894. ae /
MMOs. p08 ee ee 197 00%
ir (Ohi aes ered “50 ‘OOS 4
ROS OB SVE api eo 2 mes 8 125 |
TG RE eres ee EOE fee $e ‘O51 > “Oe comet ee
Mie Ce rag) aes "838 |
| SB RRR ES

99°62

In the above analysis the ratio of the bivalent oxides to
silicia is close to 1:1, and of ferrous oxide to magnesia
and lime is very near to 1:7; this would give the formu-
la (MeFe)SiO, with Mg: Fe=7:1. Assuming that the
Al,O, and Cr.O, belong to spinel and deducting RO suf-
ficient tocombine with them, the analysis, after substitu-
ting for CaO its equivalent of MgO and recalculating to

ee ee ee ee. a a ee ee

ELISHA MITCHELI, SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 79

100 per cent, is given below together with the theoretical
composition calculated for this formula.

Found Theory for
(MgFe)Si0,; Me : Fe=7:1
teh sth. 5735 57°69
Mee) ses 3914 8°65
Brot nite i5'5h 33°66
100°00 1L00°00

The name bronzite is very appropriate to this Webster
enstatite, for the luster is of a decided bronze-like char-
acter throughout the entire mass and is undoubtedly not
of a secondary origin, but is the natural luster of this
mineral. A similiar bronzite, showing the same decided
bronze-like luster has been found at the Buck Creek,
(Cullakanee,) corundum mine in Clay county.

HMERALD BERYL.

Although the beryl is a very common accessory miner-
al, in granite veins, especially those of a pegmatitic charac-
ter, it is not common to find the deep emerald vreen va-
riety. The earliest report of the emerald in North Car-
olina is 1880, by W. IE. Hidden*® who deseribes the oc-
currence in Sharpes Township, Alexaader Co. w cere it is
found associated with the emerald green hiddenite.

The occurence of the emerald in Mitchell Co. has been
known since 1886, though but little work has been done
to develope the locality and to estimate its economic
value. Vhe mineral is found on the divide between
Brush and Crabtree Creeks about four miles south of
Spruce Pine, post office.

The vein carrying the beryl is of a peematitic character
consisting chiefly of quartz aud an atbite feldspar, with

*Elisha Mitchel Scientific Society. 1880.

80 JOURNAL OF THE

tourmaline, garnet and the beryl as accessory minerals.
‘he country rock is a gneiss and biotite schist.

The emerald beryl has the characteristic green color
of the gem and some of the crystals are transparent.
They all have the hexagonal prism well developed, but
none were observed that showed any terminations. The
crystals vary in size from less than a millimeter up to
eight millimeters in diameter. They are found imbedded
in the quartz, feldspar and biotite schist, but are for the
most part near the contact of the vein with the schist,
The most transparent and deepest green crystals ob-
served were either entirely surrounded by the schist or
close to the contact. Those in the quartz were usually
more transparent than those found imbedded in the feld-
spar. The color of the crystals varies with their loca-
tion in the vein, those nearest the schist being of the em-
erald variety, whiie those farther away are pale green or
yellow.

The yellow or cream colored beryls are very abundant
though the vein. The crystals vary considerably in size,
from those hardly 2™ in diameter to one that measured
sR daca

The locality as yet has not been developed sufficiently
to demonstrate whether it will warrent its being werked
for gems. Both Col. Rorison of Bakersville, and Capt.
Isaac English of Spruce Pine report that crystals have
been found from which good gems were cut.

GRASS GREEN CYANITE.*

The mineral to be described occurs on the farm of
Tiel Young, near North Toe River. Yancey Co., North
Carolina, a few miles from Spruce Pine, Mitcheli Co.

Some exceptionally large crystals of a grass-¢reen col-
or were obtained by the author during the summer of

*Am, J. Sci. Vol. V, 1898, p. 126.

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 8i

1896 from Mr. M. Alexander, a jeweler in Asheville.
After some difficulty the occurrence was located, during
the summer of 1897, and the locality has been thoroughly
worked by Geo. L. English & Co. of New York, with
the result that many good crystals of the cyanite have
been obtained.

The mineral occurs in a decomposed mica schist from
which the single crystals are easily separated. The
crystals are often intergrown and masses of these were
obtained as large as one’s two fists. All of the crystals
found were of a rich grass-green color and many were
quite transparent, <A few of the crystals showed a deep
blue center with the grass-green margins. The crystals
vary in size from 1X°7°" to 3°2X6°™; a few coarser ones
were observed that were considerably larger. The fin-
est crystal that has been found at this locality measured
5°8 xX 2°21°8°" and was perfectly transparent at one end
for about 2°". The three pinacoids were the only faces
observed on this crystal and these were evenly and well
develoved. This crystal is now in the Brush Collection
at New Haven, Conn. ‘The faces are generally smooth,
giving fair reflections of the signal on the reflecting go-
niometer. ;

The forms observed on these crystals are as follows.

c, 001 a, 100 WM. 110
5, 010 m, 110 Q, 120 Z. Bau

The face 520 is apparently a new one for cyanite.
The three pinacoids were the only faces observed on the
majority of the crystals, some of which were doubly ter-
minated. After a very careful examination of the termi-
natio s, they were decided to be real basal planes and
not cleavage surfaces. On one of the crystals, all of the
faces observed were developed.

The following table shows the identification of the
forms by calculated and measured angles. In obtaining
the calculated angles the elements given in Dana’s Min-

82 JOURNAL OF THE

eralogy (1892), deduced from Rath’s measurements® on
Greiner crystals, have been used.

c
f2b:C =0°89938:1 :0°70896; a=90°5 3; B= 10192437 = 105443"

Calculated. Measured.
adm, 1O0A110 eo Bg 34° 11% 347 See
asM, 1004110 48 18 48 43:48 41; 48°45
axQ, 1003120 48 43 48 50
asl,. 100A520 ee Ly 45
adh, 100010 Va 56 73 40; 73 38; 73 42
bx M, 0104110 57 46 57 41

The specific gravity is 3°64 and was determined upon
several different samples. Pleochroisim 1s very strong.

Iron and chromium were very carefully tested for, but
no-trace of either was observed in the analysis, Which
showed only the presence of alumina and silica.

Crystallized cyanite is usually in long bladed crystals
without terminations, the best crystals having been found
at St. Gothard in Switzerland and on Mt. Greiner in
Bryerolii «>. Lhese crystals of a blue and blueish white
color, are often transparent but are seldom over a few
millimeters wide. i

.Phis new occurrence of the cvanite is not only of inter-
est on account of the deep green color of the mineral but
also on.account of the exceptional size and development
of the crystals.

“Pale green cyanite has been obtained from a number of
localities and it has also been found in the v icinity of the
ereen cyanite locality on the farm of Isaac Enelish of
Spruce Pine, Mitchell Co., imbedded in an undecomposed
mica schist. Another occurrence that is worthy of note
is that of Graves Mt., Georgia. At this locality thin
small plates of the pale green cyanite are associated with
well crystallized rutile.

*7,5. Kr., v, 17, 1880.

a a a

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 83

ZIRCON. *

Some specimens of zircon crystals were obtained of
Messrs. Geo L. English & Co., from New Stirling, Tre-
dell Co., North Carolina, and on account of their size
and development it has been thought a description of
them would be of interest.

The crystals are all very similar in their habit, in
which the unit pyramid is strongly developed while the
prisms faces are short, figs. 4and5. Fig. 4 represents
the majority of the crystals, where the prism of the first
order is only slightly developed, at times being hardly

‘perceptible. Those represented by fig. 5 are similar in

their habit to some zircon crystals described by the au-

4. 5.

thor from the townships of Dungannon and Faraday,
Ontario. t

The following forms were observed on these crystals:

ee see VAS ee Es tr, 2212 ake,

The face x, 311 was only observed on a very few of the
crystals and was but slightly developed. The crystals
are all well developed with smooth faces, making them
well adapted for measurement on the reflecting goniome-
ter. Although the author had no reflecting goniometer
at hand, the faces were readily identified by means of the
contact goniometer. :

The crystals vary in size from 1°™ to 2°5" in diameter
and are of a reddish-brown color.

wa

#Am. J. Sci. Vol. V, 1898, p. 127.
+Am, Jour. Sci., vol., xlviii, p. 215, 1894.

JOURNAL.

OF THE

Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society

VOL. XV
1898

OHAPEL, HILL, N:* ©.
PUBLISHED BY THE UNIVERSITY

eG Rl Ps eee

ETA FEAT Ser i Oe Chena ALT:

hin

o

Journal of the Mitchell Society.

CONTENTS.

VOL. XV.

1898.

The Nature of the Change from Violet to Green in Solution of Chro-
mium Salts.—/. P. Venable and F. W. Miller............ccccccccscecceess 1

Nesting Habits of Some Southern Birds in Eastern N. C.—T. G.
Pearson ; | 17

PERO E SEES E HEE EHH EEE EEE EEE EHH HEHE EE EH EEHEHE HEHEHE EEE EE EEE ESE EEHEESESEEERESEHS

MEME Re PR Peper cts rio hea velniaduee ceetgadcie's «se Onenacacneus seven dénmanaacesmaiee 22
Natural Science of the Ancients as Interpreted by Lucretius.—F. P. .
I Se cra Mea aiek far ste coe Aalds Valais nev dupe aeemigwe nan eneasdeneees ase 62
On the Feasibility of Raising Sponges from the Egg.—H. V. Wilson...... | 7
Distribution of Witceaower ine. OJ. As obese sineacpuasenseness 92
ra reiting, — WW, Wi. ASfe.. 0... :c0ssccsdssneocdoace-dvereedasoadaad sntecopecer- +22- // 2

JOURNAL

OF THE

-Glisha Mitchell Scientific. Soviet

VOLUME IV are PART FIRST

January: Jume

1898

POST OFFICE
CHAPEL HILL, N. C.

ISSUED FROM THE UNIVERSITY PRESSES
CHAPEL HILL, N. C.

TABLE OF CONTETS.

\ .
THE NATURE OF THE CHANGE FROM VIOLET TO GREEN

IN SOLUTIONS OF CHROMIUM SALTS.
rf PP. Venable and F.-W. Millers... . 2... $e 1
NESTING HABITS OF SOME SOUTHERN BIRDS IN HASTERN
NorTH CAROLINA.
Bae PEL 2 RE etelaNe co's ile doh ag ka oa 17
Tae DICHOTOMOUS GROUP OF PANICUM IN THE KASTERN
UNITED STATES.

NATURAL SCIENCE OF THE ANCIENTS AS INTERPRETED
BY LUCRETIUS.
mA: Wanable .:)... Ueto oc Ate 2 62

JOURNAL

OF THE
Flisha Mitchell Scientific Society.
FIFTEENTH YEAR—PART ONE.

1898.

THE NATURE OF THE CHANGE FROM VIOLET
TO GREEN IN SOLUTIONS OF CHROM-
IUM SALTS.

By F. P. VENABLE AND F. W. MILLER.

It is a well-known fact that solutions of certain chrom-
ium salts which are violet in color become green on heat-
ing. This has been especially noticed in the case of the
chrome-alums and of the sulphate, but is also true of the
nitrate, chloride, and acetate, in fact, of all the soluble
compounds of chromium. A reverse reaction also takes
place and all of these solutions made green by heating
become violet again on standing, the nitrate, chloride,
and acetate very rapidly, the sulphate and alums slowly,
and often only after prolonged standing. It is quite rea-
sonable to suppose that these changes are caused by sim-
ilar reactions in the case of various salts, and that there
is one explanation for all.

A large number of explanations have been offered by
various investigators. In fact it is surprising to find
how many have been drawn to investigate these changes
and what an amount of work has been done upon them.
Perhaps the difficult nature of the problem has been the
great source of attraction. Fischer’ and Jacquelain’

1Kastner’s Archiv., 14, 164.
2 Compt. rend., 24, 439.

9 JOURNAL OF ‘THE

have attributed these changes to a separation of the
chromium sulphate from the alkaline sulphate; Berze-
lius' and Fremy’ assigned as the cause of the changes
the formation of a basic sulphate; Recoura and Whitney’
and Dougal‘ have considered the true cause to be the for-
mation of a chrom-sulphuric acid; Schrétter? suggested
a partial dehydration, and Etard’ also thought the
change due to an alteration in hydration; Roscoe and
Schorlemmer’ regarded the green solutions as containing
mixtures of basic and acid salts; Loewel* advanced the
theory of an isomeric change.

It is quite manifest that any theory like that of Fis-
cher and Jacquelain, based upon an examination of the
alums alone, is quite inadequate. It is further evident
that any phenomenon which has aroused so great a va-
riety of speculations as this must be considered very care-
fully with due weighing of every known fact. These
facts are numerous and important.

HOW THE CHANGE MAY BE BROUGHT ABOUT.

Chrome-alum is soluble in six parts of water ; the vio-
let solution suffers the alum slowly to crystallize out
unchanged by spontaneous evaporation; but if heated to
between 50° and 75° it turns green and, according to the
extent of decomposition, either deposits on evaporation a
brilliant, green, amorphous, difficultly soluble mass, or
‘‘yields crystals of sulphate of potash, leaving green sul-
phate of chromic oxide in solution.’”

Schrétter says the change takes place at 65°-70°. He

1 Ann. Phys. Chem., 61, 1.

2 Compt. rend., 47, 883.

3 Ztschr. phys. Chem., 1896, 20, 40.

4J, Chem. Soc., Lond., 7896, 69, 1526. ;
5Pogg. Ann., 53, 513.

6 Compt. rend., 84, 1090.

7Treatise on Chemistry, First Edition, Vol. IJ, Pt. II, 163.

by..a, Pharm, (3),>7, Se...

9Fischer, cited in Gmelin: Handbuch, 7850, IV, 149.

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 3

further states that the crystals of potassium sulphate
separate only from a highly concentrated solution and in
small quantity. Sprung has shown, in experiments to
be quoted later, that the change begins at a temperature
under 30°.

We have repeatedly attempted to secure the separation .
of crystals of potassium sulphate as described by Fischer
and Schrétter, but without success. The exact condi-
tions are clearly difficult to hit upon, if such a separation
is at all possible.

Alkaline hydroxides and carbonates, according to van
Cleeff,’ turn violet solutions of the alums green, and
Etard’ has shown that they bring about the same change
in solutions of the normal sulphate. Sulphuric acid,
phosphorus trichloride, and nitric acid, according to
Etard, bring about the same change, but Otto’ says that
sulphuric acid does not turn solutions of the alum green
if rise of temperature is prevented. Schrétter says that
nitric acid turns green solutions of chromium sulphate
blue again.

Our experiments along this line resulted as follows:
First as to the action of acids. Hydrochloric acid had
no action upon either violet or green solutions, nor does
it apparently have any influence upon the change from
one to the other on heating. Sulphuric acid brought
about no change in either in the cold, but has a retarding
influence upon the change on heating. This was so
marked in one or two experiments that 1t was thought
the change would be entirely prevented. Nitric acid had
no appreciable immediate effect upon either in the cold.
On heating with the violet the retarding action was
ereater than when sulphuric acid was used, and the solu-
tien resumed its violet color on cooling. Acetic acid had

1J. prakt. Chem. (2), 23, 58.
2 Compt. rend., 84, 1090.
3Graham-Otto, 4 Aufl., 3, 113,

4 JOURNAL OF THE

apparently no influence. As to the action of alkalies,
sodium or potassium, or ammonium hydroxide, or the car-
bonates, readily turned the violet solutions green. They
had no action upon green solntions.

CHANGES IN PHYSICAL PROPERTIES.

In the case of chromic sulphate, Sprung’ has shown
that the violet solution with about twenty-four per cent.
of the salt has the specific gravity 1.1619. while the
green is 1.1486. So too with the alum there is an in-
crease of volume, which has been noticed by Siewert and
also by Mohr,’ and a decrease of volume is observed as
the green solution reverts to the violet. Lecoq de Bois-
baudran* has also observed these changes, noting that
they are independent of the concentration of the solution,
the presence of crystals, or whether the vessel is open or
closed. The changes in density can be reckoned from
his dilatometric observations. Dougal’ has shown that
the alteration in density of even a dilute solution of
chrome-alum, after boiling, may readily be detected by
a specific gravity bottle. In this manner, one, two and
a half, and five per cent. solutions were experimented
upon. ‘The actual amount of change depended upon the
duration of the heating and the length of time which had
elapsed since the green solution had been prepared. The
violet solutions became specifically lighter when changed
to green by boiling. The transformation is accompanied
therefore by expansion.

According to Sprung the violet and green solutions
show a difference in internal friction or viscosity. The
ratios af diffusion out of capillaries at temperatures 10°
20°, 30°, 40°, 50°, of the green to the violet were as 100

iN. Arch, ph. nat., 53, 112.

2 Ber. d. chem. Ges., 4, 318.

8 Compt. rend., 79, 1491,

4J. Chem. Soc. Lond., 7896, 69, 1597,

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 5

fo00:70': to 67.77; to 68.74; to 70.79; to 75.72. From
this it is seen that the change begins at less than 30°,
and from this arises the observation that has been made
that the solution of the alum turns somewhat green at
ordinary temperatures.

The diffusion of these solutions has also been carefully
studied with a view to throwing light upon this puzzling
problem.

With regard to the sulphate it has been shown by van
Cleeff! that green solutions on being dialyzed yield dia-
lysates containing a larger proportion of acids. This had
been repeatedly investigated in the case of the alum.
Thus van Cleeff has found that in the dialysis of the
ereen solution of the alum, relatively more sulphuric acid
goes into the dialysate than when the violet solution is
dialyzed. Dougal’ has also carried out careful expert-
ments along this line. ‘Time, temperature, strength of the
dialysate, amount of initial change, amount of retrogres-
sion, all affected the results, and little beyond the facts
stated above could be deduced from them. The experi-
ments were made upon solutions containing one per cent.
of the alum. While the author states that no compari-
son could justly be made between the experiments, it may
be noted that the ratio of increase in acidity was fairly
regular and ranged between one-seventh and one-sixth.

A few experiments were undertaken upon the dialysis
of the alum before Dougal’s experiments were known to
us. They were not pushed to completion when these lat-
ter became known, especially as there seemed little
chance of their throwing much light upon the nature of
the change.

CHANGES IN CHEMICAL PROPERTIES.

One of the most singular changes in chemical proper-

tT]. prakt, Chem. (2), 23, 58.
2]. Chem. Soc. Lond., 2896, 69, 1527.

6 JOURNAL OF THE

ties is that noted in the action of the sulphate or alum,
before and after heating, upon solutions of barium or lead
salts. This was first observed by Loewel' and was
studied by Favre and Valson.* A _ violet solution on be-
ing treated in the cold with a solution of barium chloride,
yields practically all of its sulphuric acid as barium sul-
phate. A cold green solution forms a precipitate slowly,
and even after a number of hours the precipitation is far
from complete. On boiling, all of the sulphuric acid will
be precipitated. Favre and Valson found that only one-
third of the sulphuric acid present in the original chromic
sulphate was precipitated in the cold by the barium
chloride.

Our own experiments upon this point were as follows:
A weighed amount of the pure alum was dissolved and
the solution made up to a definite quantity. Two aliquot
portions were taken, one of which was heated for half an
hour and allowed to cool. ‘Then both portions were pre-
cipitated with an excess of barium chloride. It was
found impossible to filter these immediately with asbestos
felts or the best filter-paper. They were therefore al-
lowed to stand about twenty-four hours. This very long
standing probably changed the conditions somewhat, but
we were unable to avoid it. Still the results would con-
firm the observations of Favre and Valson. The pro-
longed standing also showed that it was not merely a de-
layed precipitation, but one partially prevented.

I EH,

Percentage of SOg3 in alum is 32.06............
Percentage of SOg in alum, violet solution

PLECIMI ATEN GONE ok g by be a cee ew nS} yeaa le8 30.44 30.19
Percentage of SO3 in alum, green solution

heated one-half hour......... TREE OSE I
Percentage of SO 3 in alum, green solution

heated one hour: : oS. u ceo beet ree eR 22.87 21.83

1J, Pharm. (3), 4, 32.
2 Compt. rend., 77, 803.

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 7

These experiments were upon solutions containing one
gram to 100 cc. A solution twice as strong was next
taken:

i. Tk
Percentage in violet solution precipitated
COLES SSRN ES NORE Og en Sa eR teen 28.88 31.80
Percentage in green solution (heated one
nour) precipitated colds ys 2.3 5....5 0440. 19.55 21.47

Again a solution containing 0.5 gram to the 100 ce.
was taken.

Percentage in violet solution precipitated cold....... 28.30
Percentage in green solution (heated one hour) pre-
SAWS eae GRC s 65'S sg ahi ey ofa ROG AIa 6 Ele aS ao. eS 23.00

The difficulties of washing and filtering barium sul-
phate precipitated in this manner account in part for the
lack of agreement between the analyses, but two things
are evident; first, that all the sulphuric acid is not pre-
cipitated from either v olet or green solutiens in the cold,
and, secondly, that a short boiling effects such a change
that only two-thirds of the sulphuric acid is precipitated
by barium chloride in the cold. he amount not precipi-
tated ranged from 9.06 to 13.51 per cent.

Many observations have been recorded as to the acidity
of the violet and green solutiens of the alum. NRecoura!
has stated that the vapors coming from a solution at 100°
are acid, while the solid salt at the same temperature does
not lose any acid. He further maintains that the green
solution, left after the heating, contains a considerable
amount of free acid. He made use of the heat of neutral-
ization as a means of measuring the degree of acidity.
A known amount of soda was added to the liquid and the
heat liberated was measured. In so far as this corres-
ponds with the heat liberated by the neutralization of free
sulphuric acid in the same degree of dilution, he conclud-
ed that he was dealing with free acid. According to his

1 Compt. rend., 112, 1440.
2 Ann. Phys. Chem. (3) 61, 218.

8 JOURNAL OF THE

experiments there was one-half of an equivalent of sul-
phuric acid for every equivalent of chromium sulphate.

It was Kruger’ who first attempted to show in 1844
the presence of free sulphuric acid in the green solution.
He thought this was proved by the acidity of the layer of
alcohol poured over the green solution.

Baubigny and Pechard’ have shown that the alum has
always an acid reaction even aiter purification by means
of alcohol. Further they regarded the following experi-
ment as proving a partial dissociation of the salt. To
twenty cc. of a saturated solution of the alum, three-
tenths gram of ammonia gas was added, and, after shak-
ing, the liquid was neutral to methyl orange; after some
time the liquid which had become green on the addition of
the ammonia, yielded violet crystals with strong acid-
reaction and the mother-liquor had become acid to methyl
orange.

Whitney‘ has also attempted to prove the presence of
acid by physical methods. Sodium hydroxide and barium
hydroxide respectively were added to the green solution.
The addition of a base must lower the conductivity of the
solution as long as free sulphuric acid is being neutralized.
He found the minimum when he hid added one-sixth of
an equivalent of sodium hydroxide to the chromium sul-
phate, or one-third of an equivalent of barium hydroxide.
No explanation was given of the variation in the results.
He also claimed to have proved the presence of free acid
by the catalysis of methyl acetate. Lastly, the inverting
action of green solutions of chromium chloride, acetate,
nitrate, and sulphate was tried upon sugar solutions. He
came to the conclusion that in the case of the chloride and
nitrate, two-thirds of the acid was set free on boiling ;
of the acetate more than two-thirds,and of the sulphate less
than one third. In our own experiments as to the relative

1 Compt. rend., 115, 604.
2 Ztschr. phys. Chem., 1896, 20, 40.

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 9

acidity of the violet and green solutions, it was seen that
both solutions were acid. We tried a large number of
the usual indicators, but the violet and green colors of
the solutions interfered too much to give any results
with them which could be regarded as at all satisfactory.
It was fonund that fair resuits could be obtained by using
a decinormal solution of ammonia and noting the first ap-
pearance of a permanent precipitate.

Tenth-normal

ammonia.
ie
Per etais it MA Ce, Cold: Treqaired ie ot. en 27.5
ef see nth. 6) boiled onernelh hour }oc (Le. dol 27.6
a + ap: pO. Sti ceeneie TAGE ee i tw es 26,5."
te bk Alege Nee AL MRE ol Fg PR a ee Re 26.5

During the boiling, the water evaporated was repeatedly
restored. Unless this was done a little acid was lost,
and even with this precaution there was a small loss, and
this may explain the acidity of the vapors coming off at
at 100° as observed by Recoaru.

The experiments therefore agree with those of Baub-
igny and Pechard, but are at variance with the conclusions
ef the’other authors mentioned. We think the experi-
mental data of these authors do not afford sufficient and
satisfactory evidence to serve as a basis for their conclu-
sions that free sulphuric acid exists in the solution. The
methods adopted are very indirect and the results capa-
ble of other explanations.

THE EXISTENCE OF CHROMO-SULPHURIC ACIDS. «

Several articles have been published by Recoura’ upon
chromo-sulphuric acids. He claims to have prepared
several of these and regards the formation of such bodies
as a probable explanation of the change 1n the green so-
lutions, and others, as Whitney and Dougal, seem to ac-
cept his explanation. Recoura thinks there are two
isomeric modifications of chromium sulphate; one violet, .
one green, and also another green sulphate not isomeric,

10 JOURNAL OF THE

but basic (2Cr,O,.5SO,). These he refers to three condi-
tions of chromic hydroxide: 'Cr,(OH),, precipitated by
alkalies from violet chromic salts; Cr,O(OH),,, corres-
ponding to the basic sulphate and non-isolable; Cr,O(OH),,
precipitated by alkalies from green solutions. Solutions
of this latter in acids, he says, are not precipitated by
solutions of barium salts. This last statement is not
strictly true. Such solutions are partially precipitated
by barium salts just as all green solutions are. He as-
signs to the green sulphate the formula Cr,O,.3SO,.11H,O,
which he says has quite a different constitution from that
’ of the violet sulphate. Proofs for this statement he does
not give. Thisisomeric green sulphate, he says, possesses
neither the characteristics of a sulphate nor of a chro-
mium salt. One molecule can combine with one molecule
of either sulphuric acid or a metallic sulphate. Thus we
may have Cr,(SO,),.H,SO,, or Cr,(SQ,),.K,SO,. In these
compounds all the sulphuric acid is in a non-precipitable
form, he maintains. Hiscrucial experiment is as follows:

‘*Mix a solution containing one molecule of Cr,(SQO,),
with a solution containing one molecule of sulphuric acid
or asulphate. Union is immediate, for barium chloride
will now give no precipitate and the solution therefore
holds no sulphate. The new radical is unstable, for pre-
cipitation is immediate on boiling, or in concentrated solu-
tions or in dilute selutions on standing one-half hour. /¢
7s necessary to work with very dilute solutions, otherwise
the radical containing chromium %7s decomposed.”

Of course such reasoning would give us these same
strange isomeric metal-sulphuric acids in all sulphates,
for if they are diluted enough it will take half an hour or
more for the precipitate to form with barium chloride.

On such slender basis Recoura builds up a series of
salts of a hypothetical chromo-sulphuric acid (Cr,.4SQO,),.

1 Compt., rend., 113, 1037 ; 114, 477 ; 116, 1367.

a ree Pe oe PO eg ee ee ee ee

—

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 11

He has also prepared a chromo-disulphuric acid; ete);
by evaporating solutions of chromium sulphate with
two. three, etc., molecules of sulphuric acid, and then
heating to 110°-120°. Calvert and Ewart’ have shown that,
on diluting these, they all leave a colloidal Cr,(SO,);.H,-
SO, upon the septum, the liquid passing through free of
chromium. ‘The behavior of these solutions makes it ap-
pear probable that the chromo sulphuric acids de not exist
‘1 them as such, but are hydrolyzed, forming the colloidal
substance, Cr,(SO,),.H,SO,, and free sulphuric acid. Our
repeated experiments have failed to show the presence of
this colloidal body in the ordinary green solutions of the
alum or sulphate. A boiled solution of either, even
though very concentrated, will pass entirely through an
unglazed porcelain suction filter, such as Calvert and Ew-
art made use of. There seems to be no colloidal body
present.

We cannot regard the experiments of Recoura as ad-
vancing the subject in any degree. Asan explanation of
the changes it is by no means satisfactory. Dougal’s
formula for the reaction causing the change, is even more
remarkable and baseless :

2[Cr,(SO,),. K.SO,J+ 0,0 ra [Cr,O(SO,),JSO, + 2K,S0,-+-
| H,SO,.

This is not based upon Dougal’s own experimonts but is
offered as an explanation deduced from the work of Re-
coura, Whitney, Favre, and Valson.

THE ACTION OF ALCOHOL.

There have been several investigations of the action of
alcohol, both upon the sulphate and the alum, with the
hope of throwing some light upon the changes under con-
sideration. ‘[raube? states that the solid salt is unatf-
fected by boiling alcohol. Schrétter has observed’ that

1 Chem. News. 74, 121.
2 Hun. Chem. (Liebig), 66, 168.
3 Pogg. Ann., 53, 413.

12 JOURNAL OF THE

solutions covered with a layer of alcohol become gradu-
ally green and the concentrated green solution is not dis-
solved by alcohol. Of course the first observation does
not necessarily connect the alcohol with the change. Al-
cohol in large amounts precipitates from violet solutions
ef the sulphate a pale violet colored, crystalline pow-
der, and decolorizes the liquid.’ This can be used as
a mode of purifying the alum.? S:ewert® states that,
when the violet sulphate is dissolved in a small amount of
water and boiled with alcohol until the crystals formed
are again taken up and then precipitated with ether, a
green syrup is gotten which consists of 5Cr,O,12SO,.7H,O
and the mother-liquor contains suiphuric acid in a condi-
tion in which it is net precipitated by barium chloride.
Kriiger’ states that alcohol precipitates from a green so-
lution of the alum a green oil which solidifies and which
contains only two-thirds of the sulphuric acid. Siewert
confirms this and says that this substance has approxi-
mately the composition 6K,0.5€r,O,.18SO,.H,O. Kri-
ever mentioned the acidity of the alcohol used in precipi-
tating the green oily liquid and evidently regarded it as
withdrawing sulphuric acid from the original salt. He
also mentioned the formation of a basic salt, by heating
the green solution until it becomes rose-red, which con-
tains half as much acid as the neutral salt and is insolu-
ble in water.

After a careful consideration of the results obtained by
others by means of alcohol, it seemed to us quite possible
that these might afford a clue to the explanation we were
in search of. It was necessary to examine with care the
action upon both the violet and the green solutions. Our
experiments are therefore given in detail, and it will be

1 Gmelin’s Handuch, IV, 127.

2 Baugigny and Pechard :Loc. cit.
3 Ann. Chem. (Liebig), 125, 97.

4 Ann. Phys. Chem., 61, 318.

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 13

seen that they agree in part only with the observations
just quoted.

Action on the Violet Solution.—W hen alcohol was ad-
ded to the violet solution of alum, fine violet crystals were
precipitated, which gave on analysis the following re-
sults:

Calculated for Found.
KoCre(SO4)4.12H:O. r Fi;
oe ee eee 13.32 13.68 13.36
ee aN ai Read ay 9.99 9.80
Sg oe ss os 49.99 48.85

This may be an old observation that on Supatantitite
from alcohol the, crystals contain only half the usual
amount of water, but we have not met with it anywhere.
The fact that this very considerable change of hydration
effects no change in color nor in the precipitating power
of barium chloride, argues against the partial dehydra-
tion theory of Schrétter and Etard. It should be added
that the precipitation was carried out with absolute alco-
hol upon concentrated solutions of the alum, was rapid,
and the precipitate was immediately removed. There
seemed to be two layers of crystals, one ef violet crystals
(upper) and the othera heliotrope powder. Analysis show-
ed that the cemposition of both was the same and that
the difference was probably oneof subdivision. The pre-
cipitation is almost complete, as the alcohol shows very
little color. From this it is evident that alcohol itself
does not materially affect the violet solutions.

Action on the Green Solutions.—Green ee of
the alum were first experimented with. When absolute
alcohol is added to concentrated solutions of chrome alum,
which have been boiled until green and allowed to cool, a
dark green gummy mass separates out after a short time.
If the boiling is not sufficiently prolonged there will form
afterwards a few violet crystals. The alcohol retains
something in solution, as is shown by the green color.
This amount retained may be considerable if much water

14 JOURNAL OF THE

is present. It would seem then, that alcohol precipitates
out the body and makes it available for analysis and exami-
nation. Ifa portion of this green, gummy mass is taken
and dissolved in water, it exhibits the same behavior to-
wards barium chloride as has been observed in the green
solutions. In one or two cases it was observed that the
part remaining dissolved in the alcohol yielded practical-
ly all of its sulphuric acid to barium chloride in the cold.
The green mass was thoroughly washed with alcohol and
dried over sulphuric acid. It also dries to a brittle mass
if exposed in thin layers to the atmosphere. It is quite
insoluble in alcohol, but soluble in water. A number of
preparations of this substance were made and analyzed
and the results are in such agreement that one is inclined
to believe that the substance is a definite compound.

Fifteen grams of chrome alum were dissolved in 100 cc.
water and boiled for one hour to a concentration of fifty
cc. ‘This was cooled and precipitated by the addition of
100 cc. of absolute alcohol. The green mass obtained on
drying weighed about eight grams. This was carefully
analyzed : |

Calculated for Found.
7K2SO45. re(SO4)3Cre(OH)¢4.H,0O. I. aT: III. IV.
2h Ra at etna a GR 18.07 18.23 18.32 1802 17,76
eee ces ft a be ote 15.88 15,18 15.63 15.78 ae
SL eS ee Sh 5 61.08 60.55 60.73 02 eae

Analysis III and 1V were from other preparations,
made, however, in a similar manner to that just describ-
ed. This substance appears to have quite a complicated
constitution, and it is not easy to see the part played by
the potassium sulphate. It do esnot seem to be a matter of
accidental occurrence, however. ‘The important feature
is that the saltisa basicone. Siewert gives, as the result
of his analysis, 6K,O0.5Cr,O,.18SO,.H,O, for which the
following percentages would be required: Cr,18.7; K,
16.8; SO,, 61.9. While these percentages differ some-
what from those obtained by us, the agreement is suffi-

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 15

cently close to show that the substances examined were
practically the same.

On concentrating the liquid poured off from the green
gum, it was repeatedly observed that more of the gum
was obtained. Fer instance, in the experiment described
where the green mass from fifteen grams weighed about
eight grams, a further portion weighing 0.3915 gram was
gotten. The analysis of this yielded the following per-
centages : Cr, 13.66; K, 8.57; and SO,, 55.45. Wecounld
only regard this as a mixture consisting in part of the
green basic mass which had not completely separated
out. The small amount of material left in solution (less
than one-half gram) consisted of a little chromium with
sulphuric acid in the ratio of about five to one.

Next the action on chromium sulphate was examined.
The chromium sulphate used was in the form of small
violet scales or crystals. It was a commercial product
and the method of its preparation was unknown to us.
An analysis of it gave:

Tei is therefore a basic chromate, but we have seen no
such body described in the books. It dissolved in water
with a green color. Fifteen grams of this disselved in 100
cc. of water, boiled to a concentration of 50 cc. and pre-
cipitated with 100 cc. of alcohol, yielded about ten grams
of the green, gummy mass, very similar in appearance to
that obtained from the alum, but more soluble in alcohol.
In a second experiment twelve grams were taken and
treated in the same way, and yielded about eight grams.
The analysis showed these to be identical.

Calculated for Found.

Cro (SO4)3.Cre(OH)¢.15H, 0. ye II. III.
ie is is 4g wee OO 22.41 * 22-40 22.69
3 OS etter Penhe 33.17 34.64 34.73 34.43
Wareei to. 0S 550% 43.77 iy PS ae

The agreement is far from satisfactory, but the body
is evidently a basic salt. oe

16 JOURNAL OF THE

On evaporating the liquid portions other masses were
obtained. ‘These were also analyzed :

Calculated for Found.
2Cry(SO4)3.Cro(OH),.20H2O 1. II. III.
Ree eieehs i ndnieces 22.70 22.93 22.71 22.98
=) UN aS Ege ie, ey: 42.72 42.72 43.32 43.46
sf ot I al a A ene a 34.57

This is less basic than the previous compound. As the
alcohol left is decidedly acid, it must contain either free
acid or an acid sulphate.

It did not seem to be necessary to prepare other chro-
mium sulphates, as these experiments were in accord
with those obtained with the alum, and lack of time made
it necessary te bring the experiments to an end.

CONCLUSIONS.

On weighing the experimental evidence which has been
brought to bear upon these changes, it is an easy matter
to exclude some of the explanations offered. : Thus the
dissociation of the alum into chromium and potassium sul-
phates and similar theories which will not cover the ca-
ses of the nitrates, chlorides, etc., must of course be
dropped. The formation of chromo-sulphuric acid, as
suggested by Recoura, is not tenable in the light of the
experiments performed. The theory of the change of hy-
dration is not satisfactory, since it has been seen that a
loss of one-half the water did not bring about the change
of color.

The theory of Berzelius, however of the formation of
basic salts of chromium which would naturaily be green
and uncrystallizable, offers a full and sufficient explana- '
tion of the changes, and is in accord with the observa-
tions so far as they have been verified by us. It accounts
quite plausibly for the partial withholding of the sul-
phuric acid from precitation by barium chloride in the
cold, and is strongly confirmed by the experiments with
alcohol. ‘This theory is also in accord with the facts that

BLISHA MITCHELL SCIKNTIFIC SOCIBTY. 17

the green coloration may be brought about by the addi-
tion of alkaline substances, and that it is retarded by the
addition of sulphuric or nitric acid. It is also easy to ap-
ply this explanation to the cases of-the nitrate, chloride,
acetate, and soluble compounds of chromium. When we
have opportunity we propose examining the action of al-
cohel upon these other compounds.

NESTING HABITS OF SOME SOUTHERN
FORMS OF BIRDS IN EASTERN
NORTH CAROLINA.

T. GILBERT PEARSON.

The coastal region of North Carolina, especially south
of Hatteras, having its temperature moderated by warm-
er ocean currents affords many interesting forms of life
both in the fauna and flora whose natural habitat would
naturally be looked for at a much more southern point.
Thus the palmetto (Sabal palmetto) which’ grows wild
to a height of 30 feet on Smith’s Island is also found in a
more stunted form as far north as the banks of Cape
Hatteras. This northward extension of the habitat of
some Southern birds is somewhat in keeping with that of
the flora.

While spending some time in eastern North Carolina
during the past summer I observed there some species of
southern birds which have hitherto been overlooked by
ornithologists as occuring within the limits of this State;
and my purpose in publishing the following notes 1s to
record such of these observations as may be of interest.

2

:

18 JOURNAL OF THE

Worthington’s Marsh Wren.'! (Czslothoraus palustris
LTiseus). |

The range of this bird as given by Mr. Brewster’ and
later by Frank M. Chapman in his ‘‘Handbook of Birds
of Eastern North America”’ is the ‘Coast of South Car-
olina and Georgia.”’ In the marsh on Gull Island in
Pamlico sound about twenty miles north of Cape Hatter-
as marsh wrens were found in great numbers on May
20th. The island which is approximately two hundred
acres in extent is little more than a continuous salt marsh
over the greater part of which the water rises at high
storm tides. At the time of my visit the birds were in
full song and from every side of the marsh came the
notes of scores of birds. While singing the performers
usually occupied positions entirely out of sight except as
occasionally they would make short flights upward and
burst into song as they dropped back again into the cov-
er of the high thick grass.

It was evidently too early in the season for the birds
to be breeding for, of the twelve nests found and exam-
ined, there were none that contained either eggs or young.
The nests were suspended among the grass stalks at dis-
tances varying from sixteen to twenty inches above the
eround or shailow waters. They were entirely roofed
ever and varied in form from almost round to elliptical.
They were composed of the dead stems and _ blades of
marsh grass neatly wound and woven together while the
material was yet damp, thus forming a strong and very
durable structure. The entrance was a small opening in

17.his new variety was described by William Brewster in the Auk
for July 1893, Vol. 10, pp. 215-219.

It differs from the species C. palustris mainly in having the black of
the upper parts duller and less extended, brown of the sides, flanks and
upper parts much paler and grayish, and the dark markings of the un-
der parts confused and inconspicuous.

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 19

the side near the top of the nest.’

A specimen taken at this time was identified by Mr.
C. S. Brimley, of Raleigh, N. C. as being a Worthing-
ton’s Marsh Wren.

On June the 9th I heard wrens singing in the marshes
near Southport which I took to be of this species but as
no specimens were secured [I shall not claim this asa
record.

During July and the early part of August wrens were
frequently heard in the salt marshes about Beaufort har-
bor. <A visit to some of the marshes on August the 2nd
resulted in the finding of a few empty nests and securing
after much labor asingle specimen. Wishing to be cer-
tain as to the identification of this the skin was sent to
Prof. Ridgway of the Smithsomiam Institution who iden-
tiled it as being a fair type of C. A. griseus.

This race will probably be found subsequently to be
a common summer resident in suitable localities alone the
entire North Carolina coast.

Florida Cormorant, (Phalacrocorax piliphus florida-
nus). While Florida is the typical home of these Cor-
morants it has long been known that in the summer they
occur along the Atlantic coast as far north as North
Carolina. They have not been recorded as breeding in
this State, however, as far as I have been able to learn.

Following the course suggested by numerous rumors,
I penetrated the forests and swamps of Craven Co. for a
distance of about eighteen miles south of Newbern and
found on the 25th. of May, a colony of these birds breed-
ing around the shores of Big Lake. The nests were lo-
cated on the spreading branches of staunted cypress

1A typical nest shows the following external measurements, length
from bottom to top 5,in. Depth, 4.25in. Width, 3.75in. Entrance to
nest, 0.85 in. by 1.12in. The wall of the nest varies from 0.25 to 0.50
inch. '

30) JOURNAL OF THE

trees standing in the water from fifty to two hundred
yards from the shore. Eighteen trees were thus occu-
pied, the number of nests each tree bore varying from
one to twelve. In one tree however there were thirty-
eight occupied nests.

The colony was scattered along the lake side for a dis-
tance of a mile anda half. The eggs or young contained
in each nest varied from two or four in number. In
color the eggs are a pale bluish white overlaid witha
more or less soft calcareous coating, and measure about
two and a half inches in length by one and a half in
eka :

The young birds were covered with black down, many
of them being large enough to leave their nests and climb
about on the branches of the trees. In doing this they
would often lose their balance on the limbs while en-
deavoring to escape, but instead of falling into the water
the hook at the point of the long bill would invariably
catch on tne perch and by dint of much scratching the
birds would soon regain their former position. So well
could they use their. bills for climbing that Mr. H. H.
Brimley of Raleigh N. C. to whom some of these were
sent remarked afterwards ina letter that they repeatediy
climbed with apparent ease up the wire netting which
composed the sides of their cage.

The food of the cormorants at this season of the year
must consist largely of eels, (Azguzlla anguilla). In

1The exact measurements in inches and hundredths of two sets of
eggs selected at random are here given: A set of four eggs measured
2.50x1.56;2.53x1.62;2.47x1.53 and 2.50x1.56. <A set of three showed some-
what smaller dimensions, 2.32x1.56;2.32x1,32 and 2.24x1.53, the aver-
age for the seven specimens being 2.42x1.55. Chapman makes no
distinction in measurements between the eggs of this variety and the
species from which it is derived, giving the measurements of the latter
as 2,40x1.40. Itis quite possible however that measurements taken
from a much larger series of eggs of the Carolina bird might show
quite a different result from the above. :

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 21

nearly every nest signs of eels remains were seen, the
-young birds upon becoming excited would disgorge frag-
ments of eels.” The old birds which were taken usually
had the slime of eels about their heads, necks and bills.

The trees, which contained each a number of nests, were
completely covered, trunk, limbs, twigs, and nests, with
a white coating caused by the fishy excrement of the
birds. So white and marked an aspect did the trees
present that although they were not usually over twelve
or fifteen feet in height their outline could clearly be
made out against the dark background of the cypress
swamp as we passed in our canoe along the south side
of the lake five miles away.

On Jones’ mill pond near Newport, Carteret Co., cor-
morants were commonly reported to breed, but a search
of the region failed to reveal anv colony. This location
is nevertheless evidently a popular roosting resort. <A
little before sundown on the day I visited it cormorants
began to come in over the swamp and in a short time two
or three hundred individuals had gathered in the cypress
trees along the shores of the pond.

Anhinga, Water Turkey, (Anhinga anhinga). This
is another bird which we may now add to the list of the
avifauna of North Carolina. It isa bird of a tropical
and subtropical America and has been known to breed as
far north as South Carolina. 7

In damming up a stream on the Orton rice-plantation
in Brunswick Co. fifteen miles below Wiimington, a pond
was formed which extends back into the woods among
the higher ridges for several miles. At the upper end
of one of these narrow tongues of water is located a col-
ony of some four or five hundred pairs of herons, which
each year assemble to breed in the cypress trees.

While approachine this heronry on the 7th of June
an anhinga was flushed from its nest in a small cypress
tree about ten feet above the water. It flew rapidly

Ps JOURNAL OF THE

away but soon returned and was secured a few minutes

later upon alightin» near the nest. It proved to be a -

male in magnificent plumage. One other bird, alsoa male,
was seen in the neighborhood but no other nests were
noticed, _The nest examined was a heavy structure of
sticks and twigs lined with long gray moss ( 77/landsia
awsmeotds). It contained four eggs well advanced in incu-
bation. In appearance they very much resesembled the
egos of the cormorant but are smaller, an average ege
measuring 1.15x135.'| In the neighborhoou of Lake Wac-
amaw and the region south and east of there Loccasionally
heard mention ef this bird from the inhabitants and do
not doubt but that in suitable localities throughout the
south-eastern part of North Carolina the Anhinga is a
frequent summer resident.

1Chapman’s Handbook of Birds of Hastern North America, 1897, p, 93.

THE DICHOTOMOUS GROUP OF PANICUM IN
THE EASTERN UNITED STATES.
1) CONTRIBUTION FROM MY HERBARIUM. NO. III.

W. W. ASHE.

The dichotomous section of Panicum presents a great
difficulty to satisfactory segregation in the confusing and
often nearly similar forms acquired not only by nearly
related, but even quite dissimilar species in the later,
branched condition which the simple primary culm gen-
erally assumes after the expansion of its panicle, and
sometimes even preceding its expansion. The following
descriptions are based on the character of the simple

1Issued Nov. 10th, 1898.

* ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 23

state and until one is familiar with the summer and aut-
umnaleforms assumed by different types in the group the
simple state is necessary in order to make a satisfactory
determination. Habit, also, is a character of great value
in makine determinations in this group, with specimens
in either the simple or branched states; and habit
should always be noted when specimens are secured.
The leaves on the branches are much smaller than the
primary leaves, the panicles are much smaller, and the
spikelets are generally smaller and more acute. The
limitations of the species are, in practically all cases,
sharply defined and there are no intergradent forms.
Several of the species proposed by Lamarck, Michaux,
Muhlenburg and Elliott are yet subjects of dispute or
even speculation, being represented by no type specimens,
while the descriptions are not sufficiently minute for ac-
curate determination. I have been able to examine the
material in the Herbarium of the Philadelphia Academy
of Natural Science, which contains many specimens of
Nuttall, Schweinitz, Muhlenburg, and Baldwin. The
specimens o£ Muhlenburg and Baldwin are of particular
interest; those of Muhlenburg sometimes representing his
own species; while Baldwin’s often indicate Elhott’s,
since he furnished Elliott with many specimens from
Georgia. I have, besides, been able to do considerable
field work in the region from which Elliott derived his
material, central and southern Georgia and eastern Caro-
lina, and have there studied the species with the view of
identifying some of Elliott’s species. I have found noth-
ing so far, however, which agrees with the description of
his Panicum ovale, P. paucifiorum or P. strigosum.
The group of the genus that I have designated as the
dichotomous group is best developed, so far as number of
species is concerned, in the south Atlantic States, pro-
bably in eastern South Carolina, or castern Georgia,
where the number of known species will prooably amount

24 | JOURNAL, OF THE

to thirty. This paper is only intended to cover the re-
gion between northern Florida and Indian Territory,
and Minnesota and Maine. The dichotomous group can

be characterized as follows:

Basal leaves different from those of the stem, broader, and generally
shorter (except in a few species) ; spikelets all pediceiled. not racemose
onthe branches, neither gibbous at base, awned, or warty. Stems
erect, prostrate, or decumbent, at first simple, later (except in a few
species) dichotomously or fasciculately branched, producing on the
branches smaller leaves and smaller panicles.

In the following paper seventy-four species are enumerated, nat the
real number is probably even in excess of this.

KEY TO THE EASTERN DICHOTOMOUS SPECIES OF PANICUM.

bed

(? = one inch. = one twelfth of an inch. ° = one foot.)
Leaves lanceolate or ovate-lanceolate, clasping by a broadly cordate
base spikelets 14” long or more; ligule a mere margin.

Largest leaves about 1’ wide, panicle spreading.

Spikelets obovate, over 1%”’ long.
Dare PHINCUL FL. ab ie apa ale x Bim bees te 1. P. Porterianuim.
NOGeS PIA DLOUS «i. paced webs 4s 2. P. macrocarpon.
Spikelets elliptical, 14’’ long
Leaves ovate-lanceolate, 2’— 3’ long, ciliate, sheaths soft-

PUIBCSHCBGY oki Lae 3. P. commelinaefolium,
Leaves lanceolate, 3’ long or more, sheaths papillose-
oo AO Rage Caen ado sate 4. P. clandestinum.

Largest leaves narrower, 5’’—8’’ wide, ligule none.
Spikelets 14” long.
Stems erect, sheaths clasping ....... 5. P. commutatum.,
Stems decumbent or ascending, sheaths loose 6. P. Joorii,
Spikelets 134”? long, elliptical, plant decumbent 7. P. Mana-
tense.
Leaves rounded at base, lanceolate or narrower, 4’’—8” wide, spike-
lets over 14%”’ long.
Branches of panicle erect, leaves glabrous, ligule none.
Sheaths sparingly papillose-hispid .... 8. P. xanthophysum.
miteaths tlre eet atic es hae ede tte ow 9. P. calliphyllum.,
Branches of panicle spreading, ligule pilose.
Panicle 3’—S’ long, spikelets elliptical, numerous 10. P. scab-

riusculum.
Panicle 2’—3’ long, branches and obovate spikelets few,
leaves PUERCO Ss seu smtiids on oe eos 11. P. scopariuin.

Leaves narrower, 3’’—5’’ wide, somewhat rounded at the base, spike-
lets 14 ”’—2” long.
Ligule pilose.
Notlés barbed i279. us: sens sore ae 12. P. malacophyllum,

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 23

Nodes not barbed, sheaths pubescent.
Branches of panicle erect or ascending, leaves spread-

RMSE IS al Sard ents ~ thins a0 au ty Spa AAO tae Shines phys he 13. P. malacon.

Branches of panicle ascending, leaves erect 14. P. Ljie-
bergii.

Branches of panicle spreading ... 15. P. Scribnerianum.

Ligule, nodes and sheaths glabrous.
Spikelets elliptical, 14%’’ long, leaves 3’—S’ long 16. P. equi-
laterale.
Spikelets 14%’ long, leaves about 2° long.
Leaves spreading, stem nearly naked below 17. P. Ashei.
Leaves ascending, stem leafy below 18. P. Webberianum.
Leaves erect, 2’’—3’’. wide, somewhat rounded at the base, pubescent,
at least the lower ones, spikelets broadly elliptical, 14’’—1%” long.
Stem erect, strict, leaves not crowded (western) 19. P. Wilcox-
ianwum,
Stems much branched from the base, diffuse (southern) 20. P.
Georgianuin.
Leaves 3’’—10’’ wide, lanceolate, erect or ascending, clasping by a
cordate, ciliate base: lower sheaths overlapping, longer than the in-
ternodes; spikelets small, %*’ long or less, nearly spherical, num-
erous.
BResves @'=-10 wide, ascenditg 20.) 64)... os. ss 21. P. polyanthes.
Leaves 4’’—6”’ wide.
Leaves ascending, spikelets %”’ long .. 22. P. sphaerocarpon.
Leaves erect: spikelets scarcely %”’ long 23. P. erectifolium.
Leaves scattered on the stem, linear-lanceolate or longer, erect, 1”
—5’’ wide, all except the lowest narrowed to the base; branches of
panicle ascending or at length spreading; spikelets 1’’—1%”’ long,
very strongly nerved, nodes not barbed.
Upper leaves not over 3”’ wide, middle leaves longest.
Spikelets broadly obovate.

Pubescence ascending, rigid ........ ... 24. P. Addisonii.

Pubescence, if present, villous, spikelets nearly 14”’

IR oni) Stl te bi ag i, eget 2 25. P. consanguineum.

Glabrous or nearly so, spikelets 1”’ WEE 26. P. neuranthum

Spikelets elliptical, acntee 6... .2..'4s 27. P. angustifolium.

Upper leaves 3’’—5’’ wide, much longer than the lower 28. P.
Bicknellii.

Low, densely tufted; leaves linear, 1’’—2’’ wide, erect, crowded near
the base of stems, upper not reduced, narrowed to the base; branches
of panicle erect or ascending; spikelets broadly elliptical or obovate,
1”? or more long, nodes not barbed.
Spikelets obovate, over 1%” long, second and third scales much
teatree i iatt tie Pout hie. 4 2: ow 5 teehee 29. P. depauperatum.
Spikelets elliptical, second, third and fourth scales equal.

26 JOURNAL OF THE

Spikelets 1°’—1%”’ long, basal secondary panicles devel-
PIPERS (AGNES eerste abies > ae eT Meets ares 30. P. linearifolium.
Spikelets barely 1” long, no basal panicles developed 3l. P.
Werneri.
Leaves narrowed to the base, lanceolate or narrower, spikelets 14”’
—1%” long, plant nearly glabrous, lower nodes barbed 32. P. nemo-
panthum,
Stems simple at length fasciculately branched erect, or sometimes
prostrate, stem leaves numerous, scattered, spreading or ascending,
lanceolate, 1%”—8” wide, clasping by a rounded or narrowed base,
the upper generally not conspicuously reduced in size, and never
elongated, the basal usually shorter than those of the stem; spikelets
less than 14%” long.
Nearly or quite glabrous species without a long hairy ligule.
Nodes not barbed, spikelets 34”—1” long.
Plant strict, erect.
Leaves spreading, narrowed to the smooth base 33.
P. dichotomum.
Leaves ascending.
Base of leaves narrowed, rounded, ciliate, sheaths

TOE IO LECED 7255405, a ons vere 34. P. boreale.
Leaves narrowed to the glabrous base, sheaths
et = | ee eer ERR ges os i Te 35. P, maculatum.

Plant rising from a geniculate base.
Leaves, oo fone, 54 ee 36. P. Roanokense.
Leaves less than 1%’ long ......... 37. P. demissum.

Nodes barbed.

Spikelets 1) lone <5 or. es ote 38. P. Mattamusketense.
MiP eelers eae CORE eS Peteet Pols a y's 39. P. barbulatum,

Nodes not barbed, spikelets less than 34” long.
Strict, not prostrate or reclining ; 8’—16’ high.
Leaves 1”°—3” wide, with a firm, white margin 40. P.
ensifolium.,
Leaves 1” wide or less, densely tufted.
Branched only from the base ... 41. P. Baldwinii.

Much branched towards top of culm...... 42. P.
Wrightianum.

Stems at first erect, at length elongated and reclining,

spikelets obovate, 4” long ........ 43. P. sphagnicolum,

Stems prostrate, spikelets broadly elliptical 34” long 44.
P. lucidum.
Stems ascending or reclining, spikelets narrowly ellipti-
cal, 33h" Senge 0.1 anne. vere mee 45. P. Cuthbertii.
Nearly or quite glabrous species with a long pilose ligule.
Spikelets 2”’ long or less.
Spikelets about '%” long ‘i. 6.61 7.26. 46. P. parvispiculatum,

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 27

Spikelets scarcely 4” longi ts ite at. tise. 47. P. leucothrix.
Spikelets 4°’—1” long, obovate.
Panicle oblong, its branches erect or ascending
Katonii.
Panicle broadly ovate, its branches spreading.
Leaves erect, panicle 1%’ long or less 49, P. Columbianuin,
Leaves ascending, panicle 1’—3’ long .... 50. P. nitiduim.
Sheaths more or less pubescent and often stems and leaves,
Leaves 4”—8” wide, spikelets 4”—1\” long.
Strict, 2ft.—3ft tall, pubescence villous .. 51. P. Huachucae.
Stems ascending, geniculate at base. .
Pubescence pilose, velvety, spikelets oval 1%”’ long 52, P.
viscidum.
Pubescence villous, ascending, spikelets obovate, 1”

bone. Noire s Aatetge 3 sia tee tart vee. 03. P. ciliiferum.

Stems erect, at length decumbent, leaves appressed pubes-
cent beneath.
Spikelets %’’ long, leaves, ascending 54. P. tsugetorum.
Spikelets 4” long, leaves spreading 55 P. Tennesseense.
Leaves 2’’—4”" wide, spreading or ascending, spikelets about 1”
long.
Lower branches of panicle BSCE, , pubescence hirsute-pa-
Pre ROR Sia sates eR 5 fra wlth Mh eiate pa 56. P. Atlanticum.
Lower branches of panicle spreading.
Strict, leaves spreading, basal leaves not prominent.
Pubescence rough, ascending, spikelets nearly spher-

ical or broadly elliptical ........ 57. P. scoparioide.
Pubescence, villous, long, spreading spikelets ellip-
tic

mika: ale chs aa iene RAI bead ts 58. P. villosissimuim.
Pubescence softer, ascending spikelets elliptic 59. P.
pubescens.
Strict ; leaves erect or ascending.
Leaves lanceolate, panicle as broad as fies

Pubescence ascending-appressed .... 60. P. Com-
monsianum.

Pubescence ascending or spreadiug...... GAL

haemacarpon.

Leaves linear-lanceolate, panicle sploue pao 62. P
arenicolum,

Tufted, stems soon reclining; few-leaved, basal leaves

very numerous and long... .....45-.: 63. P. laxiflorum.

Leaves 2”—4” wide, spikelets 4”—%” long.
Lower branches of panicle ascending 64. P. lanuginosuim.,
Lower branches of panicle wide-spreading.
Sheaths papillose-hirsute ........ 65. P. implicatum.,
Lower sheaths velvety, and nodes barbed .... 66. P.
annulum.

28 JOURNAL OF THE ’

Leaves less than 2” wide, erect, low species.

Pamole’ 1-132" lone. 2). wae 67. P. meridionale.
Pasiclestess than :]’ dongs Sr. sti, 68. P. filiculme.

Stem leaves few, short, 1%’ long or generally much less, distant, the
densely tufted basal leaves as long as the stem leaves or nearly so,
and broader; spikeletsf"long or less.

Basal leaves ciliate around the entire margin; otherwise glab-

rous.
Spieciels elipric, ‘I long, Arca iesk as 69. P. ciliatum.
Spikelets. cbovate, 4 long... ...0..5..05. 70. P. polycaulon.

Basal leaves soft pubescent as well as ciliate 71. P. longipedun-

culatum.

Margin of basal leaves not ciliate.
yor i toeg sb 2 crt a1 | Eee he ce Oe Eeay See oe 72, P. microphyllum,
Stems glabrous, ligule short, pubescent, .... 73. P. Brittoni.
Stems glabrous, ligule none ........... 74. P. glabrissimum.

1) PANICUM PORTERIANUM Nash, Torr. Bul. 22:420
(1895). P. lalzfoltwm Walt. Fl. Car. (1788). Not. oi
(1753). P. Walteri Poir., (1816). Not Pursh. (1814).

Stems somewhat tufted, erect, columnar, soft-villous,
or nearly glabrous, at first simple, at length somewhat
branched at the top. Sheaths shorter than the inter-
nodes, or the upper ones overlapping, soft pubesScext, or
nearly glabrous and only the nodes barbed with soft
hairs, ligule a mere margin. Primary leaves ovate-lan-
ceolate, 2?—23’ long, ~’-—1’ wide, cordate at base, abrupt-
ly acuminate, glabrous or roughish above, ¢labrous or
soft-pubescent beneath, 6—13-nerved ; secondary leaves
smalier. Panicle short-peduncled, 2’—4’ long, ovate,
the few branches ascending or spreading ; spikelets rath-
er few, obovate, acute, nearly 2” long, pubescent.

Northern Florida and Texas to Missouri and New York.

2) PANICUM MACROCARPON Le Conte, Torr. Cat. 91
(1819). Stem strict, 12—20° high. glabrous. Sheaths
olabrous ; ligule a mere margin. Leaves 2—4 lone,
about 1’ or more broad, 7—11l-nerved, glabrous, except
the rough, ciliate margins. Panicle 3—4 long, the few-

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 99

flowered branches single, ascending ; spikelets nearly 2
long, broadiy obovate, obtuse. |

Plant bright green. Maine and Ontario, to Minnessota, Missouri
and North Carolina. Generally confused with P. Porterianum. 'This
species has been supposed to be confined to Vermont, New York, Penn-

sylvania, and New Jersey. Maine: Fernald,, 1897: Ontario:
Biltmore Herbarium, No. 7066. Missouri: Stewart Weller, 1894.
North Carolina: Ashe; Mitchell Co., July, 1893. Iowa: Hitch-

cock, 1889,

3) PANICUM COMMELINAEFOLIUM Ashe, sp. nov.
Culms tufted, erect or ascending, 8—15' high, stout,
more or less pubescent. Sheaths more than half the
length of the internodes, generally softly pubescent ;
ligule a mere margin. Leaves crowded, longer than the
internodes, spreading or ascending, ovate-lanceolate,
acuminate, abruptly narrowed to the cordate base, 11-15
-nerved, 2—3' long, 6’—14" wide, glabrous abeve, min-
utely pubescent beneath, the margins ciliate and serru-
late. Panicle ovate, 2—3' long, short-peduncled,
branches numerous, spreading ; spikelets smooth, ellipti-
cal, 14° long, the first scale one-third the length of the 7-
nerved second and third. Later forms branched above,
with smaller leaves, the smaller panicles partly included
in the sheaths.

A species having the foliage of P. Portertanum, and the spikelets of
P. commutatum. Based on material collected by Dr. J. K. Small near
Stone Mt., Ga., Aug. 1—6, 1895, and distributed as P. commutatum.

4) PANICUM CLANDESTINUM L. Sp. pl. 58 (1753). P.
pedunculatum Torr. Fl. U.S. 141 (1824). Culms erect
from a short rootstock, often covering many square feet,
1o6-—3° high; stem glabrous or nearly so above, papil-
losehispid below. Sheaths of primary stem one-half as
long as the joints or more, the iower ones papillose-his-
pid, the upper glabrous, the panicle long-peduncled ;
sheaths on the branches much crowded and overlapping,
papillose-hispid, concealing the small panicles; ligule
none. Largest leaves I’ broad, 3—S long, cordate at

30 JOURNAL OF THE

base, taper-pointed, glabrous except the rough margins,
9—13-nerved, those on the branches much smaller.
Panicle 3—S long, oval, the numerous branches spread-

ing, many-flowered ; spikelets 14” long, elliptical.
Very common near the banks of streams. Related to P. scabriuscu-

lum. Torrey’s P. pedunculatum represents the early form. New York:

Ashe: Watkins, Jigy, 1898. Florida: Chapman; Apalachicola.
Missouri: egert: St. Louis, 1897, Michigan: Sartwell; De-
troit, 1892. North Carolina: Ashe; Wilmington, 1894,

5) PANICUM COMMUTATUM Schultes, Mant. 2: 24
(1824). FP. nervosum Ell. Sk. 1:122, Not Lam. VP. ner-
vosum Muhl. refers to another plant. Cuims somewhat
clustered, erect or ascending, often somewhat purplish,
smooth and glabrous. Sheaths, short, glabrous except
the villous margin; ligule a mere margin. Basal leaves
lanceolate or broader, glabrous; stem leaves spreading,
lax, lanceolate, scarcely narrowed at the ciliate, cordate
base, 23’—33’ long, 6’’—3’’ wide, glabrous on both sur-
faces. Panicle variable, 1’—3’ long, ovate, the branches
fascicled, at length spreading; spikelets elliptical or
obovate, 14’ long, somewhat pubescent.

Shady woods.—Very common.—Closely related to P. Joori and P.

Manatense. Connecticut: Eames; Bridgeport, 1897. New
York: Ashe; Ithaca, 1898. Missouri: Stewart Weller, 1894.

Florida: Curtiss, 1894, No. 4636.

6) Panicum Joori Vasey, Contrib. U. S. Nat. Herb.
III, 1:31 (1891). Culms tufted, ascending or prostrate,
much branched from the base upwards, 8’—19’ long.
Sheaths loose, often as long as the internodes, glabrous
except the ciliate margins; ligule a mere margin.
Leaves very numerous, lanceolate or broader, taper-point-
ed, narrowed to the cordate, sparingly ciliate base, other-
wise glabrous, 7—9-nerved ; later leaves much smaller.
Panicle small, 1’—2’ long, nearly sessile or partly includ-
ed in the upper sheath, oblong ; spikelets very long pedi-
celled, 14’’ long, elliptical, acute, glabrous.

Closely related to P. commutatum, and P. Manatense. Missouri,

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 31

Tennessee and southward. Missouri: Bush, July, 1895, No. 748.
Tennessee: Biltmore Herbarium; Rutherford Co. No. 2984a.
Louisiana: Joor. Mississippi: Tracy, 1891.

7) PANICUM.MANATENSE Nash, Torr. Bul. 24 42
(1897). Stems tufted, glabrous, ascending or decumbent,
soon much branched above. Lower sheaths shorter than
the internodes, loose ; upper crowded; ligule a mere mar-
gin. Leaves lanceolate 2’—33’ long, 5’’—7” wide, taper-
pointed, cordate at the ciliate base. Primary panicle
long-peduncled, 2’—3’ long, broadly ovate, spikelets
acute, elliptical, about 1}’’ long, first scale one-third the ©
length of the 7—9-neryed second and third. Whole
plant dark green in color.

With the foliage and general appearance of P. commutatum it is

distinguished from it by having larger acute spikelets, and a decum-
bent habit. Florida: Nash; Manatee Co., 1895, No. 2428a.

8). PANICUM XANTHOPHYSUM A. Gray, Ann. Lyc. N.
Fas: 433(4835).,- Culms... cenerally single,,erect,. w=
branched, forming no late, fascicled branches. Sheaths
with a few ascending, stiff, papillose hairs; ligule a mere
margin. Leaves ascending, or erect, glabrous, 4’—6’
long, 5’’—7”’ wide, lanceolate, narrowed to the rounded
base, 5—7-nerved. Panicle long-peduncled, very nar-
row, the few, single branches appressed; spikelets very
few, short-pedicelled, 14’’ lone, obovate, first scale near-
ly one haif as long as the 7—9-nerved second and third.

Plant light green, resembling P. calliphyllum in color and habit.
Maine to Manitoba, south to Pennsylvania. Description based on ma-
terial collected by the writer in central New York, July, 1898; and the
material in the Gray Herbarum; and from Maine: Merrill, 1897.

9) PANICUM CALLIPHYLLUM Ashe, sp. nov. Stems
single or few together, erect, remaining entirely simple,
elabrous. Sheaths shorter than the internodes, glabrous
except the ciliate margin. Leaves ascending, 3’—4’ long,
4’’—6”’ wide, lanceolate, taper-pointed, narrowed to the
rounded, ciliate base, otherwise glabrous, 7—9-nerved;
basal leaves few and small. Panicle sessile or short-pe-

32 JOURNAL OF THE

duncled, 2’—3’ long, the few-fiowered branches ascend-
ing; Spikelets 1}’’ to 14” long, obovate, the slender ped-
icels two to many times their length.

Dry soil, central New York. Plant light green, drying yellowish.
Closely resembling P. xanthophysum to which it is related. Type ma-
terial collected by the writer at Watkins, Lake Seneca, N. Y., Aug.
1898. It has also been collected by Prof. W. W. Rowlee: East
Schroeppel, N. Y., June 1895.

10) PANICUM SCABRIUSCULUM E)lliott,Sk. 1:121(1817). |
P. Neaileyi Vasey. Culms forming large tufts, erect,
24 feet high, at first simple, at length much branched
at each joint; stem glabrous. Lower sheaths generally
spotted with purple, often papillose-hirsute or villous,
the upper sheaths of the primary stem @labrous and dis-
tant; secondary sheaths papillose-hirsute and overlap-
ping; ligule pilose ;;nedes sometimes barbed. Leaves
ascending, linear-lanceolate, about 6’’ wide, 4+’—7’ long,
the numerous branches ascending or spreading; spike-
lets very numerous, 1’’—1}°’ long, elliptical-ovate or
ovate, acute, glabrous; secondary panicles concealed
within the sheaths.

The affinity of this species is with P. clandestinum, Ditches and sun-
ny swamps, southeastern Virginia to Texas. Not common. Vir-
ginia: Ashe; Norfolk, 1897. North Carolina: Ashe; Moore Co.
1897. Texas: Nealley, 1892.

11) Panicum scopartum Lam. Encl. 7: 744(1797).
Culms single or a few together, erect, strict, columnar,
often purplish, papillose-hirsute. Sheaths papillose-
pubescent, the pubescence harsh, the upper overlapping ;-
ligule pilose. Lower leaves distant, the upper approxi-
mate, 2’—4’ long, 5’’—7’”’ wide, firm, spreading, smooth
above, beneath soft-pubescent. Panicle 2’—3° long, the
few branches solitary, at length spreading, 1—4-flow-
ered.

The affinity of this species is with P. Scribnerianum. Virginia:
Small and Heller; Danville, June, 1892. North Carolina: Ashe;
Chapel Hill, 1897. South Carolina: Ravenel; Aiken.

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 33

12) PANICUM MALACOPHYLLUM Nash, Torr. Bul. 24:
198, (1897). Stems somewhat tufted, erect, simple, at
length much branched; sheaths rather loose, papillose-
hirsute with spreading hairs; ligule a ring of short hairs;
nodes barbed. Leaves narrowly lanceolate, acuminate,
narrowed to the rounded base, soft-pubescent, the lare-
est about 3’ long, and 5” wide, 7—nerved. , Panicle
nearly sessile, the branches Hexous, spreading, bearing a
few short-pedicelled spikelets ; spikelets about 1}”" long,
obovate, acute, the first scale over one third as long as
the very pubescent 9-nerved second and third.

Related to P. Scribnerianum from which it is separated by its soft
pubescence, somewhat smaller spikelets, and more slender habit.—
Middle Tennessee to Indian Territory.--Indian Territory: Bush; Sap-
ulpa, May 1895. No. 1228.

13) PANICUM MALACON Nash, Torr. Bul. 24: 197
(1897). Stems very slender, tufted, erect, columnar,
smoothish, 16’—24 high. Sheaths much shorter than
the internodes, the lower smooth, the upper papillose-
hispid with ascending hairs; ligule pilose. Leaves distant,
spreading or ascending, rigid, g@laprous or somewhat
ciliate at the base, shorter than the internodes, oblong
lanceolate, acuminate, narrowed or somewhat rounded at
the base, 2}’—4’ long, 3’’—4’’ wide, 7—-nerved. Panicle
sometimes much exserted, 2’—3’ long, theslender, scat-
tered, few-flowered branches erect or ascending. Pedi-
cels two to many times the length of the spikelets;
spikelets glabrous, broadly obovate, acutish, 15’’—2”
lone, the first scale 1—-nerved,. one-third the length of the
9—-nerved second and third. Later stages somewhat fas-
ciculately branched above, the leaves a little smaller,
than the primary ones and panicles barely exserted.

Dry soil Florida. Related to P. scoparium.,, Florida: Curtiss;
Jacksonville, Apr. 1897. No. 5864.

14) PANICUM LIEBERGII (Vasey) Scribu. Bul. U. S,
3 ‘

34 JOURNAL OF THE

Div. Bot. 8: 32 (1889). P. scoparium Lam, var. Lieber-
gw Vasey, 1. c. Culms single or few together, erect,
1—2 feet high, at first simple, at length much branched
above, more or less pubescent with spreading hairs.
Sheaths papillose-hirsute, the hairs spreading; ligule
hairy. Leaves lanceolate, the largest 3’—4’ long, 4’’—5”’
wide, rounded at the base, erect, papillose-hispid beneath,
above generally glabrous. Panicle narrow, about 3’
long, the flexuous branches erect or ascending. Spikelets
obovate 1%”’ long, the first scale nearly one-half as long as
the pubescent second and third.

Very closely related to P. Scribnerianum. Dry soil. According to
Britton and Brown extending from Minnesota and South Dakota to
Nebraska, Missouri and Ohio. Iowa: Pammell, 1896.

15) PANICUM SCRIBNERIANUM Nash, Torr. Bul. 22:
421 (1895). FP. scoparium var. minor Scribn. (1894).
Not P. capillare var. minus Muhl. P. pauciflorum A.
Gray (1848). Not Ell. (1817). BP. scoparium Watson
Sixth Ed. Gr. Man. 632 (1889). Not Lam. Encl. 4:743
(1797). Culms 8’—20’ high, tufted, erect, at first colum-
nar, at length much branched above. Sheaths shorter
than the internodes, from nearly glabrous, especially in
the northern forms, to papillose-hispid, the pubescence
ascending; nodes not barbed. Leaves spreading or ascend-
ing , lanceolate, 2’—33’ long, 3’”’—5”’ wide, rounded at the
base, smooth above, glabrous or rough beneath. Panicle
2’-—3’ long, broadly oval, branches rather many-flowered;
spikelets obovate, 15” long.

Most closely related to P. Liebergit, and P. scoparium, and P. malaco-
phyllum. Dry soil, North Carolinaand Tennessee to Wyoming, east
to Ontario and Maine. North Carolina: Ashe; Raleigh, July, 1895,
Tennessee: Ruth; Knoxville; 1897. Missouri: Bush; 1894, No,
729. Wyoming: Nelson ; 1894, No. 516,

16) PANICUM EQUILATERALE Scribn. Bul. 11, U. S.
Div. of Agrost. 42 (1898). Stems somewhat tufted froma
generally geniculate base, glabrous. Sheaths short and

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 35

glabrous; ligule a mere margin. Leaves 4’—6’ long,
'3’’°—4”’ wide, oblong-lanceolate, glabrous, abruptly acu-
minate. Panicle 2’—3’ long,oval, branches spreading, rath-
er many-flowered; spikelets elliptical to obovate, 13’’ long;
first scale acute, fully one-half as long as the pubescent
9-nerved secondand third, fourth scale acute.

Related to P. Ashei, but the leaves are much longer than? those of
that plant, while the spikelets areas long asin P. Porterianum. Flor-
ida: Baldwin; Fort George. Florida: Nash; Eustis, 1894, Nos. 1220
and 1674.

17) Panicum ASHEI, Gilbert Pearson, sp. nov. P.
commutatum Schultes var. minor Vasey, Contrib. from
U. S, Nat. Herb., vol..3, No. I: 32 (1892). Not P. capit-
lare var. minus Muhl. (1817). Culm erect, strict,
single or a few together from a short root-stock,
very slender, glabrous, 11’—18’ high. Sheaths glab-
rous, the lower very short; ligule none. Stem leaves rigid,
spreading, lanceolate, 13’—3’ long, 3’’—4’’ wide, taper-
pointed, scarcely narrowed at the ciliate base, glabrous
on both sides, the lowest distant, the upper approximate,
Panicle 2’ long or less, oval, the few branches spreading ;
spikelets 1}’’ long, elliptic, nearly glabrous. The autum-
nal form is sparingly branched above.

Common.—This species is closely related to P. commutatum from
which itis separated by its slender, strict habit, more narrow, rigid
and spreading leaves approximate atthe topof the culm. Dry shady
woods, New York to Georgia and Missouri. New York: Ashe; Ithaca,
July 1898. North Carolina: Ashe; near Wilmington, June 1898.
Missouri: Bush; Aug. 12, 1892, sub. nom. P. dichotomum, L.

18) Panicum WEBBERIANUM Nash, Torr. Bul. 23:
149 (1896). Stems tufted, erect or ascending, 18’—24’
high, smooth except below, where minutely puberulent.
Sheaths smooth, except the ciliate margin, or sometimes
puberulent, inflated, shorter than the internodes; ligulea
mere ciliate margin. Leaves erect or ascending, lanceo-
late, narrowed to a rounded base, 2’—3’ long, 3’’—4”’
wide, 7—11-nerved, glabrous or the base, sparingly cili-

36 JOURNAL OF THE

ate, generally purplish, very numerous. Panicle 2’—4’
long, one half as wide, the slender, mostly single
branches spreading; spikelets obovate, apiculate, 14°’ long,
on pedicels of about the same length or longer, first scale
obtuse, about one-fourth the length of the 7-nerved sec-
ond and third.

Low pine land. Florida: Nash; Lake Co., May, 1894, No. 781. Re-
lated to P. demissum 'Trin. but larger in every way and erect, where-
as that is ascending from a geniculate base or is prostrate.

19) PANICUM /‘JILCOXIANUM Vasey, Bul. U. S. Div.
of Bot. 8: 32 (1889). Culms somewhat tufted, erect,
about 8’ high, pubescent, at least below. Sheaths short-
er than the internodes, papillose-pubescent with rough,
appressed or ascending hairs ; ligule pilose. Leaves in the
simple form not crowded, ascending, nearly lanceolate,
the largest about 3’ long, 2’’ wide, narrowed to the some-
what rounded base, pubescent. Panicle long-peduncled,
1’—13’ long, ovoid, compact, the branches ascending;
spikelets broadly elliptical, 1}’’ long, pubescent.

Dry, sandy soil, Nebraska. Type material collected by Dr. Wilcox
in 1891. Closely related to P. Scribnerianum.

20) PANICUM GEORGIANUM Ashe, sp. nov. Low,
4’—8’ high, densely tufted, much branched. below and
spreading, even before flowering; stems glabrous or soft-
pubescent. Sheaths generally longer than the internodes,
soft-pubescent or nearly glabrous; ligule witha few soft
hairs. ULeaves ascending, oblong lanceolate, 1’4-2° long,
about 2’’ wide, taper-pointed, rounded at the base, 5—7-
nerved, soft-pubescent or glabrate. Panicle short-pedun-
cled, one inch long or less, generally overtopped by the
upper leaves, the few, short branches ascending; spikelets,
1z”’ long, broadly elliptical, the first scale obtuse, one-
third the length of the very pubescent second and third.

Dry sandy soil, southern Georgia and Florida. Related to P. consan-
guineum. Georgia: Small; Darden Junction, McIntosh Co., June 27,
1895. Florida: Chapman; Apalachicola.

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. Ry

21) PaANICUM POLYANTHES Schultes, Mant. 2:257
(1824). P. multiforum Ell. Sk. 1:122 (1817). Not Poir
(1816). P. microcarpon Muhl. Gram. 111 (June 1817.) Not
Muhl. ex Elliott (Jan. 1817). Culms often single, erect or
nearly so,16’—30’ high, glabrous. Sheaths glabrous, gen-
erally longer than the internodes and overlapping; ligule
none. Leaves ascending, scattered along the entire stem,
lanceolate, 3’-6’ long, 6’’—10”’ wide, taper-pointed, glab-
rous except at the ciliate, cordate base ; basal leaves ros-
ulate, ovate-lanceolate, rigid. Panicle oblong or ellipti-
cal, pointed, 3’—5’ long, branches fasciculate, the lower
ascending. Spikelets very numerous, nearly }’’ long,
broadly elliptical or sphevoid; first scale small, one-fourth
the length of the pubescent 7-nerved second and
third.

Moist, shady woods, not common, Florida, Texas aud Indian Terri-
tory northward to Michigan and Pennsylvania. Pennsylvania: C E.
Smith, Chester. Missouri: Stewart Weller, 1892. Georgia: Ashe;
Albany, 1896. District of Columbia: Holm: 1896,

22) PANICUM SPHAEROCARPON Ell. Sk.1: 125 (1817).
Stems sometimes tufted, erect or ascending 12’—28’
long, glabrous. Sheaths glabrous (or sometimes the low-
er nodes slightly barbed), the lower longer than the in-
ternodes and overlapping; ligule none. Leaves ascend-
ing, lanceolate, 2’—23’ long, 4’’—5’’ wide, long taper-
pointed, ciliate at the barely rounded base, about 7-nerv-
ed. Panicle long-peduncled, oval 2’—3’ long, the fasci-
cled branches somewhat ascending; spikelets obovate or
nearly spherical, {’’ long.

Common in old fields and sunny woods, New Englandand Ontario to
Missouri, Mexico (fide Vasey) and Florida. New York: Townsend;

Niagara, 1894. Missouri: Bush; Montier, 1894, No. 763. Georgia:
Small; Stone Mt. 1895. Illinois: Hill; Chicago, 1898.

23) PANICUM ERECTIFOLIUM Nash, Tor. Bul. 23:
148 (1897). P. spaerocarpon var. Floridanum Vasey,
Bul. U. S. Div. of Bot. 8:33 (1889). Not P. Floridanum

38 JOURNAL OF THE

Trin. (1834) P. spaerocarpon Ell. ex Chapm. Flora.
First Ed. 576. Culms tufted, erect or ascending,
14’—24’ high, rather stout, glabrous. Sheaths glabrous,
lower generally longer than the internodes; no ligule.
Leaves thick, erect, rigid, lanceolate or narrower, 2’—3’
long, 4’’—6”’ wide, taper-pointed, rounded at the ciliate
base, otherwise glabrous. Panicle 15’—3’ long, oval or
oblong, branches fascicled, the lower ascending. Spike-
lets numerous, very small, scarcely 3’’ long, spherical.

Distinguished from P. sphaerocarpon by .having narrower, erect
leaves, and smaller spikelets. Northern Florida and probably the ad-
jacent parts of Georgia. Florida: Curtiss; Jacksonville, 1894, No.
4812.

24) Panicum Appisonii Nash, Torr. Bul. 25: 83
(1898). ‘Tufted, stems erect or ascending froma genicu-
late base, rigid. At first simple, at length much branch-
ed, the branches erect, the lower part of the stem pu-
bescent with long ascending hairs which become much
shorter towards the top. Sheaths appressed pubescent,
sometimes longer than the internodes. Leaves erect, glab-
rous, acuminate, lanceolate, 1’—3’ long, 135’’—3’’ wide;
ligule pilose. Panicle, long-peduncled, ovate to oblong,
the rather few branches erect or ascending; spikelets ob-
ovate, 1’’ long, the first scale about one half as long as
the 9—11-nerved, very pubescent second and third.

Type material from southern New Jersey. Related to P. con-
sanguineum,. Ihave found the same species in eastern North Carolina.

25) PANICUM CONSANGUINEUM Kth. Enum. Pl. 1: 106
(1833). Stems sometimes tufted, generally single, vil-
lous with soft spreading or ascending hairs, at least be-
low, 12’—30’ long, spreading or ascending from a genic-
ulate base, at first simple, the autumnal form very much
branched above, and often reclining. Sheaths shorter
than the internodes, villous with soft grayish pubescence,
liguie a ring of very short hairs, sometimes of longer.

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 39

Stem leaves erect, oblong-lanceolate, the largest near the
middle of the stem, 2’—33’ long, 2’’—4’’ wide, about
equalling the internodes, thickish, smooth to villous;
the later leaves smooth and much smaller, densely fasci-
cled at the upper part of the stem. Panicle long-pedun-
cled, 2’——-3’ long, the few long, flexuous branches ascend-
ing, few-flowered. Spikelets 14’’ long, broadly obovate,
obtuse, abruptly contracted at the base, the second and
third scales strongly 7—9-nerved, very pubescent.

Virginia: Ashe; June, 1897. North Carolina: Ashe; Chapel Hill,
1896. Florida : Curtiss. P. oligosanthes Schult. and P. Ra finesqui-
anum Schult. are probably referable to this species.

26) PANICUM NEURANTHUM Griseb. Cat. Pl. Cub.
532 (1866). Culms somewhat clustered, at first simple,
erect or ascending, 8’—20’ long, at length very much
branched above and reclining or spreading, glabrous or
somewhat pubescent. Sheaths shorter than the inter-
nodes, the lower pubescent, the upper smooth, those of
the fascicled secondary branches much crowded; ligule
pubescent. Earlier leaves erect, flat, glabrous, linear-
lanceolate, the largest 3’—4’ long, 2’’—23’’ wide, nar-
rowed at the base, longer than the internodes ; the later
crowded, smaller, linear, ascending on the spreading or
reclining branches, often involute, very much longer than
the small, barely exserted panicles. Primary panicle
oblong, 3’—4’ long, glabrous, the branches at first as-
cending, at length spreading, the rather few large flow-
ers borne mostly on long flexuous pedicels ; spikelets
about 1’ long, broadly obovate.

Dry sandy soil along the Atlantic and Gulf coasts from Virginia
southward. ‘This species is apparently very close to P. consanguineum.
I have only been able to examine Curtiss’ 3587,* which has been referr-
ed by Nash to this species, and this being in the autumnal state, is
rather unsatisfactory for comparision.

27) PANICUM ANGUSTIFOLIUM Ejll., Sk. 1:129(1817),
P. setaceum Muhl. Gram. (1817). Stems generally sin-

40 JOURNAL OF THE

ele, at first simple and erect, later much branched,
spreading or reclining, glabrous, or below somewhat
pubescent. Sheaths shorter than the internodes, the
lowest generally pubescent, the upper smooth. Primary
leaves erect, flat, glabrous, linear-lanceolate, the largest
3°—4’ long, 2’’—23”’ wide, narrowed at the base, secon-
dary leaves much smaller and crowded at the top of the
ascending or reclining branches. Primary panicle ob-
long, 3’—4’ long, glabrous, the branches at first erect,
at length spreading, the flowers on long flexuous pedicels,
spikelets 1°’ long, or over, elliptic, acute, abruptly con-
tracted at the base.

Dry sandy soil from eastern Virginia southward to Texas. Mary-
land: Canby, 1894. Florida: Nash; Eustice, 1894. Mississippi :

Kearney ; Biloxi, 1896, Texas: Reverchon; Dallas, 1881, sub. nom.
P. neuranthum.

28) Panicum BICKNELLI Nash, Torr, Bul. 24:193
(1897). Culms tufted erect. slender. smooth above, pub-
erulent below, a foot or more tall. Sheaths often longer
than the internodes, the lower pubescent with the nodes
bearded ; ligule pubescent. Stem leaves linear-lanceo-
late, narrowed at the ciliate base, otherwise smooth, the
largest 5’—8’ long, 4’’—5"’ wide, the upper ones longest.
Panicle 2?—4 long, with ascending, flexnous branches;
spikelets obtuse, oval or obovate, about 15’’ long, second
and third scales 9-nerved. Secondary panicles much
smaller, on erect branches, and not basal as in P. depau-
peratum.

This species has the habit and appearance of P. depauperatum, from
which it is separated by having much broader leaves and smaller
spikelets. New York, Pennsylvania and New Jersey. Porter; Penn-
sylvania; Chambersburg, July, 1896.

29) PANICUM DEPAUPERATUM Muh]. Gram. 112
(1817). -P. sérictum Pursh FI, (1814). Not R. Br. (1812).
P. rectum R.& SS. P. involutum 'Torr. Stems tufted,

- 8-18" high erect, mostly glabrous. Upper sheaths elon-

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 41

gated, glabrous or hirsute; ligule hairy. Stem leaves
erect, longest towards top of culm, 3’ te 8’ long, 13’’—2”’
wide, smocth or hirsute,.sometimes involute; basal leaves
‘similar to those of the stem’ but shorter. Panicle loose,
3’—5’ long, branches erect or astending, mostly single,
flexuous, few-flowered, pedicels mostly very long ; spike-
lets i}’’—23” long. broadly elliptical or obovate, acute,
the 8-nerved. second and third scales much longer than
the obtuse fourth.

Elliott does not seem to nave known this species. Throughout the
eastern United States from Maine and Florida to Texas.
Dry; sgndy woods and fields. Washington, D. C.: Holm, 1895.

Iowa: Bessey; Ames, 1872. Georgia: Ashe; Stone Mountain, 1896
Texas: Reverchon. New Hampshire: Haton; Seabrook, 1898.

30) . PANICUM LINEARIFOLIUM Scribn. Bul. 11, U.S.
Div. of Avrost. 42 (1898). Densely tufted, 8’—14’ high,
stems erect, smooth. Sheaths somewhat shorter than
the internodes, usually hirsute; ligule hairy. Leaves
linear—lanceolate, erect, firm, 2’—6’ long, 13’’—2°’ wide,
the base barely narrowed, glabrous above, or with a few
loug hairs. below appressed pubescent. Primary pazicle
open, 2’—# jong, the mostly single branches ascending,
the rather few spikelets borne on pedicels two to many
times their length. Spikelets elliptical, obtuse, 1’’ or
slightly more long, very strongly 7-uerved. Secondary
panicles crowded at base of the culms.

Maine and New Jersey to Minnesota and Missouri. Distinguished
from /. depauperatum by having inore slender, obtuse spikelets ;
while its somewhat longer, more elliptical spikelets, its pubescence
and the basal panicles separate it from 7. Wernert. Minnnesota ;
Holzinger; June, 1888. Maine; Merrill; July, 1898. Illinois; Hall;
1862. Missouri: Bush, 1892.

31) Panicum WERNERI Scribn. Brit. and Brown’s
Ill, Flo. 3; 501(1898). Densely tufted, stems very slen-
der, smooth and glabrous throughout. Sheaths smooth,
ligule amere margin. Leaves linear, erect, often over-_
topping the panicles, the upper leaves the longest, 3’—7’

42 JOURNAL OF THE

-leng, 1°’—2”’ wide, glabrous. Panicles long-peduncled,
2’—4’ long, loose, the slender flexuous, generally solita-
ry branches ascending ; spikelets about 1’’ long, obovate,
the first scale about one third the length of the 7-nerved
second and third. Setondary basal panicles only spar-
ingly developed.

Very close to P. lineartfolium. Connecticut to Ohio in swamps.
Connecticut: Eames; Fairfield, 1896. New York; Rowlee; Ithaca,

1892. .
32) PANICUM NEMOPANTHUM Ashe, sp. nov. Tuft-
ed, stems erect, 14’—20’ high, glabrous. Sheaths glab-
rous, or the lowest pubescent, the upper sofnetimes
longer than internodes, the nodes, atleast the lower ones,
barbed with long hairs; ligule none. Leaves linear lan-
ceolate, spreading or ascending, long taper-pointed, —
glabrous or ciliate toward the narrowed base. Panicle
3’—4’ long, broader than long, the mostly single branch-
es wide-spreading, lax and drooping, few-flowered ;
spikelets elliptic, acute, nearly 15’’ long, on long, flexu-
ous pedicels, the obtuse first scale over one-third the
length of the glabrous, 7-nerved second and third.

Type material collected by the writer April, 1895, in the Penitentia-
ry woods, Raleigh, N. C. A very distinct species.

33) PaNnicUM DICHOTOMUM L, Sp. PI. 58 (1753). P.
ramulosum Mx. P. nodifiorum Lam.? Several stems to-
gether, 10’ -- 24’ high, erect. Sheaths, except the low-
est, glabrous, lowest node occasionally barbed and its
sheath pubescent. Sheaths shorter than the internodes;
ligule none. Leaves spreading, lax, largest 13’—23’
long, 3’’-—4’’ wide, narrowed toa rounded, sparingly cil-
iate base, otherwise glabrous. Primary panicle 2’ or
more long, oval, the branches lax; spikelets 1”’ long, el-
liptic, glabrous.

Shady woods throughout the eastern United States north of Florida
and Texas. Florida: Chapman; Apalachicola. Texas: Nealley; Rock

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 43

land, 1892. New York: Rowlee; Ithaca, 1895. Maine: Fernald; 1895.
This is the most comimon vernal species from North Carolina northward.
Elliott seems to have overlooked this species. His P. dichotomum is
either LP. demissum or P. arenicolum or some closely related species,
which, in habit, resembles P. azzustifolinm, as he compares his P. di-
chotomum with P. angustifolium in both habit and form.

PANICUM DICHOTOMUM ELATUM Vasey Contrib. from.
U.S. Nat. Herb. vol. 3 No. 1:30 (1892). Stems stouter,
leaves longer, 25'—3' long, panicle very much larger than
in the type, 3’—4" long and fully as wide. Maryland and
southward. District of Columbia: Scribner 1894, North
Carolina: Ashe; Chapel Hill, 1897.

PANICUM DICHOTOMUM VIRIDE Vasey, Contrib. from
U.S.Nat. Heb. Vol. 3, No. 1:30 (1892) is a tender, slend-
er, few flowered form, growing in very deep Shady
woods. It is very common to the northward, but is less
common to the south. It does not branch or only spar-
ingly during the summer, the basal nodes and sheaths
are glabrous, and it is probably specific. It approaches
P. lucidum.

P. dichotomum has been burdened with numberless va-
rieties by later American authors, most of these varieties
being well-marked species, which were so regarded by
early American botanists.

34) PANICUM BOREALE Nash, Torr. Bul. 22: 421(1895).
Culms generally tufted, ascending or erect, 14’—20” high,
glabrous. Sheaths glabrous, except for the ciliate mar-
gin, often as long as the internodes; ligule of very short
hairs. Leaves glabrous, lanceolate, or sometimes ciliate
at the base, 3’--S’ long 3’ wide or less, taper-pointed,
narrowed to the rounded base, ascending. Panicle 2’—3’
long, nearly as broad, branches numerous, fascicled, very
slender; spikelets 1”’ long, elliptic, acutish, nearly olab-
rous, rather numerous, on long filiform ascending or
spreading pedicels. Autumnal form unbranched.

44 JOURNAL OF THE

Northern New England to Minnesota, South to Pennsylvania. Relat-

ed to P. dichotomum,. Maine: Merrill; East Cerbum. New York: Ashe;
Courtland, 1898.

35) PANICUM MACULATUM Ashe, sp. nov. Culms
single, erect, glabrous, at length sparingly branched.
Sheaths shorter than internodes, glabrous, spotted ; lig-
ule none. Basalleaves and nodes glabrous; stem leaves
ascending, largest 3’—4’ long, 4’’—5”’’ wide, lanceolate,
tapering to the rounded glabrous base, margins very
rough, 5—7-nerved. Panicle 2’—3’ long, nearly as
broad, oval, the clustered branches lax. Spikelets %”’
leng, obovate, acute.

Related to P. dichotomum, from which distinguished by the longer,
ascending leaves and smaller spikelets, Spikelets about the size of
those of P. barbulatum. Collected by the writer at Raleigh, N. C.
May, 1895.

36) PANICUM ROANOKENSE Ashe. sp. nov. Culms
somewhat tufted, 18’ or more high from a geniculate
base. Plant glabrous throughout. Sheaths oue-half as
long as the internodes or more; ligule none. Leaves
glabrous, ascending, narrowly lanceolate, 2’—3’ long,
2”°—3”’ wide, firm, 5—7-nerved. Panicle 2}’—33’ long,
broadly oval, the siender, tascicled branches spreading or
drooping ; spikelets numerous, 1’’ long, elliptical-ebo-
vate, glabrous.

Type material collected by writer in dry soil, Roanoke Island, N. C.
June, 1898; also collected at Rose Bay and Mackleyville, N. C., the
same month.

37) PANICUM DEMISSUM Trin. Sp. Gram. 3: 319
(1836), Panicum Nashianum Scrib. Bul. U.S. Div. of
Agrost.7: 79 (1897). Stems tufted, 118’ long, very
slender, wiry, risingor reclining from geniculate base,
joints geniculate, purplish, glabrous or minutely rough,
puberulent below, at first simple, becoming much branch-
ed above late in the season. Sheaths much shorter than
the internodes, the upper ones glabrous, the lower gen-

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 45

erally puberulent ; ligule none. Leaves ascending, oblong-
lanceolate, 13’ leng or less, about 2’’ wide, 1’ longestand
broadest near the base of the culm, the upper reduced
in size, glabrous. Panicle short-peduncled or sessile,
l’—2’ lone, the branches short, flexuous, spreading; spike-
lets obovate, 1’" long, contracted at the base, glabrous.

Related to P. Webberianum, but distinguished by being much smaller
and ascending from a geniculate base. Common in the pine barrens.

North Carolina; Ashe; near Newberne, 1898. Georgia ; Small; near
Thomasville, June, 1892. Florida; Curtiss ; Jacksonville, No. 4637,
1894,

38) PAnicuM MATTAMUSKETENSE Ashe, sp. nov.
Krect, sometimes tufted, strict, rather stout, 2 feet to
4 feet high, often purplish, nodes strongly barbed. Low-
er leaves and sheaths soft-pubescent the upper glabrous;
ligule pubescent, otherwise glabrous. Leaves lanceolate.
3’—5’ long, 4”—7” wide, spreading. Panicle 3’--5’ long,
ovoid, long-peduncled, the branches numerous, cluster-
ed; spikelets ellipsoid, glabrous, pointed, 1” long, first
scale one-third the length of the spikelet.

Roadsides, ditch banks and wet open woods around lake Mattamus-
keet, N. C., where it grows with /. darbulatum. JuneandJuly. The
later stages profusely branched above with shorter leaves and small
few-flowered panicles. Collected by the writer, and Mr. Gilbert Pear-
son in June, 1898. .

39) PANICUM BARBULATUM Mx. Flora, 1:49(1803).
P. discolor Spreng, ex Muhl. Gram. 1141818). P. het-
erophyllum Schreb? Stems erect, often tufted, 2 feet
to 3 feet high, the nodes barbed, otherwise glabrous.
Sheaths shorter than the internodes, glabrous; ligule
pubescent. Leaves spreading or ascending, lanceolate,
rounded at the base, 3’—4’ long, 3’’—6”’ wide. Panicle
3’—5’ long, ovoid, peduncled, the branches fascicled,
numerous; spikelets ellipseid about %’’ or less long,
pointed. The later stage very much branched above,

with smaller leaves and small, few-flowered panicles.

46 JOURNAL OF THE

a

Wet shady places, very common. Florida and Texas to (according
to Britton & Brown) Ohio and Connecticut. Texas: Nealley; No, 26.
Florida: Chapman; Apalachicola, Biltmore Herbarium, No. 803c.
District of Columbia: Kearney, 1895. Kentucky: Miss Price; Bow-
ling Green. This species has the general appearance of P. dichotomum,
but is distinguished by the smaller spikelets and barbed nodes. Near-
ly related to P, annulum and P. Mattamusketense.

40) PANICUM ENSIFOLIUM Baldwin, Ell. Sk. 1:526
(1817). P. albo-marginatum Nash, Torr. Bal. 24:40
(1897). Stems tufted, branching from the base or near
it, glabrous, 8’—14’ high. Sheaths generally much
shorter than the internodes, crowded on the branches
above, glabrous, except the very short, hairy ligule.
Leaves glabrous, lanceolate, mostly clustered near the
base of the stem, the largest 14’—2’ long, 3’’—4’’ wide,
the margins white and thickened, upper reduced in size.
Panicles small, 1’—1}’ long, long-exserted, oval, the
branches ascending; spikelets numerous, }’’ long, ellip-
tical-obovate, the first scale about one- Foul as long
as the pubescent 7—nerved second and third.

Moist or dry woods middle North Carolina to Florida. North Caro-
lina: Ashe; Chapel Hill, June, 1896. Georgia: Baldwin. Florida:
Nash; Lake county, 1894, No. 925. A specimen in the herbarium of
the Philadelphia Academy of Science sent by Baldwin from Georgia,
and labelled by him P. ensifolium, matches my material from North
Carolina and Nash’s from Florida. It also agrees very well with
Elliott’s description of this species.

41) Panicum BaLpwini Nutt. ex Gunitaat Flora,
3rd edition 586 (1896). Densely cespitose, glabrous,
stems much branched near the base, low 8’—16’ high,
stiff ana rigid. Sheaths smooth: ligule pubescent.
Stem leaves rigid, erect, narrowed at base, x —-13’ long,
acuminate, glabrous. Basal leaves tufted. Panicle 1’
or less long, much divided ; the obovate or elliptic spike-
lets barely 3’’ long, the second and third scales indis-
tinctly 5—nerved.

Georgia: Baldwin, in Herb. Philadelphia Acad. of Natural Science.
Florida: Curtiss ;Indian river, No. 5804, Florida: Chapman; Apa-
lachicola. Related to the next.

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 47

42) Panicum WRIGHTIANUM Scribn., Bul. 11, U.S.
Div. of Agrost., 44 (1898). Stems densely tufted, much
branched above, sometimes puberulent. Sheaths very
short, occasionally pubescent; ligule sometimes pubes-
cent. Leaves lanceolate, somewhat rounded at the base,
1’—2’ long, erect, glabrous, taper-pointed. Panicle ob-
long, 37-13’ long, branches fascicled, short; spikelets
obovate, less than $” long, second and third scales faint-
ly 5-nerved.

Florida and westward along the South Atlantic and Gulf coasts.
Florida: Nash; Lake county, 1894, No. 1238. Florida: Curtiss; Jack-
sonville, 1894, No. 5588. North Carolina: Ashe; near Newberne,
1898.

43) PANICUM SPHAGNICOLUM Nash, Torr. Bul. 22:
422 (1895), Cespitose, stems at first erect, soon reclin-
ing and much elongated, 12’—30’ long, very slender,
olabrous. Sheaths much shorter than the internodes,
olabrous, no ligule. Leaves erect, 3’—1 3’ long, 2”—3’
wide, narrowly lanceolate, narrowed to the somewhat
rounded base, glabrous, 5-nerved. Panicles 1’—1%’ long,
branches erect, or ascending; spikelets ;” long, broad-
ly obovate, glabrous, the second and third scales
7-nerved.

Delaware to Florida and Tennessee. At first unbranched, eventual-
ly with slender, reclining branches and small, sessile panicles. Color
light green. Delaware : Canby ; Ogleton, June, 1896. District of
Columbia: Kearney ; June, 1897. North Carolina: Small; Duns’ Mt.,

August, 1894. North Carolina; Biltmore Herbarium, Biltmore,
August, 1898 No. 5066b. Florida; Nash, No. 2500.

44) Panicum LucIDUM Ashe, sp. nov. Cespitose, culms
reclining or prostrate, weak, glabrous. Sheaths glab-
rous, except the ciliate margin, very short; ligule none.
Leaves spreading, 1’ long or generally less, narrowly
lanceolate, very acute, narrowed to the base, glabrous,
rather distant. Panicle peduncled, 15’ long or less,
equally as wide, the branches single or several together,

48 JOURNAL OF THE
wide-spreading; spikelets about 3’’ long, elliptic or nar-
rowly obovate, acute, giabrous.

Coilected in June 1898 by the writer in deep, shady swamps border-
ing lake Mattamuskeet, N. C. Probabiy found in other swamps along
the coast of the southern states. Very different from P. sphagnicolum.

45 PANICUM CUTHBERTI Ashe, sp. nov. Culms very
slender, erect or spreading, deusely tufted, glabrous, 8’—
24’ long, the autumnal state unbranched or slightly so.
Sheaths very short, glabrous; no ligule. Stem leaves
distant, narrowly lanceolate, taper-pointed, 3 to 5 ner-
ved, narrowed at the base, thin, glabrous, $’—13’ long,
1’’—2”’ wide, spreading or ascending; basal leaves densely
tufted. Panicle broadly oval about 1’ long, the slender
branches spreading; spikelets narrowly elliptical, acute,
5°’ leng, the first scale one-fourth the length of the 7-ner-
ved finely pubescent second and third.

Wet sandy woeds, North Carolina and South Carolina. South Car-
olina: Cuthbert; St. Helena island. North Carolina: Ashe; Chapel
Hill, June,1898. Itis separated from /. ensi/olium by the strict habit and
arge basal leaves of the lattcr; while P. sphagnicolum hasthe branches
of its panicle ascending and larger obovate spikelets; and P. lucidum
has much larger and broader spikelets, and a decumbent habit.

46) PANICUM PARVISPICULATUM Nash, Torr. Bul.24:347
(1897.) P. microcarpon(?) Muhl. ex Ell. Sk. 1:127 (1817).
Stems tufted, erect, 8’—30’ high, glabrous, or with some
appressed pubescence on the lower part and sometimes
with the nodes barbed. Sheaths very short, generally
glabrous, the lower sometimes pubescent; ligule short,
pilose. Leav»s distant, ascending, much shorter than the
internodes, lanceolate, narrowed at the base, 2’—3’ long,
3’’°—4’’ wide, generally glabrous. Basal leaves oblong
lanceolate, 2’--4’ long, about 4’’ wide, stiff and erect.
Panicle 15’-—3’ long, oval or oblong,the numerous ascend-
ing branches thickly fascicled; spikelets very numerous,
small, scarcely 3°’ long, broadly oval.

This species is intermediate between /. leucothrix Nash. and P. niti-

—

—

\

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 49

dum Yam., and is the P. nitidum of Dr. Chapman’s Southern Flora. It
is also probably the P. microcarpon of Elliott. It occurs along the coast
as far north as eastern Virginia. As it is variable in the amount of
pubescence, some specimens being quite glabrous, and others hav-
ing the stems and sheaths pubescent, and nodes barbed, ‘it is possible
that Elliott may have based his P. mtcrocarpon on specimens of
the pubescent form. Virginia: Curtiss; Bedford Co., 1873, sub nom.
P. nodiflorum Tam. North Carolina: Ashe; Wilmington, 1895.
Florida: Chapman; Apalachicola. Curtiss, Jacksonville, No, 4033.

47) PANICUM LEUCOTHRIX Nash, Torr, Bul. 24:41
(1817). Stems somewhat tufted, slender, 12’—30’ tall,
glabrous, or pubescent below. Sheaths shorter than the
internodes, glabrous or the lower pubescent ; ligule pil-
ose. Leaves lanceolate,13’ long or less, 1”—-2”’ wide, nar-
rowed to the base, spreading or ascending. Panicle ob-
long, }’—13’ long, the numerous short fascicled branches
ascending ; spikelets very numerous, less than $’’ long,
spheroid, whitish or purple.

Central Florida to North Carolina near the coast. Florida: Curtiss;

Jacksonville, 5912. North Carolina: Ashe; Manteo, June, 1898. Re-
ated to P. parvispiculatum. This is Elliott’s P, nttidum.

48) Panicum Eatont Nash, Torr. Bul. 25: 84
(1898). Erect, 1’--3’ tall, glabrous. Sheaths smooth:
ligule pilose. Leaves lanceolate, taper-pointed, ascend-
ing, becoming much smaller towards top of culm, the
largest 3’--4’ long, and 4”--5” wide: panicle long-pe-
duncled, oblong, 3’--5’ long, the numerous short branch-
es ascending ; spikelets oval, about 7%” long, first scale
about one-third as long as the pubescent, 7-uerved sec-
ond and third.

“Wet places along the coast, Maine to New York.” Description
based on material sent me by Mr. A. A. Katon of Seabrook, N. H.

49) Panicum ColUBIANUM Scribn. Bul. U.S. Div.
of Agrost. 7: 78 (1897). Stems somewhat tufted, 8-20’
high, strict, glabrous or the lower pubescent: ligule
pilose. Leaves distant, ascending, lanceolate, taper-
pointed, the upper reduced in size, largest 2’--3’ long,

4

50 JOURNAL OF THE

3”—4” wide. Panicle long-peduncled, mostly smooth,

1’--2’ long, at first contracted, later pyramidal, branches

numerous, fascicled; spikelets broadly ovate, }” long

purplish, first scale minute, second and third 7-nerved,
pubescent. Later stages fasciculate branched, the small
branches and leaves ascending.

Too close to P. nitidum, from which it is distinguished only by its

smaller size, and smaller panicle. New Jersey: Commons; 1897.
District of Columbia: Kearney ; June, 1897.

50) PANICUM NITIDUM Lam. Encl. 4; 748 (1797).
Stems often tufted, erect, strict, 10’ to 34 feet high, near-
ly glabrous; later stages much branched, from the
sheaths. Sheaths shorter than the internodes, glabrous
or with soft ascending hairs, or, to the southward,
the lower sheaths papillose-hirsute; ligule pilose.
Leaves firm, ascending, 7—-9-nerved, oblong-lanceolate,
2’--4 long, 3”--4” wide, glabrous, or appressed pubes-
cent beneath, shorter than the internodes; upper much
reduced. Panicle 2’--3’ long, broadly oval, at least the
lower branches ascending, spikelets numerous, on very
slender pedicels, about 7” long, broadly ovate.

New England to North Carolina, and Wisconsin. Its distribution
farther westward undetermined.

District of Columbia: Kearney; 1897. North Carolina: Ashe ; 1898.
Wisconsin: Pammel; Prairie du Chien, 1891.

This is a very confusing and variable species. I have studied it in
the field for three seasons and have carefully noted its variability.
To the northeast, where it is common at least as far as New Jersey,
it is generally glabrous or nearly so; to the southward it is often pubes-
cent, with the sheaths papillose-hirsute, though the glabrous form oc-
curs occasionally along with it. It is variable in size and in the shape
and size of its spikelets, even on the same individual. ‘The long pilose
ligule, however, is constant. To the extreme southeast P. leucothrix
occurs, which is closely allied to P. mittidum, and isthe P. nitidum of
Elliott. It is also very variable in its pubescence and in the size and
shape of its spikelets. In the extreme west P. nitidum is represent-.
ed by P. thermile Boland, a rather low, nearly glabrous species ; while
closely allied to it is a very villous form with larger, narrower spike-
lets, which seems to be specific. Its description follows:

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 51

51) PANICUM HUACHUCAE Ashe, sp. nov. Stems
somewhat clustered, erect, slender, villous, 2 feet to 3
feet high. Sheaths shorter than the internodes, villous
to papilose-hirsute ; ligule long-pilose. Leaves erect or
ascending, 3’--4’ long, 3’—-4” wide, generally villous, ob-
long-lanceolate. Panicle 3’—5’ long, oval, pubescent ;
‘spikelets nearly 1” long, oval, or elliptical, pubescent.

Based on: Lemnon: P. dichotomum var. nitidum, subvar. barbu-
latum ; Huachuca Mountains, Arizona, 1882. North Carolina: Ashe;
Chapel Hill, June, 1898. Iowa: Bessey; Ames, 1875. Delaware:
Commons; sub nom., /. /anuginosum. Missouri: Glatfeller; St.
Louis, 1897.

52) Panicum viscipum Ell. Sk. 1: 124(1817). P.
scoparium Mx. Flora 1: 49(1803). Not Lam. (1797).
Tufted, large and stout, 2 feet to 3 feet high, ascending,
from a generally geniculate base; stem pilose, especially
below. Sheaths shorter than the internodes, pilose on
the lower part, the upper generally viscid, barbed at the
nodes, with a naked viscid ring below the node; ligule of
very short pubescence. Leaves 3’—5’ long, 4”—7” wide,
lanceolate or narrower, narrowed to the base, glabrous
above, generally pilose beneath. Panicle short-pedun-
cled, 2’—4’ long, broadly oval, the numerous, fascicled
branches ascending; spikelets broadly obovate or nearly
spherical, 1}”’ long, apiculate; axisof panicle often viscid.
Later state much branched.

New Jersey to Florida and Texas. Frequent in wet or moist sandy
places. Florida: Chapman, Apalachicola. Delaware: Canby, 1894,
Texas: Reverchon. North Carolina: Ashe, 1897.

53) PANnIcUM CILIIFERUM Nash, Torr. Bul. 24: 195
(1897). Culms tufted, erect or ascending from a genicu-
late base, the joints geniculate. 18’ -- 24 high. more or
less villous below with appressed or ascending hairs,
above smooth. Sheaths much shorter than the inter-
nodes, villous with soft, appressed pubescence; pubes-
cence of ligule very short or sometimes long and villous,

52 - JOURNAL OF THE .

Stem leaves erect or ascending, long—acuminate} broadest
near the somewhat rounded base, the lowest lanceolate,
27—4 long, 4”—5” wide, 9—13-nerved, the upper much
reduced. Panicle pyramidal, 2—4 long, the fascicled
branches very long and slender, spreading or the lowest
reflexed, spikelets purple, obovate, abruptly contracted
at the base, 1” long, the first scale one-third the length
of the smooth, 9—nerved second and third.

Shady pine lands, Eastern North Carolina to Florida. North Car-
olina: Ashe, Manteo, 1898. Florida: Curtiss; Jacksonville, 1897, No.
5866. Related to P. arenicolum but larger in every way, more pubes-
cent, and with longer leaves.

54) PANICUM TSUGETORUM Nash, Torr. Bul. 25: 86
(1898). Stems tufted, 18’ or less high, at first erect,
and simple, at length much branched aboveand prostrate,
pubescent with short ascending hairs, or with longer
ones towards the base. Sheaths shorter than the inter-
nodes, pubescent with ascending hairs; ligule short, pub-
escent. Leaves lanceolate, the largest 2’—3’ long, 3”—4”
wide, later ones smaller, glabreus above, beneath ap-
pressed pubescent. Panicle broadly oval, about 2’ long,
the branches ascending; spikelets broadly obovate, about
%” long, pubescent.

Hemlock woods; Connecticut, and New York.

55) PANICUM TENNESSEENSE Ashe, sp. nov. Tufted,
low, 5—12’ high, erect or ascending from a geniculate
base, very slender, at first simple, soon densely branch-
ed above with short branches, glabrous or nearly so.
Sheaths often nearly as lone as the internodes, at least
the lower ones covered with a short, seft pubescence;
ligule short-pilose. Leaves spreading, thin, 3—5-nerved,
the margins very rough, smooth above, beneath appress-
ed pubescent and roughish, the largest 23’—3’ long,
3”—4” wide, widest in the middle, abruptly pointed, nar-
rowed to the rounded base; secondary leaves thickly

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 53

crowded above, about 1’ long, spreading, much longer than
the very numerous, short, secondary panicles. Primary
panicles short-peduncled, 1’—2’ in length, oval, the
spreading branches mostly single, rather few flowered,
the slender peduncles two to many times the length of
the obovate, pubescent, %” long spikelets.

Related to P. Joorii, which it somewhat resembles. Based on No.
7087 Biltmore Herbarium: Cedar glades, LaVergne Co., ‘Tennessee.

56) Panicum ATLANTICUM Nash, Torr. Bul. 24:346
(1897). Culms tufted, erect or ascending from a usually
geniculate base, 10’—20’ high. Stem more or less pilose
with spreading or ascending hairs, the nodes long-barbed
above the naked ring. Sheaths pilose to villous, gener-
ally papillate, the lowest nearly as long as the inter-
odes, the upper much shorter; ligule pilose, hairs 2”—3”
long. Stem leaves ascending, above smoothish, below
generally villous, the margins often ciliate with long
hairs, 2’—3’ long, 2”—3” wide, linear-lanceolate; narrow-
ed at the somewhat rounded base, taper-pointed, middle
leaves the longest; basal leaves much shorter; the later
leaves on the secondary branches, ascending, one-half the
length of the primary,smooth.’ Panicle 2—3’ long, nearly
as wide, long-peduncled, the branches somewhat ascend-
ing, spikelets rather numerous, obovate, acute, quite 1”
long, the first scale full one-third as long as the minutely
pubescent 9-nerved second and third; later panicles not
expanding, one-half the length of the surrounding leaves.

New York to North Carolina, and probably farther southward, gen-
erally near the coast. Delaware: ‘Commons; 1872. North Carolina:
- Ashe; Cape Hatteras, 1898.

57) PANICUM SCOPARIOIDE Ashe. sp. nov. Stems sin-
ole or a few together, erect, columnar, 16’—20’ high,
appressed pubescent. Sheaths papillose-pubescent, with
ascending or appressed hairs, the lower much shorter
than the internodes, the upper longer ; ligule pilose.

54 JOURNAL OF THE

Leaves linear-lanceolate, spreading and ascending, 2’—3’
long, about 3” wide, rounded at the base, generally
9-nerved, beneath appressed pubescent, above glabrous,
lower leaves distant, the upper approximate. Panicle
1’__9? Jong, broadly oval, the branches fascicled, spread-
ing, spikelets rather numerous, broadly obovate, some-
what over 1” long, apiculate, the acute first scale scarce-
ly one-third the length of the nearly smooth 7-nerved
second and third.

A species with the habit of P. scoparium, and spikelets which are
nearly the size and shape of those of P. viscidum. Based on No. 283,
ex Herb. A. Commons. Dry soil, Centreville, Del. June, 1873. Dis-
tributed sub nom. P. Scribnerianum Nash.

58) PANICUM VILLOSSISSIMUM Nash, Torr. Bul. 23:
149 (1896). Stems erect or ascending, tufted, slender,
16’—24’ high. villous with long, ascending hairs, barbed
above the glabrous nodes, "joints geniculate. Sheaths
much shorter than the internodes, villous ; ligule pilose.
Stem leaves linear-lanceolate 25’—4’ long, 3’’—4’’ wide,
rounded at the base, ascending, longest about the middle
of the culm, the upper scarcely reduced, more or less vil-
lous with spreading hairs; basal leaves much shorter and
not conspicuous. Panicle 25’—33’ long, equally as broad,
the numerous slender branches fascicled; spikelets ob-
ovate. about 1”’ long on slender pedicels.

Collected by Dr. J. K. Smallin the Ocmulgee river swamp in May,
1895. Related to P. pubescens and P, haemacarpon.

59) PANICUM PUBESCENS Lam. Encl. 4:748 (1797).
Culms tufted’ 10’—20’ high, slender, erect, joints genic-
ulate, stem to base of panicle villous with long, white,
spreading hairs, a ring of longer hairs above the joint,
below which is a naked ring. Sheaths about one half the
length of the internodes, villous with long white hairs,
minutely papillate; ligule pilose. Stem leaves ascending,
linear-lanceolate, gradually narrowed at the base, taper-

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIFTY. 55

pointed, villous to sparingly hirsute, 7--9-nerved, the
longest about 3’ long and 3”’ wide; upper leaves much re-
duced in size; basal leaves hirsute, shorter and broader.
Panicle about 2inches long, nearly as broad, the branches
single or in pairs, spreading or ascending; spikelets
somewhat obovate, obtuse, scarcely 1”’ long, first scale
one third the length of the pubescent, 7-nerved second
and third; peduncled 2 to 3 times the length of panicle.
The late form densely fasciculately branched and spread-
ing’.

Maine tolowa, Georgia and Missouri. Very close to P. implicatum.
Maine: Merrill, 1895. Georgia: Ashe; Atlanta, 1896. Iowa: Crat-
ty; Armstrong, 1889, No. 1067. Missouri: von Schrenk; St. Louis,
1897.

60) Panicum CoMMONSIANUM Ashe, sp. nov. Stems
clustered, erect, strict, 8’—16’ high, below appressed
pubescent, above ¢labrous or puberulent. Sheaths short-
er than the leaves or the lower overlapping, the lower
appressed pubescent with ascending hairs, the nodes
densely barbed with short ascending hairs. Leaves glab-
rous, or sparingly ciliate near the base eréct or ascend-
ing, narrowly lanceolate, gradually narrowed to the apex
from near the base; 14’—2’ long, ligule pilose. Panicle
11’ —3’ long, as broad as long, the branches fascicled,
spreading, long-peduncled, glabrous or the axis puberu-
lent; spikelets 1’’ long, obovate, or broadly elliptical, pu-
bescent. Roots very long and fibrous.

Based on No. 341, Commons. Collected in drifting sands along the
coast, Cape May, N. J. June, 1898. Related to P. haemacarpon.

61) PanicuM HAEMACARPON Ashe, sp. nov. Tutted,
stems erect or ascending from a geniculate base, 12’—18°
high, below villous with long spreading or ascending
hairs, above sometimes smoothish. Sheaths shorter than
the internodes, papillate, villose with long soft, spreading
hairs; the nodes bearded with spreading or reflexed hairs.

56 JOURNAL OF THE

Leaves erect or ascending, 1’—2’ long, 2’’—3’’ wide, lan-
ceolate, the middle ones longest, the upper much reduced,
the lower pilose beneath, the upper pubescent with long
scattered hairs on the upper surface,appressed pubescent,
often papillate, beneath. Panicles 13’—2’ long, broader
than long, the branches wide-spreading somewhat fasci-
cled, rather few-flowered; spikelets 1’° long, broadly ob-
ovate, apiculate, the first scale one-third the length of the
pubescent second and third. Spikelets generally red,
or purplish.

Closely related to P. villossissimum from which separated by its gen-
erally ascending habit, erect leaves, the upper reduced, and shorter
usually ascending pubescence. District of Columbia: Kearney; 1897.

Ashe: North Carolina; Chapel Hill, 1898. lIowa: Carver; Jewell
Junction, 1895, No 258.

62) PANICUM ARENICOLUM Ashe, sp. nov. Erect from
a usually geniculate base, 10’ to 24’ high, pubescent, at
least below, with soft ascending hairs. Sheaths shorter
than the joints, pubescent with short ascending hairs
Stem leaves erect or ascending, longest near the base of
the stem, much reduced in size upward, the largest 2’—
3’ long, 2” wide, long taper-pointed, glabrous above, be-
neath more or less papillose-pubescent. Panicle long ex-
certed, 2’—3’ long pyramidal, the flexuous fascicled
branches spreading, at length reflexed. Spikelets
somewhat less than 1” long, obevate, obtuse. :

Intermediate in size, habit, and general characters between P. ciliife-
rum and P. demissum, smaller than the former and larger than the
latter. Type material collected by the writer at Chapel Hill, N. C.
June 1898, and later at several localities in the eastern portion of the
same state,

63) PANICUM LAXIFLORUM Lam. Encvcl. 4: 748
(1797). P. Muhlenbergit Nutt. in Herb. P. acuminatum
Swarz. ex Muhl. Gram. Stems densely tufted, ascend-
ing or spreading or later reclining, 15’—20’ long,
smooth or somewhat pubescent. Sheaths very short,

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 57

one-third the lengthof the leaves, papillose-hirsute: li-
cule a mere margin. Stem leaves few, mostly near the
base of the culms, ascending or spreading, narrowly lan-
ceolate, very taper-pointed, narrowed at the base or
somewhat rounded, 7 to 9-nerved, the largest 3’—4’ long,
4”’__5”’ wide, the upper leaves, scarcely reduced in size,
elabrous or hirsute with long white hairs, often with cil-
iate margins ; basal leaves shorter but similar to these of
the stem, ciliate-margined, often hirsute, very abundant,
soft and lax. Panicle 3’ to 4’ long, obovate, the branches
slender, lax; spikelets obovate, about 1”’ long, the acut-
ish first scale one-fourth the length of the very pubescent,
9-néerved second and third.

Late panicles included in very short sheaths which are not longer
than the basal leaves. Primary culms do not become fasciculately
branched. Color light green. Damp shady hillsides, Maryland and Ken-
tucky to Alabama and Florida. The basal leaves form large tufts
which remain green throughout the winter. It is one of the earliest
spring species. April-July. West Virginia; Small, 1892. Florida ;
Curtiss, Juniper, 1895, No. 5537. Tennessee ; Ruth, 1897. . Panicum
caricifolium Scribn. in herb. as distributed by Kearney (Washington,
D. C., May, 1897) differs from this only in its somewhat smaller—quite
34’? long spikelets.

64) PANICUM LANUGINOSUM Elliott. Sk. 1:123 (1817).
Stems ascending from a geniculate base, rather stout,
12’—24’ long, villous below, pubescent above. Sheaths
shorter than the leaves, the lower, at least, densely pilose
with soft pubescence, the upper often glabrous, barbed
above the naked joint ; ligule a ring of long hairs. Stem
leaves lanceolate, rounded at the base, spreading or as-
cending, the largest near the base of the stem, 23’—3’ long,
3°—4” wide, 9—11-nerved, generally soft-pubescent be-
neath, glabrous above, or the lowest pilose on both sides,
finely ciliate on the margins, particularly the upper ones
toward the base ; upper leaves much reduced in size. Pan-
icle 2’—3’ long nearly as wide, the numerous, fascicled,
smooth branches ascending ; spikelets small for size of

58 JOURNAL OF THE

plant, about }’’ long, obovate, very pubescent, first scale
about one-third as lone as the 7-nerved second and third.
Peduncle twice the length of panicle.

Dry sandy fields, New Jersey to Georgia near the coast. Related to PP
viscidum. Description based on plants growing at Chapel Hill, N. C.
Delaware : Commons; Mt. Cuba, 1871. Washington, D. C.: Kearney;
1897. Ashe; North Carolina: Chapel Hill, 1898,

65) PANICUM IMPLICATUM Scribn. Bul. 11, U..S.
Div. of Agrost. 43 (1898). Culms erect, tufted, 12’—20”
high, very slender, somewhat geniculate at the nodes.
Stem, to base of panicle, more or less pubescent with
short white hairs, barbed above the naked ring at the
joints. Sheaths about one-half the length of the inter-
nodes, more or less hirsute, at least below ; ligule a ring
of hairs 2” long. Stem leaves ascending, linear-lanceo-
late, gradually narrowed to the base, 2’—3’ long, about
3’? wide. 7—9-nerved, more or less pubescent; basal
leaves much shorter, nearly glabrous. Panicle 1’ or more
long, about as wide, the numerous slender branches
spreading ; spikelets obovate, apiculate, 5 —%’’ long,
first scale minute, one-fourth as long as the nearly glab-
rous, 7-nerved second and third. Color of piant green,
often purplish. Late stages much branched above.

Northeastern States. Specimens examined : New Jersey; Com-
mons, 1897. New York : Wiegand, Ithaca, 1893. New York: Ashe;
Watkins, June, 1898. New York: Ashe; Courtland, Aug. 1898.
Maine; Merrill, 1897. Its smaller leaves, more branched panicle, and
smaller spikelets separate this plant from /. pubescens to which it is
most closely related.

66) PANICUM ANNULUM Ashe, sp. nov. Stems erect,
generally single, 18’—30’ high, below pilose, above gen-
erally glabrous, purple. Sheaths shorter than the inter-
nodes, at least the lower soft-pilose, nodes barbed ; lig-
ule very short, pubescent. Leaves lanceolate, 3’—4’ long,
4’?_6’’ wide, narrowed to the rounded base, the lower
pilose on the lower surface, the upper generally glab-

a

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 59

rous, purplish, spreading. Panicle 2’—3’ long, oval, the
fascicled branches spreading or reflexed ; spikelets about
#” long, narrowly obovate, pubescent; the axis of the
panicle generally viscid. The later stage much branch-
ed.

Dry rocky woods. Maryland to North Carolina and Georgia. Near
Washington, D. C. Ward; 1892. North Carolina: Ashe; Chapel
Hill, 1898. Georgia: Ashe; Stone Mt., 1896. Related to P. barbu-
latum, but has a smaller panicle, and is pubescent.

67) PANICUM MERIDIONALE Ashe, sp. nev. Stems
4’—8’ high, densely tufted, erect or ascending, villous
with ascending hairs, purplish, very leafy. Sheaths
striate, villous with ascending hairs, generally shorter
than the internodes; ligule pilose. Leaves numerous,
erect or ascending, 1’—13’ long, about 2’ wide, lanceolate,
rounded at the base, beneath pubescent with short as-
cending hairs, above with a few scattered long hairs, or
towards the base of the leaf villous. Panicle glabrous
1’—2’ long, the branches single or a few together, as-
cending ; spikelets elliptical or obovate, nearly }"’ long,
the first scale about one third the length of the glabrous
second and third.

I have collected this species at two localities in North Carolina,
Chapel Hill in June, 1898; and Jonas Ridge, Burke Co., June, 1893.
As these two stations are far apart the plant probably occurs in other
States to the north and south of North Carolina. Dry rocky woods.
Very different from either P. filiculme, P. implicatum or P, pubescens.

68) PANICUM FILICULME Ashe, sp. nov. Stems tufted,
or single, at first simple, later fasciculately branched
above, erect, very slender, 6’—10’ high, more or less vil-
lous with ascending hairs. Sheaths villous with ascend-
ing hairs, shorter than the internodes; ligule of very
short pubescence or of long hair. Leaves narrowly ian-
ceolate, 13’ long or less, 1’’-—2”’ wide, rounded at the base,
the lower surface papillose, appressed pubescent,
the upper nearly glabrous, hirsute, or merely the mar-

60 JOURNAL OF THE

gins fringed with long erect hairs, the upper leaves
reduced in size; secondary leaves smaller, longer than
the panicles. Panicle long-peduncled, small, about 3’
long, the rather short branches, erect or ascending ; spike-
lets broadly obovate, obtuse, about 3’’ long.

Dry soil, middle North Carolina to Georgia in the Piedmont plateau
region. Related to P. implicatum and P. pubescens. North Carolina:
Ashe ; Chapel Hill, 1898. Georgia: Small; Stone Mt., Aug. 1895.

69) PANICUM CILIATUM. Ell. Sk. 1:426 (1817). P.
ciliatifolium Kth. Stems erect, 8—16’ high, smooth,
slender. Sheaths smooth ; ligule not hairy. Stem leaves,
one to three, lanceolate, 1’—2’ long,2’’--3’’ wide, smooth ex-
cept for the ciliate margins ; basal leaves very numerous,
broader -and longer than the stem leaves, the entire mar-
gin ciliate with long hairs, otherwise glabrous. Panicle
rather small, 1’—2’ long, nearly as wide, the fascicled
branches ascending or spreading ; peduncles 4 to 5 times
the length of the panicle, smooth, spikelets on very slen-
der pedicels, 3 or more times their length, nearly 2”’ long,
obovate, acute, the first scale nearly one-half as long as
the smooth 7-nerved second and third. |

Color pale green. Rather uncommon. Ditch banks and sandy
swamps, eastern North Carolina to Florida. A beautiful species.
North Carolina: Ashe; near Wilmington. 1897. Florida: Biltmore
Herbarium ; Apalachicola, No. 6022 a.

70) PANICUM POLYCAULON Nash. Torr. Bul. 24:200,
(1897.) Stems densely tufted, 6’—10’ tall, simple,
nearly naked, at length somewhat branched, sheaths
loose, glabrous, the margins ciliate, upper longest; lig-
ule pubescent. Stem leaves ascending, lanceolate, the
longest about 3’ long, 4’’ wide, ciliate on the margins
7—9-nerved ; basal leaves numerous, ciliate. Panicle
about 1’ long, its axis somewhat pilose; spikelets about
3’? long, obovate, first scale about 3’ long, as the 7-
nerved, glabrous second and third.

‘The narrower leaves more slender culms, and smaller and glabrous

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 61

spikelets well distinguish this from P. ctliatum E11., to which it is most
nearly allied.”’ Florida and Cuba.

71) PANICUM LONGIPEDUNCULATUM Scribn. Stems
erect, somewhat clustered, 6’—10’ high ; sheaths villous
with spreading hairs, or nearly glabrous inflated;
ligule hairy. Stem leaves few, distant, ascending,
2”’—3”’ wide, lanceolate, narrowed to the somewhat
rounded base, soft pubescent on both sides, the margin’
ciliate ; basal leaves rather numerous, as long and as wide
as those of the stem, pubescent on both sides, ciliate on
the margins. Panicle about 2’ long, oval, the axis pubes-
cent, branches fascicled, spreading, slender ; spikelets
obovate, barely 4”’ long, obtuse, the first scale one-half
the length of the smooth 7-nerved second and third, ped-
icels 3 to 4 times the length of the spikelets.

Color pale green. Ditch banks and wet sandy places, eastern North
Carolina to Florida. North Carolina: Ashe; Roanoke Island, June,
1898. Florida: Curtiss ; Jacksonville. The basal leaves of this spe-
cies, like those of P. ciliatum, are much more prominent than the stem
leaves, and the stems, having rather few leaves, appear rather naked.
The autumnal stage is not fasciculately branched.

72) PANICUM MICROPHYLLUM Ashe, sp. nov. Some-
what tufted, 8’—20’ high, slender, ascending or reclin-
ing, glabrous or pubescent with long white ascending
hairs. Sheaths glabrous or pubescent, very much short-
er than the internodes; ligule pilose. Stem leaves dis-
tant, ascending, linear-lanceolate, 1’ long or less, 1”—2”’
wide, generally more or less villous. Basal leaves crowd-
ed, 1’ or more long, 3’’—4”’ wide. Late forms somewhat
fasciculately branched above. Panicle long-peduncled,
about 1’ long, the slender branches ascending ; spikelets,
4’*—%”’ long very broadly obovate, the minute first scale
acute, one-fourth the length of the 7-nerved second and
third.

Related to P. angustifolium. Collected by the writer June, 1898, at
Chapel Hill, N. C.,in moist sunny woods.

ou

62 JOURNAL OF THE

73) Panicum Brirtront Nash. Torr. Bul. 24:194
(1897). Stems tufted, glabrous, very slender, erect,
stiff. Sheaths, glabrous, very short; ligule pubescent.
Leaves longer than the sheaths, few in number, the mid-
dle leaves longest, 14 long or less, less than 13”’ wide.
Panicle 1’ long or less, branches rather few, spreading ;
spikelets obovate, obtuse, {’’ long, pubescent.

Moist sand, in pine woods. Southern New Jersey.

74) PANICUM GLABRISSIMUM Ashe, sp. nov. Culms
very slender, 12’—20”’ high, tufted, erect smooth and
glabrous throughout. Sheaths much shorter than the
internodes, glabrous ; no ligule. Stem leaves very short,
distant, less than 1’ long, less than 13” wide, narrowed to
the base, erect or ascending, glabrous or sometimes with
the narrowed base sparingly ciliate. Basal leaves 13’
long or less, 2’’—3”’ wide, ascending, glabrous. Panicle,
peduncled, about 1’ long, quite as wide, branches wide-
spreading; spikelets, broadly oval or spheroid, about 3”’
long, glabrous or nearly so, purple.

The type material was collected by me June 1898, at Manteo, Dare
Co., N. C.

NATURAL SCIENCE OF THE ANCIENTS AS
INTERPRETED BY LUCRETIUS.

F. P. VENABLE.

There is no work, coming from an ancient author, which
gives so full a picture of the beliefs and theories of an-
cient times as to the physical side of natureas Lucretius’

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 63

poem De Rerum Natura. It is by reading this that one
may get the best insight into the ancient habit of thought
concerning natural phenomena and the poem can be rec-
commended to all who are fond of tracing over again an-
cient by-paths and half-lost tracks.

I do not purpose in this review to deal critically with
the philosophy of the poem but rather to note the expla-
nations offered of the various natural phenomena observ-
ed. We need not boast of our great knowledge of to-day
but it becomes more precious to us when we realize how
painfully and slewly it has been won for us, and how
through centuries of darkness we have come to clearer
light.

A word or two concerning the poem itself and its au-
thor may not beamiss. Lucretius lived somewhere in the
last century preceding the birth of Christ and the poem
was published about the middle of that century. An
Epicurean in philosophy, and a follower of the atomic
school of Demokritos, his poem was written as an exposi-
tion of their systems and in their defence. It was in-
tended to explain to’ the minds of men the true nature of
things and free them from ignorance and superstition.

Perhaps the most striking feature of Lucretius’ poem
is the deep reverence shown in it for the majesty of
nature. ‘The greates: minds were those which interpre-
ted nature ana the divinest faculty possessed by man
was that through which truth was discovered. Homer
was to him preeminent among the poets because he was
near to nature and her great interpreter.

Prof. Sellars has said of him:

‘Tt is, however, in his devotion to truth that Lucretius
more than in any other quality rises clearly above the
level of his countrymen and his age. He thus combines
what is greatest in the Greek and Roman mind, the
Greek order of inquiry and the Roman manliness of

64 JOURNAL OF THE

heart. i . ‘ He unites the specu-
lative passion of the dawn of ancient inquiry with the
real observation of its meridian; and he has brought the
imaginative conception of nature that gave birth to the
earliest philosophy into harmony with the Italian love of
the living beauty of the world.”

This poem is, as Constant Martha calls it, the most an-
cient monument of the science of Rome.

Lucretius had the difficult task of transcribing the
concise, dry philosophy of Epicurus into the language of
a people who knew little of science and cared less for it,
except in the form of some useful application, and it re-
quired great ingenuity to succeed in conveying the desired
ideas in a language so deficient in the needed terms.
There is perhaps no great originality shown by Lucretius
in the subject-matter of the poem but his enthusiasm and
intense admiration for his master made him throw his
whole poetic spirit into the task and so to give life and
vivacity to the dry bones of the system. With a truly
Roman simplicity,as Martha says, he believed that he
and his master had said the last word of science, He was
confident that his theories had solved all the mysteries of
the universe, many of which were after all but the crea-
tions of superstition and trembling ignorance. A similar
statement is made triumphantly nearly twenty centuries
later by Berthelot. In the preface to his des Orig-
ines de l’ Alchimie he too maintains thatscience has done
away with mystery. ‘‘Ze monde est aujourd’ hui sans
mystere.’’ Wesmile at the solutions which Epicurus,
through his devoted follower, offered of the phenom-
ena of nature. Whocan feel assured that some future
ceneration shall not smile, with the same pitying superi-
ority, over the iguorance and folly of Berthelot.

‘‘But the old problems that have defied the thought of
the ages still wait for a solution. When men inquire for

|
|

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 65
the origin of matter and how it is constituted, or for the
origin of force and how it operates, the sphinx is dumb.
When they attempt to get behind the phenomena of heat,
electricity, magnetism, they are chailenged by a sentinel
they can not bribe nor force.’ *

On an examination of this poem the essential difference
between the ancient scientific method and the present is
revealed and with it the reason for much failure and little
progress. Lucretius first announced his theory and then
proceeded to fit it, forcibly if need be, to every fact that
came within his observation. This process is reversed
by the modern man of science. He first gathers his facts
and from their study develops his theory. A mind al-
ready full cannot receive new truth. The emptied ves-
sel is the only one which is ready for filling.

To the mind of Lucretius the ‘‘Universe is a real exist-
istence and absolutely dual in nature. Body and space,
or matter and vacuum, are, the two essential elements ad-
mitting nothird. Bodies, are therefore, made up of atoms
and pores. Neither can exist where the other is. The
atoms are composite, yet, paradoxical as it may seem, are
solid, single, indivisible and indestructible.”’

Know, then, the entire of Nature sole consists
Of Space and Body: this the substance moved

And that the area of its motive power.

Know, too that bodies, in their frame consist,
Part of primordial atoms uncombined,

And part combined and blending: these alone

Previous and rare; while those so solid formed
No force create can sever, or dissolve.

Now the task which Lucretius sets himself is to take
this theory and by meaus of it explain the formation of
the material world without the introduction of any cre-
ative intelligence, the genius of man and animals, the
causative forces in all the natural phenomena and even

* Harrington. Meth. Quart. Rev. 1876. LVIII. 64,

a

66 JOURNAL OF THE

the nature of such things as heat and light and of

thought itself. In fact it is concerning the ‘‘nature of
things’’ that he writes.

Let us see first how Lucretius reasons away the diffi-

culty that his atoms cannot be detected by the sight and

so brought within the reach of examination.

Learn now of bodies which you must confess
Exist in things, but yet nowhere can see.
First when incited winds o’er ocean sweep,
Dispersing clouds, o’er whelming mighty ships,
% * * *
Thus secret bodies sure exist in winds
Which sweep the sea, the land, the clouds of heaven.
* * * * *
So various odors we perceive in things,
Yet naught matérial see the organ strike.
Nor heat, nor cold, nor sounds, can eye discern,
Though all of corpor’al nature must consist,
Since they the senses strike; for know, bodies

Alone can bodies touch or touched be.
Book 5 p. 46.

Again he very beautifully impresses the lesson, which he
himself so imperfectly learned, that we must reason as to

causes from their visible working.
Caverns deeply worn,
Where rocks impend v’er the corroding sea,
Show not the gnawing Of each breaking wave:
For Nature acts on atoms hid from sight,

In secret working, but results reveals.
Book I p. 47.

See what proof he offers as to the existence of voids in
matter. This wasa very essential part of his theory and
it is easy to see how convincing the phenomena must have
seemed to such a materalist as Lucretius:

A void exists in things.
However solid bodies may appear,
Void spaces they contain, since water drips
In caves and grots, and drops ooze out from rocks,
And ali around with trickling moisture weeps
Sound traverses closed doors and solid walls
While stiffening cold strikes piercing through the limbs.
But were no void how could such bodies pass?
You needs must see it were impossible. Book 1 p. 48.

MLISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 67

His explanation of the difference in the specific gravity
of various bodies is based upon this theory of voids.

Why do some things excel in weight others
Of greater size? If equal matter be
In globe of wool and lead, why equal not
In what to matter most essential is—
Weight? Downward pressing to the void unknown,
The greater lighter than the less, thus prove
Existence of a void, the heavier still
Embracing less than light of spaces void.
Book I p. 49.

From his standpoint-the weight was dependent upon
density or compactness. From this is it might be inferr-
ed that all atoms had the same weight.

The beautiful phenomenon of the condensation of moist-
ure upon a cold surface is correctly explained if we dis-
regard the description of a material nature and separate
existence to cold.

Cold permeates the silver cup or gold,
With water filled, held brimming in the hand,
And dew-like moisture gathers on without.
Thus naught in nature solid seems to be.
Book I p. 53.

The doctrine of the indestructibility of matter has
been commonly accredited to Lavoisier but a recent writ-
er has shown that the saying attributed to him ‘‘/zen
ne se perd et rien ne se crée’”’ does not occur in his works
and that at best he tacitly assumed this which had long
been believed by others. Kahlbaum traces it to P.
Mersenne the friend of Descartes but, it iseasy togo many
centuries back of this and to find the doctrine clearly
stated in Lucretius. He writes of his atoms:

Nature reserving these as seeds of things,
Permits in them no minish nor decay;
They can’t be fewer and they can’t be less.

Book 1 p. 57.

68 JOURNAL OF THE

Or again:
Decay of some leaves others free to grow
And thus the sum of things rests unimpaired
Book II p. 79,

And again:
The store of elements material,
_ Admits no diminution, no increase;
Book II p. 86.

No modern scientific man could state more clearly than
Lucretius does, the ideas which prevail at present as
to the motions of the atoms, Says Tyndall of the parti-
cles in a mass of iron: ‘‘There is space between them, they
collide, recoil, they oscillate.”

The poet states it thus:

No place of rest is found
To primal bodies through the vast profound,
And, finding none, they cease not ceaseless rounds.
Part forced together, wide asunder leap;
From closer blow part, grappling with their kind,
In close affinities unite and form
Bodies of various figure—varied forms diverse.

Book I p. 80.
Again:
For infinite atoms, in a boundless void,
By endless motions build the frame of things.
Book II p. 82

All things are made up of these atoms:

The same elements constitute the air,
The sun, the earth and animals and plants,
And other things by union various.
Book I p. 63.
Lucretius makes much use of what he calls the ‘‘seeds
of heat,’ that is, the atoms which by their concurrence

form heat. Thus he explains the heat resulting from
friction.

The neighbor top of trees swayed by the wind
Are creaking rubbed, till by attrition they
Burst into flower of flame; not that the fire
Dwells in the wood but rather seeds of heat

—S ee ee.

‘

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 69

By friction forced to flow, together run,
— Aud bursting barriers fire the leafy tops.
For sure, if latent lay the flames in wood,
Not long could they be hid, but, bursting forth,
Would ravage forests, burning every shrub
.

Book I p. 63.

He is an avowed opponent of the ordinary view of grav
itation. In common with his countrymen, he thought
lightly of mathematics. |

Guard agaist belief
Of what some say, ‘‘that to the centre tend

Allthings, and thus the world can stand
Without external impulses and shocks.’’— BooklI, p 71.

Are we to look upon the following passage as a_ pre-
diction of the discovery of argon and its strange compan-
ions? Speaking of his atoms he says:

And some there are wide wandering in space,
That all affinities reject, nor can unite
With any body in a common bond.—Book II p. 81.

He puzzles over one of owr deep problems, the co-exist-
ence of sovereign law and the free will of the creature.
Again, if all motion in a chain were bound,
If new from old in fixed order flowed,
Cause linked to cause in an eternal round ;
If atoms no concealed clinamen had

Cause to create, and break the bond of fate,
How could free-will in animals exist?

In speaking of the dissimilarity in atoms he discusses
the nature of fire and cold. Hisconclusions are some-
what startling :

How different is fire from piercing frost!

Yet both composed of atoms toothed and sharp

As proved by touch. Touch, O ye sacred powers!

Touch is the organ whence all knowledge flows:
Book II p. 90

His theory as to the three physical states is that solids
are made ‘‘of atoms hooked like branches deep entwined’’;
liquids, ‘‘of bodies round and smooth must be composed”’;

70 JOURNAL OF THE

‘‘while those that inan instant are dispersed, and flee
away, as smoke, or clouds, or flame,” are formed of
‘‘sharp and not of atoms hooked since pores they pene-
bhates,’

The dependence of color upon light is well recognized
‘‘without light no color can exist.”’ Atoms are colorless
and not subject to the rays of light,

He has noted that

The more minutely things divided are
The more their colors fade.
He has observed that ight traverses space more rapid-
ly than sound, ;
Far quicker comes the impulse to the eye
Than to the ear:
Book VI p. 263.

There is an interesting passage in the works of Van
Helmont in which he describes the artificial generation
of mice from a soiled shirt plaged along with some flour
in a barrel or other vessel. ‘The method sounds plausible
and doubtless an experiment along that line would result
in mice :n the barrel. -But too much credit must not be
ascribed to Van Helmont as the original discoverer for
after all his ingenious idea was not original. Our poet of
the last of the old centuries says;

Facts manifest
Confute not but confirm and force belief,
That all the living from the lifeless springs ;
For see live worms creep from the putrid clod,

When the warm earth is wet with timely showers.
Book II p. 106.

Darwin might have gotten an idea or two from our an-
cient philesepher for his ‘‘Observations upon EKarth-
worms’’.

Lucretius’ ideas as to life, disease and deathare also
instructive. Men of deeper learning than he have wres-
tled with this problem of Life and Death with equal

~

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. ° 71

failure. ‘The best of modern thought agrees with him in
one sense at least when he says:
‘‘And life itself is but a part of death.”’

Death he believes comes from some shock which shat-
ters and destroys the union of the atoms. The shock
theory of fermentation and decay was vigorously main-
tained and defended duriug the frst half of this century.

Then when some greater shock a life assails
Than Nature can support, sudden all sense
Of mind and body is confused and stunned.
The ordering of elements dissolved,

Their bond of union snapped, the silver cord
Is loosed, the vital tide turned back, and life
With all its elements dispersed. But what
Can blows do more than shatter and dissolve

What once was joined?
: Book II p. 108

Liebig in 1852 reasoned that contagion was due to
gaseous matter in’a state of decomposition. Disease is
excited by contagion. According to the ‘“‘law of La
Place and Berthollet: A molecule set in motion by any
power can impart its own motion to another molecule
with which it may be in contact. The motion of these
decomposing molecules is transmitted to the blood and
if decomposition there is not overcome it proceeds over
the entire body.’’ ‘This reads almost as strangely as
the words of Lucretius. It is only just to Liebig to add
that he acknowledged his errors afterwards and accept-
ed the theories of Pasteur and Schiitzenberger.

Lucretius’ theory of contagion would sound very much
like the modern germ theory if only his seeds were en-
dewed with life.

First, then the air teems, as I’ve taught, with seeds
Diverse, some favoring life, but many more

Fraught with disease and death; chance gathered, these
Infect the sky, malignant make the air.

Lucretius has anticipated the recent address of Sir

72 JOURNAL OF THE

William Crookes, the learned President of the British
‘Association for the Advancement of Science, by more
than nineteen centuries in the prediction of the exhaust-
ion of ‘tthe wern-out Earth.’’ True he did not fix upon
1931 as the date of complete exhaustion still he evidently
did not think it very far off. Like all sturdy conserva-
tives he praised the good old times.

B’en now the worn-out earth with age effete,
* og that in her early prime € = ¥
To children of her care Spontaneous gave—
In rich abundance gave the shining grain,
Which now with labor huge she scant supplies
In niggard pittance to more pressing wants,
With weary steps we urge the weary ox,
And turn exhausted fields, that scarce return
Decreasing harvests to increasing toil.
The aged ploughman shakes his.weary head
So oft his labor unavailing proves:
How oft doth he then repining chide his lot
Comparing present times with past, exalt '
The fortune of his sires.
Book. II p. 114.

He gives a remarkable explanation of the nature of re-
flected images. These are made up of

Thin effigies and forms
Which singly are unseen; but when outpoured
In a continuous andimpulsive flow,
Give by reflection, images of things.

These effigies ‘‘wander not alone.’’ They ‘‘fill the
embracing air with floating forms.’’ This is proved by
the fact that in whatever direction the mirror is turned,
‘straight in its silent depths the scene responds.’”’ The
reversal of the image in the mirror is explained at some
length. The image itself suffers change on turning
back from the mirror.

As when the plastic mask of wax, or clay,
Dashed sudden ’gainst a wall, backward reverts,

The well-recognized law that the angle of reflection is
equal to the angle of incidence comes from Lucretius
thus:

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. %3

For with what slope
They fall, Nature compels them to revert again.

Peter Schlemih], the famous shadowless man of Chamisso
would have been wondrously relieved if he could have
read Lucretius and learned,

The obsequious shadow that attends our steps,
When walking in the sun seems of itseif
To walk with us and every gesture mock

Yet nothing is but space, deprived of light
: Book IV p. 169,

.
If we accept Lucretius’ theory that ‘‘all sounds cor-

poreal are,’’ then it is easy to account for prevalent
sore throats:

And voice escaping to the sphery air,
Roughens the throat, abrades the passages,

‘“Whence come our mental images’’ is surely a most
important question to settle but one before which the
boldest is apt to hesitate. |

There is no such hesitancy about Lucretius, however.
‘‘Innumerable idols float in space.’’ These are many sub-
tleand of finer texture than the ‘‘attenuate thread of spid-
er or the roof of filmy gold.’” ‘These

Through rarer pores can penetrate.
And sentient make the mind in inmost seats.

Book IV p. 181

Any one inclined toward materialism can read with in-
terest the intense materialsm of this old Epicurean. His
cosmogeny is brilliantly fanciful. As to the sun it is neither
ereater nor less than it appears and this is true alsoof moon
and stars. Whether thesun returis by a course beneath
the earth or whether it is exhausted by its day’s course
and its place is taken by a new one, formed by the col-
lection of ‘‘dispersed seeds of heat’’ he does not venture
to decide. Kclipses and the moon’s phases are also dis-
cussed. The struggle for existence is pictured and
something very similar to the doctrine of the survi-

74 JOURNAL OF THE

val of the fittest is announced. Thunder is the rushing to-
gether of several clouds ‘‘driven by warring winds.”’
The nature of clouds he discusses at greatlength. Some
of these phenomena have puzzled men all through the
ages and it is not nccessary to point ont how imperfect
our knowledge still 1s. )

The interior of the earth is constituted as the surface
and hence contains caves. lakes etc. Ihe falling in
of such caverned depths cause the earthquakes. In these*
caverns the air in motion ‘‘makes glow the rocks around.”’
Winged flames then ‘‘vomit from wide open jaws’’ hurl
rocks, and send out cinders and smoke, and so volcanoes
are formed. ~The constancy of the volume of the sea was
observed by Lucretius and correctly accounted for.

A strangely mistaken observation as to the temperature
of wells is mentioned and of course his theory is made to
cover and explain it. Such waters were thought to be
cold in summer and warmin winter. This was, of course
because what we mav call the personal thermometer reg-
istered largely the relation to the temperature of the
atmosphere.

I have not been able to exhaust all of the observations
recorded by this early philosopher, nor to properly
show his ingenuity in fitting his theory as to atoms and
the ‘‘seeds of things’’ to every case. Nor has it been
possible to give a just idea of the grace and poetic beauty
of this the first and only attempt to bring all of natural
science within the limits of a single poem.

WORKS CONSULTED IN THE PREPARATION OF THIS ARTICLE.

1 TT. Lucretii Cari, De rerum natura, ex editione Gibb., Wakefieldi,
Valpey’s auctores classici.
2 Lucretius, On the Nature of Things. <A philosophical poem, trans-

lated by Rev. John L. Watson, with the metrical version by John
M. Good.

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 15

Lucretius, On the Nature of Things. Translated into English
Verse by Charles Frederick Johnson. The passages quoted are
taken from this work.

Le Poéme de Lucréce, Morale, Religion, Science par Constant
Martha.

The Atomie Theory of Lucretius contrasted with Modern Doctrines
of Atoms and Evolution, by John Masson.

Lucretius, by Prof. Harrington, Methodist Quarterly Review- 1876,
p, 64.

OF THE

isha Mitchell Scientific Soviet

VOLUME XIV ee PART SECOND

Vanta-De_eerriber

1898

POST OFFICE
CHAPEL HILL, N. C.

ISSUED FROM THE UNIVERSITY PRESS
CHAPEL HILL, N. C.

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

ON THE FEASIBILITY OF RAISING SPONGES FROM THE EGG.

AT AVI SOM els + 4cas bs bob 0d. & + os a
DISTRIBUTION OF WATERPOWER IN NORTH CAROLINA.

O. dax: Pol) 5 viaccess oo kw da ae y
NOTES ON GRASSES.

WW AW. ABW oko oc cis ie ee on pe

nee

JOURNAL

OF THE

- Elisha Mitchell Scientific Socety.

FIFTEENTH YEAR——PART SECOND.

1898.

ON THE FEASIBILITY OF RAISING SPONGES
FROM THE EGG*

H. V. WILSON.

For the purposes of scientific investigation the problem
suggested in the title of this paper presents no difficulties
to the zoologist. Whether. omtheother hand, it is prac-
ticable or even desirable to rear sponges from the ego for
the purposes of the sponge-grower, is a question which
can only be decided by experiments carried on contin-

-uously for some years. From the standpoint of the

scientific breeder such experiments seem eminently
aesirable, ana the probability that they would result in
economic discoveries of importance is very great. It is
my purpose to point out, toward the end of this paper,
some of the advantages attainable, as I believe, by this
method of breeding. I shall preface my remarks on the
rearing of sponges with a brief account: of the manner
in which the egg development goes on.

*Extracted from ‘‘Proceedings and Papers of the National Fishery
Congress held at Tampa, Fla., Jan. 1898,’’ published in Bulletin of
U.S. Fish Commission, Washington, 1898,

77 7 JOURNAL OF THE

Some sponges are known to be hermaphrodite, others
have been described as of separate sexes. The preba-
bility is that sponges are in general hermaphrodite, but
that the individual at one period produces chiefly male
elements, and later chiefly female elements. Fer tiliza-
tion takes place in the body of the mother and the egg
here undergoes early development. The embryo even- .
tually bursts the maternal tissue, and, passing into
one of the canals, is caught by the current sweeping
through the canal system and is discharged into the sur-
rounding water through one of the large apertures
(oscula) on the surface of the sponge.

In the great majority of sponges (horny and silicious
forms) the embryo, or larva as it now should properly be
called since it leads a free life, is an oval, solid body,
covered with slender hair-like processes of protoplasm,
the so-called cilia. The cilia strike rythmically to and
fro, like so many minute and flexible paddles, and the
sponge larva is by their means whirled through the
water. Soonge larvae, of course, vary in size, but
frequently have a length in the neighborhood of 1 mm,
(.04 inch). The surface layer contains more or less pig-
ment. Thusin the commercial sponge, Husfpongia, the
larva is whitish, with a brown spot at one end. In
Tedani brucei, a large red sponge, growing especially oz
the mangroves in parts of the Bahamas, the larvaisa
beautiful red.

The free swimming life of the sponge larva is short last-
ing, when bred in the iaboratory,only a day or two. During
this period the larvais moved not only by its own relative-
ly feeble motion, but, being subject to the action of the
currents, it may be carried a considerable distance from
the spot where it was born. It eventually settles down
on some firm basis and transforms. ‘The cilia are lost,
and the oval body flattens out into a disk so thin that it

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY ne

has the appearance of aminute incrustation. The circu-
lar outline of the disk is soon lost, the little sponge |
spreading in an irregular fashion over the surface to
which it is now firmly attached. In two or three days
the metamorphosis is complete, and we have a sponge,
very small to be sure, and without reproductive elements,
but like the adult in fundamental structure. Its surface
is perforated by minute apertures, the pores, through
which the water enters the body, and by a few larger
apertures, the oscula, through which the water leaves
the body. Ramifying through the interior is a system
of spaces or canals which connect the pores with the-oscula,
Portions of this canalsystem form spheroidal chambers,
the walls of which are studded with cilia. It is owing to
the motion of these internal unseen cilia that a current of.
water is constantly circulating through the sponge body,
carrying to its tissues the oxygen and food (minute
particles of animal and vegetable organisms) necessary
for their life.

How long it takes for a sponge developed in this way
to reach adult size and begin breeding is unknown. I
have kept youne sponges that have transformed and
attached: to the walls of mv laboratery aquaria for days
and weeks. Afterthe first few days the increase in size
has generally been imperceptible. But the unfavorable
conditions incidental to such an unnatural habitat were
doubtless responsible for this lack of success.

PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS ON REARING SPONGES

More species of sponges breed during the warm season
than at other times. Yet in the Mediterranean (Naples)
some sponges are found breeding at all times of the year.
In the Bahama Islands and on our own coast, I have found
the breeding time of many sponges to fall within the
period from midsummer on through early autumn. For

79 JOURNAL OF THE

the inauguration of experiments I should reccommend the
months of July, August, and September.

It is easy to determine when one of the horny or
silicious sponges is breeding. On cutting out a piece of
the sponge, the developing eggs scattered theugh the
tissues can be seen without the help of a lens, They are
minute, rounded bodies, often very numerous, and suf-
ficiently conspicuous to catch an observant eye.

The means employed for getting young sponges must
always be different from those made use of in the case
of animals like fish, oysters, etc., in which artificial fer-
tilization is practicable. Since the sponge egg is
fertilized and undergoes its early development in the
body of the mother, artificial fertilization is here of course
out of the question.

The young in numbers ample for study can, however,
~ be obtained in the following easy manner. ‘Thesponge
being raised to near the surface of the water is then dip-
ped up ina glass aquarium or bucket, in such a way as
not to expose the animal to the air, In a few minutes
time the ciliated larvae will begin to be discharged. In
the study of some Bahama sponges I found it convenient
to take to the sponge-grounds, ina boat, a couple of good
sized tubs. In one of these some sponges would be
placed for about half an hour. At the end of that trme
they were transferred to the second tub. The water of
the first tub was meanwhile examined for the sponge
larvae. In this I was aided by negro boys, who soon
became expert. We bailed out the water in 2-gallon
glass vessels in which the little larvae could readily be
seen, ‘The latter were then picked out with glass tubes
-and placed in aspecial dish. By the time the examination
of the frst tub was completed, the second would be found
to contain numbers of larvae. These were collected in
the same way, the sponges being thrown overboard,

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY 80

It would seem in the case of sponges, as with so many
marine animals,that the stimuli arising from confienment
ina limited volume of water lead to the rather sudden
discharge of those embryos (or in certain forms, eggs)
that have reached the proper stage for birth.

I have no doubt that if the sponge were handled care-
fully, it would be possible to get from the same individual,
day after day dnring the breeding season, numbers of
larvae, precisely as several batches of eggs are got from
one codfish, for example.

The swimming larvae thus obtained may be made to
attach, during the next day or two, to the walls of the
dishes in which they are kept, or to pieces of wood or
small stones. After attachment the young, or, as we
might say, the sponge ‘‘spat,’’ are easy to handle, In
this connection, however, it will be well to bear in mind
that the circulating pipe water of aquaria, even large
and elaborate ones such as those at Naples and Woods
Holl, has been found to be unsatisfactory for the rearing
of young sponges, as indeed it is forthe young stages of
many marine organism. The sponges become covered
with sediment, and bacteria develop. Changing the
water in the dishes twice a day is, on the whole, a better
method. But this is far from an ideal environment. It
will probably be much better, after the attachment of
the spat to pieces, of wood,shells,etc., at once to transfer
the latter tosome natural site own to be adapted to the
growth of sponges.

I hardly think the method of getting young sponges
which I have just described can ever be adaptedto
the needs of the sponge-grower. And yet for the pur-
poses of experiment, where a few hundreds or a thousand
young sponges would suffice, the method is adequate. I
believe, however, that live-boxes may be devised in which
the sponge may be kept imprisoned in its natural home,

81 JOURNAL OF THE

though at some convenient depth, and in which the dis-
charge of larvae may go on normally day after day.
Such a box must have fine metal gauze windows on the
sides and above, through which water may pass freely, and —
yet with meshes sufficiently fine at anv rate to hinder the
passage of the larvae through them. Projecting shelves,
which must be easily removable, might be arranged one
above the other. Thesidesand bottom of the box should,
moreover, be covered with removable pieces—tiles, for
instance. The larvae settling down on the removable shel-
ves or other pieces would attach to them, and might from
time to time be taken out with as much ease as the
honey stored up in the modern manutactured comb;
is removed from the hive.

The precise form of live-box to be used will naturally
only be determined after preper experiments. To pre-
vent as far as possible the settling of the larvae on
the body of the mother, a phenomenon very apt to occur,
it will perhaps be found well to place the adult ona per-
forated tray near the top ot the box, and a series of such
trays, one above the other, may be found a good device. In
planning experimental boxes of this sort,the character of
the motion of the sponge larva should be borne in mirc.
The larva not only swims,frequently making long,shallow
dives, but also creeps about over the sides and bottom of
the vessel in which it is kept.

The live-box has proved itself of great use to the
naturalist desirous of obtaining the young stages of
animals,which are difficult to keep or breed in the labor-
atory. In this connection I well remember the experience
of acompaninn (Prof. C. L. Edwards), engaged in the
study of the development of the large holothurian or sea-
cucumber (Miilleria), so common in parts of the Bahama
Islands. It was with the greatest difficulty that a few
embryos of this form could be got in the laboratory.

ELISHA MITCHELL SIENTIEIC SOCIETY 82

When, however, the animals were confined in a large box
anchored in about a fathom of water, quantities of devel-
oping eggs could be had by drawing up with a tube some
of the sediment in the bottom of the box.

The ‘‘spat’’ ouce obtained in abundance, success will
next depend largely on the <election of the locality in
which the young sponges are to be set out. A careful
study of the Florida grounds should be undertaken, with
the view of investigating, among other points, this very
matter of the kinds of locality best adapted to the growth
of the various grades of sponges. Quiet water,a firm
bettom, and an absence of muddy sediment seem essential
desiderata. The question of enemies is probably of minor
importance, and yet the well-known student of sponges,
Vosmaer, mentions that he has several times seen the Kuro-
pean hermit-crab( Pagurus) greedily eat a common silicious
sponge (Suberites), certainly quite as unappetizing a
morsel as the commercial sponge.

When it has once been accurately determined what are
the physical and biological characteristics of the Florida
grounds, which produce the finest sponges—and it may
be mentioned here that sponges are among the most varia-
ble of animais and seem to be peculiarly affected by their
surroundings—a detailed comparison should be made be-
tween these grounds and those parts of the Mediterra-
nean producing the finest grades. The purpose ofsuch a
comparison would be to discover whether we really
lack any of the natural advantages necessary for
the production of the finest sponges, and if so,
whether these can be artificially reproduced—whether
for instance it would be possible or desirable tu imitate on
this sidea particular kind of bottom found in the Medi-
terranean.

Following on the investigation of the sponge-grounds,

83 JOURNAL OF THE

I believe it to be eminently desirable to start a series of
of experiments, the purpose of which shall be to discover
how far, along what lines, and by what means sponges

may be artificially altered by breeding. .The great vari-’

ability of sponges in nature leads one to believe that
they would quickly respond as individuals to a change in
the environment, and thus, simply by growing the animals
in a superior locality, an improved variety, constant, as
long as the sponges continue to grew in that locality,
might be produced. It is quite likely that such improve-
ments could be carried out on sponges propagated by
cuttings as well as on those grown from eggs. In
improving races, however,it has always been found that
the two important means are sexual breeding trom selected
specimens, and grafting, the latter method being
commonly regarded as only applicable to plants.

In the case of sponges, as in that of other organisms,
increase of knowledge will in all probability con-
firm the belief already fairly well grounded, that
individuals developed from the fertilized eggs vary
more, 1. e., exhibit more differences one from the
other, than individuals grown from buds or cut-
tings. Herein, to my mind, lies the advisability of
orowing sponges from eges as well as from cuttings.
The latter method, being quick, sure, aud simple, can at
once be made of great practical use. Breeding from the
egg is more complex, and must be carefully tried by com-
petent experimenters. In the end, however, I believe
that it will lead to great improvements in the quality of
our sponges.

I would suggest that,after selection of a proper locality.
asmall plantation of sponges developed from eggs be
started and carefully watched. As the sponges grow, it
would be a simple matter to pick out those individuals in
which the fiber varied in the desired direction. A small

es

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY 84

piece cut out would not seriously injure the sponge, and
would show the quality of fiber as well as the entire
body. ‘Selected individuals might be removed from the
general ground and during the breeding season placed
together in large live boxes. The ‘‘spat’’ collected from
such individuals would doubtless develop into superior
sponges. I do not know any marine animals which would
seem to be so adapted to continuous rearing, with'constant
improvement of breed,as sponges. Their plant-like habit
of growth make it easy ‘o handle and experiment upon
them. Their variability, especially in the matter of the
skeleton. would seem toinsure success to selective breed-
ing;and the very simplicity of what is desired, namely,
improvement in the quality of the skeletal fiber, would
at once lenda directness to the cultivator, which should
lead to comparatively early results.

In closing, I may direct your attention to a methed of
race improvement, so far practiced only in the cultiva-
tion of plants, but to which the vegetative character of
“sponges will readily lend itself. I refer to the method of
oratting. The case: with which two or more individuals of
the same species of sponge, irrespective of age, may be
made to fuse, and become henceforth a single individual,
is well known. Dr. Grant records observations on this
head as far back as 1826. Among later experimenters I
will only mention Vosmaer. This fusion of individuals
goes on commonly in nature. An interesting account of
a number of cases may be read in Johnston’s British
Sponges and Corallines, published 1842, page 11.

The natural tendency of sponges to grow together,
coupled with the ease with which they may be propagated
by cuttings, wouldimake artificial.erafting in these animals
a simple matter. With asmall plantation of very super-
ior sponges at hand, the result of careful breeding from
selected individuals, and other plantations consisting fo

85 JOURNAL OF THE

sponges grown from cuttings,grafting ought to be not on-
ly a scientific but an economic success. Atslight expense

large numbers of common sponges might be improved, ~

simply by pinning to the common cutting a piece of the
improved varietv.

A REVIEW OF CONANT’S MEMOIR ON THE
CUBOMEDUSAL*

H. V. WILSON.

Memoirs from the Biological Laboratory of the Johns
Hopkins University, IV., 1. The Cubomeduse. A
Dissertation presented for the Degree of Doctor of Phi-
losophy, in the Johns Hopkins University, 1897. By
FRANKLIN Story Conant. A Memorial Volume.
Baltimore, 1898.

The late Dr. Conant, it will be recalled by many, was
a member of the marine laborators of the Johns Hopkins
University, stationed during the summer of 1897 at Port
Antonio, Jamaica. ‘Toward the end of the season’s work
fever broke out. The director of the expedition, Dr. J.
KE. Humphrey, died ina sudden and alarming manner.
Dr. Conant assumed charge of the laboratory, and,
though aware of his own great danger, remained in Port
Antonio, devoting himself to the service of others who
needed his help. This generous subordination of self
cost him his life. for he contracted the fever, and, though
able to reach this country, he died a few days after his ar-
rival in Boston.

*Reprinted from Science, Vol. VII., No. 197. 1898.

“4
eS

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY 86

Dr. Conant’s many friends, well aware of his candid,
judicial mind, his keenness and persistency in observing
and in reasoning from observations to a conclusion, have
entertained the highest expectations of the work he was
to do for science. Cut off at the beginning of his career,
he leaves behind him several smaller papers and the dis-
sertation before us. On closing this volume the author’s
friends will feel confirmed in their high opinion of his
abilities, and those who did not know Dr. Conant will
realize with regret that an able and conscientious natu-
ralist has been removed from our midst.

Dr. Conant’s dissertation. published as a memorial vol-
ume by his friends, fellow students and instructors, with
the aid of the university in which he had recently taken
his doctor's degree, deals with the anatomy and classifi-
cation of one of the most interesting groups of jelly-fish,
the Cubomeduse. In this group, embracing but a small
uumber of species, the scyphomedusan structure, with
which most of us are chiefly familiar through the study of
Aurelia, Cyanea or Dactylometra, is in general presented
as destitute of the complications which characterize the
more common forms. . This simplicity in general struct-
nre places the groupclose to the stem-forms, 7essera and
Lucernaria, themselves scarcely more than sexually ripe
Scyphistomas, and makes a comparison with existing
Actinozoa an easy matter. Curiously enough, the mem-
bers of this primitive group possess the most highly de-
veloped sense-organs as yet describea among coelente-
rates, the nervous system being correspondingly differ-
entiated. In one other respect the Cubomeduse are
unique, in that they alone among the Scyphomeduse pos-
sess avelum. The phylog-netic origin of this velum
(velarium) has been the subject of some discussion, the
balance ot opinion inclining to the belief that it has arisen
through the fusion of marginal lobes similar to those

87 JOURNAL OF THE

found in the Peromeduse and the Ephyropside (Vausz-
thoé), and is merely analogous to, not homologous with,
the velum of the Hydromeduse. That this is the case
is borne out by tke presence in the velum of gastrovascu-
lar diverticula. This resemblance to the Hydromeduse
is regarded by most naturalists as one of the numerous
cases of convergent evolution exhibited by the twogroups
of jelly-fish (Hydro- and Scyphomedusz), due to similari-
ty in environment and toa certain similarity in the an-
cestral polyps from which the two groups have been de-
rived.

The Cubomeduse are so rare that in spite of their in-
teresting features, interesting alike to the student of
phylogeny and nerve-physiology, few naturalists have
had the opportunity of studying them. Our knowledge
of the group has rested mainly on Claus’s description of
Charybdea marsupialis (Wien. Arb. 1878). This very
valuable paper, as Conant remarks, is written ina style
difficult of comprehension, and many students who read
with pleasure and profit the lucid treatises on medusan
structure by the Hertwigsand Haeckel have turned away
discouraged from Claus’s work. To Claus’s account,
Haeckel in his ‘‘System”’ has added but little. The only
other investigator of the group is Schewiakoff (1889),
who has studied the remarkable sense organs.

Through Conant’s discovery in 1896 of two new species
(Charybdea Xaymacana and Tripedalia cystophora),
which are present in abundance in Jamaican waters, the
Marine Laboratory of the Johns Hopkins University has

once again made accessible to students, material for the

pursuit of investigations of wide interest. It was for the
purpose of continuing his study of this group that Conant,
in the summer of 1897, revisited Jamaica, and, as we
learn from Professor Brooks’s introduction, he succeeded
in making many observations on the physiology of the

SS ws

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC-SOCIETY 88

sense-organs and on the embryology. His notesand ma-
terial, we are told, are in such shape that they can be
handed over to some else, and it may be safely predicted
that a valuabie contribution to science will be the out-
come of the last summer’s work of this talented young
naturalist.

The account of the cubomedusan structure given by
Dr. Conant is succinct, but comprehensive. ‘The deep,
four-sided bell bears a tentacle (or in some species a bunch
of tentacles) at each angle. On each lateral surface, at
a higher level than the tentacles, is situated a niche into
which projects asense-organ. The primitively undivided
_ (Scyphistoma condition) gastrovascular space is here dif-
ferentiated into a central stomach and a peripheral por-
tion lying in the lateral wall of the bell. ‘The peripheral
portion is subdivided into four stomach pockets by linear
partitions, lying in the plane of the tentacles and there-
fore interradial. These partitions (cathamme) are mere
strips of entodermal lamella, produced by the fusion be-
tween the entodermal lining of ex- and sub-umbrella.
The cathammal lines stop short of the tentacles, leaving
an undivided peripheral portion of the primitive space,
by means of which the four stomach pockets communicate
with one another. As Conant points out, the arrange-
-ment recalls the gastrovascular system of many Hydro-
medusz, with the difference that in the Cubomedusz the
radial canals are wide ‘stomach pockets’ and the catham-
mal plates are narrow lines. When we come, however,
to the extreme peripheral portion ol the gastrovascular
system, we find that the likeness is not with the Hydro-
medusez, but with the lobed Scyphomeduse. The gas-
trovascular space, to be brief, does not end with an even
circular edge at the bell margin, asis the rule in the for-
mer group, but is divided into separate lobes (marginal

89 JOURNAL OF THE

pockets) extending into the velum (as velar canals). Co-
nant does not dwell on phylogenetic inferences, but evi-
dently inclines to the belief that the ancestors of the Cu-
bomedusz possessed a margin divided into sixteen lobes.
The present position of the four sense organs indicates
the site of the original margin, ‘‘which elsewhere has
erown down and away from its former level, leaving the
sensory clubs like floatage stranded at high-water mark.”’
Fusion between adjacent lobes, involving the ectoderm
and jelly, gave to the medusa a continuous margin and a
‘velum’, but, owing to the incompleteness in the fusion
of the extodermal linings of the several lobes, the latter
still retain in the adult Cubomedusa enough of their in-
dividuality to indicate their former condition. In a word,
the marginal pockets of the existing Cubomeduse are to
be construed as entodermal linings of once separate lobes.
This conclusion as to the morphology of the marginal
pockets derives much support from the behavior of a puzz-
ling structure, called by Conant the marginal lamella.
Unlike the true vascular lamella, which simply connects
one entodermal cavity with another, the marginal lamella
extends from the entoderm of the gastrovascular space
to the ectoderm of the bell margin. It is a narrow strip
which follows the outline of the marginal pockets, trav-
eling in the radii of the sense organs far away from the
actual edge of the bell, and surrounding the sense organs
in such a way as to indicate clearly that they were once
at the bell margin. The marginal lamella seems to be
a functionless, rudimentary organ, Claus, whose imper-
fect description of the structure did not bring to hght its
morphological interest, as indicating the site of the an-
cestral bell margin, suggested that it was perhaps the
vestige of a ring canal. Conant naturally is skeptical of
this explanation of a lamella connecting ento- and ecto-
derm. The true meaning of this peculiar lamellaisa

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY 90

point well worth working up, more especially as it is not
confined to the Cubomeduse, but has been observed in
the ephyra lobes of discophores (/?hizostoma).

Before leaving this subject of the general body-plan, it
may be mentioned that while the probability is that the
Cubomeduse are descended from stalked ancestors (Lz-
cernaria-like forms), and hence that the apex of the ex-
umbrella was ence drawn out into a peduncle, there is in
the adult Cubomedusa no trace externally or internally
of this hypothetical stalked condition. Light on this
very interesting point can only be expected from a study
of the development.

Unlike the other Scyphomedusze studied, the Cubome-
dusz possess a nerve ring. In their study of the nervous
system Claus and Conant both depended on sections, and
naturally the results are not so satisfactory as those
reached by the Hertwigs on the Hydromeduse mainly
with the aid of macerations. Claus describes the neuro-
epithelium as consisting of alternating supporting cells
and sensory cells, the inner ends of the latter becoming
continuous with the nerve fibres. Conant makes it
doubtful whether this is the actual condition, since he
does not find the sensory cells. He offers, however, no
observations on the origin of the ‘nerve fibres.’ Macera-
tions will probably show the connection of these fibres
with at least some of the neuro-epithelium cells.

The possession of a nerve ring has been regarded (Claus)
as a point of essential similarity between the Cubomedu-
sae and the Craspedota. The main ring in the former
group is obviously a differentiation of the suabumbrellar
epithelium, and Claus, therefore, interprets it as homolo-
gous with the inner Craspedote ring. In the immediate
neighborhood of each sense organ there are given off from
the main ring two roots which ceasing to be superficial
bands pass through the jelly, and emerge on the outer wall

9] JOURNAL OF THE

of the bell (on the floor of the sensory niche). They con-
verge and unite, forming a superficial nerve tract which
crosses the base of the sense-club. These four isolated
tracts are regarded by Claus as the remnants of a once con-
tinuous exumbrellar ring, such as is found in the Hydro-

medusae. and which here, as in the Hydromedusae, stands
in connection with the subumbrellar ring through the
medium of fibres that perforate the jelly. Conant, on the
other hand, regards the tracts lying across the bases of
the sense organs as portions ef the primitive subumbrel-
lar ring which were shut off from the main ring, when.
the marginal lobes grew together. With the Hertwigs
and Haeckei he thus looks on the ring as not homologous
with that of the Craspedota, but as a special differentia-
tion of the subumbrellar plexus found throughout the
Scy phomedusae.

The sense organs of the Cubomedusae are ‘sense-clubs’
or modified tentacles. In addition to the crystalline sac,
the expanded head of the club bears six eyes. Four of
these are simple, but two are complex organs provided
witha cellular lens and cornea, a vitreous body behind
the lens, anda retina. These eyes look into the bell cav-
ity. Itis especially in reference to the structure of the
retina and vitreous body of the complex eyes, that Co-
nant’s conclusions differ from those of Schewiakoff. The
vitreous body Conant finds is not a homogeneous struct-
ure, butis composed of prisms of refracting substance.
The retina does not show the two types of cells (sensory
and pigmented) distinguished by Schewiakoff. Conant’s
results in this matter of the retinal structure are in some
respects negative. The points still to be cleared up are
as in the case of the nerve cord, such as will require the
free use of macerations and surface preparations of fresh
tissue.

DISTRIBUTION OF WATERPOWER IN NORTH
CAROLINA.*

BY J.A. HOLMES.

The two conditions essential to the development of a
waterpower of any considerable magnitude are a large
and fairly constant stream of water and a suitable amount
of fall within a reasonable distance. In the eastern
counties of North Carolina we have numerous large
streams of water, but, except along the western border
of the region, as a rule they have sluggish currents and
are lacking in the necessary fall. In the mountain
counties the streams are small, but the fall available in
many cases is sufficiently great to make possible water-
power of considerable magnitude. It is in the middle
counties, however, that we find the most satisfactory com-
bination of the two essential conditions, viz. volume of
water and fall; and hence it is in these counties that we
may expect the largest waterpower developments and
the greatest and most substantial growth of manufactur-
ing enterprises.

It is intended in the present paper to discuss briefly
the distribution of these water powers in the State
in their relation to geologic features, and the accom-
panyiny map (Plate I) will prove of service in this
connection.

WATERPOWER IN THE COASTAL PLAIN REGION.

Along the western border of the coastal plain region
there are a number of important waterpowers, like those
at Weldon on the Roanoke, Rocky Mount on the Tar,

| *In part, reprinted in full from Bulletin 8, N. C, Geological Survey.

2

93 JOURNAL OF THE

and those on the Cape Fear as far east as Averasboro.
These, though they lie within the limits of this region,
yet structurally do not belong to it, and can best be con-
sidered under the next heading below, in which will be
discussed the waterpowers which belong rather to the
border zone between the coastal plain and the Piedmont
plateau regions,and which can perhaps be best desig-
nated as the fall] line zone.

With the exception of the: waterpowers just referred
to, it may be said of the coastal plain region as a whole,
that its waterpowers are of no great importance. The
water supply is ample but the fall 1s lacking. And
yet there exist at many different points in this region con-
ditions which are favorable te the development of water-
power which, though small, have considerable local value.
Until a comparatively recent date, practically all of the
grist mills in this section were operated by small water-
powers, and a considerable number of these grist mills
are still inoperation. But such water waterpowers were
confined to the smaller streams, and in many cases the
development of power consisted simply in the construction
of a dam acress the deep, narrow channel of the stream
without the existence of a natural shoal, and the amount
of fall is approximately the height of the dam.

The most striking feature about the waterpower des
veloped on the majority of these smaller streams is the
slight extent to which the volume of water is effected
either by the rains or dry seasons. ‘The most widely
known illustrations of this condition are Rockfish creek
in Cumberland county, and Hitchcocks creek in Rich-
mond county, both of which though small are indus-
trially important streams. The former with a drainage
basin of 280 square miles, running five cotton mills,
and the latter with a drainage basin of 102 square
miles running six cotton mills. The explanation of

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY 94

this phenomenon is to be found in the fact that the
deep, porous sands of the region serve as a sponge in
soaking up the rains as they fall, turning loose this
water gradually during the dry season through numer-
ous springs.

In the case of many others of the small powers in
this region, as that on Colly creek in Bladen county
and others in the different eastern counties, the uni-
formity of the flow throughout the year is favored by
the further condition that the tributaries of these
streams pass through extensive swamp areas which also
serve to store the water for use during dry weather.

WATERPOWERS IN THE FALL LINE ZONE.

Along the ‘‘fall line’’ or the fall line zone in North
Carolina there are conditions favorable for the de-
velopment of waterpowersof considerable magnitude on
our larger streams. And since the exact position of this
fall line is not clearly defined, and as the conditions favor-
ing waterpower development extend across a considerable
belt or zone where this lineis crossed by the larger
streams, itis better in this connection te consider together
these conditions asthey exist at and for a few miles on
both sides of this boundary line between the coastal plain
and Piedmont plateau regions.

ON THE ROANOKE RIVER.

The conditions favoring waterpower development on
the Roanoke river in this zone, which at this point has a
width of about 9 miles, extending up the river from Wel-
don, may be considered as typical of those existing other
points. Waterpower developments of considerable mag-
nitude are now in progress on the Roanoke and are being
planned on the Cape Fear and Yadkin.

95

JOURNAL OF THE

In portions of the coastal plain region, however, where
the streams are cutting their way down across the hori-
zontal and soft strata such as alternate beds of clay and
sand, we have conditions somewhat similar to those de-

Fic. 1.—Interbedded sands and clays favoring the
development of rapids in river channels.

P and P’—Finely laminated ard in places cross-
bedded, black laminated clay below, and bedded but
cross-laminated clayey arkose above, the strata of
both clay and arkose being separated by layers of
sand varying in thickness from a small part of an
inch to several feet, The strata marked P’ above rr
represent the same strata as P’ below the vr. s=
Sand hills back from the stream border. /f—River
terraces of recent loams, gravel at their base. 7r—
Surface of the stream showing that asit washes away
the laminated arkose and clay, irregular rapids are
produced inthe stream, owing to the more rapid re-
moval of the interbedded sand.
scribed above except that in these cases
the strata, instead of being alternate lay-
ers of hard and soft rocks, are of altogeth-
er unconsolidated materials which have
not yet turned to stone. Such a condition
of things may be illustrated by fig, 1,
which represents somewhat the conditions
existing on Rockfish creek in Cumberland
county.

In the lower portion of its course the
waters of this creek have cut their

way through the overlying sands and

loams and are now cutting through the lower interbed-
ded sands, clays and arkose, and the still lower more
fineiy laminated sands and greenish-black clays. Near
the mouth of Rockfish these materials in its bed have
been worn away to the level of the Cape Fear river

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY 96

which it joins. Further back from the Cape Fear the
cutting down through alternate layers of loose sand and
tough clay has resulted in producing a rapid but irregu-
lar current with occasional small shoals, at several of
which waterpowers have been developed by the construc-
tion of dams and factories erected.

Figure 2 may be considered as illustrating fairly well

Fic. 2.—Conditions favoring ‘the develop-
ment of cascades and rapids in stream beds
crossing geologic contacts.

g+=Granite and gneiss. sch—Crystalline
schists, in which the harder places (shaded
more heavily) wear away less rapidly than the
intervening softer places. The result is a series
of cascades and rapids in the stream. f=
Coastal plain deposits—gravel, sand and loam.
a generalized section across the fall
line where crossed by the Roanoke
river at Weldon. The crystalline
schists exposed along the river bed
between Gaston and Weldon (G and
W of fig. 2) are much harder and
more obdurate than the unconsoli-
dated coastal plain deposits below,
and even harder than the granite and
oneissic rocks above it; and hence
the latter rocks have been eroded to
greater depths, and at the line of
junction between the two (1 in fig. 2)
the schists form a sort of barrier or
natural dam, for many miles above
which the river is deep and the cur-
rent sluggish. But from this point

FIG. 2.
down to Weldon the schists vary in hardness, and are
intersected by joints, seams, fissures and probably sev-

97 JOURNAL OF THE

eral faults; this succession of variations giving rise toa
succession of rapids and shoals, with an aggregate fall
of 85 feet in a distance of 9 miles. For this distance the
river flows through a deep and open gorge flanked by
hills which, near Gaston and a short distance westward,
are capped with unconsolidated gravels, presumably of
Potomac age, and bordered by terraces of more recent
age, probably post-tertiary (Columbia). In the neigh-
borhood of Weldon and eastward the rocky hills give
places to the terraces and plains of the coastal region,
composed of gravels, sand, loams and clays, varying in
age from Potomac at the bottom to Columbia at the top.

ON THE TAR RIVER.

On the Tar river there is but one large waterpower,
that at Rockv Meunt, which may be considered as being
at the eastern margin of this zone and some 20 miles
eastward of the western border of the coastal plain
region. The Tar rises nearly 100 miles to the northwest
of this point and crosses successively several granitic,
schistose and slaty belts of rock, but owing to the slight
elevation of this upper part of its basin above that of the
coastal plain, the long period during which the rocks of
this upper basin have been undergoing su1face decay,
and the long period during which this stream, with no
ereat volume of water, has been slowly carving out its
channel, its freedom at the present rime from conditions
favorable to waterpower is easily understood. At Louis-
burg there is a fall of several feet owing toa change in
the character of the granitic rocks. At Rocky Mount it
turns eastward and crosses a ledge of hard granitic rock,
on the eastern slopes of which there is a natural fall of
about 15 feet in the course of 100 yards. It is on the top
of this granite ledge that the dam has been built which
serves for the full development of this waterpower tor
operating the Rocky Mount cotton-mill.

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY 98

ON THE NEUSE RIVER.

On the Neuse river, as on the Tar, there is rather a
remarkable absence of conditions favorable the develop-
ment of large waterpowers. Of the two powers worthy
of mention, both lie within the granite area, one to the
north and the other to the north-east of Raleigh, and are
due to local changes in the character of the granitic
rock.

ON THE CAPE FEAR RIVER.

The fall-line zone on the Cape Fear river may be said
to begin where this river is former by the junction of the
Deep and Haw rivers, and to extend from that point toa
short distance below Smileys falls, near Averasboro.
In this distance of about 35 miles there is a succession of
shoals beginning just above with Buckhorn falls, 9 miles
below the junction of the two rivers, where there 1s a
fall of 20 feet in a distance of one and one-half miles,
while the lowest of the prominent shoals, ‘‘Smileys
falls,’ 30 miles below the junction, has a fall of 27 feet
in a distance of three and one-half miles. The total fall
from the junction of the two rivers to just below Smileys
falls is about 100 feet. Within 17 miles below Smileys
falls, by river, there are at least three different shoals,
the last of which is only 8 miles above Fayetteville ; but
none of them are of any importance, and they need hard-
ly be considered in this connection.

The outlying gravels of the coastal plain deposits are
to be found on the hills two miles to the west of the
junction of the Haw and Deep rivers, so that all the
shoals just mentioned lie within this region, and the
sands and loams and gravels characteristic of the border
deposits are exposed here and there in the river bluffs,
though in the river channel these have been removed and
the waters rush along over the upturned and irregular

99 JOURNAL OF THE

eroded edges of granites and crystalline schists. With-
ina few miles above the junction of the Haw and Deep
rivers both of these streams pass from the slates of the
Piedmont plateau region to and across a narrow strip of
Jura-trias sandstone, which latter is made up of mater-
ials far more easily eroded than the slates, and as might
be expected there are shoals on both streams at this
junction. The rivers join within this sandstone area,
and for a few miles below the junction the Cape Fear is
a Sluggish stream.

ON THE YADKIN-—-PEE DEE RIVER.

On the Yadkin-Pee Dee river a condition of things
exists somewhat similar to that on the Cape Fear just
mentioned. The course of the Yadkin river as it crosses
the slates, for some 15 miles above its junction with the
Uharie, is briefly described further on. Below its junc-
tion with the Uharie the river flows for a distance of
some 20 miles in a southerly course obliquely across and
in places paralleling the upturned edges of the argilla-
ceous slates. In this distance there are only two promi-
nent shoals, but neither of great importance as compared
with those at the narrows above. These are Swift
Island shoal, 42 to 444 miles above the state line, and
Gunsmith shoal, 13 miles further up the river. Further
down, the river flows easterly asa somewhat sluggish
stream across a few miles of red sandstone rocks, simi-
lar to those crossed by the Cape Fear at the junction of
its two tributary streams. It then enters the coastal
plain region, near where it is joined by Little river and
follows a southerly course via. Cheraw, 35 miles below.
Throughout this distance there is a succession of shoals
due to the fact that the river crosses the upturned and
irregularly eroded edges of alternate beds of slaty and
granitic rocks.

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY 100

The river crosses the lower limit of tke fall line zone
a little above Cheraw. ‘The shoals in the river at that
point and for some distance above are not large, but they
are sufficient to mark the passage of the river from its
characteristics in the Piedmont plateau region to its
typical coastal plain condition, that of a sluggish stream.

GEOLOGIC CONDITIONS FAVORING WATERPOWER DEVELOPMENT AT THE
FALL LINE.

(1). The eastward tilting of the surface of these older
crystalline rocks, and (2) the partial removal of the leose
and easily eroded loams and gravels from the channel on
the eastern slope of these rocks, have given this result-
iug descent in the river surface at the fall line, which, in
the Roanoke at Weldon, aggregates 85 feet in 9 miles.
(3) The variation in the character of the rock, being
harder and more obdurate at certain points, and softer,
more jointed, more crushed, and hence more easily eroded
at the intervening arcas, results in concentrating this
fall of the stream at certain places; and (4) the existence
of terraces along the river banks facilitates the con-
struction of canals which still further concentrate the
fall of the water. ‘These are the more important geo-
logic conditions that favor the development of important
waterpowers on the Roanoke at the fall line in the Wel-
den region.

Other striking cases illustrating the conditions favor-
ing waterpower development on streams crossing geolog-
ical contacts will be found mentioned on pp. — and — of
this report.

WATERPOWER IN THE SLATE BELTS.

One of the most common types of geological structure
affecting waterpower development in North Carolina

101 JOURNAL OF THE

and other seuth Atlantic states is that to be found in the
great belts of slates and crystalline schists lying in the
eastern part of the Piedmont plateau region. (See
map). Here, as in structural type shown in fig. 3
below, layers or sheets of rocks are nearly vertical, and
are composed of material varying in hardness and dura-
bility ; but throughout much of this belt, and especially
along its western border, the variations are less well de-
fined and ona smaller scale, the thin, hard layers being
so numerous and so generally distributed that in the
streams like the Haw and Deep rivers, which cross the
larger portions of these belts nearly at a right angle,
there is almost a continuous series of small rapids or
shoals with an aggregate fall of from 5 to 20 feet to the
mile.

The possibility of waterpower development on the
Haw, Deep and Yadkin, as they cross the central and
most extensive of these slate belts in Alamance, Ran-
dolph, Davidson, Stanly and Montgomery counties, is
greater than on any other portion of these rivers.

ON THE HAW AND DEEP RIVERS.

Both the Haw and Deep rivers rise in the granitic and
eneissic area, the former to the northwest and the latter
to the southwest of Greensboro, and are sufficiently
large in volume to be available for small powers by the
time they reach the western border of the slate belt.
Throughout their course of about 50 miles across it each
river is a succession of shoals or rapids, many of which
have already been developed, while a number of others
are capable of being developed on a considerable scale.
The slates and schists of this region have a general
northeasterly course, and, as a rule, dip steeply toward
the northwest, so that these streams with a southeaster-
ly course have cut their beds directly across the upturned

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY 102

edges of the slates, which vary in hardness and obduracy
from point to point, the harder sheets projecting upward
as ledges, and the intervening softer sheets being wash-
ed out as depressions, which thus give rise to the shoals
and rapids.

ON THE YADKIN RIVER.

The Yadkin river strikes the slate belt some 12 or 15
miles below the Southern railroad crossing near Salis-
bury, and fora distance of 20 miles below this point the
geologic conditions in this slate have resulted in a suc-
cession of shoals and rapids which promise to be of great
value in connection with the development of manufact-
uring enterprises.

Where the Yadkin river crosses the larger of these
belts of slates and schists there is a greater concentra-
tion of the hard and soft material, and consequently a
greater concentration of fall in the river at certain points,
than is described above as occurring on Haw and Deep
rivers; yet on the whole this Yadkin river section, illus-
trated with approximate accuracy in fig. 3, may be con-
sidered as fairly typical for sections of country where
these belts of rock exist. The space between 1 and 2 in
the diagram represents the ‘‘narrows”’ section, a distance
of nearly 5 miles. The rock is eruptive in character,
though an obscurely bedded conglomerate at the upper
(N.W.) side. It is all hard, but not uniformly so, being
harder and more obdurate at certain places, arranged at
intervals, producing the narrows rapids at the upper end
(just below 1) and the ‘‘little falls” and ‘‘big falls”? near
the lower end (just above 2). The total fall from 1 to 2
is nearly 100 feet.

103

JCURNAL OF THE

Below the narrows (between:2 and S.E. in fig. 3) the

FIG.

Fic, 3.—Conditions favoring the develop-
ment of cascades and rapids in river channels
crossing belts of inclined slates and crystalline
schists.

a=—Argillaceous slates dipping northwest,
with hard2r and more durable layers at inter-
vals (as at 3). 6=Crystalline schists, mainly
of volcanic origin, obscurely schistose, more
massive and obdurate in places, as where the
shading is heavier. c—Finely laminated and

uniform argillaceous slate.

rock is mainly an argillaceous slate of
fairly uniform character and easily
eroded by water action; and the ex-
istence of this softer material beside
the belt of hard, obdurate rock which
itself is not uniform, but has harder
and softer belts, affords just the con-
ditions favorable for the development
of rapids and cascades in the stream
that crosses both belts. As might be
expected, these harder rocks (6 in fig.
3) cross the country in a high, irreg-
ular ridge, while the surface of the
region to the southeast, occupied by
the slaty and sandstone rocks, is less
hilly and less elevated. The Yadkin

crosses the harder ridge as a rushing torrent in a deep,
narrow gorge—the ‘‘Narrows’’—but as soon as it reaches
the softer slaty reck (at 2 in fig. 3) the current slackens,
the stream widens and flows on for several miles as a
smooth and relatively sluggish current.

For several mjles up-stream from the Narrows the
rocks are mainly clay slates having a southwest-north-
east course, and dipping steeply toward the northwest ;

kad

ELISHA MITCHFL1, SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY 104

and so the sheets or beds of rock stand on edge and lean
down-stream (S.E.). These rock beds are for the most
part fairly soft and more easily washed away than other
more massive and more durable layers which occur at ir-
regular intervals, and consequently below these more
massive sheets of rock are the shoals and rapids as indi- °
cated in figs. 2 and 3 above and as described further on.

WATERPOWER IN THE GRANITIC AND GNEISSIC AREAS.

The larger granitic and gneissic areas occupy the re-
gion trom the western border of the slate belt just men-
tioned westward to the foot of the Blue Ridge, the
typical Piedmont plateau section of the state.

In granitic and gneissic rock, the materials not being
arranged in definite strata or layers, the exact conditions
which cause the production of cascades and rapids in
streams are less apparent than in the slaty and
schistose rocks just described. The accompanying
sketch (fig. 4) illustrates a few of the conditions favor-
able to the development of waterpowers in a region
where these rocks prevail, as in portions of central and
western North Carolina.

1. One often finds in such regions breaks, such as
faults or joints in the rock, the material on one side of
the break being somewhat crushed or sheared and hence
easily removed. Of course the streams of water in cross-
ing the section of country where these breaks or faults
occur, and especially where the crushed or sheared side
of the break is the lower side on a sloping surface, re-
move this lower side more rapidly than the upper and
thus form a cascade from the higher to the lower level
as seen at 1 in fig. 4. It is in that way that some of the
beautiful falls of the southern Appalachian mountain re-

105 JOURNAL OF THE

gion have been produced. Other cascades and shoals
are developed under the following conditions:

Fic. 4.—Conditions favoring the develop-
ment of cascades and rapids in river channels
crossing areas of granitic and gneissic rock.

gr.—Granite. 1—Fault or break in the rock,
the right side having moved down or the left
side moved up. 2—A schistose zone in the
granite resulting from the shearing or move-
ment of the rock along a line of weakness.
gn—Gneiss, in which there are alternately
harder and softer portions, the harder and
more obdurate places being more heavily
shaded (as at 4). 5—Dike of diabase or other
material harder and more obdurate than the
gneiss, and never producing a cascade or rapid
in the stream channel.

2. In, portions of the granitic area
there are lines of structural weakness
where, under great strain or pressure,
the materials of which the rock is
composed give way and are flattened
out by a process known as shearing,
so as to give there a rather gneissic
or schistoese structure, as at 2 in fis.
4. ‘The rock in this condition is often
more rapidly attacked by the weath-
ering and eroding forces of the atmos-
phere, and, consequently, as the
streams cross the surface of the

FIG. 4.
~ couutry where such conditions exist, they carve out their

channels more rapidly, thus producing shoals or rapids,
and, in extreme cases, cascades or falls.

3. Conditions somewhat similar to the above and fav-
orable to the formation of shoals and rapids in streams
are sometimes found along the line of contact between
areas of granites and gneisses, as at 3 in fig. 4; and

ELISHA MITCHELL, SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY 106

again in gneissic areas in places the rocks are harder and
more obdurate, as indicated by heavier shading at 4 in
fio. 4; and in the beds of streams crossing such areas
the rocks wear away irregularly, the harder portions
standing out as projections while the intervening softer
materials are hollowed out. In this way we have pro-
duced a succession of shoals, a few hundred yards or
several miles apart ; and between these are to be found
the quiet reaches of the streams where the current moves
along more smoothly and quietly.

4. Another structural feature in granitic and gneissic
areas, and also in slaty and sandstone areas, which oc-
casionlly results in the production of the shoals and
rapids, is the occurrence of dikes, where cracks in the
earth’s crust have been subsequently filled with various
materials in a plastic and usually a molten condition and
which materials have subsequently hardened. If the
material of the dike is softer than that of the granitic or
g@neissic rock on one or both sides of it, then there will
be a drop in the course of the stream from the adjoining
rock of the wall down on to the softer dike surface, as is
shown at 2 in fig. 4. If on the other hand ‘the material
constituting the dike is harder and more durable than
the materials on each side of it, the country rock on the
lewer side of the dike, owing to its being softer and less
durable than that composing the dike itself, will wear away
more rapidly than the material of the dike, and consequent-
ly the water will drop from the dike surface on to the
country rock below it, as indicated at 5 in fig. 4 above.
The occurrence of the belt of eruptive rocks between the
two belts of slate, as shown in fig. 3 “p. 103), may be con-
sidered as analogous to this last-mentioned case. On
the Deep river near Gulf and on New Hope creek, a
tributary of Haw river, are to be found illustrations of
the development of waterpower being favored by the oc-

107 JOURNAL OF THE

currence of diabase dikes in the Jura-trias sandstone
crossing the channel of the stream.

ON THE YADKIN AND CATAWBA RIVERS.

The conditions favoring the development of waterpow-
ers in granitic and gneissic areas have been described
very briefly above, and the cascades and shoals and
rapids on the Yadkin and Catawba, as well as on the
tributaries of the Broad, will generally be found to have
their origin in local changes in the character of the rock,
in one or another of the ways there suggested. All of
the conditions there described are to be found illustrated
at intervals in this region.

As will be seen the shoals on the upper Yadkin,
which lie within the area now under consideration, are
less numerous than those on the same stream in its course
across the belt of slate and schist already described. And
inasmuch as the changes in the character of the rock in
the region of the upper Yadkin are for the most part not
radical, the amount of the fall at each of the shoals is
less great than in the slate belt. This fact, together
with the diminishing volume of water as we ascend the
stream, render the powers on the upper portions of this
stream less important.

The Catawba river, which, like the Yadkin, rises
along the crest and eastern slope of the Blue Ridge,
flows nearly a hundred miles in a northeasterly course
and then turns southward. Its course in North Carolina
lies entirely within the gneissic and granitic area. From
Morganton eastward fora distanca of nearly 40 miles the
river either parallels the general strike of the rocks or
crosses it obliquely. The changes in the character of
these rocks are not numerous, and the number of shoals
correspondingly small, though several of them are of
considerable magnitude. ‘The river then runs in a south-

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY 108

easterly and southerly direction for a distance of but
__ little more than 25 miles: hutin_this distance it eraccac

COASTAL PLAIN REGION

= on —!S
a
Eder

3 Windsor
=

a

= a Ae)
{ipsipnantiter 4
Ai ee em \
ed i.

A 7
GieHt,

ee
ae.
=a :

Libuves
—as

Yipee, Fig)!" i Paae Riso KS : ae
;. f ob 4 | Sai hye = = — - ——
(EAN NTPs {| Ai Ragas Te —— = as
Be ; WAI] pee : Se
Ye CLAY IN. } I a = Y
CMM ES yh HUA i %
' it tL Noe rr) ayht

Ue Li

—{ 0= ARS eet
MAP SHOWING TH§\=2 2a ON

*pAorede™

GEOLOGICAL FORE” = S#° bevkout,,

22 COASTAL PLAIN FORMATIONS: mete Scale of Miles
SANDS, CLAYS, MARLS. neice
+4441 \ Water-Power

ZZ METAMORPHOSED SLATES AND fll
ZA SCHISTS (INCLUDING VOLCANICS) ;

4
A
4

ri
‘9,

%

&

> O
Hideniarle Sound’
<=>

:
cela

o

MAP SHOWING THE LOCATION OF THE PRINCIPAL *
GEOLOGICAL FORMATIONS AND WATER-POWER
IN NORTH CAROLINA
1898.
ee oe ES ee

ZZ METAMORPHOSED SLATES AND AHHH GNEISS SLATES, SCHISTS, LIMESTONES, QUARTZITES
SEZ) GOHISTS INCLUDING VOLCANICS) (PROBABLY ARCHAEAN.) AND CONGLOMERATES (AGE UNKNOWN.)

‘Scale of Miles

of) +4441 \ Water-Power
Cape Fear

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY 108

easterly and southerly direction for a distance of but
little more than 25 miles; but in this distance it crosses
the course or strike of the rocks at right angles. The
changes in the character of the rocks are numerous, the
rocks even being schistose and slaty in places and the
stream is literally a succession of shoals, the aggregate
fall being not less than 175 feet. At a point some 10
miles south of Statesville, as will be seen on the small
map, the river reaches the typical granite belt of
this region and flows thence southward for a distance of
approximately 40 miles, where it crosses the state line
into South Carolina. In this part of its course the rocks
of the region are again more nearly uniform, and though
there are several shoals of importance, as those at Cowans
ford, Mountain Island, and Tuckaseegee, yet the number
of these shoals in proportion to the distance is much
smaller than in the 25-mile section next above.

ON THE TRIBUTARIES OF BROAD RIVHR.

Among the tributaries of the Broad in Cleveiand and
Rutherford counties,the streams descend rapidly from
the South Mountains along the upper border of these
counties down to the general plain of the Piedmont
plateau, flowing in a southerly and southeasterly di-
rection nearly at right angles to the general strike
of the rock, and in this way encountering the great-
est number of changes in the character of these rocks,
which results in conditions most favorable for the develop-
ment of waterpower. Hence it is that we have in this
region a large number of valuable waterpowers, seme
half dozen of which are already operating cotton-mills,
while others are soon to be utilized in the same way.

CONDITIONS IN THE SLATY AND GNEISSIC AREAS COMPARED.

In any study of the streams and waterpowers of the

3

109 JOURNAL OF THE

Piedmont plateau region it should be borne in mind that
while the slaty belts present more favorable conditions
for developing waterpowers, as shown in the case of
the Yadkin and the other streams which cross the
several belts, owing to the fact that in these belts the
sheets of rock stand more on edge and vary more in hard-
ness and durability, yet the streams which draw their
supplies from the granitic and gneissic areas are more
uniform in their flow for the reason that while the rain-
fall in the different belts is approximately the same, the
soils in the granitic and gneissic areas are deeper and
more porous and serve more as a sponge for storing up
the surplus water of rainy seasons than does the more
shallow and compact clayey soils resulting from the decay
of the slates. This is one of the principal causes why
the flow is less uniform in the case of the Haw and Deep
rivers (see map), which lie largely in the slaty belt,
than in the case of the Yadkin and Catawba, which lie
almost wholly in the granitic and gneissic areas. For-
tunate it is then, that these two larger rivers have their
headwatersin the granitic and oneissic areas, with gravel-
ly, porous soils; and flow across the great slate belt
after they have attained their larger proportions.

WATERPOWER IN THE MOUNTAIN REGION.

A glance at the accompanying small geologic map
will show that the larger part of this region is occu-
pied by gneissic rocks. These have for the most part a
characteristic northeast and southwest strike, and the
irregular sheets of rock dip beneath the surface at vary-
ing but generally steep angles. The southern half of
the region has along its western border an irregu-
lar belt of bedded slates, limestones, quartzites and con-
glomerates; and these rocks, which make up the bulk
ot the Great Smoky mountains, have a general north-

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY 110

easterly strike and dip at steep and varying angles.
Near the eastern border of the region there is another
but more narrow and irregular belt of rock of a some-
what similar character, following approximately the gen-
eral position of the Blue Ridge mountains.

The general physiographic features of the region are
those mountains and hills with narrow valleys. It may
be restated here that the rivers of this region have their
sources mainly along the western slope of the Blue Ridge,
and that with the exception of New river, near the north-
ern boundary, they flow in a general northwesterly di-
rection across the upturned edges of both the gneissic
and the more recent bedded rocks. ‘The elevation of the
country is so great and the descent of the streams so
rapid that the general courses of the principal rivers have
been but little modified by geologic structure, though
their courses lie directly across the strike of the rock ;
and the resulting conditions are such as to produce along
the streams occasional rapids and cascades. LEspecially
would this be the case in the western counties, where the
Pigeon, the Tuckasegee, the Little Tennessee and the
Hiwassee break through the Great Smoky mountains, and
in doing so cross a variety of limestone, quartzite and con-
glomerate beds which go to make up the geologic forma-
tion of that area, but for the fact that during the long
period of time that these streams have occupied their pres-
ent channels, owing to the rapidity of their flow and the
large quantities of abrading materials, such as sand, grav-
el and bowlders, carried down in their currents, the va-
riations in the obduracy of the rocks, crossing these
stream beds seldom result in cascades of large propor-
tions, for the reason that the would-be projecting ledges
of rock across the stream bed are kept down near the
general level by these eroding agencies.

A number of the smaller tributary streams flow in either

jo AB) JOURNAL OF THE

a southwesterly or a northeasterly direction along the
line of the strike of the rocks and thus develop the con-
ditions favorable for waterpower, mainly where they
vary their courses and cross from rock of one character
to one of a different character. In the extreme northern
portion of the region the tributaries of New river rise
both on the western slopes of the Blue Ridge and the
eastern slopes of the Iron mountains, and flow ina general
northeasterly or northeriy direction, sometimes following
the line of the strike, and sometimes crossing the latter
at sharp angles. Along New river and its tributaries
are a number of shoals which can be developed into valu-

able waterpowers, occuring mainly at points where the.

streams cross the strike of the gneissic rock of the region.

In connection with the development of these water-
powers, the river gorges are so narrow and the streams
so rapid that while the construction of large dams is a
matter attended with no insurmountable difficulties, yet it
is often difficult to find suitable space for buildings, and
it has been found more advisable in a number of cases to
construct small dams and to convey the water from these
in open ditches or flumes along the banks of the stream
to suitable points where the power may be utilized. The
chief difficulty which is met in storing water on these
streams is that the ponds or storage reservoirs become
rapidly filled with sand, gravel and bowlders brought
down in time of flood. Probably the future develop-
ment of these powers will be largely in connection with
electrical transmission.

GEOLOGICAL CONDITIONS AFFECTING THE FLOW OF STREAMS.

The yearly discharge of a stream depends primarily
on the amount of rainfall in the region from which the
stream draws its supply, but in a measure this volume,
and especially the uniformity of flow, are largely in-

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY 112

fluenced by the slope of the surface, the depth and poros-
ity of the soil, and the character of the underlying rock.
In connection with this study of the geologic conditions
influencing the possibilities of waterpower development,
it should be noted that the occurrence of lakes, swamps
or marshes and poorly-drained level areas, deep and
porous soils, such as the sandy and gravelly soils from
10 to 100 feet deep, which occur in the larger part of the
Piedmont plateau and mountain regions of the Carolinas,
the great sand hills of the southern coastal plain region,
and the porous sands and gravels of the glaciated regions
of the Northern states, all facilitate the uniformity of
the flow of the streams in these several regions; and in
some regions the jointed, fissured and crushed condition
of the underlying rock exerts a favorable influence in the
same direction.

NOTES ON GRASSES.

1) CONTRIBUTIONS FROM MY HERBARIUM. NO. Iv.

WwW. W. ASHE.

Since the publication of a paper on the Dichotomous
Group of Panicum in the Eastern United States (in this
Journal, vol. xv, Nov., 1898) I have found among some
duplicates additional material of a plant, a single speci-
men of which [ had at that. time, but such scanty mate-
rial that I did not care to base a species on it, though it

1) Issued April 20, 1899.

113 JOURNAL OF THE

showed excellent specific characters. I find that I have
collected the plant at two stations, both in Orange
county, N.C.

PANICUM ORANGENSIS, sp. nov. Stems 12 to 24
inches long, ascending from a geniculate base, pubescent
with long, soft, white, matted hairs, but more or less
glabrate towards the top. Lower sheaths crowded and
overlapping, pubescent with soft matted hairs; the upper
distantand nearly glabrous. Leaves soft-pubescent like |
the sheaths, the largest 3 to 4 inches long and 3” to 5”’
wide, lanceolate, long taper-pointed, largest near the base
of the stem ; the upper much reduced and often glabrous.
Ligule pilose with long hairs. Panicle long-peduncied,
oblong, the very numerous, slender fascicled branches
ascending ; spikelets scarcely }’’ long, obovate, apiculate,
the first scale about.one-third as long as the glabrous 7-
nerved second and third.

Related to Panicum lanuginosum Ell., and separated from it by hay-

ing a longer, softer pubescence and its leaves not being ciliate. Col-
lected in June, 1898.

As the name Panicum commelinaefolium proposed by me (Mitchell
Journ. 15, part 1; 29) for a Georgia plant has already been used by
Kunth for another grass, I propose the name Panicum Currant for my
plant ; and for Panicum Georgianum Ashe (ibid, 36) I propose the name
Panicum Cahoonianum, since Sprengel has made use of the nearly sim-
ilar P. Georgicum for a different plant.

ANDROPOGON GYRANS sp. nov. Stem very slender, 18
to 24 inches high, glabrous or merely bearded at the up-
per joints. Basal leaves 10 to 14 inches iong, 1’’ wide or
less, glabrous, often involute and twisted, those of the
stem much shorter. Sheaths glabrous. Branches very
few, scarcely protruding from the closely wrapped
sheaths. Spikes 2 or 4, generally 4, very slender, 6 to
12 flowered, spikelets 13’’ long, shorter than the copious,
white, basal hairs ; sterile spikelets of single scale, cov-

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY 114

ered with long spreading hairs,,as well as its slender
pedicel.

Distinguished from A. AFiliotit and all the slender forms of that
species, by the much smaller spikelets, scattered branches and narrow
sheaths, which do not enlarge.

Collected by the writer in pine woune in Durham county, N. C.,
Oct. 1896:

ANDROPOGON MOHRII PUNGENSIS, var. nov. Less
tomentose than the type. Spikes generally more sumer-
ous, 4 to 12, and shorter, enclosed in the sheaths or pro-
truding.

Collected by the writer in grassy swamps at the head of Pungo river,
Washington county, N. C., Oct. and Nov., 1898.

‘

ate ange i, hee
eas ii nie ie ey

j
i

we *
4

JOURNAL

OF THE

Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society

VOL. XVI
1899

CHAPEL HILL, N. O.
PUBLISHED BY THE UNIVERSITY

BER. 4

PR aehee ELIA 1)

tub bee CRONE & an

ORES WEE, CORRAL

Journal ot the Mitchell Society.

CONTENTS.
VOL. XVI.
1899.
hie Hennition of the Element.—F. P. Venable sccccdcc.ccccccccccoccokecccdeccecs 1
muerieature of Valence:—P. P. Venable... 2 ciovccececnocecsdaccccdencccclacceck 15

Preliminary Catalogue of the Birds of Chapel Hill, N. C., With
Brief Notes on Some of the Species.—T. G. Pearson.i.....ccccc cece ec ec eee

On the Universal Distribution of Titanium.—Chas. Baskerville............ 52
The Occurrence of Vanadiums, Chromium, and Titanium in Peats.
OE gh Ta SS A RE EPS. 8). aap 2 Soe eS AE Oey Foe 54
A Study of Certain Double Chromates.—W. G@. Haywood..........cccc00000- 56 ©
mere oaleotrochis.-—) Se Cither..:2 ec ecebeee dacs scone sdaddcaviudaseeteweeT 59
The Deep Well at Wilmington, N. C.—J. A Holines.......ccccceccccececeeeee os 67
New East American Species of Crataegus.—W. W. Asheé.....cccccccceceec eee es 70
Note on Qualitative Test for Tin.—Chas. Baskerville......... ccccccsceceeneees oe
n 4 @ Cane of Sforlars0is Crbrclon «4 ma

Some Dichotomous Species of Panicum.—W. W. Ashe... nc eee

\>

es eweete se . e«* 7? ¢ 4 A
. ’
: .
“y fis ‘a a a i
; Dot AN : Tepaet® Qa ‘ Peach lett c
RMU ery hal ee Cr SF ROT
mr wt ts e : 4 4 P ¥ ooh
ho : Pein
a aties ae eS ! ial als Leen
+" ever ue eices §w CEE Vt ewww * *
. * 4 ios |
« f ~~ -<

var
‘Woes

Tees Fp SORE ane ’

“ wee ‘ ee
‘ en
Ws oe
, ; a
.
iy 4
e a
+. : y . . .
| . iy
’ ,
ss ,
° ’
t .

JOURNAL

OF THE

tisha Mitchell Scientific Society

VOLUME XVI —— PART FIRST

January=Jume

1899

POST OFFICE
CHAPEL HIE, N:.:C.

ISSUED FROM THE UNIVERSITY PRESS
CHAPEL Hit, N.C.

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

THE DEFINITION OF THE ELEMENT.
EF, P.. Venriable.. .........05.-20c2 0058 6

THE NATURE OF VALENCE.
FF. ‘PP, Vewnnies}..... 0055 Se cee eee

THE NATURE OF VALENCE (SECOND PAPER).
BK. P. Venables i... oc 62. c nc > on Sa

PRELIMINARY CATALOGUE OF THE BIRDS OF CHAPEL HILL,
- N. C., WITH BRIEF NOTES ON SOME OF THE SPECIES.
T. Gilbert Pearson. ..........55-.....0 0 33 9

JOURNAL

OF THE

Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society

SIXTEENTH YEAR—PART FIRST

1899

'

THE DEFINITION OF THE ELEMENT.

F. P. VENABLE.

It is with hesitation that I enter upon so speculative a dis-
cussion as the nature of the elements, and yet there are rea-
sons why it should prove of great profit to draw the attention
of this representative gathering of the chemists of America
to this subject. We have nearly reached the close of the first
century in which these elements have been the subject of ex-
perimental research. The ingenuity and the patient labor of
an army of workers have been directed toward the solution of the
many problems connected with these elementary substances,
and the ultimate aim, the goal, of all their striving has been
the discovery of the properties and the nature of the atom.

It is eminently fitting that, as we stand at the threshold of
the new century, we glance back along the road we have al-
ready come and take some account of the progress we have
made. ‘The quicksands of mere speculation must be avoided,
and yet the mental vision, the ‘scientific imagination,’ must
be called into service in considering that which so far tran-
scends our cruder actual vision as the incomparable atom it-
self. There is another reason for considering the nature of

Nan address delivered as Vice President before the Chemical Section
Anierican Association for the Advancement of Science—Columbus, O.,
1899,

-

2 JOURNAL OF THE

the elements. At several times during the century a wider
vision has made it necessary to recast the definition of the
elements to accord with increasing knowledge. It would
seem as if another such period of change were approaching.
There may be need of a truer definition, and how shall this
be realized or the new definition properly fitted unless the
knowledge gained be summed up and appreciated?

The conception of an element among the Greek philoso-
phers and the earlier alchemists was very different from the
modern idea. ‘This conception sprang from the theories as to
the formation of the material universe. ‘The elements were
the primal forms of matter seen only combined, impure, 1m-
perfect. They were the essences or principles out of which
all things were evolved. In the four-element theory, which
was so widely spread among the ancients, the fire, air, earth
and water were not the ordinary substances known under
these names, but the pure essences bestowing upon fire and
water their peculiar properties. These essences were not
thought of as actual substances capable of aseparate materi-
al existence, and gradually the belief that a transmutation
was possible between them sprang up. Thus they themselves
might be derived from some one of them, as fire or water.
The Thalesian theory deriving all things from water was es-
pecially popular and was not completely overthrown until the
modern era.

When, later on, the alchemists conceived of all metals as
composed of sulphur and mercury it was an essence or spirit
of mercury that was meant. Certain common characteristics
as luster, malleability, fusibility, combustibility, etc.,natural-
ly led them to think of the metals as belonging to the
same order of substances containing the same _ princi-
ples, the relative proportions and purity of which deter-
mined the variations in the observed properties. Thus the
properties of the metals depended upon the purity of the mer-
cury and sulphur in them, the quantities of them and their
degree of fixation. The more easily a metal was oxidized on
being heated, the more sulphur it contained, and this sulphur
also determined its changeability. The more malleable it

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY 3

was, the more mercury entered into its composition. If only
something could be found which would remove the grossness
from these essences, some unchanging, all-powerful essence,
which, because of their search for it, gradually became
known as the ‘philosophers’ stone,’ then the baser metals
might be transmuted into the noble gold when the sulphur
and mercury were perfectly balanced and free from all dis-
tempers.

As has been said, these principles entering, all or some of
them, into every known substance, were supposed to be not
necessarily capable of individual existence themselves. This
was the view held by the followers of Aristotle. With the.
reaction against the domination of the scholiasts, other views
began to be held. It was Boyle who first gave voice to these
changed views in his ‘Sceptical Chymist’ (1661). He defined
elements as ‘‘certain primitive bodies, which, not being
made of any other bodies, or of one another, are the in
gredients of which all those called perfectly mixed bodies are
immediately compounded, and into which they are ultimately
resolved.” He, however, did not believe himself warranted,
from the knowledge then possessed, in clainting the positive
existence of such elements.

But little attention was paid to the subject by the subse-
quent chemists. The phlogistics were too much occupied
with their theory of combustion, and none could see the bear-
ing of this question and its importance to exact science. _

Macquer, in his ‘Dictionary of Chemistry’ (1777), words his
definition as follows: ‘‘Those bodies are called elements
which are so simple that they cannot by any known means be
decomposed or even altered and which also enter as principles
or constituent parts, into the combination of other bodies,”
To this he adds: ‘‘The bodies in which this simplicity has
been observed are fire, air and purest earth.” In all of this
may be observed the resolution of observed forms of matter
into primal principles following the dream of Lucretius and
the early Epicurean philosophers, a dream abandoned by the
atomic school following, though largely holding to the same
definition.

4 JOURNAL OF THE

It was only when chemists began to realize that mere obser-
vation of properties, chiefly physical, was not sufficient that
the subject began to clear up and lose its vagueness. Black
proved that certain substances were possessed of a constant
and definite composition and fixed properties, unalterable and
hence simple bodies or elements. Lavoisier finally cleared
the way for the work of the nineteenth century by his defini-
tion that ‘‘an element is a substance from which no simpler
body has yet been obtained; a body in which no change
causes a diminution of weight. Every substance is to be re-
garded asan element until it is proved to be otherwise.”
With this clear definition to build upon, a rational system of
chemistry became, for the first time, a possibility.

Thus the elements were recognized as simple bodies be-
cause there were no simpler. They were not complex or com-
pound. ‘This distinction was clearly drawn between bodies
simple and bodies compound, and the name simple body has
been frequently used as a synonym for element through a
large part of this century. Naturally the question of simplic-
ity was first settled by an appeal to that great arbiter of
chemical questions, the balance. And, quite as naturally,
many blunders were made and the list of bodies erroneously
supposed to be simple was very large. All whose weight
could not be reduced were considered elementary. When,
however, from stich a body, something of lesser weight could
be produced, its supposed simplicity was, of course, dis-
proved.

This test for the elemental character has been clung to per-
sistently, and is perhaps still taught, although it was long ago
recognized that many of the elements existed in different
forms, a pheriomenon to which Berzelius gave the name a//o-
tropism. One only of these could be the simplest, and the
others could be reduced to this one and rendered specifically
lighter. With the discovery of this relation it should have
been quite apparent that the old definition would no longer
hold good. But many years passed before chemists were
made to feel that a new definition was necessary, and adapted
one to the newer knowledge.

ELISHA MITCHE1,.L SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY 5

The insight into what Lucretius would call ‘the nature of
things’ was becoming clearer; the mental grasp upon these
elusive atoms about which the old Epicurean reasoned so
shrewdly was becoming firmer. Through what one must re-
gard as the veil interposed by the earlier idea of the element,
the chemist began to grope after the constituent particle or
atom. It must be borne in mind that the definition of the
element was largely formulated before the resuscitation of the
atomic theory by Dalton, and the mental picture of the one
has perhaps retarded the clearing up of the ideas concerning
the other. From the atomic point of view the element was
next defined as one in which the molecules or divisible particles
were made up of similar indivisible particles. This afforded
an easy explanation of allotropism as achange in the num-
ber of atoms in a molecule. As Remsen says: ‘‘An element
is a substance made up of atoms of the same kind; a com-
pound is a substance made up of atoms of unlike kind,”

Laying aside, then, all vaguely formulated ideas of essen-
ces, or principles, or simple bodies, or elemental forms, we
found our present building upon the conception of the ulti-
mate particle, be this molecule or atom.

As to this atom some clear conception is needed, and here
we come to the crux of the modern theories. The chemist re-
gards this atom as a particle of matter and is unwilling to ac-
cept the theory of Boscovich that is infinitely small, and
hence a mathematical point,nor can he admit that it is mere-
ly a resisting point, and hence that all matter is but a system
of forces. And yet it seems as though some authorities
would lead up to such a conclusion.

While we need not consider these atoms as mere centers of
forces, we are compelled to study them by the operation of
forces upon them. What are called their properties have
been studied and recorded with great care. These proper-
ties are evinced in the action of the forces upon matter, and
the exhibition of force without matter cannot be admitted.
This study of the properties has been the especial occupation
of the century now closing, and so the elemental atom has
come to be regarded as a collection of properties. As Pat-
terson-Muir puts it (Alchemical Essence and the Chemical

6 JOURNAL OF THE

Elements, p. 31): ‘The name copper is used to distinguish a
certain group of properties, that we always find associated
together, from other groups of associated properties, and if
we do not find the group of properties connoted by the term
copper we do not find copper.”

These properties are exhibited by the action of a small
group of forces. Perhaps we do not know all of the forces;
certain it is that we do not accurately know all of the proper-
ties, but, to quote Patterson-Muir again: ‘‘The discovery of
new properties always associated with a group of properties
we call copper would not invalidate the statement that cop-
per is always copper.”

The properties of an atom are either primary, inherent and
as unchanging as the atom itself, or they are secondary and
dependent upon the influence of the other atoms, or varying
with the change of conditions. To the first class belong such
properties as the atomic weight, atomic heat, specific grav-
ity, etc.; to the second, chemical affinity, valence, etc. Inall
the study of the atom the distinction between these should be
carefully mainta:ned in order that there may be clear think-
ing.

There is no field of mental activity requiring more faith
than that of the chemist. He is dealing with the ‘evidences
of things unseen.’ He must not be content with the mere
gathering of facts, but divine what he can of their deeper
meaning. Kew chemists have had such insight as Graham
into the significance of even the simplest changes. He was
not content with mere surface observation. Even the com-
monest phenomena were to him full of meaning as to the
atoms and their ‘eternal motion.’ ‘Thorpe (Essays in Histor-
ical Chemistry, p. 219) has drawn afresh the attention of the
chemists to the thoughtful words of this great thinker. His
mind was filled with the fascinating dream of the unity of
matter. ‘‘In all his work,” says Adam Smith, ‘‘we find him
steadily thinking on the ultimate composition of bodies. He
searches after it in following the molecules of gases when
diffusing; these he watches as they flow into a vacuum or in-
to other gases, and observes carefully as they pass through

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY 7

tubes, noting the effect of weight, of composition, upon them
in transpiration. He follows them as they enter into liquids
and pass out, and as they are absorbed or dissolved by colloid
bodies; he attentively inquires if they are absorbed by metals
in a similar manner, and finds remotest analogies which, by
their boldness, compel one to stop reading and to think if
they really be possible.”

In his paper entitled ‘Speculative Ideas respecting the Con-
stitution of Matter,’ published in the Proceedings of the Roy-
al Society in 1863, which Thorpe calls his ‘Confession of
Faith,’he tells of his conception that these supposed elements
of ours may possess one and the same ultimate or atomic
molecule existing in different conditions of movement.

It is not possible for me, in the limits of this address, to
array before you all of the various evidence which leads to
the belief that our so-called elementary atoms are after all
but compounds of an intimate, peculiar nature whose dissocia-
tion we have as yet been unable to accomplish. When prop-
erly marshalled, it gives a very staggering blow to the old
faith. Thorpe speaks of the ‘‘old metaphysical quibble con-
cerning the divisibility or indivisibility of the atom.” To
Graham ‘‘the atom meant something which is not divided,
not something which cannot be divided.” The original indi-
visible atom may be something far down in the make-up of
the molecule.

How shall the question as to the composite nature of the
elements be approached? The problem has been attacked from
the experimental side several times during the last half cen-
tury, but the work seems to have been carried on after a de-
sultory fashion and was soon dropped, as if the workers were
convinced of its uselessness. The results, being negative,
simply serve to show that no method was hit upon for
decomposing the elements upon which the experiments were
performed. Thus, for instance,Despretz performed a number
of experiments to combat Dumas’ views as to the composite
nature of the elements. Despretz made use of the well-
known laboratory methods for the separation and purification
of substances. Such were distillation, electrolysis, fractional

8 , JOURNAL OF THE

precipitation, etc. Such work was quite inadequate to settle
the question, as Dumas had pointed out that unustial methods
must be used, or, he might have added, the old methods car-
ried out to an unusual or exhaustive extent. Certainly, if a
moderate application of the usual methods was sufficient for
this decomposition, evidences of it would have been obtained
long ago by the host of careful workers who have occupied
themselves over these substances. Crookes has busied him-
self with the method of fractional precipitation (though not
with special view to the testing of this question), and applied
it most patiently and exhaustively to such substances as the
rare earths, without obtaining results from which anything ~
conclusive could be drawn, Victor Meyer seems to have_be-
lieved that the decomposition could be effected by high tem-
peratures, and was very hopeful of experiments which he had
planned before his untimely death. Others have spasmodic-
ally given a little time to the problem, but no one has
thought highly enough of it to attack it with all of his en-
ergy.

Let us stop a moment and ask ourselves what would be at-
tained if any one should succeed in decomposing an element
by one of the usual methods. Has not this been done repeat-
edly in the past and merely served to add to the list of the
elements? Didymium has been made to yield praseo-and neo-
dymium. ‘That which was first called yttrium has been di-
vided into erbium, terbium and ytterbium, and according to
Crookes may possibly be still further decomposed. But these
and similar decompositions are not generally accepted as of-
fering any evidence that elements can be decomposed. It is
merely the discovery of one or more new substances which
have remained hidden in constant association with known
bodies which were supposed to be simple. It would be nec-
essary to prove that a single individual element had, by the
process adopted, been actually decomposed and not some pre-
existing impurity discovered. This, of course, would be ex-
ceedingly difficult, and all such attempts as those mentioned
can have little bearing upon the general question, and can
hold out slight hope of reward beyond the fame springing
from the discovery of a new element.

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY 9

Successful decomposition should meam much more. It
should mean the discovery of a method which will decompose
not one, but many or indeed, all of the elements, and the de
composition of these must not yield a larger number of sup-
posedly simple bodies, but a small group of one or two or
three which are common constituents of all. It is quite idle
to venture upon any prediction whether such a method will
ever be discovered. Setting aside, then, the direct experi-
mental proof of the composite nature of the elements as unat-
tainable at present, let us next examine the indirect evidence.
It would seem wisest for the present to introduce under that
heading the spectroscopic work of Lockyer. The results,
while highly interesting, are too indefinite as yet to speak of
as having a direct bearing, Yet a careful study of the spec-
tra of the elements leads us to a strong suspicion that the
less plausible assumption is the one that the particles which
gwive rise to such varied vibrations are simple and unitary in
nature. Lockyer’s most recent work, following up the line
of his ‘Working Hypothesis’ of twenty years ago,is very sug-
gestive and may lead to important results (Chemistry of the
Hottest Stars, Roy. Soc. Proc., LXI., 148; On the Order of
Appearance of Chemical Substances at Different Tempera-
tures, Chem. News, 79, 145). Still too much must be assum-
ed yet for such work to be very conclusive. He writes of
‘proto-magnesium and proto-calcium,’ and Pickering discuss-
es a ‘new hydrogen,’ all with an assurance and confidence
which proves at least how deeply these changes in the spec-
tra have impressed some of those who have most carefully
studied them.

But a more important method of indirectly testing the
question is through a comparison of the properties of
the atoms. Such a comparison has been made as to
the atomic weights. In other words, the idea of the compos-
ite nature of the elements followed very close upon the adop-
tion of a stricter definition of them as simple bodies. Dal-
ton, Prout, Débereiner, Dumas, Cooke and many others have
aided in developing the idea, sometimes faultily and harmful-
ly, at other times helpfully. Some fell into the common er-
ror of going too far, but all were struck by the fact that

10 JOURNAL OF THE

when these combining numbers, or atomic weights, were
compared strange and interesting symmetries appeared. The
times were not ripe for an explanation of their meaning, and
such crude assumptions as that of Prout, that the elements
were composed of hydrogen, or that of Low, that they were
made up of carbon and hydrogen, were too baseless to com-
mand much genuine support or to withstand much careful
analysis. The important feature of agreement between such
theories was the belief that the elements were composite and
had one or more common constituents.

From the comparison of one property, the atomic weights,
the next step was to the comparison of all the properties.
This comparison is brought out clearest and best for us in
the Periodic System. Hereall the properties are very care-
fully tabulated for us. The study of the system leads indis-
putably to the conviction that this is not an arbitrary, but a
natural arrangement, exceedingly simple in its groundwork,
but embodying most fascinating symmetries, which hint of
great underlying laws. He who looks upon it as a mere table
of atomic weights has lost its meaning. It tells, with no un-
certain note, of the kinship of the elements and ieads to a
search after the secret of their interdependence and of their
common factor or factors. There is so much which is made
clearer if we assume a composite nature for the elements that
many do not hesitate to make the assumption.

Still another indirect method of approaching that problem
is by analogy with bodies whose nature and composition are
known. A very striking symmetry is observed between the
hydrocarbons, and these in the form of compound radicals
show a strong resemblance to certain of the elements. This
analogy need not be dwelt upon here. It has been recog-
nized for a long time and tables of hydrocarbons have been
constructed after the manner of the Periodic System. Now
these bodies are simply built up of carbon and hydrogen in
varying proportions, and in any one homologous series the
increments are regular. We know that they are composite
and that they have but two common factors, carbon and hy-
drogen.

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY pT

Again, the fact that certain groups of associated atoms be-
have as one element and closely resemble known elements
may be taken as a clue to the nature of the elements. Thus
carbon and nitrogen, in the form of cyanogen, behave very
much like the halogens; and nitrogen and hydrogen in the
form of ammonia so closely resemble the group of elements
known as the alkalies that this ‘‘volatile alkali” was classed
with them before the era of our elements and the analogy
lead to a vain search for an ‘‘alkalizing principle” and later
to an equally futile pursuit of the metal ammonium.

A further clue to this nature is afforded in the remarkable
changes of properties which can be brought about in some
elements by ordinary means, and one might mention the
equally remarkable veiling of properties induced by the com-
bining of two or more atoms. Thus copper exists in a cu-
prous and a cupric condition, and the change from one to the
other can be readily brought about. And this is true of
many other elements.

This has doubtless been a tedious enumeration to you of
well-known facts and arguments, but it has been necessary,
for I wish to lead you to the summing-up of these arguments
and to induce you to draw boldly the necessary deductions.
It is high time for chemists to formulate their opinions in
this matter. It would seem as if we were shut up to one or
two conclusions. Either these imagined simple bodies are
after all compounds, built up of two or more common constit-
uents, or they are but varying forms of one and the same
kind of matter subjected to different influences and conditions.
The supposition that they are distinct and unrelated simple
bodies is, of course, a third alternative, but to my mind this
is no longer tenable.

The second hypothesis is the one put forth by Graham. It
was his cherished vision of the gaseous particles about which
he thought so deeply, andinmany ways sotruly. Thorpe has
written of this as follows (loc. cit. 222):

‘‘He conceives that the various kinds of matter, now rec-
ognized as different elementary substances, may possess one
and the same ultimate or atomic molecule existing in differ-
ent conditions of movement. Graham traces the harmony

12 JOURNAL OF THE

this hypothesis of the essential unity of matter with the
equal action of gravity upon all bodies. He recognizes that
the numerous and varying properties of the solid and liquid,
no less than the few grand and simple features of the gas,
may all be dependent upon atomic and molecular mobility.
Let us imagine, he says, one kind of substance only to exist
—ponderable matter; and, further, that matter is divisible
into ultimate atoms, uniform in size and weight. We shall
have one substance and a common atom. With the atom at
rest the uniformity of matter would be perfect. But the
atom possesses always more or less motion, due, it must be
assumed, to a primordial impulse. ‘This motion gives rise to
volume. The more rapid the movement, the greater the
space occupied by the atom, somewhat as the orbit of a plan-
et widens with the degree of projectile velocity. Matter is
thus made to differ only in being lighter or denser matter.
The specific motion of an atom being inalienable, light mat-
ter is no longer convertible into heavy matter. In short,
matter of different density forms different substances—differ-
ent inconvertible elements, as they have been considered.”

The hypothesis that the elements are built up of two or
more common constituents has a larger number of supporters
and would seem more plausible. Some have supposed one
such primal element by the condensation or polymerization of
which the others were formed. Thus we have the hydrogen
theory of Prout, modified to the one-half atom by Dumas, and
finally by Zangerle to the one-thousandth hydrogen atom.
The suggestion of Crookes as to the genesis of the elements
from the hypothetical pvoty/e, under the influence of electrici-
ty, may also be mentioned here.

Others have adopted the supposition of two elements, Rey-
nolds making one of these an element with a negative atomic
weight, whatever that may mean. Low and others have
fixed upon carbon and hydrogen as the two elements.

There are many practical difficulties in the way of these
suppositions ; the lack of uniformity in the differences be-
tween the atomic weights, the sudden change of electro-chem-
ical character, and the impossibility, so far, of discovering

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY 13

any law underlying the gradation in the properties of the
elements with the increase of atomic weights, are some of the
difficulties. In comparing these two hypotheses that of
Graham seems to me very improbable. I have thought of
valence as dependent upon the character of the motion of the
atom, but cannot well conceive of a similar dependence of
atomic weight and all the other properties. ‘There remains,
then, the hypotheses of primal elements by the combination
of which our elements have been formed. ‘These molecules
are probably distinguished from the ordinary molecules by
the actual contact and absolute union of the ia ica atoms
without the intervention of ether.

Since these elemental molecules cannot as yet be divided,
we may retain the name atom for them, but the idea of sim-
plicity and homogeneity no longer belongs to them. The
definition of an element as a body made up of similar atoms
is equally lacking in fidelity to latest thought and belief, but
chemists would scarcely consent to change it, and, indeed, it
may well be retained provided the modified meaning is given
to the word atom. But, after all, an element is best defined
by means of its properties, It is by close study of these that
we decide upon its elemental nature, and through them it is
tested. Complete reliance can no longer be placed upon the
balance and the supposed atomic weight.

All elements are acted upon by gravity and chemical force
and other physical forces, but within the last few years cer-
tain gaseous elements have been discovered which are not in-
fluenced by chemical force or affinity, According to some
(Piccini, Zezts. An. Chem. X1X, 295) this necessitates a divis-
ion of the elements into two classes. Manifestly, since it is
chiefly by the action of chemical force that we study the ele-
ments, the absence of such action cuts us off from our chief
means of finding out anything about them, and it is equally
clear that bodies so diverse cannot well be classified together.
If all attempts at bringing about the chemical union of these
gaseous elements with other bodies fail, I believe that we
should insist upon the existence of two classes of elements
and keep them distinct in all comparisons.

14 JOURNAL OF THE

Of course, we are quite at a loss to say just what chemical
force is, but it is believed to be determined by the electrical
condition of the atom. ‘Thus we have the elements which
show the action of chemical affinity varying from strongly
electro-positive to strongly negative. This electrical charge
of the atom seems to be a primitive, inherent property, and
so beyond our control or power tochange. At least no change
of the kind has ever been recognized and recorded. Sodium
remains positive and chlorine negative in spite of all that
may be done to them. We can, by uniting the two tempo-
rarily, cloak and neutralize their opposite natures, but the
original condition returns on their release,

Is it not fair to assume that argon, helium and’ their com-
panion gases, having no affinity, are without electrical charge
—atoms from which the electrical charge has been with-
drawn; the deadest forms of inanimate matter? Were they
thus without electro-chemical properties and affinity from the
beginning, or did they start out as ordinary atoms (if I may
so call them), and somehow, somewhere lose these properties,
and with them the power of entering into union of any kind,
even of forming molecules, doomed to unending single ex-
istence? Can these be changed atoms of some of our well-
known elements, a step nearer to the primal elements and
with the electrical charge lost? Is it possible for us to bring
about these changes? May we not unwittingly have done so
at some time or other in the past? Is it possible to restore
the electrical charge to such atoms, and so to place them once
more on a footing of equality with elements of the conven-
tional type? These and many other questions surge through
the mind as one thinks of these wonderful gases. Perhaps
the coming century will unfold the answers.

THE NATURE OF VALENCE.

By F. P. VENABLE. 1

The term ‘‘ valence” is variously defined as the ‘‘combining
capacity,” or ‘‘capacity of saturation,” ‘‘quantitative com-
bining power,” or ‘‘chemical value of the atom.” It is well
known that the introduction of this idea into chemistry was
due to the development of. the type theory, a system which
had at first purely empirical basis. Sixty years ago there
was still some hesitation as to the acceptance of the atomic
theory or the need for such a theory. Much use was made of
the term equivalent, which had been Wollaston’s expedient
for avoiding the difficulties arising from the full adoption of
the theory of atoms. |

Wollaston had been himself very far from consistent in the
use of the term. The numbers called by him ‘equivalent
weights’ were not infrequently atomic and molecular weights
and fully as hypothetical as the so-called atomic weights of
Dalton. Inthe later use of the term it signified solely the
numbers obtained by analysis without the introduction of any
theoretical considerations. Thus, on analyzing ammonia,
the ratio

N’: Hse
is gotten, and therefore the equivalent of nitrogen is 4.6.
Strange to say the equivalent given by Wollaston corresponds
with the present atomic weight, whereas the atomic weight
given by Dalton corresponds with what would be the equiva-
lent.

It is manifest that the idea of equivalents needed some-
thing more than the simple theory of atoms to make it clear
and tenable. It embodied two distinct conceptions and if we
hold to an atomic theory we must introduce a further explan-
atory theory of the saturation capicity of these atoms. This

1 Address, as chairman, delivered before the North Carolina Section,

16 JOURNAL OF THE

is the theory of valence or quantivalence or atomicity, and
without it the equivalents are purely empirical, and it is most
difficult if not impossible to clear up the confusion connected
with their use.

Returning now to the derivation of this idea of valence
from the type theory, according to Wurtz’ the conception of
valence was introduced into the science in three steps. First
there was the discovery of polyatomic compounds. This
term was first used by Berzelius in 1827’, he applying it to
such elements as chlorine or fluorine where he thought sever-
al atoms of these elements united with a single atom of an-
other element. ‘The term was later applied by Graham, Wil-
liamson, and others to compounds.

The second step was the reference of this polyatomicity to
what was called the state of saturation of the radicals con-
tained in these compounds. ‘This was largely through the
work of Williamson and Gerhardt.

Thirdly, this conception of saturation was extended to the
elements themselves. ‘This was chiefly due to the work of
Frankland upon the organo-metallic compounds. And so
valence has come to refer to the number of atoms with which
a single atom of any element will combine.

This conception has then been one of slow growth, gradu-
ally incorporating itself into the science as the necessity arose
of devising a suitable explanation for accumulated observa-
tions. It was a logical outcome of and was evolved from
knowledge acquired step by step. It was no mere speculation
or hypothesis, such as that of Prout, evolved by the fancy
or imagination of one man and suddenly appearing with”
scarcely a claim to foundation upon observed fact.

This conception enters into the chemical theory of to-day
almost as fundamentally as the atomic theory itself. Its ap-
plication is of every-day occurrence and of the most varied
character, and yet chemists admit that the nature of valence
is one of their chief puzzles and they have advanced but little
towards its solution during the past half century. It is quite

1 Historie des doctrines chimiques, p. 69.
2Jsb. d. Chem., 7, 89.

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY 17

possible that the ideas to be advanced in the further discus-
sion of this subject in this paper will meet with opposition.
Certainly they should be fully and freely discussed if they are
worthy of it. I believe that they form astep toward the
clearing up of the mystery of valence.

It is necessary, however, first to trace somewhat further
the development of the original conception. One of its ear-
liest and most important applications was to the study of the
constitution of the compounds of carbon. Here Kekulé as-
sumed for carbon a constant valence of four, and this idea is
still dominant in theories relating to the constitution of these
bodies, It was quite natural then that the first belief should
have been in a constant valence. It was speedily found,
however, that in certain cases, as in the compounds of nitro-
gen and phosphorus, this belief was scarcely tenable. There
were efforts at making it hold good, as, for instance, a dis-
tinction was drawn between atomic and molecular com-
pounds, but all of these suggestions have been proved unsat-
isfactory. -

We unquestionably have to account for the existence of a
compound with three atoms and another with five atoms in
the cases of nitrogen and phosphorus and there are many sim-
ilar anomalies. Here the valence seems to vary toward one
and the same element. Cases might be multiplied to show
also that it varies often towards different elements. Thus it
frequently happens that the valence of an element towards
hydrogen seems to be quite different from that exhibited to-
ward oxygen. For a long time there was much straining to
consider the valence of an element always the same but this
effort is, in large measure, abandoned now as unavailing and
chemists admit that valence is not constant but variable and
may even vary towards one and the same element.

The doctrine of valence has had much added to it about
bonds, affinities, and linkage, the necessity for which one may
well question. Certainly the misuse of the word affinity, see-
ing its other and greater use, should be earnestly discounten-
anced. I am inclined to think that the other terms bring in
false and misleading ideas which should be carefully guarded

2

18 JOURNAL OF THE

against. Atany rate all hypothetical talk about strong bonds,
and weak bonds, double bonds and triple is to be avoided?

If then valetice varies, can it be an inherent property of the
unchanging atoms? Experiments have shown that it varies
with the nature of the combining element, that it varies with
the temperature and with other conditions. It is not depend-
ent upon the atomic weight in the same sense as other prop-
erties are dependent upon it. ‘Thus in the same group the
valence remains the same whether the atoms weigh nine times
as much as hydrogen or two hundred times as much.

We seem shut up to the conclusion that valence is not one
of the primitive inherent properties of the atom but is rela
tive, It is rather to be regarded as the resultant of the mutu-
al influence of the atoms of the combining elements, The
clear grasping of this idea is an importhant step forward.
Unfortunately the distinction is not always made nor consist-
ently adhered to.

It may not be amiss to cite here the utterance of Lothar
Meyer in regard to the question of a constant or variable va-
lence:?

‘*Since the aim of all scientific investigation is to exhibit
the most variable phenomena as dependent upon certain active
invariable factors taking part in them and in such a manner
that each phenomenon appears to be the necessary result of
the properties and reciprocal action of these factors, then itis
clear that chemical investigation would be considerably ad-
vanced were it possible to prove that the composition of chem-
ical compounds is essentially determined by the valency of the
atoms and the external conditions under which these atoms
react upon one another. ‘The first necessary step in this di-
rection has been made in the attempt to explain the regulari-
ties observed in the composition of chemical compounds, by the
assumption of a constant power of saturation or an invaria-
ble valency of the atom. The opposite and equally hypothet-
ical assumption that the valency is variable leads to no ad-
vancement.

‘The first step towards progress in this matter would be

1 Modern Theories of Chemistry, Eng, Trans., p, 303.

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY 19

made if some hypothesis as to the cause of this variability
were proposed. This difference between the two attitudes has
seldom been properly realized. While some chemists, accept-
ing the constant valency of atoms, have attempted to deduce
the varying atomic linking frem one distinct point of view,
others have considered it sufficient to have assigned to the
atom of a particular element in one compound one valency,
and in another compound a different valency, according as
this or that value appeared the most suitable, and thus to
have given a so-called explanation of the composition of the
compounds in question. In this way the fact has been over-
looked, that an arbitrary interpretation carried out by means
of chosen hypotheses, cannot be regarded as an attempt ata
scientific explanation, but is nothing more than an expression
of our ignorance of the causal connection of the phenomena
An explanation would require that the different valencies as-
signed to one and the same element in different compounds,
should be traced to a different cause. If, for instance, it is
stated that carbon in carbon dioxide possesses double the val-
ency which it possesses in carbon monoxide, such a statement
is no explanation of the fact thae an atom of carbon in the
former compound is combined with twice as much oxygen as
in the latter, for such a statement is merely a paraphrase
which hides its incompetency by assuming the form of an ex-
planation. Although this may be perceived without further
remark, still it has frequently occurred during the past few
years that similar paraphrases have not only been proposed
but also accepted as real explanations of such phenomena.
Just as it was formerly supposed that the assumption of a vi-
tal force dispensed with a complete investigation of the phe-
nomena of animal life, somany chemists have of late thought
that they possessed in ‘ variable valency,’ a means of explain-
ing the varying stoichiometric relationships which would sat-
isfy all claims. Such deceptions can only retard the advance
of the science, since they prevent an earnest and thorough in-
vestigation of the question, whether each atom is endowed
with a property determining and limiting the number of atoms
with which it can combine, dependent upon the intrinsic na-

20 JOURNAL OF THE

ture of the atom and like it invariable ; or whether this ability
is variable and with it the nature of the atom itself.”

It is not strange that this line of reasoning should lead
Lothar Meyer to doubt the unvarying nature of the atom it-
self, and thus losing his grasp upon one invariable to make
sure of another. He says: ‘‘It is by no means impossible
that the magnitudes which we now style atoms, may be va-
riable in their nature.”

It will be an unfortunate day for chemists when the belief
in the unchanging atom is given up. Chaos will indeed enter
into all of our theories when this, the foundation rock, is left
at the mercy of every shifting tide of opinion and can be
shaken by all manner of unfounded hypotheses.

The case cannot be so hopeless as to necessitate calling to
our aid so dangerous a doctrine. Before turning to such an
expedient let us first make all possible use of our atomic the-
ory asitstands. The extension of this theoiy teaches that
the atoms are endowed with motion and this motion
probably varies in velocity and phases with the different ele-
ments. So too when the atoms unite the resulting molecule
has a certain motion peculiar go it while the atoms composing
it have an intra-molecular motion in which their original mo-
tions are probably modified by their influence upon one an-
other, It is quite manifest then that a molecule, in order to
exist, must maintain a certain equilibrium and harmony be-
tween these various motions, and that there can be all degrees
of equilibrium from the very stable to that which may be up-
set by the least disturbing influence from without.

It seems to me that herein we have a full and satisfactory
means of explaining the various problems connected with the
conception of valence. ‘The question as to whether the atoms
of two elements will unite is decided by affinity, which is in
some way connected with the electrical condition of these
atoms. ‘There is no apparent connection between this and va-
lence. ‘The number of atoms which enter into combination
forming one molecule is purely a matter of equilibrium and is
dependent upon the motion of those atoms. ‘Thus a phospho-
rus atom unites with chlorine atoms because of acertain affin-

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY Ae

ity between them. The number of chlorine atoms with which
it will unite depends upon the possibility of harmonizing the
respective motions, As the temperature may affect these
motions and also impart a more rapid molecular motion, it is
evident that the harmony, or equilibrium, will depend upon
the temperature and that a temperature may be reached at
which no harmony is possible and hence no compound can be
formed. ‘The phosphorus atom mentioned can, as we know,
form a stable molecule with five atoms of chlorine, On in-
creasing the temperature this becomes unstable and only three
atoms can be retained. Neither with four atoms nor with
two is there harmony of motion. A sufficiently high temper-
ature may prevent any harmony of motion whatever being at-
tained and hence union may become impossible.

As to other influences than those of temperature, we can
see that the equilibrium between the atom of phosphorus and
the five atoms af chlorine may be upset by such a molecule
coming within the influence, electrical or vibratory, of a mol-
ecule of water. The atoms must rearrange themselves for a
new state of equilibrium and so an atom of oxygen takes the
place of two atoms of chlorine, giving again a condition of
harmony. In other cases the motion of the molecule of water
may be of such a character as to directly harmonize with that
of the original molecule and so to enter into equilibrium with
it, a definite number of such molecules of water affording a
condition of maximum stability. This we call water of crys-
tallization. Such:'molecules would be more or less easily sep-
arated by an increase of temperature and where several mole-
cules of water were attached the highest temperature would
be necessary for freeing the original molecule from the last
water molecule. |

A carbon atom finds its most perfect state of equilibrium
where four atoms of hydrogen or their equivalent move in har-
mony with it. But there is a second state of equilibrium
where only half that number of atoms are moving with it.
This state does not seem to be a possibility where there are
hydrogen atoms but is readily possible where the equivalent
number of oxygen atoms is concerned. Such a molecule, how-

22 JOURNAL OF THE

ever, is always in a condition to take up additional atoms until
its highest equilibrium is reached and in doing this it proceeds
by the regular steps needed for bringing about a harmony of
motion. A molecule in a lower state of equilibrium we have
become accustomed to call unsaturated, calling that one satu-
rated which is in its highest state of equilibrium. The fur-
ther application of this hypothesis is easily made and need
not be dwelt upon here, It will be helpful in many ways.

This theory of valence makes it clear why it should vary
toward the same element under different conditions. It is also
clear that it might vary towards different elements as these
are very possibly possessed of different motions. It is further
evident that it is in accord with the conclusion that valence is
not an inherent property of the individuai atom but is the re-
sultant of the influence upon each other of the combining
atoms,

Only one point remains to be considered: Why do the. ele-
ments of the same group have practically the same valence?
The nearest answer to this, and it seems satisfactory, is that
they are all possessed of the same phase or kind of motion. In
other words the natural division into periods gives us seven or
eight more or less different phases. These are, in large meas-
ure, independent of the atomic weight. And so the elements
in any given group have the same tendency towards similar
states of equilibrium in forming compounds with any other ele-
ment, as hydrogen or oxygen. Some elements, as copper,
mercury, tin, etc., are peculiar in that they may change their
phase of motion under certain influences, acting then as if
they belonged to different groups and entering into totally
different states of equilibrium in forming their compounds,

Lastly it is possible for a combination of atoms of different
elements, as NH* or CN, to have such molecular and intra-
molecular motion that, although not in a state of equilibrium
themselves, they are capable of entering into such states just
as the single atoms of elements do, having apparently similar
valence.

I might develop this theory much further but it is unneces-
sary now. Enough has been said to show that such an appli-

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY 23

cation of the atomic theory is most highly important as a step
towards the clearing up of the problems springing from the
conception of valence and from the periodic system.

NVote.—Since certain points in this paper require treatment
at greater length than was practicable in an address, it will
be followed by a second paper elaborating such portions.

THE NATURE OF VALENCE.
[SECOND PAPER |

As the preceding paper upon this subject was in the form of
an address before one of the local sections of the society, the
hypothesis as to the cause of valence there suggested was
given in outline only and could not be enlarged upon as far as
may have been necessary. In the present paper it is proposed
to elaborate certain points and to test, as far as possible, the
reasonable nature of the hypothesis.

While the whole subject of valence has been much catPuseny
and the use of some of the terms connected with it unfortun-
ate, no part of it has given greater trouble than its variabil-
ity. This is the very point, however, which affords the best
clew to its solution and should therefore be treated at some
length.

The most instructive cases of varying valence are those
where the variation is shown towards the same element,
as in the compounds PCl, and PCI,, FeCl, and FeCl,,
Hg,O and HgO, CO and CO,, and many other similar
compounds. There are two possible views regarding
these. Hither the valence varies or the valence remains
the same aud the differences are explained by some such
assumption as that of a state of saturation of the atom
and of various unsaturated states.

24 JOURNAL OF THE

The terms ‘saturated’ and ‘unsaturated’ present a
number of anomalies as commonly used. In the first
place the term saturated is not always used for that con-
dition of the atom in which it is united with the largest
number of other atoms. ‘Thus, ferrous oxide (FeO) is
called unsaturated, and ferric oxide (Fe,O,) saturated,
though there is a larger proportion still of oxygen in fer-
ric acid and the ferrates. The same is true of the three
series of manganese and chromium compounds.

Again the term saturated does not carry with it any defin-
ite relation to the stability of the compound. Sometimes the
compound called unsaturated, and containing the least num-
ber of atoms is the most stable, sometimes that with the larg-
est number. Phosphorus trichloride is more stable than the
pentachloride, but the pentoxide is more stable than the tri-
oxide. The most stable of the manganese compounds are the
so-called unsaturated manganous salts; in the case of chrom-
ium it would appear to be the chromic salts. In the case of
carbon the saturated compounds are the most stable. It is
manifest that these two terms cannot cover all cases of com-
bination for a number of elements. It would seem wiser and
simpler then to speak of the valence directly when discussing
the elements, as bivalent carbon or quadrivalent carbon; bi-
valent or trivalent iron, etc. In the case of carbon com-
pounds the terms have acquired a somewhat different mean-
ing and are too thoroughly incorporated in the literature for
achange to be suggested. Saturated here means a com-
pound which can take on no further atoms by addition,
while an unsaturated compound can have such atoms add-
ed.

Certain cases of change of valence, as in cuprous and cup-
ric compounds, mercurous and mercuric, ferrous and ferric,
etc., have been looked upon as presenting some peculiar rela-
tionships, Such cases are spoken of by some as if they oc-
curred among positive elements only. It is not clear how
any distinction can be drawn between these and the classes
phosphorus and phosphoric, sulphurous and sulphuric, ni-

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY 35

trous and nitric, chlorous and chloric, etc. A possible dis-
tinction might be made that the more negative the element
the greater the number of changes of valence; the more pos-
itive the element the less variation in valence is observed.
This would be an approximation only.

So great is the difference caused by this variation in the
valence that some have even thought it best to atrange what
have been called the lower and higher stages under different
groups. ‘Thus Mendeléeff placed cuprous copper in Group I,
and cupric copper in Group VIII; aurous gold in Group I and
auric gold in Group VIII. Such an arrangement would, how-
ever, greatly confuse the periodic system. Mercury,thallium,
chromium. manganese, phosphorus, arsenic, sulphur, selen-
ium, and others would have to be similarly provided for. It
is better to retain them in the positions to which their atomic
weights would assign them and to study them more thorough-
ly, so that we may understand why certain elements, as cop-
per, gold, and mercury show this peculiarity while others
closely akin to them, as silver, zinc, and cadmium, do not.
In studying the nature of valence from the standpoint of its
variability, the means by which these variations can be
brought about must have an important bearing upon the sub-
ject. ‘There are a number of these agencies.

Light.—It is a matter of common observation that light
can bring about physical, and the most varied chemical,
transformations. In some cases it is apparent that the trans-
formation is one from a higher to a lower valence or vice ver-
sa. ‘Thus, certain mercurous compounds can be changed to
mercuric.

Hg,O = HgO+Heg.
An alcoholic solution of ferric chloride is changed by light to
ferrous chloride.

2FeCl,+C,H,O = 2FeCi,4+-C,H,O-+2HCI1.
Ferric oxalate under the influence of light gives off carbon
dioxide and becomes ferrous oxalate.

Fe,(C,0,);=2Fe(C,O,)+2CO,. —
An alcoholic solution of cupric chloride becomes cuprous

26 JOURNAL OF THE

chloride. Mercuric chloride in aqueous solution is slowly
changed to mercurous when exposed to the light.

2H¢gCl,+ H,O =-2HgCl4+ 2HC1+0.
Gold chloride (AuCl,), in contact with organic substances,
when exposed to light, is changed first to aurous chloride
(AuCl) and then to metallic gold.

It is quite well known that aray of light falling upon a
piece of selenium changes its conducting power for electric-
ity. This is not a change of valence but has, it would seem,
its bearing upon the problem as a possible change in vibra-
tion. The chemical action of light is generally attributed to
the vibrations set up among the molecules. Rays having the
shortest wave-lengths and the greatest frequency are most
active in this respect though all the rays of the visible spec-
trum have been shown to exert some action. So far as this
variation in valence is caused by light then the hypothesis of
a change in vibration necessitating a change in equilibrium
may well serve as an explanation.

Heat.—Again these variations are often easily brought
about by changes of temperature. Thus cupric chloride be-
comes cuprous chloride.

CuCl, =CuCl+Cl.
Mercurous chloride is temporarily changed into mercuric, the
mercurous re-forming npon cooling.

2H¢gCl—=H¢g+ HgCl,.

Phosphorus pentachloride becomes the trichloride.

PC1,=PCl, + Cl,.
Arsenic pentoxide becomes trioxide.

| As,O,= As,0,+O,.

An interesting series of changes are those in the sulphur
chlorides. Thus sulphur tetrachloride (SCl,) becomes sul-
phur dichlorine (SCl,), if warmed above —22°, and this be-
comes sulphur monochloride (S,Cl,), if heated above 64°.
This last can be boiled without change.

These instances might be multiplied but it is not necessary.
The most plausible explanation offered as to the effect of

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY 27

heat is a change in the velocity of vibration, and it may is
serve to explain the variations caused in valence.

Electricity.—Changes of valence due to electricity are prob-
ably not unusual but few observations concerning them have
been recorded. One of the most noteworthy is the produc-
tion of carbon monoxide from carbon dioxide by the passage
of the electric spark.

CO,=CO-+0.

Chemical Action.—The most usual method of bringing
about a change of valence is by chemical action. When the
change is from a higher proportion of the negative element
to a lower itis commonly called reduction, and the reverse
change is spoken of as oxzdation. 'These terms are apparent-
ly relics of an older theory, and are confusing, cspecially to a
student beginning the study of chemistry. They should be
limited to cases of the actual removal or addition of oxygen.
Thus, to speak of the change of ferrous to ferric chloride by
the action of chlorine as an oxidation is careless and incor-
Fect.

FeCl,+Cl=FeCl,.
It is pushing the type theory rather far to speak of the salts
of one valence as being derived from the oxide of that val-
ence and yet this is frequently done.

When we take ferric chloride and let sulphurous acid act
upon it, it is called a reduction of the ferric chloride to fer-
rous chloride, although certainly no oxygen is removed from
the ferric chloride nor-is oxygen added when the ferrous
chloride is changed again to ferric chloride by the action of
nitric acid, and still this is called an oxidation. The use of
terms for these reactions is evidentiy in need of revision.
What shall we call the following reaction, cited by Drechsel
as an ‘‘oxidizing action?”
2K MnO,+10FeSO,+8H,S0,=

5Fe,(SO,),+K,SO,+-2MnS0,+8H,0.
Some hydrogen is oxidized with the formation of water but
that is not what is meant. The manganese is changed from
its highest valency to its lowest and the iron from its low-

28 JOURNAL OF THE

est to a higher. The permanganate is of course. deoxidiz-
ed. |

It seems that chemical action may induce change when to
an existing molecule a third substance is offered capable of
combining with one or more of its constituent atoms, thus re-
leasing the former equilibrium. Thus when sulphurous acid
takes the oxygen of water setting hydrogen free the hydro-
gen then takes one of the chlorine atoms held by the iron.

FeCl,+H,SO,+H,O=H,SO,.2HC1+2FeCl,.

But the presence of all three of these molecules is needed
for the reaction to take place. So too, potassium perman-
ganate is stable in the presence of sulphuric acid, unless the
ferrous sulphate or some such molecules are present. When
molecules of these three substances come together there is
immediate rearrangement of molecules with change of equil-
ibrium. Whether we are dealing here with a play of affinity
which causes the tumbling down of certain molecules and
building up of others, or whether it is a question of vibra-
tory equilibrium between these molecules, cannot yet be told.
The only certain thing seems to be that a molecule contain-
ing bivalent iron and another containing septivalent man-
ganese cannot exist in the presence of one another but must
change, when possible, to trivalent iron and bivalent man-

ganese.

As meagre as our present knowledge is, it does not seem to
be a very hopeful task to enter the maze of changes of val-
ence through chemical reactions with a view to clearing up
the ideas as to the nature of valence.

Explanations Offered.—Victor Meyer and Riecke have sup-
posed that a solution of the problem could be arrived at best
by studying the phenomena of frictional electricity, contact
electricity, pyro-electricity, and electrolytic conductivity.
Most of those who have suggested hypotheses have based
them upon a study of the carbon atom and its compounds and
in particular its space relations. I have gathered together
such of these hypotheses as have come to my notice.

The first in point of time is the hypothesis of van’t Hoff’.

1 Ansichten iiber die organische Chemie I. 3.

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY 29

His idea is that valence is dependent upon the form of the
atom... He says; ‘‘The simplest observation teaches that
every change from the spherical form must lead to greater
changes in the attraction in certain directions, since the atom
at these points can, so to say, be more closely approached.
Each form of that kind therefore determines a certain num-
ber of capacities for attraction or valences.”

Ostwald’ comments upon this hypothesis as follows:

“Tf we think of valence as a question of a property of the
atom, whose action can be modified by the difference in the
condition of the atom, especially in its motion, then it is
thinkable that although the cause of the valence is un-
changeable, the workings of this cause, that is the valence
itself seems to differ from case to case.

An hypothesis of this kind has in fact been suggested by
van’t Hoff. In that he assumed that the chemical attraction
between the atoms was'a consequence of gravitation, he
showed that if an atom possessed a form differing from the
spherical the intensity of the attraction on its surface must
possess a definite number of Maxima. ‘The Maxima can be
of varying value. If the motion of the atom from heat is en-
ergetic only the greatest Maxima will be able to hold their
atoms and the valence shows itself to be smaller by higher
temperatnres than by lower which-corresponds with observa-
tion.

Lossen’s’ idea as to valence, deduced from the considera-
tion of the theories of van’t Hoff and Wislicenus as to the
space relations of the atom, seem to be condensed into the
simple sentence:

‘“This conception leads, in my opinion, necessarily to the
assumption that the polyvalent atom cannot be regarded asa
material point but that rather parts of it are to be distin-
guished from which the influence goes out to other atoms.”

Wislicenus® expressed his ideas as to valence as follows:

‘‘T consider it not impossible that the carbon atom more or

1 Lehrbuch der allg. Chemie I ed. I, 830.

2Ber. d. Chem. Ges. 20, 3309.
3 Ber. d. Chem. Ges. 21, 581.

30 JOURNAL OF THE

less, perhaps right closely, resembles in its form a regular
tetrahedron; and further that the cause of those influences
which reveal'themselves as units of affinity concentrate them-
selves in the corners of this tetrahedron herhaps, and from
analogous grounds, just as the electric influences would do
from an electrically charged metallic tetrahedron. The real
carriers of this energy would be the primitive atoms as the
chemical energy of a compound radical is undoubtedly the re-
sultant inherent energy of the elementary atoms.

Victor Meyer and Riecke' advanced the hypothesis that the
atom is surrounded with a spherical shell of ether: the atom
is the seat of chemical affinity, the surface of the ether shell
that of valence. Hach valence is determined by the presence
of two oppositely electrified poles which form the ends of a
line short in comparison with the thickness of the shell.

The hypothesis of Knorr’ may also be given in brief. He
assumes in each atom the presence of Valenzk6rper which
have the power of attracting other Valenzkérper. The
quantivalence of any atom is determined by the number of
these present. |

Flawitzky’ takes as a basis tor his hypothesis the sugges-
tion of N. Beketoff that the cause of the chemical interaction
of the elements lay in the interference or coincidence of the
motions of the atoms. The chief assumption is that the
atoms of each element described closed curves which lie in
planes, which are parallel to one another and have a con-
stant absolute position in space. The atoms of different ele-
ments move in planes which made definite constant angles
with one another. According to Flawitzky, thus, ‘‘the val-
ences of the elements can be refered to the differences in the
angles between the planes of the paths of the different

, atoms.”

It is quite possible that other hypotheses as to valence

have been formulated but have escaped my notice. These

1 Ber. d. Chem, Ges. 21, 951.
Ann. Chem. (Liegbig) 279, 202.
3Ztchr. Amorg. Chem. 12, 182.

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY 31

will suffice to give the more recent trend of thought upon the
subject. I may state that none of these were known to me
when the first paper was sent on for publication’ as I had not
deemed it necessary to look beyond the usual text-books in
examining into the literature upon the subject. This state-
ment is not made for personal reasons as that is a matter of
small moment, but that there may attach to my hypothesis
whatever of value there is in the independent reaching of a
conclusion.

It is not pertinent to this paper to discuss at any length
the citations just given. But a few words are needed to
bring out certain differences and distinctions. In most of
them we have the assumption of some peculiar form of en-
ergy—an ‘‘Anziehungskraft.” Flawitzky alone makes no
explicit assumption of the kind. Besides this assumed force,
which is the point of contention after all, we have various
other assumptions of a remarkable character; ¢. 9., as to the
forms of atoms, envelopes, primal atoms, and Valenzkorper.
Flawitzky’s hypothesis is based upon the angles made _ be-
tween the planes in which the atoms move.

Now in the place of all this I wish to substitute that which
seems to me to be the simpler hypothesis of vibratory equil-
ibrium. There is only one attractive force to be considered
and this is called chemical affinity and causes the union of
the atoms, binding them together. These atoms may unite
atom with atom,or one atom with two or three or more atoms
of the other element or other elements, While we speak of
union there is no actual contact to be assumed. The indi-
vidual atoms have their own motion and at the same time
the aggregation of atoms, or molecule, has a motion proper
to it. ‘The conditions of equilibrium in such a system deter-
mine the number of atoms which can enter it: as one to one,
one to two, etc. ‘There is no distinct force of valence deter-
mining this. The form of the atoms can scarcely be taken
into consideration because the distance between the atoms is
too great, compared with the mass of the atom, for the form

1In the Journal of the American Chemical Society,

3 JOURNAL OF THE

to exert much influence, unless it influences the character of
the motion. The atomic weight also has little influence in
determining the number of atoms needed to satisfy the condi-
tions of equilibrium except that there seems to be a general
rule that with increase in the atomic weight in any one group
more stable equilibrium is brought about with the smaller
number of atoms and in a choice between several the lesser
valence is preferred. (Compare nitrogen and bismuth; sul-
phur and tellurium.)

There would then appear to be seven, possibly eight,differ-
ent kinds of motion among the atoms. Different velocities of
vibration are not meant, but different phases of motion. For
instance, all may have elliptical orbits with different: focal
distances; or circular, with different radii, etc. In any group
of elements the motion of the atoms would have one common
characteristic but there would be differences in velocity. In
the first and seventh group, showing, for the most part, a
tendency towards the same equilibrium, or having the same
valence, the motion must be closely analogous. So too for
the second and sixth groups, the third and fifth. There may
then be a necessity for four distinct phases only, unless we
suppose a fifth for the eighth group. If the motion of an
atom can be changed from one character to another its val-
ence is changed and in such general properties as are depen-
dent upon motion and not upon atomic weight it is equivalent
to changing its group, Electricity, light, heat, and chemical
action can cause this change of motion. Insofar the prop-
erties of the element are subject to change and within our
control. But the other factor, atomic weight, with the prop-
erties of the element determined by it, is not subject to
change nor within our control, so far as our knowledge
goes.

While it is freely granted that there is so much of the spec-
ulative in what has been said as to make us touch the whole
subject with extreme caution, and while it is further admitt-
ed that it is quite beyond the reach of present experimental
research, yet it is believed that the use of the imagination is
legitimate and tends toward the advancement of the science

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY 33

so long as the true value is set upon it and fancy is not allow-
.ed to obscure fact nor to be mistaken for it. "The hypothesis
proposed is simple and if true will be very helpful. It will be
a great step forward if it can be shown that the doctrine of
valence is a doctrine of vibratory equilibrium.

PRELIMINARY CATALOGUE OF THE BIRDS OF
CHAPEL HILL, N. C., WITH BRIEF NOTES
ON SOME OF THE SPECIES.

T. GILBERT PEARSON.

INTRODUCTION.

In this catalogue are enumerated the species of birds,
known to have been observed and positively identified at
Chapel Hill. While the list is incomplete, and is presented
only as a preliminary catalogue, the author expresses the
hope that it may prove of use to those interested in the orni-
thology of the region, and that it may serve asa basis for
more extended observations. In addition to the enumeration
of the species, the paper contains some brief notes on the mi-
gration and nesting habits of such forms as have come under
the writer’s observation at Chapel Hill.

The difficulty of preparing a complete catalogue of the
birds may be readily understood when we recall the fact that
the bird population is constantly changing, The great wave
of the autumnal migration carrying large numbers of north-
ern birds past us, at the same time taking many of our sum-
mer forms, scarcely subsides, before the swell sets back from
the south, sweeping hosts of birds of passage to us on their
northern journey. Some migrants found to be numerous
during the fall migration may be extremely rare in the spring,

and wice versa. Birds which nosmally do not occur in a
3

34 JOURNAL OF THE

region are sometimes taken, having wandered, or having
been driven by storms far out of their natural range. Incer- |
tain species some individuals are always migratory, while
others are permanent residents.

Again it is well known that a form which is abundant some
years, may be seen but rarely or not at all in after years.
The changing area of the food products for birds naturally
brings about a change in the area of their habitat. Hence it
may easily be seen that continual observation during a num-
ber of years is absolutely necessary before anything likea
complete list of the avz-fauna of a particular region can be
hoped for.

Data.—My observations on the bird life of Chapel Hill be-
gan in September 1897, and were continued up to the follow-
ing April; then again from September 1898 until June 1899.
With the exception of ten days in the latter part of June 1898,
I had no opportunity for studying the region in summer.
During the fall migration in 1897, the main part of which
extended over the month from September 15 to October 15, a
portion of twenty-one days was spent in the field in a special
study of the warblers. Sixteen species of warblers were se-
cured during this period.

In gathering material for the catalogue much assistance
was rendered by members of my ornithology class at the Uni-
versity of North Carolina, in 1898, and again during the
spring of 1899. Of those whose aid has been especially valua-
ble, I would mention Mr. George McNider, Mr, E. H. Hartley
and Mr. Ivy Lewis. I am indebted also to Dr. Kemp P. Bat-
tle, whose close observations on the birds of the neighbor-
hood, extending over a period of many years, I found very
valuable.

In the Journal of the Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society,
Part 2 for 1887, Prof. George F. Atkinson published a ‘‘ Pre-
liminary Catalogue of the Birds of North Carolina,” in the
preface of which he remarks, ‘‘In all, about 120 species have
been observed and absolutely identified by myself at Chapel
Hill.” In his catalogue, however, Professor Atkinson omits

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY 35

to indicate the species which he had there noted. A clipping
from the ‘‘ Raleigh News and Observer,” presumably printed
about this time has been kindly loaned me by Mrs. R. W.
McRae. The clipping contains a ‘‘Preliminary list of birds
collected in the vicinity of Chapel Hill,” by Professor Atkin-
son. In this communication are enumerated ninety-two
species. 'T'wo of the forms there mentioned have not been in-
cluded in the present list. The first of these, the tame
pigeon (Columbia livia domesticata), is excluded as not being
a native wild bird. ‘The other form, the clay-colored sparrow
(Spezella pallida), was listed by Professor Atkinson on the
strength of asingle specimen. This specimen is still pre-
served in the Biological Laboratory, and is a fair type of the
swamp sparrow (Melospiza georgiana). In the case of all
other birds, included in the News and Observer list, and with
which I have not myself met, mention is made of Professor
Atkinson as the observer.

My own observation in the field, specimens brought in by
others from time to time for identification, and Professor At-.
kinson’s two papers, constitute the data, from which the pres-
ent list has been compiled. In all one hundred and nineteen
species of birds at Chapel Hill have actually come under my
notice.

It may be of use to mention here some of the collections of
birds now in North Carolina, which are accessible to the
public. Inthe Biological Laboratory at the State University,
in Chapel Hill, there is a collection of some 350 skins and
mounted specimens, ‘ihe State Agricultural Museum at
Raleigh contains a becutiful collection of several hundred
mounted birds. The collection of birds in the Museum of
Natural History at Guiiford College is numerically nearly as
great. All of these collections are constantly growing.

The Field.—The field for the study of bird life about
Chapel Hill is in many respects a good one. The woods,
open fields, small strearis, and underbrush make a varied en-
vironment which tends to bring together large numbers of
forms. On the other hand the absence, in the immediate

36 JOURNAL OF THE

neighborhood, of large streams and ponds, keeps away many
varieties of ducks, sandpipers, and birds of similar habits.
Terms used.—The nomenclature adopted by the American
Ornithologists’ Union is followed, and the vernacular name
succeeds the scientific. In some cases well known local names
are also added. ‘The terms ‘‘common,” ‘‘rare,” ‘‘ abundant,”
etc., which are used in speaking of the occurrence of birds,
are of course relative and not altogether satisfactory, but
they may convey something of the original idea intended.

Family Podicipidae.

1. CoLyMBUS HOLBOELLII (Reinh.) MHolboell’s Grebe.
One specimen recorded by Prof. Atkinson, taken at Chapel
Hill in 1877. The skin is now preserved in the university
collection. |

2. PopILyMBUS PoDICEPS (Linn.) Pied-billed Grebe; Die-
dapper; Water-witch. One was shot near town and brought
me on November 3, 1897. Others have been taken but the
bird probably occurs only in winter.

Family Urinatoridae.

“>

3. URINATOR IMBER (Gunn.) Loon; Great ,Northern
Diver. Occurs only as a migrant or winter visitor. the two
specimens in the university collection bear no date of capture.

Family Anatidae.

4. Srx sponsa (Linn.) Wood Duck; Summer Ruck. A
male in fine plumage was killed in ‘‘!strowd’s low-grounds”
from a small flock by Mr. H. E. Mechling on January 3, 1898.
Others have been reported at various times. Possibly breeds.

Family Ardeidae.

5. BOTAURUS LENTIGINOSUS (Montag.) American Bittern;
Thunder Pumper. Recorded by Prof, Atkinson as occurring
at Chapel Hill.

6. ARDEA HERODIAS (Linn.) Great Blue Heron; Blue
Crane. ‘‘ These birds used to fly over here years ago but I
have not noticed one, Iam sure, for the past twenty years.”
—Dr. Kemp P. Battle.

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY 37

7. ARDEA EGRETTA (Gmel.) American Egret. A _ speci-
men was shot north of the village by the late Mr. Dedrick in
1894. Doubtless a rare summer straggler.

8. ARDEA VIRESCENS (Linn.) Green Heron. A common
summer resident about the mill-ponds and along the creeks.
A nest containing fresh eggs was found near the village by
Mr. George McNider during the first week of May 1899.

Family Rallidae.

9. PORZANA CAROLINA (Linn.) Sora. One in the univer-
sity collection was taken in November 1887, at Chapel Hill.

10. FuLicA AMERICANA (Gmel.) American Coot; Blue
Peter. The only record is by Prof. Atkinson. ‘‘One walked
into Mr. McCauley’s store at Chapel Hill on the night of
April 8, 1887, at 8 o’clock, and was captured. A heavy wind
and storm was prevailing, and had continued all day.”

Family Scolopacidae.

11. PHILOHELA MINOR (Gmel.) American Woodcock. A
rather common resident, but owing to its very retiring habits
is not often seen. Noticed one on the University campus
November 10, 1898.

12. GALLINAGO DELICATA (Ord.) Wilson’s Snipe; English
Snipe. Not uncommon in wi:ter and during migration.

13. Toranus soxuirarius (Wils.) Solitary Sandpiper.
Listed by Prof. Atkinson. This bird probably appears at
Chapel Hill only as a migrant or occasional winter visitor.

14. ACTITIS MACULARIA (Linn.) Spotted Sandpiper. Cat-
alogued by Prof. Atkinson. Its habits are quite similar to
those of the Solitary.

Family Charidriidae.
15. AEGIALITIS VOCIFERA (Linn.) Killdeer. The killdeer
is commonly met with during the fall and winter months.

It is highly probable, however, that it is a regular resident,
nesting in favorable localities in the surrounding country.

Family Tctraonidae.

16. COLINUS VIRGINIANUS (Linn.) Bob-white; Quail; Par-
tridge. An abundant resident at all times of the year.

38 JOURNAL OF THE

Family Phasianidae.

17. MELEAGRIS GALLOPAVO (Linn.) Wild Turkey. A resi-
dent at Chapel Hill. Have seen seven specimens. Four of
these were shot near town, and three I observed alive. In
November, 1898, one flew across the campus from the southern
side and pitched near the Episcopal church building. They
haunt at all seasons the large tract of woodland just south of
the University, and quite likely construct their nests in some
of the sedge fields near by.

Family Columbae.

18. ZENAIDURA MACROURA (Linn.) Mourning Dove. Of
common occurrence at all seasons. Its frail nest containing
two pure white eggs may often be found on the boughs of the
apple-tree or the horizontal limbs of the pine.

Family Cathartidae.

19. CATHARTES AURA (Linn.) Turkey Vulture; Turkey
Buzzard. A very common bird at all seasons of the year,
rearing its young usually in hollow logs or stumps in the deep
woods.

20. CATHARISTA ,ATRATA (Bartr.) Black Vulture; South
Carolina Buzzard. Watched a fiock of Black Vultures flying
northward over the campus November 1, 1897. On November
10 others were seen. During the winter of 1898-99 these
birds again appeared in the neighborhood. It is doubtful if
they ever breed in this region.

Family Falconidae.

21. Circus HUDSONIUS (Linn.) March Hawk. An adult
male was shot one mile east of town and brought to me on
April 5, 1899. This is the only record for Chapel Hill.

22. ACCIPITER VELOX (Wils.) Sharp-shinned Hawk. A
rather rare winter visitor. The mounted specimen in the
University collection was shot by Mr. George McNider on
January 23, 1898.

23. ACCIPITER COOPERI (Bonap.) Cooper’s Hawk. A com-
monresident. A nest of fresh eggs was taken by Mr. George

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY 39

McNider on April 29, 1898. This is the hawk whose inroads
on the poultry yard are most destructive.

24. BuTEO LINEATUR (Gmel.) Red-shouldered Hawk. While
it seems reasonable to think this would be a common bird here
only one pair have come to my notice. During the spring of
1898 a pair were often watched as they circled through the
air above the grove south of the University campus.

On May 9, 1899, I took from their nest in a pine tree, thirty
feet from the ground, a clutch of two handsomely marked
eggs. Incubation was well advanced at this date.

25. Burro LATissimus (Wils.) Broad-winged Hawk: The
only one of this species known to have been taken at Chapel
Hill is the one brought to me for identification by Mr. George
McNider on April 15, 1899, which specimen is still retained in
his private collection. It was a female and was shot a few
miles south of here. Its stomach contained the remains of a
frog and a quantity of bird feathers.

26. HALIAEERUS LEUCOCEPHALUS(Linn.) Bald Eagle; Amer-
ican Kagle. On March 27, 1898, I watched an adult bald ea-
gle circling about in the air near the northwestern entrance
of Battle’s Park. As the bird was not over one hundred yards
above the earth at the time, its white head, neck and tail
could be easily seen. It must be regarded as a very rare bird
in this section,

27. FALCO SPARVERIUS (Linn.) American Sparrow Hawk;
A moderately common resident hawk. Three fresh eggs
were found in a nest located in the cavity of a dead pine tree
in May, 1898, by Mr. K. H. Hartley. For the past two years
a pair of these birds have spent the winter months on the
University campus. Their favorite roost was under the eaves
of the New Kast Building.

Family Beronidae.

28. SYRNIUM NEBULOSUM (Forst.) Barred Owl; Hoot Owl,
Have frequently heard them calling in Battle’s Park, and Jan-
uary 18, 1899, a male, which had been wounded, was brought
into the Biological Laboratory.

29. Macascors asio (Linn.) Little Screech Owl. The

40 . JOURNAL OF THE

shivering notes of this little owl may be heard about the
groves and campus during all seasons of the year. Especially
is this true in the late summer when the young of the year,
then about grown, join with their parents in the nightly ser-
enade, Their nests are placed in the hollows of trees.

30. Buto Vircinianus (Gmel.) Great Horned Owl. For
a large bird the horned owl is a fairly common resident in this
region. Its domicile is usually located in the natural cavity
of some tree or in an old hawk or crow’s nest. The eggs are
deposited early in the year. A female shot on January 21,
1899, contained two well developed ovarian eggs.

Family Cuculidae.

31. Coccyzus AMERICANUS (Linn.) Yellow-billed Cuckoo ;
Rain Crow. A well known plaintive cry from orchard and
forest is the note of the rain crow in summer. It retires to
the south on the approach of autumn.

Family Alcedinidae.

32, CERYLE ALCyON (Linn.) Belted Kigfisher, Observed
occurring along the creeks in autumn, winter and spring. May
possibly breed.

Family Picidae.

33. DRYOBATES VILLOSUS AUDUBONII (Var?) Hairy Wood-
pecker. ‘Two specimens were taken during the winter of 18-
97-98. It is probably a rare resident.

34, DRYOBATES PUBESCENS (Linn,) Downy Woodpecker,
An abundant resident, associating often with the Titmouse
and Chicadee. The downy spends the long winter nights in
holes which it hollows out of the dead limbs of trees for this
purpose.

35. SPHYRAPICUS VARIUS (Linn.) Yellow-bellied Sapsucker.
A common winter form. It often girdles trees with numer-
ous small holes which it drills for the purpose of drinking the
sap. ‘The apple, spruce pine and maple are among the trees
which thus suffer.

36. CEOPHLOEUS PILEATUS (Linn.) Pileated Woodpecker.

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY 41

This large handsome woodpecker is not an uncommon bird in
Battle’s Park and adjoining woods. On November 8, 1897,
I watched one for many minutes pecking about on the trees in
the college campus. Without doubt the bird breeds in the
large timber near by.

37, MELANERPES ERYTHROCEPHALUS (Linn.) Red-headed
Woodpecker. A resident. Locally and occasionally com-
mon.

38. MELANERPES CAROLINUS (Linn.) Red-bellied Wood-
pecker, This large spotted ‘‘ sapsucker” is a not abundant
resident with us at all seasons.

39. COLAPTES AURATUS (Linn,) Flicker; Yellow Hammer.
‘An abundant resident. ‘This woodpecker has acquired the
habit of procuring its food so largely by digging it out of the
earth that it may now be regarded as more of a ground bird
than a dweller in trees.

Family Caprimulgidae.

40. ANTROSTOMUS CAROLINENSIS (Gmel.) Chuck-will’s-
widow. On the night of May 20, 1899, I listened to one of
these birds calling for over half an hour. It seems to be in
the neighborhood of the campus wall near the south-east cor-
ner. So far as I am aware this is the only record of its occur-
rence in Chapel Hill. It may possibly be found to be a rare
summer resident in Orange county.

41. ANTROSTOMUS VOCIFERUS (Wils.) Whip-poor-will. A
common summer visitor, depositing its two marble looking
eggs on the ground in the woods, with only a few dead leaves
‘ between them and the earth. The first one noted in the spring
of 1899 announced its arrival from the south by its loud cryon
the night of April 20.

42. CHORDEILES VIRGINIANUS (Gmel.) Nighthawk; Bull-
bat. A common spring and autumn transient. A few may
linger through the summer to breed. First one seen in 1899
was in the afternoon of April 27.

Family Micropodidae.

43, CHAETURA PELAGICA (Linn.) Chimney Swift; Chimney
4 -

492 JOURNAL OF THE

Swallow. A common summer resident, arriving from the
south early in April, First one noted for 1899 was on April
12. Before the white man came with his chimneys the swift
built its nest in hollow trees.

Family Trochilidae.

44. TRocHILus coLuBRIS (Linn.) Ruby-throated Hum-
mingbird. Of the four hundred species of hummingbird
known to occur in America, the ruby-throat is the only one
found east of the Mississippi. Itis a common summer resi-
dent at Chapel Hill, arriving during the latter half of April.

Family Tyrannidae.

45. TYRANNUS TYRANNUS (Linn.) Kingbird; Bee Martin.’

This little -pugilist, which does not hesitate to attack any in-
truder which comes near its nest, is a common summer resi-
dent about Chapel Hill.

46. Myiarcuus cCRINITUS (Linn.) Crested. Flycatcher. An
abundant summer resident, building its nest in cavities of
trees or stumps seldom more than twenty feet from the ground,
The bird has the habit of using among its other nesting ma-
terials a cast snake skin. First arrival for 1899 noted
April 21.

47, SAYORNIS PHOEBE (Lath.) Phoebe; Pewee. Summer
resident. First noted in 1899 on April 30. Eggs have been
taken by Mr. McNider.

48. CONTOPUS VIRENS (Linn.) Wood Pewee. Common
summer visitor.

49, KMPIDONAX VERESCENS (Vieill,) Acadian Flycatcher.

Listed for Chapel Hill by Prof. Atkinson. Probably a com-_

mon summer bird.
Family Aladidae.

50. OrocorIS ALPESTRIS (Linn,) Horned Lark; Shore Lark.
Two specimens were brought me on November 23, 1898. They
were said to have been shot from a flock of about twenty in-
dividuals. ‘This bird can be expected only as an irregular
winter visitor.

*

5 ee ee

‘BLISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY AR

Family Corvidae.

51. CYANOCITTA CRISTATA (Linn.) Blue Jay. An abundant
resident, nesting in large numbers in the trees about the cam-
pus and village. Asset of five eggs taken from a nest on May
11, 1899, were slightly incubated.

52. Corvus AmerRICANUS (Aud.) American Crow. Com-
mon bird. Breeds in numbers.

53. DoLICHONYX ORYzIoRUS (Linn,) Bobolink; Reedbird;
Ricebird. Occurs as a fall and spring migrant, but not acom-
mon species at any time. I noticed a flock of six individuals
consisting of two males and four females on the campus May
20, 1899.

54. AGELAIUS PHOENICEUS (Linn.) Red-winged Blackbird,
A resident, but nevera very abundant bird. It builds its nest
in the bushes and trees along creeks.

55. STURNELLA MAGNA. Meadowlark; Old Field Lark.
Of common occurrence in autumn and winter. During the
winter months of 1898-99 a flock of about forty individuals
remained constantly on the college campus. The birds may
possibly breed in limited numbers in this region.

56. IcTERUS sPpURIUS (Linn.) Orchard Oriole. Not an un-
common spring visitor, and very probably remains through
the summer to nest.

57. SCOLECOPHAGUS CAROLINUS (Mull.) Rusty Blackbird.
Two were shot by Mr. Ivy Lewis on Februrary 3, 1899, from
a small flock, which was feeding along the branch in the
grove just south of the campus. Later in the month several
others were seen.

58. QUISCULUS QUISCULA (Linn.) Purple Grakle. Mr. Mc-
Nider noted a small flock of these on Easter Monday, 1898.
On December 28, 1898, I saw one on the college campus. They
probably do not spend the summer in Orange county,

Family Fringillidae. :
59. CARPODACUS PURPUREUS(Gmel.) Purple Finch. An abun-
dant winter resident. They appear to have agreat relish for

the buds of the wahoo or winged elm ((//mus alata) and may
often be seen in large numbers feeding on these trees.

44 JOURNAL OF THE

60. PasseR pomEsTicus (Linn.) House Sparrow; English
Sparrow. An abundant resident. They multiply rapidly,
each pair of birds raising several broods in a season.

61. Sprnus TRisTis (Linn.) American Goldfinch; Yellow-
bird ; Lettuce bird. A familiar bird throughout the year.

62. POOCAETES GRAMINEUS (Gmel.) Vesper Sparrow ; Bay-
winged Bunting. Winter visitor, rather rare.

63. AMMODMRAMUS SANDWICHENSIS SAVANNA (Wils.) Savan-
na Sparrow. Common winter visitor.

64. AMMODRAMUS SAVANNARUM PASSERINUS (Wils.) Grass-
hopper Sparrow. Seen in winter and spring. A few may
breed.

65, ZONOTRICHIA ALBICOLLIS(Gmel.) White-throated Spar-
row. An abundant winter sejourner, associating in flocks of-
ten in comparty with the snowbird (/wuco). Earliest arrival
noted in 1897 was on October 4.

66. SPIZELLA MONTICOLA (Gmel.) Tree Sparrow. Listed
a ae Atkinson probably as a winter occurence.

. SPIZELLA SOCIALIS (Wils.) Cnipping Sparrow. One of
our ee abundant summer birds, building its nest in the
trees and bushes about the campus. First spring arrival
for 1899 was seen on April 11.

68. SPIZELLA PUSILLA (Wils.) Field Sparrow. Common
summer resident. It nests in low bushes or on the ground.

69. JUNCO HYEMALIS (Linn.) Slate-colored Junco; Snow-
bird. ‘This is one of our best known winter friends, and is
met with in numbers from the time of its arrival late in the
autumn until the warm April days. It then leaves for its
summer home in the north. ‘There is a common saying about
the country that this bird in the spring turns to a sparrow,
and in the fall of the year again assumes the dark coat and
hood of the snowbird. My first record of its arrival in the
fall of 1897 is October 30.

70. PEUCAEK AESTIVALIS BACHMANII (Aud.) Bachman’s
Sparrow. ‘‘One taken froma breeding pair by myself at
Chapel Hill. The nest was found by Willie Gullick; eggs 4,
size .63x.70, dull whitish; nest a bulky structure on the

ELISHA MITCHELL, SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY 45

ground made of coarse grasses.” —A/kinson’s Catalogue. Itis
probably a regular summer resident.

71. MELOSPIzZA FASCIATA (Gmel.) Song Sparrow. A com-
mon winter visitor. Its strong clear song is one of the char-
acteristic notes of a winter’s evening in the fields about
Chapel Hill.

72. MELOSPIZA GEORGIANA (Lath.) Swamp Sparrow. A
common winter visitor.

73. PASSERELLA ILIACA (Merr.) Fox Sparrow. This
handsome brown fellow, the largest of all our sparrows, is a
common though not an abundant winter bird. It avoids the
open fields and may be found along the borders of thickets
and in shrubbery. The first one seen by myself in the fall of
1897 was on November 17.

74. PIPILO ERYTHROPHTHALMUS (Linn.) ‘Towhee; Che-
wink; Swamp Robin. This is a common bird during the
migrations, haunting the thickets and the border of wooded
streams.

75. CARDINALIS CARDINALIS (Linn.) Cardinal; Redbird.
These beautiful and interesting birds are constant residents
in this region. Their nests, composed mainly of twigs and
leaves and lined with rootlets are generally situated in small
trees. ‘Three or four is the number of eggs deposited. May is
the usual month for breeding. |

76. HABIA LUDOVICIANA (Linn.) Rose-breasted Grosbeak.
A rare spring transient.

77. GUIRACA CAERULEA (Linn.) Blue Grosbeak. Recorded
by Prof. Atkinson. Found to occur only in the summer.

78. PASSERINA CYANEA (Linn.) Indigo Bunting; Indigo-
bird. An abundant summer resident, building its nest in
small trees and bushes a few feet from the ground,

Family Tanagridae.

79. PIRANGA ERYTHROMELAS (Vieill.) Scarlet Tanager.
Rather a rare spring transient. Have seen themin April and
May.

80. PIRANGA RUBRA (Linn.) Summer Tanager; Summer

ie 4*

46 JOURNAL OF THE

Red-bird. An abundant and conspicuous denizen of the
groves and orchards insummer. It constructs a nest of leaves,
small strips of bark, and grass, situated usually on a hori-
zontal limb from ten to twenty feet from the ground.

*.

Family Hirundinidae.

81. PROGNE suBIs (Linn.) Purple Martin. Have seen
only a few. These came as spring migrants. They would
likely spend the summer and breed, if suitable nesting places,
such as bird boxes on poles, were furnished them. I know of
none that nest here, nearer than eight miles from town. Dr.
Kemp P. Battle informs me that forty years ago these birds
were common summer residents.

82. CHELIDON ERYTHROGASTER (Bodd.) Barn Swallow.
Common transient.

83. TACHYCINETA BICOLOR (Vieill.) - Tree Swallow; White-
bellied Swallow. A common spring migrant.

84. STELGIDOPTERYX SERRIPENNIS (Oud.) Rough-winged
Swallow. A summer visitor. Eggs secured by Mr. McNider
from a hole in a clay bank in June 1899, I believe to be of this
species,

Family Ampelidae.

. 85, AMPELIS CEDRORUM (Vieill.) Cedax Waxwing : Cedar-
bird. The sad lisping notes of the cedar-bird is one of the
most common sounds in the winter forest. The birds at this
season usually associate in flocks of a few dozen individuals,
and are often found clinging to the boughs of cedar trees, the
berries of which they are very fond of eating. It probably
nests here.

Family Laniidae.

86. LANIUS LUDOVICIANUS (Linn.) Loggerhead Shrike.
Rather a rare winter visitor. I have observed six individuals
at Chapel Hill.

Family Vireonidae.

87. VIREO OLIVACEUS (Linn.) Red-eyed Vireo; ‘‘Hanging
bird.” A common summer form.

ELISHA MITCHELL, SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY 47

88. VIREO FLAVIFRONS (Nieill.) Yellow-throated Vireo.
One taken by myself May 20, 1899. Will doubtless be found
to be of regular summer occurrence.

89. VIREO SOLITARIUS (Wils.) Blue-headed Vireo. I se-
cured a specimen on October 8, 1897, and within a week three
other birds were seen. It may be looked for with success
only during the spring and autumn migrations.

90. VIREO NOVEBORACENSIS (Gmel.) White-eyed Vireo.
Prof. Atkinson records it as a ‘‘rare summer visitor.”

Family Mniotiltidae.

91. Mwnroriira vaAsia (Linn.) Black-and-White Creeping-
Warbler. Common summer resident, nesting on the ground
in the woods. Have found it more numerous during the fall
migration, This attractive little white and black striped
acrobat is apparently equally at home while searching for
food along the under side of a limb, or clinging head down-
ward on the huge bole of some forest tree.

92. HELMITHERUS VERMIVORUS (Gmel,) Worm-eating
Warbler. Listed by Prof. Atkinson.

93. COMPSOTHLYPIS AMERICANA (Linn.) Parula Warbler.
An abundant species in the spring and autumn, [s doubtless
a summer resident also.

94. DENDROICA AESTIVA (Gmel.) Yellow Warbler. Sum-
mer resident.

95. DENDROICA CAERULESCEUS (Gmel.) Black-throated
Blue Warbler. Common migfants. I have usually found
them haunting thickets bordering woodland streams.

96. DENDROICA CORONATA (Linn.) Myrtle Warbler; Yeli-
low-rumped Warbler. Plentiful in fall and spring, some re-
maining through the winter months.

97. DENDROICA MACULOSA (Gmel.) Magnolia Warbler. I
have found this a rare bird at Chapel Hill. Have taken only’
two specimens, one a male on September 24, 1897, the other a
female five days later.

98. DENDROICA PENNSYLVANICA (Linn.) Chestnut-sided
Warbler. Found only in transit. Have seen but one bird, it
being a male taken on September 21, 1897.

48 JOURNAL OF THE

99. DENDROICA CASTANEA (Wils.) Bay-breasted Warbler.
On October 2, 1897, about six o’clock in the morning I shot a
female D. castanea and on October 8, another, a male. They
are extremely rare birds, these being not only the first taken
at Chapel Hill but are the first recorded in North Carolina.
The skins of both specimens are preserved in the university
collection.

100. DENDROICA STRIATA (Forst.) Black-poll Warbler.
Rather rare transient. ‘Took a female on October 9, 1897.

101. DENDROICA BLACKBURNIAE (Gmel.) Blackburnian War-
bler. Have found this only as a rare bird of of passage,
Secured a female on October 16, 1897.

102. D&NDROICA DOMINICA (Linn.) Yellow-throated War-
bler. Spring migrant. Have observed but few. |

103. DENROICA VIRENS (Gmel.) Black-throated Gree
Warbler. I found this not an uncommon fall migrant. ‘Took
a female October 2, 1897.

104. DENDROICA viGorsII:Aud.) Vine Warbler. A com-
mon resident. Have not found the nest. The bird is said to
build on horizontal limbs of pine trees from twenty to sixty
feet from the earth.

105. DENDROICA PALMARUM (Gmel.) Palm Warbler, (more
probably the var. D. p. hypochrysea, (Ridgw.).) Listed by
Prof. Atkinson. 5

106. DENDROICA DISCOLOR (Vieill.) Prairie Warbler. Sum-
mer resident, not uncommon.

107. SEIURUS AUROCAPILLUS (Linn.) Oven-bird ; Golden-
crowned Thrush. A migrant, First one seen in spring of
1899 was on April 14.

108. SErURUS NOVEBORA CENSIS (Gmel.) Water-thrush.
Not avery common transient. Have only seen a few speci-
mens.

109. SEIURUSMOTA CELLA (Vieill.) Louisiana Water-
thrush. Common summer resident. Observed as late in the
fall of 1897 as September 21. First one seen in 1899 was on
April 12.

110. GEOTHLYPIS TRICHAS (Linn.) Maryland Yellow-throat.
A summer bird doubtless breeding here.

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY 49

111. IcrerIA visens (Linn.) Yellow-breasted Chat. An
abundant summer resident. Found usually along the border
of woods or haunting the growths of bushes in open fields
along streams.

112. Hoopep WARBLER, Catalogued by Prof. Atkinson, Is
probably a rare summer resident.

113, SETOPHAGA RUTICULLA (Linn.) American Redstart.
A common migrant and a rather rare sojourner in summer.

Family Motacillidae.

114. ANTHUS PENNSILVANICUS (Lath.) American Pipit; Tit-
lark. About nine o’clock on the morning of January 4, 1899
I saw a flock of fully one hundred titlarks in the open piece
of ground at the eastern side of the university campus. Have
on two other occasions observed flocks of these birds at a dis-
tance, but always during the coldest parts of the winter.

Family Troglodytidae.

115. Mimus poLyGLorros (Linn.) Mockingbird. Several pairs
of these birds are constant residents at Chapel Hill. There
is a great difference in the musical power of different birds of
this species. An especially fine singer, has for the past two
years or more dwelt among th= shade trees of the lawns in the
neighborhood of the Episcopa! church.

116. GALEOSCOPTES CAROLINENSIS (Linn.) Catbird. An
abundant species in summer. The first ones arrive from the
south near the middle of April.

117, HArPORHYNCHUS RUFUs (Linn.) Brown ‘Thrasher;
Brown Thrush. These fine songsters come regularly to spend
the summer in the thickets and groves about the village.
Rarely also they spend the winter here. On January 2, 1899,
I observed one on the lawn surrounding the home of Prof.
Harrington. Itwas in company with a number of snowbirds
and sparrows, and had apparently taken up its winter abode
among them.

118. THvoTHoRUS LUDOVICIANUS (Lath.) Thisis one of the
few species of birds which sing for us in the winter. It

50 JOURNAL OF THE

remains here through the summer, breeding abundantly, The
nest is made of a greatquantity of dried grass, strings, leaves
and other materials, and is placed in a wide variety of posi-
tions ; such as in old tin cans hung up in trees, in knot holes,
or under the eaves of houses, and under brush heaps in the
woods. On May 17, 1899, I was shown a nest containing six
eggs, which was built in a man’s cap hung against the slat-
ted side of an out-house.

119. TROGLODYTES AEDON (Vieill.) House Wren. Listed
by Prof. Atkinson. Probably a rare transient.

120. TROGLODYTES HIEMALIS (Vieill.) Winter Wren. Com
mon in winter.

121. CERTHIA FAMILIARIS AMERICANA (Bonop.) Brown
Creeper. Common in winter, but not abundant.

Family Paridae.

122. Srrra CaroLinensis (Lath.) White-breasted Nut-
hatch. Common resident. Nests in holes in tall trees, early
in April.

123. SITTA PUSILLA (Lath.) Brown-headed Nuthatch.
Have frequently found them in the pine groves in April and
May.

124. PARuS BICOLOR (Linn.) Tufted Titmouse. Common
resident. Eggs number from four to six, and are depos-
ited in the cavities of trees.

125. PARUS CAROLINENSIS (Aud.) Carolina Chicadee, A
common and noisy resident ; often associating in small flocks
in company with the titmouse. ‘The nest is made in holes in
small trees or posts, from five to light eggs being deposi-
fed.

Family Sylvavudae.

126. REGULUS SATRAPA (Litcht.) Golden-crowned Knight
A winter resident. It is worth a search in the winter forest
to get a glimpe of this most exquisite gem of diminutive bird
life, with his olive-green coat and bright orange and yellow
crest. His summer home is among the evergreens of the
mountains, and of the far north.

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY 51

127. REGULUS CALENDULA (Linn.) Ruby-crowned Knight.
Have found it to be a less abundant species than the forego-
ing. More common during the migration period.

128. PoLIoprTiLA CAERULEA (Linn.) Blue-gray Gnatcatcher.
Very abundant summer resident, breeding in April and May.
Eges four to six.

Family Turdidae.

129. 'TuRDUS MUSTELINUS(Gmel.) Wood-Thrush; Wood Rob-
in. This is the most abundant and characteristic summer
bird of Chapel Hill, building the nest for its four greenish-
blue eggs in the shade trees of the lawns and streets. The
first arrival noted from the south in the spring of 1899 was
one heard singing on April 22. |

130. ‘TURDUS FUSCESCENS (Steph.) Wilson’s Thrush. No-
ted by Prof. Atkinson, Probably seen in transit.

131. TuRDUS USTULALUS SWANISONII (Cal.) Olive-backed
Thrush, Occurs only as a migrant. One specimen taken Sep-
tember 26, another October 9, 1897.

132. —TuRDUS AONALASCHKAE PALLASII (Cab.) Hermit
Thrush. The common winter thrush.

133. MERULA MIGRATORIA (Linn.) American Robin. A
well known resident. Breed, building their nests in shade
and orchard trees.

134. SIALIA SIALIS (Linn.) Bluebird. Since the severe cold
weather early in the year 1893, which proved so destructive
to bird life in the Kastern States, the bluebird has been scarce.
Of late, however, the species is beginning to assume more
nearly its former numbers.

Oct. 1, 7899. Guilford College, N.C,

Asn Mis ‘ em Ty

ath

aa i ne Pek aititt Nia cea
: Prak a :

met ny

JOURNAL
OF THE

Elisha Mitchell Scienitic Society

VOLUME XVI ———— PART SECOND

July-Decermber

1899

ISSUED FROM THE UNIVERSITY PRESS
CHAPEL. BILL, N.C.

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

ON THE UNIVERSAL DISTRIBUTION OF TITANIUM. ;
Charles DPasrerville . ::..-......2....,000 ee 52

THE OCCURENCE OF VANADIUM, CHROMIUM AND TITANIUM IN PREATS.
Charles Baskerville: ...........0e0s..8e eee 54

A Stupy OF CERTAIN DOUBLE CHROMATES.

W. G. Haywood..........01..: 3 56
ORIGIN OF PALEOTROCHIS.

J¢ S. Diller views tases ook oe oi « Oe ce 59
THE DEEP WELL AT WILMINGTON N. C. ;

Ji A. FAOMMER! oes. ww. vie se oe 5 bee ee 67
New East AMERICAN SPECIES OF CRATAEGUS.

W. W. ASS assess tek. sc... sees ee 70
NOTE ON A QUALITATIVE TEST FOR TIN.

Charles BASKERVILLE....\....... 5564.4 5 80.

NoTE ON A CASE OF SPONTANEOUS COMBUSTION.
Charles Baskerville. ..:.......<se.0 2s. 81

JOURNAL

OF THE
Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society

SIXTEENTH YEAR———PART SECOND

1899

ON THE UNIVERSAL DISTRIBUTION OF TITANIUM.’

BY CHARLES BASKERVILLE.

The universal distribution of titanium in the mineral and
plant world is practically acknowledged. V. Roussel” found
it in basalt; Aleksiejew* in certain clays. Holland* found it
in certain igneousrocks. Dunnington’ observed its occurrence
in, the soil of Albemarle County, Va.; later the same writer
with McCaleb‘ found it in sixteen specimens of soil collected
from different sections of the United States. Subsequently
after having examined a large number of samples of soil col-
lected from all parts of the globe Professor Dunnington’ as-
serted its universal occurrence in the soils of the world.

W. A. Noyes’ found it in a number of Arkansas minerals.
Hillebrand has shown its presence in a large number of rocks
and minerals collected by the United States Geological Survey.
Wait’ found it in the ashes of several plants and different

1 J. Am. Chem. Soc., X XT, 1099.

2 Ber. d. chem. Ges., 6, 1417, 6.

3 Chem. Ztschr., Rep. 1896, 261.

4 Chem. News, 59, 27.

i Prov. As A.A. Sag4, 132-

6 Am. Chem. J., 10, 36.

1 Am. J. Sci., Dec., 1891; Chem. News, 65, 65.
8 J. Anal. Appl. Chem., 5, 39:

9 J. Am. Chem. Soc., 18, 402.

I

53 : JOURNAL OF THE

kinds of wood, also in coals, bituminous and anthracite.
Haywood' found traces in domestic strawberries and 0.1088
per cent. in the ash of wild strawberry (/vagaria Virginiana).
Langenbeck speaks frequently of its occurrence in clays. It
has been found by the writer rather widely distributed in the
clays of this state.” While Roscoe and Schorlemmer state
that ‘‘It does not appear to forma part of the animal and veg-
etable kingdom,” Wait® assumes that it is assimilated by
plants. The writer’ shows its presence in peat. As the clay
substance therein is comparatively small its presence can
scarcely be attributed to that. F. Garrigon found traces in
mineral waters.

No statement in the literature has been found of its pres-
ence being noted in the ashes obtained from the animal king-
dom. ‘The ash fromincinerated fresh beef, beef bone, human
flesh, and bone free from dirt, have been examined in this
laboratory with the following results: Beef bone 0.0195 per
cent.; beef flesh 0.013 per cent.; human bone’ a trace; human
flesh® 0.0325 per cent. titanic oxide.

A private communication from Dr. J. L. Howe concerning
the work of some of his students states that ‘“Toole found
titanium in abundance in dead bones, but only traces in fresh
bone and muscular tissue, though traces were undoubtedly
there.” Dr. C. EK. Wait in a letter of recent date writes:
‘‘Since my note on titanium was published a year or so ago, I
have made an examination of a large number of bodies and
I believe that the element was found in nearly all of them.
I have made a large number of estimations of titanium in
vegetable bodies, and later took up the examination of animal

1 This laboratory. Work unpublished.

2 See ‘‘Clay Deposits and Clay Industry in N. C.’’ Bulletin 13, N.C.
Geological Survey, by Dr. H. Ries.

3 Vide supra.

4]. Am. Chem. Soc., 21, 706.

5 A true rib and clavicle.

6 Pectoral] muscles, /atisstmns dorst and gluteus maximus. I am in-
debted to Dr. C. S. Mangum, of this University, for kindly dissecting
out these samples.

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY 54

flesh and bone, and the last piece of work along that line was
the examination of human excretory products.”

The universal distribution of titanium in all forms of living
and dead matter may now be regarded as settled. While no
Opinion is hazarded by the writer upon the role played by
titanium in animal and vegetable growth, it is hoped that
Dr. Wait’s work will throw some light upon the subject.
Doubtless had we as delicate and convenient tests for the
other less common elements we should find their occurrence as
widespread. ‘Thus the asseverated belief of Hillebrand in the
universal occurrence of the elements in the earth’s crust is
extended.

Titanium was determined by Weller’s well-known method
as modified by W. A. Noyes, Dunnington, and Hillebrand.*

THE OCCURENCE OF VANADIUM, CHROMIUM, AND
TITANIUM IN PEATS.’

BY CHARLES BASKERVILLE.

Attention has been called by Dr. W. F. Hillebrand’ to the
comparatively wide-spread occurrence of vanadium in a large
number of minerals and rocks. He states that ‘‘Hayes in 1875
reported its occurrence in a great variety of rocks and ores,
Quoting from Thorpe’s ‘Dictionary of Chemistry,’ ‘it is said
to be diffused with titanium through all primitive granite

1 Method ascribed to Noyes was previously published by F. W. Clark
in Silliman’s Journal, 7868. (Letter to writer.)

2 Read before the North Carolina Section of the American Chemical
Society at the midwinter meeting. Publ. /. dm. Chem. Soc. 441, 706,

3 Am. J. Sct., 6, 209 (1898). i

55 JOURNAL OF THE

rocks (Dieulafait) and has been found by Deville in bauxite.
rutile, and many other minerals, and by Bechi and others in
the ashes of plants and in argillaceous limestones, schists,
and sands........’ It is further reported to comprise as
V,O, 0.02-0.07 per cent. of many French clays, 0.02—0.03 per
cent. of some basalts, 0.24 per cent. of a coal of unknown ori-
gin, and 0.45 per cent. of one from Peru, amounting to 38.5
per cent. and 38.0 per cent. of the ash, and noted respective-
ly by Mourlot and Torrico y Meca.”

Roussel! states that a basalt with a content of 0.707-2.378
per cent. of titanium contained 0.006—0.023 per cent. of vana-
dium. Gladstone,” however, states that it does not occur in
the volcanic dust of Vesuvius. ‘Terreil*® found it in iron ores.
Stolba‘ also mentions its occurrence.

From the above the presence of vanadium could with reason
be suspected in peat. Inthe hands of the writer were sam-
ples of peats from Hyde Swamps, one mile south of Pungo
Lake near the Northern Junction of Beaufort and Hyde
Counties, N. C. The approximate analysis of these peats
gave :

Volatile Fixed
Sample. Water. matter. carbon. Ash.
Peawt.. o.. ieee oe 73.67 16.16 Ay ee WY 0.45
Peatpihss.. .\ceemwe va 71.58 17.42 10.31 0.69
Pest iil... 2d 76.01 14.19 9.32 0.48

The water was determined by taking a cube measuring
about eight cm. each way (from 700 to 800 grams) and bring-
ing to a constant weight by heating for a number of hours
not higher than 105°C. An analysis, approximate, of this
dried peat gave the following results:

Sample. Volatile matter. Fixed carbon. Ash.
Peat. oe aues s aeee 61.38 36.90 1.72
Peat Ui, coe ss ate 61.35 36.20 2.45
Peat ili. tees. ee 59.13 38.85 2.02

It was convenient to examine the ash of a large number of

1 Ber. d. chem. Ges., 6, 14177 6.
2 Jbid., 5, 815 b.

3 /bid., 10, 731 a.

4 Chem, Centrbl. (1897), 12.

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY 56

peats from this and other localities to ascertain the presence
of titanium. We have found no statements regarding the
presence of this element in these ashes, although such a sur-
mise was logical. Neither does chemical literature, as far as
we have been able to examine, give any mention of the occur-
rence of chromium in peats. Appended are the results of
seeking for these elements in the samples mentioned above.

Titanic Chromium Vanadium
Sample. oxide. sesquioxide. pentoxide.
Percentages
in ash,
Peatl:..@ OY Se 0.490 0.0283 0.00107
eA AT. . Be tees a oc 0.340 0.0343 0.0026
Peaw lil. Met... s4.- 0.491 0.0355 0.0031.

In determining titanium the ash was decomposed according
to the method of W. A. Noyes,’ namely, by fusion with
sodium fluoride and potassium pyrosulphate. The melt was
brought into solution with Dunnington’s’ necessary precaution
in mind: vzz., having from five to ten per cent. of sulphuric
acid present. Hydrogen dioxide was added according to
Weller’s’ well-known method and the titanium determined
colorimetrically. All hydrofluoric acid was driven off in the
fusion and the hydrogen dioxide was free from that acid as
well. Hillebrand* has shown the necessity for this.

Chromium’ and vanadium’ were estimated according to the
latest method of Hillebrand.

A STUDY OF CERTAIN DOUBLE CHROMATES.
BY W. G. HAYWOOD.

Zehenter has stated (Monatshefte f. chemie 18. 48-55 Cen-

1 J. Anal. Appl. Chem., 5, 39.

2]. Am. Chem. Soc., 13, 220.

3 Ber. d chem. Ges., 15, 2592.

4 J. Am. Chem. Soc., 17, 718; Chem. News, 72, 158.
5 J. Am. Chem. Soc., 20, 454:

6 Jbid., 20, 461; Am. J. Sct., 6, 209.

ay JOURNAL OF THE

tral Blatt. 97.1.857) that when a boiling solution of potas-
sium bichromate is neutralized with sodium carbonate accord-
ing to this equation,

K,Cr,O,+ Na,Co,= K,CrO,+ Na,CrO,+CO, ;
then concentrated over the direct flame and over sulphu-
ric acid, first the doubie salt 3K,CrO,.Na,CrO, will crys-
tallize out in the form of flat or column-shaped crystals,
then a salt of the same composition with one half mol-
ecule of water and finally yellow crystals of the salt
Na,CrO,.4H,O. The sodium chromate prepared by
Johnson which crystallized with ten volumes of water was
not obtained. Zehenter also prepared the salts
3K,CrO,.2(NH,),CrO, and NaNH,CrO,.2H,0O by precipi-
tation with alcohol from the appropriate solutions.

For my experiments the following solutions were pre-
pared :

1. 100 grams of potassium bichromate were dissolved in
water and neutralized with sodium carbonate.

2. 100 grams of sodium bichromate were dissolved in water
and neutralized with potassium carbonate,

3. 100 grams of ammonium bichromate were dissolved in
water and neutralized with sodium carbonate.

4. 100 grams of sodium bichromate were dissolved in water
and neutralized with ammonium carbonate.

5. 200 grams of potassium bichromate were dissolved and
neutralized with sodium carbonate (repeating No. 1).

6. 110 grams of potassium bichromate and 98 grams of so-
dium bichromate were dissolved in hot water and evaporated.

7. 67 grams of potassium chromate and 60 grams of potas-
sium carbonate were dissolved and evaporated.

8. 100 grams of potassium bicarbonate were dissolved and
neutralized with magnesium carbonate.

9. 100 grams of potassium chromate and 55 grams of sodi-
tum carbonate were dissolved in hot water.

All of these solutions were concentrated and then placed
over sulphuric acid for crystalization. The crops of crystals
were carefully separated, washed, dried between filter paper
and analyzed.

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY 58

In the case of this solution (1) the crystals which first form-
ed were found to contain a good deal of carbon dioxide. It
was evident that the solution had not been exactly neutralized
by the sodium carbonate but that an excess had been used.
With successive crops the amount of carbon dioxide decreased
and of chromium increased. Although the analysis of the
third and fourth crops approached nearly to that of the double
chromate reported by Zehenter, traces of carbon doxide were
found throughout, and so another solution was prepared and
more carefully neutralized. But the evident crystallizing to-
gether of the chromate and carbonate raised the question as
to the possible formation of a body of exact composition con-
taining these two. In the case of solution (1) the first crop of
crystals was practically all chromate and the seventh and later
crops again strongly carbonate. In solution (7) when potas-
sium chromate and potassium carbonate were mixed several
crops of crystals were gotten, the first being almost pure chro-
mate and the latter carbonate, the two showing little tendency
to crystallize together.

In solution (2) the 3rd crop of crystals gave 27.45 percent.
iee., 4th crop, 2810; 5th crop, 27:15; 6th crop, 28,03. ‘There
was a failure in this case also to prepare crystals of defi-
nite composition.

From solution (3) three crops of very deliquescent
brown crystals were gotten which corresponded in com-
_ position to the formulas 2Na,CrO,.(NH,),.CrO,.4H,O.

From solution (4) crop (a) coanica to be a mixture,
yielding nothing definite ; crop (b) consisted of crystals of
NaNH,CrO,,. 2H, ,O ; crops (c) and (d) gave sodium chro-
mate, we .CrO,,4H20, differing from the ordinary chromate
with ten molecules of water.

Solution (5) yielded first potassium bichromate and
then a large number of crops of large flat hexagonal crys-
tals which had the composition 3K,CrO,.Na,CrO,

Solution (6) yielded no new compound, the two bichro-
mates crystallizing out separately.

Solution (8) yielded a large number of crops of
the double chromate of potassium and magnesium

K,CrO,. MgCr0,.2H,0.

59 JOURNAL, OF THE
Solution (9) gave crystals of carbonate containing no
chromium and also crystals of the salt 3K,CrO,. Na,CrQ,.
This work in the main confirms that of Zehenter though
it introduces some new modes of formation of the double salts.
It gave rise to some interesting questions though the time .
was too brief to answer them.

ORIGIN OF PALEOTROCHIS.'

BY Ji Soopeenee.

Prof. Ebenezer Emmons,’ while State Geologist of North
Carolina, discovered among the so-called Taconic rocks of
Montgomery County, in that State, a number of more or less
regularly striated bi-conical forms to which he gave the
names Paleotrochis major and minor, and regarded them as
siliceous corals as well as the oldest representatives of animal
life upon the globe. According to: Emmons, Paleotrochis
varies in size up to two inches in diameter, and occurs with
many almond shaped concretions, often within concretions,
in a series of beds over 1,000 feet in thickness interstratified
with beds of granular quartz, conglomerate and quartzite.

1 This paper is reprinted here from the American Journal of Science
(May, 1899, page 337) as a substitute for an article which the present
writer had intended publishing, setting forth the same general data and
conclusions. Mr. Diller’s work has removed all doubt as to the min-
eral origin of Paleotrochis; and the republicztion of his paper in the
Mitchell Journal is considered advisable owing to the intimate asso-
ciation of the Paleotrochis with local North Carolina geology, and the
previous publication in this journal of Mr. White’s paper (see note be-
low) which argued in favor of the organic origin of this interesting
form.

2 Geological Report of the Midland Counties of North Carolina, 1856,
page 62; also Am. Jour. Sci., II, vol. xxii, page 390, and vol. xxiv,
page 151.

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY 60

Both species of Paleotrochis have the form of ‘‘a flattish
double cone applied base to base” with the surfaces grooved
somewhat irregularly from near the apex to the basal edge.
The smaller form, P. minor, has the ‘‘apex of the inferior
side excavated or provided with a small roundish cavity” and
the other apex ‘‘supplied with a small rounded knob, from
the base of which the radiated grooves begin.” The larger
form, P. major, ‘‘differs from the foregoing (P. minor) in the
absence of the roundish apical depression of the lower side
and the knob of the opposite side.”

Prof. Emmons regarded Paleotrochis not only as originally
siliceous but also gemmiferous, thus accounting for knobs as
well as irregular adhering groups, and it is important to note
that he reports ‘‘these fossils also occur in a variety of quartz
or quartzite which I have described as a buhrstone, and which
is often porphyrized.”

Prof. James Hall,' after an examination of many specimens,
regarded the Paleotrochis of Emmons as nothing but concre-
tions in quartz rock. Prof. O. C. Marsh’ examined the forms
microscopically and found them composed of fine-grained
quartz, but no trace of organic structure could be detected.
While maintaining its inorganic nature he regarded it as dif-
ficult to explain, and considered it as having some analogy
with cone-in-cone, which he thinks is probably due to the
action of pressure on concretionary structure when forming.

The most extensive paper on this preplexing form is that
of Mr. C. H. White,’ who strongly advocates the organic
nature of Paleotrochis. The specimens he examined were
those obtained by Prof. Emmons, as well as a number col-
lected by Prof. J. A. Holmes, the present State Geologist of
North Carolina. Mr. White describes in detail not only the
peculiarities of the weathered surface of the rock but also the
features exhibited upon a fresh fracture, and called attention

1 Am. Jour. Sci., II, vol. xxiii, page 278.
_ 2 Am, Jour. Sci., Il, vol. xlv, page 218.
3 This Journal 1894, Pt. 2, 50-66.

61 JOURNAL OF THE

for the first time to the radial fibrous mineral which he re-

garded as impure chalcedony, According to Mr. White, the
fossil forms are enveloped in chalcedony and the small con-
cretions are made of the same material.

In 1887, Prof. J. A. Holmes! visited the Sam Christian
Gold Mine of Montgomery County, N. C., and studied the
Paleotrochis-bearing rock in the field. Although he had not
then seen any of the acid volcanic rocks from New England,
described by Dr. M. E. Wadsworth, or from the South Moun-
tain region of Maryland and Pennsylvania, subsequently de-
scribed by Dr. G. H. Williams and Miss Florence Bascom, he
was of the opinion that the rocks in the neighborhood of the
Sam Christian Gold Mine were of eruptive origin. Later ob-
servations have convinced him of the correctness of this view.
The same opinion is entertained by Messrs. H. B. C. Nitze
and George B. Hanna,’ who consider the Paleotrochis-bearing
rocks at the Sam Christian and Moratock Mines as ancient
acid volcanics, and state that ‘‘it appears highly probable
that at least some of these siliceous pebbly concretions are
spherulites.”. Unfortunately in the preparation of their re-
port time did not permit the authors to study thin sections.

The specimens which, at the request of Mr, C. D. Walcott,
the Director of the U. S. Geological Survey, the present
writer has had an opportuntity to study, consist of a small
collection’ from Mexico sent by Prof. H. S. Williams, besides
three fragments about nine inches in diameter sent by Prof.
J. A. Holmes, who collected them in 1887 at the Sam Chris-
tian Gold Mine, North Carolina, and from the same place
several dozen of the original specimens of Paleotrochis major
and minor collected by Prof. Emmons. Specimens of the
rock and isolated fossils, excepting those from Mexico, have
been cut and polished and thin sections prepared for micro-
scopical study.

The rock from North Carolina which contains Paleotrochis

1 Letter to the author Feb. 6, 1899.
2 North Carolina Geological Survey, Bul. No. 3, pages 37 and 39.
3 See Prof. Williams’ article, Am. J. Sct., 335, 1899.

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY 62

is full of nodules of various shapes and sizes, ranging from
that of a pin’s head to nearly two inches in diameter. These
are the supposed concretions and fossils, Upon a fresh frac-
ture the rock appears to be composed chiefiy of quartz, but
when weathered most of the nodules become white as if kaol-
inized, while the other nodules and tne matrix remain quart-
zose in appearance. ‘The nodules form at least two-thirds of
the mass of the rock and are arranged with their longer
diameters parallel, rendering the rock rather easily split in
one direction.

With a lens, it may be seen that the small kaolinized
nodules exposed in section upon the surface of a hand speci-
men have a radial fibrous structure. The same structure
may be seen in some of the larger ones, and in addition to
this feature some of the nodules possess a more or less dis-
tinct concentric shell-like structure. These structures are
usually best displayed upon or close to a weathered surface.
Portions of the nodules or spaces between them are in a few
cases cellular, and the walls of the openings are rarely lined
with minute crystals. The supposed fossil forms usually
appear conical or discoidal upon a weathered surface. They
often show a small cup in the apex and are surrounded by a
narrow depression from which the radial fibrous envelope,
pointed out by Mr. White, has been removed by weathering.

A careful comparative study of the nodules in the hand
specimens tends to convince one that however different in
form and size the supposed fossils and concretions may ap-
pear, all belong to one series and have essentially the same
origin.

A microscopical study of thin sections of the rock reveals
the fact that the nodules are spherulites, a common feature
of acid igneous rocks. ‘They «re composed in most cases
chiefly of fibrous feldspar with quartz or tridymite. As seen
in the thin section of the Paleotrochis-bearing rock, the fibres
are grouped radially with more or less irregularity in tufts,
sheaves, sectors, hemispheres or spheres. When they forma
complete sphere, which is rarely the case, they are most

63 JOURNAL OF THE

coarsely fibrous or granophytic at the center and usually
show between cross nicols an indefinite black cross. Occa-
sionally also the concentric structure is well marked. The
rays are too minute to permit of an accurate determination of
their mineral composition by optical methods, but microchem-
ical tests with hydrofluosilicic acid yield the small cubic crys-
tals, characteristic of potassium fluosilicate as well as the
hexagonal prisms of sodium fluosilicate. Judging from the
greater abundance of prisms than cubes the fibrous feldspar
is richer in sodium than potassium. ‘That feldspar, instead of
chalcedony, is the most prominent constituent of the spheru-
lites, is fully borne out also by its kaolinizing. under the in-
fluence of the weather.

The spherulites are embedded in a matrix composed chiefly
of granular quartz. The grains are occasionally so large
that the uniaxial positive character can be readily determined.
Untwinned feldspar in small grains may be present in consid-
erable amount but yet be easily overlooked. The quartzose
character of the weathered matrix, however, shows that at
least where most coarsely granular there cannot be much if
any feldspar present in it. In places the matrix contains
numerous minute parallel scales of what appears to be sericite.
Associated with the most coarsely crystalline areas are a few
scales of brown biotite and occasionally considerable green
biotite, which in places is so abundant as to make quite prom-
inent dark green spots. Both matrix and spherulites are
traversed in a few cases by small veins of granular quartz,
showing that there is a considerable amount of secondary
quartz present. Both spherulites and matrix are rendered
slightly microporphyritic by containing occasional crystals of
plagioclase feldspar and quartz. The plagioclase, which, on
account of its small angle of symmetric extinction, must be an
acid one, in some cases forms the center from which the
spherulitic fibres radiate.

An isolated specimen of Paleotrochis was cut through the
apices and found to be composed of granular quartz. The
quartz was fine-grained upon the outside where the grains

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY 64

were set with their longest axes perpendicular to the adjoin-
ing surface. The middle portion contained an irregular iron-
stained cavity possibly due to the disappearance of some
iron-bearing mineral. Several of the half embedded forms
of Paleotrochis were cut in a hand specimen to discover its
relations to the enclosing rock, and in each case it formed the
interior portion of a spherulite. Most of them contained a
dark green patch. The exposed conical surface of one was
well striated and there was an irregular depression in the
apex. ‘The form was composed chiefly of granular quartz
with a yellowish brown to dark green, strongly pleochroic,
biotite. Near the center is a small spherulite which is not
only bordered by finer-grained quartz but is cut by a small
vein of it, showing that the deposition of the quartz is subse-
quent to the development of the spherulite. The embedded
portion of Paleotrochis is bordered by spherulitic fibres which
run approximately parallel to the slope of the conical surface,
and it is evident that the casts of these fibers produce the ir-
regular strie or grooves upon the surface of the supposed
fossil. ‘The embedded portion terminated with an irregular-
ly-pointed apex below. The whole form is fine-grained near
the border and sends small veins into the adjoining spheru-
litic shell. These veins are so small as not to be visible upon
a polished surface of a hand specimen even with the aid of a
pocket lens, but come out distinctly in the thin section. ‘The
spherulitic shell by which Paleotrochis is enveloped is com-
posed of fibers belonging to a number of centers or lines and
yet combined they appear to form one nodule. The biconical
form of Paleotrochis suggests that it originated as two spher-
ulite sectors of which the apices were the centers from which
the fibres radiated. ‘This would seem to be the simplest way
to account for the most regular as well as many of the irreg-
ular forms, but of the specimens examined I have not been
able to find one that certainly originated in that way.

A number of the fossil forms with a well-marked cup in the
exposed apex turned out to be flat hemispherical or thin lenti-
cular in section, and are composed wholly of spherulitic fibers.

65 JOURNAL OF THE

Although admitting much irregularity, especially on ac-
count of the supposed gemmiferous character of Paleotrochis,
the ones which have been considered the most characteristic
of the fossil are the distinctly biconical forms. These, so far
as seen, are chiefly granular quartz with more or less green
biotite.

It is important to note also that the dark groups of green
biotite occur in the interior of very irregular nodules which
have no suggestion in them of Paleotrochis. Irregular flat-
tened lenticular masses of granular quartz with green biotite
occur within the spherulites as well asabout them. The green
mica is found only in the most coarsely granular groups of
quartz.

The following chemical analysis, made by W, F. Hille-
brand, shows that the rock has the composition of a rhyolite
and accords closely with the results of the microscopical
study.

Analysis of the Paleotrochis-bearing rock of Sam Christian
Mine.’

SH bes sis) eee

Tes biivar ni lke a OI

Al,O, .......---» 1LL41 with a very litthewae

Ly? © Mies eres |,

ly: 6 Meena oe

Mate: 2055... :. oko ee

CaO ;

Sc 5

Ba ee a ee

Nie): ee Cts eer ttle

Ba) 2 SRN

Naw) «seen <a

H.,O below 105°.. 18

“<“* above; fs -) Seb Genition)
100°02

Recognizing the Paleotrochis rock as an acid volcanic, full

of spherulites, it is easy to understand the great variation in

1 No other constituents looked for. if

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY 66

the form of the nodules. Such rocks are in many places dis-
tinctly banded and were long considered siliceous sedimeuts,
but by the investigations of Wadsworth, Williams, Bascom
and others it has been definitely settled that they are all acid
volcanics. ‘These rocks in North Carolina are regarded by
Mr. Holmes as pre-Cambrian and since their eruption may
have undergone great changes like those of the South Moun-
tain described by Miss Bascom. Some of the supposed fossils
are certainly spherulites, and all of them may have been orig-
inally. Some broken forms show motion in the mass after
the spherulites were developed. That Paleotrochis, where
most perfectly developed and composed of granular quartz, is
the result of deposition, after the spherulitic growths about it
and within it had developed, there can be no question, but
whether this deposition followed soon after that of the spher-
liutes in the course of solidification or took place in hollow
spherulites (lithophyse), or resulted perhaps long subse-
quently at the time of rock alterations, is not so clear. All
this and much more will doubtless be cleared up by the mem-
bers of the Geological Survey of North Carolina, who were
the first to correctly identify the rock and the character of
the supposed fossil.

None of the Mexican specimens received from Prof. Wil-
liams were cut for microscopical examination. Some of them
were clearly of igneous origin, and contained amygdules.
The Paleotrochis-like forms with radial markings appeared
to be composed of secondary Quartz and probably originated
as those of North Carolina.

About a year ago bi-conical forms like Paleotrochis were
presented by Mr. Kochibi, Director of the of the Geological
Survey of Japan to the U. S, Geological Survey. These spec-
imens are now in the National Museum, and are much more
regular in form, size, and general appearance than the Paleo-
throchis of North Carolina. They are of a pale pink color
with regular bi-conical, striated forms, and in some cases
have shallow pits of the apices, They are known in Japanas
‘* Sorobanishi” or abacus stones, One of these specimens con-

67 JOURNAL OF THE

tains a small fragment of the rock from which these curious
specimens were obtained, and it appears to be spherulitic.
According to Mr. Willis, who obtained the information di-
rectly from Mr. Kochibi, ‘‘ these stones are found only in rhy-
olitic tufts. They not infrequently occur much larger than
these specimens, possibly up to two inches in diameter or
more, and are more frequently associated in groups of two
or three overlapping or coalescing. They are generally white,
the rosy tint of these specimens being a rare characteristic.”
A thin section of one of these ‘‘ abacus-stones ” shows it to be
an agate of which the outer layers are pink and the inner
white. There can be no doubt in this case that the form
resulted from the filling of the cavity long after the solidifi-
cation of the igneous material.

THE DEEP WELL AT WILMINGTON, N. C.?

BY J. A. HOLMES.

The deep well which is now being bored at Wilmington,
N. C., is of especial interest to geologists: (1) That in reach-
ing granite, as it does at about 1109 feet, it shows the absence at
this point of the formation between the upper Cretaceous and
the old crystalline floor underlying the coastal plain deposits ;
(2) it shows the existence there of an unfortunately and unusu-
ally thick series of salt-water-bearing strata, from 350 to 1100
feet below the surface; (3) it may throw some light on the re-
lations between the deposits of the sand hill regions (gener-
ally classed as Potomac) and the upper Cretaceous beds pene-
trated by this well.

The well is located on the bank of the northeast Cape Fear

1 Science, N. S. XI., 265, Jan. 26, 1900, p. 128.

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY 68

River, at Hilton Park, one mile north of Wilmington. The
river border at this point exhibits two terraces; one only a
few feet above tide water, extending back a distance of 30 or
more feet from the river; and the other rising 30 to 40 feet
higher, extending back for a considerable distance, and in-
deed representing the general surface of the region. The
difference in elevation between these two terraces represents
the thickness of the remnants of the Tertiary fossiliferous
clays and limestone and the overlying recent sands. The
lower terrace represents the upper surface of the Cretaceous ;
_ so that the well starts in the Cretaceous clays and sands, and
continues in them toa depth of some 1109 feet. In these sands
and clays there are occasional beds of shell-rock and calcareous
sandstone, varying in thickness from a few inches to 30 feet,
and occasional thin beds of clay containing small nodules or
concretions. The sands are mostly micaceous and are usually
quite fine grained, with a prevailing gray color. From about
700 to 800 feet, their color is decidedly greenish. Below 950
feet these sands become coarser and are interbedded with oc-
casional gravel deposits, but they continue fossiliferous to
near the surface of the granite.

Waterbearing sands and gravels were penetrated ata num-
ber of points, notably at 380, 496, 520 and 574 feet; and at
1011 the largest flow, of nearly 400 gallons per minute, was
encountered, with pressure estimated as sufficient to raise the
column of water 80 feet above the surface. Unfortunately
the water from each of these levels was highly brackish, and
hence unfit for domestic use.

The fossil forms secured at different depths have been ident-
ified by Dr. T. W. Stanton, of the United States Geological
Survey. ‘The method used in sinking the well is the ordinary
drill and sand pump; and, as might be expected, in some
cases only fragments of shells were secured; but as the hole
was of large diameter (12 inches near the surface, then 10
inches, and lower still, 8 inches) and the larger part of the
matrix material quite soft, a minimum amount of drilling was
needed; and many large fragments and many perfect forms

were obtained.
7.

69 JOURNAL OF THE

Among the fossils secured from the upper 700 feet, classed
as Ripley cretaceous, the following may be mentioned :

Cardium enfaulense Gabb, was found at 40 feet and 538-558
feet, and fragments of this or another Cardium were found
also at 50, 485-490, 520-540 and 556-575 feet below the sur-
face. \

Anomia argentaria Morton, was also common, having been
obtained at frequent intervals from 40 to 600 feet; and frag-
ments of an anomza, too small for specific classification, were
also found 800 to 900 feet below the surface.

Exogyra costata Say, was abundant throughout the upper
half of the section; and below 500 feet a varietal form of this
species, approaching Hwogyra ponderosa Roemer, in surface
feature, was found almost to the granite.

Ostrea tecticosta Gabb, was common from 230 to 650 feet;
and O. /arva Lamarck, from 250 to 330 feet; and fragments
secured at 518 feet probably belonged to one of these species.
O. subspatulata Lyell & Forbes, was found only between 332
and 380 feet. Throughout the entire section, however, were
found numerous fragments of Ostrea too imperfect to serve for
specific determinations. Ve/eda lintea Conrad, and Aphrodi-
na tippana Conrad (?) were found only at 340 to 500 feet. Bar-
oda Carolinensis Conrad, and Cyprimeria depressa Conrad,
were found only between 332 and 380 feet; and fragments of
Pecten were found at 40 to 50 feet.

Gryphaea vescicularis Lamarck, was found ai 250 to 265,
and 720 to 735 feet (7); and Juoceramus cripsi Mantell, at 575
to 585 feet and probably also at 500 to 518 feet. Unrecognized
species of Avicula or Gervilia were obtained at 390 to 400 feet ;
Corbula at 492; Pectunculus 520 to 540 feet, and Lunatia 520
to 590 feet ; Lzthophagus 540 to 560 feet.

Cassidulus subguadratus Conrad, was observed at 518 to 538
feet, and echinoid spines and fragments of the same or allied
species were also found at 100 to 170 feet. Sharks’ teeth, fish
vertebra, fragments of turtle shell, lignite and pyrite were
found at intervals in the section,

Below 720 feet, and down to the granite (1109) Ostrea cre-

a.

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY 70

tacea Morton, which in the Chattahoochee river section is con-
fined to the Eutaw beds, is here quite common ; and is accom-
panied atintervals by Anomia Exogyra, Cardium and Serpula,
the specimens collected being in each case too fragmental to
permit of specific determination. This lower 400 feet of the
Wilmington section has been classed by Stanton as Autaw ;
and it is possibly the seaward representative of the Potomac
arkose sands and clays of the sand-hill region northwest of
Fayetteville, should these sands and clays prove to represent
the latest Potomac. It is more likely, however, either that
the Potomac deposits were removed from this region prior to
the Kutaw deposition, or else that the surface of these old
crystalline rocks was above water level during Potomac time,
aud hence not covered with deposits.

Underground temperatures were not taken at intervals
at different depths while the work was in progress, ow-
ing to the lack of suitable thermometers; but there are now
three wells only three or four feet apart, one 1100, one 500 and
one 100 feet deep. The temperatures at the bottom of each of
these, as determined by the use of a Darton deep well ther- |
mometer, were found to be 79°, 72.50°, and 68.50°F. respect-
ively, giving a descending increase in temperature of about
1°F. for each 100 feet, between 100 and 500 below the surface ;
and 1°F. for each 98 feet, between 500 feet and 1100 feet be-
low the surface.

CHAPEL Hitt, N. C.

NEW EAST AMERICAN SPECIES OF CRATAEGUS.
1CONTRIBUTIONS FROM MY HERBARIUM. NO, VI.
BY W. W. ASHE.

Crataegus perlomentosa nu, sp. A small tree, 4-9 meters in
height, with horizontal branches forming a round or flattened
crown, trunk covered with gray bark broken into oblong

1 Received Feb. 10, 1900.

rp JOURNAL OF THE

scales, and often armed with long, gray or dark purple
thorns: branches gray, armed with numerous 6—-9cm, long,
dark red-brown purplish or nearly black, straight or slightly
curved thorns: twig of the season glabrous brownish-red or
brown: buds globular, red-brown, glabrous. Leaves broadly
ovate or nearly orbicular, obtusely pointed at the apex, broad-
ly cuneate, rounded or even subcordate at base, the blades
4-6cm. long, 3-5cm. wide with 5-7 pairs of prominent veins,
acutely glandular serrate, doubly serrate or with 3-5 pairs of
shallow lobes above, entire at the base, thick, subcoriaceous,
dark green, glabrous and lucid above, paler and soft or
roughish pubescent beneath: petiole 5-10 mm. long, margined
above. ‘The flowers are borne in 4-10—-flowered compound
tomentose corymbs, the lower branches from the upper leaves:
fruiting pedicels strict, 2-4cm. long pubescent: styles 3-4;
stamens 10-15: calyx pubescent, its acute divisions entire or
glandular laciniate. Fruit glabrous 8-13 mm. in diameter,
red or yellowish: flesh thick: nutlets 3-4 with shallow fur-
rows on the back.

This tree is related to Crataegus tomentosa L. from which
it is separated by having smaller, broader and more pubescent
leaves, fewer stamens and fewer-flowered corymbs. Type
locality : Johnson county; Kansas, where I collected it last
year. The type material is preserved in my herbarium.

Crataegus neo-fluviais n. sp. A small tree 3-5 meters in
height with long horizontal branches forming a flattened
crown: branches gray, nearly straight or flexuous, armed
with numerous slender, red-brown purplish or grayish,
straight or slightly curved, 4-7 cm. long thorns: twig of the
season red-brown, glabrous, marked with few pale ovate
lenticels: winter-buds prominent, subglobose, red-brown,
glabrous. Leaves lucid, dark green and nearly glabrous
above, scarcely paler and pubescent to glabrate beneath, the
pubescence soft and abundant on unfolding, becoming scanty
and roughish with age, the blades elliptic or rhombic ovate
in outline, 5-10cm. long including the petiole, acute and en-
_ tire towards the base which gradually narrows into the mar-

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY fii

gined petiole, acute at the apex, finely and sharply glandular
Serrate, above the middle doubly serrate or with 2-3 pairs of
shallow lateral lobes, 5-7 pairs of prominent straight parallel
deeply impressed veins: petiole short, margined, glandless,
5-15 mm. long. The flowers are in large, 8-15-flowered,
nearly glabrous, compound corymbs, the lower branches from
the axils of the upper leaves: pedicels strict, 5-20 mm. long ;
stamens 10-15, longer than the 3-5 styles: divisions of the
calyx lanceolate, 5mm. long, sharply glandular serrate or
entire. Fruit 6-9mm. in diameter, nearly round, greenish,
orange or rosy-cheeked, flesh thin and firm: seed 3-5, smooth
or slightly ridged on the back, 4-5 mm. long, 3-4 mm. thick
dorso-ventrally, the lateral faces concave.

Crataegus neo-fluvialis is related to Crataegus macracantha
Lodd., from which it is separated by having narrower acute
pubescent leaves, and somewhat smaller fruit which lacks
the bright red so characteristic of Crataegus macracantha
Lodd. It is frequent along the North Fork of the New River
in Ashe county, North Carolina, and the adjacent part of
Virginia. The type material is preserved in my herbarium.

Crataegus Margaretta n. sp. A small tree 4-5 meters in
height with rather short horizontal or ascending branches
forming an open oval crown, or sometimes a large shrub:
branches gray, flexuous or geniculate, unarmed thornless or
sparingly beset with short, 2-3cm. long, slender red-brown
thorns, twig of the season geniculate, red-brown, glabrous,
marked with numerous, very small gray lenticels: winter-
buds subglobose, rather large, the few glabrous scales red-
brown. Leaves glandless, glabrous, or at first with a few
short hairs on the upper surface, membranaceous, or at length
firmer, bright green on both sides, the blades broadly rhombic
to nearly orbicular, or even broader than long, 3-5 cm. long,
2.5-6cm. wide, with 3-6, generally 5 pairs of prominent
straight veins, obtusely serrate and with 3-5 pairs of gener-
ally shallow lobes above the middle, or deeply lobed on vig-
orous shoots, obtusely or acutely pointed at the apex, entire
or distantly serrate towards the obtuse or broadly wedge-

73 JOURNAL OF THE

shaped base: petiole slender, 15-25mm. long, narrowly
winged above. The flowers which appear when the leaves
are almost full grown in 7-12—flowered nearly simple corymbs,
the lower branches from the axils of upper leaves, are white,
12-15 mm. wide and borne on strict glabrous pedicels
10--22 mm. long: petals orbicular, with a short claw, calyx
glabrous, its divisions entire or sparingly serrate: styles 2-3
in number, 5mm. long overtopping the 15-20 glabrous sta-
mens: bractlets of corymbs and stipules of unfolding twig
early deciduous, greenish, not conspicuously colored, spathu-
late, pectinately glandular. Fruit quite 1cm. in diameter,
nearly round, glabrous, fleshy, reddish or orange, persistent
until late in the winter, on strict, slender pedicels: nutlets
usually three, about 5mm. long, the broad convex back deep-
ly grooved and ridged. In eastern Missouri the flowers ap-
pear about the middle of May.

Crataegus Margaretta is found from eastern Iowa and
southern Illinois to eastern Missouri, generally occurring
along small streams. It is apparently related to Crataegus
punctata Jacg., from which it is distinguished by having
fewer-flowered leafy corymbs, smaller fruit, and much broad-
er leaves, which are pointed and have fewer pairs of promi-
nent veins. The type material is preserved in my herbarium.
The type locality St. Louis county, Mo.

Crataegus macrosperma n. sp. A small tree 5-7 meters in
height, with wide-spreading branches, forming an oval or
round crown, the trunk covered with gray-brown bark broken
into small oblong scales: branches gray, armed with num-
erous short, very stout, 1-3cm. long, dark red-brown or purp-
lish to nearly black thorns:twig of the sezson rather thick,dark
red-brown to purplish,sparingly glaucous glabrous, marked with
a few small grayish lenticels : winter-buds rather large, oval
or globular, dark red-brown, the obtuse or rounded scales
glabrous. Leaves membranaceous but firm, dark green
above, paler and sparingly glaucous or whitish beneath, the
blades deltoid or broadly oval, obtuse at the apex, rounded,
subcordate or on vigorous shoots cordate with a narrow sinus

ss

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY 74

at the base, varying greatly in size even on the same twig,
3-6 cm. long, 2-5 cm. wide, finely but sharply serrate to the
base, doubly serrate or with 3-5 pairs of shallow lobes above,
the serratures acutely gland-tipped, 4-6 pairs of prominent
veins: petiole 1-2cm. long, generally short and less than
one-third the length of the blade, channeled, narrowly mar-
gined, at least above, and with a few glands near the base of
the leaf. The flowers, which appear when the leaves are
nearly grown in few 4—9-flowered nearly simple corymbs, are
white 14-17 mm. wide and borne on slender pedicels: calyx
‘glabrous, its divisions lanceolate, short, 3-5 mm. long, per-
sistent and coloring with the frttit: styles 3-4: stamens 5-10,
generally 5, the base of the very stout filaments persistent
and coloring with the fruit. The fruit 13-18mm. in diam-
eter, borne in small clusters, is somewhat longer than thick,
a uniform dark but bright red when ripe, glabrous and some-
times sparingly glaucous, flesh thick and mealy, pedicels
strict and very slender generally falling with the fruit, which
falls from the tree during the latter half of September: nut-
lets 3-5, deeply grooved and ridged on the back, 5-7 mm.
long, 5mm. thick dorso-ventrally, the lateral faces plane.

Crataegus macrosperma is found in northern Alabama and
northwestern Georgia and the adjacent portions of Tenn-
essee, growing frequently along rocky, especially cherty
ridges in open woods, or often on exposed and thin-soiled
almost untimbered rocks. It is frequent on Lookout Moun-
tain, Tenn., which is the type locality, and where it was
first collected by me in 1897, and on the surrounding moun-
tains. ‘This species is related to Crataegus coccinea L., or
more closely to C. selvicola Bead,, from which it is separated
by having shorter stouter spines, smaller leaves, and much
larger fruit. The type material is preserved in my herba-
rium.

Crataegus coccinioides n. sp. A small tree 4-6 meters in
height with numerous spreading or ascending branches form-
ing a round or oval crown: the gray bark of the trunk broken
into small scales, often armed with long simple or compound

75 JOURNAL OF THE

thorns: branches flexuous, dark gray, armed with numerous
dark red or nearly black thorns, 2.5-5cm. long: twig of the
season glabrous, dark purple-brown, marked with a few pale,
nearly orbicular lenticels: winter-buds small nearly globular,
dark red, glabrous. Leaves glabrous, membranaceous, rather
lax bright green above, scarcely paler beneath, the blades
ovate, broadly oval or even isodimetric, 4.5-7 cm. long, 4-6.5
cm. wide, acute or obtuse at the apex, truncate, subcordate
or on vigorous shoots cordate at the base with a broad open
sinus, sharply and irregularly glandular serrate, above doub-
ly serrate or with 3-4 pairs of shallow lateral lobes, entire
towards the base, 4-6 pairs of prominent veins: petiole slen-
der, terete, 2-6cm. long, generally two-thirds the length of
the blades, sometimes slightly margined and with a few
glands near the base of the leaf. The flowers which expand
when the leaves are scarcely half grown in small 5-8—flowered
corymbs, are white, 18-20 mm. wide, and on slender 2—3—brac-
ted pedicels : petals obovate 8-10 mm, long: styles 3-4, hairy
at the base, shorter than the 20 stamens: calyx glabrous or
minutely pubescent, its short divisions glandular serrate or
laciniate. The fruit is 8-llmm. thick, somewhat longer,
bright red when mature and persistent until late in winter:
nutlets 3-4, 5-6 mm. long, about 4mm. thick dorso-ventrally,
deeply sulcate and ridged on the back. Bracts and stipules
lanceolate (lunate on vigorous shoots) glandular, bright
colored, persistent until the flowers expand.

Crataegus coccinioides occurs along streams and in moist up-
land woods from southern Illinois to eastern Missouri. It is
separated from the scarlet thorn by having larger leaves on
longer petioles and larger fewer flowers. The type material
is preserved in my herbarium.

Craiaegus collicola n. sp. A small tree 5-8 meters in height
with numerous wide-spreading cr horizontal branches form-
ing an oval or flattened crown, the gray bark of the trunk
broken into flat, oblong scales and occasionally armed with long
simple, gray thorns: the nearly straight gray branches armed
with numerous, slender, gray or purple-brown, 4-8 cm. long

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY 76

thorns : twig of the season glabrous, slender, dark brown-pur-
ple or gray, marked with few small pale indistinct lenticels :
buds small, subglobular, brownish red. Leaves glabrous, at
least when mature, firm, the larger ones becoming subcoria-
ceous, dark green above, somewhat paler beneath, the blades
4-6 cm. long, 2-4 cm. wide, oval and acute at the apex, or ob-
ovate and even spathulate and obtuse or rounded at the apex,
tapering at the base into a short 5--15 mm. long, glandular
margined petiole, or the larger leaves on vigorous shoots
nearly orbicular, and abruptly contracted at the base, sharply
and irregularly serrate to near the base or the larger leaves
doubly serrate, or with 2-3 pairs of shallow lobes, 4-6 pairs of
prominent veins: petiole broadly margined, at least above,
5-15 mm. long. The white flowers are borne in numerous, 6—14-
flowered, compound, glabrous corymbs: divisions of the calyx
lanceolate, acute, entire: styles 4-5. The abundant orange-
red or dull red fruit is depressed giobose, 8-11 mm. thick, about
8mm. high: fruiting pedicels strict, 1-2 cm. long: nutlets
4-5, 5-6 mm. long, 3-4 mm. thick dorso-ventrally, slightly
grooved on the back, the lateral faces nearly plane.

Crataegus collicola is related to the cockspur thorn from
which, and all varieties of it, it is at once separated by hav-
ing much broader often pointed and lobed leaves and much
longer petioles. I collected this tree in the mountains of
North Carolina in September, 1897 in Henderson county and
near Asheville where it is found in fields and pastures on dry
hillsides. ‘The type material is preserved in my herbarium.

Crataegus Illinotensis n. sp. A small tree with an oblong
or irregular crown, or a tall shrub with virgate branches.
Branches grayish-red or brownish, armed with 3-5cm. long
red-brown thorns. Twigs glabrous bright red-brown, as are
the spherical buds. Leaf-blades 5-8cm. long 4-8cm. wide,
nearly obicular or slightly obovate and broadly wedge-shaped
at the base, obtuse or rounded at the apex, very sharply and
glandular doubly serrate, or somewhat 3-7-lobed above,
4-6 pairs of prominent veins, minutely appressed pubescent
above, pubescent beneath with rather harsh, short spreadir:»

77 JOURNAL OF THE

hairs: petioles .5-1.5cm. long, margined above, deeply chan-
neled. The inflorescence is in loose, 7-18—flowered, compound
corymbs, the branches 1-—3-—flowered, the lower from the axils
of the upper leaves. ‘The flowers, appearing the latter part
of May when the leaves are nearly full grown, are white,
1.5-1.7 cm. wide: petals nearly orbicular, abruptly contracted
into a short claw: stamens 7-10, the glabrous filiments 7-8
mim. long, enlarged at the base, one third longer than the
3 stout glabrous styles: calyx tube obconic, 4--6 mm. long,
pubescent with spreading hairs, the lanceolate divisions
deeply lacinate, appressed pubescent, the serratures gland-
tipped: pedicels pubescent, stout, .3--2 cm. long: bracts lin-
ear, Small, inconspicuous, early deciduous. The fruit, per-
sisting until late in winter, is 8--11 mm. thick, bright red,
nearly glabrous, the flesh rather thin and firm: seed 2--4,
about 4 mm. long, somewhat grooved and ridged on the —
back, the lateral faces plane.

This species is related to C, Biltmoreana Bead. from which
it is separated by having much rounder leaves, larger com-
pound corymbs, and bright red glabrous fruit. Open woods,
central Illinois. I refer here to material collected at Wady Pe-
tra, Ill., by V. H. Chase, and distributed as C. macracan-
tha.

Crataegus pulcherrima n. sp. A small tree 3--4 metersp in
height, Twigs very slender, 2--3 mm. thick, red-purple,
glabrous. Leaf-blades 2--4.5 cm. long, oval to nearly orbicu--
lar in outline, 3--7-notched above, glandular-denticulate or
distantly serrate, obtuse or acute at the entire base, mem-
branaceous, bright green and glabrous on both sides, with
4-6 pairs of prominent veins: petiole .5--2 cm. long, very slen-
der, winged above, roughed with 1--2 pairs of sessile glands.
Flowers white, in glabrous, few-flowered, nearly simple cor-
ymbs: pedicels .7--1.5 cm. long, glabrous, strict: stamens
10, styles 4--5, calyx divisions, acute, entire, deciduous. Fruit
elabrous, yellowish or reddish, 5--7 mm. thick, 6--8 mm. long:
seed 4--5, 3--4 mm. long, smooth on the back and the lateral
faces plane. i

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY 78

A very distinct species. Southwestern Georgia, and north-
western Florida. HereI refer Nos. 2568 and 2377 G. V.
Nash, 1895.

Crataegus Holmesiana n. sp. A small tree 3--5 metres in
height, with a rounded or flattened crown and long horizon-
tal or spreading branches armed with numerous 3--4 cm, long
straight or slightly curved thorns; or generally a large shrub.
Leaves ovate, the blades 4--9 cm. long, 3--6 cm. wide, obtuse or
acute at the apex, acute, obtuse or somewhat rounded at the
base, coarsely and acuminately serrate all around, the teeth
oland-tipped with 5--9 pairs of shallow lobes or doubly serrate,
5--7 pairs of prominent veins, glabrous on both sides or when
young sparingly pubescent beneath: petioles terete, slender,
1.5--3 cm. long, generally purplish, and with a few stalked
glands on it near the base of the leaf. Flowers in glabrous,
nearly simple few-flowered corymbs, white, 1.5--1.7 cm. wide :
petals nearly orbicular contracted at base into a short claw:
calyx glabrous, the divisions glabrous, nearly entire; bracts
and bractlets few, linear, glandular, not conspicuous. Fruit
8--11 mm. thick, red, glabrous, falling early, 3--5 seeded.

This species inits habit resembles C. mod/zs. It is separated
from the nearly related species of the coccinea group by hav-
_ ing much larger leaves with very acute serratures. Central
New York.

Crataegus atrorubens n. sp. A small tree or shrub. Branch-
es gray: twigs bright red-brown, rather slender, marked with
few pale lenticels: thorns few. Leaves oval, broadly ovate,
or even obovate, the blades 3--7 cm. long, 2--5 cm. wide, ob-
tusely and rather coarsely serrate, sometimes with 3--5, shal-
low lobes towards the obtuse apex, or merely doubly serrate,
4--6 pairs of prominent veins, entire at the rounded or subcor-
date base, dark green above, slightly paler beneath, mem-
branaceous, when young sprinkled with short appressed hairs
on the upper surface, especially on the veins, and pubescent
beneath in the axils of the veins, at length glabrate: petioles
1.5--3 cm. long, very slender, finely pubescent, especially on
the grooved upper surface. Inflorescence a 6--14-flowerce !

79 JOURNAL OF THE

loose compound corymb, the glabrous branches generally 3-
flowered: pedicels finely pubescent, bearing 1--2 filiform
glandless bractlets, the bracts of the branches very few, in-
conspicuous, spathulate, entire, or minutely glandular denticu-

late: flowers white 1.5 cm. wide: petals orbicular: calyx |

soft pubescent, the acute divisions entire: stamens 20, scarcely
longer than the 4--5 styles. Fruit globular, 9--11 mm. thick,
dark red, glabrous.

Distinguished from C. coccinea by having more entire leaves,
and being pubescent. St. Louis County, Missouri.

Crataegus polybracteata n. sp. A shrub or small flat-topped
tree with spreading branches. Twigs glabrous, armed with
stout curved purple-black thorns. Leaves ovate or elliptic,
the blades 3--6 cm. long, 2-4 cm. wide, glandular serrate,
with 3--7 shallow lobes, or doubly serrate, acute at the apex,
acute or obtuse at the entire base, glabrous on both sides:
petiole slender, 1--2 cm. long, narrowly margined above.
Inflorescense a 4--10-flowered nearly simple corymb, the
branches and stout 1--2 cm. long pedicels glandular dot-
ted, and pubescent with rough spreading hairs: branches and
pedicels with linear, spathulate, or deeply 3 parted, .5--2 cm.
long bracts, which are rough hairy, pectinately glandular,
and persist until after the petals fall. Flowers white, 2--2.5
cm. wide: stamens about 15: styles 3--4: calyx pubescent
with a few short, spreading hairs: the divisions 4--6 long,
pubescent, glandular serrate. The dull red glabrous fruit is
8--11 mm, in diameter and is borne on strict pedicels.

This species is related to C. rotundifolia from which it is
separated by having smaller more simple corymbs, larger
flowers with hairy pedicels. and large persistent glandular
bractlets. Ohio to New York. The type is preserved in my
herbarium.

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY 80

NOTE ON A QUALITATIVE TEST FOR TIN.'
BY CHARLES BASKERVILLE.

Scarcely any instructor in Qualitative Analysis has failed
to have difficulty in having his students make a satisfactory
separation of arsenic, antimony and tin. Hither of the ordi-
nary methods of separation of the arsenic, namely, solution of
arsenic sulphide in ammonium carbonate or the solution of
the mixed sulphides of tin and antimony in hot concentrated
hydrochloric acid, answer very wellforthe arsenic. The pres-
ence of antimony in the hydrochloric acid solution is easily
proven by its precipitation upon platinum in the presence of
metallic zinc, subsequent solution in dilute nitric or tartaric
acid, andsoon. ‘The difficulty isin proving the presence of
tin. Unless most of the acid has been driven off and the so-
lution well diluted the tin fails to be precipitated on the zinc.
We have usually tested the solution directly with mercuric
chloride and hydrogen sulphide for tin. These tests are not
always satisfactory, more or less doubt existing in the stu-
dent’s mind, especially if all the antimony has not been re-
moved.

Longstaff (Chem. News, S0, 282) suggests reversing the
test given by Fresenius (Qual. Anal., 8th Edit.. p. 217, trans.
by Johnson) for molybdic acid. Stannous chloride produces a
blue coloration with molybdic acid. He uses ammonium mo-
lybdate.

We carry out the test as follows: filter from the diluted
liquid any remaining particles of zinc and add a pinch of pow-
dered molybdic acid. A deep blue color shows the presence
of tin. We have proved the presence of one part in five thous-
and with the very roughest conditions under which a most
careless student may work. Longstaff states that with every
precaution for exclusion of air it is delicate for one part
ina million. The color disappears in the presence of con-
centrated hydrochloric acid.

The presence of arsenic, antimony and zinc compounds has

1 Read at the Midwinter Meeting of the North Carolina Section of
the American Chemical Society February 24th, 1900.

81 JOURNAL OF THE

no effect ou the molybdic acid. Care should be taken, how-
ever, that no small particles of zinc pass into the liquid after
filtering, for the nascent hydrogen generated gives the same
color reaction.
February 1900.
UNIVERSITY OF NorTH CAROLINA.

NOTE ON A CASE OF SPONTANEOUS COMBUSTION.’
BY CHARES BASKERVILLE.

In August 1898 a fire occurred in some of the dyed warp of
one of the largest cotton mills in this State. Samples of all
materials used in the dyeing and sizing of the yarn were sent the
writer by the proprietors of the mill with instructions toseek the
cause of the fire in detail. Fortunately, as later learned,'the fire
was discovered in time and extinguished, avoiding very serious
consequences. Such a fire was unusual with these mill own-
ers, the first, in fact, in the history of the mill in question,
and its recurrence might prove disastrous. It was necessary to
learn if some irregularity in the practice or material used could
have been the cause or whether it resulted from the action of
chemicals surreptitiously placed upon the yarn by some ill in-
tentioned operative.

Their customary procedure was to dye eight warps at
a time (1040 lbs.) in a dye bath of two hundred and fifty
gallons of water into which have been placed for each one
hundred pounds of yarn eight ounces naphthazarin L. W.,
_ five pounds sal soda, one half pound Marseilles soap and six
pounds salt. The bath was gradually increased to three hun-
dred gallons and then run off. The warps were then washed
with three hundred gallons of water at 180° F. and sized.

1 Read before Midwinter Meeting of North Carolina Section of the
American Chemical Society, 1899.

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY 82

For sizing each one hundred pounds of yarn nine pounds of
starch and three pounds of tallow were used. The warps
were run off the dyeing cylinders into sacks quite hot aud
stored away. At the time mentioned these warps were stored
away at four oclock in the afternoon. The fire was discovered
at one the next morning.

Enquiry elicited these facts; first fire; all materials had
been on hand some time; same dye had been used for long
time; no recent new purchase of dye; the mzll shut down for
repairs immediately after the the dyeing and before the sizing of
the warps which caught fire.

Careful microscopic examination of the yarn showed only
such changes in the fibre as resulted from the mechanical
strain to which it had been subjected in the spinning and an
even distribution of the dye. No spotted effect was observed
such as would occur if chemicals in careless or ignorant hands
had been placed upon the yarn intentionally or by acci-
dent.

The dye used is commercially called ‘‘naphthazarin L. W.”
By analysis and investigation of the patent literature it was
found to be a mixture of equi-molecular parts of tetrazo-di-
phenyl, sodium salt of amido-naphthol disulphonic acid and
dihydroxynaphihalene precipitated by and incorporating more
or less sodium chloride. The tetrazo bodies under certain con-
ditions, namely, acid, liberate oxides of nitrogen which may
_ oxidize such substances as cotton. No acid was used accord-
ing to the dyeing formula.

Fires have frequently resulted from the oxidation of fats,
as when old greasy rags are packed away in a warm place for
along while. According to the ordinary method of dyeing
as practiced in this mill the rapidity of the work does not
give time necessary for oxidation which produces heat. In
this case two weeks intervened and the tallow used in finish-
ing either being on hand and exposed more or less to the
atmosphere during a warm season permitting the oxidation
to begin became rancid, or it was purchased rancid. ‘The
oxidation of the fatty constituents of tallow once begun con-

83 JOURNAL OF THE

tinues with greater rapidity the better the conditions, name-
ly heat, which conditions prevailed in this case.

The tallow used melted at 42° C. Normal tallow melts at
from 43° to 46° C. The amount of lard present was there-
fore comparatively small. The tallow was rancid, reacting
acid with litmus paper.

A chemical examination of the burnt portion showed the
presence of nitric acid. This would have resulted from the
decomposition of the dye which contains much nitrogen.
Nitric acid was also detected in other portions of the material
not charred, showing that the dye had been decomposed par-
tially by the rancid fat, but not to such an extent as where
the burning occurred.

The dyeing was done in an alkaline bath (soda) to prevent
this decomposition. The excess of this alkali is washed out
and then the warp is sized. Rancid fat is acid and the acid-
ity is increased by further oxidation of the fat, especially at
the temperature named. This acid is liable to decompose the
dye containing azo radicals liberating the oxides of nitro-
gen, which tend to increase the oxidation. Experimental
proof of this was obtained. The warps being confined in-
stead of cooling nurse the heat until the temperature rises to
the charring point of cotton. These conditions being allowed
to continue fire would result, as happened in this instance.

As stated above, while it is possible that gaseous coms=
pounds capable of burning cotton could come from the dye, it
is probably not the case here. Certainly there is no danger
if the tallow is fresh. The fire therefore may be attributed
to the spontaneous combustion produced by the continued
oxidation of rancid tallow. The fact that it was rancid was
evidence that the oxidation had begun. ‘Tallow that is only
slightly rancid may be used with comparative safety when
the process is rapidly carried out. The only absolutely safe
plan however is to use fresh tallow. The rancidity of tallow
shows itself by acid reaction to litmus paper,

UNIVERSITY OF NorTH CAROLINA.

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY 84

SOME DICHOTOMOUS SPECIES OF PANICUM.
LCONTRIBUTIONS FROM MY HERBARIUM. NOL AV
WwW. W. ASHE.

Panicum ALBEMARLENSE nl. sp. <A densely tufted peren-
nial, dark green or purplish in color, 2-3 dm. high. Culms
erect, strict, slender, villous with spreading or ascending 3-4
mm. long white hairs, leafy to near the top, barbed at the
nodes: internodes much longer than the leaves and sheaths.
Stem-leaves 3-5, firm, erect, 2-5 cm. long, 3-4 mm. wide, the
longest near the middle of the stem, very gradually tapering
to the apex from near the rounded base, pubescent above with
long spreading white hairs, especially towards the base,
mixed with shorter ones, pubescent beneath with short as-
cending hairs, the margins very rough and ciliate at the base
with a few long hairs: ligule of a few 2 mm. long hairs ;
basal leaves 1-2 cm. long, 4-7 mm. wide, glabrate, at least
when old. Primary panicle 2-4cm. long, 1.5-3 cm. wide, the
numerous branches ascending, on a short peduncle, 1-4 cm.
long, or barely exserted: spikelets broadly obovate, 1.5 mm.
long, 1.2 mm, wide, first scale acute, one-third the length of
the strongly 7—9-nerved second and third scales, which are
pubescent with spreading hairs.

PANnicuM ALBEMARLENSE is very common in well drained
open woods in Beaufort and Hyde counties, N. C., where the
type material was collected by me May 26, 1899, near Scran-
ton. It has the same habit and is closely related in character
to P. meridionale Ashe, from which separated by being larger,
having shorter pubescence, and larger spikelets.

I find that there has been previous use of a very similar
name or of the same name which I have applied to the three
following species of Panicum,” so I propose the following
changes in their names:

PANICUM SHALLOTTE n. nom. FP. glabrisstmum Ashe, not
P. glaberrimum Steud.

1 Received Feb. 19, 1900.

2Jour. Elisha Mitch. Sci. Soc. 15, part 1, 1898.

3

85 JOURNAL OF THE

PaANIcUM YADKINENSE n. nom. FP. maculatum Ashe, not
P. maculatum Aubl.

Panicum BoGukAanum n. nom. FP. annulum Ashe, not P.
annulatum A. Rich.

Panicum AUSTRO-MONTANUM n. sp. A tufted perennial
1.5-2.5 dm. high. Culms very slender, erect, glabrous.
Leaves of stem 2-4, spreading, .5-1.5cm. long, 3-4 mm. wide,
broadly lanceolate, narrowed or rounded at the base, light
green, thin and soft; basal leaves numerous, somewhat long-
er than those of the stem: ligule a ring of hairs about 2 mm_
long: sheaths very short, one-fourth to one-half the length
of the internodes, generally about the length of the leaves,
at least the lower pubescent, especially at the throat, with
soft spreading hairs 2 mm. long, nodes barbed with soft
spreading hairs. Panicle short-peduncled, 1-2 cm. long, and
somewhat narrower, the branches spreading: spikelets broad-
ly obovate, .7 mm. long, first scale one-third the length of
- the faintly 5-nerved glabrous second and third.

This species is related to P. Cuthbertii Ashe, from which
separated by having pubescent sheaths and broader spikelets;
and to P. curtifolium Nash, from which it is separated by
having much “shorter leaves and smaller spikelets. Along
mountain streams of northern Alabama and the adjacent
parts of Tennessee. Type material is preserved in my her-
barium.

PANICUM CURTIVAGINUM n. sp. <A tufted perennial. Culms
glabrous, very slender, erect, 4-6dm. high. Stem leaves
4-6, narrowly lanceolate, 4-8 cm. long, 3-5 mm. wide, the
upper reduced in size, soft and. thin, bright green, glabrous,
except for a few 3-4 mm. long cilia at the base of the lower
ones, faintly nerved, narrowed to the base, long taper-point-
ed, spreading or ascending; basal leaves somewhat longer
and wider: internoded much longer than the leaves and
sheaths, leaves longer than the sheaths: sheaths glabrous:
ligule pubescent with white hairs about |!mm. long. Panicle
long-exserted, 3-6 cm. long, 2-3 cm. wide, the numerous
branches ascending: spikelets broadly elliptic, quite 1.5 mm.

———

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY 86

long, 1 mm. wide, abruptly acute, first scale 1-nerved, glab-
rous, one-fourth to one-third the length of the strongly 5—-7-
nerved thin glabrous second and third.

Collected at Petit Bois Island, Mississippi, May 8, 1898, by
S. M. Tracy.

PANICUM WILMINGYTONENSE nl. sp. Perennial growing in
small tufts. Culms very slender, erect, 3-4 dm. high, genic-
ulate, pubescent, at least below, with short ascending hairs
or above glabrate, at first simple, at length much branched:
sheaths close-fitting, pubescent with short ascending hairs,
one-half the length of the internodes or less: ligule a row of
short white hairs about 1 mm. long. Stem leaves 3-4, short-
er than the internodes, 3-6 cm. long, 3-5 mm. wide, broadest
near the base, very long taper-pointed, slightly rounded at
the base, glabrate or pubescent beneath with short ascending
hairs or with a few long hairs on the margin near the base,
thick and firm, the margins rough, white and thickened, up-
per leaves reduced in size: basal leaves equaling the lower
stem leaves,. Paniele ovate, 3-4 cm. wide, 5-7 cm. long,
branches few, at least the lower ascending: spikelets broadly
obovate, quite 2 mm. long, nearly glabrous, the 1-nerved first
scale, about one-third the length of the glabrate 7-nerved
second and third.

Panicum Wilmingtonense is closely related to P. Atlanticum
but has smaller more acute spikelets, a more slender culm,
scattier pubescence and: smaller leaves. The type material
collected in May, 1899 on the sand hills near Wilmington, N.
C., is preserved in my herbarium.

PANICUM SUBVILLOSUM n. sp. A densely tufted perennial,
1.5-3 dm. high. Culms very slender, glabrous above, below
pubescent with ascending hairs. Stem leaves 3-5, erect or
ascending, lanceolate or narrower, 3-4 cm. long, 3-5 mm.
wide, long taper-pointed, rounded at the base, nearly glab-
rous beneath, above pubescent with long white ascending
hairs, margins rough, ciliate, at least near the base with long
white hairs, upper stem leaves and basal leaves reduced in
size: ligule pubescent with white hairs 2 mm. long: sheaths

87 JOURNAL OF THE

pubescent with spreading hairs, much shorter than the inter-
nodes. Panicle on a long peduncle, 6-12 cm. long, broadly
oval, 2-3 cm. long, 1.5-2.5 cm. wide, branches glabrous,
spreading : spikelets broadly obovate, 1.5 mm. long glabrous,
the obtuse first scale one third the length of the firm 7-
nerved second and third.

Collected by the writer at Carlton, Minnesota, in August,
in the simple state. Type material preserved in my herba-
rium.

PANICUM PARVIPANICULATUM n. sp. <A densely tufted pe-
rennial, perfectly glabrous except the ligule. Culms 2-3.5
dm. high, erect, at length sparingly fasciculately branched
and more or less reclining. Stem leaves 3-5, distant, spread-
ing or the upper erect, very much shorter than the sheaths,
one-fifth to one-third the length of the internodes, 1—2 cm.
long, 2-3 mm. wide, lanceolate, the upper reduced in size,
soft, but rough on the upper surface: ligule densely pubes-
cent with hairs about 2 mm. long: basal leaves numerous,
tufted, remaining green until after flowering, 2-4 cm. long,
4-5 mm. wide. Panicle exserted on a peduncle 3-5 cm. long,
small, broadly ovate, 2-3cm. long, 1.7-2.5 cm. wide, branches
few, horizontal or at length strongly reflexed, spikelets ellip-
tic, acute at both ends, glabrous, barely 1 mm. long, pedicels
divaricate, first scale ovate, acute, scarcely one-fourth as long
as the thin faintly 7-nerved second and third,

Panicum parvipaniculatum is related to P. lucidum from
which it is separated by having somewhat smaller spikelets,
smaller leaves and glabrous sheaths, and an erect habit. It
begins to flower about two weeks earlier than C. /ucidum.
Collected May 20, in Onslow county, N.C. Type material is
preserved in my herbarium.

PANICUM PAUCICILIATUM n. sp. A perennial forming small
or large tufts. Culms 2-3 dm. long, rising from a geniculate
base or reclining, at first simple at length much branched,
reddish or purplish, sleuder, glabrous or the lower internodes
puberulent. Stem leaves 3-4, lanceolate, 2-5 cm. long, 4-6
mim. wide, spreading or ascending: glabrous or with a few

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY 88

stiff white cilia on the margin near the base: sheaths some-
what loose, often purplish, the lower less than one-half the
length of the internodes: ligule none. Panicle 3—7 cm. long,
broadly oval, the few branches spreading : spikelets 1.5 mm.
long, obovate, obtuse, contracted at the base, the first scale
very obtuse, nearly orbicular, about one-third the length of
the nearly glabrous obtuse second and third. |

This species is closely related to P. demissum, from eich
it is separated by having smaller and more numerous spike-
lets. Collected by me May 20, 1899, growing in dry sand near
Wilmington, N. C.

PANICUM ONSLOWENSE nl. sp. A perennial growing in small
tufts. Stems 2.5-3.5 cm. high, rove or rising from a genicu-
late base, glabrous. Stem leaves 3-5, 2-4 cm. long, 3-5 mm.
wide, lanceolate, narrowed at the mas aie upper reduced in
size, erect or ascending, glabrous except a few short 2-3 mm.
long cilia on the margin at the base, the edges white and
roughened: basal leaves much longer and broader, sometimes
6 cm. long and 1 cm. wide: ligule none: sheaths glabrous,
sheaths with the leaves shorter than the internodes. Panicle
broadly ovate, 4-6 cm, long: branches few, fascicled, spread-
ing very rough: peduncle 1-2 times the length of the panicle:
spikelets very short—pedicled, elliptic, acute at both ends,
2-2.5 mm. long, the very thin obtuse first scale one-third to
one-half the length of the strongly 7—nerved glabrous second
and third.

Panicum Onslowense occurs in the flat woods and savannas
near the coast in the southeastern part of North Carolina and
.the adjacent parts of South Carolina. It is not uncommon in
the eastern part of Onslow county, N. C., where the type ma-
terial was collected near Ward's Mill. It is related to P.
Nashianum and P, demissum, from both of which it is sepa-
rated by having acute spikelets and an erect habit.

PANICUM FILIRAMUM n. sp. A perennial with 2-5 stems
from the same root. Stems very slender, simple, ascending
or spreading, at length much branched and reclining, 4-7 dm.
long, pubescent at least below with short spreading or as-
cending hairs about 2mm. long. Stem leaves 2-6 cm. long,

os ar JOURNAL OF THE

2-4 mm. wide, the upper very short, rather thin, narrowed at
the base, ascending, pubescent especially on the lower surface
and towards the base with spreading hairs, or glabrous: lig-
ule villous with white hairs 3 mm. long: sheaths pubescent
with spreading or ascending hairs 1-2 mm. long, especially at
the throat: nodes barbed: basal leaves glabrate, much broad-
_ er and shorter than the lower stem leaves. Panicle 4-6 dm.
long, oval, the branches horizontal, glabrous: spikelets nu-
merous, on very slender spreading pedicels, broadly obovate,
1.5mm. long, first scale very obtuse, about one-third the
length of the pubescent 5-7 nerved second and third.

This species is related to P. arenicolum and P. arenicolordes,
but is separated from both by having very much smaller spike-
lets. Habitat: sandy woods, eastern North Carolina. Type
material collected in New Hanover county, N. C., in June
1899, |

PANICUM ARENICOLOIDES nl. sp. A perennial with 2-5 stems
from the same root. Stems very slender, simple, ascending
from a geniculate base, or at length much branched and
spreading, 4-7 dm. long, pubescent, at least below, with 3-4
mm. long spreading white hairs, or merely puberulent, glab-
rateabove. Stem leaves 5-8, spreading or ascending, 4-1lcm.
long, 2-4 mm. wide, narrowed at the base, pubescent, espe-
cially near the base, with 3-4 mm. long spreading white hairs,
or glabrate, the longest one-third above base of stem, upper
much narrowed and shorter: basal leaves much broader and
shorter: ligule of dense white hairs about 1 mm. long:
sheaths one-third toone-half the length of the internodes,
which are generally somewhat longer than the leaves, pubes
cent, especially the lower, or glabrate. Panicle 5-7 cm. long,

2-5cm. wide, the rather few flexuous branches erect or as-

cending : spikelets obovate, 2—2.2 mm. long, abruptly acute,
contracted at the base, first scale acute, one-third the length
of the strongly 7-nerved very pubescent second and third: pe-
duncle about the length of the panicle.

Habitat: shady sandy woods along the coast of North Car-
olina. Type material collected by me near Wilmington,
N. C., June 6, 1899. This species is intermediate in many

—E———— i

— =

a a ee ee

:
.

ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY 90

ways between P. arenicolum and P. neuranthum. 'The very
long narrow stem leaves and the pubescence of the plant are
distinctive, however.

PANICUM ORTHOPHYLLUM n. sp. A somewhat tufted peren-
nial. Stems strict, erect, glabrous, or pubescent with ascend-
ing hairs, 4-6 dm. high, primary stem leaves somewhat nar-
rowed to the base, erect, glabrous or nearly so, 5-8 cm. long,
3-5 mm. wide: sheaths appressed pubescent or glabrous with
a few cilia nearthe throat, shorter than the internodes, or
the later crowded and overlapping: secondary leaves much
narrower : ligule a ring of hairs 1-2 mm. long: basal leaves
few, much shorter and broader. Panicle long-peduncled,
ovate, the few branches erect, ascending or spreading, glab-
rous : spikelets barely 2 mm. long, broadly obovate, very ob-
tuse, first scale small, obtuse, about one-fourth the length of
the sparingly pubescent strongiy 7-nerved second and third.

Shady slopes of sand hills, New Hanover county, N. C,
June 1899. Related to P. angustifolium and P. neuranthum,
from which separated by having smaller obovate spike-
lets.

PANICUM ERYTHROCARPON 1. sp. A somewhat tufted peren-
nial. Stem stout, erect, 4-6 dm. high, pubescent, at least be-
low, with soft appressed or ascending hairs. Primary stem-
leaves spreading or erect, 4-7 cm. long, 4-8 mm. wide, lanceo-
late, rounded or narrowed at the base, long taper-pointed,
pubescent on both sides with appressed hairs, often mixed
with long spreading hairs towards the base on the upper side,
margins ciliate at the base: ligule pilose: sheaths appressed
pubescent, often nearly as long as the internodes. Panicle
7--12cm. long, 6-14 cm. wide, ona peduncle of about its length,
the numerous fascicled branches spreading or drooping.
Spikelets 2.5-3 mm. long, elliptic, acute, generally bright
red, the first scale very acute, nearly one half as long as the
pubescent 7-nerved second and third.

This plant is separated from P. pubescens, which it resem-
bles, by having larger spikelets and ascending pubescence,
and from P. haemacar pon by having larger spikelets, a more
ample panicle, and guuch greater size.

dik JOURNAL, OF THE

The type material was collected by the writer on the sand
hills of New Hanover county, N. C., May 19, 1899.

Panicum MISSISSIPPIENSE n. sp. A tufted perennial 3-4
dm. high. Stems erect, glabrous or nearly so, often papil-
late below, at first simple, at length branched especially from
the lower nodes. Primary stem leaves 3-7 cm. long, 3-7 mm.
wide, rounded at the sparingly ciliate base, otherwise glab-
rous, rough on the margin: ligule a mere margin: sheaths
much shorter than the internodes, papillate, glabrous except
the edge which is finely ciliate with hairs 1-2 mm. long:
basal leaves few and short, Panicle oblong, 3-5 cm. long,
glabrous, on a peduncle 2-3 times its length, the mostly sin-
gle branches short and horizontal: spikelets glabrous, nearly
orbicular, 1.2 mm. long, 1 mm. wide, the nearly orbicular —
first scale, one-third the length of the very thin faintly
5-nerved, glabrous second and third: later panicles exserted
on short peduncles.

A very distinct species. Collected by me on the banks of
the Mississippi river below New Orleans in October. I also
refer here S. M. Tracy’s No. 6777, collected on Horne Island,
Miss., in July 1899.

PANICUM TAXODIORUM n. sp. Avery slender perennial, 4--7
dm. high, at first simple and erect, at length spreading and
loosely branched. Leaves very thin, glabrous, dark green, the
edges very rough, 4--10 long, 3--5 mm. wide, narrowly lanceo-
late, narrowed to the scarcely rounded base, long taper-point-
ed: ligule none: sheaths glabrous except the finely ciliate
margins, or with a few long hairs at the throat: basal leaves,
in the specimen at hand very short, and few. Panicle 6--10
cm. long, ovate, the branches few, slender, fascicled, ascend-
ing: spikelets full 2 mm, long, elliptic or obovate, acute,
olabrous, short-pedicled.

This species is related to P. dichotomum but differs in the
panicle having fewer, ascending branches, acuter spikelets,
narrower leaves, and in having the secondary panicles ex-
serted.

Type: K. K. McKenzie’s No. 460. Hummocks in cypress
swamps. Lake Charles, La., September 1890.

We NBs
a (a8

Mh id

fee
7

aly,

nee r bh
ANN)
see

NA y 1 Neat
AR Gavineie
oat ra { SHA 1
NH F ah y ‘

iy ,
i

a alt
MNP Hi

Ra Fut
sok x

OANA a
A i
iw

AMNH LIBRARY

~ iio

0135472