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THE JOURNAL

HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY

LONDON.

VOLUME VII.

LONDON:

PUBLISHED BY THE SOCIETY, AT THEIR HOUSE,

21, REGENT STREET.

SOLD BY ALL BOOKSELLERS.

1852.

LONDON : I'rinted by W. Ci.owKS and Sons, Stamford Street.

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

VOLUME Ml.

Original Commisications: —

Article I'age

I. Contributions to a Historj- of the Relation between Climate
and Vegetation in various parts of the Globe:
No. 1.'3. Notes, chiefly lk)tauical. made during an Excursion
from Darjiling to Tongki, a lofty mountain on the confines
of Sikkim and Nepal. By J. U. ikM)ker, M.D., F.K.S. . I

II. Mode of Heating adopted at Portligwidden, near Truro. I?v

the Rev. T. Phillpotts, F.H.S i-t

III. Dr. Schleiden's Theory of Agriculture. By tlie Rev. M. J.

Berkeley, .M.A., F.L'S. ...".... .<i>

IV. On Spira-a pmnifolia flore pleno and Forsytliia viridissima in

the United States. By John Saul, Washington. D.C. . . 4(;

V. A Register of the AVeatlier at Slianghae for Nine Months of

the Years 1850-51 . . . ' 5(i

VI. On the Climate and Vegetation of the Temperate and Cold
Recions of East Nepal and the Sikkiin-Himalaya Mountains.
By^J. D. HcK.ker, M.D.. F.R.S. . . " . . C.'i

VII. On Grape Mildew. By Hugo v. Mohl .... i;Jl'

VIII. An Abstract of Meteorological Observations made in the Gar-
den of the Society, in continuation of those published Vol.
vi. p. 1.32. By Robert Thompson . . . . . 1.3t*

IX. On Spring-tenderness in Plants. By George Lovell, Bagshot 143

X. Dr. Schleiden's Theory of Agriculture. By the Rev. M. .1.

Berkeley, M.A., F.L.S U«;

XI. On the Effect of Glazed Trellises for Peaches. By Robert

Thompson . . . • • • . • . 1G2

Report from the CorxciL ...... ICS

XII. Observations on the Diseases of Plants as illustrated by the

Potato Murrain. By Dr. Schleiden . . . . .178

XIII. On Style and Expression in certain Trees and Shrubs; their

Adaptabilities, &c. By Robert Errington. CM. U.S., Gar-
dener to Sir Philip de Malpas Grey Egerton, I5art., M.P.,
F.H.S., Oulton Park, Tarporley, Cheshire . . . TJ.'i

XIV. Some Account of a New Level. By A. Forsyth, C.M.H.S., St.

Mary's Church, Torquay . . . . . ■ .198

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CONTENTS.

Article
XV

Page

On Garden Walks. By K. Glendinning, F.H.S., Member
of the Koyal Agricultural and Botanical Society of Ghent 201

XVI. Note on Rivers's Seedling Eliza Strawberry ; and on a mode

of Potting. By R. Thompson ..... 205

XVII. How to form an Aspai-agus Bed. By Peter Kendall, Esq.,

F.H.S., of the Marine Villa, Aldborough, Suffolk . . 206

XVIII. A Note on the Protection of Fruit Trees against Walls. By

R. Thompson 207

XIX. Recent Researches on the Respiration of Plants. By M.

Garreau, M.D 209

XX. Chinese pinnated Berberries. By Robert Fortune . . 225

XXI. Cultivation of the Paulownia imperialis. By Charles Dor-

rien, Esq., F.H.S 227

XXII. A New Kind of Garden Edging. By Robert Hogg . . 228

XXIII. On the Effects of the Peach Stock on Trees worked upon it.

By Robert Thompson 230

XXIV. Remarks on the Cultivation of the Potato. By James

Hutchison 232

XXV. Miscellaneous Memoranda. By Robert Thompson . . 233

XXVI. The Gardens and Orange-grounds of St. Michael's in the
Azores— its Climate and Peculiarities. By P. Wallace,
Chiswick House 236

XXVII. Two New Forms in which Wall-Trees may be trained . 251

XXVIII. New Esculent Vegetables and Fruits, examined in 1852 in

the Society's Garden. By R. Thompson . . . 259

New Plants, &c., from the Society's Garden : —

1 . Sedum purpureum ........ 266

2. Pelargonium foliolosum ....... ib.

3. Vanda longifolia 267

4. Astragalus ponticus ........ ib.

5. Tillandsia stricta 268

6. Echeveria quitensis ........ j6.

7. Gaura Lindheimeri ........ 270

8. Oncidium tenue . . . ..... «6.

9. Cinchona calisaya ........ 272

10. Ceanothus verrucosus ....... 276

11. Lopezia macrophylla ........ 278

12. Senecio concolor ........ ib.

13. Chryseis (Eschscholtzia) californica ..... 279

14. Ophiox5'lon majus ........ j6.

15. Centrantlius macrosiphon ....... 280

10. Calceolaria chelidonioides . . . . . . . ib.

17. Cerasus laurocerasus ........ 281

18. Hedychium flavescens ....... ib.

19. Vincetoxicum japonicum ....... 282

20. Myrica californica . . . . . , . . ib.

21. Ca'mpanula Vidalii . 284

22. Vincetoxicum purpurascens ...... ib.

Proceedings at Meetings of the Society, from October 7, 1851, to
July 20, 1852 Page iii.— Ixii.

ORIGINAL COMMUNICATIONS.

I. — Contributions to a History of the Relation between Climate
and Vegetation iji various parts of the Globe.

No. 13. — Notes, chiefly Botanical, made during an Excursion
from Darjiling to Tonglo, a lofty mountain on the confines of
Sihkim and Nepal. By J. D. Hooker, M.D., F.R.S.

[Reprinted from the ' Journal of the Asiatic Society' for May, 1849, -with
corrections by the Author.]

3Iay 19/^5 1848.— Left Darjiling in the forenoon of this day,
accompanied by my friend C. Barnes, Esq. We took with us a
small tent, about 15 Lepcha (Sikkim native) and Ghorkha
(Nepal) coolies, with as few other servants as possible, these
being bad mountaineers, and our route involving much ascent and
descent. The direction is W. ; the distance in a straight line little
above 12 miles, but occupying good 3 days' march: for we have
to descend from Darjiling 5000 feet to the intervening river beds,
cross these and several spurs of 1000 — 1500 feet, and thence
ascend to a summit 10,000 feet above the sea. The route is
wholly within the Himalaya, and always through the forest
region ; large trees extending to the top of Tonglo, which is
below the lower limit of Alpine pines in this parallel, and of
the Arctic vegetation of the loftier Himalaya.

A Lepcha carries liis load in similarly formed, but much
ruder baskets than those used by the Nepal races, and 1 observed
that he uniformly used shoulder-straps, often without the belt
across the forehead.* The weight thus transported to great distances

* May not the use of the head-strap be a predisposing cause of goitre, by
inducing congestion of the laryngeal vessels ? The Lepcha is certainly far
more free from this disease than the Bhotea, or than any of the tribes of E.
Nepal I have mixed with, and he is both more idle and less addicted to the
head-strap as a porter. I have seen it to be almost universal in some vil-
lages of Bhoteas, where the head-strap alone is used in carrying both
summer and winter crops ; and also amongst the salt-traders, or rather
those families who carry salt from the passes to the Nepalese villages, and
who have very frequently no shoulder-straps, but invariably head-bands.
I am far from attributing all goitre, even in the mountains, to this practice,
but I think it is proved that the disease is most prevalent in the mountainous
regions of both the old and new world, and that in these the practice of sup-
porting enormous loads by the cervical muscles is frequent. It is also found
in the Himalayan sheep and goats, which accompany the salt-traders, and
whose burthens are supported, in ascending, by a band passing under the
throat.

VOL. VII. B

2 BELATION BETWP:EN CLIMATE AND VEGETATION

is very surprising: on an average our Lepcha loads weighed
100 to 120 lbs. On our return we had the curiosity to weigh
the then sodden tent; it was 180 lbs., and had been carried
for 10 houi-s both up and down hill in this state. To keep the
contents of the basket dry, the Lepcha makes a large liood of
bamboo platting, enclosing layers of leaves of Phrynium dichu-
tomum; this fits over the head and basket, reaching as low as
the hips, but is open in front, and leaves both the upper and lower
limbs free.

In point of climate Tonglo shares the excessive humidity of
the rest of Sikkim, though Avhen viewed from Darjiling it is
often seen to be clear when all the northern and much nearer
eastern and south-eastern mountains are wrapped in clouds.
This arises from its position, and its partial protection from the S.E.
or rainy wind. It rises as a long saddle, from a great southern
spur of Kunchin-jinga, called Singalelah, which, dividing Nepal
from Sikkim, extends from the perpetual snows of perhaps the
loftiest mountain on the globe to the plains of India. The di-
rection of this ridge is meridional. At right angles to Tonglo,
and a little south of it, the Sinchul ridge of 8000 feet meets that
of Singalelah, the latter bounding Sikkim to the west, whilst
the former shuts it off from the plains of India on the south.
Darjiling station is on a ridge projecting N. from Sinchul,
parallel to that of Tonglo, which bounds the western horizon.
Throughout the greater part of the year the S.S.E. wind pre-
vails, rising at sunrise, and its vapours are at once condensed
on the forests of Sinchul ; billowy clouds rapidly succeed,
and rolling over to the N. side of the mountain, are carried
N.W., over a broad intervening valley, to Darjiling. There
they bank on the east side of the spurs, and this being cleareii of
wood, the accumulation is slow,* and always first upon the few
clumps of trees. Very generally by 9 a.m. the whole eastern
sky, from the top of Darjiling ridge, is a dense fog, the western
exposure enjoying sunshine for an hour or two later. At 7 or
8 A.M. very small patches are seen to collect on Tonglo, which

* I have the singulai'ly good fortune to occupy, in Mr. Hodgson's house,
the most favourable spot in the station for watching the diurnal march of
atmospheric phenomena. My host's house is placed on an eminence 500 feet
above the main body of the Darjiling spur, and at its upper or southern
extremity. It commands an unimpeded prospect to the N.W. and E., having
Kunchin-jinga to the N., and the superb sweep of 80 miles of snow from
its summit round by N.E. to E. : to the S.E. Sinchul; and to the W. the
Singalelah range, from Kunchin to Tonglo. The station stretches N. in front,
as a sharp ridge. I have found it difficult to make old residents, on one or
the other side of Darjiling spur, believe that whilst their house on the western
slope is enjoying hours of sunshine, the whole eastern side is enveloped
in fog.

IN VARIOUS PARTS OF THE GLOBE. 3

gradually dilate and coalesce, but do not shroud the mountain for
some hours, generally not before 1 1 a.m. or noon. Before that
time, however, masses of mist have been rolling over Darjiling
ridge to the westward, and gradually filling up the valleys, so
that by noon or 1 p.m. every object is in cloud.

Towards sunset it falls calm, or a light S.W. wind springs up.
In the former case the mists rise, first from the S.E. mountains,
and especially if the S.E. wind, exhausted of its surplus vapours,
still blows, which raises the clouds first from Sinchul ; and when
this is clear, Tonglu breaks through the western mists. If on
the other hand a S.W. breeze sets in, or a W. or N.W., Tongl6
clears first.

In descending from Darjiling the zones of vegetation are
well marked at a little below 7000 feet, or between 6000 and
7000, by — (1 .) The oak, chesnut, and 3Iagnoliacece, the main fea-
tures of 7000—10,000 feet. (2.) Immediately below 6500, the
Tree-fern* appears {Alsophila gigantea, Wall.) — a widely dis-
tributed plant, common to the Ilimalaya from Nepal eastward
to the Malayan Peninsula, Java, and Ceylon. (3.) Of palms, a
species of Calamus,^ and Plectocomia, the " llhenoul " of the
Lepchas. The latter, though not a very large plant, climbs lofty
trees, and extends about 40 yards through the forest ; 6500 feet
is the upper limit of palms in the Sikkim Himalaya, the Rhenoul
alone attaining this elevation. Four other Calami range between
1000 and 6000 feet on the outer hills, some of which are found
40 miles distant from the plains of India. The other palms of
Sikkim are, " Simong," — Caryota urens : it is rare, and ascends
to nearly 6000 feet. Phanix,'\. a small stemless species, proljably
P. ncaulis, Buch. (/*. humilis, Koyle?), which grows on the driest
soil in the deep valleys ('' Schaap" of the Lepciias). Wallic/tia§
oblongifolia, Gr. (densifiora, Mart.), a plant liaving a very wide
range (Assam and Chittagong). It is the " Ooh " of the Lep-
chas, who make no use of it ; Dr. Campbell and myself, however,
during a recent journey hi Sikkim, found that it is an admirable
fodder for horses, who prefer it to any other green food to be had
in these mountains. Areca gracilis, tlie eighth, and Licuala,
are the only other palms of these mountains ; but Cycas pectinata,
with the India-rubber fig, occurs in the deepest and hottest

* Of this I have seen two species in the mountains.

X The fruits of all the Calami are eaten by the Lepchas, and the stems of
larger species applied to various economic purposes.

X The feathery fronds of the Phamix are used as screens in hunting : no
other use is made of any part of the plant, except that the yoimg seeds are
eaten.

§ Von Martius, in the last part of his superb work, retains Roxburgh's
generic name of Wallicliia for this palm.

B 2

4 RELATION BETWEEN CLIMATE AND VEGETATION

valleys — the western limits of both these interesting plants. Of
Pandanus there is a graceful species at elevations of 1000 to
4000 feet ('• Borr," Lepclia).

4. Tlie fourth striking feature is a wile] plantain, which ascends
to above 6000 feet (" Lukhlo," Lepcha). This is replaced by
another and rather larger species at lower elevations ; both
ripen austere and small fruits, which are full of seed and quite
uneatable ; good specific characters may be drawn both from the
male flowers, and from the size> form, and colour of the seeds.
The commonly cultivated plantain of Sikkim is, I am always
assured, an introduced stock (nor have the wild species ever been
cultivated) : it is very large, but poor in flavour, and does not
bear seeds.

The zones of these conspicuous plants are very clearly de-
fined in descending anywhere from Darjiling, and especially if
the traveller, standing on one of the innumerable spurs which
project from the ridge, cast his eyes up the gorges of green on
either hand. Firing the forest is easy in the drier months of the
year, and a good deal of cultivation is met with on the spurs, at
and below 5000 feet, the level generally inhabited by the Lepchas,
Limbos, and Sikkim* Bhoteas. The mountain slopes are so
steep, that these spurs, or little shelves, are the only sites for
habitations between the very rare flats on the river banks, and
the mountain ridges, above 6000 feet, beyond which cultivation
is rarely, if ever, carried by the Lepchas. The crops are the
usual ones of the plains, and the agriculture similar, with one
important exception, that the rice is seldom irrigated. This
appears the more remarkable, as on crossing the Singalelah
range into Nepal, in localities as steep as those covered with
rice crops in Sikkim, irrigation is almost universally resorted
to. The varieties of grain are difterent, but as many as eight
or ten kinds are grown without irrigation by the Lepchas, and
the produce is described as veiy good (80 fold). Much of this
success is due to the great dampness of the climate ; were it not
for this, the culture of the grain would probably be abandoned
by the Lepchas, who never remain for more than three seasons
on one spot.

At the bottom of the valley is a small village of Lepchas,
Limbos, and Murniis, aggregated in groups, on one spur, and
surrounded with small fields of the usual summer and winter

* I apply the term Sikkim Bhoteas to the more recent emigrants from
Tibet, who have settled in Sikkim, and are an industrious, well-conducted
people. The Bhoteas, again, of Bhotan, to the eastward, rarely reside ex-
cept at Darjiling, and deservedly bear the worst reputation of any of the
numerous people who flock to this station. They should not be confounded
with any other Bhotean tribes of Tibet, Sikkim, or Nepal.

IN VARIOUS PARTS OF THE GLOBE. 5

crops of the plains. The Lepcha house is far more roomy and
comfortable than that of the others ; it is generally square, built
on posts, with a stage in front of the door, and has a low-eaved
thatch of bamboo stems, split and laid flat. The walls are of
bamboo wattle-work. In all respects it resembles the Bhotea
house, but is smaller, and the framework is slighter, it not being
worth the Lepcha's while to render his liabitation strong and
durable. Both Limbos and Murmis build smaller houses, some-
times on the ground, but more frequently elevated ; the roof
is of grass-thatch, or occasionally of a piece of bamboo matting.

The soil at the bases of tliese hills is very fertile, owing to
tlie accumulation of vegetable mould brought down by the
rivers, the rapid decomposition of the rocks, and the ashes of the
burnt forest. Beneath the mould is generally a stratum of red
clay, wliich uniformly covers the hills at all elevations, to a
greater or less depth, sometimes even 15 feet. This varies much
in quality, apparently owing to the constituents of tlie subjacent
rocks. Of the latter some gneisses decompose m ith the greatest
rapidity, others resist the elements for ages. A clayey soil
covers even the sharpest ridges, retained in its position by the
arboreous vegetation; much of it makes excellent bricks, as it
contains a very large per-centage of alumina.*

A large bamboo (" Pao," Lepcha) is the prevailing plant
near the bottom of these valleys ; it attains a lieight of 40 — 60 feet,
and the culms average in thickness the human thigh ; it is
not spinous, its colour is deep green orpurplisli, and it is used for
large water-vessels. Besides this there are nearly a dozen kinds
of bamboo known to the Lepchas, all of which liave been pointed
out to me. Whether tliese are different species it is impossible
to say, for different genera even are too similar in their foliage to
be thereby distinguished. Three kinds usually flower; and of
these, two bear no leaf on the flowering plant, which dies after
seeding. A certain clump of plants seems to flower at the same
time, but I could not detect any cause for this isolation of the
flowering plants. Bamboos, in the general acceptation of the
term (for remotely allied genera bear the same trivial English
name), occur at all elevations below 12,000 feet, forming even
in the pine-woods, and above their zone in the skirts of the
Rhododendron scrub, a small and sometimes almost impervious
jungle. In an economical point of view they may be classed
into those which split readily, and those which do not. The
young shoots of one or more are eaten ; and the seeds of another
are made into a fermented drink : but it would take many pages

* Nearly 30 per cent., according to the analysis of my friends, J. and C,
MuUer, Esqs.

6 IIIXATION BETWEEN CLIMATE AND VEGETATION

to describe the numerous purposes to which the various species,
even in Sikkim, are put.

Gordonia is here common ( G. Wallicliii ?) ; it is an erect
and handsome tree, much prized in all parts of the Himalaya,
and universally adopted for ploughshares and other purposes
requiring a hard wood : it is the " Sing-brang-kun " of the
Lepchas, and ascends to 4000 feet. In very dry soils it is
replaced by "Sal" (Valeria ro&M*^a), and occasionally by the
Pi7ms lotigifolia.

" Toon "'( Cedrela tootia), " Simalkun " (Lepcha), and another
species (probably C. serrata, Royle), accompany the Gordonia,
as do Engelhardtia (which ascends to 6000 feet), and several
leguminous trees, Acacice, Dalbergia, Terminalia, and a So7i-
neratia. Oaks at this elevation occur as solitary trees, of species
different from those of Darjiling. There are three or four with
a cup-shaped involucre, and three with spinous involucres en-
closing the nut ; these generally grow on a dry clayey soil.

Phyllatithiis emblica, Grislea, Symplocos, and other small
trees and bushes of the plains, occupy the more open spaces near
the streams. Cucurhitacece, Marlea, and scandent Legiiminosce
skirt the forest. Fici and Chloranthus with Ferns inhabit
rocky places, and an amaranthaceous plant climbs over the
loftiest trees ; its abundant inflorescence, like hops, whiten the
forest in some places. Sterculice, of two species, are common,
as is Pcederia fcetida, which, as well as many Cucurhitacece,
peppers, Gnetum, Porana, a few other Co7ivolvulace(B, and many
Asclepiadeee, Hoi/a, &c., climb high.

Though the temperature of the air was only 77° at noon,
these valleys are close and oppressively hot : the streams small
and varying in temperature, according to the exposure of their
banks ; that of the first we crossed was 70°.

Some low steep spurs were well cultivated, though the angle
of the field was upvvards of 25° : the crops, chiefly maize, now
sprouting. This plant is occasionally hermaphrodite in Sikkim,
the bisexual flowers forming a large drooping panicle and ripen-
ing small grains ; it is, however, a rare occurrence, and the
specin)ens are highly valued by the people.

On the ridge a " Seraul " tree (£o?nbax) grows, at upwards of
3000 feet : it is rare at this elevation, or anywhere else upon
the mountains. MusscE?ida is conspicuous for its white calycine
leaves. A Lysimachia, very like the L. nemorum of Europe,
grew beneath it.

Descending to another stream, the path led through a low
dense jungle of bamboo and figs * of several species. Indeed,

* One species of this very tropical genus ascends almost to 9000 feet on
the outer range of Sikkim.

IN VARIOUS PARTS OF THE GLOBE. 7

the general prevalence of these and their allies, the nettles, is a
remarkable feature in the botany of the Sikkim Himalaya, up to
nearly 10,000 feet. Of figs there were here five species, some
bearing eatable and very palatable fruit of enormous size, others
with the fruit small and borne on prostrate leafless branches, which
spring from the root of the tree and creep along the ground. A
small wild mulberry tree is common in these situations, with
three species of nettle,* several of Bcehmeria,\ Procris, Trophis,
Celtis, and Conocephalus. Of shrubs there are Randia, Gar-
denia, Rondeletia, Citrus ; Rotlera, and other Euphorbiacece,
some Sapindacece and Terebinthaceee. ScitaminecB were not
above ground ; grasses are rare, as indeed are most monocotyle-
donous plants at this season. Of terrestrial OrchidecB there are
several species : in the valleys, Dendrobium takes the place of
Ccelogyne, the common epiphytical genus at Darjiling.

A troublesome dipterous insect (the " Peepsa ") swarms on
the banks of the streams ; it is very small and black, floating like
a speck before the eye — its bite leaves a small spot of extravasated
blood under the cuticle, very irritating if not opened.

We crossed the Little Rungeet river at 4 p.m., and found its
temperature 69°, and that of the air 75°.

Thence we ascended another steep spur from the base of Tonglo,
and camped. The night was calm and clear, with faint cirrus,
but no dew. A thermometer sunk 2 feet in rich vegetable mould
stood at 78° two hours after it was lowered, and the same on the
following morning. This probably indicates the mean tempera-
ture of the month at that spot, where, however, the dark colour
of the exposed loose soil must raise the temperature considerably.

May 20th. — Temperature at sunrise 67° ; morning bright,
clear over-head, but tlie mountains threatening. Darjiling,
perched on a ridge 5000 feet above us, had a singular appearance.
We descended from the spur to a narrow ravine, choked with
Calami, figs, and the WalUchia, and crossing a stream ascended
the Simonbong spur of Tonglo, so called from a small village
and Lama convent of that name on its summit. They cultivate
here rice, murwa {Eleusine), millet, yam, brindjal, Solanicni me-
longena, bhang, Cannabis saliva, buckwheat of two species,
fennel and cummin, &c. A white-flowered Rue, Ruta albifiora,
is wild at elevations of 3000 to 7000 feet, and is sometimes culti-
vated ; it is used for all diseases of fowls, mixed with their food.
Celastrus, Myrsine, Embelia, Ardisia, and M(Esa all occur
at 3000 to 6000 feet, and we passed through groves of a hand-
some shrubby purple Tephrosia in full flower. Near the top of

* Of two of these cloth is made, and of a third cordage. The tops of
two are eaten, as are several species of Procris ?
t Two species yield a fibre : one is the " Poa."

8 KELATION BETWEEN CLIMATE AND VEGETATION

the spur Osbeckia and several species of Rubus appeared ; and
hence upwards the brambles are very frequent, twelve species
occurring between this level and 10,000 feet. They flower at
different seasons ; one was bearing large-sized, well-flavoured
yellow fruits, as big as raspberries.

At noon we arrived at tlie top of the spur, and passing some
chaits,* gained the Lama's residence and temple. The latter is
nothing more than a rather large wooden Bhotea house raised
on a stone platform. As we stopped here on our way down, I
shall allude to it afterwards more particularly.

Two species of bamboo, " Payong" and "Praong" of the
Lepchas, here replace the " Pao " of the lower regions. The
former was flowering abundantly, tiie culms, which were 20 feet
high, being wholly a diff"use panicle of inflorescence. The
" Praong " bears a round head of flowers at the apices of the leafy
branches. Wild strawberry, violet, Lysimachia of several
species. Geranium, Polygonum, Veronica, &c., announced our
approach to the temperate zone. Around the temple were potato
crops and peach trees. The potato thrives extremely well in Sik-
kim, though I think the root cultivated in the plains of India from
the Darjiling stock is superior both in size and flavour. Peaches
never ripen in this part of Sikkim, apparently from the want of
sun ; the tree grows well at 3000 to 7000 feet, and flowers abun-
dantly, and its fruit makes the nearest approach to maturity
(according to the elevation) from July to October. At Darjiling
it follows the English season, flowers in March and fruits in
September, when the scarce reddened and still hard fruit falls
from the tree.

It is curious that throughout this, the temperate region, there
is hardly an eatable fruit except the native walnut.| English
cultivated fruits are extremely poor ; the native are confined to
the walnut, some poor brambles, of which the " yellow " and
" ground raspberry " are the best, some insipid figs, and a very
austere crab-apple. The European apple will hardly ripen, the
pear not at all. Currants and gooseberries show no disposition to
thrive, and strawberries, which grow well, ripen a flavourless

* The chait of Sikkim, borrowed from Tibet, is a square pedestal sur-
mounted with a hemisphere, the convex end downwards, and on it is placed
a cone, with a crescent on the top. These are erected as tombs to Lamas,
and as monuments to illustrious persons, and are venerated accordingly, the
people always passing them from right to left, often repeating the invocation,
" Om mani Padmi hom."

t The walnut of Sikkim has an extremely hard shell, whilst that of
Bhotau has a remarkably thin one. In both the kernel is excellent, but in
Sikkim not worth the trouble of freeing from the shell. Bhotan walnuts are
largely exported, and are in all respects excellent.

IN VARIOUS PAETS OV THE GLOBE. 9

berry. Vines, figs, pomegranates, plums, apricots, &c. will not
succeed even as trees.

European vegetables again grow and thrive remarkably well
throughout the summer of Darjiling, and tlie produce is very fair,
sweet and good, but inferior in flavour to the English.

Of tropical fruits cultivated below 4000 feet tlie orange and
banana alone are frequent, with lemons of various kinds. The
season for these is however very short : that of the plantain might
with care be prolonged, but the fruit, as I have said above, is
poor ; oranges abound in winter, and are excellent in flavour, but
neither so large nor free of white pulp as tliose of South America,
the AYest Indies, or AV. coast of Africa. Mangos are broiiglit
from the plains; they do not thrive in the valleys ; and tliougli
I have seen the pine-apple plant, I never met with its fruit.

A singular and almost total absence of the light and heat of
the direct rays of the sun in the fruiting season, is the cause
of this dearth. Both the farmer and orcliard gardener know
full well in England the value of a bright sky as well as of a
warm autumnal atmosphere. Without this corn does not ripen,
and the fruit trees are blighted. The winter of the plains of
India being more analogous in its distribution of moisture and
heat to a European summer, such fruits as the peach, vine, and
even plum, the fig, strawberry, &c., may be brought to bear well
in March to April and May, if they are only carefully tended
through the previous hot and damp season, which is, in respect
to the functions of flowering and fruiting, their winter.

Hence it appears that, though some English fruits will turn
the winter solstice of India (November to May) into summer,
and then flower and fruit, iieither these nor others will thrive in
the summer of 7000 feet on the outer Himalaya, though its tem-
perature so nearly approaches that of England, by reason of
tlie accumulated evils of its excessive rains and fogs. Further,
they are often exposed to a winter's cold no less rigorous than
the average of that of London, the snow lying for a week on
the ground, and the thermometer descending to 25°. It is
true that in no case is the extreme of cold so great liere as in
England, but it is suflficient to check vegetation, and to prevent
fruit trees flowering till they are fruiting in the plains. There
is in this a great difference Ijetween the climate of the central
and eastern and western Himalaya, at equal elevations. In the
eastern (Kumaon, &c.) the winters are colder and more comfort-
less than in Sikkim — the summers warmer and less humid. The
rainy season is shorter, and the sun shines so much more fre-
quently through the heavy showers that the apple and other
fruits are brought to a much better state. It is true that the
rain gauge may show a greater fall there, but this is no measure

10 RELATION BETWEEN CLIMATE AND VEGETATION

of the humidity of the atmosphere, and still less so of the amount
of tiie sun's direct light and heat intercepted by aqueous vapour.
It takes no account of the quantity of moisture suspended in the
air, nor of the dei)ositions from fogs, which are far more fatal to
the perfecting of fruits than the lieaviest brief showers.

In the valley of Nepal, Mr. Hodgson informs me tliat at 4000
feet the apple, tliough flavourless, ripens well and is a good
fruit, as are two varieties of the European fig ; but these ripen
at the same seasons as they do in the plains, the winters being so
mild that snow is rare, and never lies. There, however, the
plantain and mango do not ripen, nor the orange always. It is
too warm for gooseberries, currants, and raspberries, and too
rainy for the vine. Apricots may be produced with care, but
seldom peaches.

The Indian solstices, which are marked by one season of exces-
sive drought, and the other of excessive humidity, can never be
favourable to a copious fruit market. The obstacles to the pro-
duction of good European fruits, either in the plains or hills, are
manifest, nor do the tropical kinds flourish as in other quarters of
the globe, where the seasons are not so contrasted. Hence there
is not one good fruit peculiar to the country, and perhaps but one,
which arrives at full perfection -, namely, the mango. The plan-
tains are good, so are the oranges and pine-apples, but are less
abimdant, and of inferior kinds, and remain a shorter season in
perfection than they do in most other equally warm climates.
Who tliat has walked the fruit-markets of South America, the
West Indies, or Western Africa, has not been struck with the
profusion of all the above fruits throughout the year, and of
many more besides, which are unknown to India ?

On ascending Tonglo we left cultivation and the poor groves of
peaches at 4000 to 5000 feet (and this on the E. exposure, wiiich
is by far the sunniest), the average level to whicli agriculture
reaches in Sikkim ; though both in Bhotan and in E. Nepal
cultivation is carried much higher, the more flourishing salt
trade, and probably the easier nature of the passes, favouring the
formation of fixed iiabitations much nearer to the perpetual snow
than in SikkLpi, where the enormous mass of Kunchin-iinga in-
trudes its snows considerably south of the main range, and forbids
cultivation within upwards of fifteen miles from its summit: its
uniform clotliing of forest too allows of no pasturage.

Above Simonbong the path up Tongl6 is little frequented ; it
is one of the many routes between Nepal and Sikkim which cross
the Singalelah spur of Kunchin-jinga, at various elevations, gene-
rally lower as they approach the plains of India, and varying
from 6000 to 7000 feet. As usual, the track runs along ridges
wherever these are to be found, vet-y steep, and narrow to the

IX VARIOUS PAKTS OF THE GLOBE. 11

top; through deep humid forests of oak and Magnoliacece,
many Lauri, both Tetranthera and Cinnamomum, one species
of the latter ascending to 8500 feet, and one of Tetranthera to
9000. Chesnut and wahmt here appeared, with ElcBOcarpus,
and some leguminous trees, which however did not ascend to
6000 feet. Scarlet flowers of Vaccinmm serpens, an epiphytical
species, were strewed about, and above these the great blossoms
of a Rhododendro7i and Manglietia ? lay together on the ground.
The Rhododendron Balhousia is a beautiful epiphytical species,
growing on the larger oak limbs, and bearing clusters of 6 to 8
flowers of great size ; they are pure w hite, and deliciously scented
of lemon. The Manglietia forms a large tree, of which the foliage
is very dense, and of a deep shining green. Most of the flowers
drop unexpanded from the tree, and have a very sweet aromatic
smell ; they are as large as the fist, the outer sepals purple^ the
inner pure white. It may be tlie Liriodendron liliifera, Willd.
(Rox. ii. p. 654). The fruit differs from both 3Iagnolia and
Michelia, and I need not say equally so from Liriodendrofi. In
every flower I picked up, there was a grub of a lamellicorn
beetle in the centre of the receptacle.

Heavy rain came on at 3 p.m., obliging us to take insufficient
shelter under the trees, and finally to seek the nearest camping
ground. For this purpose we ascended to a spring, called Sim-
sibong, at an elevation of 6000 feet. The narrowness of the
ridge prevented our pitching the tent, small as it was ; but the
Lepchas rapidly constructed a house, and thatched it with bam-
boo and the broad leaves of the wild plantain. A table was
then raised in the middle, of 4 posts and as many cross pieces of
wood, lashed with strips of bamboo. Across this, pieces of
bamboo were laid, ingeniously flattened, by taking cylinders,
crimping them all round, and then cutting each down one side,
so that it opens into a flat slab, several inches across. Similar
but longer and lower erections, one on each side the table,
formed bed or chair ; and in one short hour, half a dozen men,
with only long knives and active hands, had fitted us with a to-
lerably water-tight furnished house. A thick flooring of bamboo
leaves kept the feet dry, and a screen of these and other foliage
all round rendered the habitation tolerably warm.

It is a little below this elevation, 3000 to 5000 feet, that great
scandent trees of the forests, either wholly enveloping trunks of
others or twisting around them, strangle the greatest of these,
which, decaying within their folds, leave the reticulated sheath
of climbers as one of the most remarkable vegetable phenomena
of these mountains. They belong to several orders, and may
be roughly classified in two groups— 1. those which merely twine,
and by constricting certain parts of their support, produce death ;

12 UI-XATIOX BKTWEEN CLIMATE AND VEGETATION

2. those which form a reticulated mass or network round the
trunk, by the coalescence of their lateral branches and rootlets,
&c. : these wholly envelop and often conceal the tree they
enclose, whose branches appear far above those of its destroyer.
To the first of these groups belong many natural orders, of
wliicli the most prominent are I^eguminoscB {Bauhinia, Ccssal-
p/nia, DaJbergia, Milletia, Butea, 3Iimosa) ; Vines, Pothos,
Comhretacece^ Menispermacece, 3Ialpi(jhiacecc, and a few other
natural orders. The inosculating ones are almost all figs and
WigJitia.

At niglit the Lepchas sit late chatting round the fire,
wretchedly housed, miserably clad, and very insufficiently fed.
A more thoroughly happy people it would be difficult to find
any where ; they very rarely quarrel among themselves, and
their disposition is singularly cheerful and lively. The flute is
their favourite and only musical instrument : it is of bamboo ;
has only 4 equi-distant holes, situated far below the mouth-hole,
which again is remote from the butt end of the instrument ; and
it is very difficult to sound. I have often listened with real
pleasure to the simple music of this rude wind instrument ; its low
and sweet tones are singularly ^Eolian, as are tlie airs usually
played, wdiich fall by octaves : it seems to harmonize willi the
solitude of their primaeval forests.

A thermometer sunk 2 feet 4 inches in the deep vegetable
mould and clay fell to 62°, and stood at 61 "7 on the following
morning.

Except for the occasional hooting of an owd, the night was
profoundly still for sevei'al hours after dark, it being too early
in the season for the cicadas. A dense mist slirouded every
thing, and the rain pattered on the leaves of our hut. At mid-
night a tree frog broke the stillness with his curious metallic
clack, and others quickly joining in the chorus, they kept up
their strange nmsic till morning. This is called the " Simook "
(Lepcha), and like many Batrachians, has a voice less like that
of an animal than any organized creature I know. The cries of
beasts, birds, and insects are all explicable to our senses, and we
can recognize most of them as belonging to such or such an
order of animal ; but the voices of many frogs are like nothing-
else, and allied species utter totally dissimilar noises. In some,
as this, it is like the sound of the concussion of metals, in others
of the ringing of steel or brass — any thing but the natural effects
of lungs, larynx, and muscles.*

31ay 2\st. — Early this morning we proceeded upwards, our

* A very common Tasmauian species utters a sound that appears to ring
in an underground vaulted chamber beneath the feet.

IN VABIOUS PAKTS OF THE GLOBE. 13

prospect more gloomy than ever. The road, still carried up
steep ridges, was very slippery, owing to the rain upon the clayey
soil, and was only passable from the hold afforded by interlacing
roots of trees. At 8000 feet some enormous detached masses of
micaceous gneiss rise abruptly from the ridge ; these are covered
with mosses, ferns, CyrlandrecB and Begonia', and creeping
UrticecB. Such masses occur on all the sharp ridges, and at all
elevations ; they project awkwardly through the soil, and are
strangely confused and distorted in tlieir stratification, down even
to the ultimate lamination of the mica, felspar, and quartz.
They are never in situ, and are generally strangely shattered,
and evidently not the mere exposed top of any continuous rock
forming the nucleus of the mountain. A uniformly dipping
stratified rock of any extent would, if raised at the angle of the
slopes of these hills, present a precipitous face somewhere; but
the ranges of 4000 to 8000 feet ramify and inosculate in all
imaginable directions, without presenting a bold face any where
near Darjiling. The road cuttings from tiie plains to the Sana-
tarium, as well as the landslips, reveal iiighly inclined continuous
strata, all variously distorted and much dislocated, but these are
only at the foot of the hills. Above 4000 feet all appears a
strangely piled mass of gneiss rocks, with no uniformity of dip.
Amongst these the red clay lies deeper or shallower as the hollows
retain it or otherwise.

These rocks are scaled by means of the roots of trees, and
from their summit (7000 feet) a good view of tiie surrounding
vegetation is obtained. The mass of the forest is formed of ( I )
three species of oak, of which Q. annulala ? with immense lamel-
lated acorns, and leaves sometimes 16 inches long-, is tiie tallest
and tiie most abundant. (2) Chesnut. (3) Laurinece, of several
species, beautiful forest trees, straight-boled and umbrageous
above, chiefly Tetranthera and Cinnamomum. (4) MagnoliacecB ;
three species of Michelia. Other trees are Pyrus, Saurauja
(both an erect and climbing species), Olea, cherry, birch, alder,
maple {Acer), Hydrangea, and one species of fig ; holly ;
several Araliaceous trees. Arborescent Rhododendrons com-
mence here witii the R. arhoreum, wiiicli only occurs at one spot
near Darjiling (Mr. Hodgson's grounds on Jillapahar, 7500 feet).
Helwingia * and brambles are the prevalent shrubs. Ferns were
not yet fully expanded, and the upper limit of the tree ferns was
passed. This is the region of pendulous mosses, lichens, and

* A new species of this most remarkable genus, -which I propose naming
after M. Decaisne, the able describer of the natural order, ■which hitherto in-
cluded but one species, a native of Japan. The place of this genus in the
vegetable kingdom has been considered doubtful ; I regard it as a reduced
form of Araliacea.

14 KKi.ATioN hktwek.n climvtk am> vegetation

nuiny hcrbactK>us plants; of which hitter, except Arums, few had
yet appearetl alH)vt' grovind. The peiiduK)us mosses are chiefly
s^Hvies of ffi/pnum, JVeckera, &.c. ; the lichens, £orrera and
Us/tta. Of Arums, Arisicma s/H-ciosum particularly att'ects
this level, with some green spotted compound-leavtHl kinds, and
tlie small Kemusutia {riripam /) on the rocks and trunks of
trees. Iseither /*<>//i(V {SrimfufK^t/s) ojfiri/ialis, decursiru,* nor
sca/iiU'Hs are fouuil higher up the moutitain ; Arum curvatum,
Koxb., and otlier species of Aris(cma, are very frequent. Calla,
Cohwasia, ami Lasia are contine«i to lower levels. Peppers
retu'h this elevation, but no higher ; whilst very prevalent shrubs
are Aiiamia ci/anea, Pittosfnyrum ; J£urt/a and Camellia in drier
placid ; Ifi/pt-ricum ; some species of 17/ iV ; and several Cucur-
bitnct'tr, Zanlhoxylon and SapindareiC.

Still ascending along very slippery { aths, a considerable change
is found in the vegetation of tiie following thousiind feet, from 8000
to 9(XK). In the forest two gigantic species of Jluff/iolia replace
the Michflias, and were just past tlowering. The Qucrcus annu-
Inta is less abundant. Cliesnut dis;\ppeivrs, with several Lauri ;
other kintls of maple are seen, and the Khcuio<lemlron arboreum
is replacetl by a much handsomer species, with capitula of very
large white tlowers and nuisjinficent foliage, 1(5 inches long
(^R. argenteum). Cornett, I'iOurnum, jLoniccra, and Aucuha
are frtx^uent, with two or thrt^ Hydrangeas, many Laurime,
and some new oaks. Hehcingia is still more abundant as a bush,
with climbing and shrubby Smilacinete, epipliytical and other
Vaccinia, and Gualtheriie. Stauntonia forms a handsome
climber, with beautiful pendent clusters of lilac blossoms. The
Araliacete are chietly scandent si^>ecies, and herbaceous, as
pseudo-ginseng. Sgmplocos, I^imonia, and Celastrus are com-
mon shrubs, and small trees. Cissus capreolata clothes the
trees up to tliis height.

At 9000 feet we arrived on a long Hat spur or shelf of the
mountain, coverevi with lofty trees, and a dense jungle of small
Iximbixi. Magnolias here formetl the majority of the trees, with
a few oaks {annulaia very rare). Great Pt/ri and two other
spt.H?ies of Khodcxlendron. both attaining tiie height of 30 to
40 ftH?t, Ji. Inirbatum. Wall., and li. arboreutn. Wall., var.
rctseum, De C. ; Sphu nistem ma, a scandent Araliacea, and a
Saurauja climb the loftiest trees : Stauntonia crawls round their
biise, or over lower bushes. Limonia and Si/mploi'os are the
common shrubs. A beautiful orchideous plant, with pale purple

• The juice of this or a nearly allied species is used by Lepchas and

Bhoteas for fixing the poisou of Aconitum and other plants on their arrow-
heads. It is said to increase the effect of the poison.

IN VAIUOL'S I'AUTS Ol" THE QLOlili. lo

flowers {C(Aogyne WaUichii), grows on the trunks of all tlie
great trees, and attains a higlier elevation than most other
epiphytical species, for I have seen it at 10,000 feet. A very
large, broadly cucnilafe spathed Arisfctna first appears at 8000
feet, and is abundant thence to the top of the mountain, where
smaller kinds are found at 10,000 feet.

It is to be remarked that Lvijiiminosa: are all but unknown in
tliis part of Sikkim aljove GOOO feet, except the Parochclu.s com-
munis, which however I did not see on this accent. This total
absence of one of the largest and most ubir|uit(jus natural orders
through 4000 feet of elevation is most remarkable, and charac-
terizes much of the Himalayan range of Sikkim. I know
of no parallel case anywhere on the globe. In the equally
humid fcnests of South Ciiili and Fuegia the order is extremely
rare, but species do exist, and the whole flora of those countries
is nmch poorer in numl)ers than this. Grasses are also extremely
scarce above 4000 feet and below 10,000 feet, always except-
ing the bamboos, which by their giant dimensions may be fanci-
ftdly supposed to compensate for the want of many herbaceous
species : or it may perhaps be stated better thus : — where the
proportion of trees is very great, both in nunjber of species
and of individuals, arboreous grasses replace the herbaceous
sjtecies of less jungly regions.

A loathsome tick infests the small bamboo, and a more hateful
insect I never encountered. The traveller cannot avoid these
coming on his person (sometimes in great numbers) as he l>rushes
through tlie forest. They are often as large as the little finger
nail, get inside one's dress, and insert the proboscis deeply with-
out pain, liurif-d head and shoidders, and retained by a barbed
lancet, it is only to be extracted by main force, which is very
painful. I have devised many tortures, mechanical and clie-
mical, to induce these disgusting intruders to withdraw the pro-
boscis, but in vain.

Leeches* swarm at below 7000 feet ; a small black species
above IJOOO, a large yellow-brown solitary one behjw that. They
are troublesome, but cause no irritation. In August and Sep-

* I cannot but think that the extraordinary abundance of these Annelides
in all the grazing-grounds of Sikkim may cause the death of many animals.
Some marked nmrrains have followed very wet seasons, when tlie leeches
swarm more than ever ; and the disease in the cattle, described to me by the
Lepchas as in the stomach, in no way diflers from what leeches would pro-
duce. It is a well known fact that these creatures have lived for days in
the fauces, nares, and stomachs of the human subject, causing dreadful suf-
ferings, and death in the latter case. I have seen the cattle feeding in places
where the leeches so abounded that fifty or sixty were frequently together ou
my ankles.

16 RELATION BETWEEN CLIMATE AND VEGETATION

teinber these absolutely swarm, and are no less troublesome to
man than to the feet of the ponies.

The rain continuing heavily, we rested the men by some large
pools on the flat. A small Lobelia, Chrysosplenium, Procris,
and CaUitriche formed a sward on the banks, amongst which
some RauiDicuU grew {diffusus, Wall., and a similar species).
A large and handsome Carex flourished in the water.

Rauniiculus, though so common a genus literally almost every-
where else, is extremely scarce in the temperate and tropical
zones of the Sikkim Himalaya ; R. sceleratus abounds in the
plains close to the foot of tlie hills, but between that elevation
and 10,000 feet I have nowhere seen this or any other species.
Here, and probably elsewhere in the Himalaya, the genus is very
rare in these zones, though more abundant in the arctic zone
above.

CrucifercE is another natural order very frequent in the tem-
perate and mountainous regions of all the world, except the Sikkim
Himalaya. A variety of Cardamine liiisuta? is absolutelv the
only plant of this order occurring wild between the plains of India
and the summit of Tonglo.

CompositcE again are far from represented on the scale thev
are everywhere else. Though about Darjiling, where clearances
have been effected, the amazing prevalence of Gnaphalmm and
Auaphalis. &c., gives an appearance of usual abundance of Com-
positcE, these very species will be found elsewhere scarce in the
temperate zone of southern Sikkim.

Labiatce are also poorly represented, except in clearances.

As far as I can guess, this paucity of representatives of orders
for which the temperature of the Sikkim Himalaya is admirablj'
adapted, can best be attributed — (1.) to the uniform luxuriance
of the arboreous vegetation, and the absence of either precipices
or naked spots of any kind. (2.) to the htmiid atmosphere ;
for some of these groups, as LeguminoscE , arc very rare in equally
temperate climates which, in respect of humidity and equabilitv
of temperature, can be compared with Sikkim, namely, New
Zealand and Fuegia. There, as here, Cruciferce, Compositce,
Ranunculi, Labiatce, and above all, LeguminoscE and grasses,
are very rare in the forest region.

Our ascent to the summit was by the bed of a watercourse,
now a roaring torrent, from the heavy and incessant rain. A
small Anagallis (like tenella) and a scapeless Primula grew
by its bank, also some small Carices, and Hemiphragma.
The top of the mountain is another flat ridge, with depressions
and broad pools or small lakes, in which grew an Iris. A square
platform, raised by the Surveyor General (whose party were the
only Europeans wiio had previously to ourselves visited this

IN VARIOUS PARTS OF THE GLOBE. 17

mountain), which had been cleared from jungle only eight months
before, was already fast getting choked with bamboo and various
trees.

Upon the very top, though only about 500 feet above the flat,
the number of additional species was great, and all betokened a
rapid approach to the alpine region of the Himalaya, though
large forest trees still abounded. In order of prevalence the
trees are, — Rhododendrons of three species. (1.) i?. arboreum,
var. roseum, in large bushy trees, 40 feet high. These ramify
from the ground, the lower branches being long and spreading,
and the apices of all loaded with a superb scarlet inflorescence.
(2.) H. barbatum, a tree of nearly the same height, but not so
spreading ; flowers as copious and beautiful, but foliage brighter,
more luxuriant and handsomer. (3.) R. Falconeri, in point of
foliage the most superb of all the Himalayan species ; trunks in-
clined, 30 feet high, branching but little, bark very smooth and
papery. Branches naked, except at the apices, where clusters of
white flowers are borne ; the corollas are 10 cleft, and the stamens
numerous. Leaves 18 inches long, very thick, above deep green,
underneath wrinkled and covered with a rich, deep chesnut-brown
tonientum. Next in abundance to Rhododendrons are shrubs
of Limonia, Symplocos, and Hydrangea, forming small trees ;
there are still a few Magnolias, ^ery large Pyri, of three
species, and yew,* the latter 18 feet in circumference ; besides
these, Buddleia, not in flower, Picris, Andromeda, Olea,
Celastrus, Cerasus, and Daphne cannabina. A white flowered
rose, R. sericea,^ was very abundant, growing erect, its nu-
merous inodorous flowers pendent, apparently as a protection
from the dashing rair). Sphcerostemyna, Sabia, Stauntonia, and
Clematis montana ^ were the prevailing climbers. I met with
a cucurbitaceous plant at this great elevation, a Smilax and
Asclepiadeous geims. A currant was common, always grow-
ing epiphytically on the trunks of large trees. Two or tliree
species of Berberis and maple, I think, nearly complete the
list of woody plants. Amongst the herbaceous and smaller
shrubby plants were many of great interest, as a rhubarb,
and Aconitum i)almahim,\ a very pretty species, which, as well

* The red bark of the yew is used as a dye, and for staining the fore-
heads of the Brahman Ghorkhas in Nepal.

t This is the only species of rose occurring in Southern Sikkim.

j Probably Bikh is yielded by various Aconita. The name of both the
Sikkim Aconites is Bikh-gniong, by Lepchas and Bhoteas, who do not dis-
tinguish the two species by the roots. Another far more powerful Bikh is
yielded by a plant of the order Composita, which I have gathered abun-
dantly at 10,000 and 9000 feet ; and it requires care to distinguish its root
from that of the Aconites. When mixed, the Bhoteas could not separate
them.

VOL. VII. C ,

18 RELATION BETWEEN CLIMATE AND VEGETATION

as various congeners, yields the " Bikli" poison of E. Nepal, Sik-
kini, and Bhotan. Thalictrum, one species. Ane7none vitifolia,
Fumaria, two Viola;, Stellaria, Hypericum, Geranium two
species, two Balsams, Epilobium, Potentilla, Paris (7000 to
10,()U0 feet), Panax pseudo -ginseng, and another species, Me-
coiiopsis Nepalensis, two species of Gentiana, Ligularia, and
two Craivfurdice, two species of Ariscema, Anagallis, Hemi-
j)hragma, and Ajuga, Disporum, and three Convallarice, one
with vertioillate leaves, whose root is called another " Bikh," and
considered very virulent. GraminecB were very few in number,
but a large Carex covered the ground, amongst the bamboo.

Still tlie absence or rarity of several very large natural families
at this elevation, which have numerous representatives at and
much below the same level in the Western Himalaya, indicates a
certain peculiarity in Sikkim. These are the following : — Ra-
nunculacecE, Fumarice, Cruciferce, Alsiiiece, GeranicE^ Legu-
mi?iosce, Potentilla, Epilobium, Crasstdacece, Saxifragece, Um-
helliferce, Lonicera, Valerianece, F>ipsacece, various genera of
Compositce, Cumf>anulacece, Loheliacece, Gentiance, Boraginece,
Scropliularinece, Prirmdacece, Gramitiece.

All the above ai'e genera of the north temperate and subarctic
zones, which affect a much higher level in this part of Sikkim
than in the Western Himalaya or Bhotan — the difference in
this respect being very much greater than the small disparity of
latitude will account for, or tlian the (if there be any) difference
of mean temperature, for the snow-line is certainly very little
different here from that of the N.W. Himalaya. On the other
hand, certain tropical genera are more abundant in the tempe-
rate zone of the Sikkim mountains, and ascend much higher
there than in the Western Himalaya. Of this fact I have cited
conspicuous examples in the palms, plantains, and tree-fern
ascending to nearly 7000 feet, and in the presence of many other
orders at great elevations, as figs, peppers, Lauri, tfec. ; and to
these could be added many others, none more remarkable than
Balanophora, bf which there are several species above 4000 and
even 6000 feet, one ascending to 11,000 feet.

This ascent and prevalence of tropical species is due to the
humidity and the equability of the climate in this temperate
zone, and is perhaps the direct consequence of these conditions.
An application of the same laws accounts for the extension of
similar features so far beyond the tropical limit in the Southern
Ocean, where various natural orders which do not cross the 30th
and 40th parallels of N. latitude, are extended to the 55th in
Tasmania, New Zealand, the so-called Antarctic Islands south
of that group, and to Cape Horn itself in Fuegia.

The forest region, encroaching so far upon, and in fact cover-

I>f VARIOUS TARTS OF THE GLOBE. 19

ing the temperate zone of the Sikkim Himalaya, and the snow-
level not being proportionally higher, it follows that, cceteris
jjaribus, the belt occupied by upland alpine and Arctic species
is more confined, and in all probability less prolific in species,
tlian it is in the N.W. Himalaya. Of this the rarity of Pines
(themselves indices of a severe drought in tlie air or soil)
would appear to afford a proof; for between the level 2500, the
upper limit of the P. longifoUa. and the Taxiis, 10,000, wliicli
also coincides with the lower limit of Abies, there is no coni-
ferous tree whatever in Southern Sikkim, except on the moun-
tain faces immediately subtending the perpetual snow ; and there
they descend 1000 feet lower. There are only six species of
Coniferce, including Taxus and Juniperus, in this part of Sikkim,
of which two are not common to the N.W. mountains, and none
are by any means abundant.

We encamped amongst the Rhododendron trees, on a spongy
soil, of black vegetable matter, so oozy that it was difficult to
keep the feet dry. The rain poured in torrents all the evening,
and this, the calm, and wetness of the wood prevented our enjoy-
ing a fire. Except a transient view into Nepal, a few miles west,
of us, nothing was to be seen, the whole mountain being wrapped
in dense masses of vapour. Gusts of wind, not felt in the forest,
swept over the gnarled and naked tree tops; and though the tem-
perature was 50°, tliis produced cold to the feelings on walking
about, and being exposed to it.

Our poor Lepclias were miserably off, but always happy under
four posts and a bamboo-leaf thatch, and witli no covering but a
single thin cotton garment. They crouched on the sodden turf,
joking with the Hindus of our party, who, though supplied with
good clothing and shelter, were doleful companions.

I made a shed for my instruments under a tree ; Barnes, ever
active and ready, floored the tent with logs of wood, and I laid a
" corduroy road " of the same to my little observatory.

During the night the rain did not abate; the tent-roof bagged
and leaked in torrents, so that we had to throw pieces of wax-
cloth over our shoulders as we lay in bed.

May 22nd. — There is no improvement whatever in the weather.
Two of the Hindus crawled into the tent during the nigiit, with
fever and ague.* The tent being too sodden to carry, we had
no choice but to remain where we were, and there being

* It is a remarkable fact that both the natives of the plains under many
circumstances, and the Lepchas when sufi'ering from protracted cold and
wet, take fever and ague in sharp attacks. The disease is wholly unknown
amongst Europeans residing above 40u0 feet, similar exposure in whom
brings on rheumatism and cold, even in constitutions predisposed to the
former by repeated attacks of fevers in other climates.

c2

20 RELATION BETWEEN CLIMATE AND VEGETATION

abundance of novelty within 20 yards, there was no difficulty,
with such a pursuit as botany, in getting through the day.
Observing the track of sheep, we sent two Lepchas on the scent,
who, after being absent the whole day, returned from some miles
west in Nepal, with two sheep and as many lambs. The shep-
herds were Goorongs of Nepal, who were grazing their flocks on
a grassy mountain top, from which the woods had been cleared ;
probably by fire. These to the Lepchas were a great boon, but
the Hindus would not touch the flesh, and several more sick-
ening during the day, we had the tent most uncomfortably full.*

Our inability to obtain a view was extremely disappointing,
the mountain commanding a superb prospect. It embraces nearly
100 miles of the snowy range, from the far west in Nepal to Kun-
chin-jinga due north and its five sister-peaks, varying from 20,000
to 28,000 feet, and from which an uninterrupted succession of
snowy ridges sweeps round to the east. The culminant jioints
rise, several to 22,000, and many to upwards of 19,000 feet.
Chamalari, in Tibet, rears its head above the eastern amphi-
theatre of snows at a distance of 80 miles. S. E. are the sub-
Himalayas of Bhotan, and all between are the billowy mountain
masses of Sikkim. South, the eye sliould have ranged over the
plains of India, the courses of the Teesta, the Konki, the Cosi,
and the innumerable smaller streams which debouche on the
plain.

During the whole of the 22nd, from 7 a.m. to 11 p.m., the
thermometer never varied 6*5 degrees, ranging from 47*5
in the morning to 54°, its maximum, at 1 p.m., and 50*7 at
night. At 7 the following morning it was the same. A ther-
mometer sunk 2 feet 6 inches in deep vegetable mould and clay,
maintained for two days the constant temperature of 50*7 (alt.
10,000 feet — May). In spite of the heavy rain and fog, the dew
point was always below the temperature, at which I was sur-
prised, for more drenching weather could not well be. The
mean dew point was 50*3, and consequent humidity 0"973.f

These observations, and those of the barometer, were taken
some 60 feet below the summit, to which I moved the instru-
ments on the morning of tlie 28th. At a much more exposed
spot the results would no doubt have been different. A thermo-
meter there sunk to the same depth as that below stood at 49 • 7 ;
or one degree colder tlian 60 feet lower down.

The summit of Tonglo, by my barometrical observations

* This was a most convenient hill tent kindly lent us by Major Crommelin
ofDarjiling. It can be carried on one man's shoulders, and accommodated
two persons with a little management.

t As expressed by the quotient of the tension at the temperature of the
dew point divided by that of the air.

IX VARIOUS PABTS OF THE GLOBE. 21

taken simultaneously with those of Calcutta, g-ives the height
10,078-3 feet; Col. Waugh's, by trigonometiy, 10,079-4 feet.

May 23rd. — We spent a few hours of alternate fog and sun-
shine on the top of the mountain, vainly hoping for the most
modest view. The air, wliich was always foggj', was alternately
cooled and heated, as it blew over the trees, or the open space
we occupied, sometimes var^'ing 5° and 6° in J hour. Whenever
a lull occurred the fog was sensibly heated by the sun's rays.

The number of mosses, Hepaticce and Lichens, growing near
and on the summit, is very remarkable. Tliere were various
species of ferns, and a small Agaricus grew on decayed twigs ;
lichens infested the naked branches of the rose, berberry, and
cherr}\ The trunks of both the Rhododendrons, owing to their
smooth papery bark, and the bamboo, are remarkably free from
cryptogamic vegetation.

Having partially dried the tent in the wind, we commenced
the descent, which, owing to the late torrents of rain, was most
fatiguing and slipper}^ ; it again commenced to drizzle at noon,
nor was it till we had descended to 6000 feet that we emerged
from the region of clouds. There I met Avith a species of Balano-
phora * pushing through the soil ; it is a new species, monoicous,
the earliest flowering of any in Sikkim, and may be distinguished
from its congeners by its cyathiform involucre round the middle
of the pedicle.

By dark we arrived at Simonbong, having descended 5000
feet at the rate of 1000 feet an hour, and here we were kindly
received by the Lama, who gave us his temple for the accom-
modation of the whole party. We were surprised at this, both
because the Sikkim authorities had falsely represented the Lamas
as very averse to Europeans, and because he might well have
hesitated before giving ingress to a promiscuous horde of some
thirty people into a sacred building, where the little valuables on
the altar, &c. were quite at our disposal. He made but one
request, that the Hindus should not smoke their hookahs inside.

Simonbong is one of the smallest and poorest Gumpas (or
monasteries) in Sikkim ;■!■ unlike the better class, it is built of

* The pretty -wooden cups, in universal use throughout Sikkim and Tibet,
are made of knots produced by Balanophorce, generally on the roots of maples.

t There are upwards of twenty Lama establishments in Sikkim, num-
bering eight hundred monks. Many of these are of excellent masonry,
Chinese in architecture, gorgeously decorated, and, for so poor a country,
richly endowed. During my more recent travels in Sikkim I have visited
many, been an inmate in the monasteries, and met with the greatest kindness
and hospitality from the good fathers. As the first European who had ever
lived with the monks, this was the less to be expected. Dr. Campbell, who
afterwards joined me, and in whose delightful society I visited others, records
the same opinion of these good-natured people.

22 RELATION BETWEEN CLIMATE AND VEGETATlOSf

wooden beams only, and has no monuments, except the ehaits
mentioned on our way up the mountain. It consists of one
large room, with small sliding shutter windows, raised on a
stone foundation, and roofed with shingles of wood ; opposite
the door, which is at one end (the east), the altar is placed, of
wood, chequered with black, white, and red diagonally ; to the
right and left are shelves with a few MS. books, wrapped in
silk ; a model of Symbonath temple at Nepal, in wood ; a praying
cylinder, and some implements for common purposes, bags of
juniper, &c. On the shelves are English M'ine-bottles and glasses,
with tufts of Abies Wehbiana, Rhododendrons, and peacocks' fea-
thers. On the altar seven little brass cups are ranged, full of
water ; a large shell carved with the sacred lotus : a brass jug from
Lhassa, of beautiful design, and a human thigh-bone, hollow
and perforated through both condyles. The shelves above con-
tained various trifles, clay ornaments and offerings, and little
Hindu idols brought from the Hurdwar fair.

Facing the altar is a bench and a chair, and on one side a
huge tambourine, with two curved iron drum-sticks. The bench
was covered with mysterious implements, bells handsomely carved
with idols, censers with juniper-ashes, the dorge which the priest
holds in his hand during service, and various water-vessels ; on
the stool or chair was a large platter, with a brass egg-cup
inserted in it. Of these articles, the human thigh-bone is by
much the most curious ; it is very often that of a Lama, and the
longer they are the more value is put upon them. As, however,
the Sikkim Lamas are burned, these relics are generally procured
from Tibet, where the corpses are said to be cut in pieces and
thrown to the kites, or into the water.

The Lama was consecrated at Cimngachelling, one of the
oldest Sikkim convents (it has existed for three centuries), and
unfortunately was not an educated or intelligent fellow.

Two boys usually reside in the temple, and their beds were
given up to us, which being only rough planks laid on the floor,
proved clean in one sense, but contrasted badly with the springy
couch of bamboo the Lepcha makes, which renders carrying a
mattress or aught but blankets superfluous.

May 24.th. — We were awakened this morning by the dis-
coi'dant orisons of the Lama ; these commenced at sunrise, by
the boys coming in and beating the great tambourine close to
our ears for several minutes, then blowing the conch-shells, and
finally the thigh-bone, each for as long a time. Shortly the Lama
entered, clad in scarlet, shorn and barefooted, wearing a small
red silk cap. He walked along, slowly muttering and groaning
his prayer, to the end of the ajiartment, whence he took a small
red bag in which were a brass bell and dorge. Sitting down he

LV VAKIOLS PAKTS OF THE GLOBE. 23

Commenced matins before the chair with the brass cup, which
he filled with water and placed again in the platter — took off' his
beads and continued counting them or beating tlie bell, uttering-
most dismal prayers in a very deprecatory tone, of whicli " Maliva,
oh Maliva," was the burden. After various disj)o.-als of the water-
jugSj cups, and platter, wliich were filled and refilled, rice added
and sprinkled about, a large bell was violently rung for some
minutes, himself snapping his fingers and uttering most unearthly
sounds. Having put away those instruments, incense was brought,
of charcoal with juniper-sprigs. This was swung about, and put
tiirough many evolutions, and finally, with the water, thrown out
of the window, when the morning service was concluded, to our
great relief, as the noises were quite intolerable.

After breakfast the Lama came to visit us, bringing rice, a few
vegetables, and a large basket of fermented Murwa (seeds of
Eleusina coracana) : the latter is invariably given to the traveller,
either in the state of the fermented grain, or more conmiunly in
a bamboo jug filled with warm water and grain ; the fluid sucked
through a reed is a refreshing drink.

A species of Pteris, very like aquilina (w hich is common
elsewhere in Sikkim), attains at Simonbong a height of 14 feel.,
as great as I ever remember having seen itself or its congeners ii»
New Zealand,

Leaving Simonbong, we descended to the Little Rungeet, ana
crossed it lower down than before, thus avoiding some trouble-
some spurs ; the heat of the valleys is very great, 80° at noon,
and of the stream 69° ; the latter an agreeable temperature for
the coolies, w ho plunged teeming with perspiration into the water,
catching fish with their hands.

AVe reached Darjiling late in the evening, and again drenched
with rain ; our people, Hindus and Lepchas, imprudently tarried
for the night in the valleys below. Owing probably as mucii to
the great exposure they had lately gone through, as to the sudden
transition from a mean temperature of 50° in a bracing wind, to
a hot close jungly valley at 75°, no less than seven were laid up
with fever and ague.

Few excursions from Darjiling can, for their length, give a
better idea of the general features and rich luxuriance of the
Sikkim Himalaya than one to Tonglo. I was amply rewarded,
and my ever cheerful and active companion pronounced him-
self so too, though we both had fully expected better weather
and some prospect, however transient or confined. It is always
interesting to roam with an aboriginal, and especially a mountain
people, through their thinly inhabited valleys, over their grar.d
mountains, and to dwell alone witii them in these forests, how-
ever gloomy and forbidding. No thinking man can do so with-

24 MODE OF HEATING

out learning much, tliougli slender be the resources at his com-
mand for communion. A more interesting and attractive
companion in this respect than the Lepclia I never lived with :
cheerful, kind, and patient with a master to whom he is attached ;
rude but not savage, ignorant and yet intelligent ; with the simple
resource of a plain knife he makes his house and furnishes yours,
with a speed, alacrity, and ingenuity that whiles away that well
known long hour when the weary pilgrim frets for his couch.
In all my dealings with them they have proved scrupulously
honest. Except for drunkenness and carelessness, I never had
to complain of any of the merry troop, some of whom, bare-
headed and bare-legged, with absolutely nothing but a cotton
garment and long knife, followed me for three months on a
recent occasion, from the scorching plains to the everlasting
snows. Ever foremost in the forest or bleak mountain, and ever
ready to help, to carry, to encamp, collect, or cook, they cheer
on the traveller by their unostentatious zeal in his service, and
are spurs to his progress ; for who would not go forwards where
such followers are behind ?

II. — Mode of Heating adopted at Porthgwiddeti, 7iear Truro,

By the Rev. T. Phillpotts, F.H.S.

(Communicated Sept. 29, 1851.)

The accompanying plans and sections refer to a forcing-pit,
orchid-house, and cutting-frame, erected at this place, under my
own direction, early last year. Their success has been so com-
plete in all points, that I place the details at your disposal,
that others may, if they think fit, pi'ofit by my experience. Real
usefulness rather than display has been my object, and I lay no
claim to novelty or invention beyond what a practical rather
than a scientijic adaptation or modification of the plans of
others, avoiding as far as possible their defects, may deserve.

Without discussing other systems, their merits and demerits,
I will only say, that I have for many years paid much attention
to the best method of constructing and applying heat (especially
bottom heat) to horticultviral buildings. The Tank system and
the Polmaise have both been tried by me at different times (under
the personal advice of Messrs. Rendle and Meek), honestly and
without any prejudice ; but after the expenditure of a good deal
of time, trouble, and money, I have arrived at the conclusion
that an apparatus consisting of hot water in pipes, with open
troughs connected with them, affords the simplest and cheapest,

ADOPTED AT PORTHGWIDDEN, NEAR TUURO. 25

because the most certain and efficient means of heating I have
yet seen. The range consists of —

I. A forcing pit,* 42 feet by 8 feet, divided into three com-
partments A, B. C. of three lights each.

II. An orchid house of the same length, 10 feet wide, in two
divisions.

III. A row of striking frames on the north side, to which heat
may be given at pleasure.

The whole M'as put to work at Easter, 1850, when pit A. was
planted with cucumbers (Cuthill's black and Snow's white spine
I find the best), and since that time we have had a constant
supply of the finest fruit, which has in every instance at five suc-
cessive exhibitions carried off the first prize.

Pit B. was filled with vines in pots, which were ripened and
succeeded by melons. In December a fresh lot of vines was
introduced, which produced the finest crop of grapes (in pots) I
ever saw. Some of the pots had as many as 14 and 15 bunches,
well coloured. These were cut in May and June, from vines
which were most of them only 15 months old, and on their
removal melons were planted, of which there is now (Sept. 29)
a good crop, nearly ripe. Pit C. has already ripened ofi'a fine
early crop of melons, one of « hich obtained the Bronze medal at
the Botanic Society's exhibition in the Regent's Park. It is now
occupied as a cool pit, with plants of various kinds.

The whole is heated by a single 24-lnch ribbed boiler of
Burbidge and Healey's pattern (they have in my opinion spoiled
their newly improved (?) one by getting rid of the central tube).
Perfect command of heat is given by the Sylvester fire-doors and
dampers, which need no praise from me : they are admirable,
and may be used with almost any boiler. The setting of the
boiler, as recommended by Messrs. Burbidge and Healey, is a
great advantage : the fuel does not come in contact with any of
the iron work, every inch of which is, however, exposed to the
action of the heat, and a system of slow combustion, regulated
by dampers and by a flue, which descends a little before it goes
off to the stack, economises fuel to a most surprising degree.

The pipes are 4 inclies in diameter, and 1 foot from centre
to centre. The open ti'oughs are cast with a pipe at each end
to fit into the sockets ; they are 6 feet long and 9 inches wide at
the top ; depth 4 inches, with a shoulder cast in each rim to
enable us to cover them with common slate, when less moisture
is required ; if a very dry heat is wanted, a little sand strewed

* The pits are really only G feet wide, but in the drawing I have made
them 8 feet, as I find I have such a superabundance of heat that I now wish
for the extra width. This is the only improvement I can suggest, after 18
months' trial.

26

MODE OF HEATING

over the slate keeps all tight. The heat is regulated not by
expensive cocks or valves, which contract the flow, and are
liable to get out of order, but by series of cast-iron cisterns

M'hich supply the place of elbows, and being cast with one, two,
or three sockets of the same bore as the pipes, may be plugged off
with a conuuon piece of wood, with a little cloth wrapped round
it, so as to clieck or entirely cut oft" the supply from any part
which may not need it.

But the most perfect system of heating would be vain without
good ventilation night and day. If my theory is correct, the
air of plant houses of this description should be in direct pro-
portion to the light, the moisture, and to the heat. This is best
attained (where the quantity is easily controlled) in a small
house, for the temperature must not be lowered too much by
the admission of external air, while, on the other hand, it must
not be dried by artificial heat. To obviate this difficulty, you
will observe an air chamber between the two buildings, wliich
has its opening at a lower level, near the ash pit ; from this
chamber several small drains open into the pits, &c. 6 inches
above the floor, with gratings of (about 6 inches square) per-
forated zinc. From these a constant supply of fresh air in
small and broken quantities arises, so that no strong draught is
created ; and this, passing over the surface of the pipes, under
which it enters, loses its chill, while the open troughs supply it
Mith moisture ; these are constantly open, but may be closed
if necessary. Tliere are also ventilators in the front and back
walls, and at the top of the orchid house. It will be perceived
that the ridge piece is raised above R. the roof, the south side of
which carries a roller for sun-blinds, while the north side has a
row of luft'er boards, which are opened and shut at pleasure,
by balance weights within. The front of tlie orchid house is
fitted with Plartley's patent rough plate-glass, which answers
admirably without diminishing tlie light ; indeed, a blind is still
needed for tlie orchids in very bright weather. One word as to
drip — by adopting the pattern of sash-bar given by Mr. Lyons
in his work on Orchids, this is entirely avoided, even when the
house is saturated with moisture, and a cold Mind blowing
without.

ADOFTED AT rORTHGWlDDEN, NEAll TKLTtO.

27

It may be objected that the cold in this neighbourhood is not
excessive, the thermometer never falling below 18°, and rarely
within 10° of that point. I may, however, say that we have
never worked to our full power, and my gardener is so convinced
of the sufficiency of the boiler, that he wishes to heat another
range of store pits from the same, which he says he could easily
do with little or no increase of fuel.

AVith these observations I leave the plans in your hands, be-
lieving that with such modifications as circumstances may require
they will be found practically useful and economical, getting rid
in a great measure of the nuisance and uncertainty of dung beds,
and doing the real work of the forcing ground in a simple and
efficient manner. Such successful results can only be expected
where the gardener not merely understands but loves his business.
It is but common justice to add, that I have the good fortune
to be so assisted, and that I highly value the care, attention, and
zeal with which my plans have been carried out.

Note. — I must not omit mention of the cucumber pits erected
for Mr. Ludlow, at Heywood House, Wilts, from which I re-
ceived much assistance, and, indeed, tlie first idea of my own
range. They failed, however ; at first from an excessive mois^
ture, caused, as I believe, by an insufficient supply of air. 1
have no doubt Mr. Crane, tlie intelligent gardener, has long
since remedied this. It may be useful to add that the entire
cost of my building, including everything, was 160/. The
consumption of fuel to keep it constantly working is about nine
tons of culm (jjrice here 14*. per ton) per annum.

R, Holler for lUind.

28

MODE OF HEATING

■p.g,

p S

■T3 rt

M o

%1

CO X

ADOPTED AT POKTHGWIDDEN, NEAR TBUBO.

29

Scale l-8th.

B, Boiler.

Siiuth.
TT, Open Troughs.

VV, Ventilators.

30 DK. SCHLEIDEJJ'S THEORY OF AGraCULTURE.

III. — Dr. Schleidens Theory of Agriculture. By the Rev.
M. J. Berkeley, M.A., F.L.S.*

The volume before us, whose full title we have given below,
may either be considered as a distinct work in itself, or as a
single volume out of three, constituting a cyclopaedia of theoretic
natural history for the use of agriculturists, comprising physics,
inorganic and organic chemistry, meteorology, mineralogy,
geology, the knowledge of soils and manures, the physiology of
plants and animals, and the theory of rational husbandry. It is
not our intention to advert to that part of it which relates to the
physiology of plants and animals ; it is to the third part only
that we purpose to direct the attention of our readers, premising
that in the prospectus issued by the publishers it is considered so
complete as to render any more especial rules of husbandry un-
necessary, inasmuch as the principles involved are so clear and
certain as to enable every one who has any interest in the matter
to apply them at once as any particular case may arise. While,
therefore, it modestly proclaims itself merelj' as theory, it in
point of fact professes itself as thorougiily practical.

It is in this point of view, therefore, that we think a fair
abstract, conveyed as mucii as possible in the words of the
author, may prove not uninteresting nor unsuggestive of practical
good, though we are not prepared at once to adopt the views of
the learned author, which are greatly at variance with many
notions which are generally current amongst cultivators. Dr.
Schleiden, though often paradoxical, is always an able reasoner ;
and whatever we may think of his new theory of the impregnation
of plants, he has so many titles to merit as an excellent anfl
acute observer, that whatever he advances is entitled at least to a
candid examination.

The main position amidst others of various degrees of import-
ance contained in the theory of the cultivation of plants is simply
this, that manures do not act immediately on vegetation by
means of their organic contents, but by reason of the inorganic
substances which they involve. The organic portions, however,
perform a part absolutely necessary to the process, as they retain
the inorganic portions in their tissues, and by their power of
absorption of matters contained in the surrounding atmosphere
render them available for nutrition.

* Die Physiologic der Pflanzen und Thiere uiid Theorie der Pflanzen-
cultur fiir Landwiithe bearbeitet von Dr. M. J. Schleiden, Professor an der
UniversitUt zu Jena. Braunsweig, 1850. 8vo., pp. 490 & xii. rait 1.54 in
den Text eingedruckten Holzschuitten.

DR. SCHLEIDEN'S THEORY OF AGRICULTURE. 31

Without further preface, we proceed with our account of the
argument.

There is a great difference between experience and observa-
tion ; the latter merely indicates the external relation of one
phenomenon with another as regards space and time ; the former
their intimate connection in point of cause and effect. Without
experience in this true sense of the word there can be no theory.
"What is meant therefore in the present volume by Theorj'^ of
Agricultvire is only the apposition of those sciences which can
alone place an intelligent cultivator in a condition to make real
and useful experiments, and when a sufficient quantity of these
are collected, and not till then, a theory of agriculture in the
real sense of the phrase will be possible. At present we must be
content by means of chemical and physical science to make agri-
cultural experience possible.

The first question which arises is what are cultivated plants
or plants of husbandr}', and in what respect do they differ from
wild plants. It is quite self-evident that all laws to which wild
plants are subject, hold good of cultivated plants so long as their
inapplicability is not proved by intrinsic difference of nature.
The greater part of writers on agriculture are wholly incom-
petent to say whether cultivated plants are under more or less
favourable circumstances than wild plants. The first thing
which strikes us about those plants whose cultivation is carried
on on a large scale is that they comprise a very small portion of
the species which are distributed over the earth. Out of the ten
thousand species of grasses scarcely twenty species are exten-
sively cultivated ; of the immense family of Papilionaceous
plants, perhaps twelve ; half a dozen Crucifers ; scarce as many
Umbellifers, Chenopods, and 8olanads : besides a sprinkling of
species cultivated in tlie tropics with which we are less familiarly
acquainted.

Out of 300 families, consisting of some 200,000 species, we
have mentioned nearly all that come within our present scope.

These plants may be divided into two different groups ; those
of which we do not know witli certainty the wild state, and those
whose origin is well ascertained. The most important cereals
for instance, as Indian Corn, Rice, Wheat, Rye, Oats, and
Barley, are never met with truly wild. All the researches of
travellers in America after the wild state of the Indian Corn
have been vain, and our European species which are supposed to
have been derived from the East have never been found in coun-
tries except where it was more than probable that tiiey had been
introduced by the hand of man. The wild originals seem to
have perished before what are called the historical ages. Nor
indeed do they establish themselves in general as wild plants ;

32 DR. SCIILEIDEN'S THEORY OF AGRICULTURE.

after two or three more or less abortive efforts they completely
vanisli.

As regards tlie second group, how different are the roots of our
cultivatetl Carrots, Turnips, «S;c., from tiie dry, useless produce
of the wild plant ! What resemblance between our CauliHowers,
Savoys, and Cabbages, and the juiceless plants of Brassica
oleracea from the Dunes of the Baltic, which, nevertheless, is
the origin from which they sprang ? The wild Potato of Chiloe
has a small, greenish, nauseously bitter root, and other instances
might be alleged. The characteristic, then, of agricultural
plants consists not in what distinguishes them as species, but in
that which separates them as varieties from the typical form.

Moreover the natural orders to which they belong are amongst
those which have an especial tendency to form varieties, '\i\
which, therefore, the distinction of species is extremely difficult,
and requires great circumspection. To understand then the
peculiarities of these plants we must become well acquainted
with the mode of origination of varieties and subspecies. If the
seeds of a double Dahlia are sown, a few only of the produce
resemble the parent, the greater part differ from that and from
each other ; and when the same circumstances take place in the
second generation the plant which exhibits them is called a
variety. The Cauliflower, for instance, was originally a variety
of the wild Cabbage. If proper attention, however, be paid to
the soil, the seeds reproduce the variety with certainty, and it is
then called a subspecies.

But few varieties arise from mere cliange of soil or climate : the
flesh-coloured Hi/di-angea becomes blue in certain soils ; some
blue flowers become red when grown near anthills from the effect
of the formic acid ; and in a dry situation the lliband Grass of
our gardens is produced from the common green form. Changes
of colour and increase or decrease of vigour are effected, but new
varieties in general do not arise.

Where plants are propagated by buds varieties more frequently
originate. Potatoes for instance alter more or less in different
soils, and Strawberries degenerate where they are allowed to
spread extensively from runners.

The main source, however, of varieties and subspecies is from
seed. Art indeed exercises a certain degree of power over their
production, so that the expected produce is almost matter of cal-
culation where a sufficient degree of skill is exercised. If tiie seeds
of a variety are sown with due attention to similarity of soil and
treatment, there is almost a certainty that some individual will
exhibitHhe characters of the variety. If amongst these that one
is selected which is nearest to the mother-variety, the new gene-
ration will afford a greater number of individuals true to the

DR. SCHLEIDEX'S THEORY OF AGRICULTURE. 33

desired characters, and if tlie experiment be continued through a
series of years, the variety at last will constantly produce plants
like itself, and will be then an established subspecies.

The necessary condition is, that the same circumstances of
soil and cultivation should be continued through the whole pro-
cess, and it is clear that by inverse treatment a plant may be
made to revert to its original type.

The object tiien of field-culture is not plants as species, but as
varieties. And as such they may be arranged in three classes.
With the first of these, which regai-ds mere general vigour of
growth, as in varieties of real or artificial grasses and forest trees,
we have at present little interest. Preternatural development of
certain parts and modifications of chemical action are much more
to our purpose. The following list comprises the most familiar
instances : —

A. Preternatural development of certain Parts.

a. Boot . . Turnips.

b. Stem . . Kohl-rabi, Cauliflower, Flax, and Hemp.

c. Leaves . Cabbages.

d. Buds, especially subterranean. Potato.

e. Fruit . . Apple, &c.

/. Seed . . Cereals, Pulse, and Oil Plants.

B. Modifications of Chemical Action with a view to the Multiplication of
peculiar Constituents.

a. Protein . Cereals, Pulse, and Coleworts.

b. Starch . . Potato, Cereals, Pulse.

c. Sugar . . Beetroot.

d. Oil . . . Oil Plants.

The preternatural development of one part supposes peculiarities
of chemical action in the whole. What then are the conditions
which can induce such modifications ?

To this end we must compare the circumstances attendant on
natural and artificial growth, which will throw much interesting
light on the nutrition of plants, and some other important points
of their culture, as for instance the nature of manures.

Now there are soils extremely rich in organic substances, as
peat bogs or moors. They support a very poor vegetation ; poor
in the number of species, their uniformity of habit, and their all
but utter worthlessness. There are soils again rich in organic
substances, consisting to the depth of 100 feet or more of humus,
which support the most luxuriant vegetation, viz., the tropical
virgin forests : their richness in species, their variety of forms, and
their great utility form a striking contrast to the case just men-
tioned. Again, there are soils consisting of lava and volcanic
ashes, with scarce a trace of humus, except such as arises from
the still undecoraposed remains of the plants which they have

VOL. VII. ^

34 Dli- SCHLEIDIiN'S THEOKY OF AGIUCULTUKK.

supportetl, which still are remarkable for their exuberant vegeta-
tion, and which have for centuries been equally prolific without
any acKlition of manure. Tiie tierra colorada of Cuba, whicli
is used for the cultivation of coifee and indigo, is a case in
point.

Again, there are soils void of humus, which support no vege-
tation, or one of the very meanest ciiaracter, as for instance the
loose sands of the Sahara. The humus then cannot be the
cause of fertility, for we find a very poor vegetation on land ex-
tremely rich in humus, and a luxuriant growth on that which is
destitute of organic constituents. Nor can the presence of water
be the only requisite, for if we ascribe the desolation of the
desert to the absence of water, we cannot lay the blame on that
in the case of peat bogs. If water be added to the loose sand,
as in the forests of tlie German marches, we have a uniform and
poor vegetation. There remains but one answer : in the soils
destitute of humus it must be the mineral inorganic constituents
wliich are the cause of luxiu'iance, and to the same cause must
be attributed the fertility of the virgin forests of the tropics, in
comparison with the barrenness of the peat bogs, though equally
rich in organic matter. Fi'om the very mode of formation of
peat bogs it follows that all the soluble mineral constituents are
washed out and carried off, whereas in the soil of the virgin
forests tliey are stored up, insomuch that the continued cultiva-
tion of tobacco for some centuries is required to exhaust tiie
alkali of the North American woods.

Now if a comparison be made with our cultivated lands, it is
the first superficial glance alone which recognizes any necessary
proportion between the fertility of the soil and its richness in
hunuis. Analysis shows that no such relation exists, but that the
goodness of the soil depends upon its inorganic constituents, so
far at least as they are soluble in water, or through continued
action of carbonic acid ; and the more abundant and various
tliese solutions, the more fruitful is the ground.

But the matter may be viewed in another light. If we take
the Flora of a country, as for instance that of Germany by
Koch, which is perhaps the most perfect of its kind, we find
plants divisible into two classes, one containing those whose forms
are extremely simple and constant, and another those which are
rich in remarkable and definite varieties. The latter, with few ex-
ceptions, are either Alpine plants, or such as, in our cultivated
ground and its neighbourhood, are subjected to the influence of
agriculture. This is the most striking when we compare the
species of a particular genus with one anotlier, and find that even
nearly related species are distinguished in tliis respect according
to their natural locality. The one is subject to produce varieties.

DR. SCHLEIDEN'S THEORY OF AGRlCULTUrvE. 35

the other extremely constant. Now, certainly, it is not the rich-
ness in humus which intluces the multiplied varieties of Alpine
plants, or its comparative absence, on the other hand, which
causes the poverty of forms in other species. The Alpine plants
grow in a soil to which the water contiimally brings down the
decomposed elements or the comminuted fragments of the im-
pending roclvs. The characteristic of our cultivated fields is
equally the richness in soluble mineral constituents, and not the
greater proportion of humus.

We may now then answer the question : What is an Agri-
cultural plant ? It is one which is distinguished from wild
individuals of the same species by peculiar qualities which con-
stitute its fitness for culture, and which depend upon a modifica-
tion of chemical action.

By cultivation, in its confined sense, to the exclusion of all
cases of mere promotion of luxui'iant growth, is meant the pro-
duction of certain definite qualities in particular individuals.
There is however another end in view, namely, that of associa-
tion, to the exclusion of all other plants. Even where no pecu'
liar qualities distinguish the plant under culture from the wild
state of the species, such association is necessary to save the
labour of the collection of scattered individuals. Nor is this
necessary association without its consequences. Most men con-
sider plants so collected as in a far more favourable situation
than they occupy by nature ; but the fact is precisely contrary ;
for the greater part of cultivation consists in restoring the fer-
tility which has been impaired by such association.

Although it is improbable that different natural laws prevail
in the nutrition of cultivated plants from those which are wild,
we must not take this for granted, but put it to a strict proof,
especially since the most erroneous notions on this subject are
prevalent.

The facts which follow are collected from Loudon's Encyclo-
paedia : — ■

Up to the 35th degree of latitude, on either side of the
equator, the farmer depends not on dung, but on irrigation ;
from thence to the 45th degree manure accompanies irrigation,
but by no means universally ; from thence to the 67th degree,
which is about the limit of cultivation in Norway and Sweden,
the ground is drained and manure employed. In tlie southern
hemisphere this latter region is of little importance, while the
first is of great consequence on both sides of the equator. Three-
fourths then of tiie cultivation of the whole globe is quite inde-
pendent of manure.

In the following countries organic manure is not used, and
frequently impracticable from the want of beasts to yield it.

D 2

36 DR. SCHLEIDEN'S THEOEY OF AGIUCULTUHE.

In the middle of Russia the corn which supplies the market
of Odessa is produced year after year on the same ground without
any manure. The straw is simply burnt. Sometimes indeed the
produce is only six or seven fold, but occasionally very rich.
The stems of the wheat are frequently as thick and tall as reeds,
and the leaves like those of Indian corn.

In some parts of Malaga wheat and barley are grown alter-
nately without either dung or fallow. In Arabia Felix raw
manure is replaced by water or burnt camels' dung.

In Hindostan the ground yields two harvests without manure,
the first principally of vetches, the latter of Indian Corn exclu-
sively. In the rice districts, comprising a great part of Asia,
organic manure is not applied. The Chinese however lay great
stress on vegetable ashes, and collect the weeds for burning.

In Van Diemen's Land fifteen successive crops of wheat are
taken without manure ; the land is then suffered to run wild,
and when covered with Acacia scrub the trees are burnt, and the
soil is again fit for cultivation. The same is the case at the Cape
of Good Hope, and many like instances might be produced.

As examples of plants which yield a great produce without
organic manure, we may mention Indian Corn, Rice, Sugar-cane,
Coffee, Cacao, Banana and Plantain, Manioc and Yam, Cotton,
Indigo, and a great portion of Tobacco. In fact the 200 or
600 fold produce of Indian Corn in Mexico without any manure,
puts to shame our 12 or 15 fold harvest with every effort of
agricultural skill.

The following considerations show clearly tiiat in no case do
the organic substances contained in the ground perform any direct
part in the nutrition of plants. Humus, taken in its widest
sense, is nothing more than the undecomposed parts of animal
and vegetable substances. Before organic beings appeared on
our earth, there could have been no organic mould ; but even
supposing such to have been the case, and in whatsoever degree,
the earth must long since have been a wilderness had plants lived
on organic matter. The organic substances which an animal
devours are, to the extent of at least a half, entirely con-
sumed by the process of nutrition ; and the more or less rapid
combustion of decomposition wherever life has ceased, raises the
amount of complete destruction of organic matter to something
quite enormous. The process of destruction may be estimated
as follows : — For every rod of ground (containing 100 square
feet) we may reckon at least 200 lbs. of destructible organic
matter, of which 4 lbs., according to De Saussure's direct ex-
periment, are changed into Mater and carbonic acid. Taking
the surface of productive land in the whole earth, we have 3
millions of square miles, and thus 104 billions of pounds are annu-

DR. SCHLEIDEN'S THEORY OF AGRICULTUKE. 37

ally destroyed. The destruction of organic matter by men and
animals, according to the observations of Valentin, amounts to
one billion annually. And supposing the consumption of fuel by
each individual to amount in the year to one cord of wood, on
data afforded by the consumption of Germany, without taking
into account the extensive natural conflagrations which are so
frequent and disastrous in many parts of the world, there is a
consumption on this account of 40 billions of dry organic matter.
The annual destruction then amounts to 145 billions. Now sup-
posing the specific gravity of the matter on an average to be
equal to that of water, we have 2^ billions of cubic feet. And
since the above mentioned surface contains 1164 billions of
square feet, to satisfy the necessary conditions for the nutrition
of the vegetable worJd, there must have been 5000 years back
lO feet deep of pure organic substance on its surface, supposing
nutrition to be dependent on organic matter.

The following example will still further explain the author's
views. In the year 1844 France possessed, according to sta-
tistical reports, 10,709,391 of the large animals, such as horses
and beast, 30,859,454 of the smaller, as swine, .^lieep, calves, &c.
Now if the daily annihilation of organic matter in the former
case be reckoned at 1 1 lbs. per head, and that of the small at 3,
the process of nutrition has entirely destroyed in the course of the
year 76,789,000,000 lbs. of organic matter, that is six times more
than the weight contributed by the whole mass of small and
great taken together, reckoning the larger at 1000 lbs., the
smaller at 600,* with 50 per cent, of dry organic matter. Now
if we suppose that the other animals and plants of France con-
tain 600 times as much organic matter, the whole organic material
of the country would be consumed by the nutriment of the stock
in a hundred years. And the application is easy to the whole
universe.

It follows then that a process must exist for the sustenance of
organic life upon the earth, in due proportion, which must be
diametrically opposite to the process of nutrition in animals, and
the consequent decomposition ; and as that continually destroys
organic matter and changes it into inorganic combinations, as
water, carbonic acid, and ammonia, so this must form organic
materials out of the inorganic elements. Since this process exists
neither in the animal nor inorganic creation, it can be no other
than the process of life and nutrition in plants ; and if this is
true generally, it is true of those plants which are the object of
husbandry.

* There must be some error in the numbers here, as an average of 60
would be nearer the truth. The principle, however, remains the same.

38 I>K. SCHLEIDEN'S THEOKY OF AGEICULTUKE.

If we reflect again on the constant outgoing from an estate
in various forms, and the extremely small quantity of matter
\vhich conies in to replace the expenditure, it is easy to see that
all virtue would be extracted in a very short time from the land
if plants depended, even in a small degree, only on the organic
substances ; whereas under good cultivation the ground is con-
stantly improved in quality. Indeed, from the observations of
the best authorities, it appears that the ground produces three
times as much organic matter as it receives. But more than
this, the greater part of the organic substance of manure cannot
enter into the produce. The land is manured not for the year
only, but for a series of years. By far the greater portion passes
off by a silent process of decomposition, especially when the
land is stirred, into the surrounding atmosphere. Not a tenth
part of the organic substance of plants can possibly be supplied
by the decay. There is, however, no ground to suppose that
this tenth part arises from a different quarter from the remain-
ing nine in cultivated plants, and the whole ten in a state of
nature.

When it was stated above that plants of husbandry are dis-
tinguished by an alteration in the chemical process, this did not
necessarily imply a change in quality. Wild plants form from
water, carbonic acid, and ammonia, albumen, gluten, sugar,
starch, oil, &c. The same substances are formed in cultivated
plants ; they do not form peculiar secretions, but merely store
up some particular substance in excess.

Nor shall we find the matter weakened if the elements con-
cerned in nutrition be severally examined. Oxygen and hydrogen
need not be here considered, as they are amply supplied by
water. Attention, therefore, may be confined to carbonic acid,
nitrogen, sulphur, phosphorus, and the inorganic ashes.

1. Carbon is doubtless the most important constituent; it
forms half the substance of the dry plant, and eight times as
much as the nitrogen ; the whole question therefore turns on
the absorption of carbon. As in general the organic matter of
the earth cannot supply the exigencies of the whole plant, so
neither can it satisfy its demand of carbon.

Sugar plantations receive no manure in general, or at least
merely the ashes of the spent canes. An acre produces 7500 lbs.
of cane, the expressed juice of which contains at least 700 lbs.,
and the fragments of cane 500 lbs. of carbon. There is there-
fore an expenditure of 1200 lbs. of carbon per acre without any
compensation.

The Oil palms grow in sand destitute of humus. Thirty-
three million poimds of carbon are produced annually on ground
free from organic matter in this way alone.

DR. SCHLEIDEN'S TIIKOKY 0¥ AGRICULTUUE.

39

But the most striking instance is that of Bananas. An acre
yields 98,000 lbs. of fruit a-year, which contains about 17,000 lbs.
of carbon. For twenty years tlie harvest is repeated without any
manure, and the ground, so far from becoming poorer, is every
year more rich in iiunuis, from the decay of the large juicy
leaves.

But it may, perhaps, be as well to give some instances nearer
home. The following table, by Boussingault, of plants grown
in pure quartzose sand or burnt clay, with distilled water, is
exactly to our piu'pose : —

B
o

a

&
o

e

c

be

Increase in Carbon.

•o

a»

i3

>^

.ti

ts

O

K

O

■A

Hed Clover-

Seed . . .

l,58G

0,806

0,095

0,571

0.114

|l58 percent.

Produce . . .

4,106

2,082

0,271

1,597

0,156

Peas-

Seed . . .

1,072

0,515

0,069

0,442

«;«J5'}361 percent.

Produce . . .

4,441

2,376

0,284

1 , 680

Wheat-

Seed . . .

1,644

0,767

0,095

0,725

2;«^J]89 per Cent. "

Produce . . .

3,002

1,456

0,173

1,333

In the first and third cases the experiment lasted 3 months,
in the second 99 days.

lied Clover plants transplanted and similarly treated : —

a

c

.a

1 2

&

^

Increase in Carbon.

•£ 13

^

s --^

K

.ti

IS

o S

o

■A

When planted .

0,884

j
0,384 0,048

0,419

0,033

1

At the end of the

i

y212 per Cent.f

experiment .

2,265

1,200 0,145

0,863 0,056

1

Oats taken up and

placed in Distilled

Water—

Before experiment

1 . .

0,827 0,106

0,568

0.0.59

[81 per Cent.

After experiment

••

1,500 0,193

1,372

0,053

* In this and the following table tlie weight is in grammes = •564 dram.
The proportions are the same whatever be the measure; we liave thouglit
it, therefore, needless to go through the labour of reducing them to English
denominations.

f 156 per cent, in the text, which is elearly wrong, as is 18 per cent, in
the next experiment, where the amount of carbon is set down as the weight
of the plant.

40 I>K- SCHLEIDEN'S THEORY OF AGRICULTURE.

The objection that carbon is necessary to supply the carbonic
acid requisite for the early stages of vegetable growth, is fully
answered by the fact that, if such were the case, it is amply
supplied by the atmosphere to the water with which the plant is
nourished, and tiiat germinating seeds succeed for a time quite
as well in moist quartz sand or cotton as in vegetable soil.

The only question which remains is, whether carbonic acid
is really present in sufficient quantities to supply the demand.
This, however, scarcely needs any answer, for by the process of
decomposition and vital action the whole of the carbonic acid is
returned to the atmosphere, so that it is a simple case of repeated
circulation through plants, animals, and atmosphere ; one gene-
ration gradually affording the material for another, even were
there not other sources which we have no power of estimating.

But to set the matter beyond all doubt, the following calcula-
tion may be made : —

According to Link, Schwartz, and others, an acre of water
meadow produces 4400 lbs. of hay, which, when dry, contains
45 . 8 per cent, of carbon. The hay then yields 2000 lbs. of
carbon, to which 1000 lbs. may be added for the other portion
of the year and for the roots. To produce these 3000 lbs. of
carbon, 10,980 lbs. of carbonic acid are requisite, which may be
raised to 12,000 lbs., to compensate for the nightly expiration.
Now, according to Schubler, an acre of so wretched a grass as
Poa annua exhales in 120 days (too low a computation) of
active vegetation 6,000,000 lbs. of water. To supply the exi-
gencies of the plants then, it is only necessary for it to imbibe
3^ grains of carbonic acid with every pound of water.

2. Nitrogen comes next in order. If there are soluble sub-
stances in the soil which could, if necessary, supply the requisite
carbon, there are none to furnish the nitrogen. As soon, there-
fore, as it was ascertained that plants receive their nitrogen in
the form of ammonia, it was generally allowed that organic
nitrogenous particles of the soil must first, by decomposition, form
ammonia before they can be available for nutrition. The ques-
tion, therefore, as to the origin of the nitrogen of plants, assumes
quite a different shape from that of carbon. There is no
doubt as to the form in which it enters, but whether they depend
in greater or less degree on the ammonia contained in the
organic matter of the soil, or whether in this respect also they
are independent of the organic substances of the soil, is matter
of inquiry.

Now it is clear that the ammonia from the nitrogenous con-
stituents of the soil is as available for vegetation as other am-
monia, and that our domestic plants do not require a greater
supply than in a state of nature. A water meadow which has

DR. SCHLEIDEN'S THEORY OF AGRICULTURE. 41

never received anj' dunj? yields yearly 40-50 lbs. of nitrogen,
while the best ploughed land yields only about 31 lbs. The
plants for which most dung is used, as potatoes and turnips, are
in fact proportionally the poorest in nitrogen.

The vast Pampas of Buenos Ayres, since the introduction of
horses and oxen, have yielded for their support almost incal-
culable quantities of nitrogen, millions of pounds being annually
carried off in the form of hides, horns, &.c. ; and yet there is no
decrease in tiie produce of the country, which must have been
the case had the plants depended upon the soil for the requisite
ammonia.

The Swiss Alps, the meadows of East Friesland and Holland,
receive no organic nitrogenous matter, for the dung of the
beasts whicii feed on them contributes always less than they have
received. A horse, according to Boussingault, consumes in its
food in 24 hours 78 -6 drams of nitrogen ; the excrement con-
tains only 65 drams; 13' 5 drams are given off by perspiration
in the form of ammonia. In the cow the nourishment in the
same time contains 113*7 drams, the nitrogen in the excrement
and milk amounts to 98 '4 drams, and that of the perspiration to
15 -2 drams. In other worils, the cow returns to the meadow
for the 710 drams of nitrogenous organic matter which she con-
sumes, only 614 7. JSevertheless, these alps and meadows con-
tribute annually enormous quantities of nitrogenous matter in
the shape of hay and cheese. This production of nitrogen must
therefore be independent of the soil.

Another proof appears as follows : — Since the manure is
intended for the supply of several successive years, the content
of nitrogen in the crop, as the decomposition proceeds, must
year by year regularly rise or fall. It is, however, quite inde-
pendent of the time which may have elapsed since the manure
was applied, as appears from the following table taken from
Boussingault : —

Nitrogen per Acre,
lb.

Year 1. Potatoes 24,75

„ 2. Wheat 18,92

„ 3. Clover 45,21

„ 4. Wheat and stubble turnips 29,93

„ 5. Peas 52,63

„ 6. Rye 17,43

In two five-year courses, and one of six years, the ground re-
ceived yearly, per acre, 21-90 lbs. of nitrogen in dung. The
excess of nitrogen in the produce over that in the dung was
yearly—

42 DR. SCULEIDEN'S THEORY OF AGRICULTURE.

lb. ;

lu the first 5 years' course . . . 5,06

In the second 5,15

In the 6 years' course . . . . 9,83

According to De Saussure, nitrogenous substances are per-
fectly decayed in 88 days. But supposing the nitrogen supplied
by the dung to be available for nutriment during the first year,
yet after repeated ploughing eveiy trace must have disappeared,
and there would be no supply but for that which is absorbed
from the air. Yet in the foregoing table we have the pro-
duction of 18-92 lbs. per acre in the second year, and 52*63 in
the fifth. If, then, 40 or 50 lbs. can be absorbed from the
atmosphere when no dung is present, it seems absurd to suppose
that 18 lbs. cannot be absorbed for the wheat and rye.

If we refer to the table at page 39, we shall see that the
nitrogen was increased 37 per cent, in red clover grown in
quartzose sand or burnt clay, with distilled water, in the course
of 3 months only; while peas in 99 days gained 119 per cent.,
and wheat 5 per cent. In the last experiment, red clover trans-
planted into tlie same soil gained in 2 months about 70 per cent.

It remains only to inquire whether plants can derive sufficient
ammonia from the air. As before, in the consideration of car-
bon, it may be remarked that plants and animals are momentarily
giving out an immense quantity by the act of decomposition,
and though we find but little in the atmosphere and in variable
quantities, it must be recollected how easily and quickly it is
absorbed by every porous body and by water so as to be at once
available for nutriment. There is tiien a constant circulation of
this element as of cai'bon, and there are other sources, as volcanoes
and thunder storms, in which the hydrogen and oxygen arising
from the decomposition of water pass into nitrate of ammonia,
and the combination of free hydrogen with the carbon of the
atmosphere. Lastly, by a consideration similar to that which
was made with respect to carbon, it appears that -j'^ of a grain
of ammonia in every pound of water is sufficient for the exigen-
cies of vegetation, and there is perhaps no spring water in the
universe which contains so little.

3. The quantity of sulphur and phosphorus is so small that
it is needless to enter into lengthened details. Peas, which yield
50 lbs. of nitrogen per acre, contain in tlie albumen 2 lbs. of
sulphur and 1 of phosphorus. If tlie time of vegetation is
spread over 120 days, and reckoning the height of the atmos-
phere at 3000 feet, only -5-4-Vo-o-o- of a grain of sulphuretted hydro-
gen and TrrFTiVo-o-o- of a grain of phosphuretted hydrogen per
cubic foot are requisite.

DR SCHLEIDEN'S THEORY OF AGKICULTUEE. 43

"We have still to consider those inorganic substances which
remain in the ashes when a plant is burnt.

It has been already seen that the inorganic or mineral con-
stituents of the soil are of the most importance not only for plants
in general, but for plants of husbandry. Tiiis is no new theory ;
it was broached by De Saussure in the last century ; and even
before Liebig reproduced it in a more perfect form, it had been
acknowledged by Thaer and some other genial spirits. Notwith-
standing all the great difficulties \\hich are involved in the study
of the inorganic constituents of plants, their importance is un-
questionable; and when we compare the analyses of their ashes,
conducted on tlie same uniform plan, the result is incontestable
that different plants are distinguished by the quantity and quality
of their inorganic contents. Unfortunately such analyses have
been confined principally to plants under cultivation. But with
differences of outward form and modifications of cliemical action
there must be great differences also of inorganic contents. We
cannot indeed at present follow the intimate connexion between
the process of vegetation and the inorganic constituents, yet the
certainty of this connexion is beyond all doubt. Take what
plant we may, we always find that witli a different content in
organic constituents there is a difference in the quantity of
inorganic matters. We may refer to Boussingault's table of
comparison of the nitrogen and phosphoric acid in plants : from
this it appears that the proi)ortion of phosphoric acid to nitrogen
is tolerably constant ; yet the phosphoric acid is in no general
necessary proportion to tlie nitrogen. It is very probable there-
fore tliat pliosphoric acid does not contribute directly to the
formation of the nitrogenous parts, for albumen, gluten, and
legumin contain nearly the same quantity of phosphorus, viz.,
about 0-3 per cent., although the proportion of phosphoric acid
to nitrogen in the plants which afford gluten, as wheat, maize,
and oats, is as 1 : 2*9 ; in the albuminous i)lants (as hay, potatoes,
mangel wurzel, stubble turnips, and Jerusalem artichokes), as
1"35 ; and in those which contain legumin (as clover, beans,
peas, and kidney beans), as 1 : 4*6.

It is self-evident tiiat the inorganic constituents of plants are
received from the soil in solution with water. It remains only to
inquire what inorganic constituents are most important for do-
mestic plants. They require indeed in kind the same as wild
plants, but the question as to quantity is verj- different. They
yield in general nearly twice as mucli of inorganic ashes.

Flint is mostly found in the walls of the cells in which it is
deposited, and whicli it helps to strengthen ; and the same may be
said of a portion of the lime, wiiich enters as a pectate into an
insoluble combination with the gelatinous component of the cell

44 UR. SCHLEIDEN'S THEOKT OF AGRICULTURE.

walls. We can form a notion of the content in silex from an
examination of domestic plants, though silex is by no means
characteristic of tliem, but rather of monocotyledons in general.

100 Parts of Silex. Mean.

Maize straw from Quartzose ground . . 9

from Transition lime

;;") «.^<

ZoZtM»ipere«?/e from Quartzose ground . 2.5,11122 27
„ from Transition lime . . 19, 4-3 j '

In dicotyledons the result is similar for lime combined with
pectose.

The phosphates, as appears from a careful microscopic exam-
ination of the ashes, are found principally in the contents of the
cells, and the easily soluble alkaline salts are diffused in the
liquid matter. If then it is the inorganic constituents especially
which modify the chemical action of plants, it must be in great
measure the pliosphates and alkalis, since this process takes place
principally in the inside of the cells and their contained juices.

The flint and lime contained in the cells must have a constant
and direct proportion to the quantity of cells and the mass of the
whole plant ; the pliosphates and alkalis on the contrary rise or
fall with modifications of the chemical action.

There are two circumstances especially in which wild vegeta-
tion is distinguished from that of our cultivated fields. 1st. In wild
plants the departing generation is again incorporated with the
ground. All the inorganic matters whicli they received from the
soil return to it, and in the most favourable form. In cultiAation,
on the contrary, great quantities of inorganic matter, and that
exclusively important for vegetation, are carried oflf with the
plants themselves, and in consequence the soil must in a short
time be exhausted if nothing be brought in in the shape of manure.
2ndly. Uncultivated ground becomes constantly richer in humus
through the decay of the plants which it produced, and the more
so because, in consequence of its never being disturbed, the
decomposition of the humus is indefinitely prolonged, while cul-
tivated land not only suffers from tlie removal of the crop, but
what liumus it contains is continually subject to decomposition
by the frequent exposure of a new surface to the atmosphere.
It may besides be mentioned that in cultivation, as the ground is
covered by a crop consisting of one plant only, the inorganic
materials are far less fully worked up than where the especial
exigencies of multitudes of plants of different natures are to be
supplied at one and the same instant.

There is, however, one more important circumstance to be
mentioned before this part of the subject is closed, on which the
dependence of agricultural plants on their soil actually rests. The
geographical distribution of plants is determined by ^the con-

DR. SCHLEIDEN S THEORY OF AGRICULTURE. 45

currence of all those conditions on which the success of any par-
ticular species depends. In general the peculiar kinds under
cultivation in any given locality depend on the geographical dis-
tribution of the species.

Every locality in the more anciently cultivated parts of the
Old World has some prevailing kind of bread-corn, that, viz.
which yields the greatest produce in that particular district. If
a line be drawn from the o6th degree of North latitude through
Asia, gradually approacliing the 60th degree passing through
the Lake of Ladoga, and then almost to tlie 66th degree in
Sweden — this line forms the southern limit of the first zone of
cultivation. Part of the mountainous distiicts of Korway and
Scotland belong to this zone. Korth of tliis line, as far as
cultivation extends towards the Pole, Barley, in some one of its
forms, is the peculiar bread-corn, and Rye is cultivated only in
favourable situations. A second line runs through Asia almost
coincident with the 51st degree, retiring in Russia and Germany
a little below 50°, proceeding through Holland and through the
north of England and Ireland. Between this and the former
line Rye is the staple corn, mixed here and there in favourable
localities with Wheat. Both these regions have besides a plant
of a different order producing Hour, especially in the northern
half of the Rye zone, viz., Buckw heat. In the south of England,
the north of France, the middle of Germany to the Alps, the
north of Turkey, the south of Russia, and from thence through
Asia in a broad zone to Persia and Thibet, AVheat is the bread-
corn, with Rye intermixed in rough mountainous districts.
Finally, the whole circuit of the Mediterranean Sea produces
Wheat and Maize almost in equal quantities. The environs of
the Red Sea, the nortli coast of the Indian Ocean, and the
north of India yield Wheat and Rice in pretty equal propor-
tions ; and finally in the two Indian Peninsulas, China, and Japan,
Rice is the exclusive staple.

In all the northern districts the cereals are notoriously intro-
duced plants which would vanish entirely in all parts of Europe
at least, without cultivation. Their presence and their geogra-
phical distribution in those countries affirm nothing more than
that they have found there suitable conditions of climate. Even
supposing them to be indigenous, the cessation of their cultiva-
tion would cause them to disappear except from some very con-
fined district. The distribution of plants does not depend alone
on conditions of climate. We have in cultivation to provide cer-
tain conditions which nature has not provided in the field of our
exertions, w hile wild vegetation needs no such artificial help, since
plants in nature do not grow where the conditions necessary for
their existence are not present.

46 SPIK^A PHUNIFOLIA AND FORSITHIA VIRIDISSIMA

"VVe stop here for the present with the intention of returning
to the subject in a future number. We have shown what are the
author's notions as to what manure will not do — we are next to
see what it really is calculated to effect.

IV. — On Spircea prunifolia Jiore plow and Forsytlda viridis-
sima in the United States. By John Saul, Washington, D.C.

(Communicated November 11, 1851.)

Some idea of the beauty and condition of these plants in this
country may perhaps be gleaned from the following observa-
tions : — ■

Spircea prunifolia Jlore pleno. — When this plant first made its
appearance in England, and in some parts of the continent of
Europe, it was hailed as a great acquisition. It will be recol-
lected that Mr. Fortune sent it from China to the Horticultural
Society's Garden at Chiswick, and that Mr. Van Houtte had it
from Dr. Van Siebold. It was let out fiom Ghent at a high
price, and its sale I presume must have been extensive ; for it was
soon scattered over England in all directions. Nevertheless,
how few have been successful in cultivating it ! I have known
parties in England who had fine plants which they never bloomed
well ! Now, what were the causes of failure ? Let us ex-
amine how such subjects had been managed, and we shall pro-
bably discover something like a cause. The plants in England,
if grown in pots, were probably placed in a tolerably shady situa-
tion ; if planted in the open ground, a piece of well prepared soil
and sheltered situation were chosen for them : under both these
circumstances they grew well, and apparently matured their
wood ; I say apparently, for Avhen blooming time came, we had
green abortions, called flowers. Now, if we inquire into the
nature of the native climate of this plant, we shall soon perceive
the cause of so much disappointment with it in England. If I
describe the climate of the Middle States of this country, I shall,
I apprehend, very nearly represent its natural conditions; here
this plant is perfectly hardy, enduring a very low temperature.
The springs are warm, followed by intense sunnner heat, with
bright light ; autumn is also bright and warm. Under these cir-
cumstances the wond acquires a firmness and maturity whicli it
never attains in England. In the latter country, when ripe, it
has at best a greenish hue, very different from the brown rigid
appearance which it acquires in America. Spring comes, and

IN THE UNITED STATES. 47

with it a profusion of bloom of snowy wliiteness, precisely like
the flowers of Ranunculus aconitifolius, but smaller ; it is in no
way particular as to soil, but dry rather than moist earth appears
to suit it best. From its success here, it is evident that in Eng-
land it would require a well-drained soil and an open, airy situa-
tion, where it would receive all the sun and light which the
climate can give, so as to get the wood thoroughly and perfectly
ripened by autumn : this secured, a good bloom is certain.

For forcing, this plant is invaluable ; for this purpose speci-
mens grown in pots should be placed in a sunny situation, in
order to mature their wood well ; if this is not attended to, failure
will ensue. I have observed in some of the forcing houses in this
country, tiiat wlien the plants had been kept too warm, in too
dark a house, or the atmosphere over moist, green flowers were
the result, and in some instances no flowers at all. Now, if this
will happen in a climate like that of the Middle States, wliere the
wood had been well ripened, how much more likely is it to
occur in England, where the wood is never half matured, and the
plants in tiiat state transferred to a warm dark forcing-house, at
a season when there is little sun ! There are few plants more de-
serving of care or attention than this, whether employed in or-
namenting the shrubbery in spring, or the conservatory and
green-house at an early season. How very neces.sary it is that
we should know the latitudes from whence plants come, in order
to be able to treat them properly ! How frequently is every
method but the right one tried ! — soil, situation, frequently too
much heat. Had more of the beams of the sun been permitted,
all would have been well.

Forsythia riridissima. — The value and exquisite beauty of
this plant are not, I fear, sufficiently known in England, where
by many it is only considered a second rate subject. When Mr.
Fortune introduced it to the Garden of the Horticultural Society
from China, he spoke in high terms of its beauty, and I question
much whether any thing more handsome can be found among all
his introductions, not excepting even the lovely Weigela rosea.
It has qualities aa Inch the latter does not possess, and which must
ever render it one of the most Aaluable of hardy plants. From
specimens which I had an opportunity of inspecting in England,*
I entertained a doubtful opinion of its merits. What was my
surprise last March, however, when I beheld a magnificent bush
of it in the nursery of A. Saul and Co., Newburgh, New York,
covered with myriads of its deep yellow blossoms ! The nursery
in question is situated in the highlands of the Hudson, with that

* Some persons may have been successful in cultivating it there, but no
really fine plants ever came under my notice in that country.

48 SPIRAEA PRUNIFOLIA AND lORSYTIIIA VIKIDISflMA

noble river flowing by their base, and open to a cold breeze from
the north, especially in winter, during which time tiie constitu-
tional hardiness of plants can be well tested. The soil in which
it grows is a gravelly loam ; the plant is about 5 feet high, very
bushy, and it appears to have been planted two or three years.
During the summer of 1850 it made shoots from 3 to 4 feet
long, which, though strong and gross, •were well ripened in the
autumn The bright light and burning heat of an American
sun consolidatethe wood as it elongates during summer. Autumn
arrives, fully as warm as an English summer, and much drier.
This perfects what remains of the ripening process, and enables
the plant to endure the winter unprotected, through a degree of
cold which has no parallel in Britain. About the middle of
IMarch it commences opening its blooms, which had been thickly
set over the wood of the previous year, and by the end of the
same month it is one complete mass of deep yellow. Its season
of flowering will of course depend on the latitude in which it is
grown : here it commenced opening its blooms on the first ap-
proach of fair weather, and while the snow still lay thickly on
the ground. Compared with other early flowering plants, it was
decidedly ahead of all of them. Even the early Pyrus (Cydo-
nia) Japonica had scarcely commenced expanding its flowers
when the Forsythia was in full beauty. In the 1st Vol. of the
' Gardener's Magazine of Botany,' p. 249, occurs the following
passage : — " Unfortunately the flowers are too delicate in texture
to bear exposure to rough w'ind, as they are readily bruised and
soon show the effects of rough treatment ; but planted and trained
against a wall, or in a very sheltered situation, it will be found
a useful and excellent plant." So far is this from being correct,
that I know of no plant whose blooms will bear an'equal amount
of " rough treatment" uninjured. The subject of my remarks here
was fuUj' three weeks in bloom, during which time it encountered
one or two falls of snow and much wet weather, yet the blooms
did not appear discoloured in the least up to the time they
dropped off, and the ground was literally covered with them. The
plant was in an open, exposed situation. In order to grow this
plant well in England, we must examine the causes to which
success is to be attributed in the case just cited. It was not soil ;
for that in which the plant was placed was rather of a poor de-
scription, and I observed other plants in the same nursery grow-
ing vigorously in earth of the poorest kind. Bright light and
intense heat are the conditions to which success was owing ; for
the plants were luxuriant and happy, such as we might expect to
have seen them in their Eastern home. In England, no doubt,
the best situation for it would be against a soutli wall, where it
would receive all the sunlight possible ; so circumstanced, it

IN THE UNITED STATES, 49

would ripen its wood well and yield abundance of flowers in
early spring-, or more probably in the mild climate of Eiig-land it
would bloom like the Cydonia Japonica, Chimonanthus fragrans,
the greater part of the winter. JPlanted out as a bush, an open,
airy situation should be chosen, where it would receive the direct
rays of the sun all day ; in all cases it should be guarrled against
overmuch moisture at the root : let the soil in which it grows be
ratlier dry than otherwise. In this way the wood would ripen
well in autumn, and would be followed by an almndant bloom.
The work from wliich I have already extracted considers it a
very useful plant for winter and spring forcing, an opinion in
which I entirely concur.

In order to grow" this plant for winter blooming in the conser-
vatory or green-house, take strong young plants in the spring ;
shift them liberally, using any good compost ; stop the plant to
cause it to break into several shoots — as it is rather inclined to
throw one or two strong branches. As the plants progress in
growth they should be shifted occasionally, and frequently stopped ;
the best way of effecting this is, as soon as any shoots are ob-
served to grow longer than the others, to pinch out the extreme
points ; they will soon break freely : whereas if left till the wood
becomes firm and then shortened, they take a longer time lo
break, and they never do it so freely. When the plants have com-
pleted their growth, let them be placed in an open, sunny situa-
tion,— they cannot possibly be too much in the blaze of the sun : — •
here they should remain until autumn arrives, when tliey may
be plunged in any convenient situation. As the plants are re-
quired to bloom they may be introduced into tlie forcinij-house,
or what in my opinion is better and quite sufficient for the pur-
pose, a warm green house, placing them in the most sunny part
of it. In a house of this description the blooms would come
deeper in colour ; it is well known how pale and washy such
colours are out of the confined atmosphere of a forcing-house.
Whether used for the latter purpose, or grown in the open
border, as I have already stated, I consider this plant one of the
most valuable of Mr, Fortune's introductions. The Weigela,
though extremely beautiful, blooms at a season when many other
things are in flower, whilst the Forsythia blossoms when every
stray floret is welcome.

Note. — The Weatlier Register at Shanghae given in the folio-wing
pages will materially elucidate the question of -what climate does for these
t-wo plants.

VOL. VII.

50

A REGISTER OF THE WEATHER AT SHANGHAI:

V. — A Register of the Weather at Shanghae for Nine Months
of the Years 1850-51.

The large number of plants now in our gardens from those
Chinese provinces the climate of which may be practically
regarded as illustrated by that of Shanghae, has suggested the
propriety of printing, from the colmnns of the North China
Herald newspaper, a pretty complete record of the weather there
for two years from tlie beginning of November to the end of
July. Hereafter, if the paper should continue to reach England,
the three remaining months may also be given, with such remarks
as the facts mentioned in the Register may seem to call for.
In the mean while it is sufficient to point out the fact that the
Camellia, the Chinese Azalea, the Tea-plant, the Cryptomeria,
and numerous other shrubs, find themselves at home in the cli-
mate here described.

Week ending 7th November, 1850.

Nov.

Barometer.

TUEEMOMETET!

Wind.

Hain.

1850

1849

1850

1849

1850

1849

1850

1849

1

30 12

30-46

66-

61-

N.W.

N.E. to E.S.E.

0-38

9

30-16

30-35

65-5

65-5

N.W.

S.S.E.

003

• •

3

30-27

30-39

58-

63 5

VV.N.W. to N.W.

N.N.W. to N.

0-24

• '

4

30-23

30-38

59-

64-5

S.W. to N.W.

N.E.

0-04

5

30-36

30-36

58-5

63-5

N.W. to N.E.

E.S.E.

. ,

6

30-42

30-35

58-5

63-5

E.K.E. to N.E.

E.S.E. to N.W.

. ,

0-27

7

30 • 30

30-51

60-

59-5

N.W.

N.N.E.

Total .

0-08

0-31

0-77

0 58

Ohs. — Since the commencement of the month the weather has been
unusually wet and disagreeable — although the actual amount of rain
fallen is not above the average of the last three years. The quantity of
early wheat appearing above the surface in the numerous fields in which
it has been sown, gives the country a fresii look, contrasting pleasantly
with tlie brown withered plants of the cotton.

FOR N1NI-: MONTHS OF THE YEARS 1850-51.

V/eek ending 5th December, 1850. *

51

Barometer.

Thermometer

Wind.

Kain.

1850

18i9

1850

1849

1850

1849

1850

1849

29

30-49

30-50

46 5

54-

N.W.

N.N.W. to N.E.

1

30

30 -58 30 -34

47-

61-5

N.W. to N.N. E.

S.S.E.

Dec. 1

30'o6;30-36

48-

65'

E. to N.E.

S.

2

30-46 30-43

49-

52-

N.W,

N.

3

30-35

30-42

45-5

50-

N.W.

K. to E.N.E.

0-02

4

30-50

30-33

42-5

55' 5

N.W.

E.

0-24

5

30 •4«

30-18

43-

62 •

N.N.W. to W.

S.S.E. to N.W.

Total .

0-01

••

0-27

Obs. — Nothing could be finer than tlie weather of the last week, with
its clear sky and bracing frosty mornings, although the mercury in tlie
thermometer has stood higher than last week. The average height of
the thermometrical column this week will be observed to be 45-9, or
11-2 below the average of the corresponding week in 1849 — a week of
remarkable heat, accompanied by unsteadiness of the barometer, and fol-
lowed by some of the coldest weather experienced during the year.

Week ending

12th December, 1850.

Barometer.

Thermometer

Wind.

Ratx.

Dec

1850

1849

1850

1849

1850

1819

1850

1849

6

30-46

30-36

45-

49-5

N.W. to N.N.W.

W.N.W. to N.W.

0-08

7

30-46

30-52

40-5

43-5

N.N.E. to N.E.

N.N.W.

8

30-52

30-58

43

46-

E. to E.S.E.

N.N.E. to N.E.

9

30-38

30-59

49-5

50-5

E.S.E. to S.E.

N.E. to E.S.E.

o-oi

10

30-42

.30-59

55 5

48-5

E.S.E.

NNE. to NNW.

0-08

11

30-37

30-58

59-5

40-5

E. to S.E.

N.N.W.

12

30-22

30-11

60-5

42-5

S.E.

N. to E.

Total .

0-17

Obs. — The weather of the last week has been uncommonly fine, witli
an average temperature ranging 4*7 above that of the same week last
year. This day has been particularly warm, exceeding the iieat of any
day in the corresponding week of 1849 by 10 degrees. The wheat and
bean crops look so far advanced as to cause some doubts as to the conse-
quences to them of a liard frost.

E 2

52

A UEGISTEIl OF Tlir, WEATIIKi; AT SIIANGHAE

Week ending 19th December, 1850.

Barometer.

Thermometer

Wind.

Rain.

Dec.

1850

1849

1850

1849

1850

1849

1850

1849

13

30-36

30-19

54-5

51-

N.N.E. to N.E.

W.

0 03

0-01

14

30-31

30-30

51-5

48-5

N.W.

N.W.

0-07

0-29

15

30-49

30.57

43-

39-5

N.W.

N.N.W.

0-23

0-01

16

30-54

30-55

42-5

40-

N.N.E. to N.E.

N.W.

, ,

, ,

17

30-40

30-53

47-5

38-5

N.E.

W. to W.N.W.

, ^

, ,

18

30-52

30-51

47-

40-

N.W. to N.

E.N.E,

, ,

, ,

19

30-50

30-46

45-5

47-

N.E.

W. to E.N.E.

Total .

"

••

0-33

0-31

Obs. — The past seven days have been rather unseasonable — tlie first
half being wet, and the latter half unsettled. Tlie average temperature
of the week ranges 3-8 above that of the corresponding week last year.
The surrounding country looks peculiarly bleak ; and its unvaried flat-
ness is perhaps never more apparent than at this season, when the
trimming of the hedges and the cutting down of the reeds from the
tombs and banks of the canals removes any appearance of undulations
tliat it may have presented before.

Week ending 26th December, 1850.

Barometer.

Ti'ERMOMETER

Wind.

Rain.

Dec.

1850

1849

1850

1849
45-

1850

1849

1850

1849

20

30-57

30-43

41-5

N. to N.N.W.

N.N.E. to N.W.

^ ^

21

30-61

30-33

39-

47-

N.W.

E.N.E.

. .

22

30 54

30-19

36-5

51-5

N.W.

E.

0 08

23

30-52

30-43

37-5

47-

N.W.

N.N.W. to N.W.

0-15

24

30-50

30-37

39-

45-

S.W. to N.W.

W.N.W.

25

30-54

30-23

40-

45-

N.W.

S.S.E.

, ,

26

30 61

30-44

33-

46-5

N.W.

N.N.E.

Total .

••

., 0-23

Obs. — The atmosphere during the past week has been very mucii such
as would be experienced in England during the Christmas week,
although scarcely so cold. For the last seven days the frost has been
almost uninterrupted ; the ihermometrical column averaging 38°, a

FOR NINE MONTHS OF THE YEARS 1850-51,

53

fall below the temperature of the same week last j-ear by 8'7. The
peasants have taken the precaution of protecting their wheat and other
crops by sprinkling earth loosely over them.

Week

ending 2nd January

1851.

Barometer.

Thermometer

Wind.

Rain.

Dkc

1850

1849

1850

1849

1850

1849

1850

1849

27

30-48

30-60

38-5

37-

W. to N.W.

N. by w.

28

30-46

30-52

42-5

36-

N.E.

w. to S.S.E.

29

30-41

30-28

42-5

44-

N.E.

s.w. to w.

30

30-36

30-48

42-5

39-

S.

W.N.W.

31

30-35

30-40

47-5

41-

s.w.

s.

Jan.

1851

1850

1851

1850

1851

1850

1851

1850

1

30-32

30-19

47-5

56-

S.W.

s.

^

..

2

30-27

30-49

52-5

36-

s.

N.N.W. to N.W,

Total .

••

0-05

0-05

Obs. — The last week has been one of beautiful weather, although
much warmer than the preceding week. The average temperature
has been 44'^, while that of the corresponding week last year was 41-2,
During the last few days there has been no frost.

Week

ending 9th January,

1851.

Jan.

Barometer.

Thermometer

Wind.

Rain.

1851

1850
30-47

1851

1850

1851

1850

1851

1850

3

30-26

47-5

33

N.W.

W,N.W, to W.

4

30-54

30-46

41 0 35

5

N.

W,byN,tONNW.

5

30-44

30-22

41-5

37

N.E.

s.

6

30-30

30-27

41-5

41

5

N.W.

S. to S.E.

0-22

7

30-37

30-21

35-5

44

N.W.

N.N.W. to N.

0-30

8

30-40

30-26

35-

40

N.AV.

N.N.E.

9

30-54

30-24

32-5

39-5

N.W.

N.E, to E, by N.

Total ,

0-52

0-05

0-05

Ohs. — The first part of the last seven days continued fine weather ;

54

A REOISTEII 01' THE WEATIIKU AT SIIANGIIAE

Monday and Tuesday being damp and disagreeable, followed on Wednes-
day and to-day by hard frost. Tiie average teni^jerature of the week
has been very nearly that of tlie corresponding week of last year ; in
1850 the mercury standing at 38-6°, and during the past week at 39 2'^.

Week ending

16tli January

, 1851.

Jan.

Barometer.

Thermometer

w

N3>.

Raix.

1851

1850

1851

1850
40-5

1851

1850

1851

1850

10

30-48

30-25

37-5

N.W. to N.E.

N.N.E. to N.

0-04

11

30-43

30-39

37-5

34-5

N.W.

N.N.W.

0-03

12

30-53

30-44

35-5

32-5

N.W.

NNWtONWbyN

13

30-52

30-38

35-

31-5

W. to N.E.

N.W. to N.E.

14

30-56

30-42

39-5

31-5

N.E. to E.

N.W.

15

30-39

30-52

42-5

33-

S.E.

N.W. by N. to N.

16

30-15

30-45

48-

37-5

s. to W.

N.W. by N. tON.

Total .

0-07

Obs. — The weather of the past week has been fine up to to-day, when
it changed from a bracing frosty to a misty hazy atmosphere, accom-
panied by temporary passing showers of drizzling rain. The average
temperature of the week has not ranged so low as the average of the cor-
responding week last year by 4-9°; that of 1850 being 34-4°, that of
the present year 39-3°.

Week

ending

6tli February, 1851.

Jan.

Barometer.

Thermometer

Wind.

Rain.

1851

1850

1851
41-5

1850
32-

1851

1850

1851

1850

31

30-51

30-50

E.

N.N.W.

0-07

Feb. 1

30 • 52

30-44

41-5

33-

N.E.

N.W. to E.N.E.

, ,

2

30-64

30-34

39-5

40-

N.W. to N.

W.S.W.

3

30-60

30 62

38-5

40-

N.E.

N.W. to N.N.W.

. .

4

30-55

30-58

39-

37-

N.E, to N.W.

N.N.W. to N,

0-0]

5

30-56

30-70

41-5

37-

N.W. to N.

N.E. to N.

6

30-53

30-52

37-5

46-5

N.W.

S.E. to E.S.E.

Total .

0-08

••

Obs. — The weather of the last week has not been so clear and bracing

FOR NINK M!;N'rHS 01- THE VEAES 1850-uK

65

as we might have expected at this season of the year. A slio-ht fall of
siiOAV took place on Mondaj^ "ig''t, which gave a wintry look to the
country on Tuesday morning, until the sun heated the ground. Another
slight shower occurred early on the morning of Wednesdav, but did
not lie on the ground. The thermometer has not sunk so low during
this week as (hiring the corresponding week of last year by 1-9° ;
the average in 1850 being 37'9°, and in the past week 39*8°.

Week ending 13th February, 1851

Barometer.

TlIERMOllETER

WlXD.

Raix.

Fkb

1851

1850

1851

45-

1850

1851

1850

1851

1850

7

30 '27

30-45

42-5

S.W. to K.W.

K.W,

1-43

8

30-41

30-78

42-5

30-

N.

N.W. to W.N.W.

0 03

9

30-49

30-77

42-5

31-5

N.W.

W.]V.W. to W.

10

30-31

30-53

40-

37-5

S.E.

S. to E,

11

30-06

30-37

44-5

41-5

N.W.

S.S.E. to E.N.E.

12

30-20

30-48

Ao'

44-5

E.

N.W. to N.

13

30-14

30-43

44-

43-5

N.E.

E.N.E.

Total .

0-54
0-54

0-46

Obs. — Since our la.-^t observations the weather has been fine during
three days, accompanied by frost each night ; this has been succeeded by
a less promising state of the atmosphere, and yesterday and to-day have
been damp, disagreeable, and rainy. At the same time, compareil with
the corresponding week last year, the temperature has been higher by
4*6° ; the average of 1850 being 38-7'^, and of the past week 43-3°.

Week ending

20th Februar

/, 1851.

Fii

Barometer.

Thermometer

^VI^'I'.

liAIX.

1851

1850

1851

1850

1831

1850

1851
0 22

1850

14

30-21

30-49

42-

43-

N. to N.W.

N.E. to N.N.E.

1-27

15

30-36

30-47

42-5

43-

N.W. to E.

N.E.

0-14

16

30-28

30-46

41-

40-

N.E.

NSE. to NNW.

0-52

009

17

30-50

30-40

36-5

38-5

N.W.

NKW. to WNW.

0-29

18

30-53 30-40

36-

37-

N.W.

N.W. to E.S.E.

,

^ ^

19

30 48

30-49

38-5

42-5

S.E.

N.AV. to W.N.W.

,

002

20

30-27

30-69

41-

32-

S.E. to N.

N.W. to W.N.W.

Total .

0 37
1-11

0-81

56

A RKGISTliU OF THE WEATIIEFx AT SIIANGIIAE

Obs. — In the course of the last seven days the weather has been very
variable — rain having fallen in three of them. The temperature has very
slightly exceeded that of the corresponding week, last year; the average
of 1850 being 39-4°, and of the past week 39-6°.

Week

endin

g 6th March,

1851.

Feb.

B.Vr.OlIETEK.

Thermometer

Wind.

Rain.

1851

1850

1851

1850

1851

1850

1851

1850

28

30-47

30-47

46-5

47-

N.E.

N.E.

, ,

Mar. 1

30-56 30 48

43 5

45-

S.E.

N.N.E.

. .

0-i2

2

30 2130-60

47-5

42-

S.E. to N.W.

N.N.W.

0-30

0-20

3

30-3130-68

47-5

42-

N. to S.E.

WNW. to NNW.

0-03

. .

4

30 -19 30 -67

49-5

46-

N.E.

N.

0-40

0

30-38 30-54

49

47-

N.W,

S. to S.E.

0-04

6

30-61 30-46

31-5

42-5

N.W.

N.W, to N.N.E.

Total .

••

••

0-77

0-32

Obs. — Tlie weather of the past week has been on the whole fine ; the
last two days have been cold. On Tuesday niglit and AVednesday night
the wind blew very strong from the N.W., but subsided to-day. The
average height of the thermometer has been 45°.

Week ending 13th March, 1851.

March

Barometer.

Thermometer

Wind.

Rain.

'

1851

1849

1851
35-5

1849

1851

1849

1851

1849

7

30-39

30-68

46-

E. to N.W.

N. to N.N.E.

, ,

..

8

30-09

30-72

50-

48-5

N.E. to N.W.

NE. to NE. by E.

. .

. .

9

30 45

30-54

51-5

52-5

w. to S.W.

S.S.E. to S.W.

10

30-21

30-53

52-5

52-

S.E.

O.

0-03

11

30-24

30-58

53-5

53-

S.E.

N.E. by E.

12

30-27

30-33

56-5

52-5

S.E.

S.E.

0 05

. .

13

30-25

30-23

49-5

49 5

N.E.

W. to W.N.W,

Total .

0-15

0-89

*0'20

0-92

Obs. — The past week has been dull and overcast, rain having fallen
during the evenings of the last three days. On the afternoon of the 9th

* Exdusive of 1-46 fallen up to 9 o'clock this morning.

FOR NIME MONTHS OF THE YEARS 1850-51.

57

and 10th the sun presented a remarkable leaden hue as seen through the
misty atmosphere. The average lieight of the thermometer has been
49-8°.

Week ending 20th March, 1851.

Barometer.

Thermometer

Wind.

Raix.

1851 i 1849

1851
48-5

1849

1851

1849

1851

1849

14

30-1930-47

48-5

N.E.

N.N.W.

1-46

002

lo

30-29 30 64

49-

44-

N.E.

wsw.toNW.byiX

0-18

16

30-3330-O9

47-

50-

S.E.

S.S.E. to S.E.

17

30 32 30 • 54

47-

56-

S.E.

E.N.E.

18

29-95 30-46

54-

56-5

S.E. to S.W.

E.N.E. to S.E.

0-02

19

30-07 30-33

35-5

53-5

N.

S.E.

0 55

20

30-22 30-39

1

53-

47-5

N.E.

S.E.

Total

2-21

0-02

Obs. — The weather of the past week has been much overcast. On
Tuesday, altliough the average temperature did not exceed 54°, with
the Barometrical column standing at 29 90 in., a feeling of oppression
was generally experienced, until the atmosphere was cleared by a violent
thunderstorm accompanied by much rain, which commenced shortly after
11 A.M., and in the course of which the unfortunate haT(\\xe Alverton
was struck by the electric fluid on the head of the fore-top-gallant mast.
The crops are in full vigour and look promising. The average heic-ht
of the thermometer has been 50-3° ; in 1849 it was 522° for the corre-
sponding week.

Week endin

g 27th March

1851.

Barometer.

Thermometer

Wind.

Rain-.

1851

1849

1851

1849

1851

1849

1851

1849

21

301530-31

49- 55-5

N.E. to S.E.

S.E.

22

30-02 30-15

49 5 56-5

S.E. to N.W.

W.S.W.

0-31

0-48

23

29 -99 30 -42

51-

57-

N.E. to N.

N. to N.E.

0-24

0-05

24

30-24 30-38

46-

60-

N.

S.E.

0-12

25

30-41

30-15

47-

55-5

N.W.

S.S.E. to S.E.

0-23

26

30-28

30-19

44-5

59-5

N.W.

N.N.W,

^ ,

0-05

27

30-33

30-25

47-5160-

N.W.

S.E.

Total .

0-50

1-40

0-58

58

A KKGISTKU OF THE WKATIIEU AT SHANGHAI:

Obs. — The almost incessant rain of the last week has been of much
vise to the crops, which will only be benefited by it should it not be of
much longer continuance. The sun of to-day caused the exhalation of
an exquisite aroma from the bean fields, tliffering- very materially fronx
that which usually greets the nostrils of the })asser by. In consequence
of the clouded Aveather the thermometer has not inchcated a heat equal
to the average at this season. During' the past week the average has
been 47*8'^, and during the corresponding week of 1849 it attained 57'7°.

Week

ending 3rd April,

1851.

Barometer.

Thermometer

WlND.

Rain.

March

1851

1849

1851

1849

1851

1849

1851

18i9

28

30-36

30 22

50-5

64-

N.E.

S.S.W. to N.E.

29

30-40

30-25

53-

59-5

S,E.

E.N.E. to S.E.

, ,

, ,

30

30-09

30-19

58-5

57-5

S,E.

N.E.

0 41

31

29-97

30-00

58-5

60-

N.W.

W.N.W.

0-08

0-S6

Apr.l

30-20

30-21

51-5

55-5

N.W.

N.W. to W.N.W.

0-87

0-58

2

30-17

30-54

50 5

44-

S.E.

N.N.W. to N.W.

0 08

0-01

3

30-20

30-62

51-

48-

N.E.

N. to N.W.

Total .

0-40
1-43

••

1-66

Obs. — Although much rain lias fallen, and, witli the exception of
Saturday, although we have scarcely seen the sun during the last week,
the crops continue uninjured and promise well. Several fields of early
wheat have been observed in ear. During the past week the average
height of the thermometer has been 53-3° ; during the corresponding
week of 1-849, 55-5°.

Week ending 10th April,

1851.

April.

Barometer.

Thermometer

Wind.

Rata.

1851

1850

1851

1850

1851

1850

1851

1850

4

30-48

30-42

48-

54-5

N.E. to N.N.E.

NNW. to WNW.

0-40

0-39

5

30-42

30-46

45-

55-5

N.W.

NW. to NNE.

0-36

6

30-35

30-59

51-5

54-5

S.E.

WNW. to NNE.

, .

7

30-20

30-37

55-5

54-

N.W. S.S.E.

0-J2

8

30 09

30-21

58-

61-

S.E. S S.E.

9

30 05

30-16

57-5

66-

N. to N.E.

S.S.E.

0-22

10

29-96

30-23

57-5

66 5

S.

S.S.E.

••

Total .

1-10

0-39

FOR NINP: months of the -i'EAES 1850-51.

59

Obs. — Rain has fallen on almost every evening of the past week. A
considerable shower of snow fell on the night of the 4th, since which
vegetation has advanced rapidly. All the barley and some additional
fields of early wheat are now in ear. The bean fields are magnificent ;
in one the stalks measured fully three feet in height. The willow and
several other trees are now covered with foliage, and many flowers in
full bloom show us that sunmier is fast approaching. The thermometer
attained an average of 53-2° during the past week ; in 1850 the average
was 58-2°.

Weeli

. ending 17th April,

1851.

Barometer.

Thermometer

Wind.

IiAIX.

1851

1850

1851

1850

1851

1850

1851

1850

11

29-92

30-10

62-

59-5

N.E. to S.W.

N.W.

0-72

12

29-81

30-05

63-5

58-

S.

AV.N.W.

0-08

13

30-06

30-14

62-5

61-

N.W.

N. to N.N.W.

, ,

..

14

30 05

30-05

55-

61-

N.E.

S.E.

0-47

, ,

15

30-24

29-88

55-

66-

N.E.

S.S.W. tOS.S.E.

0-44

..

16

30-30

29-94

50-

60-5

N.E.

N.W.

0-08

0-24

17

30-43

30-15

55-

54-5

N.W.

N.N.E. to N.E.

Total .

0-50

0-65

1-49

1-69

Obs. — Although much rain lias fallen during the past week the crops
continue to look very promising. In the vicinity, to the nortli of
Shanghae, a field of oats, an unusual sight, was observed in full ear.
The average temperature of the past week has been only 575° ; the cor-
responding week in 1850 having an average of 60°.

Week ending 24th April,

1851.

April.

Barometer.

Thermometer

Wind.

Rain.

1851

1850

1851

57-

1850
60-5

1851

1850

1851

1850

18

30 49

30-29

S. to S.E.

N.E.

19

30-16

30-35

57-5

54-5

S.E. to N.W.

N.E.

0-10

20

30-07

30-28

57-

58-

s.

N.E.

, ,

^

21

30-00

30-24

60-5

63-

N.W. to N.E.

N.N.E. to N.E.

0-47

22

30-01

30-25

58-

63-

S.

E.N.E. to E.

, ^

,

23

30-02

30-22

58-5

66-

N.E.

N.E, to E.S.E.

2-40

, ,

24

30-10

30-15

55'

63-5

S.E. to E.

E.S.E. to S.S.E.

Total .

0-08

••

3-05

••

60

A RKGISTKll OF TlIK WKATIlIiR AT SIIANGHAE

Obs. — The continued fall of rain during the past week, although not
up to this time of essential danuif^e to the crops, it is much feared by
the Chinese will produce an injurious eH'ect, from the continued mois-
ture of the ground leading to mould, smut, &c. Several fields of a
species of Brassica (?), used by the Chinese in the preparation of oil, are
now in fidl bloom, and impart a delightful fragrance to the surrounding
atmos})here. The average temperature of the week has only attained
57'6 ; of the corresponding week last year it was 61 '2°.

Week ending 1st May, 1851.

Barometer.

Thermometer

Wind.

Raix.

April.

1851

1850

1851

1850

1851

1850

1851

1850

25

29-79 30-02

56-5

75-5

E.S.E. to S.S.E. ! S. to S.S.E.

0-80

..

26

29- 88 30- 11

5.5 -5

52-5

W.N.W, to N.W.

N.N.E.

0-40

0-40

27

30-12

30-27

61-

63-

E.

N.W. to N.

004

0-70

28

29-87

30-21

60-

62-

S. to S.S.E.

N.N.E. to E.

. .

29

3001

30-09

58-

67-5

N.W. to N.N.W.

S.E, to W.

0-47

. .

30

30-08 30-18

^c>-

68-

S.S.E. to S.E.

N.W. to W.N.W.

0-09

May 1

30-11

£0-28

56-

69-

S.S.E.

S.S.W. to S.S.E.

Total .

0-03

1-74

••

119

Obs. — The weather has continued disagreeable during the last week
up to to-day. The wheat crops do not seem to have suffered materially
from the continued wet otherwise than by the undue development of the
stalks, and consequent deficiency in that of the ears ; the grains are now
forming rapidly. The beans are healthy ; in many places the pods
have attained a length of three inches, containing seeds two lines in
their greatest diameter. The peasants were observed yesterday for the
first time scattering cotton seed among the wheat, to be ready to take
the place of the latter crop when cut down. The average temperature
during the past week has been 57-4° ; during the corresponding week of
1850 it attained an average of 65-3° — an excess of heat over the present
season of no less than 7 9°. On comparing the range of the thermo-
meter during the whole of April in both years, it will be found that the
average of 1850 was 594°, while it has only attained to 556° in the
present year.

FOR NINE MONTHS OF THE YEARS 1850-51.

61

Week ending

8th May, 1851.

Barometer.

Aneroid.

Thermom.

"Wind.

Rain.

M \Y

1851 j 1850

1851

1851
(32-

1850

72-

1851 I

1850 •

1851 ' 1850

2

30- 18 30-34

30 04

E. 1

S.S.E.

.. 1 ..

3

30 -04 30 -20

29 95

56-

71-5

S.E.

S.S.E.

0-28

4

30-1230-00

29-98

61-

73-

N.N.E. to S.E.

s.

0-17

5

30-20 30-01

30-02

63-5

79-

S.E.

W.N

.W. to N.E.

.. 0-01

6

30 -04 30 -07

30-05

58-

71-5

S.E. to S.

E.S

E. to S.E.

7

30-1230-00

29-98

65-5

75-

E.S.E. ! S.

to S.S.E.

0-01

^

8

30-1030-21

29-96

64-

57-5

s. to S.W.

N.E.

Total .

••

0-60

0-46

0-61

Obs. — A considerable change for the better has taken place in the
weather of the past week, and with it the surfice of the country has in
many places undergone a complete metamorphosis. In numerous fields
the crop of beans has been ruthlessly pulled up by the roots and either
dug or ploughed into the ground for manure, grown apparently for no
other purpose. Those fields intended for the future growth of paddy
have been irrigated by the numerous chain pump machines in the con-
struction of wliich the Chinese display so much ingeimity. During the
last few days the peasants have been busy in treading with their feet and
by means ol' buffaloes the irrigated fields, and in one or two parts have
sown that portion of the grain intended for subsequent transplantation.
Although yesterday the thermometer placed in the sun indicated a
temperature of 110'^, the average of the whole week has been less than
that of the corresponding week last year by 9-9°; the average being
61-4° during the past Aveek, and 71-3° in 1850.

Week ending

15th May, 1851.

Barometer.

Aneroid.

Thermom.

W]

ND.

Rain.

May.

1851

1850

1851

1851

1850

1851

1850

1851

1850

9

30 • 1 9

30-21

30-02

60-

68-

N.E.

N.W.

0-06

10

29-98

30-19

29-82

64-5

70-

E.N.E.

S.S.E.

11

30-01

30-24

29-83

64-

71-

N.N.W. to E.

E.S.E. to E.

12

30-01

.30-09

20-85

(JO-5 71-

S.E. to S.S.E.

E.

^ ^

13

29-99

30-17

29-81

58-5 71-

E. to E.S.E.

E.

0-41

. •

14

30-00

30-12

29-82

m- 70-

E.

E.S.E.

0-15

15

30-11

30-02

29-97

64- |62-5

1

E.S.E.

S.W.

Total .

0-04

0-16

0-60

0-22

62

A REGISTER OF THE WEATHER AT SIIANGIIAE

Obs. — The weather of the past Aveek has been fine, if we except two
days. The wheat crops look well and are fast approaching- maturity —
the unbearded variety more particularly, but also some of the bearded
is deficient in the size of the panicles. The average temperature of the
week has been 61*6° ; that of the corresponding- week in 1850, 69^.

Week ending 22nd May, 1851.

Barometer.

Aneroid.

Thermom.

Wind.

Kaix.

Way.

1851
30-14

1850

1851

1851

1850

1851
E.s.r.

1850

1851

1850

16

29

94

29*97

64

67-5

S.S.E.

0-46

17

30-17

29

94

29-99

68

5

76-

S.E.

O.

. ,

18

30-10

30

07

29-93

71

74-5

S.E.

AV.N.W.

. ,

19

29-97

30

07

29-78

73

5

70-5

S.S.E.

E.S.E.

. .

20

29-87

29

89

29-83

75

66-5

S.S.E.

E.S.E.

. ,

21

29-87

29

96

29-60

74

69-

N.W\ to N.E.

N.W.

0-16

22

29-98

30-14

29-81

69-

68-

N.E, to E.

W. to E.S.E.

Total .

0-03

0-uo

0-65

Obs. — Much has been accomplished in the fields by the pea.santry
during the last phase of the moon, which has been accompanied by an
almost unclouded sky. At no season of the year is there greater cause
to admire the Chinese husbandry than at this, the time for sowing
cotton. The art with which the four-pronged implement of agriculture,
half pitchfork, half hoe, is wielded, so as to act as both spade and rake,
calls down our admiration. The neatness with which the beds are pre-
pared, and the seed sown and trodden down, is one of the circumstances
in which has originated the title to an almost fabulous superiority of the
natives of this empire over Europeans in the cultivation of the soil.
Some of the cotton sown only a few days since is already appearing
above ground. The paddy intended for transplantation is now a couple
of inches high. In some fields the bearded wheat is nearly ready for
cutting, and the ears of the unbearded variety are improving in size.
The average temperature of the past week has been 707'^ ; that of the
corresponding week last year 70-3°.

FOR NIXE MONTHS OF THE YEARS 1850-51.

Week ending 29th May, 1851.

63

Barometer.

Aneroid.

Thermom.

"Wixn.

Rain,

1851 1850

1851

1851

1850

1851

1850

1851 1850

23

29- 94^30 -r^

29'78

71- 69-5

E.S.E. to S.E.

S. to S.E.

0-000-00

24

29-94 30-11

29-73

76- 75-

S.

S.E,

0-000-00

25

29-8130-01

29-61

71-

81-

s.

S.E.

0-170-00

26

29-83

29-92

29-65

69-

84-

N.N.W.

E.S.E.

0-300-00

27

30-04

29-97

29-86

71-

82-5

N.N.W. to N.

N.W. to W.

0060-00

28

30-17

30-07

29-98

74-5

74-5

N.N.W. to E.

N.E.

0-000 00

29

30-09

29-94

29-97

72-

74-5

S.E.

E.N.E, to E.S.E.

Total .

0-001-83
0-53 1-83

Obs. — With the exception of Sunday tlie past week has been attended
with continued fine weather. The bearded wheat, now arrived at ma-
turity, has been for the most part cut down, conveyed to the farmsteads,
and in some places even thrashed on the mud before the doors, with a
flail, only differing from our own by having one portion to revolve upon
a lateral hinge at the extremity of the half held in the hand. It is very
extraordinary to observe the carelessness with which this process is con-
ducted, and the little anxiety manifested by the peasants to keep their
grain clean. The fields of stubble are being irrigated and prepared for
the paddy, which will soon be ready for transplantation — some however
have been devoted to cotton — and in a few the young cotton plants,
which were sown among the wheat at the commencement of the month
and covered with earth from the furrows, are now several inches above
the surface. The average temperature of the past Meek has been 72*1°;
that of the corresponding week in 1850, 77-3°.

Week ending

5th June,

1851.

JlAY.

Barometer.

A>'ER0ID.

Thekmo?j.

Wind.

Raix.

1851

1850

1851

1851

1850

1851

1850

1851

1850

30

29-96

30-01

29-78

73-5

80-

S.E.

W. N.W. to E.S.E.

1-25

31

29-91

30-08

29-62

69-

81-

S. to S.E

S.E.

Jun.l

29-87

30-01

29-69

QQ'

82-

N.W.

s.

005

2

30-06

29-98

29-90

69-

80-5

O.

E.S.E.

0-05

1-68

3

30-02

29-93

29-84

73-5

80-5

S.S.E. to N

w.

E.S.E.

0-02

1-48

4

30-04

29-91

29 - 86

74-5

77-

S.

E.S.E.

..

5

30-02

29 - 79

29-83

78-5

85-5

S.E.

S.E. to S.W.

0-01

0-11

Total .

0-13

4-52

64

A REGISTER OK THE WEATHER AT SIIANGIIAE

Obs. — Tlie past week has been accompanied with uninterrupted fine
weather. The fields continue to be cleared of their early crop, tlie
thrashing and Avinnowing of which is proceeding vigorously. A great
change has taken place in the appearance of the country, arising from
the removal of the wheat crop, and the transplanting of tlie paddy, which
is now progressing rapidly. The method of performing this agricultural
operation is well worth the attention of tliose interested in such pro-
cesses. Tlie neatness and rapidity with which it is accomplished is truly
surprising, Tlie average temperature of the past week has been only
72°, while that of the corresponding week in 1850 attained to 80-9'^ —
showing in a marked manner the comparatively low temperature which
has accompanied the whole of this spring.

Week ending 12th June, 1851.

Barometer.

Aneroid.

TlIERMOM.

AViND.

Eain.

June.

1851

1850

1851

1851

1850

1851

1850

1851

1850

6

.30-07

29-89

29-89

72-

75-5

S.E.

N.W.

0-42

7

30-05

30-10

29-86

65-

73-5

E.

N.W.

0-45

8

29-7.H

30-11

29-56

70-

78-

N.W.

N.W. to N.N. E.

2-41

9

29-89

30-13

29-75

74-

79-5

N.N.W.

S.S.E.

10

29-89

3014

29-70

74-575-5

E.

S.E. to E.S.E.

. ,

11

29-93

30-03

29 74

69-

75-

E.S.E.

S.E. to N.E.

0-06

, ,

12

29-94

•29-88

29-75

65-

74-

E.

N.W.

Total .

0-06

••

2-980-42

Obs. — ^The weather of the past week has been unusually cold for thic
season of the year ; the average temperature only attaining 69-9°,
while in the corresponding week of 1850 the average height of the mer-
curial column was 75-8°; much rain, accompanied by strong gusts of
wind, occurred during the night of the 7th.

FOR NINE MONTHS OF THE YEARS 1850-51.

Week ending 19th June, 1851.

65

BAEOilETER.

Aneroid.

Thermom.

Wind.

Rain.

1851

1850

1851

1851

1850

1851

1850

1851 1850

13

29-92

29-87

29-73

66-5

76-5

N.E. N.W. to E.

0-06

.,

14

29-91

29-86

29-72

70-

75-

E.N.E. to N.E.

S.E.

, ,

15

29-91

29-86

29-71

75-

82-

E.

S.E. to E.S.E.

, .

16

29-91

29-85

29-71

77-

73-5

S.E.

E. by s. to E.

0-02

17

29-85

29-90

29-63

81-5

74-5

S.

S.E,

0-03

18

29-67

29-88

29-50

83-

73-5

S.S.E.

S.E.

, .

19

29-76

29-85

29-58

72-

68-5

N.E. to N.N.E.

E.S.E. to E.

0-800-18

To 9 o'clock this morning

2-95

•• :

Total .

3-810-23

Obs. — The weather of the last week has been fine and well adapted to
the final duties of the wheat harvest. The fields now present the trans-
planted paddy or the cotton plant rendered visible by the removal of the
wheat. The temperature has been gradually increasing — the evening of
the 18th being exceedingly oppressive — until the air was cooled by a
heavy fall of rain, which has continued to descend, with little intermis-
sion, up to the present time. The average temperature of the week has
been 75-3° ; that of the corresponding week last year 74-8°.

Week endin

3

26tli June, 1851.

Barometer.

Aneroid.

Thermom.

W]

ND.

Rain.

June.

1851

1850

1851

1851

1850

1851

1850

1851 1850

20

29-78

29-68

29-60

68-

73

N.E. to E. by s.

W.

2- 95*0-06

21

29-84

29-78

29-63

79-575

o.

N.W.

0-050-04

22

29-86

29-91

29-67

74- 85

S.E.

S.E.

, .

, ,

23

29-90

29-90

29-68

76- 78

5

S.E.

N.E.

, ,

, .

24

29-95

29-79

29-73

78-5 76

5

S.E.

N.W.

. ,

2-18

25

30-01

29-76

29-80

79-

72

S.E. to S.S.E.

O.

. .

0-58

26

29-97

29-88

29-78

73-

67-

S.

N.W.

Total .

0-402-33

3-405-19

Obs. — The past week, which has been accompanied with much rain,
has been spent by the peasants principally in clearing the young cotton
plants of the surrounding weeds and in hoeing up the ground about their

VOL. VII. F

66

A REGISTER OF THE WEATHER AT 6HANGHAE

roots. The temperature has been verj' nearly equal to that of last year,
having only exceeded last year's average by 0-1° ; the present week's
average being 75-4°.

Week ending

3rd July, 1851.

Barometer.

Aneroid.

Thermom.

Wind.

Rain.

1851

1850

1851

1851

1850

1851

1850

1851

1850

27

29-89 29-86

29-67

80-5

65-

S.E. to N.E.

E.

0-200-21

28

29-84 29-81

29-57

79- 68-

S. to S.E.

N.E. to E.

0-700-40

29

29-85 29-95

29-64

73-

70-5

N.W.

E.S.E.

0-200-07

30

29-86 29-81

29-66

78-5

71-

E.S.E.

S.E. to E.S.E.

1-80 ..

Julyl

29-70

29-76

29-50

87-

69-

S.

E.N.E.

.. 0-46

2

29-84

29-82

29-62

84-5

69-5

w.

E.

0-720-20

3

29-83

29-87

29-63

83-5

71-5

S.E.

E. to E.S.E.

Total .

0-100-24

3-721-58

Obs. — For the first time duriii
ture exceeded the average of that
vious one. This week's average
has been as much as 80-8° — and
this average would have been h
has been 86-5°. Last year's corr
the thermometer only attaining
than in 1851. The sky has been
week, and much rain has fallen,
promising.

g the present season has the tempera-
of the corresponding week of the pre-
height of the thermoraetrical column
were this day's observationsj included
igher, as the mean temperature to-day
esponding week was unconmionly cold,
an average of 69-2° — lower by 11-6°
more or less clouded during the entire
The crops, however, are looking very

Week ending

10th July, 1851.

Barometer.

Aneroid.

TlIERMOM.

Wind.

Rain.

1851

1850

1851

1851

1850

1851

1850

1851

1850

4

29-74

29-91

29-51

86-5

74-

S.E. to S.W.

E.S.E.

5

29-67

29-92

29-47

76-5

72-5

N.E.

E.S.E. to S.E.

0-10

6

'29 • 80

29-86

29-61

73-

79-5

N.E. to E.N.E.

S.

0-30

0-14

7

29-71

29-84

29-52

69-

83-

E. to N.E.

s. to w.

1-85

, ^

8

29-87

29-80

29-77

72-5

81-

N.W.

o.

0-35

019

9

30-08

29-79

29-90

72-

78-

N.E. to E.S.E.

N.E. to E.S.E.

0-05

0-12

10

30-07

29-83

29-88

81-

76-5

S.E.

N.W.

Total .

••

0-31

1-65

0-76

FOU NINE MONTHS OF THE VEARS 1850-51.

67

Obs. — After the excessive heat of the 4th the temperature suddenly
sunk 19°, and continued uncommonly low up to yesterday. The sky
was overcast during the entire period, and a considerable fall of rain
took place. During this time the peasants have had abundant occupa-
tion in hoeing and weeding the cotton and rice crops, which liave grown
with a rapidity totally incomprehensible to agriculturists in a more tem-
perate climate. The average height of the thermometer during the
week has been 75-7° to 77*7° in 1850.

Week ending 17th July, 1851.

July.

Barometer.

AXEROID.

Therjioji.

Wi

XD.

Rain.

1851
80-00

1850

1851

1851

1850

1851

1850

1851

1850

11

29-85

29-82

85-577-

S.E.

s.w.

.. 0-66

12

29-92

29-85

29-72

87- 78-5

S.E.

S.E. to N.W.

1-54

13

29 89

30-00

29-08

86-576-

S. to S.S.E.

E. to S.E.

0-03

14

29-89

30-02

29-68

87- '84-5

S.S.E. to S.

s. by E.

. ,

. .

15

29-94

30-03

29-72

91- j86-

S.S.E.

S.w. to S.E.

• •

. .

16

29-98

29-94

29-76

91'587-5

S.S.E. to S.

s.w.

17

29-93

29-87

29-75

91-5

89-

S.S.E.

S.w.

Total .

••

••

2-23

Obs. — The weather of the past week has been hot, dry, and scorching.
The average temperature has been 88-5°, or 5-9° over the average ol
the corresponding week last year. The ground has become cracked and
parched, and the crops have required irrigation. Tlie fields have pre-
sented quite a lively appearance in the morning and evening, contrasted
with the perfect silence of noon-day, when no living creature ventures
forth.

F 2

68

A REGISTER OF THE WEATHER AT SHANGHAE.

Week ending

24th July, 1851.

Barojieter.

Aneroid.

Thermom.

Wind.

Rain.

1851

1850

1851

1851

1850

1851

1850

1851

1850

18

29-89 29-86

29-68

93-

88-

S.S.E.

S.S.E. to S.

..

19

29-87 29-83

29-69

93-5

86-

S.E. to S.S.E.

S.S.E.

^ ,

20

29-83

29-89

29-63

91-5

87-

S.E. to S.S.E.

S.E. to E.S.E.

, .

21

29-79

29-81

29-56

93-

87-5

S.S.E.

E. to N.E. by N.

22

29-84

29-83

29-62

91-

90-5

S.S.E.

S.W.

1-50

23

29-86

29-96

29-63

92-5

90-

S.E. to S.S.W.

S.

24

29-86

29-97

29-63

92-

89-5

S.E.

S. to S.S.E.

Total .

••

1-50

••

Obs. — The weather of the past week has been exceedingly hot — the
average temperature being 92-0°, or 3-7° above that of the correspond-
ing week last year. The evenings, however, have been somewhat
cooled by the occurrence of thunderstorms, more particularly on the
21st, when the squall was really very heavy. The crops continue to
look well.

( 69 )

VI. — On the Climate and Vegetation of the Temperate and
Cold Regions of East Nepal and the Sikkim Himalaya
3Iountains. By J. D. Hooker, M.D., F.E.S.

The following notes were collected, and have here been thrown
together, with the view of facilitating the cultivation of Hima-
layan plants, and of those of Sikkim and the adjacent mountains
of Nepal in particular, by supplying accurate data obtained on
the spot, relative to the various conditions of soil and exposure,
the degrees of temperature and amount of humidity under which
they flourish in their native country.

As the genus Rhododendron is the most prominent of these
plants, and that about which inquiries are constantly directed to
me, I shall commence wdth a description of it, prefacing this with
some observations, wliich are called forth by a visit to several
nurseries where many species are cultivated with more or less
success.

The Sikkim species of Rhododendron have now all been de-
scribed, as far as tiiey are known, and with few exceptions
figured, in a manner that will ensure the recognition of our
seedlings when they blossom ; but it must not be expected that
the flowers, so impatiently looked for, will in all or perhaps in
most cases equal, in number and size, those of the dra^nngs
made on the spot, which were in many instances from the
choicest bouquets that could be procured over a large extent of
country.

Unexampled success has attended cultivators in the germina-
tion of the seeds. Seedlings liave been raised in quantities ; but
whereas in some cases the young plants have, with few exceptions,
been all reared, in others the whole crop has been lost tlirough
injudicious treatment. The different kinds are at present kept
together and treated alike ; there is no discrimination exercised
in their culture ; the same amount of light and heat as is given
to the natives of 6000 and 7000 feet elevation, wliich are in full
leaf throughout the year, is also given to those from ] 5,000 feet,
whose vegetative organs are in activity for only five or six
months of the twelve. This course will eventually prove preju-
dicial, for it is not possible that the alpine kinds can long endure
the excitement of perennial heat and moisture.

Variatioji. — There is a prevailing disposition to limit the
species of this genus by characters presented in the seedling
plants, and to argue, from my inability to pronounce arbitrarily
on the same in our greenhouses, the probability of there being
fewer or more species than of names received with the seeds. In
some cases an undue value is given to these names. Slight varia-

70 CLIMATE AND VEGETATION OF

tions in the strength of the stem, colour, texture, and hairiness of
the leaf, are regarded as certainly indicating specific differences ;
whilst other kinds are considered as the same, because un-
distinguishable in their present infant condition. Some of the
latter certainly resemble one another in foliage, even when
full grown, but are nevertheless totally distinct in flower and in
fruit. I may instance R. cinnabarinum, R. camelliajtorum,
and R. 3Iaddeni, as one case in point ; R. campylocarjrum and
R. Thomsoni as another ; R. campamdatum and R. fulgens as
a third instance of species being often so alike in the leaf, as
generally to puzzle me when I had nothing else to judge by ;
and yet there is in the two former cases little affinity between
them. My attention was drawn to this point throughout a resi-
dence of many consecutive months (including the flowering and
.fruiting seasons of the Rhododendron) at elevations varying from
8000 to 16,000 feet. It is especially between 10,000 and
14,000 feet that the genus prevails ; several species comprising
three-quarters of the bulk of the vegetation above the forest-
region (12,000 feet). There Rhododendron wood supplies the
native with fuel, and, from its tough nature and property of being
easily worked, witii many domestic vitensils, poles for his tent,
stools, saddle, bowl and spoon ; the bark is used as that of the
birch is in arctic regions, and the leaves serve as plates and
wrappers for butter, curd, and cheese. It is the traveller's con-
stant companion throughout every day's march ; on tlie right
hand and on the left of the devious paths, the old trees and
bushes are seen breast high or branching over head, whilst the
seedlings cover every mossy bank. At 13,000 feet the flanks of
the snowy mountains glow .with the blood-red blossoms of R.
fulgens, whilst the beauty of R. campanulatum and the great
elegance and delicacy of the white bells of R. camjjylocarpum
excite the more admiration from their being found in such regions
of fog and rain. Yet with all these advantages of position, and
that of an intimate knowledge of the species, I was constantly at
a loss to distinguish to which species the seedling plants belonged,
especially when they grew intermixed, or to recognize others
when distant from their parents.

Is ot only does the very variable nature of the foliage render it
exceedingly difficult to recognize even the best known kinds
by tliese organs, but the species themselves run into races,
stirpes, or constant varieties, assuming under certain circum-
stances characters inherited by the seedlings. This is habitually
the case with those that have considerable ranges in elevation ;
they alter their habit materially (as willows do in our own
country), and there is more apparent difference between the
robust, hardy, rusty-leaved, dark-coloured seedlings from an

EAST NEPAL AND THE SIKKIM HIMALAYA MOUNTAINS. 71

alpine locality, and the young plants of the same species from
wooded regions lo^ye^ down, than between some widely distinct
species. I have hereby been led into much error in my illus-
trated work on Sikkim Rhododendrons, which I shall endeavour
to remedy in the present essay.

Hybridization in a Native State, — It has been insisted that
many of the so-called species of this genus are naturally-produced
hybrids. This is by no means clear to me, though I am far
from denying its possibility, and I am aware of the many obvious
facilities for such a process : it shares the plausibility of all hy-
potheses against which negative proof only can be brought to
bear. A gardener's opinion is in such cases of value, as he can
best appreciate the power of an agent he employs himself with
great effect, and to which the attention of botanists is being
drawn through the pages of this Journal especially. Con-
sidering, however, the consequences which have attended the
process of hybridizing Rhododendrons in our gardens, it appears
to me that were such an operation actively pursued by nature,
or tardily throughout a series of years, in the Rhododen-
dron region of the Himalaya, the species would be in the con-
dition of Salix, Ruhiis, Rosa, Mentha, and many other familiar
examples of hopelessly entangled assemblages of species. Where
the Rhododendron "scrub" prevails, it is impossible for any
but very strong growing plants to establish a footing ; a mule
would have little chance of a flourishing existence anti numerous
offspring'in so dense a mass ; but the prevalence of land and
snow-slips often lays bare broad tracts of land, \\hich are for
years but scantily clothed with vegetation. From the constant
local changes of surface that hence ensue, there is no want of
opportunity and space for hybrids to establish themselves. Be-
lieving it probable that this genus has survived slow but gi'eat
changes in the physical geography and climate of the countrj'^,
especially with relation to the snow -level, I cannot but conclude
that varieties, perhaps permanent ones, may have been induced,
which are now regarded as species ; and this has prompted me
to unite some plants from very different elevations which, though
varying much, present no well-marked specific characters. Such
are R. eltsagnoides, R. salignum, and R. obovatum. All these
I include under Wallich's R. lepidotum, to which a range in ele-
vation of upwards of 7000 feet is consequently given, but I can-
not trace the influence of hybridization in itself or any allied
species. It is accompanied by twenty congeners in its ascent from
7000 to 15.000 feet, but except that its flowers varj' from
yellow to a dirty purple, at various heights, neither it nor they
present any characters that can be attributed to hybridization.
^.fulgens is the most suspicious- looking plant in this respect,

72 CLIMATE AND VEGETATION OV

liaving the leaves of R. campanulatum, and capitula and flowers
of a scarlet variety of R. arboreum ; but considering how variable
R. campanulutum is in colour, and that it assumes a denser capi-
tuhnn in its variety ceruginosurn (which I published as a species),
I sliould be more inclined to rank. R. fulgens as a permanent
variety of that species tlian as a mule between it and a plant with
a totally dissimilar leaf, which is comparatively tender, and which
grows 4000 feet lower down. The principle of hybridization is a
dangerous one to admit heedlessly in these cases, and should only
be resorted to as a forlorn hope, when every other attempt to
account for the Protean habits of an assemblage of species has
failed : such I cannot consider to be the case with the Sikkim
Rhododendrons ; and though I do not abandon the idea in theory,
I shall not adopt it in this emergency.

Epiphytical Habits of some Species. — Much undue import-
ance has been given to the fact of some kinds growing habitu-
ally epiphytically (R. Dalhousice, R. camelliccjiorum^ R. pendu-
lum^, and it has been supposed that much difficulty must attend
their cultivation. Having occasionally seen all these species
growing on rocks, and the two latter sometimes becoming erect,
and that always in exposed but very moist localities, I have
been induced to attribute their predilection for tlie branches
of trees to their weak habit and want of light elsewhere. Being
plants of the forest region, and unable to contend against the
vigorous undergrowth that prevails there, the offspring of sucli
seeds as fall on the ground are choked, whilst the perennially
humid atmosphere supports such as sprout on the mossy limbs of
trees, where they receive the stimulus of light. R. Dalhousice,
for instance, which is never found on the ground in the woods of
Darjiling, grows in thousands on the clay and mould banks of the
roads which are cut through the forest, the young plants coming
up in profusion as soon as the cuttings are made : these, however,
seldom attain any size, from the too great exposure of the soil,
which in the dry season rapidly parches during a short day's heat.
In Dr. Campbell's garden at Darjiling there is a perpendicular
bank, 15 feet high, exposed to the west, and partly sheltered
from the south-west by a house. R. Dalhousice has annually
appeared on this, the seeds being imported by winds or birds
from the neighbouring forest. The seedlings, however, perished
till within the last two years, since which time abundance of Lyco-
jwdiuin clavatum and a Selaginella, with Marclinntia, retain so
constant a supply of moisture that the plants now flourish and
flower in perfection. Though not equal to the herbaceous, the
number of small shrubby forest plants that grow on the trees in
these damp regions is very great, especially the orchideous.
Those that do so most habitually are species of Vaccinium

EAST NEPAL AND THE SIKKIM HIMALAYA MOUNTAINS. 73

(serpens and others). These are all provided with soft woody
swellings on the root, of all sizes, from that of a nut to the thick-
ness of a man's thigh, which, though structurallj^ the same as
other parts of the root, serve as reservoirs for a great quantity of
fluid destined to nourish the plant in the drier season of the year.
These plants never grow on the ground, properly speaking, but
often on exposed rocks, where the use of these tubers is more evi-
dent, and it is a part of their economy to be so provided. The
Rhododendrons have never such organs, and there is no difference
between the root of a specimen grown on the ground and one from
a mossy tree-trunk. Such species as are habitually epiphytical re-
quire a lighter soil, with plenty of moss, and a very damp, humid,
equable temperature ; and will, I am sure, present no insuperable
obstacles to the cultivator.

Soil. — There is in this respect little variety throughout Sikkim,
and, as far as vegetation is concerned, it may be divided into vege-
table mould and stiff clay — each, as they usually occur, remark-
ably characteristic in composition of such soils.

The clay is uniformly of great tenacity, and is, I believe,
wholly due to the effect of the atmosphere on crumbling gneiss
and other rocks. It is tenacious, seldom friable, and sometimes
accumulated in beds 14 feet thick, although more generally of
only about 2 feet. In certain localities, beds or narrow seams of
purer felspathic clay on vegetable matter occur in it, probably
wholly due to local causes. An analysis of that near Darjiling
gives about 30 percent, of alumina, the rest silica, and a fraction
of oxide of iron. Lime is wholly unknown as a constituent of the
soil, and only occasionally seen as a stalactitic deposit from a few
springs.

The vegetation has always good drainage, from the broken
nature of the subjacent highly-inclined stratified rocks : with
the Rhododendrons of the second zone this is especially the
case, and they thrive luxuriantly on the soil overlying old
moraines.

A layer of vegetable earth almost invariably covers the clay
for the depth of 3 to 12 or 14 inches. It is a very rich black
mould, held in its position on the slopes of the hills by the
dense vegetation, and accumulated by the banks of small streams
to a depth at times of 3 and 4 feet. R. arhoreum is one of
the few species that seem to avoid this soil, but, I think, in
appearance only — that species loving exposure, and therefore
occupjang a comparatively poor dry soil, over which other things
do not extend. I have seen R. arboreitm and barbatiim growing
on the margins of pools of water, in what is almost bog earth ;
but pools and bogs are rare in Sikkim, and of very local occur-
rence. The following is an analysis of an average specimen of

74 CLIMATE AND VEGETATION OF

the surface-soil of Darjiling-, made for me by my friend C. J.
Miiller, Esq., of that place : —

A.— Dry Earth.

Anhydrous 83'84

Water 16-16

100-0
B. — Anhydrous Earth.

Humic acid 3*89

Humine . . ■ 4-()l

Uudecomposed vegetable matter . . . 20-98

Peroxide of iron and manganese . . . 7-05

Alumina 8-93

Silicious matter, insoluble in dilute hydro-
chloric acid 54-52

Traces of soda and muriatic acid ... • •

100-0

C. — Soluble in water, gr. 1'26, consisting of soda, muriatic acid,
organic matter, and silica.

The soil from which this example was taken was 12 inches
deep ; it abounded to the eye in vegetable matter, and was sili-
cious to the touch. There were no traces of phospliates or of
animal matter, and doubtful traces of lime and potasli. The
subsoil of clay gave only 5*7 per cent, of water, and 5-55 of or-
ganic matter. The above analysis was conducted during the
rainy month of September, and tlie sample is an average one of
the surface-soil at 6000 to 10,000 feet. There is, I think, little
difference anywhere in the soils at this elevation, except where the
rock is remarkably micaceous, or where veins of felspatliic granite,
by their decomposition, give rise to small beds of kaolin.

At elevations above 10,000 feet, the rocks are generally
much harder, the gneisses and schists are baked by metamor-
phic action, and more granitic rocks prevailing, a lighter and
more sandy soil is met with. Towards the southern parts of
Sikkim, the copious rains wash away at once the scanty annual
deposit of humus at these great elevations : there is consequently
no sward or peat ; the plants, shrubby and herbaceous, growing
out of a generally naked soil in tufts. In the northern parts,
again, there is a considerable accumulation ; and at equal and
greater elevations a sward of CijperacecB and Graminece are
found, nourishing a tolerably rich Flora. Further north still, in
the Tibetan climates, at 15,000 to 17,000 feet, the climate is
too dry for anything but an arid Flora, except along the borders
of streams.

Generally speaking. I conclude that a rich light vegetable

EAST NEPAL AND THE SIKKIM HIMALAYA MOUNTAINS. 75

mould of loam and peat, with good drainage, are necessary for
the shrubby plants of these regions.

On the Species. — Since the preparation of the several parts of
the illustrated work on the Sikkim Rhododendrons, my opinions,
which were then far from fixed as to the limits of some of the
species, have changed, with the many additions to the localities,
&c., I have collected. When the first part was publislied, I had
only seen single specimens of some of the species figured ; and
without books of reference of any kind, I was unable to deter-
mine their names ; the specimens and drawings sent diflTered
so widely from cultivated individuals, and from the indifferent
herbarium specimens attainable, that they were pronounced new,
and published accordingly. The results of a careful study of all
my species and specimens are, that of those figured in the first
parf, R. Campbellice does not differ from R. aThoreum^ R. lanci-
f'olium from R. barbatum, R. Wallichii from R, campanulatum,
and R. Roylei from R. cinnabar inutn.

In the second part a synoptical view of all the Indian species
is given, in which some of these errors are indicated, and the
species are thrown into groups defined by characters I still think
natural and constant. In this and in the concluding (third) part
22 more Rhododendrons are figured as species, several of which
were regarded by myself as well-marked forms or varieties only,
and as such worth figuring, but which were published with the
provisional specific names I attached to them. To these I shall
allude liereafter. Lastly, I have gone over the Bhotan collections
of Mr. Griffith, and identified all his 14 species with my own,
except the one figured by Dr. Wight as R. grande. Of this I
find no specimen in the set of Griffith's plants given to Sir W.
Hooker, except it be the R. Hodgsoni, which I can hardly re-
concile with the plate and description in Dr. Wight's Icones.
Dr. Wight's R. Griffithii, on the other hand, 1 find to be
founded on a very starved state of R. Aucklandii, a name which
I waive.

Bhotan borders upon Sikkim to the eastward, and presents the
same characters of humidity in that western part (wiience Mr.
Griffith's specimens wei'e procured) as Sikkim does. Its lower
and outer ranges of liills, however, being drier (from reasons
hereafter to be explained), it does not appear to be so rich in
Rhododendrons, and hence probably no peculiar species are
found; for to the eastward of Bhotan again, in the " Durrung"
country, other species have been discovered by Mr. Bootli.

I shall now give a list of tlie 27 Sikkim species known to me,
arranged in natural groups, with such brief characters as are ne-
cessary for determining them when they shall flower. An account
of the geographical features of Sikkim will follow, and a division

76 CLIMATE AND VEGETATION OK

of tlie country into zones, each inhabited by a different vegetation
of Rhododendrons and other phmts. vSome more general descrip-
tion of the species, with remarks on their appearance, habits, and
relations to soil, climate, &c., will naturally be brought in there ;
and I shall conclude with a raliier minute account of the climate,
temperature, &c., of tiie tliree zones of the Himalaya, which may
be termed Temperate, Alpine, and Arctic, and wliich are best
defined by the limits attained by ConifercB and Rhododendrons.

Synopsis of Species.

§ I. Calyx 0. Corolla broadly bell-shaped, 10-lobed. Stamens
18 to 20 (rarely 10). Ovary usually hairy or viscid, or
both, many celled. — Trees with large leaves, and white or
pale coloured densely clustered flowers.

1. R. Falconeri — a tree; leaves very large and coriaceous,
obovate or oblong, blunt, on very stout leaf-stalks, smooth,
shining above, with sunk netted veins, below covered with thick
rusty down ; flower-stalks viscid ; flowers white, in dense heads ;
stamens 16; style thick, with a club-shaped broad stigma. —
Sikkim Rhod., PI. X.

2. R. argenteum — a tree ; leaves very large, obovate, oblong,
sharp, narrowed into the thick leaf-stalk, quite smooth on both
sides, silvery below; heads ratlier loose, 10-flowered ; flower-
stalks short, downy ; flowers white, broadly bell-sliaped ; stamens
10; ovary downy, about 16-celled. — Sikkim Rhod., PL IX.

3. R, Hodgsoni — a large bush ; leaves broad, elliptical, obo-
vate or oblong, on stout leaf-stalks, sometimes heart-shaped at
the base, smooth and shining above, somewhat silvery below, with
closely appressed down; heads 15 to 30 flowered ; flower-stalks
short, downy ; flowers broadly bell-shaped, 8 to 10 lobed, pale
purple; stamens 16 to 18; ovary downy, 16-celled. — Sikkim
Rhod., PI. XV.

§ II. Calyx cup-shaped, more or less broad and deep, veiy ob-
scurely lobed. Corolla 5-lobed. Stamens 10 to 16. Ovary
6 to 16 celled. — Shrubs with large flowers, and quite smooth
leaves.

4. R. Griffithii, Wight (R. Aucklandii, Sikkim Rhod., PI.
XI.) — leaves on rather long foot-stalks, oval, oblong, sharp,
somewhat cordate at the base, quite smooth on both sides ;
flowers few, on long foot-stalks ; calyx a broad open disc, un-
equallv 5-lobed ; corolla white, with a broad tube, and 5 very

EAST NEPAL AND THE SIKKIM HIMALAYA MOUNTAINS. 77

broad spreading lobes; stamens 12 to 18; ovary glandular, 12-
celled.

5. R. Thomsoni — a bush ; leaves at the end of the branches,
orbicular or broadly oblong, rounded at the end or terminating
in a short point, on rather long leaf-stalks, heart-shaped at the
base, quite smooth on both sides, rather glaucous below ; head 4
to 6 flowered ; flowers deep crimson, drooping, on long foot-
stalks ; calyx cup-shaped, sometimes tubular, unequally lobed ;
tube of the corolla rather long, bell-shaped, lobes recurved,
notched; stamens 10; ovary quite smooth, 6 to 10-celled. —
Sikkim Rhod., PI. XII. ; and R. candelabrum, PI. XXIX.

§ III. Calyx of 5 leaves, or deeply 5-lobed. Corolla funnel or
bell shaped. Stamens 10 to 18. Ovary 5 to 6 celled. —
Trees or shrubs ; sometimes epiphytes, with the leaves often
covered with small scales.

6. R. DalhousicB — a slender shrub ; young leaves with long
hairs, the older ones elliptico-obovate, blunt, smooth above, rather
glaucous below, and dotted with very small scales, narrowed at
the base into a leaf-stalk which is sometimes a little hairy;
flowers 3 to 5 in a head, nodding ; sepals oblong, blunt, hairy on
the margin ; corolla bell-shaped, with a broad tube and 5 mode-
rately spreading lobes; stamens 10; ovary 5-celled. — Sikkim
Rhod., PI. I. and II.

7. R. Edgeworthii — a straggling shrub, generally growing
on the branches of trees ; branchlets leaf and flower-stalks
densely covered with a thick tawny down ; leaves elliptical
ovate, very sharp, bright green and shining above, reticulated
with sunk veins; flowers 2 to 3 together, large, white ; flower-
stalks short ; sepals woolly, blunt ; tube of the corolla rather
short, lobes large and spreading; stamens 10; ovary very woolly,
about 5-celIed. — Sikkim Rhod., PL XXI.

8. R. barbatum, Wall, — a small tree ; leaves elliptical, lanceo-
late, sharp, blunt at the base, with stout leaf-stalks which have
generally long bristles ; quite smooth on both sides, paler below ;
flowers in dense heads, pale blood-red ; flower-stalks short ;
sepals oblong, blunt, viscid ; stamens 10 ; ovary viscid and hairy,
5 to 8-celled. — Sikkim Rhod., PI. III. ; and R. lancifolium,
PI. IV.

9. R. ciliatum — a low rigid shrub ; branches leaf and flower-
stalks covered with stiff spreading hairs ; leaves on short foot-
stalks, elliptical, obovate, very sharp, bright green above, the
margins and mid-rib with stiff" spreading hairs, paler and rather
glaucous below, dotted with small scales ; flowers 4 or 5 to-

78 CLIMATE AND VEGETATION OF

gether, pale purple, on stout short flower-stalks ; sepals broadly
ovate, blunt, ciliated at the margin ; corolla bell-sluiped, with
spreading' recurved lobes; stamens 10; ovary scaly, 5-celled. —
Sikkim Rhod., PL XXIV.

10. R. glaucum — a small slender slirub ; branchlets leaf and
flower-stalks and the leaves generally on both sides, calyx and
ovary dotted with small scales ; leaves obovate, lanceolate,
pointed, narrowed into a slender leaf-stalk, bright green above,
very glaucous below ; flowers 6 or 8 in a head, pale pink purj)le ;
sepals oblong, sharp ; corolla belLshaped, dotted with small
glands, and hairy inside at the base; stamens 10; ovary 5-
ceWed.—Sikkim Rhod., PI. XVII.

11. K. pu7nilum — a very small, slender, sparingly-branched
Alpine shrub, with creeping stem and erect branches, which, as
well as the flower and leaf stalks, under side of the leaves, calyx
and ovary, are dotted with small brown scales ; leaves small, on
very short foot-stalks, broadly elliptical, blunt with a short
point, margin recurved, dark green above, glaucous below ;
flowers nodding, solitary, or 2 to 3 on long erect stalks ; sepals
blunt ; corolla bell-shaped, rosy, tube hairy, lobes short, rather
spreading; stamens 10; ovary 5-celled. — Sikkim Rhod., PI.
XIV.

§ IV. Calyx small or none. Corolla bell or funnel shaped.
Stamens 10. Ovary 5 to 10 celled. — Shrubs or small trees,
generally smooth.

12. 'R. arboreiim — a tree ; leaves very coriaceous, lanceolate,
acute, cordate at the base, or narrowed into a stout petiole,
bright green above, reticulated with sunk veins below, smooth
and silvery, or covered with a rusty down ; flowers in dense
heads ; calyx none ; corolla bell-shaped, white, pink, or blood-
red ; stamens about 10; ovary 7 to 10 celled. — SikMin Rhod.,
R. Cumpbellia>, PI. VI.

13. Ji. niveuyn — a small tree; branchlets and underside of
leaves leaf and flower-stalks thickly covered with white wool ;
leaves obovate, lanceolate, blunt or sharp, on short foot-stalks,
quite smooth above, opaque ; flower-stalks short ; capsules short,
downy, 6-celled.

14. P. campamdatum—Tx. densely branched shrub ; branch-
lets leaf and flower-stalks and underside of leaves more or less
covered with a thick down ; leaves obovate, sharp or blunt, cor-
date at the base, on stout leaf-stalks, smooth and bright green
above, sometimes also almost smooth below ; flowers 8 to 10 in
loose heads, rose or lilac, sometimes spotted ; flower-stalks rather
long ; calyx with 5 short blunt teeth ; corolla bell-shaped, with

EAST NEPAL AND THE SIKKIM HIMALAYA MOUNTAINS. 79

recurved lobes ; stamens 10 ; ovary quite smooth, 5 to 8 celled.
— R. Wallichii ; Sikkim Rhod., PI. V. ; and R. ceruginosum,
PL XXII.

15. ^.fulgens — a small bush, differing only from R. campa-
nulatum in its dense heads of blood-red flowers, which resemble
those of R. arboreum ; and in the capsule, wliich is broader and
of a fine purple colour. — Sikkim Rhod.^ PI. XXV.

16. R. land turn — a small tree; branchlets flower and leaf-
stalks underside of leaves and ovary densely covered with a
whitish wool ; leaves obovate, blunt with a short point, narrowed
into a short foot-stalk ; flowers 6 to 8 in a loose liead, noddins;' ;
flower-stalks rather long ; calyx of 5 small blunt teeth ; corolla
broadly bell-shaped, pale straw colour, with purple spots inside ;
stamens 10 ; ovary 5-celled. — Sikkitn Rhod., PL XVI.

17. R. Wightii — a large branching shrub ; leaves elliptical,
lanceolate, sharp, narrowed below into a stout downy leaf-stalk,
sniootli and bright green above, covered beneath with a closely
pressed reddish down ; heads large, rather loose, and many flow-
ered, on downy foot-stalks ; calyx of 5 very small teeth ; corolla
broadly bell-shaped, 5-lobed at the base, straw-coloured, spotted
above with red ; stamens 10 ; ovary glandular and downy, 10-
ceWed.— Sikkim Rhod., PL XXVII.

18. R. campylocarpum — a shrub, with slender branches ; leaves
ovate or oblong, blunt with a short point, heart-shaped at the
base, smooth and shining above, paler and rather glaucous below ;
leaf-stalks slender, as are the flower-stalks, which, as well as the
calyx and ovary, are more or less covered witli glandular hairs ;
flowers nodding, 5 to 10 in loose heads ; calyx of 5 small rounded
lobes ; corolla broadly bell-shaped, with spreading lobes, pure
white or pale straw colour ; stamens 10; ovary 5-celled. — Sik-
kim Rhod., PL XXX.

§ V. Calyx of 5 short lobes or teeth, the upper sometimes
elongated. Corolla funnel-shaped, tube narrow. Stamens
10 to 20. Ovary 5 to 10-celled. — Shrubs with the leaves
scaly on the underside.

19. R. Maddeni — an erect twiggy shrub ; branchlets leaf and
flower stalks underside of leaves calyx and ovary thickly
studded with small scales, which are also scattered over the tube
of the corolla ; leaves elliptic, lanceolate, sharp at both ends,
bright green and shining above, tawny below ; flowers nodding,
white, very lai'ge, 2 or 3 together, on short stalks ; tube of the

80 CLIMATE AND VEGETATION OF

corolla elono^ated, witli 5 spreading lobes; stamens 18 to 20;
ovary lO-cefled.— ^SVA/^m RhocL, V\. XVIII.

20. R. crnyiaharinum — a slirub witli slender branches ; un-
derside of leaves leaf and flower stalks calyx and ovary studded
with small scales ; leaves ovate or oblong, lanceolate, sharp at
both ends, rather opaque, green above, tawny or rusty coloured
below ; flowers rather small, nodding, 4 to 8 together, in loose
heads ; calyx lobes very variable in size ; corolla brick-red, tube
long, lobes rounded, spreading, rather siiarp ; stamens 10 ; ovary
5-celled.— *^?'M/;/« Rhod., PI. VIII. ; and R. Roylei, PL VII.
(neither very characteristic figures).

§ VI. Calyx of 5 lobes. Corolla with the tube very short and
swollen, the lobes spreading, concave. Stamens 8 to 10.
Style short and curved. Ovary 5-celIed. — Generally small
shrubs, sometimes epiphytes. Leaves (except in R. pendu-
lum) densely scaly.

21. R. camellicejiorum — a slender shrub, generally pendulous
from the branches of trees ; branchlets flower and leaf stalks
under surface of the leaves calyx and ovary densely dotted with
small scales ; leaves elliptical, lanceolate, sharp at the end,
generally blunt at the base, bright gi-een above, brownish beneath,
on short stout foot-stalks ; flowers solitary or 2 together, on
short curved stalks; sepals thick and blunt; corolla white, of a
firm thick texture, dotted with scales ; stamens 16 ; filaments
short and thick ; ovary 10-celled. — Sikkim RhocL, PI. XXVIII.

22. R. pendulum — a very slender shrub, generally hanging
from the branches of trees ; branchlets leaf and flower stalks
calyx and ovary densely covered with a rusty-brown wool, under
which are scattered scales ; leaves elliptical, blunt with a short
point, on very short leaf-stalks, bright green and shining above ;
flowers 2 together, small, white ; sepals membranous, oblong,
blunt ; corolla sparingly scaly outside ; tube short ; lobes large,
spreading; stamens 10; filaments woolly; ovary 5-celled. —
Sikkim Rhod., PI. XIII.

23. R. lepidotum, Wall. — A small branching bush ; the branch-
lets leaf and flower stalks leaves generally on both sides calyx
and corolla externally more or less dotted with white or rusty
brown scales ; leaves obovate, lanceolate, or oblong, on short
petioles, of a pale or lurid green colour ; flowers terminal, solitary,
or 2 to 3 together on slender erect stalks; sepals 5, blunt;
corolla pale or deep yellow, or purple ; tube short, globose ;
lobes spreading, concave, the upper more or less spotted ; stamens

EAST NEPAL AND THE SIKKIM HIMALAYA MOUNTAINS. gl

8 ; ovary o-celled. — R. salignum ; Sikkim Rhod., PI. XXIII.
A. ; R. el(Eagnoides, PI. XXIII, ; R. obovatum, part 2, page 6.

24. R. vaccinioides — a small, very slender, sparingly branched
shrub, sometimes epiphytical, with the branches scarred ; branch-
lets leaf and flower stalks and underside of leaves sparingly
scaly ; leaves coriaceous, obovate, blunt or notched, narrowed
into a short stalk, quite smooth and bright green above, paler
below ; flowers solitary, terminal, on slender stalks ; sepals ovate,
blunt ; tube of the corolla short, hairy inside, white ; lobes
spreading, rourided ; stamens 10, exserted ; filaments hairy ;
ovary o-celled. — Sikkim Rhod., part 2, page 3.

§ VII, Calyx of 5 short lobes. Corolla with the tube short,
funnel-shaped, lobes long, narrow, spreading. Stamens 8.
Style slender. Ovary o-celled. — Small scaly shrubs, with

■ Azalea-like flowers.

25. R. virgatu?n — a slender erect shrub ; branchlets leaf and
flower stalks underside of leaves calyx and ovary densely studded
with scales ; leaves linear, oblong or ovate, sharp or blunt with
a short point, rounded or cordate at the base, on short foot-
stalks, bright green and shining above, glaucous and sometimes
rusty below ; flowers 2 to 3 together, nodding on rather long
stalks, yellow or pale purple ; calyx lobes rounded, ciliated ;
corolla variable in size, tube short, conical, lobes 5, oblong,
blunt; stamens 8 to 10; ovary o-celled. — Sikkim Rhod-,V\.
XXVI., A. ; and R. triflorum, PI. XIX.

26. R. setosum, Don— a very small shrub; branchlets leaf-
stalks and margins of the leaves bristly ; these parts, as well as
the flower-stalks both sides of the leaves calyx and ovary
densely scaly ; leaves on short foot-stalks, small, oblong or obo-
vate, deep green above, rather glaucous below ; flowers red-
purple, 2 to 4 together, terminal on rather short stalks ; sepals 5,
oblong, blunt ; tube of tlie corolla very short, lobes linear,
oblong, spreading ; stamens 8 to 10, exserted ; ovary 5-celled. —
Sikkim Rhod., PI. XX.

27. R. nivale — a small, depressed, prostrate, spreading shrub,
with very woody stem and branches, everywhere studded (except
the corolla) with scales ; leaves crowded, verj^ small, elliptical,
blunt, almost sessile, lurid green; flowers terminal, solitary, on
very short stalks ; sepals 5, oblong, blunt ; corolla pink purple,
tube very short, hairy inside, lobes oblong, blunt ; stamens 8 to 10 ;
anthers large; ovary o-celled. — Sikkim Rhod., PI. XXVI., B.

VOL. vir. G

82 CLIMATE AND VEGETATION OK

§ VIII. Calyx of 5 membranous sepals. Corolla salver-shaped,
tube slender, short, cylindrical, lobes flat, spreading.
Stamens 6 to 8, within the tube. Style short. Ovary
5-celled. — A small scaly shrub.

28. R. antJiopogon, Don — the only species.

If from a consideration of the species themselves we turn to
that of the country they inhabit, it will be found that a great
part of it is characterized by perennial humidity^, which is exces-
sive during the summer months. It will be seen, also, that the
degree of humidity varies in different parts of the country, and
that the rain-fall is unequally distributed ; also that elevation is
to a great degree a relative term, equal altitudes having different
climates in various parts of Sikkim, with a dissimilar vegetation.
To explain these points, it is necessary to give some account of
the natural features of the Sikkim Himalaya Mountains, which
seem to be little known, or generally misunderstood by those who
have sought information respecting the management of Ehodo-
dendrons, through the various horticultural periodicals. Except
these points are clearly understood, it will be impossible to
appreciate the conditions under whicli the species grow.

Sikkim is included in a section of the Himalaya Mountains
about sixty miles broad from east to west, where it is bounded
respectively by the mountain states of Nepal and Bhotan. Its
southern limits are easily defined, for the mountains rise rather
abruptly from the plains of Bengal, as spurs of 6000 to 10,00Q
feet high, densely clothed with forest to their summits. The
northern and north-eastern frontier of Sikkim is beyond the
reo^ion of Rhododendrons, and is not a natural but a political line,
drawn between itself and Tibet. Sikkim is nearly due north of
Calcutta, and only 400 miles from tiie sea at the Bay of Bengal ;
its latitude being 26" 40' to 28" N., and longitude 88° to 89" E.
The greater part of the country between Sikkim and the sea is a
dead level, occupied by the delta of the Ganges and Burrampooter,
above which the slope is so gradual to the base of the mountains,
that the surface of the plain from which the Himalayas imme^v
diately rise is only 300 feet above the sea. The most obvious
effect of this position is, that the prevailing southerly wind
reaches the first ranges of hills loaded with vapour. The same
current, when deflected easterly to Bhotan, or westerly to Nepal
and the north-west Himalaya, is intercepted and drained of much
moisture, by the Khassya and Garrow Mountains (soutii of Assam
and the Burrampooter) in the former case, and the Rajmahal hills

EAST NEPAL AND THE 8IKKIM HIMALAYA MOUNTAINS. 83

(south of the Ganges) in the latter. Sikkim is hence the dampest
region of the whole Himalaya.

Viewed from a distance on the plains of India, Sikkim pre-
sents the appearance — common to all mountainous countries — of
consecutive parallel (wooded) ridges, running east and west,
backed by a beautiful line of snowy peaks, with occasional
breaks in the foremost ranges, throuoh which the rivers debouch.
Any view of the Himalaya, especially at a sufficient distance
for the distant snowy peaks to be seen overtopping the outer
ridges, is very rare, from the constant deposition of vapours over
the forest-clad ranges during the greater part of the year, and
the haziness of the dry atmosphere of the plains in tlie winter
months. At the end of the rains, when the S.E. monsoon has
ceased to blow with constancy, views are obtained, sometimes
from a distance of nearly 200 miles. The angle subtended by
the giant peaks is so low (not a degree) that they appear like
white specks very low on the horizon, tipping tlie black lower
and outer wooded ranges, which always rest on a belt of haze,
and from the density, probably, of the lower strata of atmos-
phere, are never seen to rest on the visible horizon. The remark-
able lowness on the horizon of the whole stupendous mass is
always a disappointing feature to the new comer, who expects to
see dazzling peaks towering in the air. Approaching nearer,
the snowy mountains sink behind the wooded ones long before tlie
latter have assumed gigantic proportions, and when tliey increase
in size, they appear a sombre, lurid grey -green mass of vegetation,
with no brightness or variation of colour. There is no break in
this forest caused by rock, precipice, or cultivation ; some spurs
project nearer, and some valleys appear to retire further into the
heart of the first great cliain that shuts out all the country beyond.
No pines whatever are seen on the outer range of Sikkim, both
soil and climate being far too damp in the rainy season ; nor are
the colours of the foliage so varied and bright as tlie more per-
ennially humid forests of tropical shores, from the want of any
abundance of such palms as Caryota, tall Arecce, and of Arto-
carpi, or of orange-groves.

As it is not my purpose to discuss here the tropical, or lower
zone of Sikkim, I shall at once transport the reader to the north
side of the first range of mountains. From here it will be seen
that the appearance of parallel ridges is due to the inosculating
spurs of long tortuous ranges that run north and south through-
out the whole length of Sikkim, dividing deep wooded valleys,
which form the beds of large rivers. The snowy peaks still look
like a long east and west range of mountains, at an average distance
of 30 or 40 miles from the outer range. Advancing into the country,
this appearance proves equally deceptive, and the range of snow

G 2

84 EAST NEPAL AND THE SIKKIM HIMALAYA MOUNTAINS.

is resolved into isolated [)eaks, situated on the meridional ranges,
at distances varying from 30 to 80 miles from the observer ; their
snowed spurs, projecting east and west, cross one another, and
being uniformly white, and all brought by perspective into one
line, they appear to connect all the peaks into one grand un-
broken range of snow. The rivers, instead of having their
sources in the snowy mountains, all rise far beyond them ; many
of their sources are upwards of 100 miles in a straiglit line from
the plains, in a very curious country, loftier by far in mean ele-
vation than the meridional ridges which run south from it, and
though so lofty, comparatively unsnowed. This rearward moun-
tain region is Tibet, and into it all the Sikkim, Nepal, and
Bhotan rivers lead, up to a watershed whose discharge to the
northward is into the Yarou-Tsampu river, which becomes the
Burrampooter of Assam. Tibet is a very arid mountain mass,
the southerly wind being exhausted of vapour by these long ridges
long before reaching it. The maximum range in latitude and
elevation of the Himalayan vegetation is determined very much
by the length of the rivers, which, rising in Tibet as small streams,
increase in size as they receive the drainage from the snowed parts
of the ridges that bound them in their courses. Their banks,
between 8000 and 14,000 feet, are generally clothed witli Rhodo-
dendrons, sometimes to the almost total exclusion of other woody
vegetation, especially near the snowed mountains — a cool tem-
perature and great humidity being tlie most favourable conditions
for the luxuriant gi'owth of this genus.

The source of this humidity is the southerly or sea wind,
which blows steadily from May till October in Sikkim, and pre-
vails throughout the rest of the year, if not as the monsoon pro-
perly so called, as a current from the moist atmosphere over
the Gangetic delta. This ruslies north to the rarefied regions of
Sikkim, up the great valleys, and does not appear materially
disturbed by the north-west wind, which blows during the after-
noon of the Avinter months over the plains, and along the flanks
of the outer range, and is a dry surface current, due to the diurnal
heating of tiie soil. When it is considered that this wind, after
passing lofty mountains on the outer range, has to traverse 80
or 100 miles of alps before it has watered all the Rhododendron
region, it will be evident that its moisture must be expended
before it reaches Tibet.

Let the accompanying woodcut represent two of these long
meridional ridges, from the watershed to the plains of India,
following in this instance the course of the Teesta river, from
its source at 19,000 feet to where it debouches from the Hima-
laya at 300. The lower rugged outline represents one meri-
dional ridge, with all its most prominent peaks (whether exactly

V

f

Kian^'la MooiitaiTis.
Watershed N. to
Yarvii, aa.ooo ft.

Head Streams of
Arun River, which
flows to Nepal.

Ditto, ditto.

Bhomtso Mountain ;

l8,5uoft.
Oholamo Lake, source
of Teesta; 17,500 ft.

Kinchin-jhow ;
21,000 ft.

V

- q

Tuk'chawm ; 1 8,000 ft.

Bed of Teesta
4500 ft.

Mountain ; 12,000 ft.

Mainom ; 11,000 ft.

Tendong; 8700 ft.

Bed of Teesta ;
1000 ft.

Darjiling ; 7000 ft.
SincUuI ; 8600 ft.

Plains of India ;
300 ft.

86 Cr.IMATK AND VEGETATION OF

or not on the line of section) ; the upper represents a parallel
ridge, of greater mean elevation, further west, introduced to
show the maximum elevation of the Silikim mountains, Kin-
chinjunga (28,178 feet) (K) being represented on it. A deep
valley is interposed between these two ridges, with a feeder of the
Teesta in it, which runs south from Kinchin, and turning west
enters the Teesta at R. The position of the bed of the Teesta
river is indicated by a dotted line from its source at T to the
plains at S ; of Darjiling, on the north flank of the outer range,
by D ; of the first point where perpetual snow is met with, by
P ; and of the first indications of a Tibetan climate by C.

A warm current of air, loaded ^nth vapour, will deposit the
buliv of its moisture on the ridge (8000 feet) D. Passing on,
little \^ill be precipitated on E, whose elevation is the same as
that of D, but much at F (10,000 feet), where the current being
further cooled has less capacity for holding vapour than it had at
D, and is ftirther exhausted. "When it ascends to P (15,000
feet) it is sufficiently cooled to deposit snow in the winter and
spring months, more of which falling than can be melted during
the summer, it becomes perennial. At K (20,000 feet) ver}- little
falls, and it is doubtful if the southerly current ever reaches the
prodigiously elevated isolated summit of Kinchinjunga (28,178
feet) ;* but all that does, is evaporated or retained as snow. The
amount of surface above 20,000 feet is, however, too limited and
broken into isolated peaks to drain the already nearly exhausted
wind current, whose condensed vapours roll along in fog beyond
K, are dissipated during the day over the arid mountains of
Tibet, and deposited at night on the cooled surface of the
earth.

Other phenomena of no less importance than the distribution
of vapour, and more or less depending on it, are the duration
and amount of solar and terrestrial radiation. Towards S the
sun is rarely seen during the rainy season, as well from the con-
stant presence of nimbi aloft, as of fog on the surface of the
ground. An absence of both light and heat is the result in the
parallel of K ; and at C low fogs prevail at the same season,
but do not intercept either the same amount of light or heat ;
whilst at T there is much sunshine and bright light. During
the night, again, there is no terrestrial radiation between S
and P ; the rain either continues to pour — in some months
with increased violence — or the saturated atmosphere is con-

* I believe that the utmost elevation the S.E. monsoon attains is 23,000
feet, and that only where the whole mass of land is immensely elevated.
A perennial westerly wind appears by the clouds' motions to blow at the top
of Kinchiniunga.

EAST NEPAL AND THE SIKKI.M HIMALAYA MOUNTAINS. 87

densed into a thick white mist, which hangs over the redundant
vegetation. A brigiit starlight night is ahnost unknown in
the summer months at GOOO to 10,000 feet, but is frequent
in December and January, and at intervals between October
and May, when, however, vegetation is little affected by the
cold of nocturnal radiation. In the regions north of K starlight
nights are more frequent, and the cold produced by radiation is,
at 14,000 feet, often severe towards the end of the rains in Sep-
tember. Still the amount of clear w eather during the night is
small ; the fog clears off for an hour or two at sunset as the
wind falls, but the cold north returning current chills the air again
soon after, and rolling masses of vapour are hence flying over-
head or sweeping the surface of the earth throughout the summer
nights. In the Tibetan regions, again, bright nights and even
sharp frost prevail throughout the warmest months.

Referring again to the cut, it must be borne in mind that
neither of the two meridional ridges runs in a straight line, but
that they wand or zigzag like all mountain ranges ; and that spurs
from each ridge are given off" from either flank alternately, and
that the head of a spur on one side answers to the source of a river
(i.e., the head of a valley) on the other. These rivers ai-e feeders
of the main stream, the Teesta, and run at more or less of an
angle to the latter. The spurs from the east flank of one ridge
cross, at their ends, those from the west flank of another ; and
thus transverse valleys are formed, presenting many modifications
of climate with regard to exposure, temperature, and humidity.

The roads from the plains of India to the watershed in Tibet
always cross these lateral spurs. The main ridge is too winding and
rugged, and too lofty for habitation throughout the greater part
of its length. The river channel is always very winding, un-
healthy for the greater part of the year below 4000 feet, and
often narrow, gorge-like, and rocky. Villages are always placed
above the unhealthy regions, on the lateral spurs, which the
traveller keeps crossing throughout every day's march ; for these
spurs give off lesser ones, and these again others of a third
degree, whence the country is cut up into as many spurs, ridges,
and ranges, as there are rills, streams, and rivers on the moun-
tains.

Though the direction of the main atmospheric current is to
the north, it is seldom in reality felt to be so, except theobservef
is on the very exposed mountain tops, or watches the motions of
the upper strata of atmosphere. The lower currents of air rush
up botli the main and lateral valleys, throughout the day ; and
from the sinuosities in the beds of the rivers, and generally trans-
verse directions of their fieeders, the current often becomes an
east or west one. In the branch valleys draining to the north

88 CLIMATE AND VEGETATION OF

the wind still ascends ; it is, in short, an ascending warm moist
current, whatever course be pursued by the valleys it follows.

The sides of each valley are iience equally supplied with
moisture, though local circumstances render the soil on one or the
other flank more or less humid, and favourable to a luxuriant
vegetation : such ditferencesare a drier soil on the north side, with
a too free exposure to the sun at low elevations, where its rays,
however transient, rapidly dry the groimd, and where the rains,
though very heavy, are of sliorter duration, and owing to the
capacity of the heated air for retaining moisture day fogs are
comparatively rare. In the northern parts of Sikkim, again, some
of the lateral valleys are so placed that the moist wind strikes
the side facing the south and keeps it very humid, whilst the
returning cold current from the neighbouring Tibetan mountains
imjjinges against the side facing the north, which is hence nearly
bare of vegetation. An infinite number of local peculiarities
will suggest themselves to any one conversant with physical
geography, as causing unequal local distribution of light, heat,
and moisture in the different valleys of so irregular a country
— the amount of slope, and its power of retaining moisture
and soil ; the composition and hardness of the rocks ; their dip
and strike ; the protection of some valleys by lofty snowed ridges,
and the free southern exposures of others at great elevations.

One other peculiarity deserves especial attention, which is, the
position of the great masses of perpetual snow. A reference to
the woodcut will show that the same circumstances which affect
the distribution of moisture and vegetation, determine the posi-
tion, amount, and duration of the snow. The principal fall will
occur, as before sliown, where the meridional range first attains
a sufficiently y^reat elevation, and the air becomes consequently
cooled below 32° ; this is at a little above 14,000 feet, sporadic
falls occurring even in summer at that elevation : this snow,
however, melts immediately, as do the copious winter falls in
the summer months. As the depth of rain-fall diminishes in
advancing north to the higher parts of tiie meridional ranges, so
does the snow-fall. Its permanence, again, depends on — 1. the
depth of the accumulation ; 2. the mean temperature of the
spot; .3. the melting power of the sun's rays ; 4. the prevalence
and strength of evaporating winds. Now at 14,000 feet, though
the accumulation is immense, the amount melted by the sun's
rays is trifling, and there are no evaporating winds ; but the
mean temperature is so high, and tlie corroding powers of the
rain (which falls abundantly throughout summer) and of the
warm and humid ascending currents are so great, that the snow
is not perennial. At 15,000 feet, again, it becomes perennial,
and its permanence at this low elevation (at P) is much favoured

EAST NEPAL AND THE SIKKIM HIMALAYA MOUNTAINS, 89

by the accumulation and detention of fogs over the rank vegeta-
tion which prevails from 8 nearly to P ; and by the lofty moun-
tains of K, which shield it from the returning dry currents from
the north. In proceeding north all the circumstances that tend to
the dispersion of the snow increase, whilst the fall diminishes.
At P the deposition is enormous, and the snow-line low — 15,000
feet ; whilst at T little falls, and the limit of perpetual snow is
19,000 and 20,000 feet. Hence the anomaly, that the snow-line
ascends in advancing north to tlie coldest Himalayan regions.
The position of the greatest peaks and of the greatest mass of
perpetual snow being generally assumed as that of the ridge or
watershed, travellers, arguing from single mountains alone, on
the meridional ridges, have at one time supported, and at another
denied, the assertion, that the snow lies longer and deeper on the
north than on the south flank of the Himalaya ridge.

The great accumulation of snow at 15,000 feet, in the parallel
of P, exercises a decided influence on the vegetation. The
alpine Rhododendrons R. setosum and R. aiithopogon hardly reach
14,000 feet, sometimes not 13,000 feet, in the broad valleys and
round-headed spurs of the flanks of Kinchinjunga ; whilst the
same species ascend to 16,000, and one to 18,000 feet, at T.
Beyond the latter point, again, the great aridity of the climate
prevents their growth, and in Tibet there are generally none even
as low as 12,000 and 14,000 feet. Glaciers, again, descend to
13,000 feet in the tortuous gorges which immediately debouche
from the snows of Kinchinjunga, but no plants grow on the
debris they carry down, nor is there any sward of grass or herbage
at their base, the wliole surrounding atmosphere being chilled by
enormous accumulations of snow, and the summer sun rarely
warming the soil. At T, again, the glaciers do not descend
below 16,000 feet, but a gi-een sward of vegetation creeps up to
their bases, dwarf Rhododendrons cover the moraines, and herbs
grow on the patches of earth they carry down, which are thawed
by the more frequent sunshine, and by the radiation of heat from
the unsnowed flanks of the valleys down which these icy streams
pour.

Looking eastward or westward on the map of India, the phe-
nomenon of the perpetual snow is regulated by the same laws.
From the longitude of Upper Assam in 95° E. to that of Kasli-
mir in 75° E. the lowest limit of perpetual snow is about 15,000
feet, and the mass of Rhododendrons affect the most humid locali-
ties near it, at 12,000 to 14,000. Receding from the plains of
India and penetrating the mountains, the climate becomes drier,
the snow line rises, and vegetation diminishes, whether the elevation
of the land increases or decreases, plants reaching 17,000 and
18,000 feet, and the snow line 20,000 feet. To mention extreme
cases: the snow level of Sikkini in 27° 30' is at 15,000

90 CLIMATE AND VEGETATION OF

feet, and of vegetation at 14,500 ; whereas in lat. 35° 30' Dr.
Thomson found the snow line 20,000 feet in Karakorum, and
vegetation up to 18,000 feet — features common also to Sikkim in
lat. 28°.

Of the Sikkim Khododendrons I have little further to say except
with reference to the individual species, and I shall therefore
arrange these in three groups, according to the elevations they
inhabit, adding such notes upon each as may prove useful in
their determination and assist in their cultivation. No species
that I am aware of extends much below 6000 feet in Sikkim, or
in the Himalayas generally, though, according to Mr. Griffith,
R. arhoreum is found below 4000 on some of the dry rocky
outer ranges of Bhotan. In this respect, however, the latter
country is very exceptional, and demands a passing notice. The
Khassya mountains, as I have elsewhere shown, shield the lower
ranges of Bhotan from the effects of the southerly monsoon ; they
rise to an average height of 5000 feet, extending (as the Gar-
rows, westward, and Jyntea hills, eastward) for about 250 miles
parallel to and 60 miles south of the Bhotan Himalaya, the inter-
vening valley being that of the Burrampooter river. The mon-
soon from the Bay of Bengal is in this longitude a S.S.W. one,
and after traversing 200 miles, partly of the Sunderbunds and
partly of a very peculiar marsh district called the J heels, it dis-
charges an amoimt of water on the abrupt southern face of the
Khassya which, as a rain-fall, I believe has no parallel in the
world, amounting to between 400 and 500 inches a-year. Sud-
denly deprived of one-third of its water, the current pursues its
course northward, traversing 30 miles or so of hills, whereby it is
cooled ; while it is again warmed in the moist valley of Assam.
What is thence carried on to the Bhotan Himalaya is not con-
densed on the mountains till it reaches a considerable elevatioUj
5000 feet and upwards, where it is cooled and deposits moisture
abundantly. The Bhotan Himalaya is therefore very dry below
50OO feet, and humid above that, but never so nmch so as
Sikkim.

R. arhoreum is found at 4500 feet on the Khassya (but not
near the southern edge of the range), and ascends to 7000 feet*
There are several other Khassya species, all avoiding the southern
parts, though one of them descends to 2000 feet on the north
flank. Most of the species, as well as those of the Malay
peninsula, Java, and Borneo, belong to the same section with
R. cinnaharinum, having comparatively long tubes to the corolla
and small calyces, or none.

The Borneo species* gathered by Mr. Low on Kini Balu,

* Many of these species will be figured shortly in Sir Wi J. Hooker's
* Icones Plantarum.'

EAST NEPAL AND THE SIKKIM HIMALAYA MOUNTAINS. 91

below 8500 feet, belong here ; and I may conclude this long dis-
cussion with the remark, that tlioiigh the Himalaya is so rich in
species, it may prove that in this respect it only partakes of
the tiora of tlie Malay islands. Thirteen kinds found below
8500 feet, on a mountain unexplored beyond that height, and in
a country but once ascended so high, argues a profusion of species
in the mountainous regions of that island of which we can form
no adequate idea.

I. Species of the First or Lower Zone, answering to the Tem-
perate latitudes ; 6000 to 10,000 feet.

1. R. argenteiim. — Distribution and range : East Ne-
pal and Sikkim; 8000 to 10,000 feet; confined to
the dampest regions.

It forms a tree 30 feet high ; trunks solitary, or two or three
together, spreading, branched above, the bark pale, and the
branches leafy at the apex. Leaves very beautiful in the leaf-
buds, at first enveloped in erect and silky scales, so closely im-
bricated and so large as to resemble the cones of some species of
pine ; the outer or loM'er scales broad and coriaceous, glabrous,
of a reddish-brown colour, the innermost ones oblong-spathulate,
pubescent. When fully developed the leaves are among the
largest of the genus, 6 inches to a foot long, 3 to 5 inches
broad, full green above, beneath silvery white. Bracteas deci-
duous, densely silky. Flowers 2 to 3 inches long, 2 to 2^ inches
in diameter, inodorous, always white. — In the silvery underside
of the foliage, but in nothing else, this resembles R. arboreum^
while the blossoms are often as large as those of R. Dalhousice.
On Sinchul, the higher parts of the mountain, from 8000 to
9,000 feet of elevation, are more or less clothed with it ; on
Tonglo, as it approaches 10,000 feet, it is suddenly replaced by
R, Falconeri. It seemed to be shy of flowering in the season of
1848, for it was with difficulty I could then procure sufficient
specimens to complete my drawing; in 1849 it flowered pro-
fusely, and, with the white magnolias, formed at a considerable
distance a conspicuous object amid the lurid green vegetation
of the mountains.

2, R, barbatum, — Distribution and range : Kemaon,
Nepal, Sikkim, and Bhotan ; 8000 to 1 1 ,000 feet ;
confined to tlie dampest wooded regions,

A tree 30 to 40 feet high, branched from the base. Leaves,
in the very young state, sparingly hairy and ciliated ; when
fully developed, 5 to 7 inches long, and from 1^ to 3 inches
wide, elliptical-lanceolate, acute, rather broader above the middle,

92 CLIMATE AXD VEGETATION OF

the margins reflexed and rougli from tlie presence of small harsh
hairs; the nerve'^ sunk on tlie upper surface ; dull but full green
above, paler and quite glabrous beneath, and destitute of scales
or down. Petioles sometimes quite deprived of hairs. Flowers
moderately sized, blood-colour, collected into a compact globose
head 4 to 5 inches in diameter. Bracteas oblong or ovate, the
inner ones silky, all more or less glutinous. — One of the most
beautiful of the Himalayan species, but variable in size and
habit. I have seen it forming a low shrub in mossy swamps, and
then entirely destitute of bristles on the leaf and flower stalks ;
in such a state it was figured and described as R. lancifolium.

3. R. arboreum. — Distribution and range : throughout
the Himalaya. 5000 to 10,000 feet. Most frequent
in the drier valleys and ridges.

Of this well known species no description is necessary : it
abounds in the inner ranges of Sikkim, descending to 5000
feet beyond the first great ridge ; on that ridge, on the other
hand, it is very rare, never descending below 7500 feet, and only
appearing in exposed places. It prefers a drier soil and locality
than most other species. The leaves are very variable in shape
and in the form of their base, which tapers into a foot-stalk or
is cordate ; their under surface is generally silvery white, but as
the species attain higher elevations they become yellower, and
finally rusty underneath, as in the variety CamphellicE. The
seedlings partake of the habit, colour, and texture of their
parents in a remarkable degree, whence the diflficulty of recog-
nizing R. arboreum under several very common forms in our
nurseries. A jelly is made from the flowers of this plant in the
N.W. Himalaya, but I have never seen the preparation. The
honey of wild bees is at the flowering season said to be poison-
ous in Sikkim, but opinions are divided as to whether R. ar-
boreum or R. Dalhousics is to blame ; if either, I suspect it to
be the former, which alone is abundant near the localities where
the bees abound.

After a verv' careful examination I have come to the conclu-
sion that the R. Campbellice is only a variety of this ; and I
further include the R. nobile, "Wall. ; R. Nilagaricum, Zenker ;
and R. Zeylanicum. Its geographical distribution is therefore
Ceylon, the peninsula of India, the Khassya mountains and the
Himalaya mountains from Upper Assam nearly as far west as
the Indus; between the elevations of 5000 and 10,000 in
Bhotan, Sikkim, Nepal, and Keniaon, but only between 5000
and 7000 elsewhere. It is not found in the valley of Kashmir,
but on the south flanks of the mountains bounding that valley
on the south.

EAST NEPAL AND THE SIKKIM HIMALAYA INIOUNTAIXS, 93

4. R. niveum. — Distribution and range: Sikkim —
10,000 to 12,000 feet — in moist valleys of the interior.

This species forms a tree so similar to R. arboreum, that I
much doubt its being distinct. The snowy white down is pecu-
liar, as are the short capsules, and in my ignorance of the flowers
I rest its claims upon these characters alone. I have not recog-
nized young plants in cultivation.

5. R. Dalhousice. — Distribution and range : East Nepal,
Sikkim, and Bhotan (Griffith)— 6000 to 9000 feet—
in Immid forests, generally growing on limbs of trees.

The seeds of this species have germinated as freely as any,
and the young plants are making rapid progress in a cool moist
house. The young leaves are very hairy, which character and
their tenderness distinguish tliem. They most resemble R. cili-
atum, but the latter is more hairy, of a darker colour, and rigid
texture. — A straggling shrub, 6 to 8 feet high, generally growing,
like tropical Orchideae, among moss, with ferns and Aroide£e, upon
the limbs of large trees : the stems clothed wiih a reddish, papery
bark, the branches straggling in distant whorJs ; each branch
bearing its leaves and flowers only at the extremity. Leaves few,
spreading or reflexed, about 4^ to 5 inches in length, footstalk
about ^ an inch long, the margin plane (not revolute), the upper
surface darkish green, inclining to yellow ; beneath paler, dotted
with very small, scattered, rusty-coloured scales. Flowers 3 to 7
in a terminal, umbellate head, the spread of which is greater
than that of the leaves. Corolla 3^ to 4t inches long, and as
broad at the mouth ; at the contracted base of the tube are 5
deep pits. Lobes of the limb nearly equal, very broad, rounded,
waved, spreading. The flowers are white, with an occasional
tinge of rose, in size and colour almost resembling those of the
white Bourbon Lily (^Lilium candidum) ; in age they assume
a delicate roseate tinge, and sometimes become spotted with
orange, which rather adds to their beauty than detracts from it.
Tiiey are lemon-scented, and very fragrant.

6. R. Griffithii. — Distribution and range : Bhotan and
Sikkim — 7000 to 9000 feet — in the valleys and ridges
of the interior only, where the climate is drier.

It forms scattered bushes, 4 to 8 feet high, branching from
the base, where the trunk is 6 inches in diameter. Branches sub-
erect, copiously leafy. Bark smooth and papery. Leaves vari-
able in size and breadth, but large for the size of the plant, 4 to
10 inches long; margin plane, often tinged with yellow; upper

94 CLIMATE AND VKGETATION OF

surface lii^ht full green ; the under paler, slightly glaucescent.
Flowers the largest of the genus, variable in size, terminal, 3 to
5 together, inodorous. Peduncles rather slender, longer than the
petioles, red or green. The calyx represents a shallow, concave,
irregular, subrhomboid-shaped platter, ]! inch in its greatest
diameter ; the back marked with sliglitly elevated, radiating
lines, glossy, as if varnished. Corolla white, tinged with pink,
veiny, of a firm, rather fieshy texture : tube short for the size of
the flower, yellowish and rose-colour towards the base, the mouth
very wide, lobes exceedingly large and spreading. I have
measured some only 3 inches across, but others 5 and 5:^ inches
in diameter! —I have found but few plants of this superb species,
and in these the inflorescence varied much in size. The speci-
mens from which the drawing in Sikkim Rhod. (under the name
of R. Aucklandii, PI. XI.) was made were from a bush covered
with blossoms, growing in a rather dry, sunny exposure, above
the villa-^e of Choongtam. The same species also grows on the
skirts of the pine-forests {Abies Briinoniana) above Lamleng,
and it is there conspicuous for the abundance rather than for the
large size of its blossoms.

When I described this plant I was not aware of its being the
R. Griffithii of Dr. Wight's Icones Plant. Ind. Or., the draw-
ing of which seems to have been prepared from very bad ma-
terials. The great size of the corollas figured in the " Sikkim
Rhododendrons " may be due to tlie individual being sterile, for
I found the anthers to contain little or no pollen.

7. R. Edyeworthii. — Distribution and range: Sikkim —
7000 to 9000 feet — in forests of the dampest regions.

Leaves 2 to 4 inches long. Corolla white, often tinged with
blush or pale yellow : tlie tube rather short, widening much at
the mouth, slightly curved, the limb unusually large, more than
4 inches across, spreading, of 5 nearly equal, rounded, slightly
emarginate lobes, crisped at the margin, delicately veined on the
surface. — A truly superb species, from the size of the flowers and
their roseate tinge on a white ground, also from the varietj^ of
rich colour in the leaves, bracteas, stipules, calyx, &c., while the
very wrinkled surface of the leaf adds much to its beauty. In
its floccose character and foliaceous calyx it resembles R. pendu-
lum; but in the size and shape of the flowers it approaches R.
DalhousicE, next to which I would place it. The majority of
my specimens were obtained from the land-shoots or slips in the
rocky ravines, wliich bring down in their course those pines on
the limbs of wliich this species delights to grow.

EAST NEPAL AND THE SIKKIM HIMALAYA MOUNTAINS. 95

8. R. Maddeni. — Distribution and range : Bhotan (?)
and Sikkim — where it was found in the inner and drier
valleys only, and very rarely there, at 6000 feet ele-
vation.

A shrub 6 to 8 feet high. Leaves abundant, of a coriaceous
substance but flaccid, 4 to 7 inches long, frequently pendulous.
Corolla Zh to 4 inches long, and as much across the limb, very
handsome, white with a faint blush chiefly on the upper lobe,
rather fleshy, but firm in substance ; in shape much more con-
tracted than is usual with the Himalayan species : the limb very
large, spreading, of 5 nearly equal, rounded, entire lobes, slightly
crenato-undulate at the margin, delicately but obscurely veined.
The foliage and flowers are faintly odorous.

This species clearly belongs to the same natural group as R.
cinnabarinum ; from which, however, the very large white
flowers, the numerous stamens, and ten-celled fruit abundantly
distinguish it.

9. R. ciliatum. — Distribution and range : Sikkim — >
9000 to 10,000 feet — in rocky valleys of the interior.

This forms a small very rigid shrub, growing in clumps 2 feet
high, generally in moist rocky places. Odour faintly resinous
and pleasant. Corolla 1^ inch long, nearly as much across at
the mouth ; tube rather contracted below, limb 5-lobed, colour
pale reddish-purple; upper lobe obscurely spotted. Allied to R,
harbatum, but widely different in stature, habit, and the scattered
scales on the under surface of the leaves. I have not observed
it in other valleys than those flanked by snowy mountains, where
it is common, scenting the air in warm weather. The scales (as
in its congeners) are orbicular, sessile, attached at the centre,
formed of 3 concentric series of cells surrounding a central one,
in which a resinous fragrant oil is secreted.

10. R. virgatum. — Distribution and range : Hhotan and
Sikkim— 1000 to 9000 feet— in damp valleys of the
interior.

Under this I have included two species figured in the " Sikkim
Rhododendrons" which are perhaps only extreme varieties. Tlie
characters common to both are a slender twiggy habit, a height
of 3 to 6 feet, glaucous leaves, and a perfect identity in all
essential characters of inflorescence and fruit. The shape of leaf
is a variable one in all cases, as are the size and colour of flower,
upon which characters R. triflorum was founded. The latter is
by far the handsomer plant, and grows at lower elevations. The
following remarks apply to it : —

96 clijMate and vkgetation of

Var. triftorum forms a slirub 4 to 6 feet liigli, with erect
and rather twiggy branches. Leaves frequently pendulous, on
rather short, slender petioles (4 of an inch long), ovato-lanceo-
late, approaching to oblong or elliptical, 2 or 3 inches long, the
margin a little recurved, substance rather thin, upper surface
smootli and shining, under quite glabroiss and glaucous, but so
beset with ferruginous scales as to partake of that colour.
Peduncles generally 3 together, terminal, ^ to f of an inch long,
slender, erect. Corolla greenisii -yellow, in shape much resem-
bling that of the common garden Azaleas, having a somewhat
obconical tube very open at tiie mouth, and a limb of 5 spreading
oblong entire segments, which are slightly veiny, nearly 2 inches
across the lobes.

'R.virgatum itself has stems and branches 4 feet high, scarcely
the thickness of a crow-quill. The leaves are in form and size
like those of R. (jlaucum. Flowers solitary, rarely in pairs, and
axillary ; the pedicels 2 to 3 lines long, covered with sheathing,
deciduous, coriaceous, brown scales, wliich are longer than the
pedicel, very rigid in texture, downy on the back. Corolla a
pale red-purple, smaller tiian that of Var. triflorum^ but of the
same form ; the tube short, narrow, and obconical, tlie segments
narrow and spreading.

11. R. vaccinioides. — Distribution and range: Sihkim
■ — 6000 to 8000 feet — in very moist situations of the
outer and inner valleys.

The flowers of this species were unknown to me when I pub-
lished the second Fasciculus of the " Sikkim Rhododendrons,"
and I consequently placed the species in a wrong section of the
genus. An excellent drawing, prepared by my friend the late Mr.
Cathcart, represents the flower and fruit ; it will shortly be pub-
lished in Sir W. Hooker's Icones Plantarum. In the synoptical
account of the species given above I have associated it with R.
caynellicpjlorum, &c., with which it further agrees in its fre-
quently epiphytical habit. It is not now alive in this country,
and, being of no beauty, it may be long before it is so. In the
neighbourhood of Darjiling it is very abundant.

A small, very slender, straggling species, sometimes pendulous
from trunks of trees, and then 2 feet long, of a bright green
colour, and so like a common Sikkim species of Vaccinium (V.
ohovatimi, Wight, Icon., t. 1193) as not to be distinguishable at
first sight. Stems no thicker than a dove's quill, rough with
tubercles, indicating the former ])osition of scales, which still
clothe the branchlets, petioles, and more sparingly the under
surface of the foliage. Leaves coriaceous, ^ to an inch long,
obovate or even spathulate, the blade narrowed downwards to

EAST NEPAL AND THE SIKKIM HIMALAYA MOUNTAIXS. 97

the very point where it meets the stem ; upper surface a bright
green, lower paler. Flower-stalks as long as the leaves, slender.
Flowers nodding, white, nearly half an inch across, of the same
form as those of R. setosum and R. lepidotum, having a short,
swelling, almost spherical tube, and spreading or recurved round
lobes. Stamens projecting far beyond the tube. Seed-vessels
curved, unlike those of any other species, being slender and
membranous, pale-brown, an inch long, scarcely ^ in diameter,
valves linear, a little scaly on the back.

II. Species of the Middle or Alpine Zone, answering to the
Alpine region of Southern and the Subalpine of Middle and
Northern Europe, to the climates of the Scotch Fir, &c.
(10,000 to 14,000 feet).

12. R. Falconeri. — Distribution and range: East Nepal
and Sikkim — 9000 to 12,000 feet — in moist forests.

A tree 30 feet in height ; 2 or 3 trunks springing from the
same point, often 2 feet in diameter. Bark pale and smooth ;
branches few, spreading, leafy at the tops ; young leaves clothed
with velvety down, and when in bud concealed by downy gluti-
nous scales, of which the outer are subulate, the inner ovate.
The perfect leaves are very coriaceous, from 8 to 20 inches long,
and 5 to 12 inches wide, the upper side glossy green, but fading
into yellow at the margins, which are quite plane (not recurved)
beneath ; clothed with a short, dense, pale, ferruginous down,
except on the mid-rib and reticulated veins. Leaf- stalks long
and very thick, plane and glabrous above, clothed beneath mth
dark rusty down. Heads small, composed of numerous white,
densely placed flowers. This is a most striking and distinct
species, of which the foliage resembles the ferruginous-leaved
Magnolia grandiflora. The dense many-flowered head, the
multiplication of the lobes of the corolla, and of the stamens and
fruit-cells, and the exserted style, bring it very near R. grande
(Wight's Ic. PL, vol. iv., t. 1202), a Bhotan species found by
Mr. Griffith ; but the foliage is totally different.

The flowers and leaves of this species usually attain a much
larger size than those represented in the " Sikkim Rhododen-
drons."

13. R. Hodgsoni. — Distribution and range : East
Nepal, Bhotan, and Sikkim— 10,000 to 12,000 feet —
in humid forests.

A small tree, from 12 to 20 feet, branching from the base,

VOL. VII. H

98 CLIMATE AND VKGETATION OF

main branches as tliick as the human tliigh, spreading horizon-
tally 20 or 30 feet evei-y way, interwoven with the adjacent
plants and shrubs. Bark smooth, pale Hesh-coloured, flaking off
in broad membranous patches. Wood white, very close-grained,
soft yet tough, neither w^arping nor splitting, but, in consequence
of the great compression of the larger branches, rarely affording
a sample a foot square. Leaves terminal on the end branches,
ample, spreading, 12 to 18 inches in length, of a singularly thick
coriaceous texture, glabrous and bright glossy green above ;
beneath, all except the thickened costa, clothed with a pale
silvery white, rarely ferruginous, closely appressed wool, but
which is easily rubbed off by the finger, and is often itself eva-
nescent. Heads 4 to 6 inches in diameter, of several delicate,
pale purple or rose-coloured flowers. Flower-stalks short, viscid,
often downy. Corolla large, the tube IJ inch long, broadly
campanulate, the base depressed at the insertion upon the flower-
stalk, the margin of the depression lobed, limb spreading, 2 to
2^ inclies across, 8-lobed. This, and its associate the Abies
Wehbicma, I have always regarded as characteristic plants of
10,000 to 12,000 feet in all the interior parts of Sikkim.
7?. Hodgsoni, in this respect, ranks with R. arhareum and
M. Campbellice, being found in a loftier zone of Rhododendrons,
succeeded by the arctic one of R. anthopogon, R. setosum,
R. elcEcignoides, and finally, far above the ordinary limit of
pheenogamic vegetation, by R. nivale, which is found at an
elevation of 18,000 feet. Within the limits assigned to the
present species, the traveller's attention is continually arrested
by its magnificent and brilliant deep green foliage, as large as
that of R. Falconeri. In summer the leaves spread all around
the plant ; in winter they are rolled up, shrivelled, and pendulous
from the tips of the branches. It is found alike at the bottom of
the valleys, on the rocky spurs or slopes of the hills, in open
places, or in the gloomy pine-groves, often forming an impene-
trable thicket, not merely of twigs and foliage, but of thickset
limbs and stout trunks, only to be severed with difficulty, on
account of the toughness of the wood. As it is easily worked,
and Jiot apt to split, it is admirably adapted for use in the
parched and arid climate of Tibet ; and the Bhoteas make from
it cups, spoons, and ladles, and the saddle, by means of which
loads are slung upon the " yak." The leaves are employed as
platters, and serve for lining the baskets which contain the
mashed pulp of Ariscana root (a kind of Colocass) ; and the
customary present of butter or curd is always enclosed in this
glossy foliage.

EAST NEPAL AND THE blKKIJl HIMALAYA MOUNTAINS. 99

14. R. Thomsonl (and R. candelabrum). — Distribution
and range : East Nepal and Sikkim — 1 1,000 to 13,000
feet — in moist valleys.

A bush 6 to 10 feet high, or in damp woods 15 feet, but then
spare and woody. Lower branches stout, a foot in diameter ;
upper slender, leafy at the extremities. Leaves 2 to 3 inches long,
very broad, much resembling those of R. campijlocarptim, only
that in the latter the leaf-stalks are often glandular, here never ;
the texture of the leaves is coriaceous, but not very thick, the
colour pale green, below sub-glaucous, everywhere quite gla-
brous. Flowers in a head of 6 or 8 together from the ends of
short branches among the leaves, on stalks an inch or more long,
which radiate, as it were, from a centre, spreading horizontally,
or curving downwards. Corolla remarkable for its almost un-
rivalled deep blood-red colour and glossy surface, yielding only
to R. fulgens ; deeper coloured than that of R. arbor eum ;
the tube elongated, often vertically compressed, 2 inches long;
the limb large, spreading, 5-lobed, the lobes notched, upper ones
spotted. This species is perfectly inodorous. In the base of the
corolla is secreted much honey, which is not considered poisonous,
like that yielded by R. Dalhousice and R. argeniemn. The two
latter species are said to render deleterious the wild honey which
is collected during their flowering season. '

15. R. Wightii. — Distribution and range: East Nepal
and Sikkim — 12,000 to 14,000 feet — alpine valleys,
abundant.

A small shrubby tree, yielding, in beauty of inflorescence, to
none amongst tlie yellow-flowered group to which it belongs.
The trunks are often as thick as the thigh, and branch very much
both upwards and outwards, forming a thickset shrub of 10 feet
high. Leaves 6 to 8 (rarely 10) inches long, 2h to 3 broad,
very coriaceous, more plane tlian is usual in the genus, bright
green above, beneath covered with a very closely appressed
opaque wool of a deep rufous colour, rarely pale and nearly
white in the young foliage. Heads much larger than those of
R. arboreum, 12 to 2U-flowered, the flowers not densely packed.
Bracteal scales chesnut-brown, very coriaceous and viscid.
Flowers have a faint honeyed smell ; foliage inodorous. This
exceedingly handsome and abundant species replaces the R.
Hodgsoni in ascending the moiuitains, and is the most prevalent
species at 12,000 and 13,000 feet, conspicuous at all seasons for
its large foliage, of a rusty cinnamon-colour beneath, and for its
viscid buds.

100 CLIMATE AND VEGETATION OF

16. Iv. campanidahnn. — Di.stribution and range: Ke-
maon, Nepal, Si/ikim, and Bhotcm — 10,000 to 14,000
feet — where it is abundant in all parts of Sikkini.

This well-known species is commonly cultivated in our gar-
dens, and requires no particular description. It is wholly inodo-
rous, and the flowers are very variable in colour, being of a
deeper or paler lilac, often spotted inside the corolla. The variety
I liave called Wallicliii is nearly destitute of wool on the under-
surface of the leaf, and 11. (erugiuosum, another variety, diflers
only in the purple capsules and curious verdigris-green colour of
the young foliage. This and the following are the great orna-
ments of regions above 12,000 feet, where they often cover
the flanks of the valleys with their rich green foliage and gaudy
blossoms.

17. H. fitlgc?h<!. — Distribution and range: Sihkim —
12,000 to 14,000 feet— in the valleys of the interior.

This superb species vies with R. Thomsoni in the colour of its
dense capitula of flowers. The foliage entirely resembles tiiat of
E. Ulacinum, the flowers those of R. arbor eum.

18. 'R, lanatum. — Distribution and range: East Nepal
and Sikkim—lOfiOO to 12,000 feet.

A large shnib or small tree, with the trunk 6 inches in dia-
meter at the thickest part, irregularly and repeatedly branching ;
branches much gnarled and bare of leaves, covered with a dark-
coloured rugged bark, very different from the prevailing beauti-
ful papery clothing of the geiuis ; where it breaks off from the
younger branches, however, it exposes a delicate pink inner bark,
whilst the branchlets are densely clothed with a soft, appressed
cottony wool. The latter, generally of a white or tawny colour,
is uniformly spread over the leaf-stalks, flower-stalks, ovary, and
the under surface of the leaves, also extending to the upper sur-
face, along the midrib, and to the very base in a less degree.
The leaves are confined to the ends of the branches, 3? to 5
inches long, by about 2 inches broad, obovate or elliptical, ob-
tuse, the colour a full yellow^ish green. Leaf-stalks short, thick,
very woolly. Heads terminal, of 6 to 10 rather large, inclined
flowers. Flower-stalks H inch long, thickened. Corolla ochro-
leucous or pale sulphur-colour: the tube broad-campanulate (like
that of R. Wightii) ; within, above, and 3 of the upper lobes in
part sprinkled with red dots ; limb 2 to 2+ inches across, of 5
nearly equal, very spreading, rounded, entire, obtuse lobes. In
the dense wool on the under side of the leaves, this species may
be compared with R. fulgens and R. ceruginosum among the

EAST NEPAL AND THE SIKKIM HIMALAYA MOUNTAINS. IQl

large shrubby kinds, and with R. Edgeioortliii and R. j^emhihnn
among- others.

19. R. campylocarpum. — Distribution and range: East
Nepal and Sikkim — 11,000 to 14,000 feet — common
in alpine valleys.

A small bush, averaging 6 feet in height, rounded in form, of
a bright green hue, and which, when covered witli its delicate
inflorescence, claims precedence over its more gaudy congeners,
and has always been regarded by me as tlie most elegant of the
Sikkim Rhododendrons. The flowers have a pleasant honeyed
scent, and a resinous, sweet odour is exhaled from the stalked
glands of the leaf and flower stalks, calyx, and capsules. Leaves
on slender stalks, f of an inch long, coriaceous but not thick in
texture, 2 to 3^^ inches long, 1-| to 2 inches broad ; in all charac-
ters, except the evanescent glandular hairs and spherical buds,
undistinguishable from those of R. Tliomsoni. Flowers horizontal
and nodtling. Corolla campanulate, delicate in texture, tinged
of a sulphur hue and always spotless, nearly 2 inches long, broader
across the lobes, which are finely veined. The stalks of the
capsules radiate horizontally from the ends of the branchlets, and
the capsules them.^elves curve upwards in a semicircular arc ;
they are about an inch long, always loosely covered with stalked
glands.

20. R. cinnaharinum. — Distribution and range : East
Nepal, Sikkim, and Bhotan — 10,000 to 12,000 feet—
in valleys and on the tops of mountains in very damp
regions.

Under this species I include R. Roylei of the ' Sikkim Rhodo-
dendrons.' Neither of the figures give a good idea of the plant,
which forms a rather elegant bush, about 8 feet high, conspicuous
ill May and June from its elegant blossoms, which form very
loose and graceful heads of long pendulous flowers. The figures
of R. cinnuhariimm and R. Roylei are from stunted specimens
growing in very exposed situations ; the leaves are not usually
reticulated except under these circumstances, and are rather
membranous, of a glaucous green below and rather bluish above.
Flowers, 4 to 6 in a head, It inch long, witli a narrow, funnel-
shaped tube, and sliglitly spreading broad lobes, which are some-
times rather sharp at the point. It is universally considered ])()i-
sonous to cattle and goats : of the latter I have seen many die
from eating either of this or of a species of Andromeda, which
latter is notorious for this property tlu'oughout Sikkim, Nepal,
and N.W. Himalaya. If employed as fuel, the smoke causes the
eyes to inflame and the cheeLs to swell.

VOL, VII. I

102 CLIMATE AND VEGETATION OF

21. ^, glaucum. — Distribution and range: Sikkim and
Bhotan, in moist rocky places. 10,000 to 12,000 feet.

This constitutes a small shrub of the average height of 2 feet.
Branches scarcely so thick as a goosequill, yellowish-brown,
often glaucous-white, the younger ones scaly. Leaves rather
crowded at the extremities of the brandies, 1 to 3 inches long,
usually 1 to I2 inch broad, on short stalks, upper side deep
green, when old naked above, below remarkably glaucous, almost
Avhite, and quite dotted with copious little scales, which in the
yonng state cover the whole leaf, and at all times abound on
the bracteas, bud, flower-stalks, and especially on the sepals.
Flower-stalks 7 to 8, almost in an umbel at the ends of the
branches, erect, an inch or more long, rather slender. Flowers
erect or inclined, pale pinkish-purple. Corolla ratlier more than
an inch long, and about as broad in tlie widest part, tube cam-
jianulate, limb moderately spreading, of 5 nearly equal rounded
notched lobes. The remarkable glaucous colour of the under-
side of the leaves, and the great development of the calyx, readily
distinguish this species. In foliage it closely resembles 11. vir-
gatum, but the inflorescence and calyx areAvidely dififerent. Tlie
Avliole plant has a powerful resinous smell, due to exceedingly
small globules of a pale yellow colour which exude from beneath
the little scales on the underside of the leaves. These scales are
very curious ; the majority are smaller, pale-coloured, exliibiting
several concentric circles of small, nearly uniform cells ; the
larger are bristly at the margin, and consist of a centre or disc of
small cells surrounded by a limb or margin of I'adiating elongated
ones.

22. R. pumilum. — Distribution and range : Sihkim. —
Alpine slopes. 12,000 to 14,000 feet.

The smallest of all the Sikkim Rhododendrons. Its slender
woody stem roots among moss, Andromeda fastigiala, &c.,
ascends obliquely, and bears a few spreading branches, 3 to 4
inches in length, rising above the surrounding vegetation. Leaves,
chiefly from the upper ends of the branches, ^ to | of an inch
long, bright bluish-green above, below scaly, as is the short stalk,
aud glaucous. Flower-stalks moderately slender, erect, I to 3
on the ends of the branches, and rising 1 J inch above the base of
the superior leaves, firm and woody, much elongated, and
straight to the very top when in fruit. Flowers inclined or almost
drooping. Corolla ^ to f of an inch long, rose-colour, campa-
nulate, very delicate, externally downy, and obscurely glandular ;
the tube rather broad, the limb of 5 nearly equal, moderately
spreading, roundish entire lobes. An extremely elegant species,

EAST NEPAL AND THE SIKKIM HIMALAYA MOUNTAINS. 103

and apparently very rare ; for I have only gathered it twice, and
each time in the wildest districts of Sikkim, where its ele^-ant
flowers appear soon after the snow has melted, when its pretty
pink bells are seen peeping- above the surrounding short heath-
like vegetation, reminding the botanist of those of Linncea
horealis. It has a faint and agreeable odour like that of K. glau-
cum, to which it has many points of resemblance.

23. R. cameUicEjiorum. — Distribution and range : East
Nepal, Sikkim, and Bhotan. — In moist fir MOods. —
9000 to 12,000 feet.

This very curious species is more allied, in some respects, to
the section including R. lejndotum than to any of the others ;
in foliage it resembles R. 3Iaddeni^ though much smaller ;
and also R. cinnaharinum, from which tlie dried flowerless speci-
mens are not easily distinguishable. The same very stout midrib,
which runs through and forms the point of the leaf, is common
to all these. Stems 2 to 6 feet long, seldom thicker than a goose-
quill ; branches long, generally pendulous, though when growing
on cliffs often obscurely so. Leaves, as usual in the genus, at
the ends of the branches, differing in little but size from those of
R. Madde?ii, 2^ to 3 inches long. Flower-stalks axillary or
terminal, very short and stout. Corolla sparingly scaly, 1^ inch
across, of a very thick texture, pure white with a faint rosy
tinge, all the segments obtuse and entire. The similarity between
the flower and that of a single (wild) Camellia has suggested
the trivial name. Odour, as in all the scaly species, more or
less strongly resinous according to the heat of the day.

24. R. pendulum. — Distribution and range : Sikkim. —
9000 to 11,000 feet.— In humid forests.

Stems 3 to 4 feet long, sparingly branched, branches scarcely
stouter than a crow's quill. Leaves chiefly confined to the cuds
of the branchlets, on short stalks, spreading, smooth and siiining
above, the margins a little recurved, 1^ to 2 inches long and
about I of an inch broad, below densely clothed with ferruginous
wool. Flower-stalks 2 to 3 from the ends of the young leafj-^
branches, very short, but longer than the leaf-stalks, ferru-
ginously shaggy, bearing 1 or 2 linear bracteas. Flowers small.
Corolla pure white, about an inch in diameter, externally scaly,
tube very short, gradually expanding into the nearly equally
5-lobed limb : lobes rounded, waved at the margin, entire.
This species is inodorous, very distinct, although allied to R.
camellicE/loruni, the scaly character of that species here giving
place to a dense fulvous or ferruginous wool. Growing, as it

I 2

104 CLIMATE AND VEGETATION OF

does, an epiphyte, upon ihe trunks of trees in tlie gloomy and
impenetrable forests, it is ditficalt to find.

III. Species of the Upper or Arctic Zone, from 14,000 to 18,000
feet, answering to the Arctic latitudes beyond the wooded
regions, the islands of the Polar Seas, Iceland, Spitzbergen, &c,

25. R. lepidotian. — Distribution and range : Rochij moun-
tains and vcdleys in Nepal, Sikhim, and Bliotan. — 8000
to 16,000 feet. R. lepidotum elceagnoides, obovatum,
and salignum, of the ' Sikkim Riiododendrons.'

This curious and very variable species abounds at 14,000 to
15,000 feet, but also extends as low as 8000 feet in moist val-
leys. It forms a slender or stout twiggy shrub, 1 to 4 feet high,
branching from a stout tortuous stock ; the branches as thick as a
crow-quill, rather scattered, bearing tufts of branchlets at the
top. It often grows in widely-extended clumps, much as heather
does, but never so extensively ; and emits, in sunshine, a power-
ful resinous odour. Leaves of a pale glaucous green, lighter
underneath, and sometimes ferruginous where the scales abound ;
^ to 1^ inch long. Flower-stalks more or less elongated, 1^ to
2 inches long, slender. Corolla yellow or dirty purple, h an inch
across the lobes ; scalj'', especially on the outside of the tube ;
tlie upper lobes are spotted with green.' — The odour of this plant
is strongly resinous, and rather sweetish and pleasant. Its com-
mon name is " Tsaluma," or " Tsuma," amongst the Bhoteas.
The description in De Candolle (Prodr., vol. vii., p. 724), if, as
I do not doubt, it refers to this plant, is very erroneous. The
leaves camiot be called " ferruginous below," in the same sense
as applied to R. anthopogon, &c., nor are there any bristles or
hairs at the bases of the leaves ; nor have I observed more than 8
stamens, the typical number in this very distinct group.

26. R. anthopogon. — Distribution and range : Keniaon,
Nepal, and /SiA/^m— 12,000 to 16,000 feet— abundant,
especially in the drier climates.

This interesting species has been figured from plants intro-
duced by Dr. Wallich, which flowered in England. It is a
strongly and far more disagreeably scented plant than R. se-
tosiuyi. This, the Palu of the Bhoteas, shares with the Tsallu
(R. setosum) the blame of exciting the dreaded headache and
nausea attending ascents to the elevations of the Eastern Hima-
laya. In the Herbarium its permanent odour is more disagree-
able than that of any of the genus. Its flow^ers are extremely
beautiful, botli from the membranaceous, translucent texture of

EAST NEPAL AND THE SIKKIM HIMALAYA MODNTALNS. 105

the delicately nerved corolla, and from the varied tints of the
blossoms, which on first opening are of a rich blush-colour, in-
sensibly passing- into pure white, and finally becoming faintly
tinged with sulphur.

27. R. setosum. — Distribution and range: Kemaon,
Nepal, and Sikkim — \Z,000 to 16,000 feet— most
abundant in the drier valleys of the interior.

Stems from 8 to 12 inches high, much branched, branches
covered with a papery bark. Leaves small, copious towards the
ends of the branches, 4- to 2^ an inch long, coriaceous, dark green
above, pale and glaucous beneath, hairy on the recurved margin.
Flower-stalks ^ to 1 inch long, 3 to o from the ends of the nume-
rous branches, erect. Corolla bright red rose-colour, li inch
across, o-partite, the tube very sliort ; the lobes spreading, ob-
long, waved at the margin. — A small and elegant shrub, resem-
bling Rhodora, especially in the flowers, except that these are
more abundant and brighter coloured ; and the foliage is box-
like and evergreen. It is the Tsallu of the Sikkim Bhoteas and
Tibetans, who attribute the oppression and headaches attending
the crossing of the loftiest passes of Eastern Himalaya to the
strongly resinous odour of this and of R. anthopogon, Wall.
{Palu of the natives). The species certainly abounds near the
summits of all the passes, and after hot sunshine fills the atmos-
phere with its powerful aroma, far too heavy to be agreeable,
and greatly aggravating the discomforts of toiling in the rarefied
medium of these elevations. In its late flowering (June and
July) and early fruiting (October) it is well adapted to the brief
and distinctly circumscribed summer of these regions ; whilst
its powerful odour and copious resinous secretions equally indi-
cate a drier climate than is enjoyed by most of its congeners.
The hand, on being passed over the foliage and branches, becomes
covered with the clammy exudation, of which it long retains the
scent. A useful volatile oil, of no less marked a character than
that of the American Gaidtheria (now in great demand by the
perfumers), might probably be obtained from the foliage by dis-
tillation.

28. R. nivale. — Distribution and range : Sikkim Hima-
laya— in the dry valleys of the interior — at elevations
of 16,000 to 18,000 feet.

The hard woody branches of this curious little species, as thick
as a goosequill, straggle along the ground for a foot or two, pre-
senting brown tufts of vegetation where few otlier plants can
exist. The branches are densely interwoven, and wliolly de-
presseil, being raised barely 2 inches above the soil. The surface

106 CLIMATE AND VEGETATION OF

of the branchlets and foliage is covered by small scales of
a rather bright ferruginous-brown. Leaves ^ to ^ of an inch
long, pale green. Corolla -^ of an inch across the lobes, of a
purple colour. The whole plant is very odoriferous. It appears
indifferent to the changes of climate, remaining buried under
many feet of snow for eight months of the year ; whilst at other
periods the soil around it is heated to 150°. In the most genial
weather snow-storms are of frequent occurrence ; they do not,
however, injure its blossoms, which remain open until fertilization
has taken place. This species attains, I believe, a loftier ele-
vation than any other shrub in the world. Its nearest allies are
R. setosum and R. Lapponicum, from which latter it differs in its
smaller stature and solitary sessile flowers.

It is now my purpose to enter into some details respecting the
temperature and climate of the three zones of the Sikkim Hima-
laya, to which the Rhododendrons are chiefly confined. The
information on this head is not so satisfactory as is desirable,
owing to the want of a series of observations having been con-
tinued throughout the year anywhere, except at Darjiling itself,
and there for but a few hours daily through one year. The
mean annual temperature of that locality at 7000 feet may be
considered as very nearly 53°, probably rather below than above
it, this result being deduced from the daily maxima and minima,
which, I think, gives too high a result, from local causes which
I shall hereafter explain. The monthly means, on the other
hand, vary much year by year, and with small differences of
position, owing chiefly to the variable amount and unequal dis-
tribution of the rain-fall and cloud, and the great power of the
sun's rays when unobstructed. The wonderful equality of tem-
perature throughout the 24 hours from May till October is only
disturbed by the sun's rays, which raise the thermometer 20° in
a very few minutes, and sometimes for an equally short period
of the whole day. During the height of the rains the mean
temperature varies but a few tenths of a degree (June 6r2°,
July 61*4°, August 61 '7°), and there is no radiation by night of
any consequence. Whilst, therefore, a short sunshine raises the
thermometer for a few minutes 10° above the mean of the
24 hours, the minimum thermometer never falls more than 3°
to 4° below the same mean, whence it follows that the mean of
the whole day cannot be indicated by that of the maximum and
minimum, as shown by a self-registering thermometer. Again,
the maximum of heat occui's during the rains very generally
before noon, often before 10 a.m., the forenoon being the least

EAST NEPAL AND THE SIKKIM HIMALAYA MOUNTAINS. 107

cloudy part of the day, and the fogs that obstruct the sun's rays
afterwards being both denser and of much greater perpendicular
height than is supposed usual with this phenomenon. Cloudless
afternoons are very rare in any month, and quite unknown during
the warm ones, so that the mean yearly temperatures of 10 a.m.
and 4 p.m. coincide within half a degree (10 a.m. o6"2°, 4 p.m.
56*7°), differing as much as 2° in the month of February only.
In the cold weather, again, the maximum occurs in the afternoon.
The mean temperature of the year coincides nearly with the
8 A.M. temperature, as far as I can ascertain.

My own observations were taken hourly at Darjiling, for, on
the average, 18 hours of the day, during the rainy season of
1848, with many breaks however. From the end of October,
1848, to the latter part of January, 1849, I was travelling in
East Nepal and in Sikkira between the elevations of 4000 and
17,000 feet. January, February, and April of 1849 I speiit
near Darjiling ; March on the plains at the foot of the hills.
From the beginning of May till Christmas, 1849, was wliolly
spent in travelling at all elevations above 4000 feet, but cliiefly
in regions above 6000 feet, and for several months between
12,000 and 14,000 feet ; during September at 15,400 feet, and
in October I spent a few days at 16,700 to 17,000 feet. The
spring of 1850 (January to May) was passed in and about Dar-
jiling. During all these excursions I made the study of climate
second alone to botany. I recorded observations at certain
hours, which were those adopted at the Calcutta Observatory (5^
due south of Sikkira), and at many of which Jiours my friend,
J. Muller, Esq., made comparative observations of pressure, tem-
perature, and wet-bulb at Darjiling, My first proceeding, after
halting or camping, was to hang the instruments in a very acces-
sible place screened from radiation ; and I endeavoured to observe
hourly, when at liberty to do so ; isolated observations in such
circumstances being generally useless. I have taken the results
of the comparison of a multitude of such observations, with
coincident ones at Calcutta and Darjiling, as the basis of my
calculations for the temperature, &c., of tiie zones above 7000
feet, checking them by various methods that suggested them-
selves. The computations in many cases are excessively com-
plicated and laborious, but during my stay in Sikkim I was
materially assisted in this, as well as in the preliminary calculation
of several hundred altitudes by barometer, by Mr. Muller, the
experienced accountant of the Calcutta Mint, to whose friendship
I am very largely indebted, and but for whose generous aid and
encouragement I should perhaps never have undertaken the
distracting task of working out general results from the materials
I accumulated. These broken series of comparative observations

108 CLIMATE AND VEGETATION Of

have, if sufficiently numerous, a value wlien properly reduced,
and are indispensable to the liorticulturist ; they give, witluH
certain limits, the difference of temperature due to the difference
of altitude for the month in which they are taken ; and if a few
days of several months, or a considerable portion of either equi-
noctial month (March or October), are spent at one place, the re-
sults give useful approximations to the mean annual temperature.
Tlie results thus obtained have been checked by ground tem-
peratures, taken by burying a brass tube 2 feet 6 inches to 3 feet
in exposed soil, sinking in it, by a string or tied to a slip of wood,
a thermometer whose bulb is well padded with wool. This,
after a few hours, indicates the temperature of the soil, which
has a definite relation to the mean temperature of the month, and
further, has an obvious practical application to the growth of plants.
Such a tube and thermometer I usually caused to be sunk
wherever I halted, if even for one night, except during the
height of the rains, which are so heavy that they communicate
to the earth a temperature sometimes above that of the air. I
cannot too confidently recommend this simple plan to travellers,
for the double purpose of getting an approximation to the mean
monthly temperature by a few observations, and of finding tlsat
of the soil. One such observation is worth a hundred of such
as are paraded in the works of travellers, as taken with a ther-
mometer hung inside a tent, or to a tree, &c., the majority of which
are not worth recording. With regard to other observations,
the wet bulb and barometer were invariably registered with the
temperature, and the minimum spirit thermometer set every night.
Of maximum thermometers I tried many, but never kept one
long in working order. A radiating thermometer in a parabolic
reflector, and others placed on cotton and grass, were frequently-
exposed, and I found no material difference between that laid
on cotton and tiiat in the reflector. The black-bulb thermometer
was often observed, and a large series of actinometer obser-
vations taken ; these have not been computed, nor the dew-points
from the wet-bulb temperatures, the correction (p-f) always
required at considerable elevations being laborious. I have,
however, computed as many as to convince me that the cultivator
may assume the mean state of humidity given for Darjiling,
which I have computed (on monthly means of 1835 observa-
tions), as applicable to both the upper zones — the difference of
humidity between 7000 and 14,000 feet being that the excessive
rain-fall of the lower station, and great capacity for moisture
of the lower warmer strata, do not extend proportionally to the
upper, whose cooler atmosphere, however, holds less vapour in
suspension. In all tluee zones the atmosphere is generally well
loaded with humidity.

EAST NEPAL AND THE SIKKIM HIMALAYA MOUNTAINS. 109

Distribution of Temperature in the Three Zones. — A remark-
able uniformity prevails throughout the year at the lower zone,
there being, at 7000 feet, but 22° difference between the mean
temperatures of the hottest and coldest months ; whilst in Lon-
don, with a lower mean temperature, the equivalent difference is
27°. In the second (middle zone) at 11,000 feet this difference
is equal to that of London, In the upper it is still greater, the
climate becoming excessive at 15,000 feet, where the difference
amounts to 30° at least.

Between 6000 and 10,000 feet, i. e. throughout the first zone,
I find the mean annual temperature decreasing with the elevation
at the rate of 1° to every 320 feet.

Between 10,000 and 14,000 feet at 1° to every 350 feet.

And between 14,000 and 18,000 feet at 1° to every 400 feet.

This srives —

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S

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aj

s

S

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a

Altitude.

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a

cd £^

a a

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C J

CO O

4) O

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ss

ss

S« P.

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11,000 feet .

40-9

50-0

24-0

20-0

40'0

1° = 320 feet.

15,000 feet .

29-8

40-0

11-0

27-0

20'0

1°= 350 feet.

19,000 feet .

19-8

32-0

0-0

35'0

10-0

1°= 400 feet.

15,000 feet being the limit of perpetual snow where that phe-
nomenon advances farther south in Sikkim, and 19,000 feet
the limit of perpetual snow in Tibet. Supposing the same law
to apply (wliich I exceedingly doubt) to heights above 19,000
feet, 2° would be the mean annual temperature of the summit
of Kinchinjunga, altitude 28,178 feet, the loftiest known spot
on the globe.

The upper limit of plienogamic vegetation coincides with a
mean temperature of 30° on the south flank of Kinchinjunga,
and of 22° in Tibet ; in both cases animals and perennial-rooted
herbaceous plants are to be found at elevations corresponding
to these mean temperatures, and even at higher elevations in shel-
tered localities, I have assumed the decrease of temperature
for a corresponding amount of elevation to be gradually less in
ascending (1° =320 feet at 6000 to 10,000 feet, and 1° = 400
feet at 14,000 lo 18,000 feet). My observations appear to prove
this, but I do not regard them as conclusive ; supposing them to

110 CLIMATE AND VEGETATION OF

be SO, I attribute it to a combination of various causes, especially
to the increased elevation and yet unsnowed condition of the mass
of land elev-ated above 16,000 feet, as is shown in the woodcut
(p. 85) ; also to the greater amount of sunshine there, and to
the lesser density and height of the fogs wiiich obstruct the
sun's rays at all elevations. In corroboration of this I may
mention that the difference of temperature is much less in sum-
mer than in winter, 1° of Fahr. being equivalent to only 2oO
feet in January between 7000 and 13,000 feet, and to upwards
of 400 feet in July. Again, at Darjiling (7500 feet) tlie tem-
perature hardly ever rises above 70° in the summer months, yet
it often rises even higher in Tibet at 12,000 to 14,000 feet.
On the other hand, the winters, and winter nights especially,
are disproportionately cold, the thermometer falling upwards
of 40° below the Darjiling temperature at 6000 feet above that
elevation.

The diurnal distribution of temperature is equally and simi-
larly affected by the presence of vapour in the tliree different
zones. The lower zone is first clouded, because the lower ranges,
of 6000 to 10,000 feet, first receive the diurnal charge of vapour-
loaded southerly winds ; the middle gets more of the sun's rays,
and the upper more still. Though the summer days of the upper
zone are warmer than their elevation would indicate, tlie niglits
are not proportionally colder ; for the light mist of 14,000
feet, which replaces the dense fog of 7000 feet, effectually ob-
structs nocturnal radiation, though it is less an obstacle to solar
radiation. Clear nights, be it observed, are as rare at 14,000
as at 7000 feet, the nights being rainy, if windy ; or, if calm,
cold currents descend from the mountains, condensing the
moist vapours of the valleys, whose narrow floors are at sun-
rise bathed in mist at all elevations in Sikkim. The rise and
dispersion of these dense masses, and their collection and recun-
densation on the mountains in the morning, is one of the most
magnificent phenomena of the Himalaya, when viewed from a
proper elevation ; it commences as soon as the sun appears on
the horizon.

The mean daily range of the thermometer at 7000 feet is 13°
in cleared spots, but considerably less in wooded, and certainly
one-third less in the forest itself. At 11,000 feet it amounts to
about 20°, and at 15,000 feet to 27° (London 17-5°). These
values vary widely in the different months, being much less in
the summer or rainy months.

At 7,000 feet it amounts to 8°-9° in Aug. and Sept., and 17° in Dec.
11,000 ,, 12° ,, ,, 30

15,000 ,, 15 ,, ,, 40 ,,

London ,, 20 ,, ,, 10

EAST NEPAL AND THE SIKKIM HIMALAYA MOUNTAINS. HI

Temperature of the earth. — This, at 2^ to 3 feet depth, varies
%vith the temperature of the month, but is hardly affected by
the diurnal variation, except in extreme cases. In summer,
throughout the rains, May to October, the temperature is that
of the month, which is imparted by the rain to the depth of
11 feet during severe continued falls (of 6 to 12 inches a day),
on which occasions I have seen the buried thermometer indicat-
ing a temperature above the mean of the month. Again, in
the winter montlis, December and January, it stands 5° above
the monthly mean ; in November and February 4° to 5° ; in
March it is a little below the mean temperature of the month,
and in October above it ; April and May being sunny, it stands
above their mean temperature ; June to September a little be-
low the mean temperature of each respectively.

In the middle and upper zones the sunk thermometer always
stands considerably above the mean of the month, the sun's rays
being more powerful and frequently felt, the rain less ; and the
earth, being cooled less by nocturnal radiation than it is warmed
by solar, accumulates heat to a certain depth. Thus in January,
at 13,000 feet, I have found it 17° above the mean temperature,
though the soil was frozen hard for 16 inches; and in July, at
the same elevation, 7'5° above the mean temperature. In August
I have seen it + 8° at 12,000 feet, in September + 74° at
15,400 feet, and in October + 12° at 16,800 feet; in July
-|-7'6° at 12,800 feet, and in October -f 10*5° at the same spot ;
in December + 9^ at 13,500 feet with several inches of frozen
soil. It is probable that the intense winter cold of the upper
zone does not materially affect the soil at 3 feet deptli, for there
is always a sufficiently deep covering of snow^ after the second
week of January to protect the soil from excessive cold.

Solar radiation. — From a multitude of desultory observations
with the black bulb thermometer, I conclude that at 7000 feet,
67° above the temperature of the air is the average maximum
effect of the sun's rays on a black bulb thermometer* through-
out the year, amounting rarely to + 70° and + 80° in the
summer months, and more frequently in the winter. These re-
sults, though greatly above what are obtained at Calcutta, are
not much, if at all, above what prevail at the foot of the hills
and up the Gangetic valley. This effect is greatly increased
with the elevation. At 10,000 feet, in December, at 9 a.m.,
I saw it mount to 132° with a diff. of -1-94°, whilst the tempera-
ture of sliaded snow hard by was 22°; at 13,100 feet, in

* From the mean of very many observations I find that 10° is the

iiveriige (UfFerence between two otherwise equal and similar white and
black bulb thermometers at the level of the sea.

112 CLIMATE AND VEGETATION OF

January, at 9 a.m., it has stood at 98°, difF. + 68-2°, and at
10 A.M. at 114°, difF. + 81-4°, wliilst the radiating thermo-
meter on the snow had fallen at sunrise to 0'7°. In December,
at 13,500 feet, I have seen it 110°, difF. + 84° ; at 11 a.m., 11,500
feet, 122°, difi; + 75°. In November, 9 a.m., at 13,500 feet,
112°, difF. 4- 82°. This is but a small selection from many, of
the extraordinary power of solar radiation in the coldest months
at great elevations. It is accompanied by a great increase of solar
light, as I found by means of the black glass photometer.

Two phenomena particulax'ly obstruct the solar light and heat
— the clouds and fog from the end of May till October, and the
haze from February to May. On the former I have dwelt suffi-
ciently at length. Two months alone are usually clear, one
before and one after the rains, when the air, thougli still humid,
is transparent. The haze has never been fully explained,
though a well-known phenomenon. On the plains of India, at
the foot of the iiills, it begins generally in the forenoon of the
cold season, with the rise of the west wind, and, in February
especially, obscures the sun's disc by noon ; frequently it lasts
throughout the 24 hours, and is usually accompanied by great
dryness of the atmosphere. It gradually diminislies in ascend-
ing ; it cannot be said to prevail at 7000 feet, and I have never
experienced it at 10,000. At 7000, however, it very often, in
April, obscures the snowy ranges 30 miles off, which are bright
and defined at sunrise, and either pale away or become of a lurid
yellow-red, according to the density of this haze, as they disappear
at 10 A.M. I believe it always accompanies a S.W. wind and
dry atmosphere in Sikkim.

Nocturnal radiation. — This is even a more difficult pheno-
menon for the traveller to estimate than solar radiation, the
dano-er of exposing instruments at night being always great in
wild countries. I have used the parabolic reflector and white
cotton most frequently, and find no material difference in the
means of many observations of each, though often 1° to 2° in
individual ones. Avoiding radiation from surrounding objects
is very difficult, especially in wooded countries. I have also
tried the radiating power of grass and the earth ; the latter
generally is lower, the former higher than the thermometer ex-
posed on cotton or in the reflector, but much depends on the
surface of the herbage and soil. Snow radiates the most power-
fully of any substance I have tried ; in one instance, at 13,000
feet, in January, the thermometer on snow fell to 0*2°, which
was 10"8° below the temperature at the time, grass showing 67°,
and on another occasion to 1*2°, when the air at the time (before
sunrise) was 21*2°, and the difference 20°. I Jiave frequently
made this observation, and always with a similar result ; it may

EAST NEPAL AND THE SIKKIM HIMALAYA MOUNTAINS. 113

'account for^tlie great injury plants sustain from a thin covering
of ice on their foliage, even when tlie temperature is but little
below the freezing point.

The power of terrestrial radiation increases with the elevation,
as does solar radiation, but not in an equal proportion. At
7000 feet there is little radiation during the rains ; the nights
are almost invariably cloudy — 3° to 4° is the mean maximum,
but it is not on one night out of six that there is any radiation.
From October to December the amount is greater = 10° to
12°, and from January till May greater still, reaching 15°.
During the winter months the effect of radiation is often felt
throughout the clear days, dew forming abundantly at 4000 to
8000 feet in the shaded bottoms of narrow valleys, into which
the sun does not penetrate till 10 a.m., and from which it dis-
appears at 3 P.M. I have seen the thermometer in the reflector
fall 12° at 10 A.M. in a shaded valley. This often produces an
anomalous effect, causing the temperature in the shade to fall
aftei" sunrise ; for the mists which condense in the bottoms of
the valleys after midnight disperse after sunrise, but long before
tlie sun reaches the valleys, and powerful radiation ensues, lower-
ing the surrounding temperature. A fall of 1° to 2° after sun-
rise of air in the sliade is hence common in valleys in November
and December. The excessive radiation of the winter months
often gives rise to a curious phenomenon ; it causes the forma-
tion of copious dew on the blanket of the traveller's bed, which
radiates to the tent roof, and this inside an open or closed tent.
I have experienced this at various elevations, from 6000 to
16,000 feet. Whether the mininum temperature was as high
as 50° or but little above zero, the effect is the same, except
that hoar frost or ice forms in the latter case. Another remark-
able effect of nocturnal radiation is the curl of the alpine
Rhododendron leaves in November, which is probably due to
the freezing and consequent expansion of the water in the upper
strata of cells exposed to the sky. The first curl is generally
repaired by the ensuing day's sun, but after two or three nights
the leaves become permanently curled, and remain so till they
fall in the following spring.

Many alpine plants resist a great degree of radiation ; the
Cyananthus, especially, I have observed to be uninjured by a
minimum temperature of 31'0° lowered 12'0° by radiation, in
the month of September, at 15,500 feet; and yet this is one of
the most delicate as well as beautiful of Himalayan blossoms.
As a general rule, however, the commencement of the Septem-
ber and October radiation is the signal for the extinction of the
alpine herbaceous vegetation.

I have elsewhere said that the nocturnal radiation of the

114 CLIMATE AND VEGETATION OF

English spring months is the great obstacle to the cultivation of
many Himalayan plants ; it is not hence to be inferred that
there is no similar amount of radiation in the Himalaya, for, on
the contrary, in April its amount is much greater than in
England, equalling 13° of difference frequently, and I have seen
16° at 7500 feet; but the minimum temperature at the time is
51°, and the absolute amount of cold hence immaterial. The
mean minimimi of London is 38"0°, and when lowered 5*5° by
radiation the consequent cold is very considerable. Mr. Daniell,
in his admirable essay on the climate of London (the perusal of
which first gave me an interest in these pursuits), mentions +17°
as the maximum effect of nocturnal radiation ever observed by
him ; I have had +20° from the surface of snow, and I have
registered + 13-0°, + 14-0°, + 15-5°, and + 16-0° in April at
Darjiling ; nearly as much at 6000 feet in February ; once
+ 12-0°, twice +13-0°, and once + 14*2° in September at 15,500
feet; +10° in October at 16,800 feet ; + 1 10°, + 1 2-0°, and
nearly +13-0° in January at 7000 feet; +10° to + 14-5°
repeatedly in February at that elevation, and + 12° to + 14"7°
at 10,000 feet in November on several occasions.

To conclude, though nocturnal radiation does occur frequently,
and lias on the whole a much more ])owerful effect in Sikkini
than in England, I doubt if the mean effect of all the months in
Sikkim would equal that of London, from so many more nights
being cloudy, which cloudy atmosphere and the comparatively
high temperature of the nocturnal radiating months are what a
Himalayan vegetation wants in England.

Winds. — Of the Himalayan winds there is little to be said
affecting the horticulturist. The southerly moist, warm current
is perennial, except during the spring months, when occa-
sional S.AV. squalls or moderate day winds blow. The nights
are usually calm, or return cool winds sweep gently down
the valleys. The northerly winds are said to bring snow ; in
December to February they appear to me to be local phenomena,
and are under currents from the snowed regions, which condense
and freeze the lower strata of the main current. Heavy gales
occur at the equinoxes in the Himalaya as all the world over,
but I have never experienced cyclones or hurricanes. Mid-
summer and midwinter are also generally characterised by storm
and rain.

Atmospheric presstire. — It has long been surmised that an
alpine vegetation may owe some of its peculiarities to the dimi-
nished atmospheric pressure ; and that the latter being" a condition
which the gardener cannot supply, he can never successfully
cultivate alpine plants in general. I know of no foundation for
this hypothesis ; many plants, natives of the level of the sea

EAST NEPAL AND THE SIKKIM HIMALAYA MOUNTAINS. 115

in other parts of the world, and some even of the hot plains of
Bengal, ascend to 12,000 and even 15,000 feet on the Himalaya,
unaffected by diminished pressure. Any quantity of species
from low countries may be cultivated, and some have been for
a<?es, at 10,000 to 14,000 feet, without change. It is the same
with man and the lower animals ; innumerable instances may
with ease be adduced of pressure alone inducing no appreciable
change, whilst there is an absence of any proof to the contrary.
The phenomena that accompany diminished pressure are the real
ob^acles to the cultivation of alpine plants, of which cold and
the excessive climate are perhaps the most formidable. Plants
that grow in localities marked by sudden extremes of heat and
cold are always very variable in stature, habit, and foliage.
In a state of nature we say the plants " accommodate them-
selves" to these changes, and so they do within certain limits;
but for one that survives of all the seeds that germinate in these
inhospitable localities, thousands die. In our gardens we can
jieither imitate the conditions of an alpine climate, nor otfer
others suited to the plants of such climates.

Light. — The plants of the different zones are very differently
situated with regard to this element. The forest region, which
so uniformly extends to 12,000 feet, shuts out much light from
the plants that grow in it, and such are generally pale-coloured
or white, — as, amongst rliododendrons, R. Hodgsoni, R. camel-
lia-jiorum^ R. argenteum, R. Falconeri, &c. &c. On the other
hand, many of the most gorgeously coloured ones abound in the
sunniest and lightest spots, as R. fidgeiis, R. arboreutn, R.
TliomsofU. Still it must be recollected that many species emi-
nently abundant in the sunniest exposures are pale flowered, as
R. Wightii.^.ccunpylocarpum, R. lilacitium, and Jl. Griffithii ;
and that some gorgeous species are very frequent in deep woods,
as R. arbo7-eum itself, R. Tltowsoni, R. baibatum, R. cmnaba-
linum, and that their colour is not materially lessened, except
the shade be unnaturally deep. It is hence difficult to appre-
ciate the direct influence of sunlight on the individual plants in
the Himalaya. If on the other hand we compare all the species
as there existing, with their congeners in higher latitudes, it
becomes evident that the balance in favour of gorgeous colouring
is greatly on the side of the Himalaya ; which renders it probable
that the more direct sun's beam of lat. 26° to 28° has an in-
fluence which its slanting rays in high latitudes have not. This
is a very interesting subject for future investigation ; it cannot
be satisfactorily dealt with, except by accurately estimating the
number of coloured species in two well-marked localities. One
remarkable fact has already come prominently before me, which is,
that tlie R. ciliatnm. now flowering abundantly at Kew, has larger

IIQ CLIMATE AND VEGETATION OF

blossoms than I ever saw it to have in the Himalaya, but of a paler
hue by far than any of the red-coloured series in Sikkim, except
R. antJiopogon, — judging from colour alone, I should not have
recognised it. i>Iay is its flowering season in its native locality,
and a purplish red the colour I have been accustomed to see it.

Sikkim climate as compared with London. — The colder win-
ters and warmer summers are the prominent differences of the
London climate, as the following comparison shows : —

Mean Temp.

July. January. Range.

Mean Max.

London

. 50-0 . .

63-2 . . 36-0 . . 27-2

. . 71-0

Darjiling

. 53'5 . .

61-4 . . 40'0 . . 21-4

. . 65-3

Mean Min,

Extreme Max. Extreme Min.

Extreme Diff.

London .

. 34-2

. . 94-0 . . -4-5

98-5

Darjiling

. 38-2

. . 71-0 . . 25-5

. 46-.5

The extreme Darjiling data given here are not low enough for
the minimum, or high enough for the maximum ; but they give a
sufficient approximation. At 10,000 to 11,000 feet, where most
species of rhododendrons grow, the climate in its main features
of great extremes approaches nearer to the English ; but tlie
mean temperature (40°) is too low. Our summers are nmch too
hot for the plants of that elevation, and our winters being too mild,
they make shoots earlier in spring than in the Himalaya, which
are cut off by frosts in April. Though the temperature is more
uniform in Sikkim, it presents one curious anomaly, which is,
that an accession of 8° of temperature occurs in March, above
February, the parallel of which does not occur till June in Eng-
land, which is 8° warmer than May. This brings the rhodo-
dendrons so early into flower at 7000 feet, and keeps the radiating
thermometer always above freezing for the rest of the spring.

Again, there is in London nearly 20° of average difference
between the day and night temp, of April, and 22° in May, —
months wherein 15° and 13° are the corresponding Darjiling
differences. This is a very powerful obstacle to the cultivation
out of doors of many otherwise very hardy Himalayan plants,
which are impatient of sudden changes, and incapable of bear-
ing sudden, sharp frosts in March and April.

As the flowering season advances and fruit-setting comes on,
the temperature in Sikkim becomes more markedly uniform, the
mean difference between day and night being, in May, 13°;
June, 11°; July, 10°. Li London it is not so: May, 22°;
June, 21"6° ; July, 21*6°. Turningagain to the autumn solstice,
the sudden fall of temperature occurs both in Sikkim and Lon-
don ill November, and amounts in each to upwards of 7° ; but
whereas the difference between day and night is increasing in
Sikkim, it decreases in London, a circumstance which may affect
^Jje rijjening of seed, by checking tli(> vegetative organs.

EAST NEPAL AND THE SIKKIM HIMALAYA MOUNTAINS. 117

I have here taken the Darjiling elevation of 7000 feet as the
standard of comparison between the Himalaya and London, and
of course it is understood that I here speak of the cultivation of
species of that zone ; but as most of the Himalayan plants have
a range of fully 3000 feet, which equals a mean annual diti'erence
of temp, of about 10°, it follows that localities with a mean
annual temp, of 46° to 56° are in that one respect suited to the
cultivation of species of the lower zone. It must also be borne in
mind, that the temperatures are less uniform above 7000 feet in
Sikkim, than at that particular elevation where the maximum
of moisture prevails.

Seasons, general remarks on. — These, throughout the Hima-
laya, partake more or less markedly of the hot and cold, or wet
and dry of the plains of Bengal, with this exception, that the
dry westerly wind which sweeps across the plains during many
of the winter months is scarcely felt in Sikkim, or in the after-
noon only in occasional puffs from the S.AV. The southerly
wind blows steadily from May till November, but is not uni-
formly moist at all seasons; it attains its maximum of humidity
in July and August, when, being warmest, its capacity for trans-
porting moisture is also greatest. From November till April,
calms and light winds prevail, with occasional gales. Electric
disturbances are most frequent from March to May, and again
at the end of the rains ; they are however almost wholly con-
fined to the foot of the hills and outer ranges.

The rainy season commences with a spring fall in April or
May, which is the flowering seasons of all the rhododendrons,
and of most of the magnolias of the lower zone (7000 to 10,000
feet). A I'emarkable uniformity of humidity and temperature
now prevails at all elevations, till the fruiting season, which
occurs in September at the upper zone, in October in the middle,
and November and December in the lower zone. The rains
have fairly " set in" by the middle or end of May, and the rho-
dodendron flowers are withered within a month of their flower-
ing, that is, by the beginning of June in both lower and middle
zone, and but little later above 14,000 feet ; for though they bud
so late in the alpine regions, vegetation proceeds there much
more rapidly.

In the upper zone May is the budding month, and the resinous
scales that envelop the rhododendron flowers are no sooner thrown
off than the leaves are expanded, and the flowers follow with that
rapidity which is so characteristic of an arctic spring, and indeed
of all excessive climates.

The distribution of the seasons in the three zones is very pecu-
liar, and gives rise to some anomalies that have puzzled natu-
ralists. From the middle of October to that of May, vegetation

VOL. VII. K

]]8 CMMATE AND VEGETATION OF

is torpid above 14,000 feet, and indeed almost iinifonnly co-
vered witli snow. From November till the middle of April,
vegetation is also torpid in tiie middle zone (above 10,000 feet),
except that a few trees and bushes do not ripen all their seeds
till December. The three winter months (December, January,
and February) are all but dead in the lower zone (above 6000
feet), the earliest appearance of spring at Darjiling (7000 feet)
being at the sudden accession of heat in March. From May till
August the vegetation in each zone is (in ascending order) a
month behind that below it ; 4000 feet being about equal to a
month of summer weatlier in one sense. I mean by tliis, that
the genera and natural orders Avhich flower at, say 8000 feet in
May, are not so forward at 12,000 feet till -Tune, nor at 16,000
feet till July. After August, however, the reverse holds good ;
then the vegetation is as forward at 16,000 feet as at 8000 feet.
By the end of September most of the natural orders and genera
have ripened their fruit in the upper zone, though they have
flowered as late as July ; whereas October is the fruiting month
at 12,000, and November below 10,000 feet.

The Rhododendrons offer good instances of this : —

16,000 to 17,000 feet, R. nivale flowers July; fruits September.
13,000 to 14,000 feet, E. nnthopogon flowers June; fruits October.
11,000 to 12,000 feet, li. campannlahtm flowers in May; fruits in Nov.
8,000 to 9,000 feet, R. argenteum flowers in April ; fruits in December.

And so it is with many species of ComposittE and Umbelliferce,
and indeed of all natural orders, some of wliich I have on
the same day gathered in ripe fruit at 13,000 to 14,000 feet,
and found still in flower at 9000 to 10,000. The brighter
skies and more powerful and frequent solar radiation at the
greater elevations, account for this apparent inversion of the
order of nature.

I shall conclude this long essay with some notices of the vege-
tation of the months in the three zones specified, assuming the
elevations of 7000 feet, 11,000 feet, and 15,000 feet, as typical
of the three. I shall commence with March, which begins the
new year as far as vegetation is concerned at 7000 feet.

March. — In the lower zone, in which alone vegetation is
active, the mean temperature is 50*7°, or 3° below the mean of
the year, and 8° to 9° warmer than February. The mean
maximum is 58'4°; 68° is the extreme temperature attained in
the shade, and 120° in the sun, from my very insufl^icient data
for solar radiation in this month. Tlie mean minimum is 43° ;
the greatest cold 37°; and when aided by radiation 27'8° ; with
a maximum difference of 9° between the minimum tiiermometer

EAST NEPAL AND THE SIKKIM HIMALAYA MOUNTAIN'S. l\Q

and radiating one. The mean daily range is 1 5° to 1 6°, and the
thermometer at 3 feet depth stands at 50°. The dew-point is
45-8° ; the mean humidity 0"8° to 09°, and the rain-fall about
an inch, which generally comes in heavy showers of rain and
hail, sometimes of sleet at the equinoxes.

This is eminently the spring month at Darjiling. Laurels
and maples bud and leaf, together with many other trees, but
not oaks. The ground is often covered with the long leaf
bracts of the Tetrantheras. The large white Michelia flowers,
Cherry abiuidaiitly, white Rhododendron {cirgenleum') and the
scarlet {arhoreum) in sunny spots. An early leafless Ccelogyne
is common on the rocks {C. prfscox?), the small blue gentian
covers the ground on grassy banks, with the yellow Fragaria
Indica, Tormentilla, a few violets, a pretty blue Mazus, and
some few Rubi. The Michelia, cherry, and rhododendrons are,
however, the only conspicuous plants of this season and eleva-
tion, with a pretty Uisporum in the woods. In the .garden
peaches are in full flower, and many plants of the cold season of
India, such annuals especially as belong to too cold or dry a
climate to survive the damp heat of May and June if sown then — •
stocks, for instance. Most other garden flower seeds and bulbs
are planted now, as well as vegetables ; the young plants sown
previously require transplanting and protection from the hail,
which occasionally cuts up tender plants terribly. Potatoes are
planted out. Table vegetables are still abundant of the ordinary
kinds. Insects commence their attacks on the gardens.*

April. — Mean temperature 56° ; of maxima 64°, and minima
48°; extremes 68° and 38°. Extremes of radiation— solar 125°,
terrestrial 33°. Extreme differences — solar 66°, terrestrial 16°.
The mean daily range is nearly 16°; sunk thermometer 60°;
dew-point 50° ; and saturation 0-80°. Rain 25 inches.

Most of the trees leaf and many flower in this month, as
laurels, oaks, chesnuts. Hydrangea, birch. The smaller blos-
somed Michelia and the large magnolias flower in profusion,
and the woods at 8000 to 9000 feet in some years look mottled
with their great white and red flowers. Maple leaves are broad
and red. Birch hangs its catkins. Some pretty and conspicuous
shrubs flower, as Adamia cyanea, a Viburnum, white honey-
suckle, the beautiful purple Stauntonia, several white and pink
Rubi, a very sweet Daphne in the woods (of which jjaper is
made), and the curious" genus Helivingia. On the ground
AriscBmas appear in profusion, and many other herbaceous plants
leaf, as Aralia, Paris, and Polygona. Yellow strawberry,

* I am indebted to my friend Dr. Campbell, the superintendent of Dar-
jiling, for most of the garden memoranda of the month.

K 2

120 CLIMATE AND VEGETATION OF

Tornientilla, violets, and the ground-raspberry are common, with
several Uispora, Oplnopogon, Melissa parvifolia, and Iso-
pyrum ; beautiful white-Howered leafy Ccclogynes adorn the moist
rocks, which, with a very fine Cymbidium on the trees, are
common at and above 6000 feet.

Little is doing in the garden more than was in March ; sowing
and planting out go on with activity. English strawberries
flower abundantly, as do currants.

3Iay. — Mean temperature 56'6° (only 1° above April). Means
of maxima 6o"3°, and of minima 50° ; extremes 69° and 38°.
Extremes of radiation — solar 125°, terrestrial 40°. Mean
daily range 13-3°; dew-point 50°; saturation 0-91°. Rain
9 inches, falling in sharp showers late in the forenoon or after-
noon of about half the days in the month. More falls in the
night than in the day.

The botanist may reap a rich harvest in this month, the jungle
and mountain plants between 6000 and 10,000 feet" coming into
flower in rapid succession. Of these the trees are —

Yew (probably identical Symplocos. Walnut.

■with English). Alder. Eiio)ii/miis.

Maples, various. Large-leaved oak. Myrsinece, various.

Apple and several Pj/ri. Hydrangea. Olea.

Photinia. Sauraitja. Podali/ria.

Manglietia. Englehardtia. Ash.
Lauri, various.

The great magnolias and michelias, and large white Rhodo-
dendron {argenteum), are all past flower.

Of shrubs there are many and l)eautiful species —

Woody climbers.
Limonia. Ruhi, several (the yel- Staiintonia.

Staiintonia. low-fruited now abun- Sauraiija.

White Rose {Wehhiana^, dantly ripe). Kadsura.

Sarcococca. IndigoJ'era. Spharos temma.

Aiicuba. Cotoneaster. Sabia.

Si/mplocos. Adamia. Myrsinea sp.

GualthericE. Smilax. Holnstemma.

Vaccinia. Ribes. Smilax.

Rhododendrons. Jasmiiutm (white).

Herbaceous plants are common, but being annuals they are

comparatively backward ; the chief are —

Dentaria. Androsace. Many and splendid

Viola. Tiarella. Arisamas.

Anemone. Chrj/sosplenium. Panax (2 herbaceous

Potentilla. Ophiopogon. sp.).

Fagopyrum. Coriaria. Some fine Hedychia.

Paris. Fumaria. Roscoea.

Trillium. Dielyira. Strcptoiirion.

Euphorbia. Corydalis.

EAST NEPAL AND THE SIKKIM UIMALAYA iMOUNTAIXS. 121

A leafless purple Ccelogyne ( C. Wallichii ?) is abundant, and
makes a gorgeous show on the trees, as do the white-flowered
leafy species.

The gardens at Darjiling are ven,' gay during this month —
roses, poppies, snapdragons, heartseases,] larkspurs, pinks, and
lupines. Strawberries ripen, and continue in fruit for two
months. The cucurbiiaceous vegetables are planted, as melons,
cucumbers, squash, &c. Those planted in autumn are now pro-
ducing abundantly, as peas, French beans, salads, turnips, and
cabbages.

Middle Zone. — In this region spring is only now established ;
much less rain (one-third less) falls above 10,000 feet, in the
position marked P in the woodcut, than at Darjiling. Snow
occasionally sprinkles the forest, but what falls does not lie on
the ground. On the other hand, the winter's snow, still abundant
at 12,000 feet, is rapidly melting, and the rivers rise daily. The
different pines, Abies Webbiana, Brunoniatia, and the larch
flower, as do Viburnum, willow, and juniper. Very few her-
baceous plants are advanced, of which the chief are a purple
Dentaria, and some other Cruciferce, primroses. Anemone^
Ranunculi, a Gentiana, two large Ariscemas, a purple Saxi-
fraga li!;e ciliata, Cotoneaster, Potentilla, and Podophyllum.

Upper Zone. — So little snow falls here, comparatively speak-
ing, that the passes even of 18,000 to 19,000 feet are open this
month, but vegetation has made little progress, the soil being
frozen in many places. Even the grass is not long enough to be
cropped by cattle or sheep.

Ju7ie. — Mean temperature (7000 ft.) 61 "2° ; of maxima 66*7°,
and minima 55'8°. Extremes 71° and 51 "5°. Extremes of radia-
tion—solar 126°, terrestrial 47°. Extreme differences — solar
62°, terrestrial 4*8°. Mean daily range of temperature, 11°.
Mean dew-point, o9"5°; saturation 093°. Rain 26*964 inches
(mean of 5 years — maximum 32-68 inches, minimum 12 inches),
distributed, in 1849 (when 32*688 inches fell), over every day but
7, and every night but 3. Between sunrise and sunset 12*593
inches fell ; during the night 20*035 inches. The showers, though
heavy and frequent, do not combine to form a continuous down-
pour at any time, and there is a good deal of sunshine from 8 to
10 A.M., and often at sunset also.

The flowering season of most of the trees at 7000 feet is now
over, but many shrubs blossom, as Polygala, Xanthoxylon,
Indigofera, a Magnolia with white sweet-scented globe flowers,
SpircEas, Hydrangea, yellow jasmine, various AraliacecE, Neillia,
Leycesteria, and shrubby Polygona ; Pyri, many and shrubby ;
RosacecB generally ; some laurels and Viburna, vines. Of
herbs, balsams now appear prominently, with SheploUrion, Ge-

122 CLIMATE AND VEGETATION OF

rania, great-flowei'ed Aristolocliia, Parochatus, Smilacituij
Convallaria, and Dispora ; some fine Scitammece, Parnassia,
Poteiitilla aiiserina, Arum and Ariscemas, Monotropa, Pyrola,
Pieris, yellow Craiqfurdia, Iris, Campanula, Palanophora,
HahenaricB, and some curious terrestrial orchideae, as Cyrtosia.
Wild brambles are abundant, and several kinds are very good.
Elceagnus berries ripen.

In the gardens the rains damage the unprotected flowers
sadly. Cuttings are taken of rose, sweet-william, and pink. Such
flowers as will blossom after the rains are now sown, as sweet-
j>eas and lupines. Tulips flower, but not very well, as does the
Fuclisia. Transplanting goes on activelj'. Table vegetables of
all kiiids are abundant and good, but flavourless.

Middle Zone. — I spent the greater part of this month above
11,000 feet, a little to the north of the position of Kinchin-
junga, in well-wooded valleys, &c. The weather was uniformly
cloudy, misty, and rainy ; but the showers were never excessive,
and only 6 inches fell, or one-half less than at Darjiling. The
trees in flower are generally of the same genera as flowered at
9000 to 10,000 feet last month, and the species are in many
instances the same, as Pyri, birch, one oak, willow, a maple,
holly (forming a bush) ; Abies Webhiana cones are a splendid
liurple, those of the larch red brown, and of P. Smithiana green ;
junipers form beriies. A wliite cherry, Loniceras, Syniplocos,
and Pieris, are the chief flowering trees. Of shrubs there are
other Loniceras, Potentillas, Rhododendrons, Araliacece, 2 cur-
rants, willows, Andromeda, Gualtlieria. Primroses are the
glories of the herbaceous vegetation, appearing in profusion,
yellow, white, and purple ; beautiful anemones and ranunculi
flower, with Thalictra, some Berberris, a splendid single-flowered
3Iecnopsis, several Cruciferce, Tamarix (creeping), Sibbaldice,
Fritillaria, Orobunche, small Paris and Trillium, Pinguicula,
Parnassia, Allium, Morina, Ophiopogon, the great Rheum,
Junciis, and Luzula. Rhododendrons many.

Upper Zone. — Towards the end of this month the grass is well
grown in the valleys, at 13,000 to 16,000 feet, and the cattle
aie driven up to the grazing grounds. A few plants flower
above 15,000 feet, as Anemone, Primida, Astragalus, Par-
nassia, and Picrorhiga teeta.

July. — Mean temperature 61'4° ; of maxima and minima 6o'5°
• — 57'3° ; extremes 70° — 56°. Extremes of radiation, solar 130°,
terrest. 3'52°. Extreme differences, solar Q2°, terrest. 3'5°. Mean
daily range of temperature 8°. Dew-point 60*7°. Saturation
0"97°. Rain-fall 25"336 inches (mean of 5 years, maximum
33, minimum 17-915). In 1848, 21-605 inches fell ; it rained
every (ay but one, 12'22 inches per day, and 9"23o between

EAST NEPAL AND THE SIKKIM HIMALAYA MOUNTAINS. 123

sunset and sunrise, there having been 18 rainless nights, but
only five occasions on which none fell between sunrise and
sunset.

The beautiful scarlet Buddleia at 9000 to 10,000 feet, and a
fine Erythria at 6000 to 7000 feet, are the only remarkable
trees I have noted as flowering during this month in the lower
zone, except a Saurauja. Of shrubs, the chief are Hypcrica
Deutzia, Philadelphus, Neillia, and many that flowered late in
tlie previous month, together with the beautiful red rose. Herba-
ceous plants succeed one another rapidly ; magnificent Balsams,
CyrtandracecB, Begonias, Scitaminece, and ^schynanthus
abound, with 3Ihmdus, Torrenia, Campanula, Codonopsis,
Thalictra. The gigantic lily, and various terrestrial Orchidea,
as Calanthe, Habenaria, Spatkoglottis, Neottia, and Serapins.
Epilohia are common. Circece, Valeriana, Notochcete, tlie
purple Convolvulus, white-flowered Polygona, and Cucni-hitacece
begin to flower. Acorns, holly, and laurel berries are fully
formed ; Lahiatce bud, as do Compositce and Urticece.

In the garden there are still heartseases, lupines, sweet peas,
roses, evening primroses, dalilias, sweet AYilliams, hollyhocks,
mallows, snap-dragons, and marigolds. The kitclien-garden
sliows radishes, cress, cabbages, squash, and other Cucurbitaceai ;
French beans and peas, but sparingly ; cabbages, brocoli, and
cauliflower abundant. AVeeds grow apace and keep the gardener
busy.

Second, or Middle Zone. — I spent much of this month at
12,000 to 16^000 feet elevation, and further north than in June.
Tlie rain-fall I found reduced to little more than 6 inches ; it
rained however nearly every day, three times as much falling at
night as during the day. Between 10,000 and 14,000 feet
vegetation has advanced during this month with marvellous
rapidity. The short grass and herbage of open spots, especially
at 10,000 to 12,000 feet, are replaced by a rank growth, 6 to
8 feet high, of Thalictra, tall Astragalus, grasses, and Cype-
racece, Euphorhice, a superb yellow and a purple Meconopsis,
each with racemes 1 to 2 feet long of blossoms as broad as the
palm of the hand ; gigantic Heraclea spring up 9 feet high
whilst fruiting, with twiggy Bupleura, Dipsacus, Convallarice,
Dispora, and Smilacina, Ciinicifuga, Rumex, and various
Compositae not yet in flower, bound together by masses of Cuscuta
and Codonopsis. Amongst these grow, but more sparingly, Bala-
nophora, Morina, Gerunia, large Cynoglossa, many Pedicularis,
Hypericum, and Gamoplexis, together forming complete thickets
of herbage. In more open places, at greater elevations, 12,000 to
13,000 feet, Cypripedium, Epipactis, and small OrchidecB are
very abundant, with tufted Astragali, Lloydia (two species),

124 CLIMATE AND VEGETATION OK

Other Pediculares, Triglochm, Callitriche, Veronica, Campa-
iiula, Saxifraga, Draha, small Morma, Parnassia, Ehemn,
T/iermopsis, a Sanssurea with bladdery bracts, Anisodinus
flowers, Berberry begins to fruit, as do Pyri and Lonicera.
Agriculture is little pursued at tliis elevation, Fagopyrum crops
flower at 12,000 feet, and barley sown two months before is fully
in ear, or, if sown in the end of May, in flower early this month.
Eadishes and turnips are in leaf at 15,000 to 16,000 feet, and
tlieir tubers formed. Potatoes flower.

Tliird, or Upper Zone. — There is much snow still in July, even
on the rearward mountains, where the perpetual snow-line is at
18,000 feet; still most of the slirubs that are found above
14,000 feet are in flower, as Spiram, Lonicera, Poteniilla,
willow, juniper, berberry, and an occasional rose. Ranuncu-
lacece abound. Ranunculus, Delphinum, Aconitiim, Caltha,
many Astragali flower, with Corydalis, Hypecotim, Myosotis,
Parnassia; many Pedicularis, Sibbaldia ; small Pri/mdce,
Alsinece, and Crucifercs ; the alpine purple Meconopsis, Ma-
rina, Androsaces, Picrorhiza, Nardostachys, Gymnandra, Dra-
cocephnlum, Veronica, Seda, Cassiope, and Menziesia. The
single-spiked Carices and Poce flower, Festuca, Aira, Hiero-
chloe, Stipa. In Tibetan regions a nettle abounds at upwards
of 16,000 feet, and some ArtemisicB are the only early Com-
positae in flower.

August.— 'MediW temperature (7000 feet) 61'7° ; of maxima
66-1°, and minima 57-4° ; of daily range 8-7°. Extremes 70°
and 54-5° ; of radiation— solar 133°, terrestrial 50°. Extreme
differences — solar 62°, terrestrial 3*5°. Mean dew-point 60-4° ;
saturation 0-97. Rain 29*454 inches (means of 4 years 33-320
and 24-510 inches). In 1849 26-811 inches fell, and it rained
every day but one, 10-802 inches falling after sunrise, and 16
after sunset. In the interior, on the other hand, at the same
elevation, I experienced only 12*45 inches of rain, of which
8-29 fell in the night, and 4-16 during day. It rained, however,
more or less nearly every day.

Vegetation in the lower region is at its fullest vigour. The
common bracken {Pteris aquilina'i) covers the ground, with a
yellow Cucurhitacea. Many annuals that flowered in May and
June are passing to seed, as Cyrtandracece, balsams, and bego-
nias, but still many species are in flower. Umhelliferfs, which
are rare below 9000 feet, flower, together with Ane7none viti-
folia, various Hedychia, some very magnificent. Sparganium
blossoms, and Colquhounia, the small-flowered Neillia, Cero-
pegias, Cuscuta, many Cucurhitacea;, especially Trichosanthes,
tree Araliacecc, the sweet Buddleia, Ophelia, Clematis, Tri-
cyrtis, Passijiora, Myrsine, and Emhelia, yellow honeysuckle,

KAST NEPAL AND THE SIKKIM HIMALAYA MOUNTAINS. 125

Xanthoxylon, Hypericum, Osbeckia ; a few thistles commence
flowering, with gnaphaloid Composite', but not so freely or fully
as Eupatorium, blue CichoracecB, Myriactis, Callinieris, two
Artemisias, Picris, Inula, Doronicum, and Mulgedium. In
open places at 8000 feet Euphrasia, Drosera peltata, Neottia
(Bstivalis, Dijjsacus, Halenia, and Erigerons flower.

In tlie kitchen-garden potatoes are planted with manure, and
towards the end of the month the haulms of the early sorts
wither, and the roots are stored. Table vegetables are abun-
dant, with legumes of all kinds, turnips, radishes, carrots,
lettuce, all varieties of vegetable marrows, squash, cucumbers,
and asparagus, the latter generally small and woody. In the
flower-garden are dahlias, marigolds, sunflowers, China roses,
lupines, mignonette, larkspurs, rose-campions, Oenotheras, hearts-
ease, all thriving tolerably if protected from the rain, but it
is better to keep them back till the following month.

There is little native cultivation carried on. Rice and other
cerealia are in ear above 7000 feet, and maize is in flower just
below that.

Animal life swarms in this month, especially insects. Cicadas
and glow-worms ascend above 8000 feet. Libellulce, Tipulce,
Cynthia cardui, and Papilio Machaon are very frequent at
6000 to 10,000 feet. Mosquitoes in myriads and countless
leeches, with sandflies, swarm at 6000, and ascend to 8000 feet,
the leeches and sandflies to 12,000. Swampy places become
feverish even at 6000 feet.

Second, or Middle Region. — Above 9000 feet vegetation is
also in its prime, from the abundance of Compositce which adorn
the skirts of the woods and open places, especially beautiful
senecios, thistles, Mulgedium, Aplotaxis, Dolomiaa, Ligu-
laria, and Saussurea, Callimeris and abundance of Erigeron,
Doronicum, Clematis blossoms freely. Gentians, Halenia,
Ophelia, &c., are all in bloom, with the most of the Umhel-
lifera-. Saxifrages form masses of golden blossoms at 12,000
to 13,000 feet, mixed with Cyananthus, Codonopsis, Scrophu-
laria, Polygona, Fumaria, and Corydalis, Oxyria, Primula
denticulatu. Salvia, Delphinia, tall aconites, terrestrial Orchi-
dece, Lilium Thomsoni, Verbascum, and many other European
genera.

Third, or Arctic Zone. — Some beautiful primulas are still
only in flower, near the snow, at 15,000 feet, with many species
of Corydalis, Nardostachys, Chrysosplenium, Menziesia, Sedu,
Saussurea, Parnassia, yellow Drabas, and Androsaceee, at the
southern passes, which, being in a more rainy climate, are
backwarder. In the northern or drier parts, again, Artemisice
appear, with Delphinium Brunonis, various Cyananthi, Vero-

126 CLIMATE A^'D VEGETATION OF

nisa, Kvenigia, 6 potentillas, Anaphalis, Serratula, and many
grasses, caiices, and Junci.

September. — Mean temperature (7000 feet) 60° ; of maxima
64*7, and minima 55*2 ; of daily range 9'5°. Sunic thermo-
meter 60°. Extremes of temperature 7U° and 51-5° ; of radiat-
ing- thermometers — solar 142°, terrestrial 475°. Extreme dif-
ferences— solar 70°, terrestrial 10°. Mean dew-point 58.5° ;
saturation 0*95°. Rain 15*762 inches (mean of four years
20-375 and 13,410). In 1849 15-675 inches fell, 3-621 by
day, and 12-054 by night. It rained all the month except on
5 days, but most frequently at night. The first fortnight of this
month is usually a continuation of the August humid weather,
when it holds up for a week or so previous to the equinox, which
is ushered in by violent electric disturbances and heavy gales.

The most prominent botanical feature of the month is the
abundance of LahiatcE, especially Plectranthi, ElsJiolsia, Cra-
niotome, Colquhounia, Prunella, Ajitga, Scutellaria, Nepeta,
and Melissa ; and graphaloid compositge, especially species of
Anaphalis, Mhiten the ground in some places. Oshechia is in
full bloom, with white and shrubby polygonums. Many Urticece
flower, but they are insignificant green plants. March and
April flowering species are generally in seed. Acanthaceee, of
which there are very few, flower.

In the garden the vegetables are, besides those of August,
more cruciferce, as kohl-rabi and savoys, with tomatoes and
capsicums. Peas and beans are sowed for early crops, with
cabbage, turnip, beet, radishes, and spring crops of all kinds.
Peaches redden and fall oflT the trees without ripening. Straw-
berry-beds are cleaned and ruimers planted ; rose-cuttings made.
Rice and other cerealia are cut at 4500 feet, but not higher.

Second, or Middle Zone. — I passed the latter part of August
and beginning of this month at 11,000 feet, considerably north
of Kiiichinjunga, in a very moist valley, with patches of snow
in gulleys at 12,000 feet, where, however, the rain-fall was less
than half that at Darjiling. From the 8th to the end of the
month I camped at 15,400 feet, and experienced only 1-67
inches, whilst 9-993 fell at Darjiling. A good deal of this m as
in the form of snow, which lay for several days at 16,000 feet,
as early as the 9th. At the equinox the snow lay three days
around my tent, but melted again. In the more southern parts
of Sikkim (in the position of P on the woodcut) the September
snow-fall sometimes lies till the following April or May. The
weather was constantly misty and foggy at my position, but
was always clear though cloudy when I went into Tibet. U'liis
is a fruiting month everywhere above 13,000 feet; the barley and
Fagopyrum crops are cut, and turnips and radishes gathered ;

EAST NEPAL AND THE SIKKIM HlilALAYA MOUNTAINS. 127

the cattle are driven down to 12,000 feet early in the month,
and to 10,000 feet towards the end. Dandelion, Erigeron, and
other compositee are still in full flower.

Fourth, or Upper Zone, above 15,000 feet. — Many plants
continue in flower early in the month and to beyond the middle,
as beautiful Cyananthi, Gentians, Elsholsia, Calthn, Taraxa-
nem, Prunella, curious LactucecB, Saussurece, and Serralulas,
Leontopodium, and other Gnaphaloid compositse. Small Poly-
gona, Primulce, and indeed all June and July flowering plants,
ripen their seeds. By the 21st vegetation may be said to be at
an end, the grasses change colour, and severe frosts set in.
Birds migrate south, and the Hoopoe and various small birds
are occasional visitants on their passage to warmer climates.

October. — Mean temperature (7000 feet) 58^ — of maxima
66'0°, minima 49"5° ; daily range 17°; sunk thermometer 59° ;
extremes of temperature 68° and 43o^ ; of radiating thermome-
ters— solar 133°, terrestrial 32°; extreme differences from
temperature of air — solar 65°, terrestrial 12°. Mean dew-point
52*5° ; saturation 9"88. Kain-fall 8'66 inches (mean of four
years 17*964 and 5"50). Tliis is one of the most variable
months in the year as regards the distribution of both heat and
moisture. Fine weather almost invariably follows the equinoxial
gales, and sometimes lasts. October has loeen described to me as
a glorious, cloudless month, without a drop of rain. In 1848
there was more bad weather than good, with heavy squalls,
thunder and lightning, and nearly 18 inches of rain fell. In
1849, again, very little rain indeed fell, but the month was so
uniformly fog'jfy and damp, that the rains were not considered
over till November ; yet during twenty days no rain fell at all.
The same irregularity marks this season at all elevations, and I
experienced more rain at 13,000 feet, in an almost Tibetan
climate, than fell at Darjiling, owing probably to the condensa-
tion of the southerly wind over the September snow-fall, vvhich
had already lowered the snow-line in some parts of Sikkim.

In the lower zone tliere are still plants to flower, as Prinsepiay
the beautiful blue Craivfurdia, Eleagnus, and Balanophora
pohjandra. Various species of Clematis also flower, with Ca-
mellia, Eurya, Cuscuta, Syynplocos, Prunus, Wightia, a late-
flowering Michelia, Aplotaxis, the superb Luculia gratissitna,
fragrant Olea, Bucklandia, Eleagnus, and many parasitical
OrchidecE. The apple and other wild fruits ripen.

In the garden the early frosts are apt to do injury ; potatoes
should be all housed ; celery is planted out in trenches ; cabbages
and kohl-rabi in drills. The garden should be all cleaned and
weeded for planting spring vegetables before the end of the
month.

128 CLIMATE AND VEGETATION OF

The natives gather in all crops between 6000 and 8000 feet
this month, including the various millets, which yield 200 to 400
fold, and the unirrigated rice grown in slopes, and producing 80
fold on the average.

Second, or 3Iiddle Zone. — Above 14,000 feet the scene is
more wintry than autumnal, but below that many Compositce and
UinbellifercE continue in flower, and some in fruit ; the Coniferce
all have fully formed cones ; some Clematis flower with Prin-
sepia, and blue Crawfurdia and the nut. The larch leaves
turn yellow and then red previous to dropping. Belts of scarlet
girdle the forests from the abundance of berberries, whose leaves
change colour. The bircli turns golden yellow, Pyri and maples
red and yellow, whilst the Abies Webbiana and junipers are
still black, the grass brown, rhododendrons a briglit verdegris
green. Of the latter some species throw out a few flowers, but
most are in seed, as are wild currants, cherries, berberries, apples,
hips, and Stauntonia, which latter affords the best wild fruit of
this region and that below it, except Rubi.

November. — Mean temperature (7000 feet) 50° — of maxima
56'5°, minima 43*5°: daily range 13°. Sunk thermometer 54°.
Extremes of temperature 63° and 38° ; of radiating thermometers,
— solar 123°, terrest. 30°: extreme difference from temperature
of air — solar 68°, terrest. 12°. Mean dew-point 46*5° ; satura-
tion 0-89°. Rain-fall 0-4°. This is the least rainy month of the
year, sometimes no rain falls, and it seldom exceeds a few tenths
of an inch. Drought is sometimes experienced, with a bright
clear sun by day and sharp frost at night. The sun's rays are
very powerful, considering how low the temperature is, but
the air is bracing and pleasant, like an English April.

The Bucklandia flowers in this month at 6000 to 7000 feet,
a magnificent tree as regards form and foliage ; Wightia, a
scandent Bignoniaceous tree, also blossoms profusely, bearing
no leaves, and forming immense masses of red in the forest ;
Pittosporum blooms, and a Prunus like Padus, whose leaves
are excellent fodder for cattle. Alder is in catkin, and the yel-
low Daphne Gardneri, a very beautiful plant, scents the air ;
nettles flower profusely, and Cuscuta, witli the great shrubby
Teucrium. All crops are now housed, and wheat and barley
sown at 9000 feet to be reaped in May.

In the upper regions the snow-line tlescends to 14,000 feet.

December. — Mean temperature (7000 feet), 43° ; of maxima
51-6°, and minima 34*9°; daily range 16*7°; sunk thermometer
48°. Extremes of temperature 56° and 32*5° ; of radiating
thermometers — solar 108°, terrestrial 26°. Extreme differences
from temperature of air — solar 77*2°, terrestrial 10°. Mean
dew-point 30° ; saturation 0-61°. Rain-fall 0*45. This month

EAST NEPAL AND THE SIKKIM HIMALAYA MOUNTAINS. 129

is sometimes very dry; it was unusually so in 1837, when Dr.
Chapman's register was ke^it: his reduced wet bulb obser%a-
tions are those from which I have worked the dew-points. Hoar
frost is of almost nightly occurrence in December, but the cold is
never extreme. About Christmas a storm is experienced, and
a great quantity of snow falls in the upper regions, at as low
elevations as 9000 feet, where I have seen 3 feet : much of this
melts, however, owing to the warmth of the soil.

January. — Mean temperature (7000 feet) 40° ; of maxima
47'2°, and minima 32-8°; daily range 14-4°; sunk thermo-
meter 45°. Extremes of temperature 56° and 29° ; of radiating
thermometers — solar 119°, terrestrial 16°. Extreme differences
from temperature of air — solar 72°, terrestrial 12*7°; mean
dew-point 34*3°; saturation 0-84°. Kain-fall 1-718 inches;
mean of three years 0'30 and 4*27. January is generally a
stormy month, with bitterly cold, often violent winds, hail, sleet,
and sometimes snow at Darjiling, and as low as 6000 feet,
never lying beyond a few hours at the latter elevation, and it is
rare for 3 inches to remain as many days at 7000 feet. Much
snow falls about the middle of the month in the upper regions,
the ground being covered several feet deep at 13,000 feet, and
the snow-line is lowered to about that elevation, and does not
recede from that till April or May. I found the soil at this
elevation frozen for 16 inches, but warm below that, and as high
as 34*5° at less tlian 3 feet deep.

February. — Mean temperature (7000 feet) 42-1° ; of maxima
50°, and minima 34'2° ; daily range 15-8° ; sunk thermometer
47°. Extremes of temperature 57° and 25*5°; of radiatino-
thermometers — solar 124*0°, terrestrial 23*°. Extreme differ-
ences from temperature of air — solar 78°, terrestrial 15-3°.
Mean dew-point 36*7°; saturation 0-85°. Eain-fall 0916;
mean of three years 2-047.

This is also a stormy and cold month, with a good deal of
thunder and lightning, hail, and sometimes snow. Turnips, car-
rots, beet, and cabbage are the ciiief garden vegetables ; peas
blossom freely in spite of the weather ; tender plants are pro-
tected by matting ; artichokes and rhubarb are manured ; lupines,
marigolds, and stocks are still in flower. Snow that falls at
11,000 and 12,000 feet remains till April : there are no plants
of any consequence in flower above 6000 feet.

I append a meteorological register of the separate months for
convenience of reference, but at the same time must remind the
reader that it does not pi-etend to strict accuracy. It is founded
upon observations made at Darjiling by Dr. Chapman in the
year 1837, for temperature and wet bulb only ; the other data and
some modifications of the above are supplied from a very careful

130 CLIMATE AND VEGETATION OF

collection of a nuiltitude of observations of my own. The
means of the month are taken by meaning the daily maxima and
minima, which I tliink gives too liigh a result. Those for ter-
restrial and nocturnal radiation are accurate as far as they go,
that is to say. tiiey are absolute temperatures taken by myself,
whicii may, I believe, be recorded in any year, but nuuh liigiier
are no doubt often to be obtained. The dew-points and satura-
tions are generally calculated from the mean of two day ob-
servations (10 A.M. and 4 p.m.) of the wet bulb tiiermometer,
toiJfether with the minimum, or are taken from observations of
Daniell's hygrometer. The dew-point and temperature are as-
sumed to coincide onlj^ at the hour of minimum temperature ;
but as the}^ do coincide for, on the average, 10 hours of every
24. tins method obviously gives too low a dew-point. On the
other hand, the wet bulb observations, or hysrometer, were never
taken at the hours of greatest dryness : and as I find the mean of
the temperatures of 10 a.m., 4 p.m., and the minimum to coin-
cide within a few tenths with the mean temperature of the whole
year, I assume that the mean of the wet bulb observations of
the same hours will give a sutHciently accurate approach to that
of the 24 hours. The climate of Darjiling station has been in
some degree altered by extensive clearances of forest, which
render it more variable, more exposed to night frosts and strong
sun, and to drought, the drying up of small streams being one
direct consequence. My own observations were taken at Mr.
Hodgson's house, elevated 7450 feet, the position of which I have
indicated at p. 2 of this volume (in a note), where the dift'erences
of climate due to local causes are sufficiently indicated to show
that in no two spots could similar meteorological results be ob-
tained. At my station, for instance, tlie uniformity of tempera-
ture and humidity is infinitely more remarkable than at Dr.
Chapman's, possibly from my guarding more effectually against
radiation, and from the greater forest about Mr. Hodgson's house.
I have not, however, ventured to interfere with the temperature
columns on this account. Such as they are, I believe they afford
amply sufficient data for the horticulturist who is anxious to exert
his skill and ingenuity in the cultivation of Himalayan plants in
general, and especially of Sikkim ones, though they will little
avail him except he be previously master of the climate of
England, for which purpose I would most strongly urge the
study of Mr. Daniell's essay before alluded to, and the many
papers in this .Journal and elsewhere of Mr. Thompson, of the
Horticultural Society's Gardens, which contain a vast amount of
valuable matter, carefully collected and extremely well arranged.

EAST XEPAL AND THE SIEKIM HIMALAYA MOUNTAINS.

131

fa I "2

S •* S i~ - -0|Xl =

January .

40-056-0

1

119-0

72-047-2

;

29-0 16-0

12 7 32-8

14-4

46-0,34-3

5-1

•216

-84

1-72

February

42-l;37'0

124-0j780^50-C

25-5, 23-0

15-334-2

15-8

48-o!37-2] 3-9
1 1

-239

•87

0-92

March .

30-7J66-5

120 0 60 0J58-4

37 o| 27'8

8-743-1

15-3

30-0

45-8

5'8

■323

•82

1-12

April .

55-9 6S-0

123-0 66-o'63-7

1

38-o' 330

16-048-1

15-6

58-0

49-8

6-6-37l|-80

2'32

May . .

57-6^69-0

125-0

65-0,63-3

38-0 40-0

lo-o'so-o

15-3

61-0

54-4

2-7-434J-91

9-25

Jane . .

61-2

71-0

126-2

62-2 66-7

51-5 47-0

4-8.'55-8

10-9

62- 0

39-3

2-0

•515

•93

26-96

July . .

61-4

69-5

130-0

62-0 65-5

56-0. 52-0

3-5 5r-3

8-2

62-2

60-7

0-8 -535' -97

j 1

25-34

August .

61-7

70-0i33-0

68-0 66-1

54-5: 50-0

3-5 57-4

8-7

62-0,60-4

l-i:-530-96

f

29-45

September

59-9

70-0 1420

70-OJ64-7

51-5 47-5

10-0,55-2

1

9-5

61o'58-5

1-4

•498-93

15-76

October .

58-0

68-0 133-0

65-0 66-5

43-5 32-0

12-043-5 17-0

60-0 52-5

1

4-2,-4071-86

8-66

November

50-0

63-0

123-0

63-0 56-5

38-0 30-0

12-0 43 5' 13-0

1
550|46-5

3-2>331 -90

Oil

December

43-0
33-3

36-0
63-4

108-0
^'1

77-231-6

32-5! 26-0

1

10-0 34-9

16-7

49-0

31-8 10-6

•198-69

0-45

Mean

67-3!60-2

41-3 35-4

9-946-8

1

13-4

56-2

49-3

3-9

•383-88

122-26

London .

49-9

.

.

. 58*5

1

. 41-3

17-2

.

44-3

5-6-342-83

24-2

Sikkira 7
Extreme )

.

71-0

142-0

78-0 66-7

23-3! 16-0

15-3 32- 8

17-0

•

•

10-6 -333

•97

29 45

Extreme )
London j

•

94.4

130-0

39-074-0

-4'5-12-0

13-0 31 -9

22-4 ■

•

•

8-5 •-!82

•93

297

132 ON GRAPE M1I,DEW.

VII. — On Grape Mildew. By Hugo v. Mohl.

[Translated from the Botanische Zeitung, Jan. 2, 1852.]

The attention of the readers of the Botanische Zeitung has
frequently been called to the disease which has attacked the
vines for some years in the west of Europe, and has been ex-
tremely injurious to tliem. Since this epidemic has passed over
the boundaries of Germany, and the history of its previous course
gives ground for fearing that it may spread widely amongst us
next year, some more particular account, which I am enabled to
give from observations made last autumn in Switzerland, may
not be vmacceptable.

How far it deserves to be called a new disease may be left
undecided. Even supposing it to have appeared from time to
time in isolated spots, it must have been in a very trifling degree,
since it did not excite the attention of the cultivators of vine-
yards, and the fungus attendant on it was imknown to botanists.
It was calculated to attract the greater interest last year because,
after its first appearance at Margate (see Bot. Zeit., 1848,
p. 376), it gradually spread into France, where it appeared at
Versailles, in 1848 (see Bouchardat in Comp. Rend, xxxiii.
p. 145), the next year, to some extent, at Paris, and finally, in
ISol, reached the south of France, at the same time rapidly
travelling the whole length of Italy from tlie coast of Liguria to
Naples, then, as autumn approached, taking a retrograde course
through the Tyrol as far as Botzen, overrunning nearly the
whole of Switzerland northwards to Winterthur, and, at last,
trespassing on certain isolated points of Germany at the Hard-
gebirge, in Baden at Salem, and in Wiirtemburg at Stuttgart
and Cannstatf.

On its first appearance in England, as also at Versailles,
Paris, and Grenoble, it seems to have been confined to the
vines in hothouses, and from thence to have spread to those on
walls, and, finally, to the vineyards. In districts where grapes
are cultivated exclusively in the open air, the disease in 1851,
in many places which I visited, as, for instance, in great part of
Switzerland and AViirtemburg, attacked those vines which were
grown on walls, and, where it had attacked the vineyards, the
bunches on the walls suffered far more than those on vines in
the open field ; and I was convinced that, in particular spots,
where the malady was at present much confined, it had passed
from the trellises to the neighbouring vineyards. It reached
the greatest heio:ht on those trellises which stand vinder the
wide-spreading roofs of the Swiss houses, and by which they are
protected from the rain.

ON GRAPE MILDEW, 133

From its very first appearance it was observed to be constantly
attended by a {angus {Oidium Tuckeri, Berk.). This fungus
resembles, to the naked eye, a white, mealy coat, which, accord-
ing to the virulence of the disease, forms a scarcely visible
powder, or a tolerably thick crust. In slight cases the fungus
arises only in certain places of the plant, and, without any defi-
nite rule, sometimes on the bark of the two-year-old shoots,
sometimes on tiie leaves, sometimes on the stalk of the bunches,
or on the berries themselves, but on such parts only as are
covered with a living cuticle, and never on the dead bark of the
older branches. In extreme cases the fungus covers every part
which has developed itself in the course of the summer so thickly
that at the distance of twenty paces the vine is at once known
to be diseased.

A question has arisen in various quarters whether this fungus
is a peculiar species, and confined to the vine ; Marie, for instance
(Comp. Rend. xxxi. p. 312, 454), Guerin-Meneville, and Bal-
samo Crivelli (1. c. xxxiii. p. 295) assert that the same fungus
grows on many other plants, and that Oidium Tuckeri is iden-
tical with Old. leucoconium. Since it depends so much on the
peculiar views of individuals, whether two allied forms are consi-
dered as varieties or distinct species,* I shall not consider tliis
point more narrowly, j though the difference between Oidium
Tuckcin, with its clavate incrassated threads surmounted by only
one or two spores, and O. leucoconium, whose threads produce a
long row of spores, appears so striking-, that we must necessarily
allow the existence of a specific difference. The question seems
to me far more important whether Oidium Tuckeri is cajmble of
living on other plants besides the vine. If this were the case, it
would be probable that it might spread from diseased vines to
neighbouring plants. This, however, seems decidedly not to be
the case ;:]: at least, notwithstanding the most careful examina-
tion in a garden where plants of the most different families
stood close to highly diseased vines, I could not find a trace of
the fungus on any plant whatever ; it did not attack even Am-
pelopsis quiiiquefolia, although the boughs were intertwined

* No great stress can be laid on the size of the spores, since in those of
Oidium Tuckeri, -which I figured by means of Sommering's apparatus, the
major axis varied from jL to ^"', the minor axis from ^ij to jig'".

t It is very true that in fungi the reproductive organs vary greatly in
size ; but if the mean in every case be ascertainetl, it will be found available
for the distinction of species. To take a familiar example, peas may be
found in any undressed sample no larger than tares, and yet it may be safely
asserted that peas have much larger seeds than tares. — Traiisl.

X It has been observed at Margate to extend to Indian Chrysanthemum
placed beneath vines which were affected to a great extent by the disease. —
Transl.

VOL. vir. I'

134 ON GRAPE MILDEW.

with the diseased vine shoots on the same wall. Wiiether the
plant is capable of attacking' American vines I am not able to
say, since in the only vineyard in which I saw a quantity of
these vines, all were healthy, a circumstance which may, how-
ever, be accidental, since the vineyard itself was only slightly
infested wi(h the disease.

As in so many other cases of fungi which accompany disease,
so in tlie grape mildew, the question has arisen wiiether the
fungus is the cause or the consequence of the malady ; and so,
also, as in many analogous cases, the original ground of the
evil has been attributed to insects, as, for instance, by Robineau-
Desvoidy (Conip. Rend, xxxiii. p, 343). This latter view seems
to me to be decidedly wrong. I am very far from wishing to
intimate that Robineau's observation of the presence of an
Acm'its on diseased vines is false, though, after the most careful
microscopical observations of many diseased vines, in all stages
of the malady, and in different places, I have been unable to
detect any insect, and therefore can only attribute their occur-
rence, as observed by M. Robineau, to mere accident.

A far more difficult question to answer is that, wiiether the
fungus is the cause or consequence of the disease. Were the
fimgus an entophyte, did it arise from a visible demonstrable
alteration of the contents of the cells, did it break out from
within the plant to its external surface, the latter position might
be considered as proved.* Tlie contrary, however, of all these
things is the case. Not the slightest trace can be discovered of
any disease of the vine anterior to the appearance of the fungus,
which creeps over the cuticle of the plant, does not protrude
into its tissues, and much lessf arises within previous to
bursting forth into the free air. These circumstances make it
probable that the fungus first affects the plant on which it grows
by decomposing the juices of the superficial cells, and impeding
their growth in the same way in which Achlya proUfera injures
the aquatic animals on which it grows, and as Merulius destruc-

* Oldinm leucoconium is an entophyte, exactly as Botrytis infestans and
the group of allied species which grow on green leaves ai-e eutophytes. The
probability therefore is pritnu facie that O. Tuckeri is an entophyte. —
yyansl.

t It is figured in the ' Gardener's Chronicle ' as making its way, like
other Oidia, through the stomata. Le'veillc, however, like Mohl, denies that
this is the case ; and Duchartre asserts truly tliat there are no stomata (or
at least extremely few) on the upper surface of the vine leaves, on M'hich
the fungus grows according to Continental authorities. At Margate, how-
ever, it was more abundant on tlie under than on the upper surface of the
leaves. A re-examination of the matter must be deferred to the summer, as
it is impossible to make out anything satisfactory from dried specimens.
Indeed, like many other moulds, it is very diflBcult to preserve in the Herba-
rium, on account of the ravages of mites. — Transl.

ON GEAPE MILDEW. 135

tor produces decay in dead wood. Many experiments also seem
to prove that the cause of the disease is to be found in the
fungus, according- to which the fiirtlier diffusion of the evil is
greatly repressed by the removal of the first affected shoots on a
wall, the destruction of the fungus through washing, &c.*

The indisputably contagious character of the disease is also
explained only by the fact that the fungus causes the malady, for
it is easily imagined how the lightest breeze may carry the innu-
merable quantity of spores which it produces, and which are
only Tu-o"'" "^ length, from the diseased to the sound vines.

The appearances which the diseased vines present are as fol-
lows. The spots on the green bark of this year's shoots on
which the fungus has begun to vegetate are discernible by a
faint cloud in their green tint before the fungus itself is visible
to the naked eye. The fungus consists at this time of minute
extremely delicate threads, visible only through a good lens,
resembling those of a spider, which creep on the surface of the
cuticle, forming an irregular web. The bark has assumed in
the spots which are attacked, frequently not exceeding 1'" in
diameter, a somewhat deeper tint ; these spots soon increase in
diameter as the disease spreads, become confluent, and change,
in consequence of the death of the superficial cells, into a choco-
late brown. Microscopic observations show that the depravation
of the juices which produces this change of colour, and tlie death
of the diseased cells, is confined to tlie most superficial strata,
while those which lie deeper, as well as the wood, remain per-
fectly sound. Under these circumstances the malady, as far as
it attacks the branches, seems a very unimportant evil, and there
is no danger of the death of the vines which are attacked, inas-
much as the external coats of the bark must, in the natui'al
course of things, be dried up in the ensuing autumn and winter,
and tlirown off during the next year. The fungus exercises a
still smaller influence on the leaves than on the branches ; at
least I could not remark, even in those vines which were thickly
covered with the fungus to the very tips of the shoots, that the
vegetation of the leaves was really affected.

As regards the fruit the case is far otherwise. Here also only
the extreme layer of cells at first suffers under the attack, while
the inner parts of the fruit, as far, at least, as may be concluded
from microscopic observation, remain perfect. The appearances
which the affected berries exhibit differ much, according to the

* I could uot institute the experimentum crncis of banging diseased bunches
■which I bad brought to Tubingen, where the malady has uot yet intruded,
on untainted vines, with the view of proving whether it could not be com-
municated by contagion, because I would not subject myself to the respon-
sibility of contributing to spread the evil in a wine district.

L 2

136 ON GEAPE MILDEW,

time which has elapsed since they were infested, the greater or
less vigour of the fungus, «fec. When the fruit is sharply
attacked, and at a time when it has arrived at about half its
growth, or when it is scarcely so large, since the outer diseased
skin cannot keep up with the expansion of the juicy parenchym,
it splits longitudinally into many lobes, so that the seeds, wiiich
are more or less perfectly developed, are exposed, as in the rup-
tured capsvde of an Euonymus. These fissured berries seem,
under all circumstances, incapable of further development ; they
remain small, although they hang on the vine till late in the
autumn, and seem at last to dry up or rot ; at least I saw in
none any symptoms of becoming ripe. On tlie contrary, if the
fruit is attacked towards autumn, when it is already much
advanced in its development, the influence of the fungus is too
weak to prevent the production of ripe, perfect, normal fruit,
even when the stalks of the berries are thickly overrun with its
tlireads. Between these two extreme cases a number of inter-
mediate conditions naturally occur, in which the berries do not
crack, but are arrested in their growth, and never ripen or become
profitable.

The question whether the use of diseased grapes has any
noxious consequences, seems not to be decided. While, on the
one side, a string of examples from French papers is brought
forward in the Reforme Agricole, according to wliich diseased
grapes are injurious, producing colic and vomiting, express
experiments to a contrary eflfect have been communicated to me
in Lausanne. Probability is in favour of the latter opinion,
since the extent to which the malady has lately reached in
France could not fail to have aflTorded a number of well-esta-
blished examples, if the diseased grapes were really injurious, for
they were frequently eaten by children.

It is a natural question, what will be the condition of the dis-
ease in future ; is it transitory, brought on and favoured only by
accidental and temporary circumstances, or is it a durable evil,
and what remedy, in this case, can be administered for the
warding off or diminution of the malady? We are treading
here on dangerous ground, for it is notorious how little, for the
most part, in epidemic diseases, science is in a condition to answer
such questions, and the potato murrain affords a lamentable
instance amongst vegetable epidemics how little the numerous
solutions of the difficulty, and these frequently given with no
less confidence than imperfect knowledge, serve for the removal
of the evil.

The question as to the future condition of the malady, whether
it will vanish or extend step by step to the districts which at
present are uninfected, is, from the very nature of the case, per-

ON GRAPE MILDEW. 137

fectly incapable of answer. The prospects afforded by its pre-
vious history are by no means comfortable. We have to contend
with an enemy against which, as regards its diffusion, we are
perfectly powerless, since every breeze may bring thousands of
its minute microscopic germs from an infected district to one
which is at present untainted. Nor less is any notion of tlie
destruction of the fungus on the diseased vines, by washing,
fumigation, &c., in places where vines are extensively cultivated,
completely out of the question. Under these circumstances
there reniains only the by no means powerful consolation that,
as in analogous diseases produced by other fungi, even though it
may not entirely vanish, it may be expected to be at all widely
extended, and, consequently, decidedly injurious, only in certain
years. A remedy is the more difficult, or rather the more im-
possible, because it relates to a woody perennial plant, and there-
fore a multitude of variations in the mode of culture which are
available in annual plants, as different ways of planting, the
choice of a favourable site, rotations of cropping, &c., are
clearly inapplicable. It appears also that all such remedies as
depend on variations of culture, even were they more easily
applicable to the vine, would not be crowned with much success,
since, at least as far as my own experience goes, no particular
rules are deducible from the condition of diseased vineyards,
according to which the occurrence of the evil is regulated as
regards the exposure towards a particular quarter of the heavens,
the geological nature of the subsoil, the lower or higher training
of the plants, the age of the vineyard, the circumstance whether
it had been recently planted on virgin soil, or was of the growth
of many centuries, &c., since none of these points seem to have
the slightest influence, and only in particular spots, a low situ-
ation and the moisture of the soil, appear to be favourable. Al-
though particular kinds of vines, as the crowfoot (Trollinger) and
muscatels, suffer extremely, this is but a proportional difference,
since in other places sorts of the most various nature were
attacked ; and even should experience clearly prove the especial
tendency of particular varieties to contract the infection, this
point could scarcely induce any great alteration in the cultivation
of the vine, as the choice of sorts depends upon so many other
circumstances.

At least for the present what is possible to be done in the way
of alleviation must be confined to culture on a small scale in con-
servatories or on walls, since the small quantity of vines Avhich
are cultivated in such situations admit of some special treatment.
These situations are moreover, as was remarked above, the most
perilous, because they afford the most favourable ground for the
malady, and form the centre from which it extends to the vine-

138

METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS

yards, for which it is so much the more dangerous, since the
artificially accelerated development of the vine permits its occur-
rence some months earlier than in the open air, and the disease
is in a condition to attack the bunches at a mucli younger stage
of growtli. It is a great question whether, now that the disease
is widely spread, any benefit would be derived from preventing
the artificial growth of grapes, as has been proposed, on one side,
even supposing it were, or could be, put in practice ; on the
other hand, there is no doubt that tiie owners of vines wliich
grow in conservatories or on walls can use remedies against the
malady when appearing in such situations. It seems at least,
after the experiments made in England and France, to admit of
no doubt that the removal of the parts first diseased, and the
washing with solutions of lime, sulphuret of lime, alum, soap,
&c., besides fumigation with tobacco smoke, and dusting with
sulphur, are attended with advantage.

VIII. — An Abstract of Meteorological Observations made in
the Garden of the Society, in contimcation oj" those published
vol. vi. p, 132. By Robert Thompson.

1851.

Thermometek.

Rain.

Barometeb.

Max.

Min.

Mean of

Mois-

in

by

Shaded

In pts.

Max.

Min.

Mean.

Sun.

Radiator.

Therm.

O

o

O

Jan.

58

20

40-07

3-07

30-328

29-111

29-741

992

Feb.

62

13

38-44

0-90

30-375

29-490

29-991

968

March

69

21

41-72

3-57

30-379

28-753

29 • 705

934

April

77

19

44-56

1-65

30-103

29-373

29-834

897

May

88

24

51-16

0-74

30 '470

29-598

30-006

784

June

107

33

59-21

1-33

30-383

29-551

30-017

796

July

94

34

60-71

3-90

30-140

29-473

29-844

808

Aug.

J 03

32

62-79

2 03

30-355

29-669

30-018

850

Sept.

95

28

So • 15

0-42

30-572

29-340

30-131

875

Oct.

85

28

51-25

2-01

30-386

29-012

29-835

958

Nov.

67

11

35-86

0-55

30-434

29-336

29-887

961

Dec.

60

12

38-88

0-62

30-521

29-543

30-234

992

Means

80-41

22-91

46-65

20-79

30-370

29-353

29-937

901

MADE IxN THE GARDEN OF THE SOCIETY. 139

General Observations.

January, — The weather was in general remarkably fine for
the period of the season, and operations in the open air were
carried on with less interruption than is usually experienced in
the winter months. Although the quantity of rain amounted to
nearly double the average for the month, yet it mostly fell in the
nights ; the days were often exceedingly fine. The wind was
from north-east one day, and from west two daj's ; in all the rest
of the month it came from the warmer quarters of soutli, south-
east, and south-west, and owing to this the mean temperature was
fully 2° above the average.

February. — The day temperature of this month was equal to
the average, but that of the nights was 3^° colder than usual.
Tlie night temperatures averaged 4° lower than those of the
preceding month. The barometer stood above the average height.
The quantity of rain was less than an inch, or little more than
half the usual quantity. Some sleet fell on the 27th ; but
throughout the month the ground was not at any time whitened
by snow. On the whole the weather was very favourable for
all out-door operations.

March. — The first week was fine ; but from the 9th to the end
of the month there were only six days in which rain did not fall.
The amount of rain was fully 3^ inches, or upwards of 2 inches
above the average. The bai'ometer was generally low during
the last three weeks, and remarkably so on the evening of the
22nd. Westerly winds were prevalent. The average mean tem-
perature was nearly maintained. The morning of the 14th was
frosty with slight fog ; heavy clouds formed during the day ; the
evening was hazy, and at night nearly 1 inch of rain fell. A
mock-sun was observed between 6 and 7 a.m. on the 29th ; the
forenoon proved boisterous, showery, with sunny intervals ; and
one-third of an inch of rain fell between 8 a.m. and 1 p.m.

April. — The amount of rain was exactly equal to the average.
The mean temperature was 2|° below the average, and tiiis
may be attributed to the prevalence of north, north-east, and
north-west winds. Fourteen nights were more or less frosty.
Peaches and nectarines on walls suffered much, especially in
gardens where no protection was afforded. In the Society's
Garden fair crops of these fruits were saved by means of coping-
boards, projecting about 9 inches. The last week of the month
was very inclement. On the 27th there Mas a hail-shower be-
tween 5 and 6 p.m. ; the stones were large, but not very hard ;
lightning was seen in the evening. On the afternoon of the 29th
thunder was heard, and soon after large hail began to fall ; the

140 METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS

stones were short-pyriforni, and in substance resembled compact
snow. On the 30tli there were also hail-showers occasionally
during- the day.

May. — Tliis month was generally cold and windy. The mean
temperature of the days was only lf° below the average of the
days in May, but the niean of tlie night temperatures was 4°
colder than the average. The first four nights were frosty.
Pears were then generally out of bloom, and a plentiful crop of
young fruit had set, notwithstanding the previous cold nights,
even as much as 7° below freezing, on the 26th and 27th of the
preceding month. But the trees had not then been much excited
by warm weather. They became, however, very much so in
consequence of a warm south v/ind on the 8th, 9th, and 10th of
the present month. On the latter of these days tlie thermometer
rose to 70'^ in the shade. The sap was in rapid motion towards
the young fruit, when it was suddenly checked by 5° of frost on
the night of the 14th. The flow of sap appeared to have been
in consequence diverted from the fruit, and afterwards appro-
priated by the foliage. -At all events most of the former became
yellow in a few days, and dropped, after it had endured, 17 days
earlier, 2° more of frost, with much less foliage to shelter it,

June. — The mean temperature was about 1^° below the ave-
rage. The quantity of rain was nearly half an inch less than
the usual amount; none fell after the 18th; and from this time
to the end of the month the days were generally very hot. Occa-
sionally, however, the nights were comparatively cold. On that
of the 23rd the thermometer was within 3° of freezing, probably
the effect of a brisk north-west wind on the 22nd. The 5th, 8th,
and 1 6th were boisterous.

July. — Upwards of 1^ inch above the usual quantity of rain
fell in this month ; yet there were many fine days, for nearly
half the amount of rain fell on the 1st and 23rd, The morning
of the 1st was hazy and mild ; several peals of thunder were
heard ; and again about 8 p,m,, lightning being then vivid, with
rain falling in torrents. This rain, it may be remarked, and also
that of the 23rd, came in the train of east winds, and not from
south-west, as heavy and continued summer rains generally do.
The mean temperature of the month was nearly 3° below the
average.

August. — The mean temperature of the month was folly equal
to the average. During the first three weeks the weather was,
on the whole, exceedingly fine, with scarcely any rain excepting
on the l7th. The barometer stood high throughout the month,
altliough south-west winds were prevalent. The day of the 27th
was fine ; but during the night a greater depth of rain fell than
in any 24 hours of the preceding 26 years, at least in this

MADE IN THE GARDEN OF THE SOCIETY. 141

locality. Before morning 1 inch ^^ had fallen. The 29th was
showery, with hail between 1 and 3 p.m. On the 30th the tem-
perature at night fell to 35°, and the radiating thermometer
indicated as low as the freezing point.

September. — The weather througiiout the iBonth was almost
uninterruptedly fine. Kain fell during the day on the 25th and
30th only ; and altogether the quantity was very limited, scarcely
amounting to half an inch. The barometer stood remarkably
hio-h ; the height of the mercurial columu was never under
30 inches from the beginning of the month up to the 20th. The
mean temperature was 2° below the average, owing solely to the
coldness of the nights, for the mean temperature of the days was
not lower than usual. Frost occurred as early as the 9tli, and
some leaves of scarlet-runners and gourds were then blackened.
On the 28th the common thermometer indicated 2° below freez-
ing, and the radiating one 4° below that point. North-east winds
were remarkably prevalent.

October. — The mean temperature of the month was about | of
a degree above the average. The depth of rain was about 2
inches, fully half an inch less than the average. The ground
was previously verj^ dry, and planting out was retarded in con-
sequence. The quantity of rain in this month was sufficient to
moisten the soil for this purpose ; but it did not penetrate to the
lower roots of trees and shrubs ; for it was found that the soil
under these still remained very dry.

November. — This was the coldest November that has been
experienced for the last 26 years at least. The mean tem-
perature was upwards of 7° below the average. 23 nights were
more or less frosty. On the night of the 18th the common
thermometer indicated 16° below freezing, and the radiating
one as many as 21° below that point. The wind came chiefly
from cold quarters — from north 10 days, north-east 4 days, and
north-west 6 days. The amount of rain was very limited, being
little more than half an inch. "With the exception of that on
the 23rd, none fell after the 12th.

December. — The mean temperature of this month was nearly
equal to that of December deduced from the average of 26
years' observations, and it was 3° above that of the preceding
month. The amount of rain was much below the usual quantity.
With the exception of a very little on the 5th and 16th, none
fell from the beginning of the month till the 19th. Reckoning
from this date, and as far back as the 9th of the preceding
month, there is a period of 40 days almost without rain. The
barometer was unusually high.

142 OBSERVATIONS MADE IN TlIE GARDEN OF THE SOCIETY.

Geothermometrical Ohservations.

Temperature

Temperature

Monthly

Day

OF THE

Earth.

Day

OF THE Air.

Day

Mean

1

L851.

of
the

of
the

of
the

Tenipc-

i

ratiiro of

Month.

1 Foot.

2 Feet.

Month.

Day.

Night.

Month.

tlie Air.

0

0

0

0

[Max.

4th

44

50

44

50

pt

54

51

pt

0

<

min.

25*

38

41

24'"

34

22

23^'»

40-07

•-S

[Mean

41

74

42

92

—

47-

09

33

06

—

fMax.

2P'

43

42

18'"

57

47

18'"

hiin.

17'"

37

39

50

2nd

40

17

16'"

38-44

pi^

[Mean

—

39

73

40

98

—

47

46

29

03

—

Max,

ggth

46

45

20'"

58

45

25'"

<

Min.

4th

38

39

50

2nd

43

24

3rd

41-72

%

[Mean

—

41

48

41

95

—

49

93

33

51

—

ij

[Max.

25'"

51

50

19'"

65

48

2P'

s

Min.

11'"

43

44

6'"

47

21

gth

44-56

El

<!

[Mean

—

46

18

46

28

—

55

20

33

93

—

[Max.

3P'

57

50

54

29'"

75

48

20'"

Min.

4th

47

47

50

^th

50

27

14'"

51-16

S

[Mean

51

34

49

77

—

63

26

39

06

—

,

[Max.

30'"

65

63

27'"

91

56

gth

iMin.

11'"

55

54

10'"

55

35

23rd

59-21

to
»-5

(Mean

—

58

70

56

71

—

71

40

47

03

—

^.

[Max.

Min.

(Mean

9nd

65

63

2nd

82

62

31"

1^
1-1

19'"

59

58

24'"

60

37

4th

60-71

to
•-5

—

61

26

59

56

—

71

68

49

74

—

fMax.

4111

66

63

12'"

83

62

pt

Min.

3P'

55

50

55

29'"

59

35

30'"

62-79

<

[Mean

—

62

40

60

68

—

73

84

51

74

—

,

(Max.

3rd

61

58

-50

1"

76

59

2nd

JMin.

30'"

52

50

52

•50

26'"

56

■

30

28'"

55-15

[Mean

—

56

55

55

70

—

66

80

43

50

—

[Max.
Min.

13'"

56

55

ir"

68

55

20'"

3P'

48

49

3P'

48

28

16'"

51-25

O

[Mean.

—

52

65

52

—

59

43

51

—

.

Max.

pt

46

47

pt

52

39

9th

>

o

Min.

30'"

37

38

17'"

35

16

18'"

35-86

^

[Mean

—

41

18

41

96

—

43

96

27

76

—

.

[Max.

21"

45

44

9'"

54

52

9'"

o

H

{Min.

2nd

37

38

3P'

36

17

26'"

38-88

Q

[xMean

41-26

41-06

—

44-67

33-09

—

( 143 )

IX. — On Spring-tenderness in Plants. By George Lovell,

Bagshot.

(Communicated March 4, 1852.)

That many plants, which pass uninjured through the ordinary
severity of our winters, are often seriously damaged by a few
degrees of frost in spring is a fact well known to all who pay the
least attention to the cultivation of hardy plants ; and the causes,
too, are equally well understood. In winter the plant is at rest ;
its vegetative powers are in a comparatively dormant state.
The tissues are solidified and more deficient in tluids than at any
other season, and a combination of circumstances, not now neces-
sary to be discussed, render it both physically and mechanically
less susceptible to the influence of external agency. In a word,
a plant is then less organic, or approaches nearer the condition of
an inorganised mass, than when its vegetative and vital prin-
ciples are in active operation, and exhibits a corresponding inert
condition.

It is, I am aware, a prevailing opinion that this spring-tender-
ness, of which I am speaking, arises wholly from constitutional
peculiarity — an hereditary quality, induced by the nature of the
seasons in the country or district from whence any given plant
may be a native, and which still continues to evince itself under
adverse circumstances. But I believe that such peculiarities
arise, not so much from a natural tendency in the individual to
put forth its buds at a particular season, as from its being in-
duced to do so from the influence of local circumstances attending
the situation in which it may be placed. A change of country,
with a corresponding relative alteration of season, would lui-
doubtedly aflfect in a material degree any plant removed from
one part of the globe to another, even though the seasons were in
both identical in point of temperature, but diflferent in time of
occurrence. Yet careful attention to the peculiarity evinced
would in a few seasons induce the plant to adapt itself in some
degree to its altered conditions, or rather I should say circum-
stances may be suited to the plant, to enable it to take advantage
of them.

Now I cannot believe that the most enthusiastic disciple of the
doctrine of the hereditary transmission of qualities would venture
to assert that, even admitting such peculiarity to cling to an
originally introduced plant, it would show itself so decidedly in
its descendants, removed perhaps some half-a-dozen generations
from the ancestor. All gardeners know very well, that a plant
may be made to change its periods of growth by artificial means.
Take the vine as an example. Under ordinary out-door tivat-

144 ON SPRING-TENDERNESS IN PLANTS.

ment it is perfectly hardy in England, and does not begin to
grow, except ia a few rare instances, till after all danger from
spring frosts is over. Sometimes it gets " cut " certainly. So
does the oak, and much oftener too, an indigenous tree be it re-
membered ; and the ash and the elm, and the most coy of our
cultivated trees, the mulberry, often gets " nipped in the bud,"
though late in putting on its spring attire. But to return to the
vine. Take one from the open ground, and by artificial means
induce it to " break " for a few consecutive seasons at Christmas,
and allow it to rest when others are in full leaf and fruit. The
summer sun will scarcely prolong its vegetative season beyond
what is required for its healthy economy ; and, if you now remove
it to the open air, its instincts will not teach it to hold aloof from
the influence of excitable causes at a period when such would be
fatal to it in its then unprotected condition. It will certainly
for a few seasons exhibit a much greater tendency to vegetate at
an unnatural season than one Avhich liad not been induced to do
so artificially. But no one will believe that if seeds were ob-
tained from a vine while under an unnatural period of growth,
and plants obtained from them, that they too would naturally
attempt to put forth their leaves at Christmas. I believe that in
a great measure the periods of vegetation and its attendant phe-
nomena may be changed in relation to the seasons, and tliat such
phenomena do not result periodically and under apparent adverse
circumstances from any inherent and unchangeable quality in the
individual itself, but that it in a great measure depends on the
circumstances by which the plant is surrounded, and that in pro-
portion as those circumstances are under control or direction, so
are the results which must arise from those causes. It may,
however, be urged in opposition, that out-of-door culture is a
veiy different affair as regards the management and modification
of climate, from having to do with glass-houses and all the
attendant aids for creating an artificial and spoiling a natural
climate. I grant it ; yet the action of natural climate may be
much modified, and of course the results in a corresponding ratio,
with reference to plants in the open air, and their tendency to
subject their young growths to the nipping frosts of spring much
obviated. It is not fair to condemn a plant as not being hardy
purely because it gets its young growths cut off by spring frosts,
and to discontinue its cultivation accordingly. The hardiest of
our indigenous trees are often severely cut by their agency, yet
we do not consider them the less able to withstand the climate,
and merely view such as natural and imavoidable contingencies.
And in a small number of trees this influence of frost could be
wholly avoided if it were thought necessary.

A short time since I was conversing with a gentleman who

ON SPEING-TENDERNESS IN PLANTS. 145

had spent much time upon the Himalayan mountains, in tlie
district where the scarlet Rhododendron arboreum grew abun-
dantly. He assured me that in their native habitats, when occu-
pying warm southern slopes, they suffered much by the destruction
of their blossom buds from the late frosts, almost as much as the
early blooming kinds do in the gardens of this country, while, on
the contrary, where growing on northern aspects and experiencing
a greater intensity of frost they were uninjured.

These are facts, exemplifications of which we can witness
every spring, in a more or less degree, in the gardens of this
country.

Early flowering hardy plants are of no use as a general rule
in our gardens. Wet, winds, and frost will not associate with
bright and fragile corollas. The two are incongruous and in-
compatible. Plants which bloom in the open air before May
have little chance of expanding their flowers. But of blooming
plants I did not intend to take cognizance in this paper further
than as illustrative of the principle which I intended to elucidate,
though it will be obvious that they come into the category of
spring tender plants. To ornamental evergi'eens, such as Coni-
ferae, I intended these remarks especially to apply.

An uniform temperature would be almost as injurious, though
in a different manner, to vegetable life as an excessively fluctu-
ating one. But so long as plants are not unduly excited, and
then as unduly retarded or checked, much damage will not
accrue. It is the alternate exciting by the influence of spring
suns and the antagonistic check by the frosts at night which pro-
duces the disastrous results, and renders plants spring-tender.
To counteract these injurious effects such hardy plants as are
known to be highly excitable should be planted in such a situa-
tion as will remove them as much as possible from the influences
which induce such excitability, for by removing or combating
the cause you of course prevent in an equal ratio the results.
Many plants are only spring-tender during the early years of
their growth, and when having reached four or five feet of altitude
evince no susceptibility to their influence. Abies cephalonica is
a remarkable instance of this. "Within a few days I have exa-
mined some of the earliest introduced plants, which for several
years after being planted scarcely progressed at all, being inva-
riably much damaged by spring frosts. The fact of their pro-
gressing very slowly is evident enough when the lower branches
are examined. They are now as luxuriant and as spring-hardy
as could be desired.

The comparative hardiness of the same species in various
districts is apparently of a very anomalous character, and cannot
be explained otherwise than by attributing it to the influence of

146 ^^- SCIILEIDEN'S TIIKORY OF AGHrCULTUEE.

local causes ; but, from the facts wliioli may be gleaned from an
investigation of the subject, theie c<in be no question that many
plants, which in various localities are spring-tender, might be
rendered otherwise in the same districts. Many which occupy
warm, sunny situations, open to the southern aspect, sliould have
been removed from the influence of the early sun altogether,
especially in their young state. It is not to much the action of
the frost alone on vegetable life that causes injury, as the rapid
reaction of the frozen parts by the stimulating influence of the
sunbeams. A frozen vegetable, allowed to thaw gradually in a
suppressed light, may escape uninjured, while one submitted to
the same intensity of cold, and then in that state brought into a
bright light and corresponding warmth, will wholly perish. The
animal economy presents corresponding phenomena.

That plants may be, and very often are, " killed with kind-
ness," to use a homely phrase, tliere can be no doubt. Such as
are known to be tender are often, without attempting to ascertain
the kind of tenderness which they exliibit, placed in the warmest
and most favourable position. Such Avould of course in many
instances be advisable, in others destruction to the plant would
follow. Discrimination must be exercised. A little wholesome
severity is often found as useful to a plant as to an animal when
its future career is taken into considei'ation, and forms an object
of solicitude.

This subject might be much enlarged upon : other points for
discussion I shall defer till some future opportunity.

X.' — Dr. Schleiden^s Theory of Agriculture. By the Rev.
M. J. Berkeley, M.A., F.L.S.

[Continued from p. 46.]

In considering the objects of cultivation two opposite questions
arise for our solution — the one theoretic and the other practical.
The first is how to attain with every special exertion no more
than one single end and to act upon one condition only of vege-
table life. In so doing we should be in a j^osition to measure
exactly the degree of that exertion, and consequently to bring
it into perfect unison with the end to be effected. This ideal
perfection may and should be our aim in every trial and experi-
ment, and the more we advance towards it the surer shall Ave be
of a useful result.

The other is the practical. The object here is to supply the
wants of man as abundantly and at as cheap a rate as possible,

DR. SCHLEIDEN'S THEORY Ol- AGRICULTURE. 147

and therefore through one and the same effort to satisfy as many
conditions as possible, tlie evil consequence of which is, that the
multitude of ends to which it is directed, from the unequal de-
gree in which every particular object is attained, make it ex'
treraely difficult to estimate beforehand the results of our
labours, so that it requires great knowledge and circumspection
to jjlace them in their due relation witli the preceding operations.

All, then, that can be done in the present state of things is to
examine such methods of cultivation as have from time to time
been adopted empirically, and consider on what conditions of
vegetable life they operate, which they improve and which they
vitiate ; and to this end we have first to review- briefly the indi-
vidual circumstances on which success depends, and secondly, on
how many of these conditions, in what way and to what degree,
every particular method of cultui'e has any influence.

The circumstances on which the success of agriculture de-
pends may be diviiled into two classes, those over which the skill
of man has no control, and those which he is able more or less
to modify. The first comprises climate, atmospheric conditions,
and the geologic nature of the substratum ; the latter the phy-
sical nature of tlie soil itself and its chemical constitution.

I. — A. The dependence of vegetation on climate is too pal-
pable to be denied, and yet the cultivator has but little, except
his own tact and common sense, to assist him. In countries
where there is such an amazing difference between different
years, careful and conscientious records of the course of seasons,
with the help of a little physiological and geological knowledge,
would throw great light on the value of an estate and its capa-
bilities. In Germany there is sometimes all the luxuriance of a
subtropical country, while in other years the produce is almost
nominal.

The further Ave go towards the equator or pole the more uni-
form is the climate and the fewer the species under cultivation.
In consequence of the irregularities jieculiar to the more tem-
perate regions, a greater diversity of objects and modes of cul-
tivation is possible and indeed necessary, and therefore more skill
requisite.

Mere prognostics of weather are worse than fallacious. Care-
ful observers may indeed in their own particular districts look
forward safely from past experience to the state of the weather
for a day or two, but beyond this there is not even any tolerable
degree of probability in their predictions. That there are, how-
ever, certain cycles of seasons is far from improbable, but these
can only be ascertained by careful and honest registration through
a long series of years.

If, however, we could know beforehand that in ten throws of

148 DU. SCHLEIDEN'S THKOEY OF AGRICULTURE.

the dice there would be triplets three times, a higli number five
times, and a low number tw ice, bets might be so arranged as to
make them on the whole successful ; and so in the long run
the cultivator might so jiroportion his crops as to be sure of tlie
eventual result in a determinate course of years, sujiposing that
he had any knowledge on which he could rely of the cycles of
weather.

It may be perhaps worthy of remark that though man is unable
to exercise any influence on climate in general, he has tlie power
of modifying it in particular localities. Tacitus tells us that
no cherries, and much less grapes, would ripen in Germany,
speaking of the southern districts and those bordering on the
Rhine ; and yet the present condition of those districts, arising
in great measure from tlie destruction of forests, is too well
known to need any comment. Tlie consequence of any extensive
reduction of woodland tends to elevate the temperature, but the
results are not all so beneficial. The drying up of springs, the
diminution of rivers, and on the other hand sudden and destruc-
tive floods, are all notorious consequences. Hence the East,
once so richly peopled and cullivated, has half become a wilder-
ness, and hence the dry and barren summers of Greece and
Italy, in consequence of which the cultivation of clover, wliich
was once so rich, lias become almost impossible ; and to this
cause are attributable the dreadful floods which almost every
year desolate the banks of the Rhone. More examples might
easily be adduced, but these are sufficient to confirm the earnest
advice, " spare the forests, especially those which contain the
sources of your streams, for your own sakes, but more especially
for that of your children and grandchildren."

B. Plants which are fixed into the soil by means of their
roots, and whose leaves are expanded to the air, may be con-
sidered as the children of both. Since the proceeds of all de-
composition of organic matter are volatile, the atmosphere may
be regarded as the great storehouse of the organic nutriment of
plants, as also for water, carbonic acid, ammonia, sulphuretted
hydrogen, and perhaps also phosphuretted hydrogen ; not, how-
ever, as was stated in the former part of this notice, that they
are immediately received from the air, but ratlier tlirough the
intervention of water from the ground. Indeed the ground, by
reason of every porous body which it contains, absorbs these
elements. The relations of the water contained in the atmos-
phere to the soil are most important as regards vegetable life.
If a series of dry summers be compared with the corresponding
produce, a great difference will be found to arise from the natuie
of the prevalent winds. Drought is not so much felt with a
course of south or soutli-west wind as with one of nortli or north-

DR. SCHLEIDEN'S THEOKY OF AGRICULTURE. 149

east. Plants receive a far greater quantity of water from the
steam of the atmosphere than from what falls in the shape of
rain, which indeed is especially valuable as an indication of the
complete saturation of the air with water.

The coast of Peru affords a most striking example. The soil
for eighteen degrees of latitude is a loose moveable sand. From
May, for six months, a thin veil of clouds covers the coasts from
nine or ten o'clock in the morning to thi-ee in the afternoon.
From the first appearance of the cloud the sand hills, as if by
enchantment, assume the features of a beautiful garden, and
support for half a year a vast quantity of beasts and horses, though
real rain scarcely falls once in five years.

It has been supposed that rain brings down a certain quantity
of inorganic salts, which have even been estimated at 86 lbs.
per acre. Half, however, of the water sinks into the depths of
the earth to supply the springs, or runs off at once into the
streams ; and it carries off with it not only a great quantity of
soluble salts, but also of inorganic matter : and supposing that
so much as 86 lbs. are actually added every year to the soil,
and half the water be carried off as above mentioned, each lb.
of which contains only five grains of salts, 400 lbs. more of
soluble matter would be carried off annually than it receives.

Annual plants, as soon as their seeds are well formed, seem
to be perfectly independent of any further supply of water ;
thus, for instance, the stem of cereals dies from below upwards
long before the grains have attained their full chemical evolution.

The motion and pressure of the atmosphere, again, are of
great consequence as regards the process of exhalation and evo-
lution of gaseous matter, which covdd not take place in an
atmosphere completely saturated with moisture.

One of the most important points, however, is temperature.
Though no tabular observations exist in reference to the subject,
it is quite certain that a particular degree of temperature is
necessary for the perfect development of each particular plant
during every portion of its existence ; and were we in possession
of good observations we should often be in a condition, from
antecedent circumstances of temperature in particular stages of
growth, to predict the final result. The vine, for instance, will
grow vigorously where, from want of sufficient temperature,
neither blossom nor fruit often come to perfection. It is obvious
that evils, when foreseen in good time, often cease to be evils.

Light, again, has a very powerful influence on vegetation.
The luxuriance of many tropical climes, and the peculiarities of
vegetation in Alpine plants, depend greatly on the intensity of
the light. The development of the minute fungi which cause
mouldiness, on the contrary, is almost stopped by the same

VOL. vir. M

150 l>Ii- SCHLEIDEN'S TIIEOltY OK AGRICULTURE.

cause. Many mosses and liverworts can be bvonglit to fructify
under cultivation only when covered with green glass, which
imitates the peculiar light of the places in which tliey naturally
grow.

Electricity, beyond doubt, is a powerful agent in vegetation,
but at present we are not in a condition to estimate its influence.
The luxuriance of growth after a thund<;r&torm is well known to
be such as the mere quantity of rain which descends is not at all
sufficient to explain.

C. The geological nature of the subsoil was the third point
mentioned.

With respect to site, a gentle slope towards the south-west is the
most preferable, except in very thin, dry soils, and the lower the
land lies the more probability is there of accessions of inorganic
matter from above. A too rapid inclination causes the water to
run off too rapidly, often to the destruction of the soil. Under
these circumstances, however, the want of a pervious substratum
may be less felt ; and even where it is rocky, the shallowness of
mould, other circumstances being favourable, may be compen-
sated, and the cultivation of deep-rooting plants be possible.
Tlie mechanical composition of the substratum is also of great
import. Firm rocks, and difficult of decomposition, present an
absolute impediment to any penetration beyond the external soil.
Coarse masses of gravel or rubble, which have no power of im-
bibing the substances lixiviated from the soil and in turn of
restoring them when needful, are equally injurious. The most
profitable subsoil is afforded by alluvial or diluvial strata of sand,
clay, marl, &c., but of these the worst is sand, unless constantly
moist from lying at a sufficient depth. The great advantage of
these substrata is, that tillage may be carried to any depth, and
next in order come such strata as consist of stone, which is
loose and easily decomposed. Nor is its chemical nature of less
consequence. On this depends the richness of the soil in inor-
ganic constituents, and those subsoils which the more easily part
with these constituents are the most favourable, such as volcanic
ashes, lava, and basalt ; after which come feldspathic porphyry
and granite. Pure sand and lime, free from admixture of clay,
are the poorest. Those strata also which crop out and whose
fractured ends are exposed are better than those where the sur-
face follows exactly their dip. In fact, on the subsoil in great
measure depends the just degree of drainage, temperature, and
other circumstances, and in general the looser the soil itself is,
the firmer and more compact should be the substratum.

II. There are, however, other circumstances which are more
or less under the power of the cultivator and on which success
immediately depends. He can form a soil where none is present,

Dl{. SCHLEIDEN'S THEORY OF AGRICULTURE. ]51

unci with few exceptions can modify it in till its peculiarities.
Each circumstance must, nevertheless, be carefully distinguished
in the inquiiy and its especial influence noted. The matter may
be considered under tAvo heads, the physical and chemical pro-
perties of the ground.

A. a. The quantity and state of aggregation first require no-
tice. Other points being equal, the most favourable circum-
stance in soil is its depth. Some of the virgin forests of Ame-
rica, without any manure and with scarcely any labour, will
yield abundant crops of tobacco for centuries. The mean depth
of soil, how^ever, in our fields is about 6 inches, but the only
limit to improvement in this respect is a substratum of hani
stone or un tractable water. Some plants require a much deeper
soil than others. The white mountain clover, for instance, and
sainfoin succeed best in a shallow soil,lucern and common clover
in deep layers. Plants with spreading roots never grow so thick
as tliose whose roots run deep, and tliese, when compelled to ex-
pand their roots in wet ground, require more lOom, consequently
seed may be sown thicker in deep than in shallow soils. The
deeper the soil is, the more independent of course it is of the
subsoil. In the southern States of America, for instance, as also
in many parts of Hungary, it is so deep as to make the nature
of the substrata quite indifferent. The composition of the soil,
however, apart from chemical considerations, is equally im-
portant. Deep sands like those about Berlin, which sometimes
are carried oflP together with the whole crop which they sustain,
and plastic clays which are turned by the heat of sunnner into
stone, are the extremes. Between these there are innumerable
gradations, varying in the degree of fineness and looseness, of
very different value in proportion as they are suflficiently reten-
tive to allow of no waste of chemical matters, and loose enougii
to permit the free penetration of the rootlets.

b. The capabilities of soil, as regards temperature, is the next
point to be considered. According to Schubler, the temperature
depends very little on its chemical constituents, but principally
on its colour, and on the moisture it contains. The darker it is,
the higher in general its temperature ; consequently vegetable
mould has in this respect a very decided influence. Humus,
however, is an active agent in point of temperature, not only
as regards its colour ; its loose structure continually saturated
with oxygen favours extremely the process of decomposition
of the organic substances in the soil ; or in other words, a con-
tinued combustion which must elicit a quantity of heat equivalent
to the results of combustion. How important this is will appear
from the following consideration : — If we assume the deptli of
very good soil, and rich in humus, to be eiu:ht inches, there will

INI 2

]52 I^R- SCHT.KIDEN'S THEORY OF AGRICULTURE.

be rather more than two millions of pounds to the acre ; accord-
ing to Saussure, 8^ per cent, will be consumed by combustion
in a year, that is more than 160,000 lbs. ; a consumption capable
of raising the temperature of the water contained in the soil
3° of Reaumur. As regards moisture, the ground is less suscep-
tible of warmth the more evaporable water it contains, since the
evaporating fluid consumes the iieat which is present in the
process of tlie formation of steam. If, in addition, it has a pale
light colour, it is almost incapable of receiving heat.

The actual temperature of the soil is in an inverse proportion
witli its susceptibility of Iieat. Since a body, on an average,
radiates heat the more readily it receives it, there may be soils
which attract heat slowly, and therefore are cooler in summer,
but which give off their heat also slowly, and therefore are
warmer in winter. We are only speaking however of heat
directly received from the sun. There is sometimes an accession
of heat independent of the sun, namely from the irrigation of
running water. Springs have generally a lower temperature in
summer, and a higher in winter, than the surrounding atmos-
phere. In consequence, the formation of seed in water-meadows
must be checked in summer, and vegetation kept up in winter,
on which principle their great produce is most easily explained.

c. One of tlie most important properties of soils is the power
with which they imbibe gases. The question here relates prin-
cipally to those which are most important to vegetation, as car-
bonic acid and ammonia. Unfortunately, though tables exist
relative to the absorption of oxygen, there are none which show
how the matter stands with those just mentioned. Oxygen is
needed only during germination.

Where, however, no actual chemical combination exists, it
appears that, when one kind of gas is powerfully absorbed, anotiier
is also powerfully absorbed by the same substance ; and, there-
fore, assuming this to be the case, we may use the existent table
for an approximation to the results which may be expected with
carbonic acid and ammonia. Now these gases are absorbed by
all absorbing substances, and particularly by water, which is of
especial consequence to our question, in incomparably greater
quantities than oxygen ; and we may therefore assume that the
same law liolds good with reference to the soil. With respect
to clay, for instance, it is known that, when heated, it begins
attain while cooling to receive ammonia from the atmosphere.
Many of the constituents of humus have so great an affinity for
ammonia that, as for instance crenic and apocrenic acid, they
were a long time considered as nitrogenous combinations when
we were not in a condition to separate them from ammonia.
According to some authorities, humus and humic acid, ulmin

DR. SCHLEIDEN'S THEOKV OF AGEICULTURE. 153

and ulmic acid, especially in a moist state, neutralize twenty or
thirty times their volume of carbonic acid or ammonia.

It appears then from the tables above mentioned that pure
quartz sand has the smallest, lime and gypsum a medium, clay
and humus the highest power of absorbing carbonic acid and
ammonia from the atmosphere, on which alone the proportionate
fertility of these soils depends.

d. The moisture of the ground is however the medium of
these powers. Dew and rain will not by themselves supply the
demands of vegetation, and therefore the soil must have the
power of absorbing steam from the atmosphere. And tins power
is in exact accordance with what has just been mentioned with
respect to carbonic acid and ammonia. And to this must be
added that property of retaining water when absorbed, as well
as of absorption.

B. The chemical peculiarities of the soil form the second liead
under this division. Soil which is capable of producing plants
in luxuriance must contain the necessary chemical constituents.
It is not immaterial in what combination these exist in the soil,
which must also contain many constituents which are not neces-
sary for nutrition, but whose presence and quantity affect the
physical qualities of the soil, which are themselves of great
moment.

a. Insoluble combinations are of course useless to plants,
however rich they may be in the requisite materials. On the
other hand, analyses which regard merely wliat is held in solution,
inasmuch as a greater portion is carried off by drainage, are, in
great measure, useless. The most important constituents of the
soil are those which are gradually rendered soluble by the decom-
posing influence of water containing carbonic acid and ammonia,
and partly also by the oxygen of the atmosphere. Silicates, rich
in alkalies, answer these conditions. The most favourable com-
binations are those in which the requisite inorganic matters are
contained in organic substances, w hicli protect them from imme-
diate solution, and still, in consequence of their constant decom-
position, part with them as the exigencies of the plants require.

Almost all important inorganic matters are destructive or
injurious to plants when concentrated, and therefore they must
be carried by the water away from the influence of evaporation,
which might concentrate them too much, or at least they should
be in such chemical relation to water, that it can contain only a
certain quantity, and therefore on evaporation parts with the
superfluous quantity in an insoluble state. Plants are not
capable of selecting their food. The chemical constituents must,
therefore, exist in the proper proportion. In uncultivated soils,
where the proportions necessary to a particular plant do not

154 I^K. SCIILEIDEN'S THEOllY OF AGBICULTURE.

exist, or where they are exceeded, the species will not grow ;
and in the case of cultivated plants, certain conditions are neces-
sary for the perfect success of each species or variety. It is
possible that different conditions may be requisite or desirable
at different stages of growth, a point which requires attentive
study, as also in what order and in what quantities the con-
stituents of organic materials become free under the influence of
weather or decay, and thirdly, in what proportion, at different
periods of the year, and in different stages of vegetation, sucli
dissolution and decay take place.

If vegetable mould cannot be regarded as the actual nutriment
of plants, with reference to their organic constituents, yet some
of its constituents are probably not without importance for the
supply of their inorganic elements. Besides that many salts are
changed when in contact with decaying humus into easily soluble
carbonates or more salutary to vegetation, there ai'e two acids
contained in humus, the crenic and apocrenic, which, through
their remarkable properties, are in a condition to supply a great
quantity of inorganic matter to plants, without, at the same time,
overwhelming them with a great mass of organic substance.
Both acids are pluribasic ; the apocrenic, for instance, is 5 basic,
that is, it contains I equivalent of acid, and 5 of the base ;
therefore double and triple salts are easily formed ; and if but
one equivalent of ammonia be present, the salts are easily soluble.

It must be remembered, that this condition must be reversed,
if the organic substances of the ground were really destined for
the organic nourishment of plants.

h. The physical nature of the soil must be in a proper
relation to its chemical constituents. Sand, lime, clay, and
humus are the elements of the question. These, if properly
proportioned, will satisfy the necessary conditions of vegetation.
About 40 or 50 per cent, of clay seems the best proportion. A
greater quantity makes the ground too stiff, and also, from its
retention of water, too cold. With less than 10 per cent, it
will be too light or poor. Humus is here, however, of the greatest
moment. Its very loose consistence acts with extraordinary
rapidity on the texture of clay, while its attraction and reten-
tion of water serve in the most wonderful degree to bind sand
together, as appears from the fertility of the red soil of Cuba,
which is naturally free from humus, and the Brazilian and Nortli
American forests, which consist of nothing else ; so that, under
favourable circumstances, clay may replace humus, and iuunus
clay. The following table shows, in the most striking way, tiiat
the fertility of soil is proportionally quite independent of the
humus which it contains: —

DK. SCHLEIDEN'S THEOllY OF AGRICULTURE. 155

Nature of Soil. Iliimus contained.

Soil on which rape-seed is cultivated near Lillo . . 0*0 per cent.

Very good English turnip-land O-G ,,

Sandy ground covered with fine pines in the Black

Forest 1 .3

Extremely fertile wheat-land in England . . . . 2-8 ,,

Vineyard of Rotheberg in Kheingau 3-3 ,,

]3arreu sands near Guttingen 4*2 , ,

Very good English wheat-land 4*4 ,,

Barren clays of Liineburgh 4' 4 ,,

Good meadow-land in Bebenhausen 4-5 , ,

Fertile ploughed laud near Guttingen 5-0 ,,

Very light soil, unfavourable for common culture,

Neckarthal 8*4 , ,

Best English meadows 12'7 ,,

Black barren moors 76*0 ,,

Very light barren brown peat . 89-0 ,,

It appears then, from all that has been stated, that in order (o
insure favourable results, attention must be turned first to a
thorough knowledge of the particular objects of cultivation, their
climatic conditions, the soil they require, the difierences whicli
exist between them and plants in free nature, the j)ropcrties of soil,
as well in those points over which man has no control, as the state
of its texture and composition, whicli are more or less within his
power. Tliis leads to the subject of fallowing, then to varioiis
modes of working- the land, to manures, to drainage, and finally
to rotation of cropping-. Some of these have already occupied
so much room that they must be passed over in a few words.

A. Under the first head we shall content ourselves with
pointing- out the necessity of embracing- every opportunity of
improving- the objects of cultivation. Wherever any peculiar
qualities exist in a particular plant, especially adapted to any
particular soil, that plant should be carefully preserved, and
every circumstance about it noted. Those who cultivate on a
large scale, and extensive proprietors, may thus in process of
time acquire valuable varieties or information as to the points
which have produced any especial good qualities, to the great
benefit of society. But in cultivation on a small scale, mucli
dei)ends on a cautious selection of seed. It should be perfectly
ripe, clean, and free from admixture of weeds, and care should
be taken that it was grown upon a suitable soil. That which
comes from a barren field is much more likely to be true to its
variety than what comes from highly manured land. In general,
the time of sowing depends upon circumstances which place it
out of the power of the cultivator to choose his weather; rye
and barley, however, recpiire a drier time than oats.

B. As regartls tlie knowledge of the soil, thisnuist be obtained
by actual examination, though not by a perfect cliemical analysis.
No certain judgment can be formed by its natural produce, but

156 DR. SCHLEIDEN'S THEORY OF AGRICULTUKE.

an inspection of its physical condition and general chemical con-
stituents, such as may be made by simple mechanical processes
and a slight degree of chemical manipulation, which will give
not only a notion of its present worth, but of its future capa-
bilities, is almost indispensable.

C. The object of ploughing, and other allied processes, is the
deepening of the soil, the alteration of its texture, either by
the mere mechanical action or admixture of organic and inor-
ganic manure, and the destruction of noxious weeds, to which
may be added the necessity of placing the seed in a fit position
for vegetation, and protecting it from birds and other noxious
animals. It nmst be borne in mind that, Avhile the opening of
the soil subjects it to the influence of the atmosphere more com-
pletely and to a greater depth than would be otherwise possible,
the humus is rendered liable to rapid decomposition, such as may
more than overbalance any good which might arise from the
exposure of the surface ; and this destruction takes place at
the very time when it is not available for the demands of vege-
tation, added to which the most valuable portions are often
carried off by an overflow of water. Ploughing, then, must be
considered rather as a necessary evil, and one to be employed
only so far as necessity requires. Because frequent ploughing is
useful in some cases, it is not to be assumed hastily that the rule
is generally applicable.

D. The doctrine of fallows will require a rather more copious
abstract. The word was originally applied simply to land wliich
was left uncropped, and may be considered exactly opposite to
tlie employment of manure. Afterwards the system was some-
what complicated by the introduction during the last century of
leguminous plants, such as clover, especially from Italy, where
the system had long been practised, and fallows, in tlie old sense
of the word, have in great measure become obsolete, though
it was long retained for matters with which it was originally
entirely unconnected.

We may define it as follows : Fallow is that condition of the
land in which, during one or more years, notiiing is taken away
in the shape of harvest, or added in that of manure. In this
strict sense the grazing of cattle on the fallow-field would be
excluded, but, inasmuch as through grazing there is so little in-
frino-ement on the proper purport of fallow, it is included under
our notion of the word.

Fallows may be divided into green and naked fallows : in the
first the land is suffered to clothe itself with a thick coat of
weeds ; in the second it is kept bare by one or more ploughings, so
as to be constantly exposed to the influence of the atmosphere.

1. The thick covering of soil with vegetation hinders in many
ways the action of the atmosphere upon it. The shading of the

DK. SCHLEIDEN's THEORY OF AGRICULTUEE. 157

leaves keeps off the direct sunbeams, and consequently impedes
evaporation. The moisture is therefore retained for the exi-
gencies of the plants, which are consequently more luxuriant, as
also from the increased absorption of carbonic acid ; while the
consumption of humus is either prevented or prolonged from the
stagnation of the air immediately in contact with it, since an
atmosphere of carbonic acid, the produce of decomposition, sur-
rounds the constituents of the humus, impeding the accession of
fresh oxygen, and consequently of further decay. Those parts
meanwhile which are slowly dissolved are stored up in the plants
which cover the ground, which constantly receives an addition
from the falling leaves, and the accession of vegetable matter is
eventually greatly increased by the ploughing in of the green
covering. The benefit of such fallows to poor and light ground
is at once evident.

2. In the naked fallow, weeds are not allowed to come to
their full growth. The increase of humus is therefore slight
from this source, while it is sensibly diminished by the constant
ploughing, the dissolution of its mineral constituents proceeding
with equal rapidity. These unfortunately are subject to be
washed away by overwhelming rains. The naked fallow is only
useful then where the requisite looseness of soil camiot be at-
tained in any other May.

The notion of rest so prevalent amongst cultivators is clearly
wrong, except it be rest from the destructi^■e influence of the
plough.

E. The subject of manures has already been touched upon so
much that we must content ourselves with some general remarks,
without entering upon any special substances, which are treated
at considerable length by Dr. Schleiden. There is the less need
to follow all his observations, as much is accessible to English
readers in the work of Boussingault.

The word manure, taken in its widest sense, comprehends
everything that is put to the land with a view to the improve-
ment of the crop, whether organic or inorganic. Ko agricultural
operation can satisfy one condition alone of vegetable life. It is by
manure almost exclusively that man is able to alter the character
of land, and the supply of nutriment from it is so far from being
the only object it answers, that in many cases it might be doubted
even whether this were the principal end, and therefore the indi-
vidual properties must be separated carefully from one another.

If we consider the waste which takes place in the consumption
of what is carried out of the field, that in such crops as flax
scarcely anything is returned, that a large portion of the organic
matter is destroyed by the process of combustion, it will be
evident that, without having recourse to fallows or green crop-
ping, it would be impossible to cultivate land with mere farm-

158 I5I^- SCHLlilDliN'S THEOKY OF AGKICULTURE.

yard manure, and that the organic matters can be merely acces-
sories, and not the most important principles.

It must be remembered, too, tiiat the animal world depends
ultimately for its existence on the vegetable kingdom, and there-
fore what animals reqiure for nourishment must be necessary and
not accidental constituents of plants. Manmialia want, for in-
stance, lime and phosphates for their bones, iron for the colouring-
matter of their blood, nitre for their bile, muriates for their
gastric juice, and probably they could not live without potash
and sulphur, which we find in all their fluids. These then of
necessity must enter into their composition, and in grasses flint is
indispensable, though we do not find that it exercises any important
function in animals. This latter principle is universally diffused,
while phosphates are comparatively rare, and therefore demand
the first consideration. They exist in animal manure, especially
in human ordure, combined with lime, magnesia, and ammonia
ill a soluble or insoluble form, and are supplied largely by bones,
which in England are imported extensively from the Continent.

Tiiere are many tables which seem to indicate that manures
are profitable in proportion as they are rich in nitrogen ; but the
experiments from which they were derived were made under pre-
judiced view^s, and they show that their beneficial character is at
least as clearly indicated by their alkalies and phosphates, as
appears by the tables of HermbstJidt and Kuhlraann. Alkalies
are very generally diffiised in nature, though there are lands
almost destitute of them which require a proper admixture.
These besides generally form highly soluble combinations which
are easily carried away by water, and the plants which grow in
the neighbourhood of dung-hills and firm-yards are especially
those whose ashes abovuid in them. A great waste, therefore,
must occur, which ought to be carefully replaced. Chili salt-
petre, a natural nitrate of soda, has been mvich recommended.
That tlie alkali, and not the nitrogen, is the active principle here
appears from the fact that the increase in hay and straw from
manure with nitrate of soda contains twice as much nitrogen as
the salt used for manure. Lime is a very general principle, and
as the carbonate and sulphate are not very soluble a good deal
remains in dung ; still there is waste, and some kinds of land are
naturally deficient in this principle. Marl and gypsum are the
great sources from which it can be artificially supplied ; the
latter also affords sulphur. Iron, magnesia, sulphuric acid, and
nuiriatic acid may be classed together, because they are of less
importance than the others, and need no particular observations.
Magnesia, though pi-esent in small quantities, seems to have an
important office (perhaps from its relation to phosphoric acid) ;
at least, it is surprising that in the ashes of most plants it bears a
greater projiortion to lime than it does in the soil.

DR. SCULEIDEN'S THEORY OF AGRICULTURE. 159

Flint is so universal that, however necessary, it scarcely ever
requires to be supplied artificially, and if so the point would be
to apply it in a soluble form. It must be remembered that the
greater part of the silex comes back to the land with the manure,
while a proportionately large quantity of the more valuable con-
stituents is carried off with the grain, a circumstance of great
consequence in estimates of cropping and manure, as the relative
proportions on which so much depends are totally deranged.

It does not follow, though under certain methods of farming
more inorganic matter comes back continually tliau has been
taken away, that inorganic matters are not the important consti-
tuents in the nutriment of plants, because, if the alkalies in the
harvest be as 2*3, and that in the manure as 2-17, or on the
addition of turf ashes, as practised by Boussingault, as 2 "30,
the conditions are altogether different, a fact which seems to
be too often overlooked.

A very few words on organic manures must suffice, as so much
has already been said on the subject. Nitrogen is received from
dung in the form of ammonia. It is a common notion that the
proportion of ammonia contained in manure is of great value as
regards the nourishment of plants, which is sometimes regarded
as the only source from whence tlie nitrogen contained in plants
is derived. The great produce of water-meadows, which receive
no dung, is sufficient to show that this prejudice is not well
founded. Peruvian guano containing 29 * 88 lbs. of nitrogen
has almost the same effect as bone-jelly containing 82' 55, and
one-third more than sulphate of ammonia containing 50 'To.
The substances which have most effect as manures are those
which are rich in phosphates, and in a series of experiments the
greatest effect was protluced by Flemish dung, consisting of urine
and pure human excrement, which is rich in alkalies ; and that
these ought to be taken into consideration is proved by tiie
favourable effects of Cliili saltpetre (nitrate of soda). It is re-
markable too that bone-ashes, rich in phosjihate of lime, produce
no effect by themselves, but, when combined with ammoniacal
water from gas-works, their effect is surprising, a result wiiich
probably depends on the dissolving power of the ammonia on
other substances, and especially on phosphates.

On the whole then it appears that, except in cases of an inex-
haustible depth of soil, cultivation cannot succeed, or at least the
fertility of the land be fully sustained, from the resources of the
soil itself; either a portion must be in meadow, or additional
manure must in some shape or other be introduced.

B. Manures act also on the physical constitution of the ground.
The power of absorbing steam and gas from the atmospliere
depends almost exclusively on the quantity of clay or humus.
The great pohit undoubtedly is to keep up the supply of the

160 UR sen LEIDEN'S THEORY OF AGRICULTURE.

latter, to protluce which is the great office of the organic matter
ill manure. The manure, however, made upon a farm will not
suffice for this, without there is a proper proportion of meadow or
of artificial grasses. Other physical conditions, as temperature,
looseness of soil, are also promoted by this substance, which liow-
ever on strong clays may, to a certain extent, be replaced with
sand, and on loose sands with clay, where it is profitable to do so.

C. The regulation of water or draining is absolutely indispen-
sable for good cultivation, while, on the other hand, the freest
irrigation is of immense advantage. The difference arises from
the state in which the water is which comes in contact with the
roots of the plants. The poorest vegetation exists in moors and
peatbogs, which are constantly saturated, wldle the richest is found
in alpuie meadows constantly irrigated. The difference is, that
in the one case the water is stagnant, and in the other constantly
changed. Plants require but little sulphur, and consequently
sulphuretted hydrogen, supposing that they receive their sulphur
in this form. Sulphates in contact with decaying organic substances
soon unite with them, and tluis sulphuretted hydrogen is generated
in such quantities as to be destructive to many plants.

D. A few remarks on rotation of cropping must close our
abstract.

Experience has shown that fallows may be in a great measure
dispensed with by a system of rotation, including clover. The
object of science is to show in what way this is explainetl by the
nature of plants, and inasmuch as improvement is impossible, or
at least accidental, without knowledge, such inquiries have their
practical side. It is on the cultivation of clover that the main
advantage of rotation depends, the object of it being to increase
the quantity of humus ; and it is to be observed that in the pub-
lished tables a very important part of the accession derived by
the field is neglected, namely, that from the leaves which are
constantly withering and falling off, which amount perhaps to
twice or thrice as much as what is carried away.

Wheat, like other cereals and grasses, will succeed without
humus, provided the requisite moisture be kept up, but where
this is not possible there must be either a verj' favourable clay,
or the groiuid must be very rich in hiunus ; but, in consequence
of their thin leaves and slender hollow stem, they cannot take up
a great quantity of moisture at once in anticipation of a dry time,
and therefore they require an uninterrupted supply of moisture,
which must be afforded by absorption from the atmosphere by
means either of the clay or vegetable mould.

There are two points to be distinguislied Mith respect to rota-
tion. First, it may be regarded as a whole, as a method of culti-
\ ation by which cloxer takes the place of fallow, and by u hich a
greater produce of cereals is possible ; and this leads to the

DR. SCHLEIDEN'S THEORY OF AGRICULTURE. j (Jl

cultivation of other plants, so that a greater number enters into
the question. Hence a second subject of inquiry, in what order
ought these to succeed each other ?

The first question needs no further observation. The second
is unfortunately one of great difficulty, for the solution of which
but few data exist at present. Experience informs us that two
crops of a similar nature should not succeed each other, and
science at present can do no more. The matter of greatest con-
sequence will always be with what plant to begin the course.
Inorganic matters ought not only to be present in the soil, but
in the right proportion. The worst method then should seem to
be to begin with the potato, the contrary practice for so many
years being probably one of the main causes of the present
depraved state of the plant. The choice must be directed by a
comparison of the inorganic constituents of the dung with those
of the plant proposed, so that that plant will be taken first which
on analJ^sis bears the nearest proportion to that exhibited by the
manure. If then the inorganic contents of the harvest be sub-
tracted from those of the manure, the second plant will be chosen
according to its relative proportions, and so on through the
whole of the course. Now, if we compare the contents of ordi-
narj' manures with those of agricultural plants, we shall find that
potatoes and wheat are those which have the most distant relation.
They are those which are subject to most diseases. If the com-
parison be continued, and attention be paid to the proportion of
the most influential constituents, namely, the phosphate of lime
and magnesia to the sulphuretted and muriated ali<alies, we obtain
the result that of all plants rye is the best with which to begin
the course, which agrees with the opinion of many practical men,
that rye is most suited to fresh manure.

It must, however, be taken into consideration, that in rotation
of cropping changes in the physical condition of the ground are
effected which are of as much consequence as the proportion of
tlie inorganic constituents, .so that the choice is much contracted,
and comes indeed to a question between cereals and other
agricultural plants.

The above attempt to give a fair and useful abstract of a
work certainly entitled to consideration will, it is hoped, be
suggestive of much that is valuable, and throw light on some
points on which a great deal of confusion exists at present. The
almost total absence of reference has made it occasionally a
matter of some difficulty to arrive at the exact meaning of the
author. It must be borne in mind that the argument proceeds
on a system of cultivation not altogether coincident with what
we are ourselves accustomed to, and that consequently a little
allowance on that score must sometimes be made.

( 162 )

XI. — On the Effect of Glazed Trellises for Peaches. By
Robert TIiompsf)n.

In September, 1(S50, it was reported that some peaches laid be-
fore the Garden Committee had been grown on a glazed trellis,
put up exactly according to a plan recommended by Henry Bel-
lenden Ker, Esq., and Mr. Rivers. The peaches were ripe next
the sun, but their under sides were hard. This produce could
not, however, be considered to afford conclusive evidence, as it
was that of the first year after planting ; and in this operation
it was necessary to reverse the trees, otherwise they could not
have been fixed to the trellis. The blossom buds previously
formed towards the sun were turned downwards.

It was afterwards suggested by Mr. Rivers that the sashes
should be brought nearer the trellis : this was accordingly done.
The sides were also banked up, so as to leave a clear opening
of only 3 inches along the north, east, and west sides, wliilst a
sheet of perforated blackened zinc was extended from the ground
to the sashes along the whole of the south side. Under tliese
arrangements the experiment was continued during the season of
1851.

By this time the trees were well established, healthy, and in
condition to bear a good crop of fruit. The spring was unfa-
vourable ; and although the sashes would doubtless be sufficient
protection for the blossom against slight frosts, yet it may be
useful to state the fact, that these sashes did not sufficiently
protect the blossoms when 7° of frost occurred last April, and
that moreover the blossoms under the sashes suffered more than
those against the open south wall.

In September, 1851, some peaches grown on the glazed trellis
were again exhibited to the Garden Committee. They were red,
and their skins beginning to crack from over-ripeness, next the
sun, a proof that they were well exposed ; but the luider sides
were hard and green, and had not swelled equal to the sunned
sides. The nights of last summer were often unusually cold and
unfavourable to the experiment ; and if the openings round the
frame had been closed, or nearly so, during these cold niglits,
the thorough ripening would have been greatly assisted. But this
would have assimilated the glazed frame to a peach-house, and
all fair comparison between it and the open wall must have
ended. On the latter the same sort of peach ripened thoroughly
at least ten days before that in the frame ripened partially.
From this the result of the experiment may be fairly estimated,
and the plan certainly cannot be recommended.

REPORT FROM THE COUNCIL

ANNIVERSARY MEETING, MAY 1, 1852.

At the last Anniversary the Council had to report that the
debt of the Society had been increased to the extent of 1 1 1 Z. 6*. *ld.
in consequence of improveqients in the Garden, which had cost
1044/. 3*. 2d. It is now their pleasing duty to announce that
the debt has been reduced within the year by the sum of
859/. Os. Id., notwithstanding- a further expenditure upon new
works to the extent of 360/. 2s. 3d., and a less favourable Exhibition
season than was anticipated ; and the Council confidently believe
that this has been effected without neglecting the progressive
improvement of the Society's position, or the public objects for
which it was incorporated.

To the following statement, which has been laid before the
Council on the part of the Garden Committee, the attention of
the Meeting is invited in the first place.

The Exhibitions in the Society's Garden have fully maintained
their great reputation as examples of the ever increasing skill of
English Gardeners in the art of cultivation. The tables, although
extended so as to receive a much larger number of plants than
formerly, were more crowded than ever with magnificent speci-
mens, among whicli it was observed that variety was displayed
more conspicuously than usual.

The new regulations under which Fellows of the Society and
friends are admitted an hour and a half earlier than others,
appeared to give much satisfaction, and worked so well that the
Council were induced to extend the privilege beyond its original
limits ; so that now, not only can any Fellow of the Society enter
free at half- past 12, and introduce one friend with a ticket, but
the privilege may be transferred to a brother, sister, son, daugh-
ter, father, mother, or wife, residing in the Fellow's liouse,
provided the person to whom the transfer is made be furnished
with a ticket signed by that Fellow. That is to say, the privi-
lege of entering early may be largely transferred, but not the
privilege of free admission.

VOL. vir. N

164 REPORT OF THE COUNCIL,

The weatlier was unfortunately not propitious. In May, a
mild and sunny morning was succeeded by a cold wet afternoon.
In June the day was dry, but sunless. In July it was wet and
uncomfortable. The result was, that the visitors on each of these
days were : —

May 3rd ... . 1549
June 7th .... 9383
July 19th .... 9345

Had the 3rd of May been a fine day several thousand addi-
tional tickets would have been used ; even in June the aspect of
the weather was so threatening as to deter many from running
the risk of a wet promenade ; and in July the attractions of
Chiswick grounds, again kindly thrown open by his Grace the
President, were far less sought for than if the scene had been
enlivened by a warm and brilliant sun.

The Tickets actually sold amounted to 23,630, a higher
number than has been issued for five years past ; but much
lower than would have been required had the Meeting in May
been as favourable as it was the reverse.

As it is possible that the increased number of visitors in 1851
was in some degree owing to the issue of 48 instead of 24
privileged tickets to each Fellow of the Society who applied
for them, the Council have directed the same number to be
again allowed during the present season. This is done, however,
by way of experiment only, and not as a final regulation, the
year 1851 having been so exceptional that no satisfactory opinion
upon the effect of an unusually large issue of 3^. 6d. tickets can
be formed in the absence of the evidence to be obtained during a
season in which the metropolis is in its usual state.

In a financial point of view the Exhibitions were satisfactory,
notwithstanding the unfortunate state of the weather.

The receipts amounted to 5046/. 7*. 6d., arising from the
sale of

13,405 tickets at 3s. 6d. .
9,071 „ at5A\ . .
1,154 ,. at 7*. 6d. .

£. s.
. 2345 17
. 2267 15
. 432 15

J.
6
0
0

£5046 7

6

The expenses on the other hand amounted to 2,178/. ILf. 6d.,
as is shown by the following return ; the profit realized was
therefore 2,867/. i6s.

MAY 1, 1852.

165

Exhibitions.

Miscellaneous timber

Miscellaneous repairs

Carpenters, painters, tent-pitchers, &c.

Miscellaneous labour beyond the ordi-
nary service of the Garden .

Miscellaneous printing

Admission tickets

Advertisements

Judges

Extra clerks and temporary rooms

Police

Bands and all musical expenses .

Provisions for exhibitors, police, &c. .

Watering roads

Miscellaneous expenses, including sta-
tionery, carriage, postage, &c. .

Cost of new tents

Green baize for tables

Extra labour for New Exhibitors'
Yard and Alterations ....

1849

1850

£. s. d. £. s. d. £. s. d.

50 18 1 23 10 2 27 3 8

fio 13 11: 60 2 7 39 0 6

146 6 lOi 126 4 7| 121 10 II

255
39
37
86
27
54
112
277
57

14 21 188 13 7| 69 17 5

8 2

15 0

16 0
6 0

31 13 6| 64 17 10
37 15 01 30 14 0

86 13
30 9
28 11

125 4 6

31 10 0

22 16 0

81 9 0

28 5 0

66 11 5l
297 8 9

0

0 60 11 0

O' 270 6 0, 300 0 0
Oj 55 10 2j 56 0 11
15 15 0

54 12 6

52 9 Ol

48 3 0
65 0 0
46 3 9

Medals awarded

1603 0 41107 2 1|1145 6 6
984 15 0 1066 5 0 1033* 5 0

2587 15 4 2173

1 2178 11 6

A comparison of this table Avith some of those of former years
shows that the charges have for the most part been diminished,
with the exception of advertisements, printing, police, and bands,
in which the Great Exhibition of all Nations rendered some
increase unavoidable.

In framing the schedule of prizes for the year 1852 the
Exhibition Committee have complied with a desire expressed
by many exhibitors and others, that greater prominence should
be given to certain classes of florists' flowers ; the effect of
which, it is expected, will be to increase the brilliancy of the
shows at the Garden. The Committee have also felt themselves
called upon to return to the system of not offering specific prizes
for fruit for the month of May ; the responsibility of rewarding
such as is sent on that occasion bein^- vested in the Judges, who
will tims have as complete a freedom of action as if a schedule
of prizes were offered, and will at the same time be released from

* This is part of the sum of £1120 entered in the balance sheet as medals
awarded ; the balance being, for awards at ordinary meetings in Kegent
Street, 60/. 10s., and for cost of new obverse die to large silver medal
26/. 5s.

N 2

166 EErOET OF THE COUNCIL,

the supposod necessity of giving prizes for fruit which does not
possess very unusual merit.

In the year 1850 a very strong opinion was expressed that the
Garden of the Society ought to contain, during the London
season, and especially in 1851, when so many strangers would
have an opportunity of witnessing our national tastes, one of
those displays of American plants which have lately become so
popular. The Council, therefore, felt it to be due to the Fel-
lows and their friends, that the possibility of forming such an
exliibition without any serious inroad upon the funds of the
Society should be put to the test of experiment. That this was
about to take place was mentioned in tlie last Report. The
arrangements then made witli Mr. Hosea Waterer were after-
wards completed ; and a very large number of the finest speci-
mens of Rhododendrons, Azaleas, and other American plants,
were exhibited under a canvas awning in a part of the Garden
provided for the purpose. But, although the arrangements con-
nected with this operation were formed with the utmost attention
to economy, a reference to the balance sheet will show that the
experiment was too costly to be repeated. How far it may have
added to the interest of the general exhibition in June there are
no means of ascertaining ; taken by itself it produced a loss of
256^. 18*. 8d.

During the autumn the site of the American exhibition has
been converted into a permanent American garden, for the
means of planting which tlie Garden Committee desire to express
in the strongest manner their obligations to Messrs. Veitch & Co.,
of Exeter, who presented the Society with a large number of
valuable specimens. They have also to make their acknowledg-
ments to Mr. H. Waterer for several useful contributions, and
to Messrs. Lucombe and Pince, of Exeter, whose liberality, in an
exchange of plants made with the Garden, demands especial
notice. In the purchase of plants, peat earth, and other mate-
rials, and in labour, the svmi of 155/. 9s. 7d. has been expended,
and an American ground is now permanently established in the
tSociety's Garden, thus obviating the necessity of any further
outlay upon temporary exhibitions of this description.

While the attention of the Committee was thus directed to
relieving the Garden from risks of future loss on account of
American plants, they have continued to carry- on the otiier
works in the Arboretum and elsCAvhere, to which allusion was
made in the last Report. The number of superfluous trees
has been still more diminished, masses of useless bushes have

MAY 1, 1852. 167

been removed, walks have been widened, exfiausted beds of Rho-
dodendrons and other plants have been replanted and renewed,
seats have been constructed within the shade of trees, a better
approach, in stone, has been provided to the Great Conservatory,
and some winter and spring decoration has been given to most of
those beds in the Arboretum \\ hich have hitherto been merely
occupied by bedding out plants in summer. In aid of this
operation Messrs. Osborne and Co. have liberally contributed all
the evergreens required for the purpose.

The only building of a permanent character which the Com-
mittee have caused to be constructed is a wooden house for the
growth of Roses. The experiment of Mr. Rivers upon the culti-
vation of plants in what he calls Orchard Houses — that is to say,
in very cheap glazed wooden sheds — has been attended with so
much success, and has excited so much interest among culti-
vators of limited means, that the Committee felt themselves
called upon to place in the Garden an example of this kind of
structure. They have therefore built a house 56 feet long and
23 feet wide, entirely with wood and glass, upon a plan fur-
nished by Mr. Rivers, for which tlie Garden funds are charged
with the sum of 66/. 4*. 7d. This house is to be devoted exclu-
sively to the cultivation of Roses, and has been planted at their
own charge by Mr. Rivers, of Sawbridgewortli, Messrs. Paul
and Co., of Cheshunt, and Messrs. Lane and Co., of Great Berk-
hampstead, with the finest varieties which those justly eminent
firms could supply. The experiment will show the value of the
opinions of those who doubt whether plants can be advan-
tageously grown in such buildings. Should the experiment
be unsuccessful, the materials of the house can be applied to
some other purpose, the sashes having been jirepared with the
same care as if they had been intended for a more durable
structure.

Measures have been also taken to place in the Garden a length
of the glass walls patented by Mr. Ewing, and some iron and
glass coverings for walls suggested by Colonel Challoner, and
executed by Messrs. Cottam and Hallen. These not having-
been fixed in the Garden at the date of the last meeting of the
Garden Committee, the subject must form a part of the next
annual Report.

The expense to the »Society of the works now alluded to has
been as follows ; —

168

REPORT or THE COUNCIL,

Alterations in Arboretum, &c.
Completion of American g-artien
Construction of Orchard House for growtli

of Roses ......

Miscellaneous expenses in altering and

improving the Garden

The Distribution department continues to work satisfactorily,
the following having been the numbers of plants, &c., given
away.

£.

s.

d.

104

8

3

loo

9

7

66

4

7

34

0

3

£360

2

H

1S51-52.

Plants.

Seeds.

Cuttings,

To Members

To Foreign Countries, Correspondents, &c.
To Her Majesty's Colonies

5,025

302

12

46,123
666
952

2,257
94

Total

5,339

47,741

2,351

But although the Committee announce with satisfaction that
the value of the articles distributed has very materially improved
under the new regulations announced in the last annual Report,
they at the same time feel that the period has arrived when it is
desirable once more to despatch a collector of plants in search of
horticultural novelties. The Council have concurred in this
opinion, and it is now seriously under consideration whether
an agent may not be advantageously employed in some of the
temperate regions of South America. With regard to the
Scotch expedition to Oregon, towards the exp^ise of which the
Society subscribed in the year 1850, there is still nothing to
report, except that it continues to remain without result.

The assistance rendered to the Garden by its correspondents
has been unusually large, as will be seen from the following list
of presents, in addition to those large supplies from Messrs. Lane,
Lucombe and Pince, Osborne, Paul, Rivers, and Veitch, which
have been acknowledged in a former part of this Report.

From C. A. Uhde, Esq., of Handschusheim, near Heidelberg, Seeds of
the Russian Forget-me-Not, and a purple Potato raised in Ger-
many from the Mexican Potatoes formerly given to the Society by
Mr. Uhde.

From Sir Thomas Acland, Bart., a Plant of Escallonia macrantha.

MAY 1, 1852. 169

From Redmond Barry, Esq., of Port Phillip, a collection of Seeds from

New Holland.
From I. Anderson, Esq., of Edinburgh, Sedum Quitense, Alpinia sp.,

from Hong Kong, and 4 other plants.
From J. B. Pentland, Esq., a plant of Poecilochroma sp. (Witheringia

superba). Seed of a new species of Cinchona, and a variety of

Indian Corn from Titicaca.
From G. U. Skinner, Esq., a Plant of Achimenes Margarettae, with

various Orchids and other newly imported plants.
From Miss Croker, 3 Orchids from Kio.
From Mrs. Le Blanc, 10 sorts of Seeds from Russia.
From G. H. Thwaites, Esq., Superintendent of the Botanic Garden,

Ceylon, 12 sorts of Ceylon Seeds, including Medinilla Walkerise.
From Capt. Drake, Orchids from the Brazilian Coast.
From Mr. D. Ferguson, Botanic Garden, Belfast, 4 Bulbs of Lilium

giganteum.
From the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, several new Plants.
From Mr. Charles Moore, Botanic Garden, Sydney, New South Wales,

a Wardian Case, containing a new Araucaria (Araucaria Cookii),

Calanthe australis, and other valuable Plants.
From Prof. Chas. A. Meyer, Superintendent of the Botanic Garden,

St. Petersburg, a collection of curious Botanical Seeds.
From Charles Deacon, Esq., 3 bulbs of a Lily and 14 soits of Syrian

Seeds, with Seeds of the Melon of Cassabar, near Smyi-na.
From the Earl of Dundonald, Nutmegs, Tamarinds, and other Plants

from the West Indies.
From G. T. Davy, Esq., 5 papers of Jamaica Seeds, Seed of the true

Calisaya plant, Tropseolum azureum, Chloraea sp., and some re-
markable Maize from Cusco.
From the Museum of Natural History of Paris, a plant of Angraecum

virens.
From J. R. Gowen, Esq., Seeds from New Zealand.
From H. C. Calvert, Esq., 2 kinds of Erzeroom Seeds.
From the Honourable Miss Murray, a Plant of Pulmonaria angusti-

folia.
From the Honourable Court of Directors of the East India Company,

some Orchids, with Seeds of Abies Deodara and of two species of

Loranthus,
From Captain Prendergast, Bulbs from the Western Coast of Africa.
From W. W. Saunders, Esq., a collection of Alpine Plants.
From J. E. Stocks, Esq., 2 papers of Seeds from Aifghanistan.
From J. C. Stevens, Esq., a Plant of Vanda cserulea.
From Mr. Clare, of Como, Plants of the Como Cherry.
From John Reeves, Esq., Seeds of the Egg-Gourd.
From Mr. Watts, Oriental Printing Office, 8 tubers of the Potato

■which grows wild at Laontong, North of China.
From the Marchioness of Hastings, a Plant of the Rhodian Grape.
From Mr. D. Kidd, a Plant of the Garnstone Black Hamburgh Vine.
From John Edwards, Esq., 47 Plants of the choicest Lancashire Goose-
berries.
From Mr. J. Shed Needham, of Massachusetts, a Plant of Needham's

White Blackberry.
From John Disney, Esq., Cuttings of the Fifi Apple.
From the Rev. John Robinson, Cuttings of 2 sorts of Apples.
From R. A. Hornby, Esq.. a Plant from Conception.
From H. A. Aglionby, Esq., 2 sorts of Potatoes.

170 KEPORT OF THK COUNCIL,

From Edward Hay, Esq., of Turuham Greeu, Seeds of a Green Gourd

from Elba, Nortli of Spain.
From Henry Butler, Esq., Seeds of a very superior sort of Olive, grown

at Messina.
From M. Vilmorin, of Paris, 26 sorts of Choice Flower Seeds.
From Messrs. Standish and Noble, of Bagshot, 2 Plants of Taxodium

serapervirens.
From Mr. Charlwood, of Covent Garden, 1 1 sorts of New Annuals,

and 3 sorts of Indian Corn.
From Messrs. Weeks and Co., Seeds of the Turkey Cassabar Melon,

from Constantinople, the Royal Victoria and Royal Albert Melons,

Weeks's Hero of Middlesex Cucumber, and New Long White-

spined Cucumber.
From Mr. Thomas Kivers, of Sawbridgeworth, Plants of Rivers's Eliza

Strawberry.
From Mr. John Salter, of Versailles Nursery, Hammersmith, 3 sorts of

new Strawberries.
From Mr. Geo. Wheeler, of Warminster, a Plant of the Bowden

Nectarine.
From Mr. Thomas Whalley, of Liverpool, a packet of Early Prince of

Wales Pea.
From Messrs. Hay, Sangster, and Co., a bag of Potatoes said to have

been obtained from cuttings ; a root of the Prince of Wales Early

Scarlet Rhubarb, 3 sorts of Early Potatoes, and Sangster's No. 1

Early Pea.
From Messrs. Veitch and Son, of Exeter, Lilium giganteum, Cantua

dependens, and 10 other new Plants.
From Mr. Glendinning, of Chiswick Nursery, Neillia thyrsiflora, and

a new species of Clianthus.
From Mr. R. T. Pince, of Exeter, Pentstemon cyananthus, Cattleya

superba, and Oncidium barbatum.
From M. Jamin, of Paris, Buds of 7 sorts of Pears, 4 sorts of Peaches,

and 2 new sorts of Strawberries.
From Mr. J. A. Henderson, of Pine Apple Place, a Plant of Judson's

Richmond Villa Black Hamburgh Vine.
From Messrs. Jackson, of Kingston, 6 sorts of Kitchen Garden Seeds.
From Messrs. Dickson, of Chester, Seeds of 2 new sorts of Cabbage

Lettuce.
From Messrs. Rendle, of Plymouth, new sorts of Kitchen Garden

Seeds.
From M. Baumann, Deutzia gracilis and a species of Tropseolum.
From Messrs. Wrench, of London Bridge, a collection of Californian

Seeds.
From Mr. Hosea Waterer, Thuja aurea and the Yellow-berried Yew.

The Reading'-room continues to be a source of satisfaction to
the Committee, the use made of it by the young men ni the
Garden being unremitted ; and they trust the advantage of it
very considerable. In aid of the studies in it a course of lessons
in mensuration and plane drawing has been added to the lectures
volunteered by the Vice-Secretary and his friends. The library
now consists of about oOO volumes, but it might be increased
with advantage if Fellows of the Society, interested in the edu-
cation of young gardeners, would lay aside for the library any

MAY 1, 1852.

171

books on horticulture or allied subjects for wliich they have not
themselves any use. .

The number of Visitors to. the Garden has not materially
increased, notwithstanding the unusual influx of foreigners, the
total admissions, exclusive of the days of exhibition, liaving been
6964, rather more tlian 200 above the number in 1850-51.

The only other point to whicli the Committee would allude
is the general expenditure of the Garden, the details of which for
the last three years are given in the following table.

1849-50 1850-51

Garden labour

Implements, mats, seeds, &c. • •

Tan, dung, &c

Coals and coke for Garden . .
Miscellaneous expenses at Garden

Gai'den repairs

Distribution expenses ....
Exhibition expenses ....
New works at Garden ....
American Exhibition expenses, 1851

Total ....

1851-52

£. s. d.\ £. s. d.

1010 15 Oil077 19 6

113 15 5 116 8 10

28 6 1 50 1 11

147 16 l' 129 0 7

183 13 2i 140 3 5

107 6 111 92 12 5

214 13 8| 170 15 1

1562 10 10 1107 2 1

231 18 1

1044 3 2

3600 15 3 3928 7 0

£. s.

1332 1
118 8
31 11
96 13
127 16
109 5
124 15

1145 6
360 2
275 5

3721 7 3

Tlie chief item which appears to require explanation in this
account is the charge for labour, which would seem to have
largely increased, although in reality that is not the case. It
will be remembered that at the last anniversary it was announced
that various changes had been made in the management of the
labour ; that permanent mowers had been substituted for the
desultory system previously in force ; that the lawn in the
Arboretum would be no longer allowed to grow rough in autunm
and winter ; that the distribution department had been altered,
and a small increase of Mages had been given to some of the head
men. There can be no doubt that the Garden has benefited by
the alteration, and that it is at the present moment in a state df
greater efficiency than it ever was before : and at the same time
the expectation expressed by the last Committee that the new
arrangements would not be attended with increased expense lias
been entirely justified, for it will be seen by the follo\^ing table
that the labour account in the last three years has been respec-
tively 1546/., 1568/., and 1554/.

172

KKl'OKT OF TIIJ': COUNCIL,

IxKTURN of Amount paid for Labour at the
Garden for the three last Years.

Weekly Ordinary I^abour

Labour charged to " Exhibition Expenses" .

Extra

,, ,, " Garden Repairs"

,, ,, " Distribution Expenses"

" New Works" .

" American Exhibition"

Total . . . .

1849 -50 1850-5

I

185

1-5

i

£. s.

d. £. s.

d.

£.

s.

d.

1010 15

011077 19

6

1332

1

9

402 1

Ol 314 18
52 9

0

0

|l91

8

4

r,l 12

9 54 0

0

31

8

9

72 11

0 68 16

0

•

1546 19

9'l5C8 2

8

1554

18

10

84 7

3i 286 8

4

135

7

6

1

66

7

6

1631 7

0 1854 11

0

1756

13

10

Thus it will be seen tliat the apparent increase in the cost of
labour just referred to arises out of the manner in whicli it has
been charged in the Society's accounts, and does not show
any real excess of outlay.

Exclusive of the affairs of the Garden the points on which the
Council have to report relate to finances and general adminis-
tration.

During the year just elapsed one very important change has
been made in the resources of the Society. Jn the beginning of
the year 1851 it was represented by one of tlie Fellows that it
would be only an equitable arrangement if those who had long
been annual subscribers were allowed to compound for all further
payments at a lower rate than that of ten years' purchase. A
Fellow, for example, who iiad paid 4 guineas annually during
20 years, seemed entitled to compound at a different rate from
one newly elected, and from whom no annual payments whatever
had been received. After a very careful consideration of this
suggestion the Council were of opinion that it would be beneficial
alike to individual Fellows and to tlie funds of tiie Society if an
alteration in the amount of life subscriptions or compositions
were made upon the following plan : —

To pay when fii'st elected, 42/. ; at tiie end of seven years,
31/. 10*. ; at the end of fourteen years, 26/. 5s. ; at the end of
twenty years, 21/.

It was therefore resolved to recommend to the Fellows, that the
existing By-law relating to Compositions should be repealed, and
a new By-law passed, giving power to the Council to accept
the modified amounts just mentioned. After passing through the
forms required by the Charter, this proposition was affirmed at a
General Meeting, on the 1 7th of February of the present year, and

MAY 1, 1852. 173

is now one of the laws of tlie Society. In coming to this conclu-
sion, the Council have also resolved that the sums thus received
should be applied exclusively to the extinction of debt so long as
any liabilities remain, and should afterwards be funded, the in-
terest only to be employed as annual income. Up to the 12th
of April the following Fellows had taken advantage of this
By-law : —

Colonel Challoner, after paying 10 years' subscription, £. s. d.
by further payment of 26 5 0

Eob. Hildyard, Esq., after paying 16 years' subscription,

by further payment of 26 5 0

Sir C. Lemon, Bart., after paying 26 years' subscription,

by further payment of 2100

W. H. Fox Talbot, Esq., after paying 28 years' sub-
scription, by further payment of 210 0

On several occasions it has been urged upon the Council, that
the Quarterly Journal might be sent by post to distant Fellows
at the charge of the Society, but no decision had been arrived at
till tlie present year, the Council being unwilling to add 50/. a
year to the expenses of the Society for such a purpose. The
question having however been again taken into consideration, the
Council have arrived at the conclusion that the measure may be
conducive to the interests of the Society, as well as agreeable to
the Fellows, and they have therefore .sanctioned the expense.

The question of renewing the lease of the Garden, according
to the provisions of the covenant therein contained, bj' paying a
fine of 450/., has been A'ery carefully discussed, and the Council
have decided that the rapid advance of the metropolis westward,
togetlier with the long unexpired term of years for which the
Garden is still lield, renders it inexpedient to take any steps in
the matter. The present Garden lease will therefore expire at
Michaelmas, 18S1.

The following Balance-sheet has been prepared by the
accountant, and passed by the auditors on behalf of the
Society.

;*£-■= M

-"^ ,„ Ei

i »-l fc*^

J :s P*-.::: ci

:5 8S&^K<c,3

n

tt ^

o

o

cc

<s

O

-

IT

«=

o

o

-; 2

«

«

-a*

<-

c

«

«

cc

t-

t-

.—

CO

I'

o

(2

o

»

o

o

ts

X

— " to

^'1

s = s 5 ^ . ^

o

C ■"

^

e-

^ i,

-"

a; rt

*-

t«

"^ "a

•a

tc

on

>.>.>,

c

sn

^•2

» .T 2 O »

.— CO o
— . a c J

£5

1

REPORT OF THE COUNCIL, MAY 1, 1852. 175

Upon analysing the items in the Balance-sheet, and compar-
ing' them with tlie corresponding items in the accounts of last
year, it will be found that the receipts have been greater by the
sum of 558/. 0*. lOd., as shown by the folhjwing statement : —

Income.

1850-51

1851-52

Compositions for Life from Fellows .

£. s. d.
84 0 0

2825 6 8

£. s. d.
2533 12 0

Admission Fees from Fellows . . . .

Quarterly Journal sold

Transactions and Fruit Catalogue sold .
Eent of Apartments let off in Regent-street .

Garden Produce sold

Receipts from Members for Garden charges .

Miscellaneous Receipts

Garden Exhibitions

American Exhibition, 1851

88 4 0
69 13 0
15 14 3
150 0 0
14 0 8
35 1 6
40 19 5
4102 4 0

107 2 0

26 4 3

6 9 6

150 0 0

28 3 1

36 5 6

30 13 6

5046 7 6

18 7 0

Total ....

7425 3 6

7983 4 4

It will also be observed that in the present year the amount
of 241/. 10*. received for compositions is not included, although
84/. form part of the receipts called income in the previous
year. If this last sum is removed from the account, as it must
be if a fair comparison is to be instituted, the increase of real in-
come during the year will amount to 642/. Os. lOd. In sub-
scriptions there is a falling off of 291/. 14*. 8d., in great measure
on account of the small amount of old arrears left to be collected
after the operations of previous years. Such arrears in fact
amount, at the date of this Report, to no more than 672/. 5s. 4r/.,
of which it is supposed that about 130/. is irrecoverable. On
the other hand, although the admission fees have been reduced
from 6/. 6*. to 21. 2*., the total received for them is 18/. 18*.
more than last year ; a very important feature in the account.
In fact while only 22 Fellows paid their admission fees in
1850-1, the number tliis year has increased to 51.

The particulars of expenditure in ISoO-l and 1851-2 are
given in the following statement : —

176

REPORT OF THE COUNCIL,

EXPENDITUKE.

1850-51

185

1-5

2

£.

s.

d.

£.

s.

d.

287

8

2

2C8

18

11

655

16

10

643

11

I

23

11

8

86

4

6

35

11

5

32

17

7

1013

14

10

966

7

0

303

7

2

312

1

0

10

3

8

11

2

3

11

5

0

22

8

5

55

18

6

82

2

3

30

11

5

1

2

7

66

4

11

76

12

11

1077

19

6

1332

1

9

116

8

10

118

8

6

50

1

11

31

11

9

129

0

7

96

13

9

140

3

5

127

16

4

92

12

5

109

5

3

170

15

1

124

15

1

1107

2

1

1145

6

6

1044

3

2

360

2

8

.

.

20

18

6

.

275

5

8

1128

4

6

1120

0

0

7550

5

1

7365

14

3

Interest on loan notes, &c

Kents, taxes, &c.. Regent-street and Chiswick.
Repairs, furnitui'e, &c.. Regent-street
Housekeeping expenses ditto ....
Salaries and wages, collector's poundage, &c.

Cost of Quarterly Journal

Cost of Transactions and Fruit Catalogues .

Library charges

Printing, stationery, &c

Foreign missions and imports

Expenses of meetings, postage, carriage, &c.

Garden labour

Implements, mats, seeds, &c

Tan, dung, &c

Coals and coke for Garden

Miscellaneous expenses at Garden

Garden repairs

Distribution expenses

Exhibition expenses

New works at Garden

Law expenses, 1850 and 1851

American Exhibition expenses, 1851 .

Cost of medals awarded

Total . . .

Here the Council find a reduction of charge to the extent of
184^. 10s. lOd., although in the previous year there was no ex-
pense incurred on account of the American Exhibition, or for
law-charges, and little for repairs of the house in Regent-street,
which have this year been increased to the extent of 62/. 12.v, lOcL
by repainting the Meeting Room, and the purchase of gas stoves
for heating it; from the latter some future saving in fuel is ex-
pected, as well as a degree of cleanliness that has long been
rendered impossible, on account of the incurable smokiness of the
chimneys. The apparent augmentation of the charge for Garden
Labour has been already explained ; and the other items in
which an inconsiderable increase is observable are in their
nature of a fluctuating character. Upon the whole it will be
found that the result of the year's operations is, that the Society's
Debt is reduced by the sum of 859/. 0*. Id., as under : —

MAY 1, 1852. 177

Income as detailed . . £7,983 4 4

Expenditure ditto . . 7,365 14 3

617 10 1

Compositions for Life from Fellows
applied specially to the reduction
of the Debt, and no longer con-
sidered as Income . . 241 10 0

£859 0 1

wliich agrees with the account of Reduction of Debt at the foot
of the Balance-sheet.

ORIGINAL COMMUNICATIONS.

XII. — Observations on the Diseases of Plants as illustrated hy
the Potato Murrain. By Dr. Schleiden.

[The present memoir, which is here very slightly abridged, to
avoid needless repetition and render it more suitable to this
Journal, appeared in the form of an appendix to the treatise
of which an account has been given in the two previous num-
bers. Though the primary subject is in itself scarcely calcu-
lated to excite attention after so much has been written on it
and is still daily overloading the Continental press, it is of
great importance as regards its general bearing on the diseases
of plants, and for this reason is submitted to the Society.]

The general features as well as the especial marks of dis-
tinction which are exhibited by the more important diseases to
which potatoes are subject, are so extremely various, that it is
necessarj' to examine a large quantity of specimens before we
can draw up the essential characters of any particular disease, so
as to be entirely free from individual and local circumstances.
Since the first appearance of the potato-murrain I have paid con-
stant attention to the subject, collected all possible information,
and carefully examined a great quantity of tubers from all parts
of Germany, without however finding any reason to alter the
views which I entertained in the year 1845. My prediction that
the malady was independent of temporary causes, and that it
would never disappear, has, at least at present, been sadly verified.

1. The following general remarks, which are founded on in-
formation derived from various quarters, are of great importance
to the due estimation of the nature of the disease.

And first I must protest against the erroneous notion that the
malady is of recent origin. The cultivation of potatoes diffused
itself very slowly over Europe, and especially in Germany. From
its very first commencement complaints were made of degeneration
and disease, which became still louder and more urgent as it ex-
tended ; and indeed every one well acquainted with the history of
the potato is aware that from the middle of tiie last century, a few
years only were free from disease, every succeeding year in general
exhibiting some more aggravated and widely extending form.

DISEASES OF PLANTS ILLUSTKATED BY THE POTATO MURKAIX. 179

General attention was first attracted to the subject in particular
countries in 1840, which extended in 184o to the whole of P^urope.
Since the former date disease has been more or less prevalent,
thouo-h the climatic conditions have been as various as possible.
No especial variety has been entirelj^ exempt, or indeed has uni-
versally exhibited the disease in a milder form. No single kind of
soil has been entirely free, or even peculiarly privileged. In the
nei"'hbourhood of Jena, for instance, cases have occurred wliere
potatoes have succeeded extremely well in ill-drained moors,
Avhile the crops in tlie neighbouring sands have been wortliless.
No particular situation seemed to make any difference, with the
single exception, and tliat of some importance, of the whole ex-
tent of coast on the Nortii Sea. as far as the immediate influence
of the sea-fog extended. Whether the crop was raised from seed,
from entire tubers, from sets or eyes, the result was just the
same ; or perhaps those crops which were immediately derived
from seed exhibited the worst form of the disease. Moreover,
the crops suffered indifferently, whatever peculiar place in the
usual rotation they might occupy, except indeed that the murrain
appeared the latest, and was first ameliorated, where potatoes, as
in Thuringia, are never planted, on a large scale at least, in fresh
manure. The first symptoms of disease appeared in the tubers
as soon as in the haulm, or even sooner. It is at least indubitable
that highly diseased tubers proceeded from perfectly sound
haulm, in which therefore the cause of the disease could not
reside, nor could it be propagated from the green parts to the
tubers. On the same plant sound and highly diseased potatoes
frequently occur, and in the same heap during winter sound
tubers are found amongst those which are quite putrid, from
whence I conclude that the disease is not connuunicated by con-
tagion.

2. The first symptom of the disease consists of brownish dis-
coloured specks which extend from the superficial cells inwards.
The nitrogenous lining of the cells, which in sound tubers is
colourless and uniform, assumes the appearance of a pale yellow
membrane. As the disease increases, this membrane is finely
granulated, giving off reticulated threads in which a distinct
circulation is often visible. The nucleus at the same time be-
comes sharply defined ; the nitrogenous coat assumes a darker
tint, the starch-grains are absorbed exactly as in a sprouting
potato ; in short the phenomena are the same as occur generally
in germination, a circumstance which agrees remarkably with the
fact that diseased potatoes, when they do not pass too rapidly
into a state of putrescence, have a surprising tendency to germi-
nate, in consequence of which, after three or four weeks, they are
often covered with young tubers.

VOL. vii. o

130 OBSERVATIONS ON THE DISEASES OF PLANTS

In process of time the intercellular passages, which normally
are filled with air, are injected with a yellow fluid. Tliis takes
place even in the vessels, when once tliey are attacked by the
disease. In tliis fluid sharply defined granules soon appear, and
at length mycelium arises both in the intercellular passages and
cells. The individual cells separate from each other, their walls
become attenuated, and at length disappear. In general the
starch-grains remain involved in fungal threads, and the wliole
dries up into a hard white mass, or if the decay is more rapid,
the amylum is destroyed, so that frequently nothing remains of
the whole potato except a thin sac filled with a fetid fluid.
Parasites, whether insects or fungi, are never original, but de-
veloped on the diseased tissues.

3. I shall now offer some remarks on the chemical condition
of the infected tubers.

The juice of sound potatoes is slightly acid, whereas the dis-
eased spots exhibit at times a weak alkaline reaction. As the
disease increases, sometimes a decidedly acid, sometimes an
equally distinct alkaline reaction takes place, M-ithout any assign-
able reason ; in the latter case the circumstance does not depend
alone on the presence of ammonia. The liighly fetid tubers react
clearly on ammonia, as is of course the case in the decomposition
of nitrogenous substances. Tlie walls of the diseased cells are at
first blue when treated with iodine and sulpliuric acid, then, as
the disease is progressing, successively greenish blue, green, and
greenish yellow, and finally dark golden yellow or brownish
yellow. The nitrogenous matters become darker when treated
with iodine in proportion as the disease advances, and, according
to Liebig, consist no longer, or at least not principally, of albu-
men, but of casein.

The starch grains, in all potatoes which are strongly affected,
even in the cells which still remain sound, exhibit a peculiarity
which distinguishes them from the starch of sound tubers. As
soon as it is dry, a quantity of broad cracks are formed within
them. This is never the case with sound potatoes, and proves
that these bodies in diseased tubers are far more saturated with
water than in those which are sound.

When boiled there is also a great diflPerence. Diseased tubers
boiled for four hours remain as hard as at first ; if they are then
quartered, and the cortical layer removed, they remain unchanged
though repeatedly boiled, while sound potatoes from the same
field, after three hours, burst and separate into individual cells.
The starch in the cells of diseased potatoes when boiled swells
out into little gelatinous sacs, but these remain single and un-
connected in the cells, and do not long fill them out.

Observations on diseased potatoes as compared with sound, by
Payen, Schacht and Janssen, Petzholdt, &c., give the following:

AS ILLUSTRATED BY THE POTATO MURRAIN. Igl

actual variations. The amount in water and ashes in diseased
potatoes is absolutely more marked, in starch less so than in those
which are sound. The albumen is relatively more marked in
proportion as well to the starch only, as also to the collective
non-nitrogenous constituents.

Most chemical analyses of diseased potatoes are useless inas-
much as they are made without any knowledge what is to be
gained by analysis, and what questions are to be answered by it.
One of the best and most worthy of confidence is that of Janssen
and Schacht, but, like all similar analyses of plants, is deficient
as regards the nitrogenous constituents. According to this the
proportion of albumen to starch in sound potatoes is as 1 : 31,8 ;
in diseased as 1 : 28,7 ; to starch, cellulose, gum and sugar col-
lectivelj^ — in the sound as 1 : 25,8, in diseased as 1 : 36,6.

It is remarkable that diseased potatoes, according to this ana-
lysis, which in this respect is very careful, contain more cellu-
lose than those which are sound, and if the cellulose is set down
at unity, the following jiroportions are obtained, which perhaps
approximately correspond with the proportions in the single cells.

Sound Tubers.

Diseased Tubers.

Cellulose . .

. . 1*00

1-00

Starch , .

. 10-66

5-15

Gum .

0-24

0-18

Sugar . .

, . 0-10

0-16

Albumen .

. . 0-93

0-18

Fat . . .

. 0-02

0'05

Water . .

.37-25

22-85

Ashes . .

?

0-25

In sound potatoes the starch is to the water as 1 : 3,5 ; in dis-
eased as 1 : 4,4.

The best analysis of the ashes is that of Petzholdt.
In 1000 parts of fresh

Waxy Potatoes.. Table Potatoes.

Sound. Diseased. Sound. Diseased.

Water . . 761' . . 778- 753- . . 7G0-

In 1000 parts when dried at 100° C.

Ashes

37-64 .

40-88

45-15

. 48-19

When fresh

8-996 .

9-075

11-152 .

11-565

The proportions of the particular constituents of the ashes are
more important here than the absolute quantities. These give,
when the alkalies are set down at unity, —

Waxy

Potatoes.

Table Potatoes.

Sound.

Diseased.

Sound.

Diseased

Alkalies . . .

1.0000

. . 1-0000

1-0000

. 1-0000

Lime . . . .

0-0079

. . 0-0152

0-0116

, . 0-0350

Magnesia . . .

0-0593

. . 0-0788

0-0722

. 0-1797

Chlorine .

0-0594

. . 0-0578

0-0531

. 0-0692

Sulphuric Acid .

0-1010

. . 0-0883

0-1073

. 0-0838

Phosphoric Acid .

0-1977

. . 0-2083

0-1979

. 0-2339

o 2

182 OBSERVATIONS ON THE DISEASES 01' PLANTS

A marked excess of pliosphorated lime and magnesia is exlii-
bited here above sidphated and nmriated alkalies.

4. This is not the place to treat on every individual malady to
which plants are subject, but merely to bring forward the general
points of view whicli arise from a physiologico-chemical exami-
nation of the little which we know of the diseases of plants. It
is not my intention to advert to the destruction of plants or por-
tions of plants arising palpably from external agents, but merely
to examine the alterations which depend upon an inward abnormal
condition.

Two things must here be distinguished, the diseases of plants
in free nature and those under cultivation, including those wild
species on which it exercises an indubitable influence, as corn-
weeds. As regards the first, the question may be asked, whether
diseases at all affect them, or are capable of doing so, when they
are left entirely to nature, and are removed from every influence
of man ? The answer to this question would lead us too far.
It is, however, indubitable that diseases do arise in apparently
wild plants, as for instance tlie Tyrolese fir-woods were very
generally visited by Rust in 1845. The causes of such diseases,
however, may perhaps be completely external and merely tran-
sitory, and rest most probably on tlie peculiar atmospheric con-
ditions of particular years, and therefore vanish of themselves in
the succeeding season.

But in cultivated plants it is entirely different. Almost all of
them are no longer in their natural condition, but, regarded in
a scientific point of view, are in themselves deviations from their
normal condition. The natural equilibrium in their formation
is abolished by the unnatural and excessive development of
especial circumstances of form or of particular elements, and they
present, to the external injurious influences which in part subsist
in the very modes of cultivation, a greater number of weak
points. To this is added that a great part of the objects of cul-
ture are not in their natural climate, but in a zone whicli is
strange and ungenial, and that consequently they are affected by
a number of inevitable causes of disease.* It scarcely requires

* This mode of viewiug the case leads to the comfortless conclusion,
that we shall perhaps never be in a condition to extirpate completely the
diseases of our cultivated plants, and that as with us people reckon on the
tenth grain, but not upon the hundredth, as is the case in Chili, or as in
some places in every great calculation a certain per centage is deducted for
the probable destruction of hailstones, so it would be better, instead of
writing thick volumes and even little libraries containing treatises on the
occurrence and treatment of diseases, to collect correct statical data, with
a view to calculate the mean loss due to disease, so as to make it harmless
by reason of foresight. In a political point of view beyond doubt the firm
establishment of such statical conditions is of the greatest importance, for in

AS ILLUSTRATED BY THE POTATO MUKEALV. 183

an express intimation that the condition of a plant as an object
of cultivation and its disposition to disease are perfectly iden-
tical. Both are alteratious of cliemical action in the plant, pro-
duced through the conditions under which it grows. All our
cultivated plants, with very few exceptions, may be regarded as
diseased ; that is, as deviations from the normal process of for-
mation of the species, and it is only the egotism of man which
thiniis otJierwise of them, inasmuch as he finds his profit in these
diseases as in tlie artificial enlargement of the liver in the Stras-
burg goose. The greater part, indeed, if not all the peculiar
internal diseases to which plants as well as men are subject, arise
from an improper, deficient, or more frequently too abundant,
nourishment. In order, however, not to deviate too widely from
the common mode of speech, I shall distinguish that condition of
cultivated plants in wliich they deviate from the normal form
which they exhibit when wild, in consequence of too abundant
nourisliment as a general inward tendency to disease.

This tendency, however, becomes specific when they belong
naturally to a very light or sandy soil, as oats or potatoes, and
are now cultivated on heavy ground, or if, in consequence of tlie
plan of cultivation which was once imiversal, they are grown in
the first year in wliich the land is manured, as wheat, rye,
potatoes ; or finally, if the climate in which they are cultivated
deviates greatly from their natural place of growth, as is the cast
in wheat, maize, and potatoes. Under these circumstances very
slight prejudicial influences are requisite, as for instance wet,
cold, or extreme heat at an improper time, to cause the appear-
ance of disease.

The only point which man has in his power is the avoidance
of unsuitable soil and site in the cultivation of a plant, which
will, however, be exercised by every intelligent agriculturist.
Climate is beyond our power, and we cannot increase the general
disposition to disease without at the same time hazarding the
total loss of any particular species. The outer appearances of
the diseases of vegetables are well known, and their specification
belongs to the pathology of plants. Tiie inward phenomena, as
far as they liave at present been examined, possess something
general, which deserves a place here, since it points decidedly to
the fact that the general tendency to disease is due to the influ-
ence of artificial culture.

As the physiology of plants turns on the investigation of the
life of a single cell, if it is to be worked out with any degree of

every country the most fearful difficulties arise, -when a harvest fails on which
dependence was placed. The loss is however entirely free from evil
conse(iueuces where it has been calculated and provided for beforehand.

184 OBSERVATIONS ON THE DISEASES OF PLANTS

success, SO also in pathological researches we must direct our
attention exclusively to the alterations which the individual cells
exhibit. In every living cell the substances proper to it are
arranged on one simj)Ie plan. The wall of tlie cell is formed of
firm, perfectly insoluble cellulose, which, after it has been pene-
trated witli this or tiiat matter, and has in consequence lost its
purity, is in a condition to exhibit different appearances on the
application of re-agents, but abstractedly always the same, and
that a non-nitrogenous substance remains, in which, together
with carbon, hydrogen and oxygen are present in the proportions
in which they constitute water. This cell-wall is lined within by
a coat of greater or less thickness, either yellowish or free from
colour, consisting of a semi-tluid, somewliat coagulated, gela-
tinoso-granular substance, wliich is formed of a proteinous matter
rich in nitrogen, and called by II. v. Mold* the primordial sac.
Finally, the inner cavity of the cell contains a highly mixed
fluid, the medium of whose fluidity is water, in which a few nitro-
genous, i^roteinous compounds are present, together with many
which are non-nitrogenous, as gum, sugar, pectin, &c., soluble
salts, and in a fixed form starch, inulin, and crystals.

The relation of the greatest consequence as regards the life of
the cells seems to be that of the nitrogenous lining to the other
substances, especially the non-nitrogenous, and the vigorous
health of the cells to depend entirely on the normal condition of
this stratum. When the cell is old and begins to perish (as for
instance in the wood-cells), tiiis coat gradually disappears, or is
so closely united with the cell-:wall tliat it becomes inseparable,
while at the same time it penetrates it in a soluble state, and thus
by degrees the original reaction on the cellulose is perfectly
masked by the constantly increasing re-action on the proteinous
combinations.

If we now examine the first deviations from normal phenomena
which are exhibited in the occurrence of internal diseases, as for
instance in smut (^Uredo segetmit), in decay, as in the stems of
Cacti, juicy fruits, &c., or in the potato murrain, we find in
every case that the nitrogenous lining of tlie cells first becomes
discoloured, assumes a darker tint, a firmer consistence, a more
evident granulation, and that it begins at the same time to per-
colate and saturate the cell-wall, so that it ceases to exhibit its
pure reaction on the cellulose. These phenomena are so general

* It is matter of regret that the best organic chemists are so little agreed
as to the normal constitution of cells. Schleiden's view is so much more
simple than that which regards the proteinous lining as the original cell,
that it bears the stamp of truth about it. Mulder's admirable work is, in
our opinion, impaired very materially by his trusting so much to the fancies
of Hartiff.— Tr.

AS ILLUSTKATED BY THE POTATO MUEKAIN. 185

that we may well suppose that all inward diseases of plants
actually derive their origin from an abnormal condition of this
coat, and inasmuch as the peculiar power of the chemical pro-
cess in the cells is apparently concentrated there, its depravation
first calls into existence the symptoms of disease which are per-
ceptible at a later period in the other portions of the cells.

I subscribe, indeed, to the doctrine first put forth by Saussure
and Davy, and at a later period extended by Boussingaidt and
Liebig, which lays so great stress on the inorganic substances in
plants. I believe, as Liebig first expressed it, that the whole
multiplicity in the vegetable kingdom, as far as it rests and de-
pends on a chemical process, arises in the first instance exclu-
sively from the action of the difierent qualitative and quantitative
combinations of the inorganic substances which the plant re-
ceives from the earth, and that consequently its meagre or
luxuriant growth, its healthy or diseased condition, must be de-
rived from these substances. It appears to me, for instance, to
be clearly established by the investigations of Boussingault and
Liebig, that the formation of the organic substances of the
Dextrin and Protein Category is entirely dependent on the pre-
sence of certain inorganic matters, without which the greatest
superfluity of organic elements in the available combinations
is utterly useless to the plant. Although it is indubitable that
the formation of Proteinous matters depends on the presence of
phosphorated salts, that of matters of the Dextrin group, on the
contrary, of non-phosphorated alkaline salts, tlie following inves-
tigation will render the subject even more probable.

The proportional rarity of phosphates in most geological for-
mations, and also in the soils which are wholly or principally
formed from them, is Avell known ; on the contrary, they are ac-
cumulated in soils principally formed of decomposed vegetable
matter after being slowly collected by the plants. Animal ex-
crements are very rich in these salts, and therefore manured
fields, and especially gardens, contain a greater proportion than is
normally present in plants, or can be consumed by them. But
the influence which inorganic substances in the soil exercise on
vegetation depends upon their being generally present. For since
plants have not the power of choosing their own nutriment, and
since the proportions in which soluble substances present them-
selves for absorption can be altered by endosmose within very
narrow limits, it is equally important that the substances which
are requisite for plants should be contained in the soil in some-
thing like the projx^r proportions, since the plants are otherwise
compelle<l to receive matters in greater quantities than is agree-
able to their normal structure, and in consequence inevitable
anomalies take place in their vital action.

186 OBSERVATIONS ON THE DISEASES OF PLANTS

The sum of what lias been said may be stated thus : — The more
phosphates are relatively increased in any soil in consequence of
its mode of formation or cultivation, the more will the plants
which it sustains have a tendency to deviate from their original
type, to form sub-species and varieties, and finally to be attacked
and destroyed by internal diseases.

5. But to apply the general principles which have been ad-
duced to a particular case.

The potato is a fleshy tuber, which, together with a great pro-
portion of water, contains a marked quantity of starcli, with an
extraordinarily small amount of proteinous matters. All combi-
nations of protein, it is well known, are greatly subject to decom-
position when in solution ; and, indeed, as soon as this takes jilace,
affect in a similar manner even such substances as starch and
cellulose, which slowly, and with difficulty, yield to the decom-
posing power of atmospheric influences.

What an effect, then, must the condition which our cultivated
fields present have upon a plant subjected to such treatment ?
The answer to this question leads to very striking results.

I will, however, first remark, that every natural soil that is
formed exclusively of shattered and decomposed I'ocks contains
very little phosphorus ; and though sufficiently so for most wild
plants, is by no means over rich in alkalies. The first arising
from the general rarity of phosphates, the second from the soluble
alkalies being washed out by the rain and carried to the springs
and rivers, and thence to the sea. A quantity of phosphates are,
however, brought to the soil with manure, which, in proportion
to the alkalies, is far greater than is needed by any plant in a
normal condition.

In examining the inorganic matters of plants and soil, attention
has hitherto been directed almost exclusively to the circumstance,
whether the inorganic constituents of the latter are actually in
sufficient abundance. This method is far from satisfactory, and
does not embrace every necessary consideration. For a plant is
not endowed with sense to choose what is the most proper
amongst the several nutritious matters which surround it. The
reception of nutriment, as appears by the most careful experi-
ments, depends exclusively on the attractive power by which two
different matters strive to combine with each other — a power
which Dutrochet, in the particular case which has the greatest
resemblance with the circumstances of the absorption of nutri-
ment by plants and animals, has distinguished by the name of
endosmose, which is wrong and inapposite in the case before us.
According to the laws of this species of attraction any substance
dissolved in water is always attracted by another fluid, if such
fluids in general (as water and albumen, gum and sugar) are

AS ILLUSTRATED BY THE POTATO MUERAIN. 187

opposed to one another. This does not, however, always take
place in such a manner that the matter in solution is taken up in
the same proportion in wliich it is present in the solvent water ;
nevertheless, in the case of the fluids which most frequently
occur, and the constituents usually dissolved in the water present
in the ground, the limit is so wide that the quantities extend far
beyond the necessities of a plant.

According to these premises, the point is not merely that the
matters, which the plant must find as nutriment in the ground,
must be generally present, but more especially that they must
exist in the ground in the same, or nearly the same, proportions
as they do in the plant when healthy. Every abnormal propor-
tion will compel the plant to take a nutriment unsuitable to its
nature, the consequence of which will be that the chemical pro-
cess by which the organic matters are formed will be modified,
and a relation of these matters induced which recedes from that
of a plant in its normal condition; and cases may arise in which
matters which ought to be present in the jjlant may entirely fail,
while other analogues may take their place and altogether new
compounds be formed. Thus in the cases adduced by Liebig,
where the requisite inorganic bases or acids fail, the plant forms
organic bases or acids which supply the place of those which are
wanting.

In every plant a certain normal proportion is found between
the combinations of protein and those of dextrin. A deviation
from tliese by no means necessarily infers the destruction of the
plant, for in our agricultural plants the very point we aim at is
the regular predominance of some particular constituent. We
see, for instance, how extremely different the proportions may be
in the seeds of our cultivated wheat without the existence of the
plant being endangered. But it is equally notorious how many
diseases it is exposed to, as bunt, rust, mildew, &c. ; and every
intelligent cultivator agrees that seed-corn should be selected
from the most barren land, since that produces the healthiest and
most vigorous plant, and gives the surest and richest return.

Liebig has strived very cleverly to prove the intimate con-
nexion which makes the formation of dextrinous matters de-
pendent on the presence of alkaline salts : he and Boussingault
have shown in their analyses in what a close reciprocity the
protein matters seem to stand to the phosphates. If these doc-
trines are not free from objection, yet thus much is certain —
that the presence and the proportion of phosphoric acid to the
alkalies stands in the closest relation to the formation and the
proportions of the combinations both of protein and dextrin.

Now by means of manure which consists of animal excrements,
phosphates are continually carried to the soil in greater quan-

188 OBSERVATIONS ON THE DISEASES OF PLANTS

titles than alkalies, and thus the former are increased not merely
absolutely, but also relatively. And in our ag-ricultural plants
the protein conibiiiations are strikingly increased and indeed
modified, by which means they show most plainly tlie influence
which has been exercised by tlie manured soil.

No evil consequences will appear in those parts of the plant in
which matters are collected in a dry condition, as in the seeds
of our cereals or pulse, or which, as they are formed, are gatliered
and consumed. Where, on the contrary, the processes to which
parts of plants are subjected after their collection, require for
their success a peculiar kind of admixture, a deviation from this
will show itself in unfavourable results, as in the use of beet for
tlie manufacture of sugar gro\vn on ground newly and richly ma-
nured, or of barley for malting from fields which are extremely
fertile. Finally, where the parts in question contain constantly
a large quantity of uncombined water, where the proteinous
matter consists of dissolved albumen or casein, and the normal
albumen is perhaps changed througii the influence of cultivation
into casein, wliich is still more liable to decomposition, all requi-
sites are present for the most manifold putrefaction and decom-
position, and tlie most fatal consequences will often arise from
slight outward influences, so that it will depend on casual acci-
dents in what particular shape the process of destruction may
appear.

This last-mentioned case is exactly what takes place in po-
tatoes. The albumen may slightly exceed its normal quantity m
the tubers, w hicli are always rich in uncombined water, or may
be changed into casein, in consequence of \\hich they are highly
subject to decomposition. It may then depend on different out-
ward influences whether disease attack the starch especially, as in
the wet rot, or the cell walls, as in the dry rot. Now^ if we com-
pare the phenomena of the potato murrain with the chemical
investigations which have been made, there can be no doubt that
the disease actually consists in an abnorm;il proportion of pro-
teinous matter in the potatoes, and that tiiis deviation probably
answers to a greater quantity of phosphates in the diseased tubers.
All potato diseases, of which we have anything like perfect de-
tails, are characterised as deviations from the normal process of
vegetation which have arisen from cultivation. The dry rot,
which was so prevalent in 1842-43, and the disease which since
1845 has made such dreadful and such constant havoc in our
fields, the only diseases which have been carefully and scientifi-
cally examined, are both characterised by a putrefactive process,
induced by the abnormal condition of the proteinous matter,
afl^ecting in the first the starch, in the second the cell walls.

In a word, observation shows these diseases to be such as must

AS ILLUSTKATED BY THE POTATO MUKKAIN. 189

necessarily, or at least most probably, arise under cultivation.
Their essence lies in a degeneration consisting in an abnormal
condition of the proteinous matters ; their cause in the mode
of cultivation ; the accidents inducing or accelerating the erup-
tion of the maladies, external, local, or temporary influences, as
very moist soil, peculiar weather, &c.

This view of the essence of the disease consisting in a degene-
ration of the species is by no means new, though different from
the notions of all who have treated of the subject in its fulness
and the arguments on which it rests. The grounds which others
have built upon are generally merely local or confined. They
have adduced as causes of degeneration the circmnstance of
never renewing the crop from seed, the use of divided potatoes
or eyes as sets, the mode of keeping the sets during winter,
and other circumstances. Such views are, however, contradicted
by the fact that the circumstances were very different in the
different countries where the disease prevailed. In many places
the plants raised from seed were peculiarly subject to attack,
and besides published cases I can refer to one which occurred to
a clergyman at Jena who for a long time has paid particular
attention to this mode of raising potatoes. The disease has been
not less virulent where it has not been the custom to grow pota-
toes from sets. We must look then for some other cause. Such
notions, indeed, are of no avail except when to conceal ignorance
they are masked by such general expressions as debilitation of
potatoes, corruption of the juices, &c. The fact is incontestable,
that the disease is first manifested in the proteinous matters of
the cells, that they are relatively increased and altered in quality,
while the starch, on the contrary, is relatively diminished, and
also, though less decidedly, altered in quality ; that the relation
of the phosphates and alkalies is surprisingly changed. All
these circmnstances, however, according to late scientific im-
provements, are closely connected with each other, and no views
respecting the cause of disease can lay claim to any respect,
which do not at the same time at least show the possibility of this
especial result arising for the reasons assigned from chemical laws.

On the contrary, this view is altogether calculated to verify
the required connexion, and to infer the result from the premises
not only as possible, but as probable, in a very high, if not
necessary degree. This view perfectly explains all the con-
flicting piienomena which have appeared during the expansion
of the disease, since it constantly places the outward circum-
stances which must naturally act differently on almost every
individual plant, in apposition with the inner specific tendency
to disease. It explains, moreover, perfectly the surprising
circumstance that in the same field — nay, even on one and the

190 OBSERVATIOXS ON THE DISEASES OF I'LANTS

same plant, sound and highly-diseased tubers occur close to each
other ; for it scarcely requires explanation that the soil of the
same inclosure is by no means a uniform admixture of tiie sub-
stances which it contains. The luxuriant vegetation and deep
green in certain spots points out in the second year the places
where the mannre heaps were laid, and from whence they were
distributed over the surface. Every decided difference of soil,
however local, must necessarily induce a difference of vegetation,
and especially of the chemical ])rocess in the plant, so that
individual tubers may be exposed to injurious action in very
different degrees.

6. One of the most practically important questions which now
arise is, whether the disease which has prevailed since 1845 is to
be regarded as an isolated fact, as a circumstance induced by a
rare and altogether peculiar concurrence of circumstances, or
whether in future similar dangers threaten us. The answer to
tins question will naturally be very different, according to the
views which are entertained of the malady. Those which have
at present been put forth may be arranged under three heads : —
1. It is attributable either to vegetable or animal parasites.
This merits no further notice, for it can escape only the most
superficial observation that the diseased symptoms occur, witli-
out exception, before the least trace of the parasites is visible,
and the most numerous voices, and those of most weight in
science, have been raised against it. 2. Others attributed the
disease to the peculiar weather of 1845, and prophesied its total
disappearance in more favourable years. Painful experience has
disproved any such opinion, but unfortunately observation has
in consequence been diverted into a wrong channel. 3. The
right view, and that which has most promise for the future,
springs from the history of the potato. It thence appears that
the malady is no isolated fact, but that diseased action has from
the earliest records increased in extent and intensity.

Potatoes, with rare exception, have been grown in freshly
manured soil. In all schemes of rotation our best authorities
commence with the potato, and some direct the set to be placed
immediately on the manure. Putsche and Vertuch, in their
monograph, declare that the ground cannot be over-manured.
These views have continually been more firmly held, in pro-
portion as the cultivation of the potato has extended. In a few
parts only of Germany, especially in Thuringia, as above-
mentioned, a custom has been pretty well established not to
plant potatoes in fresh manure, but as the third or fourth crop,
and generally after clover, and these parts are precisely those
which remained the longest free from disease, and which suffered
the least.

AS ILLUSTRATED BY THE POTATO MURRAIN.

191

On a perfect comparison of the contents in ashes of different
kinds of manure with those in a sound tuber, it appears tliat if
the alkalies are put down at unity, the magnesia and phosphoric
acid in the dung are too great. We must, however, remember
that sound potatoes are not at present m their normal condition
in consequence of the established mode of culture.

The following table, compiled from the details given by Dr.
Schleiden, will exhibit the matter clearly and usefully, the alkalies
being in every case placed at unity.

Alkalies.

Lime.

Magnesia.

Chlorine.

Sulph. AciJ.

Pliosph. Acid.

Potatoes, haulm, and

tubers ....

1-000

0-075

0-070

0-059

0-102

0-214

Human ordure . .

1-000

1-348

0-142

0-366

0-221

0-631

Human urine .

I'OOO

0-072

0-225

0-446

0-344

Cow-dung mixed with

urine ....

1-000

0-229

0-079

0-396

0-178

0-384

Horse-dung mixed with

urine ....

1-000

1-458

1-122

0-212

, ,

2-175

Soluble portion of guano

1-000

1-994

0-242

0-720

0-727

2-520

Beech ashes .

I'OOO

1-553

0-471

0-085

0-322

Fir ashes ....

1-000

2-510

0*553

, .

, ,

0-378

Human bones .

1-000

47-431

0-800

0-884

45-831

Bones of oxen . .

1-000

21-917

0-580

0-901

24-963

Common stable dung .

1-000

1-102

0-461

0-076

0-243

0-384

If then what has been said about the malady and its causes be
correct, the practice of planting potatoes in newly manured soil,
and of employing the kinds of manure just enumerated, the dis-
position to disease must increase more and more, and slight cir-
cumstances will be sufficient to cause its eruption. If very
favourable years allow us to hope for a sound harvest, such ex-
pectation will be more and more deceptive every year, and a
time will at last come when potatoes, instead of affording the
surest crop, will be the most precarious.

Comfortless as this view is, when we reflect how large an in-
fluence a favourable potato harvest has, not only on the welfare
of most people in Europe, but even on tiie possibility of their
existence, yet, on the other side, the way is thus laid open which
must be taken to avert with certainty the tiireatening evil.

This consists in a general alteration of our mode of culture
and in the whole system of rotation. Potatoes must henceforth,
if we hope to avoid the apprehended consequences, be universally
excluded from the commencement of any system of rotation. The
particular place in the course I will not attempt to decide, since
so many purely practical circumstances must be regarded which
cannot be measured by theoretic principles, and distinguished

192 DISEASES OF PLANTS ILLUSTRATED IN THE TOTATO MURRAIN.

beforeliaiid. I shall merelj' hazard the following indication
without attributing too much value to it, since the rotation de-
pends not entirely on the chemical circumstances attendant on
nutrition, but perhaps quite as much on the state of aggregation
in which the soil is left by particular crops, as also on the quan-
tity of Immus it may contain. The proportions are again ar-
ranged in a tabular form for the sake of easy comparison : —

1

A Ikalies.

Lime.

Magnesia,

Chlorine.

Sulph. Acid.

Phospli. Acid.

Ashes in wheat har-">
vest,inckiding straw j

1-000

0-305

0-124

0-140

0-021

0-550

Subtracted from the A

proportions ill stable 1

1-000

1-500

0-629

0-044

0-354

0-301

dung given above, j

multiplied by 3 . i

Ashes in rye harvest,!

including straw . J

TOOO

0-338

0-283

0-025

0-073

0-830

Subtracted, as before.

from the proportions
in stable dung, mul-

1-000

1'484

0-550

0-101

0-328

0-lGl

tiplied by 3. . . ,

Potato crop . . .

1-000

0-075

0-070

0-059

0-102

0-214

In the case of wheat, the residue of manure after harvest is in
th(! same unfavourable condition for the culti^'ation of potatoes
as wood ashes, as appears from the former Table, while in that of
rye the result is decidedly favourable.

Most agriculturists agree that rye is most fitted for newly ma-
nured land, which is clearly attributable to its greater amount of
phosphoric acid. The best rotation then seems to be to begin
with winter lye, and to let potatoes follow. I do not, however,
give this as a decided fact ; all I would assert is, that the place
usually given to potatoes is the worst and most destructive.

The choice, however, of another system, if it is to lead to the
desired result, must not merely be tried by individuals ; but the
earlier methods of cultivation must be abolished, at least as ge-
nerally as they have been hitherto firmly established. But
unhappily in the very nature of things, any legislative measures
can have no effect, even supposing tlie views I have developed
to be true. The only measure which a government can take, is
to provide by every means at its disposal for the instruction and
enlightenment of cultivators, so that on the one side they may
possess such well-grounded knowledge of natural science as may
enable them to comprehend facts in their just connexion or as
actual experience, instead of opposing raw empiricism or the
mere observation of facts with the self-sufficiency of ignorance
to scientific discussion, and on the other side landowners may

STYLE AND EXPEESSIOX IN TREES AND SHRUBS. 193

bring themselves to such a national economical illumination, that
their own interest may go hand in hand with the well-being of
the whole state, and the first cannot long continue without the
last ; whereas at present a narrow-mindedness is frequently exhi-
bited, which with confined views works against its own interest,
while it holds the nearest profit as the surest, forgetting that a
speculation for ten days in the case of mortal men is not more
sure than one for ten years.

XIII. — On Style and Expression in certain Trees and Shrubs ;
their Adaptabilities, Sic By Robert Errington, C.M.H.S.,
Gardener to Sir Philip de Malpas Grey Egerton, Bart., M.P.,
F.H.S., Oulton Park, Tarporley, Cheshire.

(Communicated April IG, 1852.)

Landscape gardening in its strict sense has scarcely kept pace
with what has been termed the Gardenesque of late years ; and
why ? Simply I suppose from the fact, that where there is one
person Avho can appreciate the beauties of lines and forms inde-
pendent of colour, there are a score who cannot ; but who never-
theless are, it may be, adepts at what is termed " clumping "
flowers and all the paraphernalia of the flower garden.

Whilst, however, England sustains her position in the van of
civilisation, so long must true landscape gardening be fostered ;
and it must be confessed, tliat we owe its preservation and encou-
ragement mainly to our aristocracy, who are ever in a better
position to appreciate its value than any other class of society.

My purpose is to draw attention to the beauties of form in
certain trees and shrubs, old-fashioned kinds or not, and to point
to their eligibilities, whether in the park, the ordinary pleasure-
grounds, or the flower-garden. As country' seats differ — and
indeed should do so — as to their general tone or expression,
sometimes through position and adventitious circumstances, and
sometimes as a matter of design, it follows that a judicious adap-
tation of trees and shrubs becomes necessary, whether as accom-
paniments or as constituting a portion of the chief features of the
grounds. In most of the pleasure-grounds connected with the
seats of our nobility and gentrj^, certain by-scenes, retreats, nooks,
or decorative adjuncts occur, which either possess a kind of indi-
viduality, or require it to be created by the skill of the artist.
Hence the necessity for a nice perception of the character and
ultimate expression of trees and shrubs. The grave and the gay
would be terms far too sweeping in their signification to embrace

194 ON STYLE AND EXPRESSION

all the objects required in extensive gardens. From the mau-
soleum to tiie parterre may exist several intermediate characters,
each requiring a separate impress, yet merging into each other.
For instance, there may be the rosary, the American ground, the
decorated promenade, the terrace, I'ock-work, &c. ; and as matters
farther from home, wallcs and acljuncts connected with the mar-
gins of the park, the lake, the woodlands, the grove. It need
scarcely be urged that each of these requires peculiarity of style
in the trees and shrubs which are used as accompaniments.
There exists, moreover, in addition, a demand for trees and
shrubs adapted to the various styles of architecture ; and to the
vestibule, the corridor, balustrades, arcades, the conservatory, &c.

Thus far I have pointed to a few of the chief objects, in order
to show the demand for a variety and choice of materials, and
to mark the existence of such, and to claim in some degree for
the landscape gardener an immunity from the ordinary bondage
imposed by the great goddess Fashion : the genuine landscape
gardener caring more for lines and forms than gaudy colours.

Mere novelty and colour, then, being set aside for a moment,
I would beg to advert to what we may term style and expression
in trees and shrubs, and with much deference submit the following,
which is capable of amplification : —

Fonns : —

Kound or flat-headed, generally massive.

Pointed or spiry.

Columnar.

Fastigiate.

Horizontal.

Weeping.

To these common terms, as descriptive of general forms, may
be added certain other characters or habits ; such as the tinted,
or those which impart a solemn grandeur or richness, at tlie sea-
son of fading, in our early autumn or winter months. Feathery
and light branched trees or shrubs, adapted in a special way to
the vista or glade, rock-shrubs and trees, those adapted to the
banks of water; climbers, creepers, twiners, berry bearers, and
variegations ; witli the coarser and more rustic-looking things,
as leading to or connected with the woodlands, the fields, or the
moor.

I will now point to a few trees and shrubs in each of the
classes, begging it to be understood that they may be either old
or new, their suitability alone being the assumed ground of
merit.

Round or Flat-headed Section. — Foremost, " the gnarled and
unwedgable Oak" — everybody's favourite. Here we have one of

IN CERTAIN TREES AND SHRUBS. 195

the finest contributaries to a bold sky outline — in age exliibiting
broad and heavy masses of foliage, disposed in well defined,
abrupt, and even angular breaks ; added to which a tortuous and
rugged bark — a bold relief amongst trees and shrubs of tamer
character. The Beech, too, a tree for the park, the grove, the
glade, or the vista. The Sycamore, which, although when young,
is of no significance, attains a character in age frequently of much
consequence to the scenery where it is situate ; the foliage in this
case running into heavy masses, with deeply indented breaks in
the outline. The Scotch Fir in age frequently attains a most
picturesque appearance. In this section we have such trees as
the Elm, the Lime, and various others.

Pointed or Spiry. — Such as the Lombardy Poplar, the Taxo-
dium sempervirens, Douglas Pine, Larch, Silver Fir, and several
other Conifers, with the beautiful Cryptomeria, and many orna-
mental shrubs. Trees and Shrubs of this habit are finely adapted
for relieving the monotony of a heavy sky outline. What a
charming effect is produced by even a group or two of the Holly-
hock, peeping forth from amongst a heavy mass of flat-headed
shrubs ! The Lombardy Poplar too : who has not seen and
admired this tree, rising in the distance in conjunction with the
steeple of some time-hallowed church ? This is indeed a most
important section. If I remember right, Mr. Repton affirms that
spiry trees are well adapted to the Grecian style of architecture.

Columnar. — Here are many admirable things, particularly
suitable as accompaniments to buildings. For the margins of
promenades, terraces, or indeed any long, straight, and formal
walks or lines — the corridor, balustrade, &c. — they are con-
sidered well adapted. I need only point to the Irish Yew,
Arbor vitse. Red Cedar, with some of the members of the Juni-
perus and Cupressus families, as peculiarly of this class.

Fastigiate. — There are some singular-looking things in this
section ; as for instance the upright or Cornish Elm — indeed,
some of the Conifers may be placed here. There has been some
difference of opinion as to the use of the Lombardy Poplar,
which is perhaps more of the columnar character ; but I think
any one going from London to Richmond by water must be
struck with the extraordinary effect produced at some villas
on the banks, in the grounds of which the Lombardy Poplar,
the Cedar of Lebanon, and the Weeping Willow may be seen
in close combination with buildings of modern style ; the whole
producing a most striking picture ; such forms powerfully con-
trasting with the beautiful river to complete the scene.

Horizontal. — The ancient Cedar of Lebanon may here be
placed foremost : too well known to require description. The
Cedrus Africanus will probably stand in this class ; and that

VOL, VII. P

196 ON STYLE AND EXPRESSION

ponderous and dignified-looking tree, the Araucarla inibricata;
the Silver Fir, and indeed several Conifers belong here, which
altogether is a most important class, especially witli reference to
architectural lines and forms.

Weeping Kinds. — First the old Salix Babylonica, or Weeping
Willow, which may stand as the type of this class of trees ;
albeit we have such graceful things as the Cupressiis funebris,
the Deodar, the Hemlock Spruce, &c. ; even the Birch in some
of its best humours swells the list, which, if space would permit,
might be enlarged with many a goodly candidate.

Who would refuse the Deodar and the Weeping Willow a
place contiguous to water scenery ? The latter is so much at
home in such a situation, that an ornamental piece of water in
a pleasure ground is scarcely considered complete without it.
Here previous associations and individual aptitude combine to
press this time-honoured tree on the notice of all lovers of the
graceful.

Having thus given a hasty sketch of character in trees, a
subject which, if done justice to, would fill a book, I may now be
permitted to point to a few trees or shrubs, which, although
possessing much character, may not fall in strictly with any of
the classes here assumed.

Conifers in general : it is almost superfluous to remark that
they possess capabilities of giving quite a new tone to British
scenery ; not that they will by any means cause us to part with
our majestic Oaks, our Beeches, &c. On the contrary, they will
add power to existing groups of deciduous timber trees, by
depth of contrast ; and combine as it were the freshness of spring
with the gloom of winter.

Amongst these the Deodar seems by general consent to
occupy the very first place, based upon a double consideration ;
its exceeding great beauty as a tree, and the well known durable
character of its timber. Another capital feature belongs to it,
the power of its leader to resist frost or cutting winds. No
person on first observing its graceful and delicate-looking leader,
growing so late in the autumn, could suppose that it could
remain unscathed through a severe winter. It is moreover the
most manageable Fir I have seen, as to habit ; it would be easy
to keep it in a dwarf state for many years. It is thus adapted
to rock work or other rustic affairs, where pendent forms are
employed. Next the regal-looking Araucaria — a tree for
palaces. Cryptomeria, too, and the Douglas Pine, and then
the genera Cephalotaxus, Libocedrus, Juniperus, Taxodium, Cu-
pressus, &c. What a rich group ! Any painter who, by antici-
pation, could produce a landscape on canvas, such as will be
obtained in Britain in some twenty or thirty years hence by the

IN CERTAIN TREES AND SHRUBS. 197

use of these fine things, would perhaps give a greater impulse to
planting than all the advertising of the tradesmen.

Tlie selection of trees and shrubs possessing autumnal tints
is by no means an unimportant part of the planter's business.
When the gloom of winter threatens — when the aspect of our
gardens becomes totally changed by the general decadence of
the floral tribes, then the bounteous hand of Providence, by a
gracious compensation, " lights up " the woodland, the grove,
and the shrubbery by those delightfully various and ever-
changing tints which all who can appreciate the beauties of the
landscape so much admire.

This is a numerous section, and any one who would watch
and carefully classify them would do planters a real service. I
may just observe, that the most glorious tints I am acquainted
with are those of the Liquidamber, the old yellow Azalea, and
I am tempted to add, although somewhat out of place, the true
West's St. Peter's Vine. The Oak family are not poor in these
things ; the old Merry tree is sometimes beautifully tinted ; so
is the Corylus atropurpureus, the Hippocastanum, and a host of
others, including pure yellows, as the Tulip tree, &c. To these
may be added for their rich tints our coloured stemmed shrubs,
as some of the Dogwoods. The Berried race may also be glanced
at. Foremost the old Holly, associated in the mind with the
Christmas festivities of centuries, and outdoors second to none in
the richness of its embellishment, or as shelter, \yhether in the
shrubbery, the field, the park, or the forest. Next the sombre
Yew, with its funereal associations, combining massiveness, dura-
bility, and hardihood. The Arbutus, Juniper, Leycesteria,
Snowberry, Ivy, Mahonia, the Garrya, Euonymus, &c.

The Variegated section is by no means meagre or inapt for
decorative purposes. Materials also for rock work, or for impart-
ing a wilderness character, undergrowths and climbers ; and
lastly, as a consideration worthy the close attention of every one
engaged in ornamental gardening, our very early spring flower-
ing shrubs or trees, and our very late ones.

Amongst the former I would point to the old snowy Mespilus,
tlie Almond, Ribes, the Corchorus, Chimonanthus, Cydonia
japonica, Mezereon, Cornelian Cherry, Weigelia, Forsythia, &c.
Amongst the latter, the old Althaea frutex, Erica herbacea,
Clethra, Arbutus, Escallonias, Laurustine ; and lastly, the old
Glastonbury Thorn of legendary fame ; and difficult it is to
know whether to class this with the old year or the new.

Sketchy as the present remarks necessarily are, as applied to
a subject having such wide bearings, it may be seen by those
unacquainted with our trees and shrubs, how rich England is in
materials for decoration, at whatever period of the year, or what-

p 2

198 SOME ACCOUNT OF A NEW LEVEL.

ever the style : and I may be allowed to express a hope, that
all intent on beautifying their gardens, parks, &c., will take
into consideration the propriety of paying a due regard to the
habitudes and adaptabilities of trees and shrubs.

XIV. — Some Account of a Neiv Level. By A. Forsyth,
C.M.H.S., St. Mary's Church, Torquay.

(Communicated April 28, 1852.)

I NEED not say one word on the importance of the plumb-rule
and level ; they are essentially necessary in ground-work, and
indeed in all the operations of horticulture they play a promi-
nent part.

Persons employed in other branches of industry have imple-
ments peculiar to their trades : the cooper would not be able to
do his work with the cabinet-maker's tools, and the mason would
be puzzled to keep his work right with the surveyor's swing
level and graduated staff. In the various divisions of labour,
therefore, every class clings to its particular character of tools, and
as new branches are introduced fresh implements must be had.

Having been accustomed to gardening from my infancy, I
may take some credit at this time for knowing what tools may be
required for the ordinary operations of horticulture ; and, not to
tire the reader with a useless list, I will confine my observations
to the point at issue, and state what difficulties I have expe-
rienced in getting things true to the horizontal and the ver-
tical lines. For example, we shall suppose that five tliousand
stakes of various sizes, from 4^ feet to 10 feet in length, are to
be inserted in the ground by the gardener in one month, viz.
the month of May, as props for Hollyhocks, Dalilias, Roses, &c. ;
these stakes, being neatly planed and painted, are stuck up
quite naked, a forest of green sticks, and they are contiguous
to the main-lines of walks, where highly educated parties are
constantly passing: now, I would ask, could a handy man, with
rule of thumb, do this neatly ? He could not. This is no fan-
cied case ; I have tried it with good workmen, I have tried it
myself ; it could not be done. I had to get the plummet, and
stand by the pole, and first set it right from south to north, and
then from east to west, and this in windy weather is not a very
straightforward job.

Again, in plunging Pine-apple pots in a bark-bed sloping to
the south, it is not very easy even for a practised eye to put
them level, and, if they are not, the water will flow over one
side and leave the other dry. I need not adduce further
instances : these two examples may suffice, as they are taken

SOME ACCOUNT OF A NEW LEVEL.

199

from real practice in the ordinary routine of flower and kitchen
gardening.

The Level I have invented combines the plumb-line and the
level in the same instrument, and that instrument so small as to
be got into the pocket ; with it a stake may be set upright in
any weather, and the vertical line determined instantly ; ten
observations may be made with this tool whilst the mason's
plumb-rule is being adjusted to make one ; and the same may be
said of the horizontal line, for it is no easy matter to get the
spirit-level accurately adjusted ; and that most valuable tool, the
mason's level, is miserably slow in its movements in all weathers,
and in windy weather it will not give a true line at all, whereas
this little implement not only tells instantly when the bed is
level on which it lies, but tells how far it is from that point in
case the bed be an inclined plane, thereby giving a regular fall
to drains, &c., where inclined planes are wanted.

The Level is constructed upon the principle of the hour-glass,
and, by a particular character of sand, the lines are given very fine.

The accompanying sketch will give an accurate idea of the
dial of the contrivance. No scale is needed, as the sketch is the
full size of the instrument.

200 SOMK ACCOUNT OF A NKW LEVEL.

The first was made three years ago ; the subject lias been
carefully digested since, and it is to be hoped tliat tliis will prove
a most valuable implement in the ordinary operations t>f horti-
culture long after the inventor has been forgotten.

In appearance the instrument is something like half a brick.
Its dimensions are 3^ inches X 3^ x ^^^

The diagram represents the face of it, in which two cavities
are cut out so as to form each a quadrant of a circle, as appears
by the degrees marked. Some fine sand, like that used for hour-
glasses, is enclosed in these cavities by glazing in front. The
sand falls from the upper part through a small hole into the
lower, as in the conmion hour-glass. 'J'he particles of sand fall
so continuously that they form in appearance a tolerably fine
line. If the instnnnent be placed upon anything that is truly
horizontal the sand will fall, as a plunnnet would, from the small
hole in the centre, to 90^. But should the instrument be placed
upon anything that is not level, the particles of sand will still
fall perpendicularly, in accordance with the law of gravitation ;
but the apparently continuous line of falling sand will not be
direct from the centre to 90'' ; it will deviate from the latter
point in proportion as the object on which it may be placed de-
viates from being level. If it sliould be placed on the slope of
a rafter making an angle of 20^ with the ground, then the sand
will fall from the centre to 20'-' from the point at 90°.

Again, if the instrument be placed with its side against an
upright post or stake, the sand will be seen falling in a line from
the centre to 90° ; if the post be not perfectly ui)right, then the
perpendicular stream of sand will be seen to fall on points more
or less distant from the line at 90°, according as the post is more
or less out of the perpendicular.

In using this level for draining purposes, or for other inclined
planes, such as setting a melon-frame up to the sun so that its
roof may be of the same pitch as an adjoining pine-pit, first put
the level upon the rafter of the pine-pit or other inclined plane
to be copied, and mark the sand line, which we shall suppose to
indicate 75° ; then put the level on the rafter of the melon-frame,
and prop the frame until the sand line indicates the same angle.
And so of drains or other inclined surfaces, putting the level on
a piece of wood with parallel edges (a common straight edge).

The level, if made of our Devonshire madrepore marble, is
expensive ; but, for ordinary purposes, the instrument does very
well made of oak or other well-seasoned wood.

ON GARDEN WALKS. 201

XV.— On Garden Walks. By R. Glendinning, F.H.S.,
Member of the Royal Agricultural and Botanical Society of
Ghent.

(Communicated May 15, 1852.)

The comfort and enjoyment of a garden, especially in our moist
climate, depend in a great degree upon the condition of its walks ;
for unless these are smooth, firm, and dry, they can scarcely be
passed over during a large portion of the year except in very fine
weather, and rarely indeed by invalids, more especially at those
times wlien gardens are most enjoyable, viz. mornings and even-
ings, as well as after showers. A main feature in the formation
of a garden should therefore be walks so made that they could
be walked on in all weathers with comparative comfort.

la forming walks, the first thing is to determine the position
of tlie verges. In doing this it must be kept constantly in view
that in nearly every case, whether on level ground, ascending or
descending inequalities of surface, the verges at right angles
across the walk sliould be on the same level, and for the follow-
ing reasons. First, each half of the walk will receive only its
due proportion of rain, which tends in so many instances to dis-
figure and disturb the surface ; secondly, walks so made will be
found more agreeable to walk on than if they had an inclination
from one verge to tlie other ; and lastly, by this arrangement
the eye of taste will neither be offended nor annoyed. The
mind will receive that kind of satisfaction which it derives from
looking at a perfect architectural elevation, and to efl^ect this ap-
pears to me equally important in matters of gardening as in those
of building, especially where the utmost refinement in the art is
aimed at.

The next point to be considered is to make provision for carry-
ing off water, and this should be so contrived as to meet the
maximum amoiuit of our atmospheric precipitations, particularly
where the inclinations are rapid and of great length ; on level
surfaces and when the natural soil is loose and friable, this w ill
not be so urgent, provided the walks are otherwise properly
formed. Tlie best material to use for conveying the water will
be the earthenware tubing now so well known everywhere, and
of a diameter in proportion to the width of the walk and the
length the water may have to run before it is discharged. This
will be easily determined by persons accustomed to such mat-
ters, or at all acquainted with draining. The most convenient
place to lay the tubing will be in the centre of the walk, with
communicating tubes to the sides, where square cesspools about

202 ON GARDEN WALKS.

9 inches square and 18 inches deep, built in brickwork, should
be formed to receive the water and sand or other earthy matters
wliich may be carried along with it. Tlie water will pass into
the drain near the surface of these cesspools. A grating fitted
in a stone frame must be placed over each cesspool, so tliat by
lifting up the grating the cesspool may be readily cleaned out ;
where the walk takes a precipitate fall, and for a considerable
distance, provision must be made for the water to run in before
it reaches the gutters, without allowing it to rut the gravel.
This can be effected by means of surface guttering both sides of
the walk with tiles made for the purpose, or where sea pebbles
abound these may be used with good effect. One of the main
points which conduces so largely to the beauty of a garden is the
perfect keeping of the walks, and unless precautions are taken
in their first construction to guard against those natural and un-
avoidable causes which disturb the surface, there must be con-
tinual repairing and unsightly patching, producing at best a most
unsatisfactory result, which a little extra trouble in the first
instance would have effectually obviated.

The material of which walks should be formed is a subject de-
pending in some measure upon the geological formation of the
neighbourhood ; for where the most fitting material is not readily
accessible, few are inclined to incur the expense of distant car-
riage, although railroads have in many instances assisted in this
matter. In nearly every part of the country some kind of rough
and hard material can be had, such as broken stones, rubble, or
even clinkers constitute a good foundation. "Walks for ordinary
purposes do not, as some imagine, require a great depth of bot-
tom beneath the fine gravel which constitutes the finish ; 9 inches
in most cases will be found ample. This foundation has been
mistaken by many for drainage, but no such thing is meant, as
the surface of the walk when finished ought to carry the rain to
the sides ; as little as possible should be absorbed by the gravel,
because where there is great traflfic, in a short time the walks
would become a complete puddle, and hence the necessity of ren-
dering the surface impervious to wet. This has induced many
persons to cover the tops of their walks with concrete or asphalte,
but when good gravel can be procured at a reasonable expense,
I think under all circumstances it is to be preferred. It is more
congenial to our feelings and harmonises better with the sur-
rounding scenery of the garden. Under particular circumstances
necessity will suggest other expedients, but then let necessity
also justify their use. Two inches of fine screened gravel are
sufficient wherewitli to cover the surface as a finish to the whole,
and where this is found to be an expensive article, one inch

ON GAKDEN WALKS. 203

carefully laid on will suffice. Therefore when the cost of a
cubic yard of gravel is known, it will be easy to ascertain ex-
actly the expense of coating any given extent of garden walks.

I shall now direct attention to the form which the surface of
walks should have when finished. This I apprehend has been
but little understood by those who have attempted to lay down
rules for our guidance, inasmuch as certain requirements, as
well as peculiar situations, have a considerable influence in the
matter.

Perfectly level walks, like the floors of a house, are not only
more agreeable to walk on, but they are also strictly in conformity
with good taste in geometrical gardening, where sculptural and
architectural decorations prevail, and indeed in all kinds of
gardening ; the only plea that can justify a deviation from this
rule is, that our garden walks are exposed to the atmosphere,
while the floors of our houses are protected. To render walks
available therefore for the purposes for which they are introduced,
becomes a matter of primary import, otherwise the level rule
might be made absolute, as is the perpendicular in the elevation
of a building. Now on terraces surrounding buildings, and in
elaborate parterres similarly or identically circumstanced, the
nearer the walks approach a level surface, just in proportion will
a mind imbued with taste and a correct eye appreciate their
execution. AYalks so laid down are only available in perfectly
dry weather. Situations which are elevated, either naturally or
artificially, and thus rendered perfectly dry, afford the best oppor-
tunities for a close approximation to this rule. It must be stated
also, that even in situations where the traffic over them is con-
siderable, they will soon cease to afford either comfort or enjoy-
ment. Necessity, therefore, compels the adoption of a surface
less or more convex as the circumstances may appear to demand.
Walks in private gardens are little used in wet weather, and
therefore they are not likely to be much disturbed at such a period,
which is the time above all others when excessive traffic breaks
up their surface. The water does not pass off, but is held in the
loose gravel until they become almost impassable, which is in fact
the case in all public walks so constructed, as was formerly
notoriously exemplified in the Society's Garden on wet exhibition
days previous to their being altered. It therefore becomes clear
that situation, and the uses for which walks are required, should
materially influence the operator as to the proportion of convexity
which they should receive.

Some entertain an idea that walks should only maintain a very
subordinate position in garden arrangements, that they should be
kept as much as possible out of sight, and that their appearance

204 ON GARDEN WAI.KS.

should be only a matter of necessity ; but such notions are only
applicable to garden wildernesses, and have no relation to
gardening as an art of design. It might be urged, with quite as
much consistency, that tlie door of a mansion should be hidden
or obscured, being only a means to an end. Those at all ac-
quainted with the classical and decorative style adopted in some
of the best examples of Continental gardening will readily under-
stand this, where indeed walks constitute quite as important a
feature in geometrical gardening as windows do in the elevation
of a building ; they illustrate in fact a material part in the
composition. Divest a garden of walks, and the main lines
which mark out its form and proportions are destroyed. As
roads are to a country evidences of the degree of its civilization,
so walks in a garden are indications of the amount of artistical
skill brought to bear upon it. Take as an example a garden
planted with all possible taste, and with tlie most decorative
flowers which can be selected, and I would ask what satisfaction
could such an arrangement produce in a mind cultivated and
refined by a high social position, or how could such a garden be
enjoyed ? Walks contrasting with turf and flowers, conduce to
a harmony in the composition which the two latter of themselves
never could accomplish. Where artistic gardening has been
carried to the utmost limits consistent with propriety and good
taste, and where numerous architectural and sculptural embellish-
ments have been introduced, walks are then frequently elevated
above the general level. To accomplish this, stone edgings have
in some instances been used, and in others, where the style
admits of more elaborate embellishment, walls of solid masonry
as edgings have been employed in order to raise the walks above
the level of the garden, so that the eye may look down upon the
flower beds, and more perfectly view the general arrangement
and design.

It has been attempted by some to lay down rules as to the
direction which walks should take, and also their width ; such,
however, can be of little service, as local circumstances must
nearly in every instance determine this. It may be stated,
however, as a principle, that where walks take a straight direction
and are level, or upon a uniform inclination, the width must bear
a relative proportion to the length ; as for example, a walk 10
feet wide may look very well if the length does not exceed 200
feet, but supposing it to be 2000 feet, the proportion would then
be entirely destroyed. These, and other matters of detail, must
be left to the operator.

rivers' S SEEDLING ELIZA STRAWBERRY. 205

XVI. — Note on Rivers's Seedling Eliza Strawberry ; and on a
mode of Potting. By R. Thompson.

Three plants of this were received from Mr. Rivers, October
8th, 1851, in order to ascertain the effects of a particular mode
of potting the runners. This consists in ramming the soil in the
pots with the view of condensing in the latter a greater quantity
of nourishment for the plants.

The above were placed along with the other strawberries
potted in the usual way for forcing. Under the same circum-
stances the Seedling Eliza ripened about a fortnight later than
Keens' Seedling, therefore it cannot be recommended for early
forcing. Tiie fruit is middle-sized, somewhat conical ; flesh
solid, with the flavour of Myatt's Eliza ; the scapes and foot-
stalks very hairy. It is likely to prove a rich-flavoured straw-
berry in the open ground.

Hard potting produced no beneficial result. Plants of Keens'
Seedling potted in the usual way made a better growth, and
yielded a larger crop ; and when turned out of the pots after
forcing the roots were sound ; but many of those in the hard
potting were not so.

If we put into each of two pots an equal quantity of the same
kind of soil, and if by ramming we can make one pot contain the
same quantity of soil, and of course all the nourishment that was
in the two, it would seem to follow that a plant would thence
derive a double amount of nourishment, and make a proportionate
growth. But the experiment proves that such is not the case.
It shows, on the contrary, that a large quantity of nourishment
may be unavailably contained in soil that is too compact for the
roots of certain plants to penetrate. This is more especially the
case as regards plants in pots, because they are induced to make
finely divided roots, like a net- work, between the sides of the pot and
ball of earth. All below the surface, the ball is often completely
enveloped with these very fine roots, which bind it more and more,
whilst they seem to have lost the power of re-entering it. They
assume the character of roots formed in water, and losing the
stronger form which those have that travel in the soil, they neces-
sarily avoid the latter, if not of a very permeable nature. The
roots of large trees will traverse a great extent of very firm
soil, and will sometimes even upset walls that have shallow
foundations ; but let these powerful roots dip into a well, and
then their earth penetrating adaptation ends. They form there,
a mass of thread-like roots, that may be bundled up like a
quantity of rope-yarn. In like manner, but in a finer degree, the
roots of plants in pots form fibres in the moist easy medium o.
extension along the insides of the pots; and if it is desirable that

206 HOW TO FORM AN ASPARAGUS BED.

they sliould not in this way almost entirely desert the soil, it is
certainly necessary that the latter should not be rendered, by any
means, too obstructive to their ramifications throughout its mass.
I may take this opportunity of adding a word respecting

CuthilVs Black Prince Strawberry .

Runners of this sort of Strawberry were ordered to be potted
last summer for the purpose of trying its merits for forcing. The
plant is naturally of slender growth, too much so for throwing up
a sufficiently strong scape in forcing. Its setting is very preca-
rious ; but it is a little earlier than Keens* Seedling, yet it is in
every other respect so inferior to the latter, that it cannot be
recommended. It has neither size, beauty, nor flavour to render
it worthy of room in a forcinor-house.

XVII. — How to form an Asparagus Bed. By Peter Kendall,
Esq., F.H.S., of the Marine Villa, Aldborough, Suffolk.

On forming a new vegetable garden at my residence here
about four years since, 1 made of course a new Asparagus bed,
and finding it quite answer my expectations as to its productive-
ness and quality, and the plan I adopted being original, I send
you the particulars of its formation.
I set out my bed as follows : —

60 feet long,
5 feet wide,
4 feet deep.

The earth was all taken out and laid on one side the bed ; I then
placed at the bottom 2 feet deep of salt ooze, from the banks of
the Aide : 1^ feet deep of the river weed (a long grass) : 2 feet
of the best vegetable mould was then placed on the top, and the
young plants set out at 18 inches distance, all over the bed.

Note by the Vice- Secretary. — It will be obvious that the me-
thod of proceeding adopted in this little experiment was founded
upon tlie most just conception of the nature of the Asparagus
plant. Deep rich loose soil for its roots, salt in moderation, and
the crown of the plant only just buried in earth, produced, as
might have been expected, heads of the finest Asparagus possible,
green, succulent, excellent in flavour, and in no respect inferior
to any that has been seen by the most experienced gardeners.

PROTECTION OF FEUIT TBEES AGAINST WALLS. 207

XVIII, — A Note on the Protection of Fruit Trees against
Walls. By R. Thompson.

With reference to the protection of Fruit trees, it may be of
utility to state the means employed in the late unusually severe
weather, and the results.

In March the nights were generally frosty ; the wind during
twenty-four days came from north-east or east, dry and cold, so
that vegetation was fortunately much retarded. In April, the
wind still continued to blow from cold quarters, and the dryness
of the air increased so that there was not sufficient vapour to
form clouds to prevent the escape of heat by radiation ; and the
consequence was, that on the nights of the 19th and 20th of
April, the thermometer indicated, respectively, 12° and 11°
below freezing. According to the register kept at the Garden,
this was lower than had been registered for twenty-six years so
late in April ; and it appears from Howard's " Climate of Lon-
don," that so low a temperature has not occurred so late in the
season within the last fifty years.

Peaches and Nectarines were in full blossom at the time. In
the end of March, coping-boards were placed along the wall, and
also a net over half of it, and straw screens were placed against the
trees on the other half at nights. But previous to the severe nights
abovementioned, the net was removed, and straw screens, deemed
better protection, were substituted. These screens consisted
of one length of the straw fixed on twine stretched between inch-
square 6 feet long training-rods. The screen was kept stretched
by placing the tops of the rods a a against nails in the wall,
whilst the lower pointed ends were in the ground. During the day
the screens were rolled up and laid at the bottom of the wall.
So far as these extended, the blossoms were sufficiently pro-
tected ; but all blossoms on the fronts of the shoots above them
were destroyed. Some, however, that were on the sides of the
shoots, and leaning close against the face of the bricks, derived
as much heat from the latter as kept them alive. On the whole
a fair crop has been saved.

On the Pear walls the blossom was abundant and mostly
expanded. Coping-boards were procured for a considerable
portion of the walls that were originally furnished with brackets.
In addition to the coping-boards a net was suspended in front of
the trees on the east aspect ; and elsewhere straw screens were
made to project from the top of the wall. Under these the fruit
on the upper branches near the straw were saved, but those
towards the bottoms of some of the trees were much injured. With
few exceptions, however, the crop of pears on walls will be good.

A glazed Peach frame was covered with mats ; but, notwith-
standing this precaution, the blossoms were in great measure cut off.

208

niOTECTION OF FRUIT TREES AGAINST WALLS.

The iron and glass protecting frame by Messrs. Cottam and
Hallen was not completed wlien the severe frost was experienced.
The foliage under it is at present (June 1) very healthy, and
does not appear checked like that exposed to the cold nights in
the end of May.

From what has been observed, the facts are ascertained that a
thin straw screen will protect peach-trees in blossom from the
effects of twelve degrees of frost ; that coping-boards will be
sufficient for about four degrees ; that a conuuon net (not woollen),
aided by coping-boards, was insufficient compared with straw
screens ; that sashes, in a nearly horizontal position, covered
with a mat, but with a 3-inch opening at the back of the frame,
and a perforated zinc plate in front, were likewise insufficient, the
peaches suffering as much, or more than those on the open wall
with coping only.

Straw having proved so efficient, probably owing to its being
hollow, and, confining in its interior a quantity of air, a slow
conductor of heat, it seems desirable that it should be manufac-
tured so as to preserve, in great measure, its tubular form, and
have a neat appearance.

ORIGINAL COMMUNICATIONS

XIX. — Recent Researches on the Respiration of Plants. By
M. Garreau, M.D.*

In the course of my first experiments upon the absorption by
and exhalation from those surfaces of plants which are exposed
to air, I had often noticed that the leaves and green parts of
plants, when acted upon by the direct rays of the sun, gave out
very sensible quantities of carbonic acid.

This fact, so apparently opposed to the ordinary notions re-
specting the functions of leaves, struck me very forcibly, espe-
cially as it is also precisely under the direct influence of the
sun that the leaves and young shoots of plants reduce the carbonic
acid in the atmosphere with the greatest rapidity and retain the
carbon.

Some more recent experiments made in the latter part of
1850 {Annalesdes Sciences Naturelles, 1851) not only confirmed
my former observations, but showed that expiration of the acid gas
takes place equally in the shade if the temperature is sufficiently
high to cause the vital juices of the plants to move. These ex-
periments being made towards the end of the summer, did not
enable me to ascertain whetlier the phenomena which I have men-
tioned were affected by the age of the plants or the seasons, and
for the purpose of acquiring further information upon this sub-
ject the experiments about to be described were made.

1. The Action of Buds on Atmospheric Air.

Buds, like young plants, represent individuals at a time when
tlie living substances containing proteine are, comparatively
speaking, much greater than at any other time of their existence,
and it became interesting to ascertain whether the activity of
their respiration bore any ratio to the quantity of their animal
matter.

In order that the results might be as exact as possible and
easily compared with eacli other, the degree of the develope-
ment of the buds, and their weight both when fresh and dried,
were noticed with the greatest care, as was also the quantity of
air in which they respired, wdiich was always kept as nearly as
possible at the same temperature during all the experiments.

* Annales des Sciences Naturelles, xvi. 271.
VOL. VII. Q

210 KECENT RESEARCHES ON THE RESPIRATION OF PLANTS.

The buds, selected from amongst the finest and cut witli a small
disc of the branches bearing them, were made up into a little
bundle in such a way that the small discs formed a support
which could be plunged into water and yet leave the buds un-
wetted. A cup of water with the buds thus arranged within it
was placed under a graduated bell-glass, the inside of wliich liad
been previously covered with a concentrated solution of hydrate
of potash in order that the carbonic acid might be fixed at the
moment of its escape ; the bell-glass and the cup within it were
then put in a dish of water placed near the window of a room
the temperature of which was kept at 15° or 16° C during
the twenty-four hours for which the experiment lasted. The
buds did not suflfer the least under these circumstances, and
whilst under the glass their little scales expanded, and the size
of the small leaves lying immediately below the scales of the
strongest buds, as those of the Mihes, Tilia, Staphylea, &c., was
doubled.

The diminution of the volume of air was noted separately, day
and night ; the temperature being the same, this diminution very
nearly expressed the volume of carbonic acid given out ; for it
had been previously ascertained that the air was condensed by
the buds only to a very insignificant extent.

The experiment over, the buds were separated from the small
discs which supported them, weighed when quite fresh, then
dried for twelve hours at a temperature of 110° C, and weighed
dry.

The annexed table (p. 211) shows that in equal times and tem-
peratures buds consume on an average twice as much carbon as
fully developed leaves. This accounts for the fact, that in the
buds and their vicinity M. Dutrochet was enabled to determine
in a most marked manner the temperature peculiar to plants, and
to generalize the discovery of their paroxysm made by M. Ad.
Brongniart.

If the numbers in the three last columns be compared, it will
be seen that as a general rule, and under the conditions men-
tioned, the buds exhale about eight times their volume of car-
bonic acid in the twenty-four hours ; that dried at a temperature
of 110° C. they lose on an average five-fourths of their weight,
a loss which represents their water of composition and of vege-
tation, and that then the carbonic acid exhaled is to the volume
of their solid parts as 40 to 1, if we admit, as we may witli con-
siderable accuracy, that in this state their density is the same as
that of water.

Theodore de Saussure was satisfied with establishing the re-
lation in volume which the carbonic acid expired by leaves bore
to their weight wlieii fresh. In our opinion no exact results

EECENT RESEARCHES ON THE RESPIRATION OF PLANTS.

211

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212 IIKCEMX RESEARCHES ON THE UESPIUATION 01' TLANTS.

can be arrived at in this way, since the quantity of water of
vegetation contained in plants varies with the time of day, the
season, tlieir age, the places in which they grow, and the tem-
perature to wliich they are exposed. Besides, as soon as an
attempt is made to determine the relations which exist between
the matters containing proteine and the oxygen transformed by
them into acid gas, all comparison is liable to lead to erroneous
conclusions unless based exclusively on the weight of the organ
dried at a temperature which is kept uniform in all tiie experi-
ments ; for this reason the buds upon which the present ob-
servations were made were dried for twelve hours at a temperature
of 110° C.

These first experiments upon the respiration of buds were
scarcely finished when the temperature fell rapidly, and their
vegetation remained stationary until the 15th of April, when it
again I)ecame very active, the temperature in the shade having
risen to 15° and 18° C. On the 20th of the same month each
of the buds of the trees previously examined had made a young
shoot, and these shoots were in their turn taken and made up
into little bundles, of the same weight as that of the bundles of
buds before mentioned, and placed under the same conditions as
the latter. The results were very analogous to and sometimes
identical with those obtained from the buds ; this will be seen
if the numbered examples in the following table (p. 213) are
compared with the corresponding numbers in that before given.

If, instead of comparing the partial results given in this table,
we take the mean as term of comparison, the differences which
will be then found to exist are so small that we feel warranted in
stating that the buds and young shoots which succeed them, con-
sume, under the same conditions and for equal weights, an equal
quantity of carbon : that is to say, that the activity of their re-
spiration is the same. We have in effect, —

Table the first : 69 grammes ; fresh buds = 1 2-55 grammes ;
dry buds = 240 c.c. carbonic acid.

Table the second: 66 grammes; young shoots= 12-85 grammes;
dry shoots = 266 c.c. carbonic acid.

2. The Respiration of Young Plants.

Seeds, like buds, contain the fundamental rudimentary organs
of the plants which they spring from, and are provided with a
large proportion of living azotized matters : thus it is that during
their germination, if collected into masses, they consume their
own carbon, and give out sufficient heat to affect the commonest
thermometers. This function, already so active at the commence-
ment of germination, goes on with still greater intensity when the
seeds, disengaged from their episperm, spread out their cotyle-

UECENT RESEARCHES ON THE RESPIRATION OF PLANTS.

213

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214 KECENT RESEARCHES ON THE RESPIRATION OF PLANTS.

dons to come into still closer contact with the air whicli sur-
rovinds them.

To measure the activity of the respiration of young plants,
some seeds were sown, from the 12th to the 16th of April, in very
fine siliceous sand moistened with rain-water, and placed in glass
capsules. After germination the episperms were carefully re-
moved, and the glasses mth the vegetating plants were placed
under a bell-glass as before. After having carefully measured
the diminution of the volume of air, the young plants were taken
with tlieir radicles, washed in a little stream of water to get rid
of the sand attached to them, wiped, weighed, then dried at a
temperature of 110° C, and weiglied again. The following
table shows the conditions under which the experiments were
made, and the results obtained from them : —

Names of Plants.

Dates
AprU.

3

fl

0!
lb

rs a;

Observations.

Lactuca sativa ,

12

e

16

4«5

gr-
0-40

c.c.
33

Placed in the apparatus 3
days after germination.

Valerianella oli-

16

16

4*0

0-20

25

Placed in the apparatus 4

toria.

days after germination.

Fapavcr somni-

13

16

5*8

0-45

55

Placed in the apparatus 3

ferum.
Sinapis nigra

12

16

8-5

0-55

32

days after gerniiuation.
Ditto.

Lepidiiim sativum

12

16

2*5

0-25

12

Ditto.

Comparing the volume of acid produced with that of the plants
containing their water of vegetation, the proportion will be found
to be that of 6 to 1, or thereabouts; but if the comparison is
made with the weight of the organic matter dried at 110° C, it
will be seen that in reality they consume, in the same space of
time and in Ihe same conditions, a much larger quantity of
carbon than is consumed by the buds ; and this might have been
expected, inasmuch as the seeds, at an early stage of germination,
part with tlieir episperm, which is very poor in animal matters,
and their living azotized substances, which form the seat of the
respiratory action, are thus relatively increased.

In a former paper {Atm. des Sci. Nat., 1851) I had collected
some proofs which are increased by the new facts just related ; for
now as then it may be seen, on consulting the analytical results
given hereafter, that the organic azote contained in the buds, the
young plants, and the leaves is abundant in proportion as tlieir

RECENT KESEAECHES ON THE RESPIRATION OF PLANTS.

215

respiratory activity is well marked, or, in other words, and other
circumstances being the same, as the oxygen consumed in a given
time is greater.

In order that the results might be as trustworthy as possible,
the accurate tests pointed out by MM. Warentrapp and Will
were employed in the first instance, and afterwards the not less
accurate one of M. Millon was used to correct any error that
might have escaped notice.

J3

"rt

•'1'

i

i

Scl

M

»4

<

S 2-^

a

13

-a

-<

o

Name of Plant.

e

.s

"i

o

1"

^j

_^

H m

t,r3

5

"ti 's "> o

■? s

fs

v Z

s s

c

c « j; S

^to

s °

|.s

g

o g Ci-S

"S 5

1

<~

>*'

a.

£8 2;<!

gr.

gr-

c.c.

c.c.

f Leaves increased to

Si/ringa vulgaris . < 3/2 ....

9-0

2*2

50

39'3

2-27

15-14

( Buds (March) . .

lO'O

2-2

88

83-6

4*76

31-74

„ . 7 • f Leaves (Sept.) . .
Fraxinus excelsior | j^^^^ ^^j^^^^^ ^ _

8'5
11-5

2-2
2*2

40

77

38-0
81-0

2-18
4-63

14-54
30-88

c,, , 7 • ^ ( Leaves (end of Sept.)
^'«^^'^^^«P"'««'«1 Buds (March) . .

9-0

2-2

40

57*2

3-2G

21-74

15-6

2-2

127

101-0

5-76

38-41

rr-i- r- f Leaves (Sept.) .
TdmEuropaa •{ guds (March) . .

10-4
12-6

2-2
2-2

68
140

57-0
100-0

3-22
5-72

21-47
38-15

Lactuca sativa . . . "j

Small Plants ^«^^'-»«««"« '^^i^'^^"- '

30 "0

2*2

168

110-0

6-27

41-82

j Fapaver sommferum .

Sinapis nigra , . , J

These results are sufficiently intelligible to render more than
one or two remarks unnecessary. It must be observed, however,
that the anunal matter of the buds, and especially that of the
young plants, is much more abundant than might have been sup-
posed, being, in the cases mentioned, no less than from 30 to 40
per cent. It is however possible that some unknown immediate
principle, different from the proteine substances, may to a
certain extent have furnished the azote which served for their
calculation.

But although this may possibly have been so, the results
are sufficiently general to lead to the belief that it is not pro-
bable. Besides, in the contrary case, the more organic azotized
matters generally exist in such small quantities in plants that
they would scarcely influence the calculations which have been
made.

216 RECKNT RESEARCHES ON THE RESPIRATION OF PLANTS.

3. Exhalation of Carbonic Acid by the Leaves under the
influence of the Solar Rays.

Of all the facts relating to the respiration of the green parts
of plants, the exhalation of carbonic acid by the leaves, when
acted upon by the direct rays of the sun, is by far the most
curious, and worthy of the attention of physiologists. Being
most peculiarly organs of reduction, they set free the oxygen of
the gas and retain its carbon, under the influence of the sun's
rays ; and mider the very same influence as was ascertained in
1849 i^Atm. des Set. Nat., 1850), they give out a portion of their
carbon in the form of acid gas. Since then I have paid more
especial attention to the influence of temperature, of shade, and
of dull weather, on the respiration of these organs during the day,
neglecting for a time that of the direct rays of the sun ; and I
now lay before the public an account of the observations made
by me in this matter during the present year (1851). The ex-
periments consisted in making green branches and leaves of
plants, in the open ground, breathe in the limited atmosphere of
a tolerably capacious flask containing some baryta-water.

The apparatus consisted of a flask of the capacity of 6000
cubic centimetres. The mouth of the flask, sufiiciently large to
receive a branch covered with leaves without bruising them, was
turned down, and closed with a cork having a groove cut in it
to fit the stem. Through the middle of the cork passed a safety-
tube, the object of which was first to facilitate the introduction of
baryta-water for the purpose of fixing the carbonic acid, and,
secondly, to prevent the continual rarefaction of the air caused
by the formation and fixing of the acid gas.

Baryta-water was preferred to lime-water, as carbonate of
baryta is less soluble than carbonate of lime. The carbonic
acid obtained by this means does not however accurately repre-
sent all the acid that might have been fixed ; for I ascertained
that carbonate of baryta is soluble to an appreciable extent in an
excess of base.

In all the experiments made in the way mentioned, the herba-
ceous parts tried were fresh and vigorous, and seldom exceeded
in size ^Jtrth part of the volume of the confined air in which
they breathed. After an exposure to the sun for six hours,
the branch was detached from the plant, and the baryta-water
agitated so as to fix the last portions of acid gas mixed with
the air.

This water, charged with carbonate in suspension, was then
collected in a closed funnel, and the deposit was put into a gra-
duated tube, and decomposed over mercury by means of some
pieces of citric acid. This acid was preferred to tartaric acid

RECENT RESEARCHES ON THE RESPIRATION OF PLANTS. 217

because the first forms a soluble salt, and acts more efficaciously
on the carbonate.

The following table shows the conditions in which the plants
were placed, and the volume of acid obtained; but which does
not, for the reason already given, represent the wliole of that
which was fixed.

Names of Plants.

Dates.

"5)

"v

= .

« a

u

■5
0
0
S

3

>

Si

■a

41

Observations.

Fagopyrum cy- )

mosiim
Ficus carica .
Asclepias cornuti
Glycyrrhiza echi-)

nata . . . )
Kitaibelia viti-\

folia . . . i
Syringa vulgaris

24 Aug.

25 Aug.
4 Aug.

3 Aug.

29 July
29 July

15

30
26

10

19
19

o

25

24
22

22

20
20

c.c.

6000

6000
6000

6000

6000
6000

gr.
100

100
100

100

100
100

hours

12

12
12

6

3
3

c.c.

30

24
36

8

16
10

6 hrs. in the sun.

Ditto.
Ditto.

3 hrs. in the sun.

Ditto.
Ditto.

Although the exhalation of carbonic acid under the influence
of the solar rays at a certain temperature cannot be doubted, it
must nevertheless be admitted that in the young shoots and
leaves there exist two simultaneous and opposed actions, one of
combustion, the other of reduction, and that the accumulation of
carbon in plants can only be explained by the greater effect of
the latter as compared with that of the former. New experi-
ments upon this matter were however required in order that this
curious subject might be satisfactorily understood, and they have
accordingly been made. Tiiey were suggested by the following-
consideration : if plants exhale carbonic acid at the very same
time that they reduce it, they ought incessantly to reduce that
which they give oflf if they are in a confined atmosphere. If
then two branches covered with green leaves, of tlie same plant,
of equal ages and weights, were placed in two equal atmosphera*;,
one with and the other without a solution of baryta, the glass
with baryta-water ought to contain more carbonic acid than the
other, inasmuch as the gas would be fixed in the former, and
thus not be liable to be reduced by the leaves.

The following table shows the results obtained by actual
experiments, and the conditions under which they were ob-
tained.

218 KECENT RESEARCHES ON THE RESPIRATION OF PLANTS.

Experiments to shoiv that the carbonic acid exhaled in a limited
atmosphere is reduced in the day time as it is (jiven out by the
plant.

Names of Plants.

°,3 >:

•5 2

Observations.

2 \Kitaibelia vitifolia
A Rhus radicaiis , '
_ \Fra.Tiiiu$ excelsior
_ >-4ce;' eriocarpon •

ASyringa vulgaris.

1 )Gli/ci/rrJnza eckiA
2) nata . . ./

AAsclepii

1 \Fagopyrum
2) viosum .

lets cornuti

cus carica.

SOJuly
3lJuly

1 Aug.

1 Aug.

4 Aug.
7 Aug.

5 Aug.

6 Aug.
6 Aug.

•without)

with J
without I

with J
without]

with
without 1

with
without)

with
without!

with
without)

with
without)

with
without)

with J

hours.

10 to 4

11 to .5

11 to 5

12 to 6
12 to 6
12 to 6

7 to 7
7 to 7
9 to 6

[Si

{u}

{l\

WW
K)
[l]
[^

Showery weather with
afewrays of sunshine.

Damp and rather dull
Aveather.

No sun, rather dull,
rain.

Rather dull.

Three hours of bright
sunshine.

Four hours of sun.

Exposed to a bright sud
during 6 hours.

Ditto.
Ditto.

These experiments, made with the greatest care, sliow to
demonstration that not only the carbonic acid exhaled whilst the
plant is exposed to the sun is to a great extent reduced under
its influence as the gas is given off, but that this also takes place
in the shade even on a cloudy day : this may explain the oc-
casional rapid growth of plants during a long succession of dull
rainy days in the climate of Lille. The above experiments were
made in the apparatus already described, and in the examples num-
bered 1 the quantity of gas was ascertained by means of baryta-
water introduced through the safety tube as soon as the experiment
was over. It is scarcely necessary to remark that in the examples
numbered 2, the whole of the gas given off is not represented,
some of it having been reduced by the leaves, the surface of
which was much larger than that of the baryta-water at the
bottom of the vase. It must also be observed that, as is shown in
the following table, experiments made in the sun, and in a high
temperature, give a larger amount of carbonic acid.

BECENT RESEARCHES ON THE RESPIRATION OF PLANTS. 219

c

Safe

"sl

T3

Names of Plants.

^

II

'p.-n 5

c6

a
"Vi

Observations.

^

S 2

1^:^

« p<

'I

gr.

o

A.M. P.M.

c.c.

1 r

15

26

with-
out.

7 to 7

42

6 hours in the sun.

2. Fagopyruin

15

26

with

7 to 7

66

Ditto.

cymosum

r Apparatusremoved from

the direct influence of
the light by being placed
under a shade open at

3 *>

15

26

with

7 to 7

120

the top, and furnished

with a cover having a

hole in it to allow the

•^ branch to pass through.

4

20

26

with

12 to 6

35

This experiment was
[ made in the shade.

The influence of temperature upon the respiration of plants is
not doubtful, for the Fagopyrum deprived of light, and at a
temperature of 35° C, gives out twice as much carbonic acid as
it does at the ordinary temperature of a summer's night. The
four examples just given serve not only to show the stimulating
action of heat on the respiration of plants, but they, or at least
the three first, may assist in determining the quantity of carbonic
acid exhaled and reduced.

In short, as it has been found that the acid given off by a
plant in a confined atmosphere is wholly or partly reduced, it is
natural to admit that the three Fagopyra of the same weight,
and submitted for the same period of time to the same tempera-
ture, respired in the same manner, that is to say that they all
probably formed 120 cubic centimetres of gas, of which 78 cubic
centimetres were reduced by the first number, and only 54 by
the second ; the diflTerence of 24 cubic centimetres being, I
imagine, owing to the action of the baryta-water. This surmise
must not however be considered as a decided opinion, for it may
happen that in the dark all the acid produced by respiration is
completely given off, whilst under the influence of the solar rays,
whether direct or indirect, one part of the acid is reduced in the
parenchyma of the respiring organ. I am the more inclined to
think that this is often the case, because I have occasionally
observed that very small quantities of acid escaped reduction.
The means employed for ascertaining the reduction of acid
exhaled during the day may be also used for the purpose of

220 EECENT RESEARCHES ON THE RESPIRATION OF PLANTS.

observing whether carbonic aeid gas is not reduced during the
long summer evenings and mornings. The following table
shows the results of some experiments undertaken with this view,
and they are given, though, from the small number of the experi-
ments, nothing decided can be inferred.

Experiments which tend to shmo that the carbonic acid exhaled
is partly reduced during the summer evenings and mornings.

Names of Plants.

Dates.

i

"Si

2
B .

Atmosphere'
witli or witli-
out baryta-
water.

A

2 ^

.a
<

Observations.

Fagopyrum cymo-)

sum . . . ./
Fagopyrum cymo-)

sum . . . ./
Fagopyrum cymo-)

su7n . ... J
Fagopyrum cymo-)

sum . . . . j

Acer eriocarpon

Staphylea trifoliata

Gleditschia tri-
acanthus , . . j

Rhus radicans .

3 Aug.
9 Aug.
14Aug.
SlJuly
lAug.
2 Aug.
2 Aug.
2 Aug.

(25)
125/

f211
tl8[
/271
124/
(181
118/

\ 8/
/ 8)
1 8/
(24)
123/

o
15

15

16

15

14

15

15

15

f without )
t with j
( without )
'[ with J
( without 1
with /
/ without )
\ with j
( without )
i with /
J without )
\ with J
i without )
\ with /
without )
'[ with J

P.M. A.M.

7 to 7

7 to 7

8 to 8
8 to 8
7 to 7
7 to 7

7 to 7

8 to 8

cc.
.42)
152/
(42)
(48/
(70)
158(
(42)
146/
(56)
160)

1 H
1 91
(15)
119/
(35)
140/

Fine moon-
light night.

Cloudy sky.
Ditto.
Fine night.

The reduction of carbonic acid being less active in the shade
than in the sun, I was curious to learn if the diffused light,
occasioned by the eclipse of the 28th of July, caused an increa.se
of undecomposed carbonic acid in the air surrounding the plants.
For this purpose four apparatus were got ready just as the moon
passed before the sun, and were examined the moment the eclipse
was completely over. The experiment lasted for three hours,
and the feeble solar rays were almost constantly intercepted by
liglit clouds. The results obtained are given in the following
table. "

RECENT RESEAKCHES ON THE KESPIEATION OF PLANTS.

221

Names of Plants.

Weights.

Acid
exhaled.

Observations.

1. Fagopyrum cymosum ....

2. Fagopyrum cymosum ....

3. Syringa vulgaris (2 young shoots)

4. Kitaibelia vitifolia

22
22
22
22

c.c.
7-5
7-5
8-0
10-0

I The mean tempe-
rature rose to
17°'5C.

In order to complete the experiment the four apparatus were
got ready, the next day, at the time at which the eclipse had oc-
curred, and in them were placed other specimens of the same
plants and of, as nearly as possible, the same weights as those
before used. The sky was clear and cloudless, and the tem-
perature average, but in the shade 2° C. higher than before.

Names of Plants.

Observations.

1. Fagopyrum cymosum ....

2. Fagopyrum cymosum ....

3. Syringa vulgaris (2 young shoots)

4. Kitaibelia vitifolia

In the shade.
In the shade.
In the sun 2 hours.
Ditto.

From the above it would seem that the eclipse of the 28th of
.July had no sensible influence on the respiration of plants, and
that the smaller quantity of carbonic acid existing when the
eclipse was over ought to be attributed to the lower temperature
caused by the interception of the sun's rays by the clouds, inas-
much as in the experiments made the next day the difference was
greater, as the temperature to which the apparatus was exposed
was greater. However, it may be concluded that the temperature
being the same, tlie acid expired would have been more abundant
in the diffused light caused by the eclipse ; for the reduction of
the acid gas is known to be much less intense in the ordinary
light of day than in the sun.

If it be inquired how M. Theodore de Saussure, whilst en-
gaged in his experiments on the respiration of plants, happened
to overlook the fact that carbonic acid is given off by them, it
can only be answered by way of conjecture that in all proba-
bility he was so intent upon its decomposition by the leaves when
acted upon by the sun, and upon the importance of tliat gi-eat

222 RECENT RESEARCHES ON THE RESPIRATION OF PLANTS.

fact, tliat he was induced to neglect as trifling all contrary ap-
])earances ; and this is the more probable as in two instances he
noticed its exhalation, without, however, doing more.

It being clearly ascertained that jilants decompose carbonic
acid, and that they also exhale it, we may fiiirly infer that the
accumulation of carbon is explained by the predominance of the
first process over the second ; and to show that this is so, the
following experiments were made. A top of a young, green,
and leafy stem of Fagopyrum cymosuni, w^eighing, after the ex-
periment, 15 grammes, was placed in the curved part of the
apparatus before mentioned, which was then carefully closed and
luted ; a small caoutchouc bladder, furnished with a stop-cock,
and containing 200 cubic centimetres of carbonic acid, was then
fixed to a tube, so that the stop-cock being open there was a
free comnmnication between the gas in the bladder and the air
in the flask. After an exposure to the sun for six hours, only
Yo cubic centimetres of gas were found in the flask and bladder.
Whilst this experiment was going on, another, and in every
respect similar piece of the same plant, was in a second apparatus
with some baryta-water, which fixed 1 1 cubic centimetres of ex-
haled gas.

In order to ascertain whether the air in calm weather can by
its carbonic acid supply the wants of a plant, notwithstanding
the loss of carbon occasioned by the latter, both by day and
night, water saturated with baryta and its carbonate, and with a
surface of 300 square centimetres, was exposed for an hour in
the open air to the rays of the sun ; the pellicle which had then
formed gave, on being decomposed by citric acid, 15 cubic centi-
metres of carbonic acid, that is 180 cubic centimetres for twelve
hours of day. Now, the surface of the leaves of the 15 granmies
of Fagopyrum was five times as large as that of the solution of
baryta. These 15 grammes were then at least in the immediate
contact of 900 cubic centimetres of carbonic acid during the
day — i. e. 40 or 45 times more than that which might have escaped
reduction during exhalation. Besides, the exhalation by the
leaves is not really very great, unless the temperature in the
shade is 20° C"; at a lower temperature it generally decreases,
as does also the reduction, the opposite effects of which it seems
destined in part to correct.

Now that the existence of two simultaneous and contrary pro-
cesses— namely, those of combustion and reduction — is no longer
doubtful, the notions regarding the respiration of plants hitherto
current must necessarily be considerably modified. Indeed it is
clear, that both in the day and in the night plants respire like
animals, but that this resjnration is during the day more or less
concealed by the contrary process : and it was for this reason

RECENT KESEAECHES ON THE BESPIEATION OF PLANTS. 223

that ever since 1849 {Ann. des Sci., 1850) I was inclined to
regard what was called the respiration of leaves as two distinct
processes.

Plants decompose water and lix its hydrogen ; they decompose
ammonia and its salts, and fix nitrogen ; they reduce sesqui-
oxide of iron in solution to protoxide, and they reduce carbonic
acid obtained from the soil, formed in their tissues or taken from
the air. All these acts are, in our opinion, closely connected
with the functions of assimilation and nutrition, whilst the con-
sumption of carbon and perhaps other elements, which is the
principal source of the vital heat of plants, is connected rather
with the function of respiration. If we look, then, at the most
evident phenomena, the respiration of plants does not differ from
that of animals, and instead of tlie processes being different in
flowers, leaves, fungi, &c., they are all identical, combustion of
carbon and production of heat, which may itself influence the
intensity of the function of respiration, where only a small quan-
tity of the acid produced thereby escapes reduction.

The existence of a diurnal and nocturnal animal respiration in
plants ought not to be looked upon as very surprising if it be
remembered that those matters whose vital properties are most
manifest in plants have life, and are of an animal nature, and, it
may be added, become true animals at certain periods of the life
of some plants.

Let us take for example the animalcules found in the anthe-
rida of Chara, Nitella, Ferns, Mosses, Horsetails, Liverworts,
t&c., which have been so carefully examined by MM. G. Thuret,
Niigelli, Sumenski, Wigand, Derbes, Sollier, «S:c., and it will
be found that their animal nature cannot be doubted, and that
their origin is incontestably owing to tlie metamorphoses or de-
velopenient of the living proteine substances of the cells. For
my own part, I have observed them in several species of Chara,
in Nitella jiexilis, and Marchantia polymorpha, and the animal
nature of these beings appears to me so evident that, with all due
respect to M. Siebold, I cannot help thinking that his observa-
tions were made at a wrong season.

Let us examine again the motion of the zoospores, discovered
by Meyen, and the organization of which was described by
linger in the Vaucheria clavata, and afterwards by Thuret, and
the movements of the sporoides of different Fucacem described
by MM. Decaisne and G. Thuret {Ann. des Set., 1850) ; and if
we do not then believe the living azotized substances which move in
the cells of plants to have the organization of animals (as, for
example, that of the animalcules in the antheridia, or of the
zoospores), we shall be at least convinced that their organizations
are remarkably similar.

224 RECENT EESEARCHES ON THE KESriRATlON OF PLANTS.

What is more to the point still, is that the zoospores, actually
living and moving, but deprived of the cellular envelope, soon
become stationary, and cover themselves with a cell which they
secrete ; and though to all appearance dead under the veil wliich
hides them from our view, their vitality is still retained, for they
form a plant which again calls tliem into life. This curious fact
deserves a most careful examination by physiologists, as it might
lead to other circumstances throwing great light on the true
nature of plants.

There is in truth an immense difference between algals and the
large majority of other plants ; but we must look for their
resemblances not to form or functions of secondary importance,
but to the movements and principal functions of their azotized
substances.

Conclusions.

From the facts which have been now mentioned, we may
conclude : —

1. That buds when respiring consume more carbon than the
leaves, and less than plants themselves. That the quantity of
acid expired is great in proportion as the quantity of living proteine
matters contained in these organs is great, their weights and
surfaces being equal.

2. That in the day time, both in the sun and in the shade,
leaves exhale carbonic acid, the quantity of which is great in
proportion as the temperature is high.

3. That the acid found in the apparatus does not represent by
a great deal all the carbonic acid given off, the larger part of it
being reduced after being exhaled.

4. That two simultaneous and opposite actions go on in the
leaves, both in the sun and in the shade ; one by which carbonic
acid is formed, the other by which it is decomposed, and that
the accumulation of carbon in plants is due to the excess of the
effects of the latter over those of tiie former.

5. That these two acts being simultaneous, the former ought
to be considered as the respiration of plants, and the latter as
more especially connected with their nutritive functions.

CniNliSE riNNATED BEKBERRIES. 225

XX. — Chinese pinnated Berberries. By Robert Fortune.

In tlie earlier volumes of this Journal there are several notes
of mine on Chinese plants inti-otiuced by the Horticultural Society
from 1843 to 1846. Some of the plants noticed then were almost
unknown to cultivators in tliis country, and it was difficult to
convince the learned in sucli matters that they were of much
importance. Time, however, often does what nothing else can do.
After three more years of travel in the far East, I return to find
many of my Chinese pets in high favour, and occupying tlie places
in our gardens which they so richly merit. It is unnecessary now
to write of the beauty of such plants as Dieljjtra spectabilis,
Weigela rosea, Forsythia viridissima, Jasminum nudijiorum,
Spircea primifolia jjlena, and many others which need not be
mentioned. Leaving these to work their own way^ in tlie world,
I must now introduce to notice some strangers of no less interest
and beauty. Amongst the most striking of these are tiiree species
of evergreen pinnated-leaved Berberries, discovered in the north
of China.

1. Serberis Bealei.

The first was met with in tlie autumn of 1848. I was then
travelling in the district of Ilwuycliow, a place famed for its
green teas, and which furnishes nearly all tlie finest kinds
which are exported to England and America. The discovery is
described in my journal as follows : — " Having taken a survey
of the place [an old garden], we were on our way out, when an
e.xtraordinary^ plant growing in a secluded part of the garden met
my eye. When I got near it I found that it was a very fine ever-
green Berberis, belonging to the section of Mahonias, and having
of course pinnated leaves. Each leaflet was as large as the leaf
of our English holly, spiny, and of a fine dark, shining green
colour. The shrub was about eight feet high, much branched,
and far surpassed in beauty all the other known species of
Mahonia." AYhen dried leaves of this plant reached England it
was supposed to be identical with Thunberg's Ilex japonica, of
which there is a figure in his ' Icones Plantarura Japonicarum,'
and which is no doubt a Berberis, and not an Ilex. After a care-
ful examination, I have come to the conclusion that the Chinese
plant is really distinct from Thunberg's ; and I therefore pro-
pose to retain the name of Berberis Becdei, whicli I gave it in
the ' Gardeners' Chronicle ' for 1849. I have no doubt that it is
quite as hardy as an English holly ; and, if it proves so, it Avill be
one of the noblest Evergreen bushes of which our gardens can
boast.

VO-L. vn. R

226 CHINESE PINNATED BERBERRIES.

2. Berberis consanguifiea.

The second species {Berberis consanguinea) was found in the
same distiict by one of my Chinese servants. It is easily distin-
guished from the former by the colour of its stems and leaves,
which are of a light green. The leaflets are also more lanceolate
in form, and have a tendency to vary ; that is, some are lanceolate
and some ovate or corolate. This is scarcely inferior in beauty
to the last, and no doubt quite as hardy.

3. Berberis tr if urea.

The third species (^Berberis trifurca, Lindl.) was found in the
province of Chekiang, and near the coast. I bought it in a
cottage garden, but I was informed afterwards that it is culti-
vated extensively on account of the dye which it furnishes. It
may be easily known from the other species by its dark green
lanceolate leaflets, and, as Dr. Lindley has well observed, by the
terminal one, wdiich is almost always sessile. Its young stems
are also covered with scales of a clear reddish purple colour,
which give it a marked appearance. It is just possible that this
species may be less hardy than the former, having been found
about two degrees further to the south. This, however, remains
to be proved, as it may have been brought south to the province
of Chekiang for the purposes of cultivation.

There is a marked difference between tiiese three Chinese
species and the Himalayan Berberis nepalensis which it may be
well to notice. The leaves of the Chinese kinds are of a stout
and leathery texture, somewhat like the common holly, while
those of the Himalayan species are thin and more flimsy. This
difference in structure may be owing to the Himalayan plant
courting situations of shelter and shade, and moreover accounts
for its being less suited to bear the extreme cold to which the
northern Chinese plants are liable.

The Chinese Berberries just noticed are all in the nursery of
Messrs. Standish and Noble at Bagshot, but they are at present
extremely rare and not for sale. They are propagated readily
from cuttings ; but although they grow vigorously enough, there
is a difficulty in getting any number of young shoots for the pur-
poses of propagation. As soon as they produce seeds they may
be expected to become plentiful, and will no doubt be highly
prized by all lovers of ornamental Evergreens.

CULTIVATION OF THE PAULOWNIA IMPEIUALIS. 227

XXI. — Cultivation of tlie PauloiLmia itnperialis. By Charles
Dorrien, Esq., F.li.S.

As this handsome tree so rarely flowers in England, though it
grows vigorously, it may be interesting to some of the Society
to learn the circumstances under which it has produced blossoms
here, in perhaps rather a favourable situation on the south coast,
and not more than 50 or 60 feet above the level of the sea. The
plant I possess is now nearly 14 feet high, and the circum-
ference of the stem, at a foot from the ground, is 14 inches. For
several years it continued growing luxuriantly, making long
shoots every summer, which only partially ripened their wood.
It was planted in a large slate-box, and plunged in tlie gromid,
which was turfed over ; the year before last it was removed, and
in the operation it was foinid to have sent down several roots
more than an inch thick, through the drainage holes into the
soil beneath, which were necessarily cut off; and it was re-
planted in the same box in front of the iiouse, in an aspect
nearly due south, and sheltered from wind. In 1851 it did not
grow so luxuriantly, and the summer having been unusually hot
and dry, in fact, there had been no rain for more than two
months, the leaves began to look yellow in September, when the
shoots of the year began to show blossom-buds in the axils of
the leaves, forming a terminal spike of six or eight to each
branch. My anticipations of bloom were, however, partially
disappointed, as in the course of the winter and spring the buds
fell off one by one after sudden changes of weather, till at last
only three were left. Those remaining opened in May, and
much resembled a Gloxinia in form and colour, with the additional
merit of being delightfully sweet scented, something like violets,
remaining four or five days in perfection. The tree is again
(Sept. 13) forming its flower buds, and therefore as the habit of
flowering is induced, it may continue to do so.

Being a native of Japan, it must require considerable sun-heat
in summer, and it is probably the dampness of our climate which
prevents it from flowering, by causing it to produce long succu-
lent shoots and leaves instead, particularly when planted in deep
rich soil. Mine is in light loam, well drained. It seems not to
suffer from frost ; but the frequent and sudden changes of the
weather in this part of England (where a frost of a few days is
often succeeded by a temperature of 40°, with heavy rains, and
afterwards a return of frost) cause the buds to drop off, as those
of Camellias do under the same circumstances. 1 think it
will be worth while to protect the flower buds by some light
covering, such as a cornet of oiled paper, during winter.

It may be clearly inferred, that the system required to pro-
it 2

228 '^ >iEW KliNU OF GARDEN EDGING.

diice its Howers is to check its too rampant growth by root
})runing and rather a poor (hy soil ; if this is pursued, i)lantiiig
it in a sunny place, not too much exposed to winds which injure
its broad spreading foliage, I have no doubt it may l)e brought
to tloM'er tolerably freely ; a little care would be well bestoweil
upon it, forming as it does such an ornamental large shrub or
small tree, and for the sake of its fragrance it ought to be near
the house, though I am aware many persons have been disap-
pointed with it, as I was for some years. If planted in deep
loose soil, or in a shady place, I believe it would never flower in
this country.

Sennicots, near Chichester, \Zth Sept., 1852.

XXII. — A new kind of Garden Edging. By Robert Ilogg.

When the Great Exhibition building was being erected, a pa-
ragraph appeared in a leading article in the Gardener's Chro-
nicle, suggesting that the horticulturists of this country should
on that occasion direct their attention to improvements in the
implements and appliances of their profession. Among the sub-
jects mentioned was "another material that would prove higldy
useful, would be a cheap earthen\Aare edging to flower beds and
walks ; what we now have is too dear and too ill-made."

Feeling at that time the want of a durable edging for my own
walks, I set about devising something in the material of " cheap
earthenware," and succeeded to my own satisfaction in producing
an edging wliich answers every purpose, both for cheapness, du-
rability, ornament, and easy application.

My first intention was merely to satisfy my own wants ; but
many friends who saw my edging, and whose opinions in such
matters are worthy of consideration, advised me to have it intro-
duced for the general good.

With this view I have caused some of the tiles to be sent to
the Garden of the Horticultural Society, for the opinion of the
Soeiety as to their applicability and usefulness.

Their great recommendations are durability and ornament.
They are composed of the same clay and are manufactured at
the same works as the patent hollow bricks, and from m hat I
have seen of them, they appear to become harder on exposure to
the weather. Cheapness is another great qualification. They
can be supplied in any quantity at 10.y. 6d. per 100, or about
\\d. each, each tile being one foot in length.

I would also call the attention of the Society to the mode by
which they are secured in tlieir position, althoi'nii tliey allow

\ NEW KIND OF GARDEN EDGING.

229

the borders to be cultivated close to them, and any extent of the
soil disturbed or removed. The shoe which passes under the
walk being covered with four inches of gravel, when that be-
comes " bound " the tiles are literally immoveable, and no wheel-
barrow or roller can displace them. They also afford ample
drainage for the walks, and under no pretence whatever do they
ever harbour slugs. I have had experience of them for nearly
twelve months, and I have found them answer all the purposes
an edging is intended to supply, and that too at more than one-
half less than dwarf box, and nine-tenths less than many other
edgings.

I call them " Hogg's Edging Tiles for Garden Walks, &c."

13, Gelston Road, Brompton.

Note hy the Vice- Secretary. — This kind of edging appears to
possess much merit. It is hard, good-looking, a good colour,
cheap, and enables the walks to be relieved easily of water.
The accompanying figure represents one of the main tiles seen
in perspective. It is 4|^ inches broad, 6|- inches deep, and
12i inches long. Informing curves very short lengths of the
same kind are employed.

230 KFFECTS OF PKACH STOCK ON TREES WOKKED UPON IT.

XXIII. — On the Effects of the Peach Stock on Trees worked
upon it. By Robert Thompson.

It was mentioned that the trees of (he Shanghae Peach were
worked on the Peach stock. As the buds take readily on this,
the proceeding was advisable in the first instance in order to
secure the sort. Eut it must be removed to the Almond or
Plum stocks ; for in this climate no Peach will thrive long
budded on the Peach stock ; the ground, it is presumed, is too
cold for it. At all events, the leaves after several years acquire
partial tinges of yellow : and this goes on every year increasing,
whilst the leaves are annually produced narrower and narrower,
till at last the tree becomes useless. Peach trees received by
the Society from America were generally on the Peach stock,
and they invariably became affected in the same way. George
the Fourth Peach was one of the best of them. In a series of
warm seasons it extended 35 feet along the wall ; but being on
the Peacli stock its foliage became so nari'ow and yellow that it
was found necessary to remove the tree. The same variety has
now a healthy green foliage on the Plum stock.

Tliis disease is doubtless the same as that so prevalent in
America, where it is termed the Yellows. It is described by
the late Mr. Downing-, who perished, so much regretted, in con-
sequence of the burning of the Henry Clay steamer ; but his
writings cannot fail still to produce a beneficial influence on Ame-
rican horticulture. In his Fruits and Fruit-trees of America, it
is stated " that this most serious malady (the Yellows) seems to
belong exclusively to this country, and to attack only the Peach
tree. Although it has been the greatest enemy of the Peach
planter for the last thirty (now thirty-seven) years — rendering
the life of the tree uncertain, and frequently spreading over and
destroying the orchards of whole districts; still, little is known
of its nature, and nothing with certainty of its cause. Many
slight observers have confounded it with the effects of the Peach-
borer, but all persons who have carefully examined it know tliat
the two are totally distinct. Trees may frequently be attacked
by both the yellows and the borer, but iiundreds die of the yel-
lows when the most minute inspection of the roots and branches
can discover no insect or visible cause." Now, Peach trees in
America are either grown directly from the stone, or they are
budded on Peach-stocks, very rarely on the Plum or Almond. In
consequence of the buds taking so readily on the Peach, and
growing to form orchard trees with such facility, it is preferred.
According to the above-mentioned author, a Peach-stone "planted
in the autumn will vegetate in the ensuing spring, grow three or
four feet high, and may be budded in August or September.

EFFECTS OF PEACH STOCK ON TREES WOliKED UPON IT. 231

Two years from this time, if left undisturbed, it will usually
produce a small crop of fruit, and the next season bear abun-
dantly, unless the growth is over-luxuriant." He also justly
obsei'ves that " healthy Peach-stocks afford the most natural
foundation for the growth of standard orchard trees." There
can be no question as to that ; but when on this stock whole
orchards, some containing from 10,000 to 20,000 trees, become
diseased in America, and when in England all on this stock, and
on no other, are similarly affected under ordinary circumstances,
we must conclude that the soil in both countries is uncongenial
to the Peach roots. They are soft, spongy, yellow, more like a
pale carrot than the roots of trees we usually see. Most probably
the soil is too cold for them.

This probability is strengthened by the following instance.
It was stated that all trees on the Peach-stock, under ordinary
circumstances, Avere sooner or later affected. One of the Sliang-
hae trees in the Society's Garden has foliage not tinged with
yellow as that of the others are, although it is like them worked
on the Peach, and is of the same age, planted at the same time
in similar soil, and sharing with the others the same aspect.
But its luxuriant foliage exhibits a healthy dark green colour.
Nearly opposite to where it is planted there is the fireplace of a
room adjoining the fruit-room ; the lower })art of the wall is
there heated through to the south side, so that there the latter
often exhibits a dry surface, when elsewhere it is wet ; and the
ground adjoining has been seen thawed when all not near this
heated portion of wall was frozen ; it is, therefore, evident that
the roots of this particular tree must have been in a warmer
medium than those of its fellows ; and to this different circum-
stance, all others being the same, the difference as regards being
free from disease may be fairly attributed.

These remarks may be the means of preventing the planting
of Peach trees worked on the Peach-stock, and consequently the
loss of the trees when they ought to be at their best. Excepting
in parts of the world where the soil is never too cold, the Peach-
stock ought not to be used. It is not the loss of only one planta-
tion that has to be considered, for in such countries, as some
parts of America, the trees rush up with little pains being taken,
and they quickly bear sufficiently to repay that little ; but pre-
sently disease makes its appearance, and the whole has to be cut
down. The ground having been once cropped with stone-fruit,
will not well bear such again without great expense in tending,
compared with which that of procuring suitable stocks in the
first instance would be inconsiderable.

232 ON THE CULTIVATION OF THE POTATO.

XXIV. — Remarks on the Cidtivatio?i of the Potato. By-
James Hutchison.

(Communicated September 14, 1852.)

Since the commencement of the disease in 1846 I have grown
the potato in various soils and situations in three different coun-
ties, viz. Brecknock, Hereford, and Sussex. That the potato
should liave become diseased is not wonderful when the general
mode of cultivation in former times is considered. When taken
up in the autumn they were generally put into large pits, where
they underwent a process of fermentation, which to a certain
extent injured the tubers. The usual practice with farmers was
to keep their potatoes in such pits till about the beginning of
May. By this time they had made shoots about six inches long.
Those shoots were pulled off and the potatoes ])lanted. Tlie tuber
was thus injured by fermentation, exhausted by growth in the
pit, and not planted until a late period of the season. It is true
that means were used to accelerate its growth by the force of
stinuilating manures ; but, if we may judge from the experience
of the last few years, such manures have only hastened the pro-
gress of its decay.

The method I have adopted is directly the contrary. I keep
my potatoes cool and dry in winter. I plant early, so as to give
the plant all the advantages which a cold and variable climate
can afford. With regard to manure, I have taken a hint from
the method which has been so successfully pursued with regard
to other exotics which have been acclimatized. I prefer a mo-
derately poor soil to one that has been enriched by the addition
of strong manures.

There is another point worthy of consideration, although
farmers seem slow in adopting it. Everything should be done
that can by means of draining and deep working to raise the
temperature of the land intended for the growth of potatoes. To
the intelligent reader this will appear self-evident. But I have
met with persons who were prejudiced against both draining and
deep working. The opinion which such persons maintain is, that
the former won't pay the expense, and the latter they have found
to do more harm than good. It must be borne in mind that
those operations should be performed with judgment. One man
will drain a field at a great expense, and not do it properly after
all ; another will do it for half the cost of the former, and finish
the work in a very efficient manner. With regard to trenching,
it is not necessary to bring a foot or two of exhausted soil or
stiff clay to the surface all at once. Let the soil be trenched two
spades deep, if not trenched before, and throw the first spading

MISCELLANEOUS MEMOPwYNDA. 233

to the far side of the trench, and the second or under spading
to the near side, and in this way top and bottom will lie side
by side.

For the successful cultivation of the potato I am convinced
that more depends on the condition of the soil than on the appli-
cation of manure. It is not until the land is drained and pul-
verised to a certain depth that it has the ability of developing its
powers. Moreover it is not until it is placed in this condition
tliat free ingress is permitted to the carbonaceous and ammoniacal
gases of the atmosphere. No sooner is tlie stagnant water
drained off, and the soil opened up, than fertilizing gases flow in.
This is one of the many ways by which Providence rewards the
industry of man.

The cultivation of the potato is very simple. I plant in
February or Marcli, according to the state of the weather, in
shallow drills, running from north to south, drawing the earth
well over them. As the ground becomes solidified by wet wea-
ther after planting, I take the first opportunity of dry weather
and frosty mornings to fork the ground over between tlie drills.
By this process the soil will become in fine condition for earthing
up the plants, which should be done in good time.

Some allow the ground to become covered with weeds, which
exclude the sun's influence ; and in the operation of hoeing many
of tlie roots of the potatoes are cut, by which their growth is
checked — a circumstance which always increases tlieir liability
to disease. It is scarcely necessary to say that the potato should
be taken up and stored as soon as it is ripe, more especially if
there be any appearance of wet weather. If diseased it should
be stored in dry eartli, sand, or similar material.

I do not say that the practice I have pointed out is a complete
safeguard against all disease ; but whoever follows it may look
forward with a great degree of confidence botli to " seed time"
and " harvest," and he need not be troubled with tliose imaginary
terrors which haunt men who trust to quack preparations for the
cure of animal or vegetable debility.

XXV. — Miscellaneous Memoranda. By Robert Thompson.

In the Great Exhibition in 1851 was to be seen the follow-
ing :—

" A Circular Earthenware Enclosure and Support, for the
Fruit and Foliage of the Strawberry Plant, Mliereby the blos-
soms and fruit are pi'otected from the blemishes produced by
the ravages of the slug, also free from grit from tlie effects of
rain. The material of wliich the pan is manufactured, together

234 MISCELLANEOUS MEMOR.VNUA,

with its ONtorior surface, retains a wai'in aiul moist alnios[)Iu ic
in tlio noiglibourlmod of the plant thiring tlie eoUlest nii!,lit
likely to oeeur in the season of its fruiting-. Thus the Havour of
the finest species is improveil, and tiie greatest dimensions of the
fruit obtained. The manner of using this pan is to allow the
plant to grow freelj- till the first blossom is set for fruit, then
gather the stems and foliage together within the compass of the
cylindrical part of the Strawberry pan, then arrange the blos-
soms to be supported by tlie sloping part. This pan has a fine
ornamental appearance, with the advantage of ripening its fiuit
a week earlier than any other mode of protection. Invented,
and provisionally registered, April 28, 1851, by Thomas Smith,
1, Ilamor Cottages, ITornsey-road, Islington."

In the Garden this was tried as directed. It does not appear
from the trial that it possesses the advantages supposed. The
leaves have to be gathered together and taken through the hollow-
stem of the pan. They are there comparatively dark and too
much confined. The fruit was not so good as in the adjoining-
plants that were freely exposed to light and rain.

Some fruit of the Acton Scot Peach wasi thoroughly ripened,
August 31, under sashes placed over a glazed trellis, the space
under the trellis having been filled up nearly close to it, and
paved with tiles. The fruit attained fully the average size of
the variety, which is not naturally a large sort. It was Tg inches
in circumference; tolerably well coloured, and thoroughly ri-
pened, being- equally soft on all sides. The flavour was not
however so rich as in those grown against an open wall ; and
the period of ripening was a fortnight later than that of the
same sort against a wall. But the almost too vigorous growth
of the tree under glass would make some difi'erence in this re-
spect ; for witii a great flow of sap the fruit does not ripen so
early.

In former seasons the fruit on the glazed trellis did not ripen
thoroughly ; its underside, in two seasons, remained hard whilst
the side next the sun was soft. That sucli was not the case in
the present season must be attributed to the solar heat being
partly reflected by the tiles, partly absorbed and given out to
the part of the fruit next to them. It can only be accounted
for in tins way, for excepting- the introduction of the tiles, all
other circumstances were tiie same as in former years.

Since the above was written, additional experience has been
gained respecting the effects of glazed trellises in ripening other
sorts of Peaches, naturally later than the Acton Scot, such as the
Koyal George, Noblesse, and Chancellor. With regard to these

MISCELLANEOUS ME.MOKANDA. 235

it will be seen that this mode of growing has given more satis-
iactory results. The following note was received from i\Jr.
Samuel WooUey, Gardener to Heniy Bellenden Ker, Esq. : —

''Cheshunt, Sept. 14, 1852.
" Mr. Ker being from home, I have forwarded you a sample of
Peaches grown on tiie protected trellis. Those sent are a fair
sample. We have had a very good crop. There are four trees,
on which there were above 40 dozen, this being the fourth season
since planting, and the fruit is better flavoured than those grown
on the wall. The only protection the trees had was a little hay
thrown over the glass during the sharp frosts in April."

The Peaches were of average size, well coloured, and of very
good flavour. They appear to be tlie Royal George and No-
blesse. The former averaged 8^ inches in circumference, and
the Noblesse 8^ inches. The same sorts had been ripe a week
previous on the open wall in the Society's Garden. Oa this
some of the Noblesse measured 9 inches in circumference.

In tliis garden, one of the trees planted under the protected
frame, along with the Acton Scot, was the variety called the
Chancellor. It bore some fruit which ripened on the 17th
September of the present year. The fruits were not from
blossoms situated next the glass, on the front of the branches,
for those so situated were killed by the frost in spring ; they
were from blossoms near the under sides of the branches, so that
when full-sized the Peaches were close to the tile paving. They
were compared with the same sort grown against a south wall.
The fruit in both situations was about the same size, between 91
and 10 inches in circumference. As regards the time of ripening,
those on the trellis were about four or five days earlier, but in
point of flavour those ripened against the wall had rather the
advantage.

From what has been stated, it is evident that Peaches can be
very well grown in protecting frames, especially with a tile
paving under the trellis for reflecting both heat and light, to a
considerable extent ; and that early sorts are retarded, but late
kinds are slightly forwarded, comparatively with those matured
against walls.

The facts which I had to state on a former occasion with
reference to the Protecting Frame in the Society's Garden, were
at variance with the anticipations of the gentlemen wiio proposed
the plan, and also with the results they obtained. Mr. Rivers
justly observed that this might be owing to the frame being in a
situation more exposed to a current of air than those at Cheshunt.
The constant ventilation of the frame was greatly reduced, that

236 GAKDEiVS AND OKANGE GROUNDS OF ST. MICHAEL'S.

is to say, a three inch opening was left only along tlic back, and
perforated zinc in front ; and this season a tile paving was intro-
duced under the trellis, as above stated. These modifications
have reconciled tlie discrepancy.

It is necessary to remark, that in case of frosty nights when
the trees are in blossom, the glass of these frames must be
covered, for it has been proved in course of the experiment, tliat
the blossoms are more liable to be cut off under the glass than
they are against a wall. When frost is apprehended, the opening
at the back of the frame could be easily closed ; and straw
screens could be made for rolling over the glass at little
expense.

With regard to economy, the first cost of the protecting frame
and that of a wall are nearly equal for the same extent of surface.
The protecting frame costs about 8c?. per square foot, or 9/. 1*. 6d.
per rod. A wall of the standard thickness, 14 inches, may be
built for 10/. per rod ; and a 9-inch brick wall for nearly one-
third less, or, say for 71. per rod, allowing for piers ; and if we
allow another 1/. per rod for foundations, still this substantial
wall is upwards of 1/. per rod cheaper than an equal surface of
glazed frame. The latter occupies much ground — it requires
a breadth of at least 8 feet ; the wall stands on 14 inches.

On the other hand, since it has been proved that Peaches can
be grown in these glazed frames with ordinary care, they may
be reconmiended where walls cannot be conveniently bvult. In
parts of the country, also, where the Peach does not ripen well
on the open wall, the protecting frame may be employed with
decided advantage, provided additional attention can be be-
stowed in covering up in cold nights, and in giving more or less
air according to circumstances.

XXVI. — 77*6 Gardens and Orange-grounds of St. MicliaeVs in
the Azores — its Climate and Peculiarities. By P. Wallace,
Chiswick House.

(Communicated Sept. 16, 1852.)

The position of the group of islands termed Azores, or
Western Islands, lying nearly half way between England and
America, and near the middle of the North Atlantic Ocean, is
no doubt well known to most people. St. Michael's forms one of
the principal features of those fertile little specks of the ocean.
It may be thought that such an atom of the earth could contain
none or few objects of sufficient worth to interest cultivators in

GARDENS AND ORANGE GROUNDS OF ST. MICHAEL'S. 2o7

England ; and, indeed, gardening in the Azores, as in its mother
country, Portugal, resjai'dless of its fine climate for such occupa-
tions, has been wofully neglected, but latterly the spirit of
improvement has commenced among the wealthy inhabitants of
the Western Islands, and shortly St. Michael's Mill possess
gardens which can only be rivalled by those at home.

Previous to describing the gardens of St. Michael's, it may be
well to state that this island is evidently of comparatively recent
sub-marine volcanic formation — symptoms of this are manifested
at almost every step by the condition of its surface, which exhibits
strong marks of having been formed by the violent agency of
fire, by which means, in fact, it is supposed the wliole of the
Azores have been at different unknown periods forced up from
the sea. St. Mary's Island may perhaps be an exception, yet
from its strong resemblance in form and general appearance
to the other islands, there can be little doubt tliat it has been
forced above the level of the sea by volcanic action — it nowhere,
however, bears traces of the effects of fire ; and what is equally
singular, St. Mary's is the only island of the Azores that \)vo-
duces stiff clay. The effects of these volcanic movements have
given rise to appearances on the face of the country of a most
picturesque and peculiar nature, which possibly are nowhere
better exemplified than in the interesting characteristics of St.
Michael's. In the eastern end of the island is a deep, extensive
valley, surrounded by liigh mountains, many of them from three
to four tliousand feet above the level of the sea : this valley is
named by the inhabitants Valle das Furnas.* There dame
Nature at the present time still keeps her kettles boiling. Tiie
hot springs of the valley are numerous ; the most remarkable is
called the " Grand Caldeira," situated in the eastern part, by the
side of a rivulet on a small eminence, on which is a basin twenty
feet in diameter, where the water boils with prodigious fury,
rising at times to the height of three or five feet, and so hot that
the inhabitants usually boil their Indian corn in it for food. An
egg is boiled hard in the springs in about the same time as it
would occupy over a hot fire. A few yards distant from tlie
Grand Caldeira is a cave in the side of the bank, in which tlie
water boils in a furious manner, throwing out thick, muddy
water, and often mud alone, to a distance of five or six feet from
its mouth, accompanied by a hideous roaring noise. On throwing
a stone into the aperture it redoubles its roaring, as if angry at
the insult. In the middle of the rivulet are several places where
the water boils up with so intense a heat, that a person cannot dip
his finger into it without being scalded. On its banks are .several

* Valley of Furnaces.

238 GAPvUENS AND ORANGE GROUNDS OF ST. MICHAEL'S.

opening's, out of which the steam rises to a considerable lieighl,
and so hot tliat it cannot be approaclied. In this truly wonderful
valley are found, within a few yards of each other, hot sulphur-
water and cold iron-water running side by side. About twenty
yards distant from the Bocca d'Inferno, the name given by the
inhabitants to tlie cave I liave just described, gushes from a rock
a strong stream of delicious effervescent soda-water, surpassing
any I ever drank in England, and requiring no iceing to make it
cool. Standing at this part of the valley spectators would be led
to suppose that the bellows of a mighty forge were blowing near
them, while sulphureous streams issue out so numerously that
the neighbouring bushes are covered with pure brimstone, con-
densed from the steam.

The climate of St. Michael's is remarkably regular, the ther-
mometer during the summer months ranging from 76° to 80°
and 84° Fahrenheit. A few days in the summer of 1851 it stood
at 94° in the shade, but the summer was unusually hot. At this
period tlie night temperature ranges from 65° to 70° and 76°.
During the winter months the day temperature is from 60° to
70°, often rising with strong sunshine as high as 76°. In the
valleys, the night temperature at this season ranges from 50° to
60°. In January, I have sometimes remarked the thermometer
at 40°, but these were rare occurrences. I have adopted this
form of giving the temperature for the sake of brevity, making
it summer from May to October, and winter from November to
April.

The soil of the island is generally a friable loam, and in the
plains of considerable depth, a great quantity being annually
carried down by the heavy rains which fall in winter. Yet
so fertile is this volcanic soil, that I have seen Indian corn
growing where there were only six inches in depth of earth on
the rock, and producing excellent crops. Many of the Orange-
gardens are formed in places where there is little more than from
fifteen to eighteen inches of soil above the shattered mass of
rock and rubble, which the volcanoes have thrown together. In
some localities a thin coating of black, peaty soil is found, but of
so loamy a nature as scarcely to merit the name of peat.

The native plants of the Azores are not numerous ; some of
them, however, are objects of interest : Myrica faya serves the
Azorians in a variety of forms, sucli as sheltering their Orange-
gardens, and affording fuel, &c., ivhilst its bark possesses the pro-
perty of tanning leather, and for this purpose it is much used by
the natives. The sides of tlie mountains least exposed to the sea
are covered with several species of Laurus, Myrsine retusa, Lau-
rustinus, a native .Juniper and Heath, both of great beauty,
assuming nuich diversity of habit, according to soil and situation,

GARDENS AKD OEAh'GE GROUNDS OF ST. MICHAEL'S. 239

sometimes trailing down the sides of the mountains, at others
growing up into large trees. Campanula Vidalii is the best I
have seen of its genus ; it forms a spreading bush, growing from
two to three feet high, and producing masses of cream-coloured
flowers. These, with the following Ferns, form the principal
features of t lie natise vegetation of St. Micliael's : — Balantiiim
culcita, "Woodwardia radicans, several common Aspidiums, Os-
munda regalis, Hymenopliyllum Tunbridgense, and Lycopodium
denticulatum abound.

My object in contributing these observations regarding the
gardens and Orange-grounds of St. Michael's is, that I tliink they
may prove of service to such of our wealthy aristocracy as may
possess villas on the shores of the Mediterranean, pointing out,
as I will do, what plants they might successfully introduce to
ornament their lawns and pleasure-grounds, and those which best
resist the baneful effects of the salt spray, when driven by strong
winds from the sea to the shore.

The garden of Senhor Jose do Canto, the gentleman with whom
I was engaged, contains about sixteen acres, a small portion
of which is laid out in the shape of a kitchen garden and orchard,
the rest in that of lawns and i)leasure-ground. It was designed
by Mr. Mocata, a London architect, and is situated on an incline
facing, at about a mile distant from the sea. When I arrived it
was partly laid out by Mr. Brown, an English gardener, sent
here by the Messrs. Osborn, of the Fulham Nursery.

A large architectural conservatory was being erected for such
plants as were too tender to withstand the sea breeze ; and other
operations were in progress for the completion of a good garden.

Senhor Jose do Canto at that time had collected nearlj"^ two
thousand different species of trees, shrubs, and plants into his
garden ; and it was truly an admirable and beautiful sight to see
the leafy natives of almost every clime growing side by side.
The Anona and tlie Apple, the Guava and the Green-yage, the
Loquat and the Peach, the Poinsettia pulcherrima and the old
English Oak, all thrive together in this highly favoured little
island. No attempt had been made to arrange the plants sys-
tematically, but as is generally the case in private gardens, they
were planted in the belts or clumps in such situations as were
thought suitable for them. The collection comprises some fine
specimens of Paulownia imperialis, two of which are thirty feet
high, with clear stems, ten fe^t above the ground (the stems
measuring three feet in circumference at the base), and round
spreading tops twenty feet in diameter. These two trees are
about seven years old from the seed. The singular manner in
which the Paulownia annually produces its flowers is worthy of
notice. AYhen the summer growth is made flower-spikes are

240 GARDENS AND ORANGE GROUNDS OF ST. MICHAEL'S.

formed at the point of every shoot ; and so perfect and full are
the buds, that to all appearance they are about to open. They
remain in this state until the leaves fall off in December, when
they present a very singular aspect. The spikes are regvilar in
form, and about six inches in length : the flowers are inclosed in
a thick, light brown hairy calyx, which, in any climate where the
summer is long enough to allow the Paulownia to ripen its growth,
would prove sufficient protection to preserve the embryo bloom
during winter. They continue in this condition until the begin-
ning of March, when the flowers open a few at a time on the base
of the spikes ; and they keep in bloom for the space of a month
previous to any leaves being developed. At the end of that
period the trees become covered A^th light green foliage, which,
added to the pale blue Gloxinia-like flowers, present a most
lovely appearance. The leaves of the Paulownia, when fully
developed, measure from ten to twelve inches in diameter. It
also produces abundance of good seed.

The forest and ornamental trees that grew and withstood the
salt breeze best, are Araucaria excelsa, Pinus pinaster, Pinea,
palustris and Canariensis. Many other Pinuses were introduced,
but they scarcely survived a year. Eucalyptuses all succeeded
well. E. resinifera has been a long time introduced into the
island ; and there are some specimens from seventy to eighty
feet high. Casuarina equisetifolia and stricta grow in perfection :
of the former some plants are twenty feet high, surpassing in
elegance of form any lawn tree I ever saw, with the exception of
Araucaria excelsa, Avhich I ought not longer to pass over
without particularly describing. Our example of this Araucaria
was planted in the most exposed part of the garden, without the
shelter of a single tree between it and the ocean, yet after some
of the severest storms, and when other plants which usually
resisted the salt spray best were slightly injured, I could never
discover any blemish on the Araucaria, whilst on the other hand,
A. imbricataand Braziliana were damaged by the slightest amount
of salt winds. One specimen of A. excelsa, in an orange-garden
belonging to Mr. Ivens, a merchant of St. Michael's, and
situated very near the sea, has attained the height of fifty feet.
Another, in the gartlen of Mr. Dabigny, American consul at
Fayal, is still higher, and has produced cones, but owing to the
absence of male catkins the cones were barren.

I ought to state here, that the^reat taste for gardening which
now exists in St. Michael's has originated with the English
residents on the island. The late Dr. Nesbit was one of the first
who began to introduce new plants into his garden at Nesbit's
Pico, a small hill, so named from his country residence being
built upon it. Here, at the present time, are some of the finest

GARDENS AND ORANGE GROUNDS OF ST. MICHAEL'S, 241

Specimens of Camellias, Arbutuses, Metrosideros, &c., in the
island. In this garden is a plant of the Cajeputi tree, Mela-
leuca Leucodendron, above thirty feet high. The trunk is
enclosed in a thick coating of tliin layers of papyriferous bark.
The Portuguese name it the paper-tree, on account of its shaggy
bark being easily stripped off and divided into sheets, as it were,
of fine paper.

The light and airy foliage of the Cajeputi, with its ragged
coating, gives it a wild, interesting form, and at the same time a
character quite its own.

I will now cursorily describe all the large trees that have been
introduced, many of which have become already important
features, not only on the face of the country, but in supplying
wood for building, orange-boxes, and for other pur|X)ses. The
greater part of the wood at present used for building is impo/ted
from America and Figaro. But within the last ten years planta-
tions have sprung up on almost everj' uncultivated side of the
mountains, where the soil is unfit for agricultural purposes.
Formerly every proprietor in the island planted for himself, but
latterly a more liberal feeling has prevailed, and now every
piece of ground that will not produce corn or oranges is planted
with timber trees. I have already stated that Pinus pinaster is
one of the best trees for thoroughly resisting the effects of the
salt spray ; it is also one wiiich has become universal throughout
the island, and is the principal tree employed in the construction
of orange-boxes. We have also Laurus indica, named Viniiatico
by the Portuguese, and known in England as Madeira mahogany ;
tliere is likewise another Laurus, called Camphora by the natives,
but it is quite a distinct species from L. camphora. When or
how it was introduced I could never ascertain. This tree grows
from sixty to seventy feet high, has intense deep green foliage,
possesses a strong camphory scent, and produces abundance of
spikes of white, sweet-scented flowers, which are succeeded by
seeds resembling an acorn. If this tree would prove hardy in
England, it would surpass any of our evergreen trees at present
introduced.

In a neigiibouring garden stood the parent-tree of all the
Camphoras in the island ; it is between sixty and seventy feet
high, and sixteen feet in circumference at the base of the trunk,
which is quite as knotted and gnarled as that of any of our old
Oaks. These two Lau ruses are widely disseminated throughout
tiie island ; the former is generally planted in plantations, the
latter, at one time, was much employed as shelter for the orange-
gardens, but being a gross feeder its use in that way has been
greatly diminished.

In the garden of Jose do Canto are Oaks, Elms, Beech,

VOL. VII. s

242 GABDENS AND ORANGE GROUNDS OF ST. MICHAEL'S.

Chesnut, Birch, Limes (Tilia europpea), Alder, Walnut, Nettle-
tree (Celtis occidentalis), Liquidambar, Ailanthus, Sumach,
Fraxinus lentiscifolia (common Ash would not grow), Acers,
Olives, Plane trees, the Ploney Locust tree (growing to a large
size, and producing abundance of long seed pods from fifteen to
eighteen inches in length), and Salix babylonica and its variety
crispa. Contrary to an idea I had always entertained, these
willows gi'ow finer and larger, planted in high and very drj^
situations, than I have ever seen them near watersides in
England.

Taxodiumdistichum, another tree generally supposed to thrive
best in damp places, when transplanted to a dry spot grew when
other plants moved at the same time died. Some examples of
this Taxodium, in the driest part of the garden, grew twenty feet
high from seedling plants in five years.

The above, together with many other deciduous trees, suc-
ceeded well in the island. The greater part of them retain their
leaves till near Christmas, and are again early in leaf in the
spring. Populus alba might almost be called evergreen, retain-
ing its foliage to the end of January, and by the end of February
it is again covered with young leaves. P. angulata grows
quicker than any otlier tree in the island, plants of it having
obtained the height of forty feet in little more than five years,
forming a stem proportionately thick. Among rarer deciduous
trees wliich flourish here is Melia azedarach (the Bead tree),
which is covered with masses of lilac-coloured flowers every
spring — occupying the place our Persian Lilac does at home.
It is much employed in the decoration of triumphal arches, and
is strewn in the streets in wliich religious processions pass on
saint-days. Erythrina caffra, Crista-galli, and Corallodendrum,
all acquire a large size. E. caff^ra flowered last year for the first
time in the Azores ; its flowers closely resemble tliose of E.
Corallodendrum, but E. caffra being of a much better haliit, and
producing its flowers when in full leaf, is superior to it in beauty.
Acacia lophantha and julibrissin, owing to the large size they
acquire, must be classed as trees. The Portuguese name the
A. julibrissin " the Rainbow Tree," on account of its flowers pos-
sessing various hues.

In addition to the Coniferous plants already enumerated as
being capable of withstanding the sea-breeze, are Juniperuses,
Cupressus, Callitris, Thuyas, and Taxus. Most of the species
belonging to these genera succeeded well in our garden, and if
sometimes slightly injured by a continuation of high winds blowing
from the sea, the rapidity with which young shoots and leaves
were formed in spring soon obliterated all traces of the injury
tliey had received. The Cedar of Lebanon and the Deodar suffer

GARDENS ANT) ORANGE GROUNDS OF ST. MICHAEL'S. 243

very much and grow slowly, and the common Larch will scarcely
exist in the island. Banksias succeed equally well here as in
their native soil and climate ; with the exception of B. palustris,
they have been all introduced within tlie last four years, and
some are already ten feet high, both blooming and .seeding.
Protea cynaroides grows well, while every other species intro-
duced died. Some years ago Jose do Canto procured some Pro-
teaceous. seeds from the Cape, and was successful in rearing
young plants of Leucadendron argenteum, which lie planted in
an orange-garden. One plant surpa.ssed anything I ever saw ;
it is impossible to convey in writing any coiTect idea of tiic beauty
of this .silky and silvery-leaved native of the Cape.

The genus Ficus is spread over every garden of extent in the
island. F. elastica and australis have been many years intro-
duced ; they grow to a large size. Ficus elastica retains tlie
same straggling habit it has in our stoves. F. australis is a com-
pact, noble tree. F. repens will become the Ivy of St. Michael's,
growing over rockwork, and imparting a peculiar charm of light
and shade — the old leaves being deep green and tlie young slioots
a pale yellow, often tipped with a tinge of red.

Magnolias likewise appear to liave found a congenial home in
the island ; some specimens of M. grandiflora are forty and fifty
feet high, with spreading tops like an oak ; at evening time the
air is filled with tiie sweet scent of their flowers, and at noonday
their branches form a favourite retreat from tlie heat of the sun.
All the newlj^ introduced Magnolias appear to thrive quite as
well as M. grandiHora, which has been many years in the island.

Few Palm trees have yet been planted, but those which have
been tried are thriving well. In the court-yards of many houses
in the city of Ponta Delgado are Phcenix dactylifera, the Date.
They are tall, noble-looking plants, producing abundance of
bloom every season, yet, from some cause I could never satis-
factorily find out, they bear no fruit.

I will now proceed to notice briefly a few of the floweiing
shrubs that are worthy of attention. Camellias have long been
favourites with the natives. The inner courts of every convent
and monastery contain .some noble specimens ; when newly in-
troduced from nurseries in England they suffer a little from the
winds, and grow slowly ; but in a few years they become accus-
tomed to their new home and flourish luxuriantly. I have mea-
sured some Camellias twenty feet high, forming lawn bushes
like the Portugal Laurel in England. So great is tlie desire
for Camellias, that several of the Portuguese gentlemen have
purchased plants of all the named varieties in the English and
French nurseries. Metrosideroses, Melaleucas, and Callislemons,
all thrive well, and form objects of great beauty, flowering well

s 2

244 GARDENS AND ORANGE GROUNDS OF ST. MICHAEL'S.

in the open air. Metrosideros speciosa surpasses in brightness
of colour when in bloom any of the Rhododendrons. I saw
one plant in the garden of an old Jesuit college, fifteen feet high,
clothed with spreading branches to the ground, and covered
with hundreds of bright scarlet feathery flowers ; in fact, this
plant and Poinsettia pvdcherrinia are the brightest coloured
plants yet introduced. We have Telopea speciosissima in St.
Michael's ; but it has not yet equalled the abovenamed plants in
beauty. Any one unaccustomed to see the gorgeous Poinsettia
in perfection must be astonished at the effect it produces ; its
broad deep green foliage well sustaining the glare of bright
scarlet furnished by its noble bracts. Brugmansia suaveolens is
another plant of great beauty, producing its delicate white
flowers four and five times a year. In many parts of the city of
Ponta Delgado it is planted in the court yards, and overhangs
the streets, filling the whole air in the evening with its delicious
odour, a thing particularly desirable in a Portuguese town.
Edwardsia microphylla and grandiflora. Oleanders, Myrtles,
Eugenias, Oestrums, Aralia spinosa and triphylla. Hibiscuses,
Azaleas, Gardenia florida and radicans, Franciscea latifolia,
Burchellia capensis, Tristania neriifolia, Melastoinas, Escalio-
nias, Diosmas, Clethras, Clianthus puniceus, Clerodendrons,
Corraeas, Coronilla glauca, Cassias, Ardisia crenulata. Acacias,
Abutilon striatum and Bedfordianum, Achanias, Brunsfelsia ame-
ricana, Buddlea madagascariensis and Lindleyana, Indigoferas,
Ingas, Juanulloa aurantiaca, Amorpha fruticosa, Anagyris foetida,
Anthyllis Barba-jovis, Amsonia salicifolia, Beaufortias, Ben-
thamia fragifera, Buxus, Calycanthus, Callistachys, Chimo-
nanthus, Caraganas, Cistuses, Cotoneasters, Cornus, Rhamnuses,
Daubentonia, Deutzias, Durantas, Eranthemums, Justicias, Euo-
nymuses, Fabiana, Eutaxia myrtifolia, Garrya elliptica, Ge-
nistas, Gnidias, Habrothamnus, Ligustrums, Leycesteria formosa.
Berberries, Mimosas, Olea fragrans, Phlomis, Piraeleas, Pip-
tanthus, Plumbago capensis, rosea, scandens, Larpentse, Podo-
lyrias, Polygalas, Pultensea, Rhus cotinus, Ricinus communis,
Jatrophas, Russelia juncea, Spiraeas, Stachytarpheta, Temple-
tonia, Cytisuses, Lantanas, Fuchsias, Roses, and Pelargoniums,
all grow together in the open borders in rich luxuriance.

I must not omit to mention the following climbing and her-
baceous plants in order to show how complete the Hortus
Michaelensis is, and how much more so it, or any country pos-
sessing a similar climate, might be made. Ipomoias and Big-
nonias produce their showy flowers at every season of tlie year.
B. venustaand I. rubro-caerulea bloom from November to March,
growing over a stupendous rock-work side by side, and entwining
their branches together. The deep rich orange-coloured flowers

GARDENS AND OllANGE GROUNDS OF ST. MICHAEL'S. 245

of the Bignonia contrasted with masses of the delicate blue
flowers of the Ipomoea was a sight not easy to be forgotten.
Passion flowers, Bugainvillea, Clematises, AVistaria, Honeysuckles,
Pergularia, Periploca, Jasmines, Lophospernium, Maurandyas,
Dolichos, Phaseolus, all impart a charm when trimly trained
against trellised walls or climbing up the sides of rockworlv or
dead branches placed in the ground for tiiat purpose. Among
herbaceous plants I would point out Hedychiums, Canna^,
Alpinia nutans, Strelitzias, Heliconia, Cycas revoluta, Calla
Eethiopica, Bletia Tankervillia and hyacinthina, Begonias, Lilies,
Amaryllis, Ixias, and Tritonias. Of these the Amaryllis bella-
donna is the Daffodil of St. Micliael's ; though not a native of the
island, it is so thoroughly spread over it that every road-side is
quite gay with it in spring.

Most of our herbaceous plants and annuals grow well. Dahlias
flower from July till Christmas. The only native fruits of St.
Michael's are a Vaccinium and a wild Alpine Strawberry. At
the present time, besides Oranges, there are numerous Apples,
Pears, Plums, Peaches, Nectarines, Apricots, Figs, Grapes, and
Strawberries, wliich all do well under proper treatment ; Goose-
berries and Currants will not grow. Of exotic fruits there are
three kinds of Guava (Psidlum pyriferum, polycarpon, and
Cattleyanum, the two last-named being the best) ; the Custard
apple (Anona cherimolia), whose fruit is much liked by some;
the Date Plum (Diospyros lotus, Kaki, and Virginicus: the former
only has proiluced fruit, which, when first put into the mouth,
has an agreeable taste, but it immediately becomes so astringent
as to render it unfit to be eaten). Jambosa vulgaris (Rose Apple)
produces a quantity of fruit not very desirable. The Pomegranate
(Punica granatum) bears freely. All the difterent kinds of
Granadilla bear abundance of fruit, which is much esteemed by
the Portuguese. The Loquat (Eriobotrya japonica) is only second
to the Orange, being noble in appearance, and frequently outri-
valling the Orange tree in size, while its branches are laden with
delicious rich golden fruit in April and May, when the Oranges
are all sent to England. The Loquat is the only fruit of its
season, and in the opinion of many it is superior to an Orange.
Physalis edulis has become wild ; it is found in every hedge-row,
and is much used for preserving. Musa paradisiaca, sapientum,
Cavendishii, abound in every part where there is a valley or
shelter for them. The fruit is seldom left to riperj on the plants,
it being found more convenient to cut them and hang them up in
a room, where they are quickly matured by the aid of a little sweet
oil put in a small hole cut in the end of the stalk.

We had the Lee-chee (Euphoria litchi), Longan, the Akee
(Blighia sapida), Manimee tree (M. americana), the Wampee

246 GARDENS AND ORANGE GROUNDS OF ST. MICHAEL'S.

(Cookia punctata), tlie Papaw (Carica papaya), tlie Malay Aj)))!*?
(Eugenia malacceiisis), aiul several species of Anona growinsi^ in
the conservatory without artificial heat, and only waiting for a
proper place to be })lanted out in tlie open ground. Euphoria
Longana Avas in flower when I left St, Michael's.

Melons, water and other kinds, are abundant during the summer
and autumn montlis. The manner of cultivating them is as fol-
lows : — The ground is deeply trenched in April, after which holes
are dug tMo feet deep and eight feet apart, the rows being the
same distance ; some rich manure is thrown into the holes and
mixed with the soil. In this state they remain for a week or ten
days, the manure and soil being stirred up two or three times
during this interval. Two or three inches of soil are tiien spread
over the mixture, and the seeds sown ; a kind of basin is formed
to protect the young plants from strong winds, which often blow
in tlie end of April and beginning of May. As the plants grow
they are thinned out, and the earth round them is drawn up and
pressed firmly about the neck and roots of the plants that remain
after thinning. Tliis operation is performed two or three times,
after which, with the exception of spreading out the shoots and
cleaning, they are left to themselves. The varieties of Melon
grown are " legion ;" every one leaving the island on a visit returns
with some new kind, wliich is generally sown along with the old
sorts. In fact, so numerous are the plots of Melon ground that it
would be impossible to prevent intermixture of the sorts taking
place. I adopted the English method of stopping the shoots, and
was more successful than my neighbours. The Water Melon
nuist be allowed to run like a Vegetable Marrow, or no success
will attend its cultivation. The heaviest JMelon I produced was
A kind of Beechwood, weighing 1 1 lbs. and of delicious flavour ;
the heaviest "Water Melon 22 lbs. The latter variety is a uni-
versal favourite with the Portuguese, serving as food, at the same
time quenching their thirst, and furnishing a wash for their faces.
Cucumbers grow successfully treated in the same manner.

On arriving at St. Michael's, one of the first things I did was
to erect a pine-pit, which I made on tiie same principle as the
latest erected at Chatsworth. I adopted the planting-out system,
having a lining in the front, and a stone path at the back, for
convenience of watering, &c.

At this time I had not experienced an Azorean winter ; and
perceiving tliat material for making linings was likely to be
scarce, as few horses were kept on the establishment, I saw it was
quite necessary that some other precaution should be taken to
insure bottom heat for my Pines. Neither boilers nor hot water
pipes could bo procured in the island ; bricks were not manufac-
liired, being prohibited by the Portuguese government. At last

GARDENS AND ORANGE GROUNDS OF ST. MICHAEL'S. 247

I thought of the old can-flues. I ordered some clay-pipes to be
iiiade, eight inches in diameter, and constructed the hot chamber
under the bed, more capacious than I would have done had I had
liot water. I did this for fear of the flue overheating, and to
prevent the roots from being burnt. The cans were laid down
on a slight foundation carefully fitted into each other, and covered
with a coating of mortar and red pumice stone. This I found
quite effectual, and ^ I would not hesitate to grow first rate Pine
Apples on the same plan in England. I dislike the method of
filling the space for tlie bottom with bricks, as is sometimes
practised : it confines the heat ; however little the obstruction,
it is too much in the vicinity of tlie pipes.

In INIarch, 1850, I received from the late Mr. Wilmot a batch
of good succession Pines. The soil had all been shaken from
their roots, and they had been packed without moss or straw in
a packing case — a jilan I would always adopt when sending
Pines a long journey. They arrived in excellent condition, and
were planted in a compost of peat, burnt refuse, and well decayed
manure, all roughly mixed up together. My method of treat-
ment was much the same as that pursued at Chatsworth ; using,
perhaps, more manure water, and keeping my Pines gently grow-
ing during winter. From May to October, 1851, 1 cut seventy
Pines, averaging 5 pounds weight each ; four smooth Cayennes,
weighing respectively 12 lbs., 10 lbs., 9 lbs., and 8 lbs. ; six
Trinidads, averaging 8 lbs. each ; six Moscow Queens, one 7 lbs.,
the others 6 lbs. each ; six Kipley Queens, 5 lbs. and 6 lbs. each ;
six Antigua Queens, 6 lbs. each ; and Jamaicas, Envilles, and
Montserrats, proportionately heavy. The large Cayenne Pine
was sent to Lisbon, to be presented to tlie Queen of Portugal.
Pines will exist in a half-starved state in the open ground here,
but they produce no fruit.

Vegetables can be had at every season. Asparagus is much
superior to that at home ; the whole stalk is tender and sweet.
Seakale was rather difficult to force. Peas could be had from
Christmas till June ; French Beans every month in the year.
Walcheren Cauliffower was the only one that did well ; it is a
real prize, producing fine heads winter and summer. All kinds
of Cabbages succeeded well, and Salads of every description can
be grown.

The foregoing remarks on the gardens of St. Michael's have
principally been confined to that of my employer. Jose do Canto
was the first to commence gardening on a large scale in the island.
The situation for his garden was badly chosen, being exposed on
every side to the sea : yet all the plants I have eimmerated, with
many others, ffourish well ; but many tender kinds would have done
better in a more sheltered situation. With Jose do Canto began the

248 GARDENS AND ORANGE GROUNDS OF ST. MICHAEL'S.

present great taste for gardening. Jealous of the improvements
he was making, other proprietors began to follow his example.
Senhor Antonio Borges, profiting by the bad effects he had wit-
nessed in the garden of Jose do Canto, produced by sea breezes,
selected a site for his garden in a valley at the west end of the
island, very much resembling the valley I described in the begin-
ning of this paper. Many plants succeeded well there that would
not grow in our garden, particularly American plants. During
my stay at St. Michael's 1 designed and partly laid out two large
places for the Barao das Laranjeiras and Senhor Jose Jaconie
Correa. The Visconde da Praya employs an English cultivator,
Mr, Webster, who is propagating and preparing plants for a gar-
den the Visconde has proposed making many years. At present
not much has been done. Some years ago Senhor Louriano made
an English garden, containing grass, rock work, water, hill and
dale, fountains, &c., on little more than half an acre of ground.
Shortly after the Barao da Fontabella made a garden at Botelho,
four miles from Ponta Delgado, consisting of a series of terraces,
a large architectural basin, temples, statues, and fountains. In
this establishment is a splendid Magnolia grandiflora, some ar-
bours covered with Duranta Plumieri, and a plant of Tristania
neriifolia thirty feet high ; also some magnificent Camellias, Mela-
leucas, &c. This garden is small and very much crowded, yet
very interesting. It is connected with Orange grounds that con-
tain some beautiful avenues of Pittosporum undulatum.

The Orange gardens of St. Michael's are, however, what form
the principal wealth of the island. But for them the country
would be one large field of Indian corn. To preserve the Orange-
trees from being broken by the high winds when laden with fruit,
it is requisite to plant tall quick-growing trees round and across
the quintas, the Portuguese name of the Orange grounds. These
shelters, composed of Myrica Faya, Camphoras, Pittosporum un-
dulata and Tobira, each possessing their own particular green,
and scattered over the face of the country with an irregular hand,
give a wild and varied charm to the landscape almost indescribable.
It is every man's ambition to possess a quinta. They toil early
and late, live on Indian corn-bread and water day after day, in
order that they may purchase a quinta in which to spend their
saint-days and Sundays. Quintas are the emporiums of pic-nics ;
the places of retreat of the citizens in summer. Most of them
contain a snug cottage ; and the shelters aftbrd plenty of shady
walks. These quintas are of as many different forms and sizes as
they possess owners. Every proprietor is his own decigner, and
a great variety of taste is displayed. On one point, however,
they all agree, which is that every quinta must have a high tower
and flagstaff, from which flags and pennants wave on every occasion.

GARDENS AND ORANGE GROUNDS OF ST. MICHAEL'S. 249

Orange-trees were first introduced to the Azores by the Por-
tuguese ; and as the fruit became an article of commerce in
Portugal, their extension was encouraged in those islands, in
all of wliich they grow. Fayal formerly exported nearly as
many Oranges as St. Michael's. About ten or twelve years ago
the Orange-trees of Fayal became infested by a species of Coc-
cus to such an extent as to render the Oranges worthless. It was
found impossible to destroy the pest, and the trees were all cut
down. Terceira annually exports from twenty to thirty cargoes
of Oranges ; St. Mary's one or two. St. Michael's at present is
the great mart for Oranges, but unfortunately there, too, the
Coccus has made its appearance, and several quintas have been
already destroyed. It is supposed by many that the Orange-
trees in St. Michael's grow spontaneously, and produce their
fruit without any care. This is a mistake. Before the Orange-
trees can be planted, a high wall must be built, and Pittosporum
uudulatum planted around and across, to break the force of the
winds. P. undulatum is now generally used, growing quicker and
possessing a more handsome appearance than the other trees
employed for this purpose, A hedge of P. undulatum will grow in
five or six years from twenty to thirty feet high. When the
walls are built and shelters planted, the ground is trenched, but
an attempt is seldom made to level it, the walks following the
natural undulations. This done, the Orange-trees are planted
at a distance of from twenty-five to thirty feet apart, and the
ground sown with Lupins, which are considered by the Portuguese
to be a favourite food of Orange-trees. Seven years elapse from
plantiug-tirae before the Orange-trees come into full bearing ;
during which space the garden is cropped with broad Beans,
French Beans, Melons, and Water Melons. The quintas of the
poorer proprietors are always cultivated ; the wealthy discon-
tinue this practice at the expiration of the above-named period.

The Orange-trees are annually primed — thinning out their
superfluous branches, so as to allow a free circulation of air,
which is required for the proper maturing of the fruit. The
trees bloom in March and April, and Oranges are gathered as
early as November for the London markets. The Portuguese
never eat them before the end of January, at which time they
possess their full flavour.

Orange grounds vary in size from one to sixty acres, and they
are rarely wholly occupied by Orange-trees ; Limes, Citrons,
Lemons, Guavas, and other fruit trees are scattered about in them.
There are only two kinds of Oranges cultivated in the island,
viz., the Portugal and the Mandarin ; many varieties of the
former exist, and they are greatly improved by the genial climate
of St. Michael's. The Mandarin Orange has not been many years

250 GARDENS AND ORANGE GROUNDS OF ST. MICHAEL'S,

in the island, nevertheless there are some trees of it fourteen
feet high and nearly as niucli in diameter. This capital little
Orange has lately been exported to England, where it realizes a
higher price than the common St. Michael's. The largest Orange-
tree I measured was thirty feet high, the stem being seven feet
in circumference at the base. The produce of the trees is almost
incredible ; props are ahvays used to prevent the weight of fruit
from breaking down the branches. I was told by Senhor Jacintho
Victor Vieyra, a gentleman on whose veracity I could depend,
that an orange-tree in the quinta of the Barao das Laranjeiras
produced twenty large boxes of oranges, each box containing
upwards of a thousand fruit. On telling Senhor Vieyra of the
large tree I had measured, he assured me that in the garden of
the Barao (who was the father of Orange growers in the island)
many larger trees had been cut down, having been destroyed by
the coccus, which attacks old trees first.

In the Orange grounds of the wealthy a small portion is gene-
rally devoted to flower gardening and ornamental shrubs ; some-
times surrounding their casinho, or in a remote part of the quinta,
sheltered on every side from the winds. It is in these places fine
specimens of exotic plants are to be found. In a quinta belonging
to the Visconde da Praya, at Roche do Cao, are two plants,
DracEena draco and arborea; the former has a clear stem,
twenty feet high, with a large spreading top ; the stem was six
feet in circumference, and nearly the same in thickness to the
top — D. arborea was forty feet high. In another quinta belong-
ing to the same nobleman, in the centre of a circular Camellia
garden, was the best plant of Pandanusodoratissiraus 1 have seen.
Much of the fine eftect that might be expected in a large Orange-
garden is destroyed by the quantity of shelters that intersect the
gardens, yet they possess delightful walks and avenues of Pitto-
sporum, and are, on the whole, very enjoyable. Two hundred
ship-loads of Oranges are annually exported from St. Michael's,
being nearly two hundred thousand boxes.

P.S. — I observe that I have omitted to describe the Caiota,
(Sechium edule, or Sicyos edulis.)

This interesting and valuable plant was introduced to St.
Michael's from Madeira — I believe it to be the Sechium edule
of Jamaica. It is perennial, and from October to February bears
abundance of its delicious culinary fruit. It is esteemed by the
Portuguese beyond their native Cabbage, and that speaks volumes
in its favour.

The substance of the Caiota is much firmer before and when
cooked than tliat of the Vegetable Marrow ; its taste partakes of

TWO NEW FOKMS OF TRAINING WALL TREES. 251

the flavour of Asparagus and Cauliflower. In my opinion it is
the most delicate vegetable I have ever eaten.

So much is it esteemed by the Portuguese, that they think tlie
English cannot fail to like it, and are making attempts to export
it for the London market, as it will keep in a fresh state a
long time. I think it could be easily cultivated in England :
growing as it does through the summer months, and producing its
fruit at a cold season, it would merely require protecting from
tlie frost. Yielding its fruit at a time when vegetables are
usually scarce, it would be invaluable to gardeners, and a great
addition to the dinner-table.

Tlie Caiota attains the weight of two to three pounds, delights
in a rich soil, and will grow trailing on the ground in the same
manner as the Vegetable Marrow ; but the approved way of
cultivating it by the Portuguese is to plant it against, and allow it
to run over, a high wall. It will bear pruning to any extent.
The fruit of the Caiota has a rugged, roundish form, of a pale
yellow colour, and somewiiat resembles the fruit of the Shad-
dock ; the pulp is pure white.

In tlie list of vegetables that succeed in the island, I ouo-ht to
have mentioned Potatoes, Carrots, Parsnips, and Turnips. Pota-
toes became diseased at the same time as in England, and the
disease still continues, more or less, in certain localities. Potatoes
planted in December will produce in Marcii ; the same tubers
being kept a sliort time, and again put in the ground, will
produce another crop ; and a third crop can be had almost
within the year. I have had four crops of French Beans in the
same way.

XXVII. — Two Neiu Forms in which Wall Trees may he

trained.*

By none of the methods hitherto employed can trees trained on
walls be established in less time tlian from 11 to 21 years
according to the kind of tree. Take, for example, a. Peach-tree
trained half horizontally against a wall 10 ft. high (H<>-. 1) ; this
form is one of the simplest and most easily obtained, and 10 ft.
are, upon the whole, the most convenient height for the wall. Let
us further suppose that Peach-trees are planted alono- the wall
at a distance of 7 yards from each other ; each tree will then
cover a surface of 25 square yards. Experience shows that
this space is necessary in order that these trees, planted in a

* Translated from the French of M. Du Ijreuil.

252 TWO NEW I'OU.MS OF TUAINING WALL XllKKS.

TWO NEW FORMS OF TRAINING WALL TREES. 253

soil of average fertility, may produce good fruit and preserve a
proper state of health. If the secondary branches be placed
at a distance of 2 feet from each other, six of them may be
developed on each tree. If an interval of two years between the
time of obtaining the first and second stages of secondary branches
be allowed, it will take seven years to obtain the whole number
of stages, and four years more must elapse before the upper
secondary branches can attain their full length ; that is, alto-
gether, eleven years.

If instead of Peach-trees we take Pear-trees, and train them as
above against a similar wall, planted as before in a soil of
average fertility, and grafted on Quince stocks, the same space
must be allowed between them as was allowed in the case of the
Peach-trees ; for Pear-trees ought to cover the same surface to
be sufficiently productive. But as the secondary branches should
be placed only one foot above each other, they cannot be all
obtained in less than thirteen years ; and if to that we add four
years for the completion of the growth of the upper branches, we
have seventeen years altogetiier.

Pretty nearly the same period of time is required by all the
other forms of training, and it becomes longer still in the cases
of Cherry, Plum, and Apricot trees trained against walls ; for
these trees have a greater number of secondary branches, the
spaces between which ought not properly to exceed 8 inches, and
only one stage can be obtained in a year. It takes, indeed,
nearly twenty-four years to get these trees into the form men-
tioned.

It is true the principal branches of these different trees may
be sometimes obtained much more quickly ; for example, by
making several stages grow in the same year either by winter
pruning, or, which is better, by causing the development of buds
by means of summer pruning. But these methods can only be
adopted in special cases, and when the trees are more than
usually vigorous ; otherwise the growth of the lower secondary
branches is almost always injured. What we have stated above
is then true as a general rule.

But length of time is not the only ground of objection to these
forms of training. If by any accident (and this often occurs
in stone-fruit trees) one of the secondary, or even one of the
primary, branches be lost after the tree is formed, whether it be
fan-trained, en canrlelabre, or horizontally with two stems, it is a
matter of exceeding difficulty, not to say impossibility, to refill
the space thus left empty. The tree consequently, during the
remainder of its existence, occupies profitably only a portion of
the space originally allotted to it. .

On the other hand the different methods at present in vogue,

254 TWO NEW FOKMS OF TRAINING WALL TREES.

and especially those of fan-training, ccmdelahre, or horizontal,
from double stems, demand no little attention and care in order
that the vegetation of the different parts of the tree may be kept
in equilibrium. This cannot by any means be done by every
gardener, and occupies a very considerable quantity of time.

In short, as matters stand, a period of time varying from
eleven to twenty-one years, according to the species, is required to
make a tree completely cover the space which ought to be
allotted to it. A consequence of this is, that about one half of
the wall remains unoccupied for five, eight, or ten years, accord-
ing to the kind of tree, without reckoning the spaces which are
lost during the whole life of a tree by the death of one of its
branches. The unprofitableness of one half of tlie wall for nearly
eight years, in the case of Pear-trees, is to be regretted, notwith-
standing that it bears a small proportion to the whole time
during which these trees are profitable, and which, under good
management, is about sixty years. But this loss becomes much
more important in the case of stone-fruits, such as the Peach,
which does not last above twenty years, or as the Apricot,
Cherry, and Plum, which cannot be kept profitably more than
thirty years.

It was to avoid this loss of space and time that formerly the
trees were (and even now too often are) planted much closer to
each other than we have mentioned, so that each one covered
much less space, and was more quickly developed. But this
plan is still more disadvantageous than the other ; for the sap,
being confined in too small a space, makes the tree so vigorous
that it will not fruit at all.

We have several times seen Pears on walls thus planted, and
which, although some forty years old, had produced nothing but
such an abundant supply of wood, that it had to be removed
every year. At other times trees are planted close, with the
intention that when they interfere with each other every other
one shall be removed. But then one does not like to make this
sacrifice when the time for it arrives ; or, if it be made, the
trees which remain can withdifliculty cover the spaces left vacant,
inasmuch as their roots, as they extend, enter ground already ex-
hausted by the trees removed.

To overcome these inconveniences we were led to train fruit-
trees in two forms, which can be established with less difficulty
than any other, and which, allowing the trees to cover tlie wall
regularly and quickly, do not interfere with their longevity or
productiveness. One of these forms is the following : —

Simple oblique course (fig. 2). The annexed figure was ori-
ginally published in 1846, in the first edition of tlie Author's
Cours d' Arboriculture. 'N^^e have no hesitation in again draw-

TWO

NEW FORMS OF TRAINING WALL TRLES. 255

256 TWO NEW FORMS OF TRAINING WALL TREES.

ing attention to the arrangement there shown ; for it is very im-
portant, and has been attended witli complete success wherever
it has been adopted. The Peach-trees (for this plan is only ap-
plicable to them) are planted obliquely at a distance of 34 inches
from each other, and so that, the stems being inclined at an
angle of 45°, the perpendicular distance between any two of '
them which are adjacent may be 2 feet. At the first pruning
the stem is cut at about 20 inches from the graft, and during the
following summer the shoots which make their appearance are so
managed that an elongation is obtained only at the top, whilst
fruit-branches are produced on the two sides. The next year
the length of the new growth is left at from 2 feet 4 inches to
3 feet, according to the strength of the tree, and the fruit-
branches are treated in the ordinary way. The stem of each
tree is thus made to elongate continually, in the line of inclina-
tion, until the top of the wall is reached. The tree is then
completely formed, and consists of one single stem inclined at an
angle of 45°, and bearing nothing but fruit-branches.

Fear might be entertained lest the sap, being confined to a
single stem, should cause the lateral buds to develope too vigor-
"ously to admit of the formation of flower-buds. But this action
of the sap being proportional to the quantity of the roots, and
these being confined by their proximity to each other, tlie vigour
of the trees does not become excessive. Tlie walls against which
trees are thus trained should not be less than 10 feet in height,
otherwise the trees will, notwithstanding their inclination, be too
•confined to fruit well.

In order that empty spaces may not be left on the wall, it is
necessary, as appears from the figure, to begin the series of trees,
to the right, with a half horizontal, and to end, to the left, with
a, tree bearing a liorizontal principal branch A, which itself must
bear secondary branches inclined at an angle of 45°. This prin-
cipal branch is in fact nothing but the original stem of the tree
gradually brought down, and upon which the secondary branches
have been allowed to develope, beginning with those farthest
from the stock.

Let us now see whether this arrangement does or not possess
the advantages we ascribe to it. And first, inasmuch as the
successive elongations of each stem when pruned are on the
average 32 inches in length, it cannot take more than 6 years
-at most to cover a wall 10 feet in height, since the stems inclined
at an angle of 45° are at the end of that time upwards of 16
feet long. Five years, then, at least are gained by the above
method, which cannot be gained by any of the others, and most
•of the inconveniences attributed to them are at once avoided by
this. If one of the trees should die, another may be put in its

TWO NEW FORMS OF TEAINIXG WAI.T, TREES. 257

place, and the empty space is soon refilled. Lastly, tliis form of
training is very easily accomplished, and the regular inclination
of the stems renders the means of equally distributing the action
of the sap extremely simple.

As to the productiveness and longevity of trees thus trained
we are perfectly satisfied, both by those which were planted by
us 10 years ago in the Garden of Plants at Kouen, and by otliers
since planted in the environs of Paris, and all of which are quite
equal to those treated in the ordinary way, that in this respect
the above plan is inferior to none.

But as we have said, the plan can only be followed in the case
of Peach-trees. The following arrangement, wiiich is quite new,
appears to us to be ai)plicable and with similar advantages to
trees of other sorts.

Double oblique Course {Jig. 3). — The only difference between
this and the arrangement already described is that in the latter
the perpendicular distance between the stems was 2 feet, whilst
in this it is only 1 foot. That is the space which ought to sepa-
rate the branches of a Pear-tree, which ha.s been taken as an
example in the figure. This necessity, however, gives rise to
another ; the trees being planted at a distance of nearly 3 feet
from each other, in order to attord their roots sufficient room,
two branches have to be developed instead of one as before.

This sort of training is established as follows. The trees
should be strong maiden plants ; they should be planted ver-
tically with proper care in the places marked. The fir-^t year
nothing more is to be done than to remove portions of the .stem
in order to establisi) an equilibrium between it and the roots.
The next year a single shoot at the top of each stem must be
left to grow vigorously, all the others being converted into spurs
by the proper means. In the spring of the following year, the
young trees having taken goofi hold of the ground, and already
grown, each stem is to be inclined from its base at an angle of
45°. During the succeeding summer one vigorous shoot is al-
lowed to develope in a vertical direction inmiediately above the
bend. In the 4th spring the branch produced by this bud i.s
itself bent, half a yard above the ground, parallel to the first
branch.

Care is to be taken during the next summer to maintain an
equal vigour in the two branches of each tree, and to promote
the vigorous growth of each terminal shoot by converting all the
others into spurs. In pruning, about 32 inches of the leading
shoots should be left, unless they are of unequal strength, in
which case the strongest is cut shorter. The same operation is
repeated eveiy year until the trees reach the top of the wall.

If it were desirerl to apply this plan to Cherry, Plum, or Apri-

VOL. VII. T

25.8

TWO NEW FORMS OF TBAINING WALL TKEES.

to

TWO NKW FOKMS OF TEAUNING WALL TUBES. 259

cot trees, the young trees should be planted at a distance of 2
feet instead of nearly 3 feet from each other, in order to have
the branches 8 inches apart, which is sufficient in these cases.
The advantages of this plan are the same as those which belong
to that adopted in the case of Peach-trees. The two branches
which each tree has may be obtained in 6 years at most, and
thus time is gained to the extent of 11 years for Pears and lo
years for Cherries, Plums, and Aprii-ots. The powers of pro-
duction and of vitality do not appear to be lessened by adopting
the double any more than by adopting the single course.

It is no small recommendation to be able to adopt, for trees
against walls, a form which is obtained and kept up at a much
less cost of time and care than is ordinarily incurred, and to fill
up with ease any empty space to which acciilent may give rise ;
but if in addition we find that the same surface of wall is covered
by the plans proposed in one half the time taken by those ordi-
narily followed, the advantages appear to us to preponderate
greatly in favour of the former. It cannot be denied that the
new forms are less agreeable to the eye than most of tlie others,
but that will not be thought of much moment by those whose
object it is to derive profit from their trees. — Revue Horticole,
Sept. 1852.

XXVIII. — New Esculent Vegetables and Fruits examined in
1852 in the Society^ s Garden. By R. Thompson.

" Hardy's Transmuted Shallot to Onio7i" or Hardy''s
Shallot Onion.

Seeds of this were presented to the Society, March 20th,
1851, by INIessrs. Hardy and Sons, Maldon, Essex, ac-
companied with the follow iug note : —

" The transmuted shallots, or rather onions, raised by us from
shallot seed, and planted last winter, did not produce potato
onions, as was presumed they might, but numerous heads of seed
varying from 10 to 20 from a single bulb. They certainly pos-
sess the qualities of both onions and shallots in flavour, size of
the onions, and the fact of their being divisible like shallots.
The blade is very narrow, partaking of both species. The seed
is small."

The seeds were sown when received, March 20th ; and the
produce is a mixed race, varying in size, form, and colour.
Some are regularly formed by concentric layers, like an onion,
and not unlike a Reading onion. Sometimes the formation con-
sists of two closely-conjoined, compressed, but separable bulbs ;

T 2

260 NEW ESCULENT VEGETABLES AND FRUITS

and frequently clusters are produced very like shallots. Tlie
colour in some approaches that of the Silver-skin Onion, in
others the Blood-red; but tlie generality are reddish-hrown.
They are strong-flavoured, and have tlie appearance of being-
good keepers.

From the want of uniformity in the size and form of the bidbs,
the crop would not be profitable for the growers for market.
By a judicious selection of bulbs for seed a useful sound-keeping
variety may very probably be obtained.

Florentiner PJlucherhse Pea.

Presented to the Society by Mr. Seitze, Royal Gardens,
Munich.

This was stated to be a good variety of early pea. It proves
the same as the Early Frame.

Paradise Pea.
Presented by Messrs. Stuart and INIein.

Sown May ITth ; fit for use July 23rd. About 4 feet higli ;
pods straight, flattish, containing 6-7 peas of good quality. An
abundant bearer. Dry seeds yellowish-white. Allied to the
Early Charlton.

Dorii de Fitz-James Pea.
Presented by Bossin, Louesse & Co., Paris.

Sown May 17th; fit for use July 20th; about 4 feet high;
pods straiglit ; flattish, in shape and size like those of the Charl-
ton, but the pods, and also the peas, are pale yellow. It is a
curious degeneration, most probably from the Charlton ; the
plants are similar in growth to those of the Charlton. The
quality of the peas is very good ; but the want of greeiniess in
the pods, even in a young state, would render the sort not mar-
ketable.

SuttOH'S Early GoliatJi Pea.

Received from Messrs. Sutton and Son.

Sown May 17th; fit July 18th; about 4 feet high. Pods
tolerably large, containing about 7 gooil-sized white peas, of ex-
cellent quality. A very good early productive pea.

Sutton^s Superb Marrmofat.
Received from Messrs. Sutton and Sons.
Appears to be the same as the Woodford Green Marrow.

EXAMINED IN THE SOCIETY'S GARDEN. 261

Early Prince of Wales Pea.
Presented by Messrs. Whalley of Liverpool.
Sown February 16th; fit June 2oth, Appears to be a well-
selected Early Frame.

Royal Alfred Pea.
Presented by Messrs. Weeks and Co.

Sown February 16tli; fit July 14th ; from 3 to 4 feet high,
of strong growth ; pods large, nearly straight, containing 6-7
peas of good quality. A sort of Marrow, but not so sugary as
Knight's.

Trial of Early Peas. — The following are the results of sow-
ings of different kinds of Early Peas, made with the view of
ascertaining their comparative merits in point of earliness : —

1. Earhj Frame

2. Earh/ Kent .

3. Early Emperor

4. Sanyster's No. 1 . .

5. Earl;/ Charlton

6. Early Long-podded Bishop's

Dwarf

7. Early Surprise

The first four of the above may be considered identical. Sang-
ster's No. 1 was admitted to have been sent out in mistake.
Slight differences will take place in the Early Frame, and other
sorts, in consequence of the mode of saving. Hence the Early
Kent and Early Emperor ; but they are certainly not decidedly
different permanently. They were exactly alike in the above
trial.

Haricot de Prague jaspe.
Obtained from M. Vilmorin, of Paris.

This is a tall running Kidney Bean, but the pods are rather
thin-sided, and the seeds soon become prominent, therefore it is
not to be recommended for use in a green state : the dry seeds,
however, are said to be of excellent quality.

Haricot de Belgic.

Presented to the Society by Messrs. Bossin, Louesse and
Co., Paris.

Tliis has black seeds, but it is quite different from the Haricot
Noir de Belyic, which is a dwarf sort, and this is tall ; blossoms

)wn

November 15

fit June 4.

do.

do.

15

do. 4.

do.

do.

15

do. 4.

do.

do.

15

do, 4.

do.

do.

15

do. 24.

do.

do.

15

do. 24.

do.

do.

15

do. 24

262 NEW ESCUI.KNX VEGETAbl-ES AND FllUlTS

white, pods large, 5 inches in length, and still tender. A tole-
rably good bearer, but not very early.

AVhere sticks can be afforded, this variety deserves cultivation,
for its quality is veiy good.

Bush Haricot {Haricot solitaire).

Obtained from M. Vilmorin, of Paris. Seeds of this were
distributed to the Fellows of the Society.

Grows about 15 inches high, throwing out a number of
branches nearly close to tlie ground, thus forming a sort of bush.
The slioots successively emitted bear in succession ; whilst they
also shade the ground, and tend to keep it moist in dry weather.
The flowers are of a pale blush. The pods are abundant,
5 inches in length, crisp, transparent, excellent. They commence
to form tolerably early, and they continue long fit for gathering
in succession. The dry seeds are speckled red and white.

The rows siiould be 2 feet apart, and the plants half that dis-
tance from each otlier in the row.

This forms a valuable succession to the earlier sorts, especially
during hot, dry weather.

Small white-seeded Haricot.
Presented by Jolm Tinne, Esq.

This appears to be a variety of the Haricot viz. The seeds
are small, white, roundish-oval, like tliose of the Haricot riz, but
larger; and the plant is earlier, more productive, and hardier, con-
sequently better adapted for this climate. Its growth is between
dwarf and tall. The blossoms are white ; pods long, rather
narrow, pale green, tender, but not so fleshy nor so good as
various others for use in a green state. It may, liowever, be
well substituted for the Haricot riz in cases whei'e that variety
is preferred on account of its small white seeds.

Newington Wonder French Bean.

Seeds of this were received from Messrs. Lee, and from Mr.
Rendle.

Both proved to be correctly the same variety ; and it is an
excellent one. Very dwarf, about a foot high, early, and pro-
ductive. The pods are moderately long, not very broad, but
having tliick fleshy sides, within which the seeds form but slowly,
and the pods remain long crisp ; their colour is dark green. It
may be planted in rows 18 inches apart.

EXAMINED IX THE SOCIETY'S GAKDEN. 263

Black Belgian Kidney Bean.
Received from M. Vilmorin, of Paris.

Although this variety has been previously noticed in the
Society's Journal, yet the present mention of it will doubtless be
excused, for it may be usefully stated that it is the best for botli
early and late sowing-. It is dwarf, and may be sown in pots
before tlie open ground has acquired sufficient warmth, and if
planted out when this is the case it soon comes into bearing.
Again, late in summer, when taller sorts would not even blossom
if tlien sown, tlie sort in question will produce a good crop, that
will keep in gathering condition till cut off by frost. This, and
tlie Newington Wonder, are considered the best varieties of
dwarf Kidney Beans.

Tilrkische Bohne (^Schlachtschwerdt-Stangenbohne).

Presented to the Society by John Tinne, Esq., together
with the original label, bearing the above name, under
which he had obtained the variety from the Continent.

It was also stated on the label that {^^ diese Sbrte liefer t 12
bis 14 ZoU lange und ubei- 1 Zoll breite Schoten''^) this sort
bears pods from 12 to 14 inches in length, and upwards of an
inch in breadth. They did not attain these dimensions here, the
season being dry, and the ground cold in the early part of
summer ; but some were ten inches long, and nearly an inch
broad, and doubtless they would grow to the full size mentioned
in a moist warm season. It appears to be the same as the
Haricot Sabre d' Allemagne of Noisette's Manuel du Jardinier^
and the Sabre of the Bon Jardinier.

It grows tall. The pods are large, curved, tender even when
the seeds are half grown, but the latter then render it objec-
tionable. It does not remain so long in gathering fit for use in
a green state as the Bush Haricot {Haricot solitaire) and several
others, nor does it bear so abundantly. It has, however, good
qualifications, which are thus described in the Bon Jardinier : —
" This vai'iety is, perhaps, the best of all ; it bears tolerably
well ; its pods are of an extraordinary length and breadth ; in a
young state they make excellent haricots verts; when nearly
full-sized they are still tender and fleshy, and may be used in
this state, either fresh, being broken in small pieces, or, in
winter, after being cut into narrow strips and preserved with
salt." The diy seeds are tolerably large, flat, kidney -shaped,
and white ; and in point of quality the French rank them
amongst the best, whether used new or dried. It therefore
appears that this variety possesses good properties, which those

264 NKW KSCULliNT VKUETAHLES AND l-TvUIT;*

who can may fiirii to account. But it is iieccssiry to observe
that it requires good tall sticks, and these are too expensive,
excepting- for those who have their own plantations to cut from.

Duchessc de Trccise iSlraivherri/.

Presented to the Society by M. Janiin, liourg-la-Reine, near
Paris, Sept. 6, 1851.

Fruit middle-sized, ovate, tleep red ; seeds small, rather deeply
embedded ; flesh pale red, juicy, with a brisk rich Ha\ our.
Leaves large, roundish, widely and ratlier obtusely serrated. Leaf-
stalks moderately tall, very hairy, the hairs on these spreading
horizontally, but those on the scapes and runners are adpressed.

Appears to be a good bearer, ripening quite as early as Keens'
.Seedling. It will require to be planted as widely apart as the
sort just mentioned. As far as can be judged of it in the present
season it seems deserving of cultivation, or, at all events, cer-
tainly of further trial.

Salter s Versaillaiae Strawberry.

Presented to the Society by Mr. .John Salter, Nurseryman,
Hammersmith, Oct. 24, 18.52.

Fruit large ovate, sometimes flattened or cockscomb-shaped ;
dark red ; seeds rather deeply embedded ; flesh pale, juicy and
rich. Leaves middle-sized, roinidish-oval, widely serrated. Leaf-
stalks, scapes and runners hairy, the hairs spreading almost hori-
zontally. A good bearer, ripening about the same time as
Keens' Seedling, to which it will doubtless be preferred by those
who like a brisker flavour than is possessed by Keens' Seed-
ling. On the whole, it is worthy of recommendation, being
large and a good bearer ; many of tlie new sorts have these pro-
perties only, but this has also good flavour.

BeadnelVs Seedling Pear.

This was raised by John Beadnell, Esq., West Green Roatl,
Tottenham, and cuttings of it were presented by him
to the Society.

The fruit is nearly middle-sized, turbinate, stalk short; eye
a little open ; skin pale yellowish-green on the shaded side, red
next the sun, much speckled with whitish-grey dots. Flesh
melting, exceedingly juicy, and ricii. It is not buttery, but so
melting, when used in its full })erfection, that one can scarcely
say whether he is not rather drinking than eating. Its period of
ripening varies between the nuddle of September and that of

KXA.MINED IN THE SOCIETY'S GARDEN. 26o

October. It does not keep lon;^ after being ripe. The tree is
vigorous, and bears very abundantly. Slioots long, bright
chestnut coloured where well exposed, much spotted with
whitish dots. Leaves moderately large, cordate on the young
shoots, somewljat concave and acuminate, serrated ; those on the
spurs are elliptic. Stipules linear, rather more than half the
length of the petioles.

This variety cannot fail to be very acceptable on account of
its rich, abundant, and highly refreshing juice.

Shanghae Peach.

This variety was sent to the Society by Mr. Fortune, who
found it growing to a very large size in the North of
China.

Along with a plant of it in a pot, he sent some of the peach
stones. These were sown and came up abundantly ; but they
had a very unpromising appearance for fruit, tlieir foliage being
narrow, and altogether unlike that of a cultivated sort. They
were, however, potted, and when fit, used as stocks for the origi-
nal. Several trees on these stocks were planted against a south
wall, where they grew rapidly. The trees have produced better
fruit this year tlian formerly, probably owing to unusually high
temperature in July.

The flowers are large ; the leaves of the petals deeply coloured.
Leaves crenated, with reniform glands. Fruit very large, 10
inciies or more in circumference, roundish, and very handsome ;
pale yellow where shaded, and delicate crimson red next the sun.
The flesh is pale yellow next the skin, but very deep red at the
stone, to which it is attached by strong fibres, yet it is not every-
where adherent like the flesh of the cling-stone peaches. It is
juicy and rich, but it recpiires to be gathered a day or two before
it is used. In tiiis state some gentlemen preferred it to old
esteemed sorts. It ripens about the same time as the Bellegarde.
The tree is a good bearer.

Buds of this sort have been distributed to the various nursery-
men or other Fellows of the Society who applied for them. It
nuist however be observed, that it requires a good aspect, and
warm situation. It would probably answer for forcing, with
plenty of heat. Some buds of it were sent to Paris, and there
its fruit is said to be splendid. Like all large fruited varieties
it ought to be well thinned.

( 266 )

i/ NEW PLANTS, ETC , FROM THE SOCIETY'S

GARDEN.

1. Sedum ruRPUREUM. Link, Enum. Hort. Berol., I. 437.

Ledebour, Fl. Rossica, II. 181.

Received from J. Gent, Esq., in April, 1852, under the
name of Sedum purpurascens.

By many writers this is regarded as a mere variety of Sedum
Telephium, and their opinion is probably correct. It only differs
in being pervaded by a very deep purple tint, and in the
leaves being wedge-shaped and narrow at the base, instead of
being oblong and rounded at the base. The petals also are flat,
not channelled at the point, and the stamens are rather longer
than the petals.

It grows naturally in middle Russia, and all over Siberia,
whether in the Altai, the Ural, or the Baical, reaching even to
Kamtchatka,

In cultivation it is a hardy plant, growing 18 inches in height
in any good light rich soil. It is increased by dividing the old
plant in the ordinary way. It flowers in August. It is a rather
sliowy and desirable plant for rock-work in summer.

2. Pelargonium foliolosum. De Cand., Prodr., I. 653.
Geranium finnatum. Andrews, Bot. Repos., t. 311.

Purchased from Mr. "Wicks, a collector of Cape plants,
May 3rd, 1852, as a Yellow Pelargonium.

This is one of tlie fleshy-rooted species, often called Hoareas.
It has hairy pinnated leaves, with about 7 pairs of ovate entire
leaflets, and an odd one, which is much broader and rounder.
The flower stem grows higher than the leaves, and divides into
two unequal arms about the middle ; of these, one flowers some
weeks before the other. The umbels consist of 6 or 8 blossoms,
with hairy stalks 3 times as long as the subulate bracts. The
petals are linear, channelled, recurved, blunt, pale clear buff,
tlie two upper standing nearer to each other, and with a deep
crimson spot in tlie middle.

Tliis was obtained for the sake of its yellow flowers, which it
is hoped may be made to change the colour of some of the large-
flowered Pelargoniums. As the pollen is good, this may happen.

NEW PLANTS, ETC., FROM THE SOCIETY'S GARDEN, 267

It is a tuberous plant, requiring- a good rich sandy soil, and to
be treated like the ordinary kinds of Pelargoniums ; but it must
be kept rather dry in winter.

As has been stated, its value will be as a breeder; the flowers
are too insignificant to render it of importance otherwise in a
gardening point of view.

3. Vanda longifolia. Lindley's Genera and Species of
Orchidaceous Plants, p. 215.

Presented to the Society by the Honourable Court of
Directors of the East India Company in 1847. Flowered
Sept. 3, 1852.

This is a very fine looking plant when not in flower, with
deep green distichous leathery wavy leaves, as much as a foot and
a half long and 2 inches wide, obliquely rounded at the end. Its
habit is almost that of Angraecum eburneum. Very thick
greyish-green roots protrude from its stem, and have a tendency
to branch wherever the first point is injured. But the flowers
are insignificant, very much like those of Vanda multiflora in
form and colour, except that they are paler ; they, however,
have a pleasant perfume. These flowers appear in a corymb at
the end of a short stift" ascending peduncle not one quarter the
length of the leaves ; they are very fleshy, and are banded with
red upon a dull yellow ground ; the lip is white. Inside the
pouch of the lip are numerous yellowish hairs, concealing an
erect fleshy plate, which partially divides the hollow of the lip
into two halves.

It is not worth cultivating for the flowers, but the foliage is
very fine, and serves to set off" other Orchids.

4. Astragalus ponticus. Pallas, Astragalogia, p. 14, t. 11.

Raised from seeds received from H. C Calvert, Esq., of
Erzeroom, March 26th, 1850.

A decumbent perennial of a bright lively green colour. Stems
about 2 feet long, slightly downy. Leaves almost smooth, of
the texture of the Garden Pea, about a foot long, composed of
17 or 18 pairs of ovate-oblong, obtuse, or emarginate leaflets.
The flowers are bright yellow, in nearly sessile ovate heads, with
short calyx tube, much less hairy than in the allied species.

The cultivators of hardy herbaceous plants will understand
what tliis is when it is compared with Astragalus alopecuroides,
which it is a good deal like.

It is a hai'dy, half-shrubby plant, growing freely in peat-soil,

268 NEW PLANTS, ETC.,

and flowerinpf in August. Though not showy, its fine foliage
renders it well adapted for shrubberies, coarse rockwork, and
flower borders, devoted to the cultivation of the rougher kind of
perennials.

5. TiLLANBsiA STRicTA. Botunical Magazine, t, 1529.

Received from Miss Croker, of Chiswick, February 23rd,
1852, said to be from Rio.

This is a small Pine Apple-like plant, about 6 inches high
when in flower. The leaves are very narrow, channelled, mealy,
stiff, terminating in a long drawn-out point, and curved back-
wards till their ends are below the base of the plant. The
flowering stems are shorter than the leaves, curved downwards,
clothed with small green leaves resembling those below them.
The flowers are collected into oblong cones, formed of shining,
naked, roundish ovate, convex, imbricated bracts, the lower of
which have a leafy point. Two varieties were observed, one
with bright rose-coloured bracts and blue flowers, the other with
greenish bracts and white flowers.

Among the less important inhabitants of the stove this may be
regarded as a useful little plant, growing best in a warm moist
air, attached to a block of wood, where it flowers in August.

6. EcHEVERiA QuiTENsis* — Sedum quitense. Humboldt,
Bonpland, and Kunth, Nov. Gen. and Sp., pi. 6, 46.

Received from Isaac Anderson, Esq., of Edinburgh, in
August, 1851.

A bright green smooth succulent plant, forming stiff" erect
stems about 6 inches high, clothed by imbricated spathulate
leaves, with an almost circular base attached to the stem only by
one bundle of fibro-vascular tissue. The flowers are in stiff close
erect racemes, shorter than the lower bracts, which resemble in
form the leaves, but taper less to the base. Sepals 5, longer
than the pedicel, equal, linear, acuminate, rather shorter than
the corolla, which forms a scarlet five-sided pyramid, opening
very slightly at the end into 5 acuminate lobes. Of the 10
stamens, 5 stand in furrows of the petals, and 5 are distinct.

This is evidently an Echeveria, as De Candolle surmised,
and not a Sedum. During the summer it does very well on
rockwork out of doors, but it is probable that it should be treated

* E. quitensis; omnibus partibus nuda, caulibus imbi-icatim foliosis, foliis
spathulatis apiculatis, sepalis lincaribus aciitissimis aiqualibus suberectis
corolla subclavisJi brcvioribus. — J. L.

FROM THE SOCIETY'S GARDEN.

269

Echeveria quitPiisi*.

270 NEAV PLANTS. KTC,

as a greenliouse shrubby succulent plant, requiring tlie same
kind of soil and treatment as Eclieverias. It is easily increased
by cuttings, and seeds, which it ripens abundantly.

When grown out of doors, though pretty, it is not a very
striking plant. It flowers in August. How it will look in a
greenhouse is not ascertained as yet.

7. Gaura Lindheimeri. Engelmann, in Boston Journal of
Natural History, Vol. V. p. 217. Vilmorin, in Revue
Horticole, 3. ser. V. 41. t. 5.

Raised from seeds received from M. Vilmorin in April,
1850.

A branching herbaceous plant, growing from 3 to 4 feet high,
and producing an abundance of gay white and reddish flowers
during all the latter part of the year. The branches are long, rod-
like, naked except at the extremities where the flowers grow.
The lower leaves are deeply divided in a pinnatifid or sinuate
manner ; the upper are lanceolate and slightly toothed, the upper-
most of all are linear-lanceolate and entire. The flowers appear
in long virgate spikes, which frequently branch near the end.
The petals are pure white ; the flower-buds are long and slender,
green when young, a warm reddish brown just before expansion.
The seed-vessels are small sessile four-cornered nuts.

A perennial, growing freely in any good garden soil, and
flowering from July to September. It is easily increased from
seeds, and is best treated as a half-hardy biennial. It will not
flower before the second season. Having been found in Texas or
provinces more to the southward, it cannot be regarded as per-
fectly hardy. It is really a showy although a straggling plant,
and well suited for decorating mixed beds of flowers, or the skirts
of a plantation in the autumn.

8. Oncidium tenue. Lindley, supra, vol. iii. p. 76.
Var. grandifiorum.

Received from G. U. Skinner, Esq., in April, 1849, from
Guatemala.

This has so very much the structure of Oncidium tenue that it
can only be regarded as a variety ; but it is one of greater
beauty than the original. The panicle is much more branched ;
the flowers are larger, paler, with two distinct triangular spots at
the base of the lip instead of broken blotches. The wings of the
column are, moreover, strongly toothed, and the base of the lip
is wider. The singular thinness of the pseudo-bulbs and the

FROM THE SOCIEIY'S GAUDEN.

271

Oncidium tenue

272 ^r.W PLANTS, KTC,

short broad tliiii leaves render the species anioiio- tlie easiest to
recognise.

Ill tiie accompanying" figure o represents tlie plant reduced in
size, h tlie back and r the front of a Hower of the natural size,
and (I across section of a pseudo-bulb to show its thinness.

It requires to be potted in fibry peat, and with a small portion
of half-decayed leaves, must be perfectly drained, and kept in the
coldest part of tiie stove. It is increased in the uf.ual way Allien
the plant is large enough for that purjiose. It flowers in April
and May. It is one of the best of the small kinds of Oncidinm,
remaining rather long in bloom.

9. Cinchona calisaya. WecJdcll. Hist. Nat. des Qitii)-
quinas, p. 30, tt. 3 and 4.

Raised from seeds received from the administration of the
Jardin des Plantcs of Paris through J. B. Pentland,
Esq., on 17th of October, 1848.

Leaves oblong, obtuse, pale dull green, tapering gradually into
the petiole, which is red, as well as the midrib itself; at the back
of tlie leaf, in the axil of each principal vein, is a small exca-
vation closed up by hairs. The stipules, which fall off very-
early, are a pair of oblong, erect, blunt, smooth plates. Tiie
flowers appear in panicles at the ends of tlie lateral shoots, are of
a pale pink colour before expansion, almost white when fully
open, and emit a most agreeable weak balsamic fragrance. The
calyx is a small superior 5-toothed cup, covered with fine close
down like the branches of the panicle. Tlie corolla has a cylin-
drical tube about V inch long, and a reHexed 5-lobed limb, copi-
ously fringed with long transparent club-shaped liairs. Tlie
stamens are 5, and can just be seen when looking down into the
tube of the corolla.

Dr. Weddell, in his Natural History of tlie Quinquinas,
gives a very full account of this important plant, from whicli
the following are extracts : —

" From this species is obtained the most precious of the Je-
suit's barks used in medicine, employed from time immemorial in
trade under the name of Calisaya bark, but whose origin was
wholly unknown till now."

" I have already observed that this tree has hitherto been
only found in Pern, in the southern part of the province of Ca-
rabay^a. The results at which 1 have arrived in endeavouring
to determine exactly the limits of the region it occupies seem
curious enough to be noted in this place. Thus, after having
studied the plant in all the ancient province of Yungas in La
Paz, to the north of 17° S. lat., I followed it into that of Lare-

FROM THK SOCIKTY'S GARDEN. 273

caja or Snrata, tiience into Caupolican or Apolobaniba. the place
of its first discovery; and all my care has failed in enabling- nie
to find it north of those points. An imaginary barrier exists
then beyond which the plant will not go, notwithstanding that
the neighbouring valleys appeai'ed to be of the very same nature ;
a fact that can scarcely be explained, unless upon the supposi-
tion that peculiarities do exist in the most southern valleys of
Carabaya which are wanting in tlie north ; and this may pos-
sibly be owing to the manner in which the rivers are distributed.
I believe, in fact, that I am justified in referring those of tlie
district in question to a particular system, possibly dependent
upon the Bolivian system, and that those in the other parts of
the province lose themselves on the contrary by tlie N. of Peru,
in the Upper Amazon. This unexplained attachment whicli
certain plants manifest for natural regions, and especially ft)r
valleys, is by no means without example; and now that Geo-
graphical Botany is obtaining serious attention, science will be
enriched more and more with analogous facts."

"The great reputation of the Quinquina Calisaya has caused
such a demand for it, that it will certainly some day disappear
completely from commerce, and we shall be obliged to be con-
tent with other sorts now despised. It has already disappeared
around inhabited places, except in the form of a bush ; and if by
mere chance a small tree has remained unobserved in the midst
of a forest, its head no sooner becomes visible tlian the hatchet
brings it down. For rny own part, when 1 have wished to see
the species in all its vigour, it has been necessary to pass long
days on foot in the forests, to penetrate them by paths whicli
were scarcely passable, and to undergo some of the fatigues
which are the ordinary lot of the poor Cascarilleros."

'' Some idea may be formed of tlie inunense consumption of
the bark of this plant, from the fact that the Boli\ian Company
exports annually, exclusive of adulteration, more than 4000
quintals. It is difficult for the forests to supply for any long time
so large a demand."

Its native station was found by this enterprising traveller to
be on the slopes and precipices of mountains as high as 4500
or 5400 feet in the hottest valleys of Bolivia and Southern Peru,
in forests between 13' and 16° 30' S. lat., and 68°— 72° W.
long., in the Bolivian provinces of Enquisivi, Yungas, Larecaja,
and Caupolican, and in Carabaya in Peru.

This plant has been found to require very peculiar manage-
ment. Mr. George Gordon, under whose care it flowered in the
Society's Garden, states the following to be the manner in which
the specimen was treated which bloomed so abundantly in the
Society's stove : —

VOI>. VII. u

274 NIAV l'I,\NTS, KTC,

The seeds, when received from INfr. Pentland in the middle of
October, 1848, were sown in shallow pans, well drained, in a
mixture of equal parts of sandy loam and fibry peat, and placed
in a close warm pit, remaining- for ten days without receiving- any
water after sowing. Afterwards they were slightly sprinkled as
the soil became dry on the surface, and at the end of about three
months of such treatment the young plants began to make their
appearance, in the latter part of January. When the seedlings
had made a couple of rough leaves they were carefully removed,
and placed singly in three-inch pots (small sixtys), potting them
in a mixture composed of equal parts of sandy loam, fibry peat,
and well decayed leaf movdd, and after a copious watering were
returned to the close pit, where they soon began to grow freely.
Wlien the young plants were well established a moderate portion
of air was given over head, by pushing down the light a little at
the top ; and this treatment was continued until the latter part of
the following autunni, when the plants were removed to a close
pit with rather a drier atmosphere, more light, and a temperature
from 50° to 55° by night. Subsequently the plants were shifted
as they required it into larger pots, using the same kind of
compost as before. As the specimens grew up they showed little
tendency to form lateral branches, but became straight stemmed
with hardly a side shoot. To counteract this as much as
possible, I endeavoured to cause the plants to become bushy,
first by pinching off the leading points of two plants while in a
very young state ; but that operation threw the plants into a bad
state of health, and one of them eventually died. The other
plants Avere allowed to grow for another season, and when the
wood became hard or ripe, two more had their leading points
removed, but with little better success. The remainder had at
the same time their leading points tied down in a circular form,
which in most cases caused the plant to throw out lateral
branches. AVhen the wood of these laterals again became firm,
or what is termed about three-parts ripe, they were again tied
down and allowed to remain so until the wood became set in a
curved form, after which t!ie ties were removed and the plant
allowed its full motion, for I found if the branches were kept con-
stantly tied down the plants became unhealthy, and in some cases
even perished. By a continuation of this treatment I obtained
the fine plant \\hich flowered in the Society's Garden, having
twelve panicles of flowers on the points of the lateral branches by
the first week in September, 1852.

In cultivation I find this plant is easily injured by exposure to
dry or cold draughts of air, for it is very impatient of direct cur-
rents and bright sunshine. For the Calisaya, as for many other
plants which are diflftcult to manage in cultivation, nothing is

FROM THE SOCIETY'S GARDEN. 27o

better than plunging their pots in a very gentle bottom heat to
keep the roots moist and warm, and in an equal temperature, and
to give air from overhead, shading also during bright sunshine.
No method of giving air or putting the air in motion surpasses
that of opening the lights above the plants at top, for no sooner is
the light let down than the stream of heated air which rushes out
is forcibly met by the cold air endeavouring to enter, the result
of which is a proper medium of heat and moisture. It is very
injurious to such plants as the Cinchona Calisaya to admit direct
currents of cold air on a level with or below the plants. It is
sure to rob the atmosphere of its moisture first and the f)lant
afterwards, and by so doing causes the plant to flag ; no plant,
indeed, can thrive when acted upon in such a manner either by
cold or dry air. This is one of the principal things to be observed
in the management of the " Calisaya." A moderate degree of heat
and moisture are essential points, provided the moisture never
becomes stagnant or the air over dry by heat, especially when the
plants are making fresh growth and the leaves are young and
tender. At other times when the plants have completed their
growth a much drier and cooler atmosphere is desirable, provided
the plants are not exposed to extremes of either droughts or colds
for too great a length of time. In whatever state the plants may
be, always avoid dry-air draughts.

In growing the " Calisaya " the most suitable climate would in
general be that of a house, treated in the same way as one for
Mexican and Guatemala Orchids, where it is easy to avoid too
much heat and moisture during the season of rest, and to give
a liberal supply of both, with ample shade, when making new
growth.

The " Calisaya " is increased either by seeds treated as above
stated or by small lateral shoots as cuttings, when half ripened or
just before the young wood becomes of a brown colour. The
cutting should be taken off with a heel, close to the previous
growth, and placed in silver sand, with as many of the leaves
upon the cutting as possible. The pot containing the cuttings
must be plunged in a slight bottom heat, and be covered with a bell-
glass, and afterwards treated in the usual way. The seeds should
be sown whenever received, whether in mid-winter or at any
other time.

This plant is too difficult to manage and requires too much
attention to become very common, especially as it is not very
showy when in bloom, although remarkably fragrant and singular
for its panicles of small hairy white flowers, slightly tinged with
blush on the outer side, in form much like those of the common
Lilac.

It commences flowering about the end of August, and Mill con-

u 2

276 ^'^E^^' I'l.ANTS, ETC.,

tinue in succession at least a month, each flower lasting only two
days, after which time it drops off before fading.

10. Ceanothus verrucosus. Ntittall, in Torrey and Gray, Fl.
N. Amer., i. 267 ; Hooker, in Bat. Mag., t. 4660.

Raised from seeds collected by Hartweg in California, and
received at the Garden, June 5th, 1848, as " a shrub 8
feet high, growing on the Santa Cruz mountains."

This proves to be a hardy evergreen of the best kind. It
forms already a large bush, and will probably become a tree with
long stiff rod-like downy branches, covered in winter with multi-
tudes of large oblong or roundish brown buds. The leaves are
opposite, roundish oblong, either slightly notched or entire at the
end, scarcely an inch long at the largest, flat, deep green, shining,
with grey hairy pits distributed over all the under surface.
Occasionally, when the plant is young, they are coarsely toothed,
as is represented in the Botanical Magazine ; but that is an ex-
ceptional state : the usual condition is what is shown in the annexed
cut. At the base of each leaf is a pair of stipules, which gradually
lose their thin extremities and change into soft fleshy conical
prickles. The flowers are very pale blue, produced in great abund-
ance in dense corymbs at the end of very short stiff lateral branches.

This shrub is among the most easy of plants to grow, and
seems indifferent to climate or soil. It is increased by cuttings
of the half-ripened wood, placed in sand under a hand-glass in a
north aspect about the end of August. It is, however, best
propagated by layering in the autumn. It flowers in June.

It may be added that with the single exception of C. cuneatus^
a white-flowered species of little beauty, all the Californian
Ceanothuses prove to be hardy near London. It is only requisite
that they should not be placed in soil which keeps them growing
till late in the year, but that their wood should be well ripened.
In the Botanical Magazine Sir Wm. Hooker, in speaking of
C.rigidus, observes that — " The North-west American Ceano-
thuses are particularly deserving of cultivation in the open
ground ; but it may require a Devonshire climate to bring them
to the state in which they are at Bishopstowe, as just announced
to me in a letter, dated 27th May, 1852, of the Bishop of Exeter.
' The Ceanothus divaricatus is now in its highest beauty : the
largest plant is eighteen feet high, eighteen feet wide, twelve
feet deep {i. e. from back to front), covered with thousands of
the beautiful thyrsoid flowers, so that the leaves are hardly visible.
C. rigidus blossomed about six weeks ago ; C. dentatus is now
in full flower ; C. papillosus is just coming into flower ;
C. azureus will not blossom before August.' "

FROM THE SOCIKTY'S GARDEN.

277

Ceanothus verrucosus.

278 NEW PLANTS, liTC ,

11. LoPEZiA MACKOrHYLLA. Plu/ichou, in Flore des Serves, Vll.
709, t. 23, p. 177. Jehlia fuchsioides. Hort. Germ.

Received from Messrs. Riuz, of Frankfort, in April, 1852.

Tliis is a soft smooth pale green slirub, with a fleshy tuberous
root, like some Fuchsias. The leaves are stalked, almost wholly
smooti), oblong-lanceolate, acuminate, nan'owed to the base,
where they terminate abruptly in a rounded manner, strongly
serrated, and furnished witli deep lateral diverging veins, which
give the leaves tlie appearance of a Hornbeam tree's ; at the base
they are furnished with a pair of red pyranndal short glands.
The flowers stand on long slender stalks, singly in the axils of
leaves, are as lai'ge as those of a Fuchsia globosa, and of a very
ileep rose colour, which pervades every part except the anther,
winch is blue.

At first siglit this plant would not be taken for a Lopezia, the
sepals being altogether petaloid, and the glandular knee peculiar
to two of the petals of the genus seeming to be absent. But it
will be found upon a careful examination that the knees are
really present, only they stand very low down on the petals, so as
to be concealed by the other parts.

The name here employed, but w ith some doubt, is that under
which M. Planchon has given it in the Flore des Serres. It
seems impossible that it can be the plant which Mr. Bentham
first described as Lopezia niacrophylla, in the Plantse Hart-
wegianse, a shrub witli downy leaves and terminal panicles of
flowers. That species I susjject exists in tlie Society's Garden,
from Mr. Skinner, but, not having flowered, cannot at present be
identified. Till materials accumulate for the satisfactory settle-
ment of tin's question the name employed by M. Planchon had
better stand unchanged.

It is a green-house soft-wooded shrub, growing freely in a
mixture of sandy loam and leaf mould, and requiring tlie same
treatment as a Fuchsia. It is increased by cuttings put in sand
under a bell-glass, and flowers during winter and spring.

It is likely to be valuable as a winter flowering plant, notwith-
sianding that it is coarse in folia-'e and habit.

12. Senecio concolor. De Cand., Prodr., vi. 407.

Received from Sir Charles Hulse, Bart., in August, 1852;
said to have been raised from seeds sent from the Cape
of Good Hope by Colonel G. Buller.

We have little doubt that this fine showy peremiial is that

FROM THE SOCIETY'S GARDEN. 279

which De Candolle meant by his S. concolor, from Tulbagh
and the Kat River mountains, although in cultivation it scarcely
produces any of the hairs to which his specific character points.
It is evidently a near relation of the old Senecio speciosus. The
root leaves are spathulate, lanceolate, long-stalked, sinuated to-
wards the base and toothed ; the leaves next above them are
oblong and stalked ; the liighest are sessile, and slightly stem-
clasping and downy at the edges ; all are more or less incised.
The stem grows about 2 feet high, and forms an open corymb
scantily clothed witli foliage. The flower-heads have a rich
purple colour throughout, with a diameter of nearly two inches,
most of which belongs to the rich purple ray.

It is a greenhouse herbaceous j)lant, and requires to be treated
like Cape Pelargoniums. It grows freely in a mixture of loam,
peat, and leaf mould, and is increased from seeds. It is a very
handsome plant, in the way of a " Cineraria," and may prove
useful for bedding out during the summer. It flowers in Au-
gust and September.

13. CuRYSEis (Eschsciioltzia) CALIFOKNICA ; viir. cilbijlora.

Raised from seeds received from M. Vilmorin, as " Esch-
scholtzia californica a fl. blanches," and from Mr.
Charlwood as a " new white Eschscholtzia," in Fe-
bruary, 1852.

This plant is hardly distinct from the Eschscholtzia, or Chrj'seis
californica, but it is remarkably different in having pale cream-
coloured flowers, which are somewhat smaller. Like that species
it must be sovn in the open border in the spring, and treated
as a hardy annual. It is a very nice hardy plant, flowering all
the summer.

14. Ophioxylon majus. Hasskarl, in Walpers' Repertorium,

vi. 467.

Received from Dr. von Siebold, August 18th, 1850, under
the name of Ophioxylon album.

There has been a diflference of opinion among botanists whe-
ther there are one or two species of Ophioxylon ; but the ques-
tion would seem to be set at rest by Mr. Hasskarl, who describes
this plant as being altogether stronger in growth, with a smooth
shrubby stem 4 feet high, leaves gi*een beneath, white flowers,
and oli\'e-shaped fruit, while in O. serpenlinum this plant does
not grow above a foot high, is not a slirub, has leaves red under-
neath, larger reddish flowers, and globose fruit. The large

280 NEW PLANTS, ETC.,

white flowered plant, O. majus, tliought by Hasskarl to be
possibly the Ophioxylon album of Gerstan, forms in the stove a
small light green shrub with oblong-lanceolate membranous
leaves placed in threes or fours, and loose cymes of white flowers.
The corolla is nearly three quarters of an inch long, with the lobes
of fhe limb half circular.

It is a stove shrub, growing freely in a mixture of sandy loam
and peat ; but requires to be kept in rather a moist atmosphere.
It is increased by cuttings put in sand under a bell glass, and
plunged ill tiie bark bed. Flowers in April and May. The plant
is of little value in a horticultural view, the white flowers being
too small to produce a striking effect. It is however of some
medical interest, being one of the plants whose roots are be-
lieved by Indian practitioners to be a cure for the bite of venom-
ous serpents.

15. Centbanthus macrosiphon. Boissier. Paxton's Flower

Garden, vol. ii. t. 67 ; var. albiflora.

Raised from seeds received from M. Vilmorin, January
1852. ^

This differs in no respect from tlie original long-flowered
Centranth, except in its flowers being pure w hite. It is a good
hardy annual, growing freely in any good rich garden soil, and
increased by seeds sown either in the autumn or spring, in the
open border. It flowers in July and August.

16. CAUEoi.ARrA cHELiDONioiDES. Hionholdt, Botipland,
and Kunth, Nov. Gen. and Sp., pi. 2, 378. Bentham, in
Be CandoUe's Prodromes, 10, 204.

A plant was received from Isaac Anderson, Esq., of Edin-
burgh, Oct. 16, 1850.

A decvunbent, branching, entangled, viscid, hairy, brown-
stemmed annual. Leaves pinnated, witii pedicellate lanceolate
incised divisions, the uppermost ternate, the lowest of 3 or 4
pairs with an odd leaflet very much larger than the others.
Flowers in pairs, in the axils of every one of the upjjer leaves,
on slender stiff" stalks covered closely with spreading brown
glandidar hairs, as also is the calyx, the lobes of wdiich are
mcised. Corolla hairy externally, small, but a brilliant pure
yellow; its upper lip hardly so long as the calyx, the lower lip
obovate and nearly sessile. Anthers with the connective in the
form of 2 horizontal arms, forming a right line at right angles to
the filament; the back arm concealed beneath the upper lip of

FROM THE SOCIETY'S GARDEN. ^gjj

the corolla and antheriferous ; the anterior arm longer, hornlike,
clear yellow, prominent, and sterile. Seeds very small, smooth,
cinnamon-coloured, oblong, strongly ribbed.

A half-hardy annual ; with the same kind of treatment as the
small Blue Lobelias, it flowers all the summer and autumn, if
planted in rather a moist situation.

It is very pretty, and a most abundant flowerer, well suited for
planting in the American border.

17. Cerasus laurocerasus ; var. Pumilio.

This is a curious dwarf variety, resembling the common Laurel
in much the same way as the Clanbrazil Fir resembles a
Spruce. The leaves are from 2 to 3 inches long, and the habit
extremely dwarf. If it does not hereafter run away, it will be a
useful variety for places where the common Laurel is too large.

A plant was received in 1851 from Lieut. -General Monckton,
F.H.S., whose brother's gardener, William Reynolds, raised it
from seed of the common Laurel.

18. Hedychium flavescexs. Loddiges, Bot. Cab., t. 723.

Received from Dr. Siebold in August, 1850, under the
name of Hedychium Roxburghii.

A stout plant, about 4 feet high, with a great fleshy rhizome..
Leaves about 15 inches long by 5 inches broad, covered on the
under side with long silky hairs. Flower spike erect, a foot
long, covered with brown hairs. Outer bracts rather distant,

2 inches long, with a short leafy revolute point, and closely
covered with rusty hairs at the edges ; rolled round a very short
spike of 5 flowers, surrounded by membranous, nearly-smooth
bractlets. Ovary and long tubular calyx shaggy with brown
hairs. Tube of the corolla smooth, slender, 4 inches long ; its

3 outer petals linear and revolute ; of the pale yellow 3 inner,
the lateral are unguiculate, spathulate-lanceolate, acuminate,
slightly toothed ; the lip is unguiculate, deeply 2-parted with
half-oval divisions, about half the length of the bright orange-
coloured filament. The flowers emit a very agreeable spicy
fragrance.

It requires to be potted in a rich loamy soil, and to be placed
in the dampest part of the stove while in a growing state; after-
wards it should be removed to a cooler and drier place to bloom ;
after flowering it should be dried gradually, and rested for about
a month. It blossoms in September.

It is a very fragrant plant, and rather showy, but remains only
a short time in bloom.

/

282 NEW PLANTS, ETC.,

There is no doubt about its being the H. Jlavescens of the
Botanical Cabinet ; but I should have thought it to be also
H. villosum of Dr. Wallich, if that plant had not been described
as having 5 linear petals, whereas here 3 only are linear and 2
broad spathulate-lanceolate.

19. ViNCETOXicuM jAPONicuM. Morv. and Decaisne, i?i Hull.

Acad. Brux. 1836, p. 17.

Received from Dr. Siebold, in August, 1850, under the
name of Cynanchum flavescens.

A herbaceous plant, with a slight tendency to climb. The
whole surface soft with down. Leaves roundish, oblong, mucro-
nate, nearly sessile. Flowers few, pale greenish-yellow, in
nearly sessile cymes, with slender pubescent flower-stalks.

A perennial, supposed to be hardy or half-hardy, growing
best in the peat border, and increased by division of the roots
when in a dormant state. It is, however, of no kind of horticul-
tural interest. It flowers in July and August.

20. Myrica californica. Chamisso and Schlechtendahl^ in
Linncea, vi. p. 535 ; Hooker, FL Bor. Am., 2, 169; Botany
of Beechey, p. 391.

Raised from seeds collected by Hartweg, in California ;
received at the Garden June 5th, 1848, and said to be
collected in woods near Monterey, growing 12 feet
high.

This was originally gathered by Menzies on the north-west
coast of America. Douglas found it at Puget Sound. It forms
an evergreen bush, with dense narrowly lanceolate, slightly ser-
rated leaves, covered, especially on the under side, with transpa-
rent, glossy, saucer-shaped sunken scales, of microscopical dimen-
sions, consisting of a layer of wedge-shaped cells, placed obliquely
round a common centre. The flowers are green and inconspi-
cuous, in short axillary spikes, which eventually bear from 1
to 3 small globular fruits, whose surface is closely studded with
fleshy, oblong, obtuse grains of a dull I'ed colour, and astringent
flavour.

It is a hardy evergreen, growing freely in any good garden
soil, increased by seeds or by layers, in the usual way. It flowers
in July, and produces in September an abundance of its little
granular fruits. In gardens it is an acquisition, being a hardy
shrub, with fragrant lea\ es. and well suited for rock-work or for
the front of a slu'ubbery.

IKOM THE SOCIETI'S GARDEN.

283

Myrica californica.

284 NEW PLANTS, ETC,

21. Campanula Vidalii. Watson, in Hooker, Ic. Plant., vol.
vii. t. 684. Moore and Ayres, Gardener s Magazine of
Botany, vol. i.

Raised from seeds received from Mr. W. P. Ayres, in
February, 1851.

This species was first made known through Sir William
Hooker's Icones, by Mr. Hewitt Watson, to whom it was given
by Captain Vidal, R.N., whose name it bears. It was found on
" an insulated rock off the east coast of Flores, between Santa
Cruz and Ponta Delgada." Seeds were received some time since
from Mr. Ayres, w ho was indebted for them to Mr. P. Wallace.

The plant has a fine handsome deep green shining succulent
foliage, and forms a very good-looking decumbent shrub. Some
of the shoots are merely terminated by long rosettes of leaves,
others throw up an erect graceful, flowering stem, with a shiny
surface, and a warm greenish-brown colour, terminated by several
large white nodding flowers, each about H inch long, and shining
as if glazed. The colour is however bad, a tint of dull purple
or even pale cinnamon giving them a dirty appearance.

It is a half-hardy or greenhouse shrub, growing best in a mix-
ture of sandy loam and leaf-mould, increasing freely by seeds, but
not flowering before the second season from seed. It blossoms
in August, and is a good object for rock-work in a climate which
suits it ; but, being tender, its value is much diminished, inde-
pendently of the dingy colour of its flowers.

This plant has so little the appearance of an ordinary Campa-
nula that it is a question whether it truly belongs to the genus.
It would rather seem to be related to Musschia, the old Campa-
nula aurea, though by no means to be associated with it. The
ovary is 3-celled, witli a great rugged double placenta expanding
in each cavity, and around the flat head of the ovary, inside the
corolla, there runs a broad yellow fleshy ring-like disk ; but
neither in this nor in any other circumstance, except habit, does
there appear to be real ground for generic separation.

22. ViNC'EToxicuM purpurascens. Morren and Decaisne, in
the Bull. Acad. Brux. 1836, p. 17.

Received from Dr. Siebold, in August, 1850, under the
name of Cynanchum purpurascens.

Stems and all the green parts slightly downy ; when in flower
becoming weaker, with a tendency to twine. Leaves narrow,
oblong, mucronate, becoming smaller near the ends of the shoots
where the flowers appear. Flowers dull purple, on slender pedi-

FROM THE SOCIETY'S GARDEN.

285

Vlncetoxicum purpuroscena.

'2m

NKW I'l.AN'I'ri, KIT, I HUM llll'. M( l( 1 1. 1' Vt oMIIll.N

ccIh, ill linif^ mIiiIIumI, iiiiiiiy (lowt rnl ryiiici, iiriicciiliii!,; fiuiii tin-
Mxils nl' llir Hii|icriiil' l(*iivi<H, IIm^ Nl/.n ol, niid vt'iy iimk'Ii llkr, tlii<
citiniiiiiii ViiiiTloxii'iiiii iii)^ruiii.

TiiiN |H<nMinitil ii|i|m'iii'k Io lir Imnly, or liiilC liiu'ily, lilw f.
jiijuniii'nin, mnwiiig willi il. IVccly in ii |n;il ImnliT ; Iml,
iillliDii^.ii IniiisiiiilliMl UN II ^llOll ^iiiilrii |)lniil, il inn I Ix' ('(iiiiii'iinl
III llll- iiini' I'liil.iniriil I'lilli'i'litr.

|;NI> (»I \ OI, \ II.

I t.Mi I'li.itnl liy Wii I lAM I't o<vir. iiikI M.iM<,S(niiirMnl MlirrI

ri{()(:i;Ki)iN(;s at MiiMTiNiis oi' tiiI'I
s()(!ii':'i'Y.

(hi. 7, IH.M. ( |{|;<1KNT StUKBT.)

I. i;r-i;(Ti()Ns.

Sir 10. 1'.. I'.iikiT, U;u(., lvriiMl..ii, I )nr.Mcf ; Sir ( '. liickcK.M,
Hurl., IL', I'iill I\liill ; Sir .1. 'IImmuI.I, Uiul., Sy:.l..ii I'iuk,
(iniiilliiiiii : II. WilHoii, Ivsij., Slowhiiii;!!)!'! I lull, Siillolk ; inni
Mnj<)r-( Iriirral I'nx, Adilison Woad, Kciisiiigtoii.

II.— MKDALS AWAIJDKI).

lidiihsiiiii I\fnliil :

To INli'ssrH. Vrilcii, of Mxctcr, fur ii lunv jfllow ilnwcrcd .sjinilihy
( !iilrci»!nriu, from l*<>ni. It was in tlio way of C. ^rall<lis,
l)iil it. wa.s niorci rohuNl anil larger in tUv leaf. Tliongli not.
Iiunly, it. was niiMitiontMl that it. might Ix' f'onnd wortli while
to winter it nnder proleelion Cor planting in the shndiliery
in spring, where it woidd prove a pleasing ornament dnring
the snnuner months. An opinion was also expressed that it.
wonltl he nsel'nl in the hands of the hyliridist for altering and
improving the foliage; of some oltlie liner llow«'retl kinds.

To Messrs. NVeeUs and ( "o., King's Koad, ( Mielsea, for a Idoom of
the Ivoyal Water Lily (Victoria Uegia), a l)nd of Nyniplaea
(Mernlea, and a llower and leal Of N. dentata, from an open
pond heated in their nnrsery, in wliieh snch plants have heen
f'onnd to grow and llow<!r sneeessfnlly. The leaf of N. den-
tata was as larg(< and Ilia; as it. eould well have l)een in tin;
best, managed slove aipiarimn. It was slatiul that the Vic-
toria had produced /)() blooms in the ouur.su of the pasL
smnmer.

To Mr. I''leming, ( Jaidener to (he I Joke (d' Sntlit ri.iiid, I'MI.S.,
at Trent ham, for fcair (.^necn I'ine Appli-s, weighing re-
s|)ectively 7,t Ihs., (t lbs. II o/.s., 5 lbs. IT) o/.s., and .^ lbs.
10 o/,s. The heaviest, a rcmarkMl)iv line fVuil, \\ashowe\er
scarcely sidlieiently ripe.

To Mr. I'/lphinstone, (lardener to the Speaker, I'MI.S., at
Ileeklield, for lanudies id' lilack Hamburgh (Jrapes, well
vol.. \ II A

IV PROCEEDINGS.

swelled and ripened, though not very large, which were
cut from vines raised from eyes that were only struck
on the 10th of February last. It was stated by Mr. El-
phinstone that the eyes when potted were intended for
fruiting in 1852. He mentioned tliat on the 10th of
February, 1851, tlie eyes were i)re})ared and potted in
3-inch pots — one eye in a pot — and placed on the flue of a
vinery, which he had commenced to force. In the course
of a month the buds began to pusii through tlie soil, and
required to be well supplied with water almost every day,
in consequence of the strong heat arising from the flue,
until they had reached the height of nbout a foot. At this
stage the vines overliead shading them too much, they were
removed to a pit furnished with bottom heat ; they were
shifted for tlie first time in the beginning of April, when
they were plunged in a bed of leaves. When the vines had
reached the length of 4 feet the whole of the leaders were
pinched off with a view to induce fruitfulness as near the
pot as possible. They were shifted into their fruiting pots
in the second week in May. About this time eight of the
strongest were selected from the young stock, when the
whole of the buds were cut out to witiiin six or eight of tlie
bottom of the cane, the leaves being allowed to remain until
the buds showed signs of again breaking out into leaf, when
the whole of the eight canes were cut oft' within an inch of
the uppermost bud. The result was, that on each cane they
showed fruit, some account of which has just been given.
One of the vines taken from the pot accompatued the fruit.
It was everything that could possibly be desired ; being
well ripened, the buds full and large, and the foliage ample
and of great substance.

Certificate of Merit : —

To Mr. Frost, Gardener to E. L. Betts, Esq., Preston Hall,
Aylesford, for a Seedling Begonia, obtained by crossing B.
cinnabarina with B. nitida, the result being a freer flowering
])lant than cinnabarina, with even higher coloured flowers
than those of that fine kind, while the foliage was very nearly
the same as that of nitida.

To Mr. Macintosh, Nurseryman, Maida Vale, Edgeware Road,
for a very fine shrubby specimen of Common Mignonette
(Reseda odorata). It was stated to have been a single
plant pricked out into a pot last January, and shifted on
till it had attained a large size. It was mentioned that
Mignonette is not an annual, as many imagine it to be ;
but that it will become a woody shrub, and last for years,

PROCEEDINGS. V

provided it is well managed and kept free from frost and
damp.

To Mr. Jones, Gardener to Sir John Guest, Bart., F.H.S., for a
Ripley Queen Pine Apple, weighing 6 lbs. 3 oz.

To Mr. Frost, Gardener to Lady Grenville, F.PI.S., for a
Black Jamaica Pine Apple, weighing 5i lbs.

III.— MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS OF EXHIBITION.

I. Anderson, Esq., of Maryfiekl, near Edinburgh, contributed
cut specimens of a Seedling Veronica, which appeared to be less
handsome than the same raiser's V. Andersonii. It wanted the
charming mixture of violet and white which makes the latter so
beautiful.

Mr. Kennedy, of Covent Garden, sent a narrow-leaved variety
of Scolopeudrum officinale from Yorkshire.

Mr. Stark, of Edinburgh, produced a purple and lilac flowered
Portuguese Linaria, called Arabida, which was stated to be new
to gardens.

From Messrs. Jackson, of Kingston, came half a dozen nice
plants of Odontoglossum grande, whicli liad been seven weeks in
full bloom. Messrs. Jackson stated tliat this was effected by
placing the plants, when the flower-buds were fully grown, in a
cold but well-shaded, airy conservatory, where their beauty was
enjoyable by those who could not venture into a hot and damp
orcliid-house. It was mentioned that this is one of tlie hardiest
of exotic Orchids, and that it has been even bloomed out of
doors during summer under the shade of a Laurel bush.

Mr. Rivers, of Sawbridgewortii, contributed some Stiawberry
plants in pots, illustrative of a new mode of preparing tiiem fur
forcing. Tiieir history, as given by Mr. Rivers, is as follows : —
" About the second week in July the pots (6-inch ones) wei'e
filled with a compost of two-thirds loam and one-third rotten
dung, jis follows : three stout pieces of broken pots were placed
in the bottom, and a full handful of the compost put in ; a stout
wooden pestle was then used with all tlie force of a man's arm
to pound it, then another handful and a pounding, and anotiier till
the pot was brimful, and the compressed mould as hard as a
barn-floor. Tiiey were tlien taken to the Strawberry-beds, and
a runner placed in the centre of each, with a small stone to
keep it steady. They were watered in dry weather, and they
have had no other care or culture. For two or three years I have
had the very finest crops from plants after this method, and those
under notice promise well. If the pots are lifted, it will be ap-

b 2

VI PROCEEDINGS.

parent that a large quantity of food is in a small space. I may
add, that from some recent experiments with compressed earth to
potted fruit-trees, I have a high opinion of its effect, and I fully
believe that we have yet much to learn on the subject."

A Queen Pine Apple, weighing 5 lbs. 4 oz., was furnished by
Mr. Fraser, Gardener to the Earl of Radnor.

Mr. Brown, Gardener to PI. Minton, Esq., had a Ripley
Queen Pine Apple weighing 4 lbs. 14 oz.

A dish of Black Hamburgh Grapes was exhibited by Mr. Rust,
Gardener to J. Maclaren, Esq., F.H.S.

Examples of the same kind of Grape were sent by Mr. Fry,
Gardener to Mrs. Dent, Manor House, Lee, Kent, to show the
effect of sulphur in killing Vine mildew, which has been so pre-
valent of late years both in this country and on the Continent.
Mr. Fry's mode of dealing with it is as follows. He says :
"With reference to the Grapes exhibited by me, I may state that
they were grown in what I term my third vinery, in which arti-
ficial heat is but rarely applied. The fruit in this house last
year was fearfully attacked with mildew, which suggested in
the first instance the diffusing of sulphur by more efficient
means than had hitherto been employed, namely by the sul-
phurator. This season the Grapes in the same house were
attacked as seriously as in the preceding year, but on perceiving
the mildew make its appearance I instantly took prompt mea-
sures to subdue it. Being provided with my improved sul-
phurator, I diffused ' sulphur vivum ' in a perfectly dry state
throughout the house so as to finely but thoroughly cover both
fruit and foliage. Fires were lighted and the temperature kept
up to from 80° to 90°, ventilation being considerably dimi-
nished, and water in any form discontinued. After being sub-
jected to this treatment for about four or five days the vines
received a thorough syringing, which cleansed them from every
particle of sulphur. With respect to the use of sulphur in
killing mildew, many ladies and gentlemen with whom I have
conversed consider it highly objectionable : they say that they
do not like the idea of eating sulphur with Grapes, neither would
any one, and I can prove to them that this need never be done,
and, moreover, that the use of sulphur when timely and judi-
ciously applied does not in any way deteriorate the fruit. I
much question if the most practised eye could detect sulphur
on the Grapes exhibited, although they have been twice covered
with it ; and as to the mildew itself amongst vines, I fear it no
more than I do greenfly amongst cucumbers, which is so soon
deprived of existence by the fumes of tobacco."

A round white Potato, called Prince Albert, was produced by

PKOCEEDINGS. VU

Mr. Wilmer of Sunbury. It was reported to be very early and
prolific, being sometimes fit for use in six weeks from the day of
planting.

IV.— NOVELTIES FROM THE SOCIETY'S GARDEN.

A French sulphurator. The great merit of this instrument is
its simplicity and cheapness. It consists of a tin box for holding
the sulphur, placed on the upper side of the pipe of a pair of
common bellows. The sulphur gets into the pipe through small
holes made for the purpose in the bottom of the box, and, in
order that no stoppage may take place, a small hammer-head
attached at the end of a slight steel spring is fixed on the under
side of the bellows, a gentle tap from which, now and then,
keeps up a continuous fall of sulphur into the pipe. These
appliances, which may be attached to a pair of bellows for little
more than 6d., answer every purpose for which they are intended,
equally as well as a more expensive machine.

Accompanying this contrivance were bunches of Black Prince
Grapes, which could only be produced free from mildew by
early and repeated sulphurings over both leaves and fruit.
From the latter the particles of sulphur may be removed in two
ways — either by plunging the bunch in a tub of clear water,
moving the bunch under tiie water so as to bring it up at a
place free from the floating particles of sulphur ; or the bunch
may be syringed on all sides with a fine syringe. This is the
method adopted in France, and it has been successfully tried in
the Garden. The bloom on the berries is least disturbed by
syringing downwards, or obliquely, as rain Avould fall.

v.— BOOKS PRESENTED.

The Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society, Vol. XII. Part 1. From the Society.

The Gardeners' Magazine of Botany for September and October. From the Pubfishers.

The Athenaeum for August and September. From the Editor.

Statistique Horticole de Maine et Loire. From M. Le Gris.

Bulletins du Cercle Pratique d'Horticulture, &c. de la Seine Inferieuie for 1850-51. From

the Horticultural Society of the Lower Seine.
Archives du Museum d'Histoire Naturelle, Tome V. Livraisons ], 2, et 3. From the

Museum of Natural History, Paris.

Nov. 4, 1851. (Regent Street.)

I.— ELECTIONS.

W. Banting, Esq., The Terrace, Kensington; H. Edwards,
Esq , M.P., Halifax ; Rev. John Thornycroft, Thornycroft Hall,
Congleton ; and Mr. John Keynes, Nurseryman, Salisbury.

PEOOEKDINGS.

II.— MEDALS AWARDED.

Large Silver Medal : —

To Mr. Franklin, Gardener to Mrs, Lawrence, F.H.S., for a
very fine collection of Orchids, among which were two plants
of Vanda tricolor, two of V. suavis, two fine specimens of
Cattleya labiata, a striking variety of Lycaste Skinneri,
Odontoglossum grande, Cymbidium giganteum, Calanthe
vestita, Miltonia Candida and violacea, and others, including
a so-called new Oncidium and Odontoglossum.

JBayihsian Medal ; —

To Mr. Forbes, Gardener to the Duke of Bedford at Wobura
Abbey, for an exhibition of Grapes, consisting of a bunch
of Muscat, weighing 2^ lbs., and three of Black Hamburgh,
weighing respectively 2i lbs., 2^ lbs., and 5f lbs. The
latter was, however, not one bunch, but a cluster of bunches
all produced from a common point or bud.

To Mr. Martin, Gardener to Sir H. Fleetwood, Bart., for
fine bunches of Oldaker's West's St. Peter's, a valuable
variety for hanging long after it is ripe without shrivelling.
The same exhibitor also showed Muscats, the produce of a
second crop from the same Vines this year, and a dish of
excellent Hamburghs.

Certificate of Merit : —

To Mr. O'Brien, Gardener to G. Reed, Esq., Burnham, So-
merset, for a curious new form of Myanthus.

To Mr. Price, Gardener to W. Thompson, Esq., M.P., for a
well-ripened Queen Pine Apple, weighing 4 lbs. 13 ozs.

To Mr. Davis, of Oak Hill, East Barnet, for beautiful
examples of Muscat of Alexandria Grapes.

To Mr. "Wooley, Gardener to H. B. Kerr, Esq., F.H.S., for
Black Hamburgh Grapes, fair sized specimens, and perfectly
ripe, from Vines that had been grown in what Mr. Rivers, of
Sawbridge worth, calls an " Orchard-house," i. e., an un-
warmed roughly constructed shed with a glazed roof. It
was stated that there had been an abundant crop in this
house, without any mildew, and that such places had been
found very useful in whiter for keeping Orange-trees,
Aloes, Fuchsias, or other half-hardy plants that require little
water.

PROCEEDINGS. IX

III.— MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS OF EXHIBITION.

A punnetfull of some late Cherry, resembling a highly-
coloured White Heart, was furnished by the last-named ex-
hibitor. They were not large, but good fruit for the time of
year. They had been gathered from a dwarf tree in the open
ground, where no protection whatever had been aiforded them.
The same gardener also sent fruit in good condition of the
" large monthly bearing Raspberry," which was stated to have
yielded a succession of fruit from August to November, and, if
kept dry, even till October.

Among other subjects, Mr. Wooley sent blooms of the charm-
ing terrestrial Orchids called Pleione (Coelogyne) Wallichii, and
maculata, which he stated were two most useful plants for winter
decoration. A specimen of the former, which liad been grown in
a 6-inch pot, was reported to have had 15 flowers on it, all open
at one time, and which lasted in perfection from three to four
weeks.

Messrs. Veitch produced a slender-growing white Dendrobe
(D. album), and Pleione (Coelogyne) lagenaria. The flowers of
the latter resemble those of P. maculata, except that they are
larger, and that the sepals, petals, and outside of the lip are pink
instead of white.

Mr. May, Gardener to Mrs. Lawrence, F.H.S., furnished a
large and very fine Crowea saligna, together with the Yellow
Chorozema (C. flavum).

Mr. Salter, F.H.S., contributed Pentstemon variabilis, a pale
greenish white kind, tipped with cherry.

Messrs. Weeks again sent a bloom of the Eoyal Water Lily
(Victoria Regia), one of Nymphaea cserulea, and a flower with
a leaf of N. dentata, still from the open heated pond in their
nursery.

A variety of curious evergreen shrubs and trees were contri-
buted by tlie Hon. W. F. Strangways, from his garden at Abbots-
bury, near Dorchester.

IV.— NOVELTIES FROM THE SOCIETY'S GARDEN.

Some nice Daisy-flowered Chrysanthemums, which had been
received from M. Van Houtte of Ghent.

Along with these came a collection of Apples and the fol-
lowing Pears : —

Napoleon. — From a wall.

Forelle. — This proves to be a good bearer ; and although the
tree blossoms earlier than almost any other, yet it has withstood

X PROCEEDINGS.

the frosts, which destroyed the best blossoms of other kinds in
the last two springs.

Beurre de Capiaumont. — From a standard.

Beurre Bosc. — From a standard.

Van Motis Leon le Clerc. — This is a valuable Autumn Pear,
well deserving of cultivation, in the southern counties at least :
it is necessary to state, however, that it will not succeed on the
Quince stock.

Hacon's Incomparable. — This is an excellent Pear from a
standard, and from sucli it will keep till January ; but from a
wall it scarcely keeps till this time, giving way rapitlly at the core.

Figue de Naples. — The flavour of this resembles that of the
sort called the Bishop's Thumb, which many prefer. The tree
is a good bearer, and the fruit, though ripe, bears carriage well.

The Apples were well known kinds, with the exception of the
Eldon Pipi)in, a new sort, which merits cultivation.

The following notice of an alteration in the By - Laws was
read for the first time : — " It is proposed to repeal the following
By-Law of the Society, viz.. Chapter 4, Art. 8, ' Every Fellow
may at any time compound for all his future annual contributions
by paying ten times the amount of his annual subscription ;' and
to substitute the following words, ' Every Fellow may at any
time compound for all his future annual contributions by paying,
when first elected, 42Z. 10*. ; at the end of seven years, 31/. 10*. ;
at the end of fourteen years, 261. 5s. ; and at the end of twenty
years, 21/.' "

v.— BOOKS PRESENTED,

The Atlienseum for October. From the Editor.

The Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society, Vol. VII. No. 28. From the Society.

Dec. 2, 1851. (Regent Street.)
I.— MEDALS AWARDED.
Knightian Medal : —

To Mr. Ingram, C.M.H.S., Gardener to Her Majesty at Frog-
more, for a beautifully formed smooth-leaved Cayenne Pine-
apple, weighing 8 lbs. 4 oz.

Banksinn Medal : —

To Mr. Dodds, Gardener to Colonel Baker, F.H.S., for
a smooth-leaved Cayenne Pine, weighing 5 lbs. 13 oz.
Along with it came a new kind, called Charlotte
Rothschild's Pine-apple, concerning which Mr. Dodds
stated that " it was a sort which Colonel Baker purchased

PROCEEDINGS, XI

from M. de Gontier, near Paris, in June, 1850. The fruit
resembles the smooth-leaved Cayenne, but in growth the
plant is very much like a strong-growing Queen." Mr. D.
adds, " It will prove to be a good winter sort. The smooth-
leaved Cayenne sent is from a plant not quite sixteen months
old, and now that the fruit is cut, the plant, with all the
roots attached, weighs 6 lbs., and a sucker taken from it
weighed 2x lbs. We grow all our plants in loam and
rough peat, planted out over troughs."

To Mr. Higgs, Gardener to J. Barchard, Esq., F.H.S., for a
very fine cluster of the fruit of Musa Cavendishii. The
bunch consisted of upwards of 90 fruits, most of which
were ripe, and upon some of them being' cut up and tasted
they proved to be very good. Tiiis was from the dwarf
variety of this Musa.

Certificate of Merit : —

To Mr. Povey, Gardener to the Kev. J. Thornycroft, F.H.S.,
for a Black Jamaica Pine-apple, weighing 4 lbs. 9 oz.

To Mr. Snow, Gardener to the Earl de Grey, F.H.S., for a
very pretty hybrid Epiphyllum, which was stated to have
been raised between E. Russellianum and E, truncatum ;
it was deeper in colour and better shaped than either of its
parents.

II.— MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS OF EXHIBITION.

Models of proposed glass walls, the invention of Mr. Ewen,
gardener to O. F. Meyrick, Esq., F.H.S., Bodorgan, Anglesea,
Tliese consisted of a line of flat iron uprights, nine feet high, firmly
secured to the ground so that no displacement might be possible.
The edges of these uprights were pierced with holes, through
which wires were stretched horizontally whereon to train branches.
At the distance of a foot from both faces of the uprights a per-
pendicular sash of glass was erected. The sashes were housed in
Avith a glass coping, so constructed as to throw water off' into
gutters prepared for its removal. Finally, the upright sashes
had a free motion to the right or left, in order that every part of
the trellis work might readily be uncovered, and made accessible.
In fact, the glass wall will be a glass case 9 or 10 feet high and
about 2 feet thick, perfectly transparent, within which all manner
of plants may be trained in the espalier form in a double line,
one line facing the south, the other the north, or otherwise,
according to the direction of the wall. It was mentioned that
one of these glass walls, from which much is expected, was to be

XU PROCEEDINGS.

erected in the Garden of the Society, where its merits will be
fully tested and reported on.

Mr. Salter, F.H.S., Hammersmith, sent a collection of Pom-
pone Chrysanthemums in a cut state, the produce of crosses
between Mr. Fortune's Chusan Daisy and some of the larger
flowered kinds.

A Black Jamaica Pine-apple, weighing 3 lbs. 9 oz., was shown
by Mr. Bundy, Gardener to Lord Dynevor, F.H.S. " It was
grown in a house where the bottom heat of the plunging bed is
supplied by a common brick-built Polmaise stove, the flue from
the furnace running round the house to supply top or atmos-
pheric heat, a system of warming pine-houses which has been
found to answer admirably here."

Grapes, attached to the branches, shrivelled, and in the con-
dition of raisins, but showing that they had perfectly ripened, were
exhibited by J. Hogg, Esq., of King's Bench Walk, Temple.
" I have sent," says Mr. Hogg, " a branch of a Vine bearing
grapes, which I succeeded in ripening perfectly in the 0})e7i air,
in a very northern district of England, viz., about 54° 35' N. lat.,
at Norton, distant two miles north of Stockton-on-Tees. During
the greatest part of half a century I have never witnessed grapes
that had been ripened there out of doors ; indeed, the three or
four vines, trained to south sides of houses, which I know of in
that neighbourhood, have never, to my own knowledge, matured
their fruit ; and this is fully confirmed by the late able botanist,
Mr. N. Winch, of Newcastle-on-Tyne, who for very many years
resided there, and was fully acquainted with the horticulture of
the north of England. He records in his interesting ' Essay on
the Geographical Distribution of Plants through the Counties
of Northumberland, Cumberland, and Durham' (2nd edit., 1825,
p. 16), that 'the Vine seldom flowers ; and if by chance small
grapes are produced, they soon drop off'.' The Vine which bore
the grapes exhibited is the Black Cluster ; for several years it
Avas cultivated in my hothouse, where it always ripened much
fruit. Two or three years since I dug it up, and planted in its
stead a newer sort of vine ; and as I wanted to ascertain whether,
in a fiavourable season, it would continue to bring forth grapes,
and at all ripen them out of doors, I placed it against a south
brick wall, having first cut it down to nearly a third of its height.
It had not grown again sufficiently tall until this year so as to
overtop an adjoining holly-tree, which had previously oversha-
dowed it. I was glad to see that it flowei'ed freely in July last.
The grapes became perfectly formed in August, and I first no-
ticed tliat a few berries here and there began to change colour on
September 18th. In October the many bunches had become a

PROCEEDINGS. XIU

rich purple or purplish-black colour, though, owing to neglect
in the proper thinning of them, and to the want of water, the
berries are small. I gathered the first ripe bunch on November
1st, and was pleased in finding it of so sweet and nice a flavour.
This caused me some surprise, because the autumn in that part
of England, thougli dry and sunny, was not hot, and east wind
much prevailed. This being the case also in the soutli of
England, and particularly about London, grapes, as I have been
informed, did not ripen well out of doors, but were sour and poor.
I am now desirous of investigating, during each succeeding year,
whether this ' hot-house educated' vine will continue to bear
fruit in the open air, and bring it to maturity, or not ; and if it
shall continue to ripen its berries, whether or not they will retain
their sweetness of flavour. As the grapes now exhibited were
cut nearly a month ago, they of course have become dry and
shrivelled."

Mr. Middlemiss, Gardener to A. Pott, Esq., F.H.S., Bentham
Hill, Tonbridge Wells, sent a fruit of the Dampsha Melon. He
writes, " This variety is not so well known as its merits deserve.
I do not send it with the idea of its being considered first -rate
flavoured, but for its excellent property of keeping long after
being cut. The fruit shown was cut on the 8th of September,
and though it is now beginning to decay, it will show the length
of time the variety will keep. It is a first-rate sort for every
one, as it will even grow out of doors and ripen well. The
plant from which the fruit sent was cut was planted in a cold
frame after potatoes, and produced a splendid crop of well fla-
voured fruit."

Mr. Cameron, of Uckfield, furnished a dish of Mannington's
Pearmain Apple, a good keeping sort, possessing a brisk flavour,
and a great bearer. The specimens shown were stated to have
fci;rown on nursery trees, two years from the graft.

Potatoes, the produce of New Zealand seed which was dis-
tributed by the Society in April, 1849, were communicated by
J. Gaskell, Esq., F.H.S., St. Nicholas. " The seed," that
gentleman stated, " was sown in a shallow box, and placed in a
forcing house. It came up the third day, was pricked out in
small pots on the fifteenth, planted out in good soil (but without
manure) in the first week of June, and dug up at Michaelmas.
The plague-spot appeared on many. They were put away in a
cool dry place. The following spring they were looked over,
and with little exception they were diseased. The whole of
them were planted, and about five-sixths grew ; they were duo-
up at Michaelmas. The produce was one bushel, witli scarcely
four tubers bad. The present spring one row was planted ; it
was dug up at Michaelmas ; three tubers were bad. The rest

XIV PKOCKKDINGS.

were planted in a field by a young friend ; they were dug up
at Micliaelmas, and half of them were diseased."

A sample of a nice-looking dessert Pear, called Triomphe de
Jodoigne, was furnished by Mr. Rivers, of Sawbridgeworth,
from one of ins potted plants.

From Mr. Lawrence, of Parliament-street, came common
garden watering-pots, with globular roses, instead of tliose of the
usual form. This is found to be an improvement, inasmuch as
it disperses the water better and quicker than tiie old-fashioned
rose.

III.— NOVELTIES FROM THE SOCIETY'S GARDEN.

Pompone Chrysanthemums, received from M. Van Houtte,
of Ghent.

Accompanying these were some Pears, and the following
Apples : —

Beachamicell. — Raised at Beachamwell, by the late John
Motteux, Esq. It is a ricl), brisk-flavoured dessert apple.

Court-pendu Plat. — From its late period of flowering, this is
one of the few that completely escaped the frosts of last spring.
It is a good bearer, and the habit of the tree is well adapted for
dwarfs.

Blenheim Pippin. — This may be used either for' table or in
the kitchen. The tree is remarkably vigorous when young, and is
then a shy bearer ; but it afterwards produces very abundantly.

Waltham Abbey Seedling. — A kitclien apple, melting when
cooked, and of a clear pale amber colour, requiring very little
sugar.

Tower of Glammis. — Another kitchen apple, solid and heavy,
and a good bearer.

In consequence of a clerical error in the notice of the altera-
tion of the By-Laws read at the last meeting, the following was
re-read on this occasion as for the first time : — " It is proposed to
repeal the following By-Law of the Society, viz. : Chap. 4,
Art. 8, ' Every Fellow may at any time compound for all his
future annual contributions by paying ten times the amount of
his aimual subscription ;' and to substitute the following words :
' Every Fellow may at any time compound for all his future
annual contributions by paying, when first elected, A21. ; at the
end of seven years, 31/. 10*. ; at the end of fourteen years,
2QI. bs. ; at the end of twenty years, 2\U "

IV.— BOOKS PRESENTED.

Flora Batava, Number 166. From his Majesty the King of Holland.

Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge, Vol. 11. ; and Proceedines of the American
Assor.iation for the Advancement of Science. From the Smithsonian Institution.

PROCEEDINGS AT MEETINGS OF THE
SOCIETY.

January 20, 1852. (Kegent Street.)
I.— MEDALS AWARDED.

Banhsian Medal: —

To Mr. Franklin, Gardener to Mrs. Lawrence, F.H.S., for a
small collection of Orchids and other plants. It consisted of
Dendrobium formosura, the variety of Zygopetalum crinitum
called cseruleum, a good example of Coelog'yne cristata ; the
scarce Warrea Lindeniana, with two graceful spikes of
spreading- brown and white flowers ; and two masses of Heli-
conia brasiliensis, exhibiting the real appearance which such
plants present in their native country.

To Mr. Chapman, Gardener to J. B. Glegg, Esq., F.H.S., for
a handsome smooth-leaved Cayenne Pine Apple, weighing
7 lbs. 8 oz.

Certificate of Merit : —

To Mr. Davis, of Oak Hill, East Barnet, for a dish of Old- '
aker's West's St. Peter's Grapes, plump and fine, and beau-
tifully covered with bloom.

II.— MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS OF EXHIBITION.

Messrs. Loddiges furnished a promising new purple-flowered
Dendrobe (D. bigibbum), obtained from the north-west coast of
New Holland, and a white variety of Barkeria Skinneri.

From Mr. Davis, of Oak Hill, East Barnet, came a small
example of the Blood Pine Apple.

Twenty-four sorts of Seedling Potatoes were exhibited by Mr.
Newton, of Brewer-street, Golden-square.

Mr. Spencer, Gardener to the Marquess of Lansdowne, F.H.S.,
at Bowood, sent a small model of a moveable span-roofed Glass-
house, of the appearance and construction of which some idea
may be gleaned from the annexed figures.

VOL. vn. c

[Perspective View.]

[M.CTU.N.]
a, a, a, a. Ventilators ; h, b, Wire trellis lor training- trees on ; c, I'.\tli ; il, d. Borders.

PROCKEDINGS. XVU

Concerning this contrivance Mr. Spencer says : — " I think it
will be a preferable structure (In several important particulars)
to Mr. Ewing's newly invented glass Avails for growing some
kinds of frviits. The model in question is similar in some
respects to the one proposed by Mr. Rivers in the Gardener's
Chronicle, but I think it will be found an improvement so far
as regards the ventilation at top and bottom. I sliould propose
this kind of case or house to be placed due north and south, and
the ends should be glass, particularly the south one ; wlien
glazed I propose placing strips of vulcanized Indian rubber
under a bead that will be screwed down over the glass, which is
laid flat on the rafters. It will be perceived that buildings of
this description may very easily be taken down (the bars, &c.,
being numbered for the purpose), and the woodwork and glass
packed away in a small space, and as easily refixed in spring, or
when wanted. The size, or rather width, may likewise be
increased for the growth of such things as vines and figs, requir-
ing larger space for their leaves." Mr. Spencer adcis : — " Since
writing the above I have seen Mr. Rivers's opinion on glass
walls. I think, Avith him, that they will prove expensive, while
it must be admitted that they will not be a protection (regarded
as a fence) ; and this will bring them to be considered merely
as structures for growing fruits, when I feel confident that the
simple and easily constructed houses which the model repre-
sents will have great advantages in more ways than one, part of
which are — the ease with which they can be ventilated, cheap-
ness of erection, and the facilities for training and managing the
trees grown in them. The opening of the bottom ventilators,
which all move at once, is imperfectly shown in the model. A
wheel, Avith three or four cogs and a pulley or two, Avould be an
improvement." It Avas observed that such a house would, no
doubt, be found useful for many gardening purposes, but that it
could not be compared Avith glass walls, on account of tlie dissi-
milarity of the purposes they Avere severally intended to answer.

Mr. Lawrence, of Parliament-street, sent a new description of
Flower Stand.

III.— NOVELTIES FROM THE SOCIETY'S GARDEN.

Echeveria retusa. — A hardy greenhouse succulent, Avhich Avas
stated to be a very suitable plant for window gardens.

Along Avith it Avere examples of —

Beurre Ranee Pear. — From a wall.

Reinette du Canada Apple. — In warm seasons this groAvs
very large, and has a brisk Nonpareil flavour. It partakes of

XVUl PKOCEEDINGS.

the nature of the Reinettes Grises, but suits this climate better
than they do. Notwithstanding the name it generally bears, it
appears to be of European origin, for it has been long known in
Portugal and in some parts of Normandy, and it was also in-
troduced to the Society's collection, under the name of Mela
Janurea, from the Ionian Islands. It answers both for kitchen
and table.

Vale Mascal Pearmain. — A good bearer, and a yellowish-
fleshed, brisk-flavoured table apple.

Rhode Island Greening. — One of the few American apples
that succeed in this climate.

Pearson s Plate. — An excellent table variety ; not equal to
the Golden Harvey, but approaching it in point of quality, and
a better bearer.

Dutch Mignonne. — Well known as an excellent bearer, and
now very generally cultivated. It is suitable both for kitchen
and table.

The Garden also supplied two sorts of Cardoon, an esculent
which does not generally receive the attention which it deserves.
They consisted of —

Cardon a cotes rouges. — A new variety, whose leaves are
destitute of the usual sharp spines, or prickles, with which some
others are furnished. The stalks have a reddish tinge, but they
blanch whiter than those of any other kind.

Cardon de Tours. — Leaves prickly, stalks large and solid ; a
vigorous growing sort, and not so apt to run to flower as the old
Spanish Cardoon is in dry summers.

These had been grown in trenches like celery, but it was
stated that they require to have at least six inches deep of cow-
dung in the bottom of the trenches. The plants were wound up
with straw bands in October, and well banked up with earth,
notwithstanding which they were considerably checked by the
frequent sharp frosts which occurred last November.

The notice of alteration in the By-Laws, printed at p. xiv.,
was read a second time.

IV.— BOOKS PRESENTED.

Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, Vol. XIII. Part 1, and Vol. XIV. Part 1. From the
Society.

Journal of the Royal Geographical Society, Vol. XX. From the Society.

Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society, Vol. XII. Part 2. From the Society.

The Athenaeum for December. From the Editor.

An Enquiry into M. Antoine d'Abbadie's Journey to Kaffa; On the Alluvia of Baby-
lonia ; and a Summary of the recent Nilotic Discovery. By Dr. Charles Beke. From
the Author.

Le Bon Jardinier for 18.')2. From M. Vilmorin.

The Gardener's Magazine of Botany, New Series, Part 1. From the Publishers.

PROCEEDINGS.

February 17, 1852. (Regent Street.)

I.— ELECTIONS.

Mrs. Villebnis, Benham Park, Newbury ; Henry D. Davis,
Esq., Spring Grove, Hounslow ; James Pateshall Jones, Esq.,
Turkey Street, Enfield; Gilbert Burns, Esq., Dublin; and Mr.
T. B. Lawrence, 55, Parliament Street, London.

II.— MEDALS AWARDED.

Knightian Medal: —

To Mr. Franklin, Gardener to Mrs. Lawrence, F.H.S,, for an
interesting collection of Orchids, consisting of Zygopetalum
rostratum, Oncidium Cavendishii, and the handsome O.
unguiculatum, a well coloured variety of Lycaste Skinneri,
and L. tetragona (?), a good example of Ansellia africana,
Cyrtochilum raaculatum, and cut flower spikes of the charm-
ing Amherstia nobilis, which has been found to grow and
flower so admirably at Ealing Park.

Banksian Medal : —

To Mr. Butcher, Gardener to W. Leaf, Esq.,F.H.S., Streatham,
for magnificent Cannon Hall Muscat Grapes, just beginning
to shrivel, and distinguished by that fine violet tinge which
is peculiar to this variety when produced in perfection.

To Mr. Fleming, Gardener to the Duke of Sutherland, F.H.S. ,
at Trentham, for a Black Prince Pine Apple, weighing
S^Ibs., and an Enville, weighing 41bs. ISozs.

Certificate of Merit : —

To Mr. Wooley, Gardener to H. B. Ker, Esq., Cheshunt, for
a well cultivated Cypripedium insigne, bearing some 15 or
16 blossoms.

III.— MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS OF EXHIBITION.

Messrs. Henderson, of Pine Apple Place, sent Araucaria
Cookii, even a handsomer species tiian the Norfolk Island Pine
itself; a pretty hybrid Begonia, with Franciscea confertiflora and
eximia.

The Rev. F. Beadon, F.H.S., of North Stonliam, furnished a
boxful of striped Camellia flowers, gathered from a south wall.

XX PUOCKEUINGS.

where they had received no artificial protection whatever, in
order to show what kind of weather is experienced in Hampshire.
The blossoms were exceedingly fine, without speck or blemish.
"I have counted," says Mr. Beadon, " this morning (Feb. 16)
upwards of 400 buds and blossoms left on one tree ; and I must
add, that I have cut above 40 blossoms already. I have the
Pompone, Striped, Waratah, Single Red, Double White, and
one called Middlemiss's, I believe, all side by siile, and doing
well. The Striped is always the most forward, but the Pompone
is generally in good bloom at the same time. My trees liave
been planted, some of them, 12 or 14 years, and are in the
highest health."

The Hon. W. F. Strangways also sent examples of the mildness
of the climate of Doi'setshire, in the shape of an exceedingly
interesting collection of cut specimens of flowering shrubs and
herbaceous plants, all grown out of doors at Abbotsbury.
Among them were Hellebores, purple Rhododendrons, Azara
integrifolia, with very pretty tufts of yellow flowers; Fuchsia
splendens, finely in blossom ; Pulmonarias, red and blue ; Saxi-
fraga ciliosa, the rare and beautiful Scorpion Iris (I. alata), the
pretty Lithospermum rosmarinifoliiun, which is worth growing,
even under glass, on account of its beautiful bright blue blossoms,
and several other plants, all fully in flower. It was mentioned,
with reference to the Scorpion Iris, that it refused to flower until
it was planted within reach of the spray of the sea. Although
it grew satisfactorily in a more inland situation, yet it would not
blossom.

Mr. Epps, of Maidstone, sent a small piece of the white-flowered
Cereus anguliger, and blossoms of the very fragrant Edgworthia
chrysantha.

Three examples of one of the smaller kinds of Mandarin
Orange were contributed by Mr. Fleming, from Trentham,
where they are stated to be grown in pots, in late vineries, in
which they ripen well, and are found to be highly ornamental, as
well as useful for dessert,

Mr. Smith, Gardener to Mrs. Wray, of Wanstead, sent a
model of a contrivance for protecting and accelerating the growth
of early Peas, &c. It consisted of a small glazed frame, with a
span roof, whose two sides were hinged at top so as to lift up and
down in order to afford the means of ventilation, 'i he ends were
moveable, so that, if necessary, other frames might be added,
with a view to increase the length of the protection. When not
wanted for Peas, it was stated to be useful for striking cuttings
under, as well as for many other purposes.

PKOCEEDINGS. XXI

"W. Everett, Esq., F.H.S., Chase House, Enfield, contributed
examples of a new mode of glazing without the use of putty.
He said, " I have long thought that this was a desideratum, from
the constant expense I find in trying in vain to keep out the wet
from my houses by the perishable article used at present ; for
unless tlie light is entirely reputtied, the new material will not
join with the old, and a constant leakage takes place. It may
be considered that the experiment remains to be tried. In reply,
I have glazed in the manner proposed five lights on a pit, with
very satisfactory results, and A\hich have stood the test of fully
six months. I have tried various ways ; first, by putting putty
under the glass (which is laid in grooves, i of an inch deep), also
with nothing under; but both these plans I have discarded,
finding the glass apt to crack, from uneven pressure after putting
in the cork upon the upper side. The lap plan I do not like, nor
do I think it necessaiy with the 16oz. glass, which lies so flat
that little air can get between. I have therefore from experiment
found tliat placing a piece of thin cork under, and a thicker piece
across, between each pane of glass, answers best, and is a saving
of glass when no lap is required, with a far better appearance:
indeed, my gardener says he sees an evident difference between
the beans under the lights so glazed, over the lap system. It
may be urged that the cost of cork would be an obstacle, but as
far as I have tried my plan, the expense is very trifling, so much
so as never to be a hinderance in adopting the plan. I have
sent several specimens for inspection, both for garden use and
also for sash windows for a dwelling house ; the latter I think
will find some approvers, for all persons may be their own
glaziers, changing their panes of glass as often as they like, as the
fixing is only by a few screws, and entirely within doors. In
garden glazing, I press the glass into the cork that goes across ;
the glass is first laid in the grooves on the substratum of cork,
and then a presser is used, fixed on the bottom of the frame,
and force employed till the glass is driven into the cork
firmly. The side pieces are afterwards introduced, which more
firmly fixes the whole, and makes it impervious to wet. The
cross pieces of cork, between the panes, are afterwards cut off
above and below, and may be painted if more approved."

A Patent Garden Drill was shown by Mr. Hall, of Munster
Nursery, Munster Square.

IV.— NOVELTIES FROM THE SOCIETY'S GARDEN.

Angreecum virens, which it is thought will turn out to be
identical with A. eburnevma.

XXU PROCEEDINGS.

Along with this came the following fruits : —

Ord Apple. — Esteemed by those who prefer a sharp juicy
variety.

Lamb Abbey Pearmain. — A sound keeper.
Siveeny Nonpareil. — Tree bears very abundantly.
Federal Pearmain. — Keeps well without shrivelling.

Cuttings of the following Pears and Cherries were distributed : —

Beurre d* Amanlis. — This has been proved to be one of the
best Autumn Pears ; it is large and handsome, a good bearer,
and well suited for this climate. It has recently obtained the
following synonymes : Wilhehnine ; Poire Delbert, ord' Albert;
Poire Hubard; Poire Kaissoise.

The following are new, and reputed good sorts, but they have
not yet been proved in the Garden : —

Bigarreau d' Esperen. — Cherry. — The tree is said to be an
abundant bearer. Fruit large, pale, reddish next the sun, and of
first-rate quality.

Bigarreau d^ Octobre. — This is only recommended for its
lateness ; its name denotes its season of ripening, and no other
sweet chei'ry is then to be had.

Josephine de Malines. — Pear. — Said to be middle-sized, obo-
vate, melting, and excellent. Ripens in February, March, or
April.

The proposed alteration in the By-laws, which was read at
two previous meetings, was on this occasion read a third time.
The Society then proceeded to ballot for the alteration, when
twenty Fellows voted in the affirmative, and two in the negative.
The old By-law was therefore declared to be repealed, and the
new By-law passed.

v.— BOOKS PRESENTED.

Tlie Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society, No. 29. From the Society.

The Athenaeum for January. From the Editor.

Flora Batava, No. 167. From His Majesty the King of Holland.

PUOCEEDINGS. ^-^^i"

March 2, 1852. (Regent Street.)
I.— ELECTIONS.

Lady D. Nevil, Dangstein, Petersfield ; and R. Sneyd, Esq.,
Keele, Newcastle, Staffordshire.

II.— MEDALS AWARDED.

Knightian Medal : —

To Mr. Blake, gardener to J. H. Schroder, Esq., for a col-
lection of Orchids, consisting of exceedingly well cultivatetl
plants of Ccelog>'ne cristata, covered with flowers; An-
sellia africana ; the white-blossomed Dendrobium Heynea-
num, perhaps in better condition than it had ever been seen
in before ; a fine plant of Epidendrum odoratissiinum, and
one of the higher coloured varieties of Lycaste Skinneri.

Banksinn Medal : —

To Messrs. Standish and Noble, of Bagshot, who furnished
on tliis occasion the first example of a new Sikkim Rhodo-
dendron in flower. It was named R. ciliatum, and is really
very handsome, the flowers being blush, shaded on the
outside with pink, very large for the size of the plant
(which was scarcely 6 inches high), and well formed. The
leaves were small, pale green, and covered with long hairs.
It was mentioned that, owing to its dwarf habit and large
blossoms, it would be valuable in the hands of the hybridist
for dwarfing and giving a more desirable habit to some of
our already existing kinds. The specimen sent had been
forced ; and therefore under out-door culture, if it should
prove to be hardy, which is expected, the flowers will no
doubt become deeper in colour. Messrs. Standish state
that " the merits of this Rhododendron consist in its sin-
gular foliage, dwarf habit, and freeness to bloom. The
seeds from which the plant in question was raised were
sown on April 20th, 1850. From the following experi-
ment it appears to be quite hardy. In the autumn of 1850
(with the exception of R. Dalhousiae) we had samples of
all the Sikkim Rhododendrons planted out in a cold frame.
They were exposed by day to the open air, and covered up
at night. One night, in February, 1851, they were left
uncovered by mistake, and although in a small state (with
the exception of R. argenteum) they withstood 10 deg.
of fro:it without injury, and argenteum was only slightly

XXIV PROCEEDINGS.

hurt, and recovered during the following summer. The
White Tree Rhododendron, sown and treated as the above,
suffered much the same as R. argenteum. Again, in Sep-
tember last we had a sharp frost which cut the young
leaves of R. ponticum, while the Sikkims in the same bed
were uninjured, and during last month they again with-
stood 16 deg. of frost without injury. Owing to its very
dwarf and compact habit, together with its freeness of
flowering, the species uniler notice will be very useful for
many gardening purposes."

To Messrs. Jackson, for Maranta (?) sanguinea, a South
American plant, which they have succeeded in flowering at
Kingston for the first time in England. It requires a stove,
and is valuable for its handsome foliage and, as it proves,
for the beauty of its flowers.

Certificate of Merit : —

To Mr. Atkins, of Painswick, Gloucestershire, for a very
handsome Cyclamen, the produce of a cross between C.
persicum and C. Coum, It partook very much of the habit
of the latter, w hile the flowers and leaves had the colour of
persicum.

To Mr. Mitchell, of Brighton, for nice bunches of Black
Hamburgh Grapes, just ripened.

III.— MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS OF EXHIBITION.

Messrs. Rollisson sent a small but curious form of Cycnoches,
(musciferum) which was apparently new to gardens. It was
stated to have been purchased at one of Mr. Linden's sales.

Messrs. Hayes, of Edmonton, sent two single fringed seedling
Chinese Prinmlas. One had handsome, large, bright rosy purple
flowers ; the other was chiefly remarkable for its stiff' dwarf habit
and disposition to curl, which was strikingly observable in
the leaves.

From Messrs. Veitch came a flowering branch of Acacia
dealbata, together with the following letter respecting it : —
"Having seen in the Gardener's Chronicle of the 28th ult. an
account of the Acacia dealbata flowering against an open wall
at Enfield, we send a specimen in fine bloom, from a standard
tree which grows in our private ground at Exeter. It stands on
the grass, is upwards of 20 feet high, and from 18 to 20 feet
through the middle, feathered to the ground, forming a beautiful
compact tree, and covtrtd with floMers similar to the specimen

PROCEEDINGS. XXV

sent. We have never given it any other shelter than a hayband
twined round the stem for about 6 feet, as a precaution in case
of very severe frost ; it has been in its present situation about
8 or 10 years, and has never been injured in the least by the
"weather. It ought, perhaps, to be remarked that it had been
planted against a wall four or five years previously to its being
removed to its present situation."

A Eipley Queen Pine-apple, weighing 3 lbs. 3 ozs., was com-
municated by Mr. Jones, gardener to Sir J. Guest, Bart.,
F.H.S., Dowlais House, Glamorganshire.

"New yellow crowned" Seakale came from Mr. Prestoe,
Gardener to E. W. Blunt, Esq., of Kempshall Park.

IV.— NOVELTIES FROM THE SOCIETY'S GARDEN.

An interesting example of the Nepal Ash-leaved Berberry
(Berberis nepalensis). The main stem, in this instance, termi-
nated in a cluster of six spikelets (each nearly 6 inches long) of
fine dark yellow flowers, which, if it should fruit in tliis country,
will be succeeded by beautiful purple oblong berries. The
leaves are of a yellowish green, large, and very handsome ; and
if the plant should prove to be hardy, it will certainly be a very
great acquisition to British gardens. It was mentioned that Mr.
Fortvme had met witli a Berberry (not B. japonica) very much
like it in China, and that another (the Acanthus-leaved Ber-
berry) resembling it, but still very different, and probably
handsomer, was to be found in the Neilgherries. Tins, which
has round fruit (not oblong), may, however, be more tender
than nepalensis, which comes from the more northern Himalayas.
It was stated that persons in correspondence with the Madras
Presidency could easily obtain fruit of the Acanthus-leaved
Berberry from Ootacamund.

Cuttings of the following fruit trees were distributed : —

Heine Hortense Cherry. — Syn. Monstrueuse de Bavay, Le-
mercier. Belle de Laeken. It is said to have been found at the
Carmelite Convent, at Vilvorde, in Belgium. Fruit very
large, bright red, and of first-rate quality. Kipens in July.

T'riomphe de Jodoiyiw Pear. — The tree is vigorous, and it
is said to be an abundant bearer. Fruit very large, short pyri-
form, melting, and excellent, becoming fit for use in De-
cember.

The above are new sorts, that have not yet fruited in the
Garden. The following are better known : —

PllOCEEDINGS.

Claygate Pearmam. — A first-rate apple for December and
January, or even later. The flesh is yellowish, rich, and sugary,
partaking of that Ribston pippin flavour which is so rarely found
in apples.

Fiji Ap2)le. — The cuttings of this have been presented to the
Society by J. Disney, Esq., F.H.S., The Hyde, Ingatestone. It
is a very handsome, middle-sized, round apple, of a fine pale
yellow colour, with a delicate blush next the sun. It is likely
to prove a good kitchen apple. The tree is a very abundant
bearer : it is remarkable as a seedling of the Ribston pippin,
without a trace of the colour, form, or quality of that variety.

v.— BOOKS PRESENTED.

Catalogo delle I'iante che si coltivano nel Orto Hotanico di Napoli ; Catalogo delle Piante
vend^ibili nel Orto Botanico di Napoli ; Memoria della Macria ; and Intorno all' Amygdalus
Pumila del Linneo; by Professor Michael Tenore. From the Author. ,

March 16, 1852. (Regent Street.)

I.— ELECTION.
William Hunt, Esq., Pittincreef, Fifeshire.

II.— AWARDS.

Banhsian Medal :

To Mr. Meredith, Gardener to the Duke of Sutherland, F.H.S.,
at Cleifden, for an admirable specimen of a Hybrid Bego-
nia, raised between B. manicata and hydrocotylifolia. It
had the general aspect of the latter, but added the constitu-
tional vigour and some other peculiarities belonging to
manicata ; while altogether it was a more desirable plant
than either of its parents.

To Mr. May, Gardener to Mrs. Lawrence, F.H.S., for fine
plants of the Hong Kong Enkianthus reticulatus, the
charming Boronia triphylla covered with pink starry
flowers, the white Eriostemon scabrum and Styphelia
tubiflora.

To Mr. Ingram, Gardener to Her Majesty at Frogmore, for
a Cayenne Pine Apple, weighing 7 lbs. 2 oz.

PROCEEDINGS. XXVU

Certificate of Merit : —

To Messrs. Henderson, Pine Apple Place, for a beautiful
specimen of Dielytra spectabilis, whose flowers were, how-
ever, somewhat deficient in colour, owing to their having
been produced in too much heat. It was mentioned that a
good way of having this useful Fumewort in perfection in
early spring is to take plants from the open border, pot
them, and bring them on in a cold house or frame, from
which they can be transferred to the green-house, conser-
vatory, or other suitable place to expand their blossoms in.
After flowering they may be returned to the open border.

To Mr. Franklin, Gardener to Mrs. Lawrence, F.H.S., for
an interesting specimen of the Long-tailed Lady's Slipper
(Cypripedium caudatum).

To Mr. Tillery, Gardener to the Duke of Portland, at Wel-
beck, for ripe fruit of the Japan Medlar (Eriobotrya Ja-
ponica), which was accompanied by the following remarks:
" The fruit of this Medlar is much esteemed here, and
coming in, as it does, at a time when other dessert fruit is
scarce, makes it still more valuable. The tree from which
the sample sent was taken has produced three or four dishes
every week for the last six weeks, and there is still a con-
siderable quantity to gather. The tree fills one entire house,
which is devoted to its culture, and the following is the
mode I find to be the best for successfully fruiting it. Li
the summer months, after the young growths are made, all
the air that can possibly be given is supplied by taking oflT
some of the lights of the house. At the flowering time,
which is in September and October, the house is shut up,
and a stove temperature maintained all the winter afterwards.
The fruit begins to ripen by tlie beginning of February, on
the early flowering clusters, and a regular succession is kept
up for a long time. The flowers are deliciously sweet
scented, and, along Avith magnificent foliage, the plant is
well worthy of a place in any stove."

III.— MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS OF EXHIBITION.

Mr. Meredith sent from Cleifden a very fine plant of Bego-
nia manicata, and a large and beautiful bouquet, with a view to
illustrate a good mode of packing such things for travelling.
Two parallel lines of string, about an inch apart, were fastened
between the four opposite sides of a square wooden box so as to
intersect each other in the middle ; but at different levels. The
shank of the bouquet was then passed down where the lines inter-

XXVIU PROCEEDTNGS.

sect, embedded up to the flowers in damp moss, and tied firmly
to the bottom of the box. In this way the bouquet is kept fast
in one position and travels safely.

Messrs. Henderson, of Pine Apple Place, furnished Epacris
h5^acintliiflora candidissima ; a curious little deep yellow-flowered
Acacia called squamafa, with needle-like processes in tlie place
of leaves ; and four plants of tlie Cape Lachenalia luteola.

From Messrs. Jackson, of Kingston, came two seedling
Camellias, named Duchess of Buccleuch, and Martinii. The
latter is a promising deep crimson-flowered kind, with a white
stripe down the centre of each petal.

Mrs. Lawrence contributed Lycaste Skinneri, and cut flower
spikes of Amherstia nobilis. It was mentioned that at Ealing
Park the Amherstia is now as large as a good-sized apple-tree,
that it has been in flower ever since Christmas; that nearly 170
spikes of its inflorescence have been cut from it ; and that about
as many more yet remain on the tree.

An example of the Sikkim Rhododendron ciliatum, of which
a good specimen was shown at the last meeting by Messrs. Stan-
dish and Noble, was furnished by Sir Joseph Paxton, from
Chatsworth. On this occasion it was quite colourless ; but
whetlier this was constitutional, or merely the effect of circimi-
stances, could not in the present instance be clearly determined
upon.

Mr. Ingram sent from Frogmore a pretty Epacris, a seedling
from miniata.

IV.— NOVELTIES FROM THE SOCIETY'S GARDEN.

A very profuse-flowering pink Azalea sent from China by
Mr. Fortune ; Rhododendron Nilagiricum, an exceedingly hand-
some kind, with round compact heads of bright rose-coloured
flowers, that become paler as they get older ; and an interesting
bush of Forsythia viridissima.

Cuttings of the following Pears and Apples were distributed : —
Pears :

Jersey Gratioli. — Fruit of a good size, roundish ; the eye in a
very even depression. Skin pale brown, somewhat rough, with
russeted specks. Flesh melting, like honey, and exceedingly
rich. Ripens in October. The tree is likely to prove an excel-
lent bearer.

March Bergaraot. — Of all the varieties of Pears raised by the
late Mr. Knight, this ripens the latest. It was named the March

PROCEEDINGS. XXIX

Bergamot from its keeping till March ; but it will generally
keep later ; and it will succeed where the Belgian late pears, the
Easter Beurre, and Beurre Ranee, will not. The fruit, resembles
the Autumn Bergamot in form and size ; skin yellowish-brown,
partially russeted. Flesh buttery and rich.

Cerise de Spa. — This has not been fruited in the garden. It
was received from Louis Van Houtte as a new sort. In M.
Bavay's Catalogue general des Pepuiieres Royales de Vilvorde,
near Brussels, the tree is described as being vigorous, and an
abundant bearer. Fruit large, red, and of first-rate quality,
ripening in July.

Millfield Apple. This appears to be a new sort, originally
received by the Society from Messrs. Young, Nurserymen,
Epsom, Fruit middle-sized, roundish, or somewhat pearmain
shaped. Eye large, moderately deep. Skin greenish-yellow on
the shaded side, reddish and obscurely streaked next, the sun.
Flesh yellowish and rich. In perfection in December and
January.

v.— BOOKS PRESENTED.

Palms of British East India, by the late William Griffith, Esq. ; from the Hon. the East

India Company.
Proceedings of tlie Royal Society, Vol. VI. Nos. 83, 84, and 85 ; from the Society.

VOL. VII.

PROCEEDliNGS AT MEETINGS OF THE
SOCIETY.

April G, 1852. (Kegent Street.)

I.— ELECTIONS.

It was announced that the Council had recommended that
H.R.H. Prince Albert and His Imperial Majesty the Emperor of
Russia, now Fellows of the Society, should be nominated Hono-
rary Members in two vacancies existing ; whereupon H.R.H.
Prince Albert and His Imperial Majesty the Emperor of Russia
were balloted for, and duly elected Honorary Members of the
Society.

II.— AWAEDS.
Large Silver Medal : —

To Messrs. Veitch, for Phalsenopsis Lobbii, a highly promising
species, uniting the colovxr of P. rosea with the large blos-
soms of P. amabilis. The example exhibited was small,
having been but recently imported, and only flowering for
the first time : but it served to show what may be expected
from larger and better established plants.

Knightian Medal : —

To Mr. Franklin, Gardener to Mrs. Lawrence, F.H.S., for a
collection of Orchids, containing Dendrobium nobile, the
Rhubarb-scented D. macrophyllum ; a Maxillaria, la-
belled a variety of M. Harrisonise, but, probably, a dif-
ferent species, and much handsomer ; the Brazilian Onci-
dium sarcodes, Trichopilia suavis, and Ly caste gigantea.

Banksian Medal : —

To Messrs. Henderson, of Pine Apple Place, for a collection
of Hyacinths. The names of some of tlie best were : Light
blue — Orondates, Robinson, Pasquin, Prince Frederick,
Nimrod, Grande Vidette, Grand Lilac, Morello, and Passe
tout (double). Dark blue — Laurens Koster (double),
Prince Van Saxe Weimar, Amicus, Richard Coeur de Lion
(very fine), Baron Van Thuyll, Charles Dickens, Prince

PKOCEEDLNGS. XXXI

Oscar, and Mignonaude Drythout (double). Violet — Tubal
Cain, William I., and Prince Albert. White — Helen,
Grand Vainqueur, Le Tour d'Auvergne, La Vestale, Grande
Vidette, Prima Donna, La Candeur, and A la Mode Epuisee
(double, witli a pink centre). Blush — Grandeur de Me-
neilles, Anna Maria (double). Triumph Blandina (ditto),
and Tubiflora. Plum — L'Unique. Yelloiv or buff — Miss
Kitty (double, very fine), Anna Paulowna, Heroine (double).
Deep rose — Amphion. Red — Fireball, Mars, HersteWe
Vreede, Appelius, Le Francq Van Berkhey, and Waterloo
(double). Light red — La Dame du Laak, and Lord Wel-
lington. Of these perhaps the most remarkable for general
good properties was Richard Cceur de Lion, single blue,
very similar in colour to Charles Dickens, Bleumorant,
Prince Oscar, and Baron Van Thuyll, but infinitely sur-
passing them in quality ; tube smooth, as were the several
divisions of it, glossy, broad, and of good size ; in truth the
best of all the single varieties displayed on the occasion.
Appelius and Fireball, single reds, were brighter in colour
and better in form than Waterloo. Prince Frederick and
Pasquin were the best of the double blues, and distinct ;
Miss Kitty was conspicuous for its large bells, but they
were rather thinly arranged on the spike. Prince Albert
must still be considered one of the darkest Hyacinths in cul-
tivation. These were all in ordinary shaped, rather small-
sized pots, in each of which were two plants, and sometimes
three, which made a very effective display.

To Messrs. Lane and Son, of Great Berkhampstead, for a col-
lection of cut Roses, gathered from a house heated on the
Polmaise principle. They consisted of some of the best of
tlie Hybrid Perpetual, Bourbon, and Tea-scented kinds, as
Apollon, Baron ne Prevost, Chateaubriand, Cornet, Duchesse
de Praslin, Due d'Alencon, Duchess of Sutherland, William
Jesse, Geant des Batailles, General Negrier, Madame Tru-
deaux, Soleil d'Austerlitz, Standard of Marengo, Armosa,
Madame Angelina, Paul Joseph, Queen, Souvenir de la
Malmaison, Mrs. Bosanquet, Belle Allemande, Comte de
Paris, Moire, Smith's Yellow, Vicomtesse Decazes, For-
tune's Double Yellow, and others.

Certificate of Merit : —

To Mr. Turner, F.H.S., of the Royal Nursery, Slough, for
six sorts of Pansies, in pots, consisting of Duke of Norfolk,
Sir Philip Sidney, Disraeli, Ophir, Robert Burns, and Eu-
phemia. These were exhibited to show the value of the

d 2

XXXll FROCEKDINGS.

Pansy as an early blooming- plant. They had been in
flower about a month, and they were still covered with
blossoms, which, under proper treatment, would continue to
be produced till the end of May. They had been grown in
a common 3 light box, from which the liglits were removed
during fine weather.

To Messrs. Veitcli, for a Posoqueria (?) from the Organ
mountains, possessing an elegant habit, and bearing quanti-
ties of long creamy white, peculiarly scented flowers.

To Mr. Chapman, Gardener to J. B, C41egg, Esq., F.H.S.,
for a smooth-leaved Cayenne Pine Apple, weighing of Ib^.

To Mr. Allport, Gardener to H. Akroyd, Esq., Doddington
Park, Nantwich, Cheshire, for a dish of black Hamburgh
Grapes.

To Mr. Law, Gardener to E. J. Sliirley, Esq., of Eatington
Park, Stratford-on-Avon, fur a dish of forced Peaches from
trees growing in pots. They \^•ere quite ripe, but not very
large or well coloured.

To Mr. M'Ewen, Gardener to the Duke of Norfolk, F.H.S.,
at Arundel, for five pots of Keens' Seedling Strawberry,
and one of Alice Maude. They were loaded with large and
well-ripened fruit. Concerning the kind of treatment they
had received Mr. M'Ewen says: — '' We begin putting the
early runners in 3-inch pots about the middle of June, and
not later than the middle of July. They are transferred as
soon as rooted into the fruiting pots, which are well drained
and filled with soil composed of three-fourths sandy loam
and one-fourth decayed night-soil and leaf-mould. The pots
are then placefl on boards in an open square of the kitchen
garden, and plunged in any light material. This prevents
frequent watering ; the plants are placed so thin that not a
leaf of one touches another. Wiien the pots are well filled
with roots we water twice a week with liquid manure. In
the winter the pots are placed on their sides so as to form a
riilge. They are forced by introducing them for a few days
into cold frames and pits, and they are Jloivei^ed, set, and
swelled ojf on a spare shelf at the very top of a fruiting
pine pit, in a heat ranging from 70° to 75°, sometimes 20°
more. To flavour them we place them in a cold frame, and
in fine weather expose them fully for three or four days."

III.— MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS OF EXHIBITION.

Messrs. Henderson sent a little tree of the Oleander-leaved
Eriostemon, and a nice pyramidal plant of E. intermedia ; also

PKOCEEDINGS. XXXlll

the pretty Boronia triphylla ; a variegated-leaved Coronilla
glauca ; Elseocarpus deutatus ; a species of Aotus ; and two dwarf,
compact, free-flowering' Rhododendrons.

Mr. Jones, Gardener to Sir J. Guest, Bart., F.H.S., furnished
three Ripley Queen Pine Apples, weighing respectively 4 lbs.
2 oz., 3 lbs. 13 oz., and 3 lbs. 10 oz.

A plan for labelling Roses, the invention of Mr. Bohn, of
York Street, Covent Garden, was brought under the notice of
the meeting by the Rev. W. B. Hawkins, F.H.S. In a letter
relating to these labels Mr. Hawkins says : — " Mr. Henry G.
Bohn, the eminent publisher, of York Street, Covent Garden,
and of North End House, Twickenham, who has paid consider-
able attention to horticulture, and particularly to the cultivation
of roses, lias written to me describing a mode of labelling these
plants adopted by him in his garden, which appears so ingenious,
and is at the same time so practicable and ecoiiomical, that I
think it should be brought before the notice of the Society.
Mr. Bohn's plan is this : he uses a paper label, at one end of
which is printed the name of the rose, and at the other end the
colour and general description of the plant ; this label is then
folded in half and pasted back to back ; it is then cast in a
small flat tube of glass, closed at both ends, with a ring (in
glass) at one end to hold the soft wire by which it is to be sus-
pended from the plant. The following extract from Mr. Bohn's
letter will perhaps aflbrd a better explanation of Jiis plan. He
says, ' You seemed to think that tlie Society would like to see
my plan of labelling Roses, and proposed to bring it to their
notice at the next meeting. With that object I have the plea-
sure of sending you the first complete set of labels which has
been received from the printer's, together with a sample of the
mode of applying them. Glass tallies have been before the
public for some time, but they did not answer well, as the lead
or putty with which they were closed was prettj"^ sure to drop
out. Mine are the first, I believe, which are cast with the label
inside, and though I now find plenty able to do it, I was told by
several, when the idea occurred to me, that it could not be done.
Having upwards of a thousand roses, printing the labels is to
me a matter of economy as well as of convenience and neatness.
The cost is not more t\ia,n five farthings per label — paper, print,
and glass included. As all who have seen the plan approve of it
very much, and several growers intend to adopt it, especially for
Orchids, I^should be glad to have it seen previously by the
Society.' "

Specimens of the label in its glass case were exhibited.

XXXIV PROCEEDINGS.

IV.— PLANTS, &c., FROM THE SOCIETY'S GARDEN.

The vivid crimson or rather scarlet Azalea obtusa, the Double
White and Red flowering Chinese Peaches, two Californian
Ceanothes, &c. &c.

v.— BOOKS PRESENTED.

Flora Batava, No. 168. Ftom tlie King ol' Holland.
The Garden Companion for April. From the Publisher.

April 20, 1852. (Regent Street.)

I.— AWARDS.

Knighlian Medal: —

To Messrs. Standish and Noble, for Azalea amoena, a new
species collected in the North of China by Mr. Fortune, and
expected to prove hardy in this country. It has small,
rather blunt leaves, and very small round rosy-purple
flowers, looking like so many half-inverted bells, so that,
independent of its beauty, which is great, it will be exceed-
ingly interesting on account of the form of its blossoms,
wliich are quite distinct from those of any Azalea yet
introduced.

To Messrs. Veitch, for Dendrobium albo-sanguineum.

To Messrs. Loddiges, for a collection of Orchids, consisting of
Vanda suavis, Saccolabium ampullaceum, Lycaste Skinneri,
Dendrobium anosmum, a species in the way of but hand-
somer than D. macrophyllum, and wanting the strong
Rhubarb smell which belongs to the latter ; Oncidium bi-
folium, Dendrobium chrysotoxum, Aerides affine, Laelia
cinnabarina, and a white Angrec from Algoa Bay.

Banlisian Medal:—

To Mr. Mylam, Gardener to S. Rucker, Esq., F.H.S., for a
new Huntleya, marked with dark brown in the centre, which
is surrounded by a field of pale primrose.

To Mr. Green, Gardener to Sir E. Antrobus, Bart., F.H.S.,
for Azalea Iveryana.

To Messrs. Henderson, of Pine Apple Place, for a handsome
new Oxylobiuni.

To Messrs. Jackson, of Kingston, for a group of tender varie-
gated plants, consisting of Vriesia speciosa (with two flower-

PKOCKEDIXGS. XXXV

spikes), DiefFenbachia costata, Dracaena terininalis, the varie-
gated Croton, Achimenes picta, and a few smaller plants.

Certificate of Merit : —

To Mr. Blake, Gardener to J. H. Schroder, Esq., F.H.S., for
Dendrobium albo-sanguineum.

To Mr. Bunney, Nurseryman, Stratford, for Dendrobium
Farmerii.

To Mr. Wood, of Norwood, for a specimen of the variety of
Cape Heath called Hartnelli virens.

To Messrs. Henderson, of the Wellington Road Nursery, St.
John's Wood, for a Continental Camellia named Rizzio, with
t\A'o blooms on it, exhibiting the familiar sport of one flower
being red while the other was white faintly striped with
red.

To Mr. Forbes, Gardener to the Duke of Bedford, F.H.S., at
Woburn, for four bunches of Black Hamburgh Grapes.

To Mr. Meredith, Gardener to the Duke of Sutherland, F.H.S.,
at Cliefden, for eight pots of Keens' Seedling Strawberry,
in fruit, and a similar number of Cuthill's Black Prince,
the latter being in 3-inch jiots and well fruited.

To Mr. Lewis Solomon, of Covent Garden Market, for ex-
amples of Paris Cos and Grand Admirable Lettuces, im-
ported from France. Tlie attention of the meeting was
di'awn to the fact, tiiat the only persons who in this country
succeeded in producing fine Summer Lettuces at this season
in England were two Dutch gardeners, one of whom was
brought over by the late Mr. Labouchere.

II.— MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS OF EXHIBITION.

A small piece of a flower-spike of the lovely Odontoglossum
Pescatorei came from Mr. Mylam, Gardener to S. Rucker, Esq.,
F.H.S.

A Dendrobe from Sylliet, apparently D. heterocarpum in a
diminutive state, was furnished by Messrs. Jackson, of Kingston.

Mr. Bunney contributed an imported plant of Dendrobium
nobile.

From Messrs. Backhouse, of York, came a Cattleya, named
amethystina, but which appeared to be a variety of C. intermedia.
A Thysanotus, from Ncav South Wales, accompanied it ; but in
the absence of bright light, its flowers did not open.

XXXVl PBOCKEDINGS.

Mr. Ayres, of Blackheath, sent cut blooms of 24 varieties of
fancy Pelargoniums.

R. T. Clarke, Esq., F.H.S., exhibited cut specimens of a white
Chrysanthemum in bloom, which proves that this useful autumn
flower may be had in blossom at almost any season, if such should
be desired. It had of course been forced.

Messrs. E. G. Henderson sent a fancy Pelargonium named
Annette ; two small Orange-trees, in order to siiow how freely
they bloom in pots in a small state ; three Amaryllids, a collec-
tion of Cinerarias, four Cyclamens, and six hybrid Rhododen-
drons.

Some seedling Auriculas were shown by Mr. Coldham, of
Southgate.

Mr. Sommersby, Gardener to Major Martyn, sent two dwarf
Hydrangeas, and a white seedling Petunia.

From Messrs. Henderson came a new yellow-flowered Indian
Dendrobe ; a new Gastrolobium, the pretty Boronia tetrandra,
the small growing free-flowering Eriostemon scabrum, and a
species of Acacia.

Mr. Wood, of Norwood, sent a collection of variegated hardy
plants and a seedling Rhododendron with bright crimson flowers.

A design for laying out ornamental grounds was shown by
Messrs. Wood and Lake, land-surveyors, Lincoln's Inn Fields.

III. -PLANTS, &c., FROM THE SOCIETY'S GARDEN.

Rhynchospermum jasminoides, wdth white flowers as fragrant as
those of a Jasmine, the Californian Ceanothus rigidus, exceed-
ingly gay with numberless clusters of blue blossoms, &c. &c.

IV. -BOOKS PRESENTED.

The Athenaeum for March. From the Editor,

May 1, 1852. (Regent Street. — Anniversary.)
The following Fellows of the Society were removed, viz. : —

The Duke of Northumberland,
The Bishop of Winchester,
J. Barchard, Esq.

The following were elected new Members of Council in their
room. viz. : —

PROCEEDINGS. XXXVll

Sir Peter Pole, Bart. ;
G. Rushout, Esq., M.P. ;
R. S. Holford, Esq.

The following Fellows of the Society were elected Officers
for the ensuing- year, viz. : —

The Duke of Devonshire, President ;

J. R. Gowen, Esq., Treasurer ;

Dr. Royle, Secretary.

Mr. S. F. Grav, 1 * ,•,

TIT i-. /-I1 1 J } Auditors.
Mr. G. Charlwood, )

The Annual Report from the Council and Auditors was read
and adopted. (See the body of this volume.)

Mai/ 8, 1852. (Garden Exhibition.)

The weather on this occasion was propitious, and the exhibi-
tion everytiiing that could possibly be desired ; for not only
were the plants produced admirable examples of cultivation, but
they were furnished in such numbers that room under the tents
could scarcely be found for them. Such Azaleas, Orchids,
Roses, and Cape Heaths nobody ever saw in the Garden before ;
and, considering the season, there was a good show of fruit.
The number of visitors was 2755, exclusive of exhibitors and
persons officially employed.

L— AWAEDS.
The Large Gold Medal : —

To Mr. May, Gardener to Mrs. LawTence, F.H.S., for a col-
lection of twenty Stove and Greenhouse Plants.

To Mr. Franklin, Gardener to Mrs. Lawrence, F.H.S., for
twenty species of Exotic Orchids.

The Gold Kfiightian Medal : —

To Mr. Cole, Gardener to H. Colyer, Esq., of Dartford, for a

collection of twenty Stove and Greenhouse Plants.
To Mr. Speed, of Edmonton, for fifteen Stove and Greenhouse

Plants.
To Mr. May, Gardener to Mrs. Lawrence, F.H.S., for six

Stove and Greenhouse Plants, in 20-inch pots.
To Mr. Blake, Gardener to J. H. Schroder, Esq., F.H.S., for

twenty species of Exotic Orchids.

XX.Wni PROCKliDINUS.

The Gold Banksian 3Iedal : —

To Messrs. Eraser, of Lea Bridge Road, Essex, for a collection

of twenty Stove and Greenhouse Plants.
To Mr. Green, Gardener to Sir E. Antrobus, Bart., E.H.S.,

for fifteen Stove and Greenhouse Plants.
To Mr Carson, Gardener to W. F. G. Farmer, Esq., F.H.S.,

for six Stove and Greenhouse Plants, in 20-inch pots.
To Mr. Williams, Gardener to C. B. AVarner, Esq., F.H.S.,

for twenty species of Exotic Orchids.
To Messrs. Veitch and Son, of Exeter, for fifteen species of

Exotic Orcliids.
To Mr. Ivison, Gardener to the Duchess Dowager of

Northumberland, F.H.S., at Sion, for ten species of the

same.
To Mr. May, Gardener to ]\Irs. Lawrence, F.H.S-, for twelve

distinct varieties of Greenhouse Azaleas.
To the same for a collection of ten varieties of Cape Heath.
To Messrs. Rollisson, of Tooting, for the same.
To Mr. Terry, Gardener to Lady Puller, of Youngsbury,

Herts, for twelve varieties of Roses in pots.
To Mr. Francis, of Hertford, for the same.
To Mr. Turner, of Slough, for twelve varieties of Pelargo-
nium, in 8-inch pots.

The Large Silver-gilt Medal : —

To Messrs. Pamplin, of Lea Bridge Road, Essex, 'for a col-
lection of twenty Stove and Greenhouse Plants.

To Mr. Dods, Gardener to Sir John Cathcart, Bart., F.H.S.,
for fifteen Stove and Greenhouse Plants.

To Mr. Kinghorn, Gardener to the Earl of Kilmorey, F.H.S. ,
for six Stove and Greenhouse Plants, in 20-inch pots.

To the same for six species of Exotic Orchids.

To Mr. Over, Gardener to W. McMullen, Esq., of Clapham,
for six Stove and Greenhouse Plants, in 13-inch pots.

To Messrs. Rollisson, for fifteen species of Exotic Orchids.

To Mr. Carson, Gardener to W. F. G. Farmer, Esq., F.H.S.,
for ten species of Exotic Orchids.

To Mr. Cliitty, Gardener to J. Basset, Esq., of Stamford Hill,
for twelve distinct varieties of Greenhouse Azaleas.

To the same for twelve varieties of Roses in pots.

To Messrs. Rollisson, for six of the newer kinds of Green-
house Azaleas in 8-inch pots.

To the same, for a collection of Miscellaneous Plants.

To Mr. Green, Gardener to Sir E. Antrobus, Bart., F.H.S.,
for six distinct varieties of Greenhouse Azaleas.

PROCEEDINGS. XXXIX

To the same for six varieties of Tall Cacti.

To Mr. Ivison, Gardener to the Duchess Dowager of North-
umberland, F.H.S., for a collection of Indian Eliododen- •
drons.

To Mr. Cole, Gardener to H. Colyer, Esq., of Dartford, for
ten varieties of Cape Heath.

To Mr. Epps, of Maidstone, for the same.

To the same, for a collection of ten varieties of Cape Heath,
in 1 1-inch pots.

To Mr. "Watson, Gardener to Mrs. Tredwell, of St. John's
Lodge, Norwood, for the same.

To Messrs. Lane, of Great Berkhampstead, for twelve
varieties of Roses in pots.

To Messrs. Veitch and Son, for Hexacentris mysorensis.

To Mr. Dobson, of Isleworth, for twelve varieties of Pelar-
gonium, in 8-inch pots.

To Mr. Bray, Gardener to Sir J. Goldsmid, Bart., F.H.S.,
for six varieties of Pelargonium, in 11-inch pots.

To Mr. Kempster, of Blackheath, for six varieties of Fancy
Pelargonium, in 8-inch pots.

To Mr. Turner, of Slough, for the same.

The Certificate of Excellence : —

To Mr. Laybank, Gardener to T. Maudslay, Esq., of

Knight's Hill, Norwood, for a collection of fifteen Stove

and Greenhouse Plants.
To Messrs, Rollisson, for six Stove and Greenhouse Plants,

in 13-inch pots.
To Mr. Taylor, Gardener to J. Coster, Esq., of Streatham,

for a collection of Helichrysums.
To the same, for six varieties of Cape Heath, in 8-inch pots.
To Mr. Woolley, Gardener to H. B. Ker, Esq., of Cheshunt,

for ten species of Exotic Orchids.
To Mr. Green, Gardener to Sir E. Antrobus, Bart., F.H.S.,

for six species of Exotic Orchids.
To Mr. Fleming, Gardener to the Duke of Sutherland, F.H.S.,

at Trentham, for six of the newer kinds of Greenhouse

Azalea, in 8-inch pots.
To Messrs. Eraser, for six distinct varieties of Greenhouse

Azaleas.
To the same, for ten varieties of Cape Heath.
To Messrs. Veitch, for a single specimen of Medinilla mag-

nifica.
To Messrs. Lane, for a collection of Indian Rhododendrons.
To Mr. Williams, Gardener to C. B. Warner, Esq., F.H.S.,

for a collection of Miscellaneous Plants.

Xl PROCEICDINGS.

To IMr. Smith, hardener to W. Quiltcr, Esq., of Norwood,

for ten varieties of Cape lleatii.
To Mr. Koser, Gardener to J. IJradbury, Esq., of Streatliani,

for the same, in 11 -inch pots.
To the same, for six varieties of Fancy relargonium, in

8-inch pots.
To A. Rowland, Esq., F.II.S., for twelve varieties of Roses

in pots.
To TMessrs. Panl, of Cheshnnt, for the same.
To Messrs. Veitch, for a single specimen of Cattleya Mossiee.
To tlie same, fur a new species of Aerides from .^loulmein.
To Mr. Gaines, of Battersea, for twelve varieties of Telar-

goninm, in 8-inch pots.
To Mr. Ay res, of Blackheath, for six varieties of Fancy

Pelargoniiun, in 8-iiich pots.
To Mr. Jarvis, Gardener to J. Ruck, Esq., of Croydon, for

a Queen Pine Apple.
To Mr. Davis, Gardener to Lord Boston, F.II.S., for a Pro-
vidence Pine Apple.
To Mr. Jackson, Gardener to G. Beanfoy, Esq., of South

Lambeth, for Dutcli Sweetwater Grapes.
To Mr. Dods, Gartlener to Sir John Cathcart, Bart., F.H.S.,

for Black Hamburgh Grapes.
To Mr. Davis, of Oak Hill, for the same.

The Large Silver Medal : —
To Mr. Taylor, Gardener to J. Coster, Esq., of Streatham,

for a collection of fifteen Stove and Greenhouse Plants.
To the same, for six of the newer kinds of Greenhouse

Azaleas, in 8-inch pots.
To Mr. Watson, Gardener to Mrs. Tredwell) of St. John's

Lodge, Norwood, for six Stove and Greenhouse Plants, in

13-inch pots.
To Mr. Green, Gardener to Sir E. Antrobus, Bart., F.II.S.,

for a collection of Heliciirysums.
To Mr. Stanly, (;ardener to II. Berens, Esq., F.II.S., for a

single sj)ecimen of Erica Ilartuelli.
To JVir. Carson, Gardener to W. F. Vx. Farmer, Esq., F.H.S.,

for six distinct varieties of (jlreenhonse Azaleas.
To Mr. Gaines, of Battersea, for a collection of Indian Rhodo-
dendrons.
To the same for six varieties of fancy Pelargoniuni in 8-inch

pots.
To the same for six varieties of Calceolaria, in 8-inch pots.
To Mr. Jarvis, Gardener to .1. Ruck, Esq., of Croydon, for

ten varieties of Cape Heath, in 1 1-iuch pots.

PROCliEDlNGS. xli

To Mr. Speed, of Edniontoii, lur six varieties ol Cape Heath,

in 8-iiich jJOts.
To Mr. Parker, Gardener to J. M. Strachan, Esq., F.H.S.,

for a collection of Cape Pelarg-oniums.
To Mr. Kinghorn, Gardener to tlie Earl of Kilmorey, F.H.S.,

for a single specimen of Phatenopsis grandiflora.
To Messrs. Standisii and Noble, of Bagshot, for Azalea

amoena.
To Messrs. Veitch, for Dendrobium clavatum.
To Mr. Bray, Gardener to E. Lousada, Esq., of Peak House,

Sidmoiith, for a Queen Pine Apple.
To Mr. Allport, Gardener to H. Akroyd, Esq., of Dodding-

ton Park, Nantwicii, for Black Hamburgh Grapes.
To Mr. Spary, of Brighton, for the same.
To Mr. Davis, of- Oak Hill, for Sweetwater Grapes.

The Silver Kiiightian Medal : —

To Mr. Chitty, Gardener to J. Basset, P:sq., of Stamford Hill,

for a collection of twenty Stove and Greenhouse Plants.
To Mr. Kinghorn, Gardener to the Earl of Kilmorey, F.H.S.,

for six Stove and Greenhouse Plants, in 13-inch pots.
To Mr. Stuart, Gardener to T. Huggins, Esq., of Norwood,

for a collection of Helichrysums.
To Mr. Smith, Gardener to W. Quilter, Esq., of Norwood,

for a single specimen of Erica Sindryana.
To Mr. Falconer, Gardener to A. Palmer, Esq., of Cheam,

for six distinct varieties of Greenhouse Azaleas.
To Messrs. Veitch for Fitzroya patagonica.
To the same for Saxe-Gothaea conspicua.
To Mr. Over, Gardener to W. M'Mullen, Esq., of Clapham,

for ten varieties of Cape Heath.
To Mr. Fairbairn, of Clapham, for the same.
To Mr. Hamp, Gardener to J. Thorne, Esq., of South

Lambeth, for six varieties of Cape Heath, in 8-inch pots.
To Mr. Busby, Gardener to S. Crawley, Esq., P\H.S., for

twelve varieties of Roses in pots.
To Mr. Watson, Gardener to Mrs. Tredwell, St. John's Lodge,

Norwood, for a collection of Cape Pelargoniums.
To Mr. Cole, Gardener to H. Colyer, Esq., of Dartford, for

a single specimen of Dendrobium nobile.
To Messrs. Veitch for Dendrobium albo-sanguineum.
To Messrs. Standish and Noble for Azalea vittata Fortuni.
To Mr. Westwood, of Acton Lane, for six varieties of Fancy

Pelargonium, in 8-inch pots.
To Mr. Turner, of Slough, for twelve varieties of Pansies, in

8-inch pots.

xlii PROCEHDINGS.

To Mr. Lochner, of AVai-wick House, Paddington, for six

varieties of Cineraria, in 8-incli pots.
To Mr. Forbes, Gardener to the Duke of Bedford, F.II.S.,

at Woburn Abbej', for Black Hamburgh Grapes.
To Mr. Fleming, Gardener to the Duke of Sutherland,

F.H.S., at Trentham, for May Duke Cherries.
To Mr. Judd, Gardener to Earl Spencer, F.H.S., for British

Queen Strawberries.
To Mr. May, Gardener to J. Watuey, Esq., F.H.S., for

Keens' Seedling Strawberries.
To Mr. Dew, of Ham Common, for Keens' Seedling Straw-
berries.
To Mr. Robertson, Gardener to Lady Emily Foley, Stoke

Edith Park, Ledbury, for a Green-fleshed Melon.

The Silver Banhsimi Medal : —

To Mr. Stanly, Gardener to H. Berens, Esq., F.H.S., for a

collection of six Stove and Greenhouse Plants.
To Mr. Hamp, Gardener to J. Thorne, Esq., of South

Lambeth, for a collection of Helichrysums.
To Mr. May, Gardener to Mrs. Lawrence, F.H.S., for a

single specimen of Eriostemon intermedium.
To Messrs. Lane, for six distinct varieties of Greenhouse

Azaleas.
To Messrs. Veitch, for a Hardy hybrid Rhododendron,

named Blanc Superbe.
To Mr. Roser, Gardener to J. Bradbury, Esq., of Streatham,

for twelve varieties of Roses in pots.
To Messrs. Henderson, Pine Apple Place, for Tetratheca

ericifolia.
To Mr. Ivison, Gardener to the Duchess Dowager of North-
umberland, F.H.S., at Sion, for Oncidium sessile.
To the same, for a tree of Eriobotrya japouica in fruit.
To Mr. Lochner, of Warwick House, Paddington, for

twelve varieties of Pansies in 8-inch pots.
To Messrs. Vj. G. Henderson, of St. John's Wood, for six

varieties of Cineraria in 8-inch pots.
To Mr. Povey, Gardener to the Rev. J. Thorneycroft,

F.H.S., for a Black Jamaica Pine Apple.
To Mr. M'Ewen, Gardener to the Duke of Norfolk, at

Arundel, for British Queen Strawberries.
To the same, for Keens' Seedling Strawberries.

The Certificate of Merit ;—
To Mr. Carson, Gardener to W. F. G. Farmer, Esq., F.H.S.,
for a single specimen of Leschenaultia Baxteri.

PROCKEDINGS. xliU

To Mr. Laybank, Gardener to T. Maudslay, Esq., of Nor-
wood, for Erica Murrayana.

To Messrs. Henderson, Pine Apple Place, for Boronia
tetrandra.

To Mr. Franklin, Gardener to Mrs. Lawrence, F.H.S., for
a new species of Trichopilia.

To Messrs. Kollisson, for Ataccia cristata.

To Mr. Hally, of Black heath, for a species of Libertia.

To Messrs. Veitch, for Streptocarpus biflorus.

To Mr. Terry, Gardener to Lady Puller, Youngsbury,
Herts, for twelve varieties of Pansies in 8-inch pots.

To Mr. Roser, Gardener to J. Bradbury, Esq., of Streathani,
for six varieties of Cineraria in 8-inch pots.

To Mr. Britten, of Lewisliam, for British Queen Straw-
berries.

To Mr. Brewin, Gardener to R. Gunter, Esq., F.H.S., for
Keens' Seedlino^ Strawberries.

May 25, 1852. (Regent Street.)

I.— ELECTIONS.
Viscount Canning, 10, Grosvenor Square; Lady Shelley,
Boscombe Lodge, Christchurch, Hants ; Sir Thomas Parkins,
Bart., Ruddington, Notts ; George Miller, Esq., The Mall,
Chiswick ; Charles Leach, Esq., Clapham Park ; Mr. Alexander
Dancer, Fulhani ; John Murray, Esq., Strathisla Cottage, Bow
Eoad ; Albert Hamborough, Esq., Steep Plill, Isle of Wight ;
Herbert Barnard, Esq., 69, Portland Place and Park Gate,
Ham Common ; John Berners, Esq., "Wolverston Park, Ipswich ;
Mr. Joseph Fairbairn, Clapham ; and John Bradbur)^, Esq.,
Bedford House, Streatham. And as Foreign Members, the fol-
lowing, viz. : — His Excellency Prince Woronzow, Tiflis ; his
Excellency Count Francis Von Thun-Hohenstein, Tetschen
Castle, Bohemia; Professor Alphonse de Candolle, Botanical
Garden, Geneva ; Professor Adrien de Jussieu, Museum of Na-
tural History, Paris ; Professor W. H. de Vriese, University of
Leyden ; Professor W. Gasparrini, Naples ; Professor H. Mohl,
Tubingen ; and Professor Treviranus, Bonn.

II.— AWARDS.
Knightian 3Iedal : —

To Messrs. Loddiges, for a collection of Orchids ; but more
especially for Aerides crispum, tlie purple variety of A. odo-

xliv PKOCEEDINGS.

ratuni, Sarcopoiliuiu Lobbii, and Cypripediiun barbatum
atropurpureum.

Certificate of Merit : —

To Mr. Flouri, Gardener to C. P.ailey, Esq., M.P., for a
Providence Pine Apple, weighino; 9 lbs.

To Mr. Fleming, Gardener to the Duke of Sutherland, F.H.S.,
at Trenthani, for Murray Nectarines, well swelled and
highly coloured.

To Mr. Reith, Gardener to Mrs. Sniythe, F.H.S., for a dish
of Royal George Peaches.

To Mr. Davis, of Oak Hill, East Barnet, for Black Ham-
burgh Grapes.

III.— MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS OF EXHIBITION.

J. Allnutt, Esq., of Clapham Common, furnished a large
semi-double Azalea called Fulgens, and a hardy hybrid Rhodo-
dendron which lie had found to flower well this year, while the
blossoms of other hybrids of the same nature, associated with it,
had been all killed by the cold winds and frosty nights of the
late peculiar spring.

From Mr. Fleming came two examples of the Trentham Hybrid
Melon, weighing respectively 2 lbs. 10 oz. and 3 lbs. 4 oz.

The true Bailey's Green-fleshed Melon, a round netted kind,
weighing in this instance 5 lbs. 11 oz., was sent by Mr. Bailey,
of Shardeloes Gardens, Amersham, who raised the variety from
seed upwards of 20 years ago. It was stated by Mr. Bailey to
be a finely flavoured variety.

Mr. Smith, of Mauchline, in Ayrshire, exhibited specimens of
what he called a " transplant sliade," which he expects will
prove better than flower-pots for sheltering newly bedded-out
plants, &c., from the heat of the sun in the day-time and from cold
at nio-hts. He says, " Observing in the gardens of the surrounding
nobility and gentry that when plants are first transplanted out
they are usually covered from the solar rays by means of flower-
pots inverted over them and propped up on one side to admit the
air it struck me that this was at least not very craftsmanlike,
and that it could not answer the purpose in the best possible
way. I have made a model for an article intended to be formed
of earthenware, and used for ' transplant shades.' It will be
understood that these shades would be intended to stand on three
short legs, so as to admit a fresh supply of air from all quarters,
and that the other end is so contrived as to catch the quantity,

PROCEEDINGS. xlv

or nearly the quantity, of rain that would fall upon the space
covered by the pot, and to conduct it upon the plant. In short,
the advantages to be derived from my invention are — 1. It will
stand perpendicular in its natural position, no tilting being
required. 2. By merely putting it gently on the ground, or
by pressing it more or less into the ground, the supply of air
can be either regulated or excluded altogether. 3. The con-
cavity at the top will receive either rain or artificial watering,
and shower it on the plant and soil without exposing the gardener
to the trouble of removing the shades." Two models were
shown, one without a top, the other with a top perforated with
small holes and surrounded by a rim. The fault of the first was
stated to be, that it permitted radiation from the soil at night to
go on about as freely as if the plant was exposed ; and that of
the latter, that while it allowed water to pass through the top,
it kept its inmate nearly as dark as under a common flower-pot.
Instead of fixed perforated tops, or no top at all, it was suggested
that moveable lids should be used, and then it was thought the
contrivance might be an improvement on the common flower-pot
for purposes of shading.

IV.— NOVELTIES FROM THE SOCIETY'S GARDEN.

A Diplacus raised from Californian seeds. It proves to be a
very distinct and handsome kind, with large showy buff flowers
shaded with salmon.

The following proposed alteration in the by-laws was read a
first time : — " The Council hereby give notice that they propose
to substitute for Chapter 8, Article 1, of the present by-laws,
namely, ' The number of honorary members shall not at any time
exceed five,' the following words : — ' The number of honorary
members shall not at any time exceed ten.' "

v.— BOOKS PRESENTED.

The Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society, No. 30. From the Society.
The Garden Companion for May. From the Publishers.
Transactions of the Zoological Society, Vol. IV. Part 2. From the Society.
Bombay Meteorological Observations for 1847, and Singapore Meteorological Observations
for 1841-1845. From the Hon. the Court of Directors of the East India Company.

June 12, 1852. (Garden Exhibition.)

This was universally admitted to be one of the best Midsummer
fetes which has ever been held under the auspices of the Society.
Plants displaying the most perfect cultivation were furnished in
the greatest profusion and variety ; and fruit was plentiful and

VOL. VII. e

Xlvi PROCEEDINGS.

good. The weather was dry, but sunless and cold. At 6 o'clock
A.M. the thermometer stood at 44°, and it had been at 40° two
hours earlier ; by noon tlie temperature had risen with difficulty
15^, and at 6 p.m. it was only 56°. The number of visitors was
4719, exclusive of exhibitors and persons officially employed.

The Large Gold Medal: —

To Mr. May, Gardener to Mrs. Lawrence, F.H.S., for a
collection of twenty Stove and Greenhouse Plants.

To Mr. Blake, Gardener to J. H. Schroder, Esq., F.H.S.,
for twenty species of Exotic Orchids.

The Gold Knightian 3Iedal : —

To Mr. Cole, Gardener to H. Colyer, Esq., of Dartford, for

a collection of twenty Stove and Greenhouse Plants.
To Mr. Green, Gardener to Sir E. Antrobus, Bart., F.H.S.,

for a collection of fifteen Stove and Greenhouse Plants.
To Mr. May, Gardener to Mrs. Lawrence, F.H.S., for six

Stove and Greenhouse Plants in 20-inch pots.
To Mr. Franklin, Gardener to Mrs. Lawrence, F.H.S., for

twenty species of Exotic Orchids.

The Gold Banksian Medal : —
To Mr. Taylor, Gardener to J. Coster, Esq., of Streatham,

for a collection of twenty Stove and Greenhouse Plants.
To Mr. Carson, Gardener to W. F. G. Farmer, Esq., F.H.S.,

for a collection of fifteen Stove and Greenhouse Plants.
To the same, for ten species of Exotic Orchids.
To Mr. Kinghorn, Gardener to the Earl of Kilmorey, F.H.S.,

for six Stove and Greenhouse Plants in 20-inch pots.
To Mr. Williams, Gardener to C. B. Warner, Esq., F.H.S.,

for twenty species of Exotic Orchids.
To Messrs. Veitch, of Exeter, for fifteen species of Exotic

Orchids.
To Mr. Smith, Gardener to W. Quilter, Esq., of Norwood,

for ten varieties of Cape Heath.
To Messrs. RoUisson, of Tooting, for the same.
To Mr. Terry, Gardener to Lady Puller, of Youngsbury,

Herts, for twelve varieties of Roses, in pots.
To Messrs. Lane, of Great Berkhampstead, for the same.
To Mr. Dobson, of Isleworth, for twelve varieties of Pelar-
gonium in 8-inch pots.

Tlie Large Silver- Gilt 3Iedal : —
To Messrs. Eraser, of Lea Bridge Road, Essex, for a collec-
tion of twenty Stove and Greenhouse Plants,

l>ROCEEDI>fGS. Xlyij

To Mr. Dods, Gardener to Sir J. Cathcart, Bart., F.H.S.,

for a collection of fifteen Stove and Greenhouse Plants.
To Mr. Kinghorn, Gardener to the Earlof Kilraorey, F.H.S.,

for a collection of six Stove and Greenhouse Plants in

13-inch jjots.
To Messrs. Rollisson, for fifteen species of Exotic Orchids.
To the same, for a collection of Variegated Plants.
To Mr. Woolley, Gardener to H. B. Ker, Esq., of Cheshunt,

for ten species of Exotic Orchids.
To Mr. Ivison, Gardener to the Duke of Northumberland,

F.H.S., for six species of Exotic Orchids.
To Mr. Fleming, Gardener to the Duke of Sutherland,

F.H.S., at Trenthani, fur six of the newer kinds of Green-
house Azalea in 8-inch pots.
To Mr. Green, Gardener to Sir E. Antrobus, Bart., F.H.S.,

for six distinct varieties of Greenhouse Azalea.
To the same, for six varieties of Tall Cacti.
To A. Rowland, Esq., F.H.S., for twelve varieties of Roses

in pots.
To Messrs. Paul, of Cheshunt, for the same.
To Mr. May, Gardener to Mrs. Lawrence, F.H.S., for ten

varieties of Cape Heath.
To Mr. Fairbairn, of Clapham, for the same.
To Mr. Roser, Gardener to J. Bradbury, Esq., of Streat-

ham, for ten varieties of Cape Heath in 11-inch pots.
To Mr. Epps, of Maidstone, for the same.
To Mr. Carson, Gardener to W. F. G. Farmer, Esq.,

F.H.S., for a single specimen of Dendrobium moschatum.
To Messrs. Backhouse, of York, for Laelia purpurata.
To E. Lawrence, Esq., of Grove Terrace, Kentish Town,

for twelve varieties of Pelargonium, in 8-inch pots.
To Mr. Turner, of Slough, for the same.
To the same, for six varieties of Fancy Pelargonimn, in 8-

inch pots.
To Mr. Parker, Gardener to J. M. Strachan, Esq., F.H.S.,

for six varieties of Pelargonium, in 11-inch pots.
To Mr. Westwood, of Acton Lane, for the same.
To Mr. Robinson, Gardener to J. Simpson, Esq., of Thames

Bank, Pimlico, for six varieties of Fancy Pelargonium, in

8-inch pots.

JTie Certificate of Excellence : —

To Mr. Stanly, Gardener to H. Berens, Esq., F.H.S., for a
collection of twenty Stove and Greenhouse Plants.

To Mr. Speed, of Edmonton, for a collection of fifteen Stove
and Greenhouse Plants.

e 2

Xlviii PKOCEEDINGS.

To Mr. Over, Gardener to W. M'Mullen, Esq., of Clap-
ham, for a collection of six Stove and Greenhouse Plants,

in 13-ineh pots.
To Mr. Green, Gardener to Sir E. Antrobus, Bart., F.H.S.,

for six species of Exotic Orchids.
To Messrs. Veitch, for a collection of Helichrysums.
To the same, for a collection of Nepenthes.
To Mr. Woolley, Gardener to H. B. Ker, Esq., of Ches-

hunt, for a collection of Hothouse Ferns.
To the same, for a similar exhibition produced in May.
To Mr. Bruce, Gardener to B. Miller, Esq., of Collier's

Wood, Merton, for a single specimen of Erica Massoni.
To Mr. May, Gardener to Mrs. Lawrence, F.H.S., for six

distinct varieties of Greenhouse Azalea.
To Mr. Roser, Gardener to J. Bradbury, Esq., of Streat-

ham, for twelve varieties of Roses in pots.
To the same, for six varieties of Fancy Pelargonium, in 8-

inch pots.
To Mr. Francis, of Hertford, for twelve varieties of Roses,

in pots.
To Mr. Cole, Gardener to H. Colyer, Esq., of Dartford, for

ten varieties of Cape Heath.
To Messrs. Fraser, for the same.
To Mr. Watson, Gardener to Mrs. Tredwell, of St. John's

Lodge, Norwood, for ten varieties of Cape Heath, in 11-

inch pots.
To Mr. Clarke, of Streatham Place, Brixton, for the same.
To Mr. Taylor, Gardener to J. Coster, Esq., of Streatham,

for six varieties of Cape Heath, in 8-inch pots.
To Messrs. Standish and Noble, of Bagshot, for two new

evergreen pinnated Chinese Berberries.
To Mr. Franklin, Gardener to Mrs. Lawrence, F.H.S., for

a single specimen of Aerides odoratum.
To Mr. Westwood, of Acton Lane, for twelve varieties of

Pelargonium in 8-inch pots.
To the same, for six varieties of Fancy Pelargonium, in

8-inch pots.
To Mr. Turner, of Slough, for six varieties of Pelargonium,

in 11 -inch pots.
To Mr. Constantine, Gardener to C. Mills, Esq., of Hilling-
don, for six varieties of Calceolaria, in 8-inch pots.
To Mr. Gaines, of Battersea, for the same.
To Mr. Collinson, Gardener to the Marquess of Westmin-
ster, Eaton Hall, Cheshire, for a Queen Pine Apple,

weighing 4 lbs. 4 oz.
To the same, for a Providence Pine Apple, weighing 10 lbs.

8oz.

PROCEEDINGS. xllX

To Mr. Turnbull, Gardener to the Duke of Marlborough, at

Blenheim, for a Smooth Cayenne Pine Apple, weighing

4 lbs. IHoz.
To Mr. Dods, Gardener to Sir J. Cathcart, Bart., F.H.S.,

for Black Hamburgh Grapes.
To Mr. Davis, of East Barnet, for the same.
To Mr. Lushey, Gardener to J. Hill, Esq., of the Rookery,

Streatham Common, for Black Prince Grapes.
To Mr. Allport, Gardener to H. Arkroyd, Esq., of Dodding-

ton Park, Nantwich, for Muscat Grapes.
To Mr. Summerby, Gardener to Major Martin, of Fern

Cottage, Windsor Forest, for White Frontignan Grapes.

The Large Silver Medal : —

To Messrs. Pamplin, of Lea Bridge Road, Essex, for a

collection of twenty Stove and Greenhouse Plants.
To the same, for ten varieties of Cape Heath, in 11-inch pots.
To Mr. Laybank, Gardener to T. Maudslay, Esq., of Knight's

Hill, Norwood, for a collection of six Stove and Green-
house Plants, in 13-inch pots.
To the same, for ten varieties of Cape Heath.
To Mr. Dods,: Gardener to Sir J. Cathcart, Bart., F.H.S.,

for six species of Exotic Orchids.
To Mr. Green, Gardener to Sir E. Antrobus, Bart., F.H.S.,

for a collection of Helichrysums.
To Mr. Over, Gardener to W. M 'Mullen, Esq., of Clapham,

for a single specimen of Hoya bella.
To Mr. Williams, Gardener to C. B. Warner, Esq., F.H.S.,

for a collection of Hothouse Ferns.
To the same, for a collection of Variegated Orchids.
To Mr. Pawley, of Bromley, for ten varieties of Cape

Heath.
To Mr. Jar vis. Gardener to J. Ruck, Esq., of Croydon, for

ten varieties of Cape Heath in 11 -inch pots.
To Mr. Speed, of Edmonton, for six varieties of Cape Heath

in 8-inch pots.
To Mr. Terry, Gardener to Lady Puller, of Youngsbury,

Herts, for twenty-five varieties of cut Roses.
To Mr. Ivison, Gardener to the Duke of Northumberland,

F.H.S., for two leaves of Victoria Regia.
To Mr. Ayres, of Blackheath, for six varieties of Fancy

Pelargonium in 8-inch pots.
To Mr. Franklin, Gardener to Mrs. Lawrence, F.H.S., for

six varieties of Calceolaria in 8-inch pots.
To Mr. Draper, Gardener to the Bishop of Salisbury, for a

Queen Pine Apple weighing 4 lbs. 1 oz.

1 PROCEEDINGS.

To Mr. Davis, Gardener to Lord Boston, F.H.S , for a Pro-
vidence Pine Apple weighing 8 lbs. 7 oz.

To Mr. Grienger, Gardener to S. Smitli, Esq., F.II.S., for
Black Ilambnrgli Grapes.

To Mr. Mitchell, of Kemp Town, Brighton, for the same.

To Mr. Martin, Gardener to Sir H. Fleetwood, Bart., F.H.S.,
for Black Prince Grapes.

To tlie same, for Black Frontignan Grapes.

To Mr. Smith, Gardener to S. Ricai-do, Esq., of Titness
Park, Sunning Hill, for White Muscadine Grapes.

To Mr. Harrison, of Oatlands Palace Gardens, Wej'bridge,
for Muscat Grapes.

To Mr. Fleming, Gardener to the Duke of Sutherland,
F.H.S., at Trenthara, for six Royal George Peaclies.

To the same, for six Murray Nectarines.

The Silver Knightian 3Ieclal : —

To Mr. Stuart, Gardener to T. Iluggins, Esq., of Norwood,
for a collection of six Stove and Greenhouse Plants in
13-inch pots.

To the same, for a collection of Helichrysnms.

To Mr. Kinghorn, Gardener to the Earl of Kilmorey,
F.H.S., for six species of Exotic Orchids.

To Mr. May, Gardener to Mrs. Lawrence, F.H.S., for a
single specimen of Erica Cavendishii.

To Messrs. Rollisson for Cissus discolor.

To Mr. Woolley, Gardener to H. B. Ker, Esq., of Cheshunt,
for a collection of Lycopods.

To Mr. Stanly, Gardener to H. Berens, Esq., F.H.S., for ten
varieties of Cape Heath, in 11-inch pots.

To Mr. Hamp, Gardener to J. Thorne, Esq., of South Lam-
beth, for six varieties of Cape Heath, in 8-inch pots.

To Mr. Parker, Gardener to J. M. Strachan, Esq., F.H.S.,
for sis species of Cape Pelargonium.

To Mr. Cole, Gardener to H. Colyer, Esq., of Streatliam,
for a single specimen of Cattleya Mossiee.

To Messrs. Backhouse, of York, for Cleisostoma ? crassi-
folium.

To Mr. Williams, Gardener to C. B. Warner, Esq., F.H.S.,
for Lemons, Citrons, and Oranges.

To Mr. Bragg, of Slough, for twelve varieties of Pelargo-
nium, in 8-inch pots.

To Mr. Gaines, of Battersea, for six varieties of Fancy
Pelargonium, in 8-inch pots.

To Mr. Willmer, of Sunbury, for twelve varieties of Pinks,
in 8-inch pots.

PEOCEEDINGS. li

To the same for twenty-four varieties of Pinks in boxes.

To Mr. Roser, Gardener to J. Bradbury, Esq., of Streatham,
for six varieties of Calceolaria, in 8-inch pots.

To Mr. Turner, of Slough, for twelve varieties of Pansies,
in 8-inch pots.

To Mr. Jarvis, Gardener to J. Ruck, Esq., of Croydon,
for a Queen Pine Apple, weighing 3 lbs. 9 oz.

To Mr. Davies, Gardener to J. Dixon, Esq., of Astle Park,
Knutsford, Cheshire, for a Providence Pine Apple, weigh-
ing 8 lbs. 6 oz. T- TT o

To Mr. Frost, Gardener to Lady Grenville, F.H.b., at
Dropmore, for Black Hamburgh Grapes.

To Mr. Harrison, Gardener to M. Ricardo, Esq., F.H.S.,
for Black Prince Grapes.

To Mr. Rust, Gardener to J. Maclaren, Esq., F.H.S., for
White Muscadine Grapes,

To Mr. Collinson, Gardener to the Marquess of West-
minster, Eaton Hall, Cheshire, for six Royal George
Peaches.

To the same, for an Egyptian Green-fleshed Melon.

To Mr. Tillyard, Gardener to Lord Southampton, F.H.S.,
for six Elruge Nectarines,

To Mr. Smith, of Twickenham, for British Queen Straw-
berries.

To the same, for the same variety in pots.
To Mr. Wortley, Gardener to Mrs. Maubert, of Norwood,
for British Queen Strawberries.

The Silver Banksian Medal : —
To Mr. Hamp, Gardener to J. Thorne, Esq., of South

Lambeth, for a collection of six Stove and Greenhouse

Plants, in 13-inch pots.
To Mr. Taylor, Gardener to J. Coster, Esq., of Streatham,

for a collection of Helichrysums.
To Messrs. Veitch, for Rhododendron album grandiflorum.
To the same, for Streptocarpus biflorus.
To Mr. Stuart, Gardener to T. Huggins, Esq., of Norwood,

for a collection of Lycopods.
To Mr. Turner, of Holloway, for twelve Alpine Plants.
To Mr. Smith, Gardener to W. Quilter, Esq., of Norwood,

for a single specimen of Erica Bergiana.
To Mr. Bragg, of Slough, for twelve varieties of Pansies, in

8-inch pots.
To Mr. Williams, Gardener to C. B. Warner, Esq., F.H.S.,

for White Muscadine Grapes.

lii PBOCEEDIiNGS.

To Mr. Chapman, Gardener to J. B. Glegg, Esq., F.H.S.,

for six Bellegarde Peaches.
To the same, for six Brugnon Nectarines.
To Mr. Bailey, Gardener to G. Harcourt, Esq., F.H.S., for

six Brown Ischia Figs.
To Mr. Judd, Gardener to Earl Spencer, F.H.S., at Althorp,

for British Queen Strawberries.
To Mr. Mann, of Mogden Lane, Isleworth, for the same.
To Mr. Fleming, Gardener to the Duke of Sutherland,

F.H.S., at Trentham, for a Trentham Hybrid Melon.
To Mr. Cole, Gardener to H. Colyer, Esq., of Dartford, for

a Hoosainee Scarlet-fleshed Melon.

The Certificate of Merit : —
To Mr. Cole, Gardener to H. Colyer, Esq., of Dartford, for

a single specimen of Leschenaultia formosa.
To Mr. Turner, of Holloway, for a collection of British

Orchids.
To Messrs. Standish and Noble, for Lilium sinicum.
To Mr. Over, Gardener to W. M'Mullen, Esq., of Clapham,

for Hoya bella, var. Paxtoni.
To Messrs. E. G. Henderson, of Wellington Road, St. John's

Wood, for a Seedling Hybrid Pelargonium.
To Mr. Braid, Gardener to H. Perkins, Esq., F.H.S., for

six Brown Turkey Figs.
To Mr. Turnbull, Gardener to the Duke of Marlborough, at

Blenheim, for British Queen Strawberries.

jv^.B. — Among Nurserymen who showed ten varieties of
Cape Heath, Mr. Epps, of Maidstone, would have stood first if
he had complied with the regulations.

The Judges much commended the Muscat Grapes exhibited
by Mr, Turnbull, Gardener to the Duke of Marlborough, at
Blenheim ; but could award no prize in consequence of their
unripeness.

June 22, 1852. (Regent Street.)

I.— ELECTIONS.

Lady Jane Walsh, Warfield Park, Bracknell, Berks. Charles
Townley, Esq., Townley, Burnley, Lancashire. Lady
Cooke, Wheatley, near Doncaster. John Sherborne Tench,
Esq., The Wilderness, Hampton. — Bartlett, Esq., Banker,
Buckingham.

PROCEEDINGS. liji

II.— AWARDS.

Banksian Medal : —

To Messrs. Standish and Co., of Bagsliot, for a new Clematis
(lanuginosa), found in the north of China by Mr. Fortune.
It resembles C. azurea, but it is different from that species,
and will probably be hardier. The blossoms are large and
handsome ; but they were not seen under the best condi-
tions, for the plant was small, and it had been forced into
bloom somew hat prematurely. It was remarkable for the
wool upon the back of the flowers and leaves.

Certificate of Merit : —

To Mr. "Waterer, of Bagshot, for a deep purplish crimson
Rhododendron called Celebrandimi, with large heads of
well-shaped flowers of good substance. It was stated to be
a cross between R. maximum and altaclerense, and to be
among the latest kinds known — a very important property,
since it is thus secured against spring frosts.

To Mr. Jones, Gardener to Sir J. Guest, Bart., F.H.S., for a
Ripley Queen Pine Apple, weighing 5 lbs. 3 oz.

To Mr. Chapman, Gardener to the Earl of Gainsborough, at
Exton Park, Oakham, for two examples of a hybrid INIelon,
weighing respectively 3 lbs. 8 oz. and 4 lbs. 2 oz. It was
stated to be a cross between the Trentham Hybrid and a
small Melon called the Chinese Green-fleshed. It had
sometliing of the appearance of the Bromham Hall, and was
found to be excellently flavoured.

III.— MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS OF EXHIBITION.

From Mr. Macintosh, Nurseryman, Stranraer-place, Maida
Vale, came Cantua pyrifolia in bloom. It has fine glossy green
leaves and pale lemon-coloured flowers, which are not, however,
very striking.

A cut specimen of a seedling Pelargonium, resembling
Luceum roseum, was shown by Mr. Middlewood, of Hornsey-road.

The Hon. W. F. Strangways contributed flowering branches
of the following plants, which have been proved to be hardy at
Abbotsbury, in Dorsetshire, viz., Veronica formosa, V. decussata,
Melaleuca thymifolia, Echeveria secunda, Diplacus glutinosus,
Epacris heteronema, Grevillea acanthifolia, Swammerdamia
glomulifera. They were accompanied by Iris Monnieri, Gla-
diolus Segetum, and a piece of a branch, split in two and nearly
2 inches in diameter, of Callitris quadrivalvis, a Coniferous tree
inhabiting the mountains of Barbary, where it is called the Arar

VOL. VII. f

liv PROCEEDINGS.

tree, and largely used for building purposes, it being remarkable
for the durability of its wood.

From Mr. Martin, Gardener to Sir H. Fleetwood, Bart.,
Hill House, Windsor Forest, came Elruge Nectarines and Black
Prince and Black Hamburgh Grapes.

Mr. Summerby, Gardener to Major Martyn, of Fern Cottage,
Windsor, sent a specimen in a pot of what was considered by
liim to be a new kind of Vine. It proved, however, to be only
the Alexandrian Ciotat, a variety remarkable for its singularly
cut foliage, but seldom cultivated on account of its want of pro-
ductiveness and inferior quality,

IV.— NOVELTIES FROM THE SOCIETY'S GARDEN.

Cut specimens, in bloom, of the Californian Cerasus ilicifolia,
or evergreen Plum, which is now flowering in the Garden for the
first time. Its blossoms resemble those of a Portugal Laurel,
and they are said to be succeeded by fi-uit as large as a Sloe, and
which is eatable; but it was mentioned that as it belongs to a
suspicious family, a trial of its eatable quality must be made with
caution.

The following proposed alteration in the by-laws was read a
second time : — " The Council hereby give notice that they pro-
pose to substitute for Chapter 8, Article 1, of the present by-
liuvs, namely, ' The number of honorary members shall not at
any time exceed five,' the following words : ' The number of
honorary members shall not at any time exceed ten.' "

v.— BOOKS PRESENTED.

Archives du Museum d'Histoire Naturelle, Tome 5, Livraison 4, and Tome 6, Livraisons 1

and 2. From the Museum of Natural History, Paris.
The Garden Companion for June. From the Publishers.
The Athenaeum for May. From the Editor.

PROCEEDINGS AT MEETINGS OF THE
SOCIETY.

July 10, 1852. (Garden Exhibition.)

The number of visitors on this occasion, exclusive of exhibitors
and persons officially employed, amounted to 8820. The weatlier
was extremely propitious, permitting an inspection of the beau-
tiful grounds of Chiswick House, thrown open to the meeting by
the noble President of the Society, to be made under the most
favourable circumstances. The exhibition, too, was excellent —
in some respects, perhaps, the finest of the season. The fruit, as
usual, formed the most remarkable feature.

I.— AWARDS.
The Large Gold Medal: —

To Mr. May, Gardener to Mrs. Lawrence, F.H.S., for a col-
lection of twenty Stove and Greenhouse Plants.

To Mr. Franklin, Gardener to Mrs. Lawrence, F.Ii.S., for
twenty species of Exotic Orchids.

The Gold Knightian 3Iedal : —

To Mr. Cole, Gardener to H. Colyer, Esq., of Dartford,

for a collection of twenty Stove and Greenhouse Plants.
To Mr. Green, Gardener to Sir E. Antrobus, Bart., F.H.S.,

for a collection of fifteen Stove and Greenhouse Plants.
To Mr. May, Gardener to Mrs. Lawrence, F.H.S., for a

collection of six Stove and Greenhouse Plants, in 20-inch

pots.
To Mr. Williams, Gardener to C. B. Warner, Esq., F.Ii.S.,

for twenty species of Exotic Orchids.

The Gold Banksian Medal : —

To Messrs. Eraser, of Lea Bridge Road, Essex, for a collec-
tion of twenty Stove and Greenhouse Plants.

To Mr. Speed, of Edmonton, for a collection of fifteen Stove
and Greenhouse Plants.

To Mr. Watson, Gardener to Mrs. Tredwell, of St. John's
Lodge, Norwood, for a collection of six Stove and Green-
house Plants, in 20-inch pots.

vox. VII. g

ivi PROCEEDINGS.

To Messrs. RoUisson, of Tooting, for fifteen species of

Exotic Orchids.
To Mr. Carson, Gardener to W. F. G. Farmer, Esq., F.H.S.,

for ten species of Exotic Orchids.
To Mr. Cole, Gardener to H. Colyer, Esq., of Dartford, for

ten varieties of Cape Heath.
To Mr. Epps, of Maidstone, for the same.
To Mr. Robinson, Gardener to J. Simpson, Esq., of Thames

Bank, Pimlico, for twelve varieties of Pelargonium, in

8-inch pots.
To Mr. Turner, of Slough, for the same.

llie Large Silver- Gilt Medal : —

To Mr. Taylor, Gardener to J. Coster, Esq., of Streatham,

for a collection of twenty Stove and Greenhouse Plants.
To Mr. Carson, Gardener to W. F. G. Farmer, Esq., F.H.S.,

for a collection of fifteen Stove and Greenhouse Plants.
To Mr. Over, Gardener to W. M'Mullen, Esq., of Clapham,

for a collection of six Stove and Greenhouse Plants, in

13-inch pots.
To Mr. Woolley, Gardener to H. B. Ker, Esq., of Cheshunt,

for ten species of Exotic Orchids.
To Mr. Ivison, Gardener to the Duke of Northumberland,

F.H.S., at Sion, for six species of Exotic Orchids.
To Messrs. Lee, of Hammersmith, for a collection of varie-
gated Stove and Greenhouse Plants.
To Mr. Smith, Gardener to W. Quilter, Esq., of Norwood,

for ten varieties of Cape Heath.
To Messrs. Eraser, of Lea Bridge Road, for the same.
To Mr. Laybank, Gardener to T. Maudslay, Esq., of Norwood,

for ten varieties of Cape Heath, in 11 -inch pots.
To Mr. Clarke, of Streatham Place, Brixton, for the same.
To Mr. Stains, of Middlesex Place, New Road, for twelve

varieties of Pelargonium, in 8-inch pots.
To Mr. Gaines, of Battersea, for the same.
To Mr. Bonham, Gardener to Mrs. Madderford, of Staines,

for six varieties of Pelargonium, in 1 1-inch pots.
To Mr. Westwood, of Acton Lane, for the same.
To Mr. Miller, Gardener to R. Mosley, Esq., of Pine Apple

Place, Maida Hill, for six varieties of Fancy Pelargonium,

in 8-inch pots.
To Mr. Turner, of Slough, for the same.

The Certificate of Excellence : —

To Mr. Dods, Gardener to Sir J. Cathcart, Bart., F.H.S.,
for a collection of fifteen Stove and Greenhouse Plants.

PKOCEEDINGS, |yij

To Mr. Watson, Gardener to Mrs. Tredwell, St. .John's

Lodge, Norwood, for a collection of six Stove and Green-
house Plants, in 13-inch pots.
To the same, for ten varieties of Cape Heath, in 1 1-inch pots.
To Mr. Green, Gardener to Sir E. Antrobus, Bart., for six

species of Exotic Orchids.
To the same, for a collection of Helichrysuras.
To Messrs. Rollisson, for six varieties of Achimenes.
To the same, for a collection of variegated Stove and Green-
house Plants.
To the same, for ten varieties of Cape Heath.
To Mr. Woolley, Gardener to H. B. Ker, Esq., of Cheshunt,

for a collection of Hothouse Ferns.
To Mr. Smith, Gardener to W. Quilter, Esq., of Norwood,

for a single specimen of Erica retorta major.
To Mr. Cole, Gardener to H. Colyer, Esq., of Dartford, for

Medinilla Sieboldi.
To Mr. May, Gardener to Mrs. Lawrence, F.H.S., for ten

varieties of Cape Heath.
To Messrs. Pamplin, for ten varieties of Cape Heath, in 11-
inch pots.
To Mr. Taylor, Gardener to J. Coster, Esq., of Streatham,

for six varieties of Cape Heath in 8-inch pots.
To the same, for Muscat Grapes.
To Mr. Pestridge, Gardener to W. Newnham, Esq., of

Englefield Green, Egham, for six varieties of Fuchsia.
To Messrs. Paul, of Cheshunt, for fifty varieties of cut

Roses.
To Mr. Parker, Gardener to J. M. Strachan, Esq., F.H.S.,

for twelve varieties of Pelargonium, in 8-inch pots.
To the same, for six varieties of Pelargonium, in 11-inch pots.
To Mr. Westwood, of Acton Lane, for twelve varieties of

Pelargonium, in 8-inch pots.
To Mr. Robinson, Gardener to J. Simpson, Esq., of Thames

Bank, Pimlico, for six varieties of Fancy Pelargonium, in

8-inch pots.
To Mr. Gaines, of Battersea, for the same.
To Mrs. Conway, of Earl's Court, Brompton, for six varieties

of Scarlet Pelargonium, in 8-inch pots.
To Mr. Jones, Gardener to Sir J. Guest, Bart., F.H.S., for

a Queen Pine Apple, weighing 5 lbs. 1 oz.
To Mr. Dods, Gardener to Col. Baker, F.H.S., for a Prickly

Cayenne Pine Apple, weighing 5 lbs. 14 oz.
To Mr. Turnbull, Gardener to the Duke of Marlborough,

at Blenheim, for a Providence Pine Apple, weighing 6 lbs.

4 oz.

9 2

Iviii PROCEEDINGS.

To Mr. Davis, of Oak Hill, for a Providence Pine Apple,

weighing 7 lbs. 2 oz.
To Mr. Allport, Gardener to H. Akroyd, Esq., of Dodding-

ton Park, Nantwich, for Black Hamburgh Grapes.
To the same, for Black Frontignan Grapes.
To Mr. Lushey, Gardener to J. Hill, Esq., of Streatliam, for

Black Prince Grapes.
To Mr. Rust, Gardener to J. Maclaren, Esq., F.H.S., for

White Muscadine Grapes.

The Large Silver Medal : —

To Messrs. Pamplin, of Lea Bridge Road, Essex, for a collec-
tion of fifteen Stove and Greenhouse Plants.
To Mr. Kinghorn, Gardener to the Earl of Kilmorey, F.H.S.,

for a collection of six Stove and Greenhouse Plants, in

13-inch pots.
To Mr. Godfrey, Gardener to J. Lister, Esq., of Tottenham,

for six varieties of Achimenes.
To Mr. Taylor, Gardener to J. Coster, Esq., of Streathani,

for a collection of Helichrysums.
To Mr. Over, Gardener to W. M'Mullen, Esq., of Clap-
ham, for six varieties of Kalosanths.
To Mr. Williams, Gardener to C. B. Warner, Esq., F.H.S.,

for a collection of Hothouse Ferns.
To Messrs. Henderson, of Pine Apple Place, Tor a collection

of variegated Stove and Greenhouse Plants.
To Mr. Green, Gardener to Sir E. Antrobus, Bart., F.H.S.,

for a single specimen of Erica Savileana.
To Messrs. Veitch, of Exeter, for Dracaena indivisa.
'Jo Messrs. Standish and Noble, of Bagshot, for Abies

Jezoensis.
To Mr. Fairbaifn, of Claphara, for ten varieties of Cape Heath.
To Mr. Jarvis, Gardener to J. Buck, Esq., of Croydon, for

ten varieties of Cape Heath, in 11-inch pots.
To Mr. Speed, of Edmonton, for six varieties of Cape Heath,

in 8-inch pots.
To Mr. Franklin, Gardener to Mrs. Lawrence, F.H.S., for

six varieties of Fuchsia.
To Mr. Parker, Gardener to J. M. Strachan, Esq., F.H.S.,

for six species of Cape Pelargonium.
To Messrs. Lane, of Great Berkhampstead, for fifty varieties

of cut Roses.
To Mr. Terry, Gardener to Lady Puller, of Youngsbury,

Herts, for twenty-five varieties of cut Roses.
To Mr. Stains, of Middlesex Place, New Road, for six

varieties of Fancy Pelargonium, in 8-inch pots.

PROCEEDINGS. Hx

To Mr. Westwood, of Acton Lane, for tlie same.

To Mr. Salter, of Hammersmith, for six varieties of Scarlet

Pelargonium, in 8-inch pots.
To Mr. Bray, Gardener to E. Lousada, Esq., of Peak House,

Sidmouth, Devon, for a Queen Pine Apple, weighing

4 lbs. 12 oz.
To the same, for an Enville Pine Apple, weigliing 7 lbs,

10 oz.
To Mr. Price, Gardener to W. Thompson, Esq., for a Provi-
dence Pine Apple, weighing 6 lbs.
To Mr. Butcher, Gardener to W. Leaf, Esq., F.H.S., for

Black Hamburgh Grapes.
To Mr. Harrison, of Oatlands Palace Gardens, Weybridge,

for the same.
To Mr. Martin, Gardener to Sir H. Fleetwood, Bart.,

F.?I.S., for Black Prince Grapes.
To Mr. Tillyard, Gardener to Lord Southampton, F.H.S.,

for White Muscadine Grapes.
To the same, for six Elruge Nectarines.
To Mr. Turnbull, Gardener to the Duke of Marlborough, at

Blenheim, for Muscat Grapes.
To Mr. Campbell, Gardener to J. B. Pease, Esq., of North

Lodge, Darlington, for "White Frontignan Grapes.
To Mr. Brown, Gardener to W. C. Cartwright, Esq., of

Aynhoe Park, Northamptonshire, for six Peaches.
To Mr. Davis, of Oak Hill, for six Elruge Nectarines.

Tfie Silver Ktiightian Medal : —

To Mr. Hamp, Gardener to J. Tiiorne, Esq., of South Lam-
beth, for a collection of six Stove and Greenhouse Plants,
in 13-inch pots.

To Mr. Godfrey, Gardener to R. Dawson, Esq., of Totten-
ham, for six varieties of Achimenes.

To Mr. Ivison, Gardener to the Duke of Northumberland,
F.H.S., at Sion, for Nelumbium speciosum.

To the same, for a set of Miscellaneous Plants.

To the same, for Black Hamburgh Grapes.

To Mr. Turner, of HoUoway, for twelve Alpines.

To Mr. Constantine, Gardener to C. Mills, Esq., of Hilling-
don, for a single specimen of Lisianthus Russellianus.

To Messrs. Henderson, of Pine Apple Place, for Araucaria
Cookii.

To Messrs. Standish and Noble, of Bagshot, for Cephalo-
taxus Fortuni.

To Mr. Roser, Gardener to J. Bradbury, Esq., F.H.S., for
six varieties of Cape Heath, in 8-inch pots.

To Messrs. Eraser, for six varieties of Fuchsia.

Ix PROCEKDINGS.

To Mr. Watson, Gardener to Mrs. Tredwell, of St. Jolin's
Lodge, Norwood, for six species of Cape Pelargonium.

To Mr. Francis, of Hertford, for fifty varieties of cut Roses.

To A. Rowland, Esq., F.II.S., for twenty-five varieties of
cut Roses.

To Mr. Bragg, of Slough, for twelve varieties of Pelargo-
nium, in 8-inch pots.

To Mr. Turner, of Slough, for twenty-four varieties of
Pinks in boxes.

To Mr. Forbes, Gardener to the Duke of Bedford, F.II.S.,
at Woburn, for a Queen Pine Apple, weighing 4 lbs. 4 oz.

To Mr. Eaden, of New Road, Shacklewell, for Black Ham-
burgh Grapes.

To Mr. Turnbull, Gardener to the Duke of Marlborough at
Blenheim, for Black Prince Grapes.

To Mr. Williams, Gardener to C. B. Warner, Esq., F.H.S.,
for White Muscadine Grapes.

To Mr. Henderson, Gardener to Sir G. Beaumont, Bart., for
Grizzly Frontignan Grapes.

To Mr. Snow, Gardener to the Earl de Grey, F.H.S., for six
Violette Hative Peaches.

To the same, for Black Tartarian Cherries.

To the same, for Elton Cherries.

To Mr. Collinson, Gardener to the Marquess of Westminster,
at Eaton Hall, Cheshire, for six Elruge Nectarines.

To the same, for an Egyptian Green Fleshed Melon.

To Mr. Meyers, of Brentford, for Black Tartarian Cherries.

To Mr. Marcham, Gardener to J. Smith, Esq., F.H.S., for
British Queen Strawberries.

To Mr. Beach, Sen., of Isleworth, for British Queen Straw-
berries.

To Mr. Beach, Jun., for British Queen Strawberries, in pots.

To Mr. Lydiard, of Bath Easton, Bath, for a Victory of Batli
Melon.

To Mr. Gadd, of Bletchworth Castle, Dorking, for George
the Fourth's Scarlet-fleshed Melon.

The Silver Banksian Medal : —

To Mr. Woolley, Gardener to H. B. Ker, Esq., of Cheshunt,

for six varieties of Achimenes.
To Messrs. Pamplin, for Erica obbata umbellata.
To Mr. Williams, Gardener to C. B. Warner, Esq., F.H.S.,

for a set of miscellaneous plants.
To Messrs. Eraser, for a single specimen of Kalosanthes

coccinea.
To Messrs. Lane, of Great Berkhampstead. for Achimenes

Marffaretta".

PROCEEDINGS. ]xi

To Mr. Ivison, Gardener to the Duke of Northumberland,

F.H.S., at Sion, for specimens of Vanilla fruit.
To Mr. Over, Gardener to W. M'Mullen, Esq., of Nor-
wood, for six varieties of Cape Heath, in 8-incli pots.
To Mr. Bray, Gardener to Baron Goldsmid, F.H.S., for six

varieties of Fuchsia.
To S. Bennett, Esq., of Bath, for twenty-five varieties of cut

Roses.
To Mr. Hunt, of Sale Street, Paddington, for twelve varieties

of Pelargonium, in 8-inch pots.
To Mr. Baker, of Woolwicli, for twenty-four varieties of

Pinks in boxes.
To Mr. Bragg, of Slough, for the same.
To Mr. Mitchell, Gardener to St. J. C. Charlton, Esq., of

Apley Castle, Salop, for White Muscadine Grapes.
To Mr. Eastham, Gardener to A. Toy, Esq., of Acton, for

six Noblesse Peaches.
To Mr. Brown, Gardener to "VV. C. Cartwright, Esq., of

Aynhoe Park, Northamptonshire, for six Nectarines.
To Mr. Judd, Gardener to Earl Spencer, K.G., F.H.S., for

White Genoa and Marseilles Figs.
To Mr. Gainsford, of Brentford, for Black Tartarian Cherries.
To Mr. Hargen, Gardener to R. W. Edgell, Esq., of Milton

Place, Egham, for British Queen Strawberries.
To Mr. Lack, of Turnham Green, for the same.
To Mr. Grant, Gardener to G- H. Sims, Esq., of Bathwick

Hill, near Bath, for a Victory of Bath Melon.

Tlie Certificate of Merit : —

To Mr. Munro, Gardener to the Earl of Clarendon, the

Grove, Watford, for six varieties of Achimenes.
To Messrs. Henderson, of Pine Apple Place, for Phlox

Mayii variegata and P. Thompsoni.
To Mr. Ivison, Gardener to the Duke of Northumberland,

F.H.S., at Sion, for a single specimen of Erica metu-

laeflora bicolor.
To Mr. Carson, Gardener to W. F. G. Farmer, Esq.,

F.H.S., for Epidendrum sp. nova.
To Messrs. Rollisson, for ^chmea miniata.
To Messrs. Veitch, for Collinsia bartsisefolia.
To the same, for Leptosiphon sp. nova.
To Mr. Jones, of Brentford, for Black Tartarian Cherries.
To Mr. Elliott, Gardener to Mrs. Boothby, of Twyford Abbey,

Acton, for British Queen Strawberries.
To Mr. Lydiard, of Bath Easton, Bath, for the same.

Ixii PROCEEDINGS.

Jtilj 20, 1852. (Regent Street.)

Ill consequence of a .sufficient nuiiibei" of Fellows not being
present on tliis occasion, a quorum was not formed. The fol-
lowing subjects were, however, presented for exhibition : —

Mr. Glendiniiing, F.H.S., sent a collection of Gloxinias, con-
sisting of Teuchlerii, Wortleyana, Maria Van Houtte, Mrs.
Griffiths, Rubra, Grandiflora, Baron Rozel, and the following
new kinds: Albert Courtin, Souvenir de Bordeaux, Newelliana,
and Huntleyana.

Mrs. Lawrence, F.H.S., produced a handsomely flowered
Epacris miniata, Saccolabium Blumei and anotlier species, and
the variety of Aerides suavissimum called flavidum.

Mr. Watson, gardener to Mrs. Tredwell, of St. John's Lodge,
Norwood, had Clerodendron fcetidum.

Mr. Ingram, of the Koyal Gardens, Frogmore, sent a very
pretty hybrid Achimenes, with large handsome leaves and deep
orange-scarlet flowers, lined up the centre of the petals with
minute round black dots. It was stated to have been raised
between A. oculata and A. picta. Bunches of the white Cor-
niclion Grape, a large very fleshy variety, of second-rate value,
also came from the same establisliment. As this now exists in
many collections of this country, it may be as well to explain
that it is very difficult to ripen, acquiring perfect maturity only
in the long hot summers of Sicily, and similar parts of the Medi-
terranean. AYhen ripe it is bright amber-coloured.

Messrs. Veitch contributed 12 specimens of the early sweet-
kernelled Kaisha Apricot, of which some account appeared in
vol. iv., p. 189. It is by far the earliest Apricot of good quality
in this country.

Mr. Fleming, gardener to the Duke of Sutherland, F.II.S., at
Trentham, produced a beautiful Moscow Queen Pine-apple,
weighing 5i lbs.

From Mr. Cuthill, of Denmark-hill, Camberwell, came ex-
amples of tlie Lapstone Kidney Potato, wliieh, though a late
sort, was nearly ripe. They had been treated according lo the
plan published in his pamphlet on the Potato.

Specimens of capital glass milk-pans, as cheap as any foreign
ones, were furnished by Mr. Phillips, of Bishopsgate-street.

II.— NOVELTIES FEOM THE SOCIETY'S GARDEN,
A Californian Lily, with small reflexed orange blossoms
spotted with black and tinged at the ends of the petals with
reddish brown.

Along with this also came examples of Neapolitan Cabbage
and white Paris Cos Lettuces, two first-rate varieties which do
not readily run to seed; and the Auvergne Pea, a prolific kind,
easily distinguished by the curved form of its pods.

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