^> N^ LIBRARY OF 1685-1056 PROCEEDINGS OF THE Iowa Academy of Sciences FOF^ IQOO. VOLUME VIII. EDITED BY THE SECRETARY. PUBLISHED BY THE STATE. DES MOINES: B. MURPHY, STATE PRINTER. 1901. vW,/vXiU£-— J>- LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL. Ame8, Iowa, December 31, 1900. To His Excellency, Leslie M. Shaiv, Governor of Iowa: Sir — In accordance with the provision of title 2, chapter 5, section 136, code 1897, I have the honor to transmit here- with the proceedings of the fifteenth annual session of the Iowa Academy of Sciences. Respectfully submitted, your obedient servant, Samuel W. Beyer, Secretary loiva Academy of Sciences. TA.BUe OR COIVTEINTS. PAGE . Official Directory i Constitution of the Academy 3 Members of the Academy 7 Proceedings of the Fifteenth Annual Session 11 Presidents address, by W. H. Norton 17 A Review of the Tettigonidae of North America north of Mexico, by E. D. Ball 35 The Morphology and Function of the Amphibian Ear, bvH. W. Norris 76 A Combination of Chromic Acid, Acetic Acid and Formaline as a Fixitive for Animal Tis- sues, by H. W. Norris 78 Note on the Time of Sexual Maturity in Certain Unios, by H. M. Kelly 81 The Influence of Chlorine as Chlorides in the Determination of Oxygen Consumed in the Analysis of Water, by J. B. Weems and J. C. Brown 85 A Study of Some Cotton Seed Oils, by J. B. Weems and H.N. Grettenberg 89 Diphenyl Ether Derivitives, by Alfred N. Cook 94 Some Recent Analyses of Iowa Building Stones; also of Potable Waters, by Nicholas Knight 104 Contribution to the Study of Reversible Reactions, by W. N. Stull no Depositional Equivalent of Hiatus at Base of our Coal Measures; and the Arkansan Series, a New Terrane of the Carboniferous in the Western Interior Basin, by Charles R. Keyes ng Names of Coals West of the Mississippi River, by Charles R. Keyes 128 Volcanic Necks of Piatigorsk, Southern Russia, by Charles R. Keyes 137 A Comparison. of Media for the Quantitative Estimation of Bacteria in Milk, by C. H. Eckles. •■ 139 A Method of Isolating and Counting Gas Producing Bacteria in Milk, by C. H. Eckles... 144 The Total Solar Eclipse of May 28, 1900, by David E. Hadden 145 Preliminary List of the Flowering Plants of Adair County, by James E. Graw 152 The Juglandaceae of Iowa, by T. J. and M. F. L. Fitzpatrick ibo Betulaceae of Iowa, by T. J. and M. F. L. Fitzpatrick i6g The Fagacea of Iowa, by T. J. and M. F. L. Fitzpatrick 177 Shrubs and Trees of Madison County, by H. A. Mueller 196 A Terrace Formation in the Turkey River Valley in Fayette County, Iowa, by G E. Finch. 204 Pure Food Laws, by C. O. Bates 206 Notes on the Early Development of Astragalus Caryocarpus, by F. W. Faurot 210 The Thistles of Iowa, with notes on a few other species, by L. H. Painmel 214 Bacteriological Investigation of the Iowa State College Sewage, by L. R. Walker 240 Notes on the Bacteriological .Analysis of Water, by L. H. Panimel 262 Drift Exposure in Tama County, by T. E. Savage 27?. OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY I goo. President.— W. H Norton. First Vice-President.— B. Fink. Second Vice-President.— Pl. A. Veblen. Treasurer.— 6. B. Weems. Secretary — S. W. Beyer. EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. Ex-Officio.—W. H. Norton, B. Fink, A. A. Veblen, S. W. Beyer. Elective— k. Mabston, J. B,. Sage, B. Shimek. igoi. President.— k. A. Veblen. First Vice-President.—^. E. Summers. Second Vice-President.— S . L. Tilton. Secretary.—'^. W. Beyer. Treasurer.— i. B. Wkems. executive committee. Ex-Officio.—k. A. Veblen, H. E. Summers, J. L. Tilton, S. W. Beyer, J. B. Weems. Elective.— 'iK. F. Arey, H. M. Kelly, C. O. Bates. PAST PRESIDENTS. OsBORN, Herbert 1887-88 Todd, J E 1888-89 Witter, F . M 1 889-90 Nutting. C. C 1890-92 Pammel, L. H 1893 Andrews, L. W 1894 NoRRis, H. W 1895 Hall. T. P 1896 Franklin, W. S 1897 Macbkidk, T. H 1897-98 Hendkixson, W. S 1899 Norton, W. H 1900 Constitution of the Iowa Academy of Sciences. Section 1. This organization shall be known as the Iowa Academy of Sciences. Skc. 2. The object of the Academy shall be the encouragement of scientific work in the state of Iowa. Sec. 3. The membership of the Academy shall consist of (1), fellows who shall be elected from residents of the state of Iowa actively engaged in scientific work, of (3), associate members of the state of Iowa interested in the progress of science, but not direct contributors to original research, and (3), corresponding fellows, to be elected by vote from original workers in science in other states; also, any fellow removing to another state from this may be classed as a corresponding fellow. Nomination by the council and assent of three-fourths of the fellows present at any annual meeting shall be necessary to election. Sec. 4 An entrance fee of $3 shall be required of each fellow, and an annual fee of $1, due at each annual meeting after his election. Fellows in arrears for two years, and failing to respond to notification from the treasurer, shall be dropped from the academy roll. Sec 5. (a) The officers of the academy shall be a president, two vice- presidents, secretary and a treasurer, to be elected at the annual meeting. Their duties shall be such as ordinarily devolve upon these officers. (5) The charter members of the academy shall constitute the council, together with such other fellows as may be elected at an annual meeting of the council by it as members thereof , provided, that at any such election two or more negative votes shall constitute a rejection of the candidate, (c) The council shall have power to nominate fellows, to elect members of the council, fix time and place of meetings, to select papers for publication in the proceed- ings, and have control of all meetings not provided for in general session- It may, by vote, delegate any or all of these powers, except the election of members of the council, to an executive committee, consisting of (he officers and of three other fellows, to be elected by the council. Sec. 6. The academy shall hold an annual meeting in Des Moines dur- ing the week that the State Teachers' association is in session. Other meet- ings may be called by the council at times and places deemed advisable. Sec. 7. All papers presented shall be the result of original investiga- tion, but the council may arrange for public lectures or addresses on scien- tific subjects Sec. 8. The secretary shall each year publish the proceedings of the academy in pamphlet (octavo) form, giving author's abstract of papers, and if published elsewhere, a reference to the place and date of publication; also the full text of such papers as may be designated by the council. If 4 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. published elsewhere the author shall, if practicable, publish in octavo form and deposit separates with the secretary, to be permanently preserved for the academy. Sec. 9. This constitution may be amendpd at any annual meeting by assent of a majority of the fellows voting, and a majority of the council; provided, notice of proposed amendment has been sent to all fellows at least one month previous to the meeting, and provided that absent fellows may deposit their votes, sealed, with the secretary. ARTICLES OF INCORPORATION OF THE IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. ARTICLE I. We, the und^'rsigned, hereby associate ourselves with the intention to constitute a corporation to be known as tlie Iowa Academy of Sciences, the purpose of which is to hold periodical meetings for the presentation and discussion of scientific papers, to publish procee lings, to collect such litera- ture, specimens, records and other property as may serve to advance the interests of the organization, and to transact all such business as may be necessary in the accomplishment of these objects. ARTICLE II. The membership of the corporation shall consist of the incorporators, and such other residents of the state of Iowa as may be duly elected fellows of the academy. ARTICLE III. The duly elected officers of the academy shall be the officers of the cor- poration. ARTICLE IV. The principal place of business of the academy shall be the city of Des Moines, in the state of Iowa. The capital stock of the corporation is none. 'J'he par value of its shares is none. The number of its shares is none. ARTICLE V. The academy shall hold an annual meeting in the last week of Decem- ber, of each year, or upon call of the executive committee, and such other meetings as may be arranged for. ARTICLE VL This corporation shall have the right to acquire property, real and per- sonal, by purchase, gift or exchange, and such property shall be held sub- ject to the action of the majority of its fellows, or the council, the execu- tive committee, or such parties as it may by vote direct to transact such business in accordance with the constitution. All deeds, leases, contracts, conveyances and agreements, and all releases of mortgages, satisfactions of judgments, and other obligations, shall be IOWA ACADEMT OF SCIENCES. 5 signed by the president or vice-president and the secretary, and the signa- ture of these officers shall be conclusive evidence that the execution of the instrument was by authority of the corporation. ARTICLE VII. The private property of the members of this corporation shall not be liable for any of its debts or obligations, ARTICLE VIII. By-laws, rules and regulations, not inconsistent with these articles, may be enacted by the Academy. • ARTICLE IX. These articles may be amended at any meeting of the Academy called for the purpose by assenting vote of two-thirds of the members present. MEMBERSHIP OF THE ACADEMY. FELLOWS. AhDEN, W. C Mount Vernon Almy. F. F Iowa College, Grinnell Akey, M. F State Normal School, Cedar Falls Bakris, W. H Griswold College, Davenport Bates, CO Coe College, Cedar Rapids Beardshear, W. M State College, Ames Bennett, A. A State College, Ames Beyer, S. W State College, Ames BissELL, G. W State ( oUege, Ames Cai.vin, S -.. State University, Iowa City Chappel, George M State Weather Service, Des Moines Ci-ark, Dr. J, Fred Fairfield Cook, Alfred N Morningside College, Sioux City Cratty, R. I Armstrong CuRTiss, C. F State College, Ames Davis, Floyd Des Moines Dennison, O. T Mason City Ende, C. L State University, Iowa City Faurot, F. W State College, Ames Fink, B Upper Iowa University. Fayette Fitzpatrick, T, J Iowa City Fultz, F. M Burlington Hadden, David E Alta Hendrixson, W. S. Iowa College, Grinnell HoLWAY, E. W. D Decorah HousER, G. L State U niversity, Iowa City Kelly, H. M Cornell College, Mt. Vernon Keppel, J. T Upper Iowa University, Fayette Keyes, C. R Des Moines King, Miss Charlotte M State College. Ames Knight, Nicholas Cornell College, Mount Vernon Kuntze, Dr. Otto Iowa City Leonard, A, G Geological Survey, Des Moines Leverett, Frank U. S. Geological Survey, Denmark Marston. a State College, Ames M. CBRiDE, T. H State University, Iowa City Metcalf, Haven Tabor Miller, B. L Penn College. Oskaloosa Newton, G. W State Normal, Cedar Falls 8 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. NoRKis, H. W Iowa College, Grinnell Norton, W. H Cornell College, Mt Vernon Nutting, C. C State University, Iowa City O'DoNOGHUE, J. H Storm Lake Paddock, A, Estella State College, Ames Page, A. C State Normal, Cedar Falls Pammel, L. H State College, Ames Eepp, John J State College, Ames Richer, Maurice Burlington Ross, L. S Drake University, Des Moines Sage, Hon. J. R State Weather Service, Des Moines Shimek, B State University, Iowa City Stanton. E. W State College, Ames Stookey Stephen W Coe College, Cedar Rapids Summers, H. E State College, Ames TiLTON, J. L Simpson College, Indianola Veblen, a. a State University, Iowa City Walker, L. R State College, Ames Weems, J. B State College, Ames WiCKHAM, H. F State University, Iowa City Witter, F. M Muscatine ASSOCIATE members. Adams, P. E Durham Allen, J. R Marble Rock Bailey, Dr. Bert H Cedar Falls Baldwin, F. H Tabor Barnes, Wm. D Blue Grass Begeman, Louis Cedar Falls Biering, Dr. Walter Iowa City Blount, Mary Marshalltown Bond, D. K Rockwell City Boody. Dr. George Independence Bouska, F. W Dairy Commission, Des Moines Brainard, J. M Boone Brown, Eugene Mason Oity Brown, J. C State College, Ame» Brownlie, I. C Ames Cameron, J. E Cedar Rapids Carter, Charles Corydon Crawford, Dr. G. E Cedar Rapids Deyoe, A. M Britt ECKLES, C. H State College, Ames Ellis, Sarah State College, Ames Erwin, a. T State College, Ames Finch, G. E West Union Ford, L. H Webster City GiPFORD, E. H Oskaloosa Gow, J. E State University, Iowa City Gray, C. E Wyoming Greene, Wesley Secretary of the Horticultural Society, Des Moine*' IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. & Grettenburg, H.N Marshalltown Hkrsey, S. F State Normal, Cedar Falls Hess, Alice State College, Ames Hill, Dk. Gekshom H Independence HiNKLE, Hon. G. W Harvard HoDSON, E. R Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C^ Johnson, F. W Des Moines LiTTLK, E. E State College, Ames Livingston, Dr. H Hopkinton Main, J. H. T Iowa College, Grinnell. Miller, A. A Davenport Mueller, Herman. Winterset Myers, P. C Iowa City OsBORN, B. F Rippey Powders, H. E Columbus Junction Radebaugh, J. W Simpson College, Indianola Rolfs, J. A State College, Ame& Sample, A. F Lebanon Savage, J. E Western College, Toledo Simpson, Howard Columbus Junction Skinner, A. S Upper Iowa University, Fayette Smith, Dr. G. L Shenandoah Stewart, Helen W Des Moines Stull, W. N Iowa College, Grinnell Vandivert, Harrikt Witchita, Kansas Walters, G W Cedar Falls Weaver, C. B Denver, Colorado Wilder, F. A Geological Survey. Des Moines Williams, I. A State College, Ames Young, Lewis E State College, Ames ookkksponding members. Arthur. J. C Purdue University, Lafayette, Indiana Bain, H. F • Idaho Springs, Colo'-ado Ball, C. R Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. Ball, E. D Agricultural College, Ft. Collms, Colorado Barbour, E . H State University, Lincoln , Nebraska Bartsch, Paul Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D. C- Beach. S. A Geneva, New York Beach, Alick M University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois Bessey, C. E State University. Lincoln. Nebraska Bruner, H. L Irvington, Indiana Call, K. E 283 Winthrop St., Brooklyn. New York Carver, G W '1 uskegee, Alabama CoBuRN, Gektkudk Kausas City, Kansas Colton, G. H V irginia City, Montana Conrad A. H 1621 Briar Place, Chicago Craig, John Cornell University, Ithaca, New York Drew, Gilman C State College, Orono, Main© Franklin, W. S Lehigh Univ., South Bethlehem, Pennsylvania 10 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. Gillette, C. P Agricultural College, Ft. Collins, Colorado GossARD, H. A Lake City, Florida Hall, T. P Kansas City University, Kansas City, Missouri Halsted, B. D New Brunswick, New Jersey Hansen, N . E Brookings, J?outh Dakota Hansen. Mrs. N . E Brookings, South Dakota Hawokth, Erasmus State University Lawrence, Kansas Heileman, W. H Pullman, Washington Hitchcock, A. S Agricultural College, Manhattan, Kansas Hume, H. H , Lake City Florida Mally, F. W Hulen, Texas McGee, W.J Bureau of Ethnology, Washington, D. C. Meek, S. E Field Columbian Museum, Chicago, Illinois Mills, S. J Denver Colorado Newell, Wilmon Ohio Experiment Station. Wooster, Ohio OsBORN, Herbert State Univers ty, Columbus, Ohio Owens, Eliza Bozeman, Montana Patrick, G. E Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. Read. C. D Weather Bureau. Vicksburg, Mississippi SiRRiNE, F. A Jamaica New York Sirkine, Emma Dysart, Iowa Spencer, A. C U.S. Geological Survey, Washington, D. C Todd, J. E State University, Vermillion, South Dakota Trelease, Dr. William St. Louis, Missouri Udden, J. a Rock Island, Illinois Winslow, Arthur Kansas City, Missouri Youtz, L. A New York City, New York PROCEEDINGS OF THE FIFTEENTH ANNUAL SESSION OF THK IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES The tifteenth annual session of the Iowa Academy of Sciences was held in the rooms of the Iowa Geological Survey at the capitol building in Des Moines, December 26th and 27th, 1900 In the business sessions the following matters of general interest were passed upon: REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. To the 3Iembers of the Iowa Academy of Sciences: During the current year our membership list has been increased by the addition of six fellows, seventeen associate members and two correspond- ing; members; one by special election, Prof R 1). Salisbury, of the Univer- sity of Chicago, and one by transfer, Mr. Wilmon Newell of the Ohio experiment station. The names of two fellows and one associate member were dropped from the academy roll on account of delinquent dues The revised roster now shows fifty six fellows, fifty three associate members and forty-five corresponding members in good standing I am persuaded that there are man> names in the list of associates that should be trans- ferred to the fe lowship 1 st, and I would respectfully recommend that the committee on membership carefully canvass the list of associate members as it now stands, with a view to promoting to fellows, those who have served their apprenticeship. Several of our fellows and members have removed from the state and their names should be considered with a view to their transferrence to the corresponding membership list. Volume Yli of the Proceedings, containing the papers presenteil at the fourteenth annual session has finally made its w.w through the hands of the printer and binder and its distribution to those entitled to it is approaching completion. 12 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. Our exchange list has been extended by the addition of the "Noitherii' Indiana Historical Society," of South Bend, Indiana; ''Ohio State Archaeo- logical and Historical Society," of Columbus, Ohio; and "Wyoming Histor- ical and Geological Society," of WilkesbHrre, Penn. The exchanges of the academy are now being cared for satisf actoi ily by the state librarian. A number of inquiries have been received from members and fellows involving a knowledge of our constitution and by-laws, especially those sections which have been recently amended. I would recommend that a committee be appointed or elected to codify and prepare for printing the constitution and by-laws of the Academy and that the same be printed in the next volume of the proceedings. Respectfully submitted. S. W. Beyer, Secretary.. REPORT OF THE TRE.^SURER FOR 1900 receipts: H. F. Bain, balance S 57.20- For Membership 44.06 Back Dues 3.00 Fellowship Dues 6.00 Sale of Reports 3.50 S113.76 disbursements: Rent of Hall S 25.00 Preparation for Lecture 2. So- Printing Programs, etc 7.75 Expenses, Prof. Pammel 2.72- Receipt Books 1.25 S. W. Beyer, Book and Stamps 2.10 Stamps, $1. 75; e.xpress, S2.08 3.83. Miss Kelsy, stenographer on work for secretary 2.00- S 47-15 Balance $ 66. 6l \'ery respectfully, J. B. Weems, Treasurer. At a meeting of the executive council of the academy the following fellows and members were elected: FKLLOWS. W. C, Aldea, assistant geologist, U. S. geological survey, Mount Vernon,^ Iowa; Alfred N. Cook, professor of chemistry, Morningside college, Sioux City, Iowa; F. W. Faurot, instructor in botany, Iowa State college, Ames, Iowa; W. D. Hunter, assistant entomologist, Iowa experiment station, Ames^ Iowa; Miss Charlotte M. King, artist, Iowa State college, Ames, Iowa; Louis A. Klein, professor of theory and practice of medicine and sanitary science^ Iowa State college, Ames, Iowa; Nicholas Knight, professor of chemistry^ Cornell college, Mount Vernon, Iowa; John H. McNeill, professor of anatomy and the principles and practice of surgery, State College, Ames, Iowa; A. Estella Paddock, instructor in botany, Iowa State college, Ames, Iowa; John J. Repp, professor of pathology and therapeutics, Iowa State col- lege, Ames, Iowa; L. R. Walker, instructor in zoology, Iowa State college, Ames, Iowa. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 13 ASSOCIATE MEMBERS. Ur. Bert H. Bailey and Prof. Louis Begeman, Cedar Falls; Mary Blount, Marshalltown; Dr. George Boody, Independence; E. Vane Brumbaugli, Cedar Falls; Sarah Ellis, Ames; A. T. Ervvin, Ames; L. H. Ford, Webster City; C. E. Gray, Wyoming; S. F. Horsey, Cedar Falls; Hon. G. W. Hinkle, Harvard; F. A. Lacey, Des Moines; H. E. Powers, Columbus Junction; Howard Simpson, Ci)lumbus Junction; Dr. G. L. Smitii, Slienandoah; W. N. Stull, Grinnell; Lewis E, Young, Ames. CORRESPONDING MEMBERS. Dr. William Trelease, director of the Missouri botanical garden, St. Louis, Missouri; J. A. Udden, professor of geology in Augustana college, Rock Island, Illinois, The nominating committee reported the following offi- cers for the ensuing year: President. — A. A. Veblen. First Vice-President.— K. E. Summers. Second Vice-President.— 3. L. Tilton. Secretary.— ^. 'W B -yer. Treasurer. — J. B. Weems. Elective Members of the Executive Committee. — M. F. Arey, H. M. Kelly, C. O. Bates, In accordance with the recommendation in the secretary's report, a committee was appointed to prepare the constitu- tion and by-laws of the academy for publication. The chair named Beyer, Veblen and Arey. At the literary session topics of prime importance came up for discussion and lead to the appointment of the follow- ing committee: A committee of three to draw up resolutions endorsing the movement toward forest preserves, and memorialize •congress to establish a forest preserve in the upper Missis- sippi valley, On this committee were appointed L. H. Pammel, Thos. H. McBride and H. A. Mueller. RESOLUTIONS OF THE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE WITH REFERENCE TO THE NATIONAL PARK AND FOREST RESERVE AT THE HEADWATERS OF THE MISSISSIPPI, AND THE GBNKRAL POLICY OF THE UNITED STATES WITH REFERENCE TO FOREST RESERVES. In view of the fact that there is now a petition before Congress from the people of the state of Minnesota asking the setting aside of certain tracts of 14 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. timber land included in the Leech Lake Indian reservation in Minnesota, except such lands as have been allotted to the Indians in severalty, as a National Park and Forest Reserve, for the purpose of preserving the timber and conserving the water supply of the Mississippi river, and in view of the fact that other tracts of timber lands in the northern part of Minne- sota, Wisconsin and other states and territories in the Union from which the timber has been removed, which have reverted back to the government, should be set aside for forestry purposes that they may again be covered with forest growth to supply coming generations; therefore, Resolved, That the Iowa Academy of Sciences in session hereby petition Congress, first, 'I'o segregate for park and forestry purposes, the said tract of land at the headwaters of the Mississippi and such other lands as Con- gress may have control over in the states of Minnesota and Wisconsin and in other states, especially the Rocky Mountain and Sierra regions, to the end that not only the timber supply of said states may be partially saved,, but for holding the moisture in said regions, and also for the preservation of our wild game; second. We also favor the purchase of the land for a pro- posed Southern Appalachian National Park. Resolved, third, That the government withold from the market public lands covered with timber, that the mature timber on the same be sold under the supervision of a technically trained forester; fourth, That we urge upon our delegates in Congress the feasibility of concentrating the forestry work; and urge that the government establish a rational system of forestry, especially with reference to our forest reserves; and fifth, 'I'hat the supervision of these forest reserves be placed in charge of trained foresters, all under one responsible head, preferably the United States Department of Agriculture, to the end that a more rational system of forestry may be intro- duced in this country. L. H. Pammel, T. H. Macbride, H. A. Mueller, Committee. A committee was appointed to memorialize the next legislature and draft a bill for the regulation of foods; and, if desirable, to co-operate with committees from other organizations created for the same purpose. Also to take up the investigation of food products and report progress to the Academy: The chair appointed: J. B. Weems, C. 0. Bates, W. S. Hendrixson, Nicholas Knight, Maurice Ricker. Professor Veblen pointed out the desirability of a National Standardizing Bureau, and by order- of the IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 15 Academy the following letter was addressed to each mem- ber of the Iowa delegation in Congress: Des Moines, Iowa, Jan. 2, 1901. Dear Sir: 1 beg leave to call jour attention to the following resolutions adopted unanimously by the Iowa Academy of Sciences, at a meeting of the Council on December 27, 1900: '■'Resolved, That the Iowa Academy of Sciences approves the present movement toward the expansion of the OflQce of Standard Weights and Measures into a National Standardizing Bureau; and '"Resolved,, further, that the Academy earnestly urges upon the Senators and members of the House of Representatives from the State of Iowa the desirability and importance of early action on the bill (H. R. 11350) now before congress, by the adoption of which, such a bureau would be estab- lished." A. A. Veblen, S. W^ Beyer, H. W. Norris, Secretary Iowa Academy of Sciences. Committee. At the literary session the following papers were pre- sented: "The Harriman Alaska Expedition," illustrated by a series of excellent lantern slides. — Dr. Wm. Trelease, director of the Missouri botanical gar- den in St. Louis. Missouri. The Presidential address, "The Social Service of Science." — W. H. Norton. 1. Note on the time of sexual maturity of some Iowa Unios.— Harry M. Kelly. 2. The Morphology and Function of the Amphibian Ear; a combination of chromic acid, acetic acid and formalin as a fixative in animal tissues. — H. W. Norris. 3. Generic synopsis of the Nearctic Scutelleridse and Cydnidse. — H. E. Summers. 4. Notes on the development of Astragalus caryocarpus.— F. W. Faurot. (Introduced by L. H. Pammel.) 5. The Cupuliferge and Juglandaceae. — T. J. Fitzpatrick. 6. Methods of keeping living plant material in the Laboratory.— Haven Metcalf. 7. Shrubs and forest trees of Madison county.— H. A. Mueller. 8. Notes on the Bacteriological analysis of water; the native thistles of Iowa.— L. H. Pammel. 9. Bacteriological observations on the Iowa State College sewage.— L. R. Walker. 10. Some observations on the Flora of Southern Alabama, Mississippi and Louisiana; Photographic experience along the Gulf Coast. — F.M. Witter. 11. A study of a terrace formation on the Turkey River, near Eldorado, Iowa. — G. E. Finch. 13. The equivalent of the Hiatus at the base of our coal measures and the Arkansas series, a new Terrane of the Western Carboniferous; Old 16 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. volcanic necks of Piatiagorsk; and names of coals west of the Mississippi,— Chas. R. Keyes. 13. Diphenyl Ethers.— Alfred N. Cook. (Introduced by S. W. Beyer.) 14. Some recent analyses of Iowa building stone; also of Iowa potable waters. — Nicholas Knight. 15. A study of Reversible Re-actions.— W. N. Stull, (Introduced by W. S, Hendrixson.) 16. A study of contaminated water supply; the influence of chlorine as chlorides in the determination of oxygen consumption in Water analysis. — J. B. Weems and J. C. Brown. 17. A study of some cotton seed oils.— J. B. Weems and H. N. Gretten- berg. 18. An expedient for maintaining constant temperature through the process of salt glazing clay wares.- 1. A. Williams. 19. Preliminary report on the flowering plants of Adair county. — James E, Gow. 20. Pure Food legislation, discussion opened by C. O. Bates. 21. A comparison of media for counting bacteria in milk; a method for isolating and counting gas producing bacteria in milk,— C..H. Eckles. 22. A drift exposure in Tama county. — T, E. Savage. 23. The loess and modern moUuscan faunas of Iowa City and vicinity, the loess and associated deposiis on the state farm at Lincoln, Nebraska; a supplementary list of Lyon county plants, — B, Shimek. 24. A National StandardizingBureau, discussion opened by A. A. Veblen. 25. A review of the Tettigonidae of North America north of Mexico. — E. D. Ball, IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 17 PKESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. THE SOCIAL SERVICE OF SCIENCE. BY WILLIAM HARMON NORTON. The extent to which society may may be considered as an organism is still, I understand, a matter of controversy with sociologists. But without awaiting its adjudication, we may surely make use of a simile as ancient as that of the Apostle who spoke of individual Christians as members of one body, or as that of the wise old Roman, who taught the mutinous plebs the parable of the body politic, all of whose members were nourished by the well-fed patrician belly, and consider together this evening the social func- tion of science in the body social. It may at least supply a convenient means of classifying the various services of science to the commonweal, if we consider it not so much, perhaps, a distinct corporal member as a growth force, ever accelerating the evolution of society, providing it with means of defense, increasing its muscular energy, and perfecting its systems of circula- tion and communication. And if to these services we add the reaction upon the social mind of the physical environ- ment which science has provided, and the direct influence of scientific truth, we shall then have sketched at least the main functions of science in social evolution. Among the first services to society which our biologic analogues suggest is that of defense. Under the growth force of science the body social has accomplished an evolu- tion similar to that which brought the vertebrates, assumed to have been at first naked and defenseless, to the stage of the armored fishes of the Devonian, and which in the Terti- ary changed tooth to tusk, nail to claw, and frontal boss to horn and antler. 2 16 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. Prescientific society was destroyed largely because it had attained no adequate means of defense. It is safe to say that had the Roman legionaries been equipped with Maxims and Mausers, the episode of the Hun and Vandal invasions of Southern Europe would have been indefinitely postponed. Modern society, which science has armed with the most terrible of death-dealing weapons, whose explosives are brought from the laboratory of the chemist, whose im- mense guns are fired at ranges which require the rotation of the earth to be taken into account, and with a precision w^hich considers the difference in density of the air at the top and at the bottom of the bore, whose war ships are armored with the latest discoveries of metallurgy, their turrets turned and their guns loaded and trained by the electric current, and their evolutions directed by invisible vibrations of ether,— surely a society thus armed has noth- ing to fear from any barbarian peril, be it yellow or be it black. Civilization is safeguarded by science, not only from the irruption of savage hordes, but also from the invasion of disease, from such epidemics as that which in the middle of the 14th century swept away twenty-five millions of people in Europe, and more than half the population of England. Today when the plague appears in San Fran- cisco or in London, it excites no more alarm than Gibraltar would feel at the assault of Spaniard or Moor. By the simple remedy of vaccination, science has saved in each generation of the century more lives, it is said, than were lost in all the wars of Napoleon. Among civilized nations within the last five centuries the death-rate has been so lowered that the average duration of human life has nearly doubled. Medicine no longer attacks disease with charm, exorcism and nostrum; she obtains her weapons from the armory of science. From chemistry she brings a pure materia medica, new compounds, new processes, new methods of diagnosis, and aneesthetics which have made surgery painless. From physics she obtains the appliances of electro-therapeutics, a delicate cautery, and the Roent- lOAVA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 19 gen ray, used by physicians in almost every town of size in Iowa within less than half a decade of its discovery. The debt of the healing art to the sciences of the bio- logic group is so vast that I will select but one, bacteriol- ogy, for illustration. It is to no lucky chance that the discovery is due of man's most subtle and deadly foes, the bacteria. The work of Pasteur, the pioneer, and of his illustrious followers, is marked by the most thorough and painstaking investigation, and the most searching and rigid tests. It is by the application of the scientific method that the enemy has been unmasked, his ambus- cades and chosen places for assault discovered, and ra- tional methods for his destruction demonstrated. It is men of science who have organized the victory of medi- cine today over diphtheria, rabies, and the plague, over the venom of the snake and all the diseases to which serum therapathy is successfully applied. And where the bacteriologist cannot as yet supply a specific for disease, he can often point the w^ay to its prevention. When the access to the human system of the germs of typhoid and chol- era by drinking water is demonstrated, Hamburg builds its filter beds at a cost of $2,280,000, and Chicago expends $83,- 000,000 upon the drainage canal. And so with the great wdiite plague, tubercular consumption. Science has proved the lurking-places of the contagion in the sputum, and its carriage in the air we breathe, and reinforced by the high moral sense of our people, she is fast making it as impos- sible for the consumptive to spit on the pavement unhin- dered as for the small pox patient to walk unarrested down our streets. And who can estimate the number of lives now saved in each generation by aseptic surgery? So long as putrefac- tion was held, as by Liebig, to be due to the action of the oxygen of the air, no remedy for it could be suggested. But when once its bacterial origin was proven, the step was inevitable to those precautions which have rendered safe and successful the marvellous operations of modern surgery. 20 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. Micro-biology extends her aegis also over the herds and crops of man. She destroys the insect enemies of our grain fields and protects vine and fruit tree from blight and mildew^. She saves the silk worms of Europe from the plague which threatened their destruction, and the flocks and herds of America from some of their most destructive diseases. In twelve years the application of Pasteur's inoculations saved France seven million francs in the item of anthrax, and reduced the mortality of hog erysipelas from 20 per cent to 1.45 per cent. Thus science performs a service to society incalculable in its value. It defends it from foes, both within and without the gates. It prolongs life, assuages pain, lessens disease, and makes death a euthanasy. So notable have been its victories during the century that we may almost prophesy the speedy coming of the time when the only deadly bacillus remaining will be that as yet undescribed species of bacillus senectutis, or at least when only suffi- cient of disease will be left on earth to provide for the speedy and a beneficent extirpation of the unfit. Viewing organic evolution from the angle of the physi- cist and considering the animal body simply as a machine for the transformation of potential into kinetic energy, the secular process sums itself up in the production of better and better machines. From the fish of the early Paleozoic on to the amphibian of the Carboniferous, the reptile of the Mesozoic, and the mammals of the Tertiary and of the present, we have a series of higher and higher organisms, each capable of doing more work and better work than its predecessors. It is possible to construe social evolution in the same terms. Primitive society was weak. The energy at its disposal was that only of the human body, the beast of burden, and to a limited extent, of wind, water and flame. So feeble was the ancient state in what may be termed its musculature, so little could it utilize the forces of nature, that it may be compared with a stage of organic evolution preceding that of the vertebrata, that, let us say, of the IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 21 turbellarian worm, "whose arrangement of muscles," biolo- gists tell us, " is far from economical or effective." J. M. Tylor, Whence and Whither of Man, Morse I^ec- tures, 1895, N. Y., 1896, p. 47. In comparison, modern society may be likened to one of the higher mammalia, such as the tiger or the elephant, which cannot onl}^ take up from nature the maximum of energy, but can also apply it in varied movements and a highly complicated conduct. Consider the vast stores of energy which society has to-day at its disposal. The steam power of the United States alone equals the day labor of one hundred million men. Behind each man, woman and child of the nation stands more than an automaton of steel with the strength of a man, but with manifold his capacity for productive labor. In carding, for example, fingers of steel do in half an hour what the unaided workman of a century ago could not have accomplished in less than eight months. In machinery society finds a tireless hand capable of perform- ing the mightiest and the most delicate of tasks with equal ease. It strikes with the steam hammer a blow of 2,000 tons, and it rules the Rowland grating with its 48,000 parallel lines to the inch. Consider also the new induement of energy which science has bestowed upon society in the gift of electricity, a power capable of the swiftest and most ready transmis- sion, of infinite subdivision, and of the greatest known intensity of concentration. And how varied is its func- tioning! In mine and quarry it picks and drills and fires the blast. At the wharf it lifts and loads and carries. In the factory it forges, casts, welds and rivets. In the home it shines in the most healthful light yet made by man. In electrolysis it produces a hundred substances of value, such as the caustic alkalies, bleaching powder, chloroform, the chlorates, and aluminum, the metal perhaps to give name to the new century. From the refuse of the mine it extracts millions of dollars worth of the precious metals. It surfaces steel and iron with zinc, nickel or copper, with silver or gold, and copies infallibly the engraved plate of the map and the type set page. In the electric furnace it 22 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES creates new compounds, — calcium carbide, the source of acetylene gas; carborundum, the abrasive of the future; and calcium nitride, which promises a new source of nitro- gen to fertilize and renew exhausted soils everywhere. It assists in the synthesis by which the chemist builds out of the inorganic the dye, the perfume, the essence, and soon perhaps the food which nature builds only by the processes of life. Such are some of the functions of the new muscular system with which electrical science has equipped the body social. It is not claimed that pure science is the only factor in industrial progress. Invention, business sagacity, and many other causes co-operate. But the work of science is essential, fundamental, creative. How far unaided inven- tion can go may be seen in China. Here is. a people once pliant of intellect and inventive. As artificers they still are given high praise. But Chinese invention, destitute of all scientific foundation, stopped with the fire cracker, the movable type and the directive loadstone. It could not go on to the Lyddite shell, the Hoe press, and the compass of Kelvin with its eight balanced magnets protected from the influence of the metal of the ship. Invention is applied science, and, as has been well said, science must first exist before it can be applied. Between the scientific investigator, the discoverer of principles, and the inventor who applies them, there need be no jealousy. If the latter has the popular fame and the financial reward of the present, it is often to the former that the future belongs, and in any event, in the words of the generous Schley at Santiago, "there is glory enough for all." And, after all, why should the name of science be refused to that vast body of knowledge, classified and tested, which is in daily use in the laboratories of the industries of the world. But to science, even in its most restricted sense, the debt of society is incalculable. It has evoked those good genii, steam and electricity. Watt was led to the inven- tion of the steam engine, not by a boy's glance at his mother's tea kettle, but through the discovery by Black of latent heat, and after two years of profound study of such IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 23 abstruse problems as the specific volume of steam aud its law of tension under varying temperatures. And the improvements in the steam engine, which since the fifties have more than doubled the speed of the piston, while saving at least one fourth of the fuel, have been made under the guidance of Joule and the mechanical theory of heat. In the matter of the advantage of super-heated steam and high pressure, theory still seems to outrun practice. In electricity the mere mechanician can take no impor- tant step beyond the scientific discoverer. How happy was the thought which designated the various units of electricity by the illustrous names of the masters of research, — volt, in honor of the professor in the University of Pavia who one hundred years ago gave the world in his crown of cups its first effective reservoir of the new power; ampere, the name of the professor of physics in the College of France, founder of the science of electro dynamics; ohm, in memory of the professor of experimental physics in the University of Munich, discoverer of the law of the strength of the electric current; and farad, in honor of the greatest of them all, Michael Farady, professor of Chem- try in the Institution of England, the prince of experi- menters, whose researches, resulting in the dynamo, con- nected up the industries of the world to the first economical source of electrical energy. Illustrations of the dependence of industry on pure science are everywhere at hand. When as an amateur in photography, I take up a package of eikonogen or hydro- quinou, the label with the name of one of the great ani- line factories of Germany, at Elberfield, Mannheim, or Berlin, reminds me of the debt of the Farbenfahriken to men of research. To the chemist is not only due the dis- covery of developers, of such bye products as antipyrine, cocaine, saccharine and vanilline, — it was he who, in the black amorphous coal tar, the former refuse of the gas works, first found there brilliant crystalline dyes which have so largely replaced all other colors in the dye vats of the world. So far as I am aware, no monument has been 24 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. raised to these discoverers, to Hoffman, Graebe and Lieb- ermann. In a more telling way industry acknowledges her debt to pure science when a great aniline factory such as that at Elberfield employs sixty professional chemists and turns the attention of twenty-six of them to pure research in discovery of new compounds. Science has thus given society command of energies of the highest efficiency. It has made the comforts of life common and cheap; it has lifted from the shoulders of labor its heaviest burdens and set free for higher social services all who are capable of their performance. It is the undiminishing fountain whence flows the world's material wealth. The evolution of the circulatory system in the body physiologic suggests a similar development in the body social. The process which during the geologic ages slowly changed the primitive gasto-vascular cavity to the per- fected circulation of the higher animals to-day, which evolved from a simple pulsating tube the powerful four- chambered heart, maj^ at least serve as a simile to the evo- lution of the distributory or transportative system of modern society. So obvious is the analogy that the arteries of commerce is a phrase of common parlance. But for our purpose it will not be necessary to carry the likeness into details, to discriminate, as some ingenious sociologists have done, the various organs, such as the capillaries, or to liken the red corpuscles of the blood to the golden discs of the circulating medium. Let it suffice to show that by the application of the discoveries of science society has obtained a system incomparably rapid and effective for the distribution of power, of food, and of all the products of labor. The world is enmeshed by lines of railway and steam- ship. They carry the products of our Iowa farms to west Europe, to South Africa and to China. To our dinner tables they bring in return linen from Ireland, porcelain from France, cutlery from Old England and silverware from New England, meats and fruits from states as distant as Texas, California and Florida, spices from the East Indias, IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 25 and beverages from Japan and Java and the valley of the Amazon. In the United States alone there are now^ in operation nearly 200,000 miles of railway, carrying yearly one billion tons of freight and 550 millions of passengers. The carriage of power is accomplished at present almost wholly by the transportation of fuel. The value of this service may be seen by contrast with some railroadless country such as China, where according to Colquhon, coal selling at the mine at fifteen cents per ton, cost as many dollars ten miles away. But the future doubtless has in store the distribution of power as an article of mer- chandise. The possibility of long distance transmission of electricity has already been demonstrated at Niagara, and the time may be near when in our cities power from coal field or waterfall may be purchased for use in factory and home as readily as water or gas today. What has already been said of the debt of industry to science in the development of its motive powers applies here equally in transportation. Permit a single illustra- tion further of the value of pure science in the evolution of the circulatory system. Every engineer is aware of the large contribution which the steel rail has made to the success of the railway. Durable, strong and cheap, it has displaced on all our railways the weak and short-lived rail of iron. It has made possible heavier trains and higher speeds. Together with other factors it has so cheapened traction that, according to Professor J. J. Stevenson, the coal of West Virginia is now sold at New York City for less than one-fourth the railway freight charges of a quarter of a century ago. But it is no belittlement of the laurels of Sir Henry Bessemer, the inventor who has made all this possible, to point to the fact that the success of his pro- cess which, by ushering out the Age of Iron and ushering in the Age of Steel, has revolutionized industry and touched every home with its beneficence, is due not only to his use of a great body of facts in the chemistry of the metals, but in especial to the utilization by Mushet of the facts regarding the influence of manganese and its relation to carbon, — facts ascertained in the laboratories of science 26 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. and left on record to await their use by invention at the proper time. The mobility in the social organism so largely due to science has had far-reaching effects. It stimulates pro- duction to the utmost. It opens the markets of the world to the products of every worker. Labor has itself become mobile, and in the factory raw material from distant lands meet operatives from across the seas. It is the cause of vast immigrations such as that which has brought to the United States more than nineteen and a quarter million people since the opening of steamship routes across the Atlantic. It makes impossible in civilized lands such famines as that which in 1878 in two of the northern prov- vinces of China destroyed more than nine million men.. It opens to the occupation of a single homogeneous civil- ized commonwealth such vast areas as the Mississippi Valley. To any such it would be as fatal to stop the social circulation made possible by science, as in a limb of the body to ligate the main arter}^ Dense population can indeed exist wherever food can be raised in abundance, as on the river plains of China, but without the modes of distribu- tion introduced by the science of the nineteenth century,, they can neither be unified into a homogeneous com- munity nor can they be lifted to the levels of modern civilization. By its systems of circulation which break down all bar- riers, science has brought about the supreme crisis in social and political evolution. Like the epeirogenic move- ments which mark the crises in geologic history, which united continents and precipitated alien upon indigenous fauna, so science has brought civilization and barbarism the world over in all their stages to meet in a life and death struggle, and offers to the fittest the prize of a world encircling empire. The fact that in order to operate the railway it is neces- sary to send signals at greater speeds than those of moving trains, suggests another service of science, — the highest material, service which it renders the commonweal. In. the telegraph and telephone a system is supplied for the IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 27 almost instantaneous transmission of motor and sensory impulses throughout the body politic. In general terms we may compare the growth of the communicating system of society to the development of the nervous system in the history of animal life, where the scattered central cells of Nature's first sketch of such a system are later gathered into ganglia and ganglia massed into a brain connected with every part of the body by ramifying nerve filaments. Of all social organs this seems the most retarded in its evolution. In primitive society it is only the smallest groups, such as the family and the village community, which have a facility of communication comparable to that of the lowest of the metazoa. In the larger groups of the tribe and nation we find a stage more advanced than that of the hydra only after science has made possible the railway post and the telegraph and telephone. That Morse is the inventor of the electric telegraph is a statement more veracious than that of the Vermont farmer who said that everybody knew that Edison invented elec- tricity. But the name of the inventor of every great tool of society is legion. Morse set the key stone of the arch, but its voussoirs had been built by investigators unknown to popular fame in many lands, and even the keystone was almost placed in the hands of the distinguished inventor by the great physicist, Henry Oersted, who in 1819 deflected the magnetic compass by a voltaic current in a neighboring wire; Arago, whose experiments with iron filings proved that this current would generate mag- netism; Ampere, with his suggestion of the possibility of signalling at a distance by the deflection of needles; Sweiger, who took up Oersted's experiment, and discov- ered that the deflecting force of the current was increased when the wire was coiled about the magnet; Sturgeon, who making use of Arago's discovery, replaced Sweiger's mag- netic needle with soft' iron and thus constructed the first temporary or soft magnet; Henry, who strengthened the electro-magnet, and used it with over a mile of wire to give signals by tapping a bell; Gauss and Weber, who strung their wires at Goettingen and read the deflections of the 28 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. galvanometer, all of these men, devoted solely to knowl- edge for knowledge sake, are sharers with Morse and Vail in the glory of the invention of the telegraph. And so with wireless telegraphy. In Marconi's hand this invention blazes with a sndden brilliance which attracts the attention of the world, but the torch has been con- veyed to him along the line of many runners in the torch- race of scientific discovery. From Clerk Maxwell who showed the analogy between electricity and light, from Hertz, with his demonstration of electro-magnetic waves, from Onesti, of Fermo, and Branly, of Paris, and Lodge, of London, whose researches produced in the coherer an instrument capable of seeing such waves, from these and others the torch was passed on to the great inventor whose improvements in apparatus made effective the discoveries of science. In the telephone at least four scientific principles are involved — the voltaic current, the interaction of mag- netism and electricity, the temporary magnet and the microphonic action of carbon. Through this marvelous invention each master in electrical science from the time of Galvani, who has aided in the elucidation of these prin- ciples, though dead, yet speaketh. Thus w^e may fairly claim that to science in large measure is due the plexus of post, telegraph and telephone, by which intelligence is flashed throughout the body social even more swiftly than along the nerves of the body phys- iologic. And how incalculable is the service which science thus renders. Consider the extent of the channels of com- munication. The domestic mail service of the United States requires each year twenty-one million miles of travel. Sixty-four years ago the first commercial telegraph was built with a length of forty miles. At the close of the century there are not less than one million miles of tele- graph in the United States, over which duplex and mul- tiplex messages are carried at the same time, and the rate of transmission has risen to six thouand signals per min- ute. One hundred and seventy thousand miles of sub- marine cables moor coasts, islands and continents toe^ether. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 29 Over one million miles of telephonic wires have already- been strung in onr own country. Boston, a typical city, measures its electric nerves at a total of one hundred .and seventy million feet, and the radius of audible speech from it reached a year since, according to lies, to Duluth, Omaha, Kansas City, Little Rock and Montgomery. Note the saving of time and energy thus accomplished. Without leaving his desk the manager of a business is in instant communication with all his employes, and with the business enterprises in his own and other cities. The captains of industry are thus able to command armies of a size unthought of a few decades since. So accurate and instant are the new motor and sensory nerves that the oil refineries, the copper mines, the steel mills, almost any industry that may be mentioned, can be regimented under one control, and an industrial revolution is accomplishing before our eyes. The electric wire, with the fast mail and the newspaper, flash the news of the world throughout all civilized coun- tries. When our army attacks Santiago or marches on Pekin, the public becomes impatient of even the interval between the morning and the afternoon paper. On the night of a national election the American public listens to the count of votes in every city and in every state. The new discovery of science, the new mechanical process, the new remedy for disease, are communicated without delay to the entire world. In commerce local prices seek the level of the world market, and the entire distributing system is as effectively controlled as are the capillaries of the animal body by the clutches of the nerves. In a theatre vast as the whole earth we look down on the stage, upon which is played the never ending drama of current history. In a still larger sphere the new organ of communication has a reflex on civilization. It makes possible self-gov- erning communities, stretching from the Atlantic to the Pacific. Bringing Washington face to face with London, Paris and Berlin, and the other capitals of Europe, it enables the great powders of two continents to arrange without delay a concert of action whose message flashes 30 lOWxV ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 'round the planet and is carried into effect at Tientsin and Pekin, In direct contrast, unscientific Cliina outspreads iier-bulk like some vast insensate vegetal growth. Under attack even at a vital point, she can neither mobilize her armies, nor even disseminate a knowledge of the danger before it is too late. It has been said by Giddings that, "objectively view^ed, progress is an increasing intercourse, a multiplication of relationships, an advance in material well-being, a growth of population, and an evolution of rational conduct. Subjectively, it is the expansion of the consciousness of kind."* In all these respects science has been an accelerating- force in the evolution of society. Increasing food supply by means of scientific agriculture, lengthening life by the repression of diseases, and introducing a thousand new means of livelihood, it has made possible the extraordinary recent growth of civilized nations. It permits the popula- tion of Europe to more than double since 1800, and enables England, which in the seventeenth century men thought too small for its scanty population, to support in compara- tive comfort more than 38,000,000 people. It encourages the prophecy of Albert Bushnell Hart, that the Mississippi valley will sooner or later contain a population of 350,- 000,000. At the same time science has produced a heterogeneity of structure. The scientific principle discovered to-day flow- ers to-morrow in invention and produces the seeds of social arts and crafts. To Volta's researches in his villa on Lake Como 5,000,000 men now employed in the many various arts connected with electricity, owe in a measure their livelihood. In promoting the development- of the complex organs of society for the handling of energy, for distribution, and for communication, science has constantly been a differen- tiating force. By the same means it is accomplishing a more and more complete integration. The separate life of primitive society, the old personal independence, is gone. In the ^Principles of Sciology, New York, 181)6, p. 359. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 31 new order all social units and aggregations are inter- dependent. We are all members of one body. We must not ignore the purely psychic factors of social progress, but these alone could not maintain the new order apart from the physical basis built by science. Were this support withdrawn it would seem that over large areas now occu- pied by civilization, society must lapse and break into fragments, fast degenerating the state of the villages of the Russian plain, the scattered communities of the south- ern Appalachians, or even the Pueblos of Arizona. As we have spoken of the service of science in pro- moting the physical well being of society, there remain of Professor Gidding's notes of social progress only the evolu- tion of rational conduct and the consciousness of kind. These phenomena are involved in the evolution of the social mind. Here science acts directly, and also by tlie reflex of the social organism. The organic unity of society is the ground for the expansion of the consciousness of kind. The social ties woven by science help to produce a wider social sympathy. Under the regime of science the barriers of the mark break down everywhere and are transformed into the market, and with their downfall pro- vincialism, indifference and hate of once separated peoples pass away. Science has created, as we have seen, a nevv^ physical environment, which reacts constantly on the social mind, awakening from torpor, stimulating to greater activity, demanding a more alert attention, and a pre- cision and swiftness of movement before unknown. Still more directly is science creating an intellectual milieu whose influence on the social mind is as inescapable as is that of climate on the physical life. The world of our forefathers, how close its confines, how dark and shadowy, how uncertain and untrue, compared with the illimitable sphere which science now fills with her clear light. It is a universe, not a multiverse, the new world which science apperceives. It is a world of law, in which each event has adequate cause; the expression of one immanent energy operating across all widths of space and throughout all lengths of time, without loss or increment, and without 32 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. variableness or shadow of turning; an eternal becomings an evolving order which comprehends the growth and decay alike of solar systems and of the humblest of living creatures. It is of this new world that the two master Victorian poets, inspired by both the scientific and the religious spirit, have written: All's law, but all's love. And, One God, one law, one element. And one far off divine event To which the whole creation moves. The effect of these new cosmic conceptions of science penetrates every department of learning and every field of life. It revolutionizes society, it rationalizes the social mind. It has swept to the limbo of things that are not the sprites of evil which affrighted our forefathers. In this science has done a work which neither literature, nor art, nor religion, nor ethical culture has proved itself able to accomplish. It was the pious Melancthon, the gentle scholar of the Reformation, who at Heidelberg saw in the falling stars only the paths of deceitful devils, and the mandarin to-day, learned in all the ethical wisdom of Con- fucius, a classical scholar of the fine.st literary taste, still bursts his firecrackers at the funeral of a friend that he may frighten away the pestiferous spirits of evil which dog the steps of men through life even to the threshold of the world beyond. The rationalizing influence ot science upon civilization needs no illustration to one versed in the literatures of the prescientific ages, to one who has read Plato's Tingeus or Plutarch's description of the moon. And how preposter- ous were the theories current but a century since, such as those which saw in fossils the freak of some plastic power in nature or the remains of a catastrophe which swept away in a flood of waters the very foundations of the earth. To-day how rare and how interesting are such sur- vivals of this almost forgotten time as the Atlantis of Ignatius Donnelly! IOWA ACADEMY OP SCIENCES. 33 The theory of evolution perhaps furnishes one of the best examples of the replacement of the untruths of the past by truths discovered by science and of their revolu- tionary effect. Since the discovery of the proofs of this process, man has come to know himself as never before. He understands at least the meaning of history and rewrites his texts on philology, literature and all social and political institutions. He sees, though as yet dimly, some solution to the ethical problems of sin and evil, and beholds as in ai panorama the process of his creation. It is as yet too soon to see the full effect of these new conceptions upon the social mind. Science has not yet come to its own in education, and the irrational and the unreal is far from being wholly banished from society. But more and more the care of the young is entrusted to science to train, as none other can, to be quick of eye, true of speech and rational in thought, to bring them face to- face with reality and to open to their view the widest and most inspiring vistas. Common knowledge is one of the strongest social bonds. We meet and touch in what we know. The time has been when educated men drew together in a common knowledge of phrases written in- extinct languages. To-day they find this reapproachmenty this consciousness of kind, more and more in a common training in science. In the laboratory they have meas- ured the energy of the falling body and studied its trans- formation into sound, heat, light, chemism, and electricity; they have tested the ray from the hydrogen atom and found its vibration the same from the fiame on the table and in the light of Sirius. They have dissected the tissues of life, and have read in Nature's book the life histories of- mountain, river and planet. And thus they have attaine(J to that cosmic conception, overwhelming in its sublimity,, which is the best gift of science to man. The reward which science asks for this service is the wages of going on; she asks for well equipped laboratories, for longer courses of scientific study in schools, for the endowment of scientific instruction and research. Such foundations as the Lawrence Scientific school, the Field 3 34 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. Columbian Museum, and the Smithsonian Institution, are examples of appreciation as yet as rare as munificent. I am not aware of any such in Iowa. When wealth builds the spacious laboratory or endows a chair in science in any college of the commonwealth, it is but rendering to science her own. Each dollar earned by railway, telegraph and telephone, mine and quarry, mill and factory, farm and store, may well pay tithe to science which has made these industries possible. The gratitude for a life saved by the application of science in modern medicine might well be generous. And yet the total gifts to scientific instruction in Iowa, by men of wealth, do not exceed $50,000. I am aware of the state appropriations to the scientific depart- ments in our state institutions, and I should be glad to call them 'generous. At least they have given Iowa the fame of men whose work in science has achieved national recog- nition. But these yearly appropriations, were they many times as great, could not supply the place of the great gifts, endowments to be for all time reservoirs of power transmuted constantly into the highest social service. It is the boast of American democracy that by such votive offerings it shows appreciation of education, charity, and scientific research. As members of a guild of workers in science, let us be thankful for even the humblest place. To discover any fact, however trivial, to add anything however slight, to the sum of human knowledge, this is to shape and dress some stone for the building of science, the home and shelter of the race. Our contribution may go to chink some crevice or at last some master builder may find in it the keystone of an arch or the cap stone of a column, but whatever its place, if our work was well and truly done, it abides, as a permanent service to society. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 35 A REVIEW OF THE TETTIGONIDA^ OF NORTH AMERICA NORTH OF MEXICO. BY E. 1). BALL. The present paper has been planned to serve a double purpose. Its first object being to furnish a means of sep- arating and determining the members of this family found in the United States and Canada, together with their vari- eties and the synonomy as far as it has been worked out. Secondly, to give sufficiently accurate and detailed descrip- tions in all cases, even where not necessary in the separa- tion of our own forms, so that later workers in the group and those from other parts will be able to discriminate between our species and closely allied forms from other regions, or to recognize our forms when found in other countries. This is all the more necessary from the fact that this group, which forms a very small part of the Jassid fauna in the United States, becomes the dominant one in tropi- cal regions, especially of the Western Continent. Of the five hundred or more described species the great majority are found in the region between Mexico and Brazil. A number of these species, among which are some of our own forms, extend throughout the whole of this territory. Taking into account these facts and the addditional one that most of the work on the group so far has been done by European authors, whose material was mainly from tropical regions, and who paid little attention to the isolated descriptions of the American authors, it is little wonder that there is much of synonomy. At the same time American authors have paid little attention to the Euro- pean work, and a goodly number of the later synonyms are from this side of the water. Mr. Walker, of course, con- 36 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. tributed to the confusion. There is much in synonomy yet to be worked out which can only be completed when the species of the different countries have been carefully collected and accurately determined as to specific and varietal limits. The bibliography of our forms in this group has been so carefully and accurately worked out by Van Duzee in his Catalogue of the Jassoidea that it seemed unnecessary to repeat it here. Under each species is given the reference to the original description and the date, and reference to the descriptions of all synonyms and varieties. In addi- tion to this, references are given to systematic works pub- lished since the Van Duzee Catalogue, and references that have been changed from that given in the catalogue, are included, when necessary to make them clear. There are few characters that seem available for generic use, and consequently, the classification within certain parts of the group is very unsatisfactory. With a limited number of species, such as we possess, one may readily lay down characters that will separate them into well-defined genera, but with a large number the task becomes more difficult. The author has followed Stal in generic disposition, the main objection to this system being that the genus Tetti- gonia is still burdened with an immense number of quite diverse species. Even in our fauna it contains quite widely separated forms. It will, however, be necessary to study carefully a representative series from tropical regions before any rational and permanent separation can be had. On the other hand, the group represented by niol- lipes is mainly temperate in distribution, we having seven species in our fauna, of which Fowler only records two for Mexico and Central America, and it has been thought best to separate it froviPDiedrocephala. The adoption of a system of describing by means of vari- eties, in some cases, was but the choice of evils, it seeming to be almost impossible to define some of the variable forms in any other way. Having adopted that method, it seems preferable to designate them by names rather than IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 37 by symbols or letters, as is often done, especially as in the majority of cases these varieties have already received names. In the prosecution of this work, I have had for study the collection of the Iowa State College and the Van Duzee collection, both very rich in material, through the kind- ness of Prof. H. E. Summers; the National Museum col- lection, through the kindness of D)-. L. 0. Howard; the Ohio State University collection and the private collection of Prof. Herbert Osborn; a series of Florida forms from Prof. H. A. Gossard; and a fine series of Eastern forms from Mr. Otto Heidemann; the Colorado Agricultural College collection; some typical specimens of Woodworth's species, from the Illinois Laboratory, through Prof. Hart; and numerous smaller series sent in for determination. My own collection includes all but one of the forms enu- merated in the paper, as well as a large number of species from Mexico, the West Indies and South America, some two hundred species in all. This large amount of material has made it possible to more thoroughly investigate and define the ordinary vari- ations of a species and to recognize some hitherto very puzzling forms as only extreme variations in a specific type. Some of these variations were found to run through a considerable number of species, disrtibuted through sev- eral genera, often the same variation would be found to occur ki a majority of the species of a given locality. The most striking structural variation commonly met with w^as the broadening of the head and consequent rela- tive shortening of the vertex noticed in the specimens from the Pacific Coast and Mexican points. This was particularly noticeable in the Western specimens of^ T. hier()f/li/phic(f var. cotifluens and in the Mexican specimens, ^ t r ( p nndaf a Sina bifida; specimens ot bifida from the West In- dies were intermediate in this character. Another common variation was the change in the ground color in pronotum and elytra from red to blue and even green, with all possible combinations and variations in these colors. The varia- tions in T. hieroghjpJiica and O.undata are striking exam- 38 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. pies of this, and it is also found in T. (/ofhica^occatoria, QMlohrni^ bifida 2i\\^ iripundcda. The darkening np of spe- cies in their northern limits is also intensified in this group, and, as usual in the Jassoidea, specimens from the Pacific Coast, especially in the northern part, are considerably larger than those from the Mississippi Valley and farther east. Those from the Rocky Mountains and the adjacent plains are somewhat intermediate, grading off on either hand. The gentalia are of less importance in this group, as a whole, than in many others, but, as in some species, they are strikingly distinctive and in most cases they furnish good characters in one or both sexes they have been made rather p7-ominent, in striking contrast to the treatment of other authors. The venation of the elyta has been found to be of considerable service in defining groups of species, and in some instances' furnishing specific characters. The Tettigonidae are at once separated from the rest of the Jassoidea by the ocelli being situated on the disc of the vertex. They are usually divided into two groups, on the general shape of the body, as follows: (reneral form, cylindrical, usually elongate Tettigoniina '^ General form, broadly oval, or flattish. usually compact. .Gyponnia O K The present paper deals only with the first group, exclud- ing some forms \\ke/Euacanthns and its allies, which are usually placed here. C> SUB-FAMILY TETTICON UNA. ^ The following key to the genera while emphasizing the fundamental characters separating the genera, as a whole, makes use of other and minor characters that are of value in separating our forms, but that might be untenable in a larger series: ^ KEY TO THE GENERA. A. Antennal sockets usually overhung by a distinct ledge, the anterior extremity of which is deflexed and roundingly trun- cate. Anterior tibiae sulcate above or dilated at the extrem- ity. Elytra narrow, not covering lateral margin of abdominal tergum. Head and pronotum usually detiexed. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 39 B. Thorax roundingly six-angular, posterior margin round- ing, with a slight medianexcavation. Vertex longitud- inally furrowed. Claval veins distant '^.Aulacizes. 0 BB. Thorax 4-angular, posterior margin broadly, roundingly emarginate, the anterior and posterior margins nearly parallel. Claval veins often united in the middle or approaching and tied by a cross nervure. C. Vertex long, triangular, longer than width between eyes side margins nearly straight, face as seen from side nearly straight Homalodisca.^ CC Vertex obtusely rounding, shorter or only equal to width between eyes, face as seen from side roundingly angled Oncometopia.cy Kk. Ledge above antenna! sockets small, the anterior extremity as seen from above not projecting, included in the curve of the head, Anterior tibiae slender round or triangular, Elytra broad, covering the abdominal tergum. Head and pronotum rarely sloping. B. Elytra not reticulate veined at the apex, at most with five apical and three anteapical cells. Head not greatly produced. C. Vertex with the margin rounding obtuse, the front inflated. D. Antennae setaceous, pronotum not twice as long as scutellum the posterior margin long not strongly emarginate ..Tettigonia. o DD. Antennae in the male enlarged at the apex. Pronotum less than twice as long as the scutellum, posterior margin short deeply emarginate Helochara.'^ CC. Vertex flat, the margin sharp or line-marked, distinct, vertex and front forming an acute angle, front broadly transversely convex, not inflated... Diedrocephala . o BB. Elytra reticulate veined from the apex as far back as the forking of the outer branch of the first sector. Head often produced into a triangle, longer than pronotum.. Draeculacephala.o O GENUS AULACIZES AM. AND SERV. Head slightly inclined, vertex moderately long, bluntly round- ing disc, nearly flat longitudinally, furrowed front gibbous, clypeus as seen from side obtusely angled, a distinct ledge over antennal sockets, pronotum inclined anteriorly long, 6-angular widest at the lateral angles, rounding behind with a slight median emargination as in Tettigonia, anterior tibite furrowed on upv>er side, elytra not concealing lateral margin of abdomen. But one species of this genus lias been found in the United States. 40 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. '^AuLAcizEs iRRORATA Fab. Plate I Fig. I. ^Cicada trrorafa. Fab. Ent. Syst. IV., p. 33, 1794. ^^ Cicada nigripen nig. Fab. Ent. Cyst. IV., p. 32, 1794. O Avlacizes rtifiventris. Walk. Homop. III., p. 796, 1851. Qyjiulacizes guttata, Uhl. Stan. Nat. His.; Van D. Cat. (Nee. Sign.) Q,Aulacizes pollinosa, Fowl., Bio. Homop. II., p. 218.; pi. 15, fig. 18 Long cylindrical, testaceous, brown, finely irrorate with pale yellow. Length, 12.5mm.; width, 3mm. Head with eyes but little wider than pronotum, triangfular the apex rounded. Vertex slightly shorter than its basal width, disc sloping, on same plane as pronotum, the surface irregular, a deep median furrow, narrow on posterior half and not quite reaching the margin, broadening out on anterior half until it is bounded by the car- inate margin at the apex. Front gibbous, forming a right angle with vertex, clypeus obtusely angled. Fronotum sexangular, round- ing in front, the submargin depressed with a few deep pits, disc con- vex coarsely pitted; humeral margins long, straight, posterior mar- gin rounding with a slight median emargiuatiou. Elytra long, parallel margined, opaque not covering the lateral margin of abdomen. Color; rich leather brown variable in shade, a few irregular blotches on vertex and base of scutellum, a large spot before the apex of the latter, numerous oval spots along the costal margin of elytra and fine irrorations over the pronotum and elytra pale yel- low. Vertex and scutellum sometimes suffused with yellowish. Front pale yellow with four black spots in a square above, irregu- larly black below with a pair of oval yellow spots on clypeus. The yellow band above extends back on sides of thorax to the yellow margin of costa. Abdomen red above, yellowish and fuscous below. Genitalia; female segment but little larger than penultimate, posterior margin broadly rounding, broadly shallowly notched in the middle; male valve minute, plates concavely triangular api- cally, convex below, clothed with flue hair, a little longer than ultimate segment. Specimens are at hand from Pennsylvania, District Columbia, Maryland, South Carolina, Florida, Alabama, Kentucky, Missouri. It occurs from New York to Illinois and Missouri south to Florida and Texas and on into Mexico. All records ioFfjuttata within the United States refer to this species. The'puttata is a very different looking insect scarcely half the size of this species. It belong to the genus^ Tettigouia and has not yet been found north of cen- tral Mexico. C^. o V.ARIETY POLLINOS.A. FOWL. Aulacizes pollinosa , Fowl. Bio. Homop. II., p. 218, pi. 13, fig 18. 1899. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 41 Size and structure of ty\)ic^\ 'irro rata. Color, orange fulvous, claval areas greenish white, entire upper surface finely irrorate with black. This is an extreme form of the enlargement of the light spots combined with a change in their color. Specimens are at hand from Florida and Fowler describes it from Mexico. From Signoret's description there seems to be little doubt but that this is the species that he had in hand and which he said was "common in Brazil." Fowler, however, with "a typical example of Signoret," at hand separated ]/ ■poUi)iosa as distinct from the Brazilian form. If this should prove true, which I doubt, still the name irrorata would stand for our form as it was described from Carolina and Walker's }-ufiventris (which both recognize as a syno- nym) from Florida. GENUS^ONCOMETOPIA STAL. Head broader thao pronotum; vertex obtuse, rounding, disc con- vex confused with front, a distinct ledge over antennal sockets; eyes prominent; front gibbous, clypeus scarcely angled. Pronotum short, broadly rounding in front, posterior margin concave, very nearly parallel with the anterior, lateral margins straight, subpar- allel or slightly narrowed behind. Elytra narrow, margins sub- parallel, the lateral margins of abdomen exposed. Anterior tibias slightly sulcate above. KEY TO THE SPECIES. A. Front extending fartherest anteriorly at about the middle, much below the level of vertex and pronotum. Costal area narrow, the cross nervure some distance in front of the fork of first sector. Length 18mm undata Fab. '^ AA. Front retreating from a point on a line with vertex and pro- notum. Costal area broad, tirst sector forked before the first cross nervure. Size, small, 9mm or less lateralis FabQ <^ Oncometopia undata Fab., Plate I, Fig. 2. 0 Cicada undata, Fab. Ent. Syst. IV., p. 32, 1794. t) Cicada orbona. Fab. Ent. Syst. Supp., p. 520, 1798. Q I 'roconia nigricans. Walk. Homop. III., p. 783, 1851. n Proconia clarior. Walk. Homop. III., p. 784, 1851. (iProconia lucerne. Walk. Homo. III. , p. 785, 1851. G Proconia marginata, Walk. Homop. III., 785, 1851. O Proconia badia. Walk Homop. III., p. 786, 1851. § Proconia scutellata. Walk. Homop. HI., 786. 1851. Preeonintenebrosa, Walk. Homop. III., p. 787, i85[. O Proconia iilagiata. Walk. Homop. HI., p. 788, 1851. Oncometopia undala. Fowl. Bio. Homop. II., p. 231, pi. xiv, figs. 19 and 20. OOncometopia alpha, Fowl. Bio. Homop. II., p. 232, pi. xiv, fig. 22. 42 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. C' . . Resembling A. irrm-ata in size and form, but with a much wider head and more prominent eyes. Head and scutellum yellow with black markings. Pronotum and elytra slaty or reddish with blue mottlings. Length,. 13mm; width, 3mm. Head aud anterior part of pronotum inclined in same plane. Head broad, eyes prominent. Vertex two-thirds as long as its basal width, roundingly right angled, the apex blunt. Front gibbous, as seen from side rounding, the apex below the middle. Pronotum convex, elevated, one-half wider than long. Elytra long, narrow, claval veins but slightly approaching each other usually with a cross nervure, costal area norrow, scarcely wider than adjacent discal cell, the cross nervure between the sectors some distance before the fork or the tirst sector. Color; vertex anterior margin of pronotum and the scutellum rusty orange, an incomplete circle before the middle of the vertex, open in front giving off eight radiating lines, two running back and curving around the ocelli, two running forward and meeting at the apex, the other two pairs equidistant between these, a line along the margin from the eye to the apex, some irregular markings at the base and on anterior margin of pronotum, black. Scutellum with a transverse oval giving off six lines, two to each margin. Pronotum and elytra varying from slaty blue to brown and bright red, some- times a large pruinose patch on either side just back of the middle of the elytra. Front oi'ange, a black line on middle and a pair of latteral, converging lines which sometimes meet below the apex. Below dirty yellow, abdomen black above, margins yellow. Genitalia; female segment a little larger than penultimate, the posterior margin divided into three nearly equal rounding lobes, the median one horizontal, the two lateral ones sloping or curved around ovipositor. The horizontal disc parabolic, with a median and often lateral carinse; male plates about half as wide as the ulti- mate segment, together pquilatprally triangular or slighly elongate. Specimens are at hand from District of Columbia, Mary- land, Virginia, Georgia, North Carolina, Florida, Ala- bama, Louisiana, Missouri, Texas and Mexico, Central America, Dutch Guiana and Brazil. It occurs in our territory from New Jersey, Maryland, Michigan, Illinois and Missouri, through the Southern States to Florida and Texas, and on south to Brazil. The synonomy of this species is very puzzling, and tliat given above does not represent in full the conclusion reached by the author, but only that part of it that appears to be unquestionable or that comes in our range. After examining a series from South America and compar- IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 43 ing them with Central American and Mexican forms it seems nearly certain that ohtusa Fab. was but a dark variety of undata, and as uhtiisa was described first the species would bear that name, while our forms would be the variety. Stal in Hemip, Fabriciana describes ohfiisn as wdth the head markings of undata; these markings are very constant and can be partially traced, except in the darkest forms, and appear to be one of the best distin- guishing characters outside of the genitalia. Signoret does not mention these markings nor figure them in obfiisa, but he places clarior Walker from Fla as a synonym, and it had the head markings distinct, as described by Walker. He gives the claval veins as united in ohtusa, but Stal gives them as like undata. Signoret does not describe genitalia under obtusa, but under his next species he describes it in showing how that species differs from i^ Fowler follows Signoret in his treatment of the species, and under remarks on tartarea describes the genitalia of ohtusa as like that of our undata. He follows Signoret in the synonomy of undata and adds marginata and its three synonyms; he. however, places undata on a very pale form, which he figures, and then describes alpha as a possible variety, while in fact it is nearer the typical form. His next species, ruhescens, and a previous one, interjecta, seem also to belong to the ohtusa group. He suggests tartarea and funehy'is as coming in there, but specimens in hand from Mexico which agree with the descriptions of these species are quite distinct. The^funehris is given as from Calif, by Signoret, but no specimens of it have been seen from there, and it has not been included in the synopsis; possi- bly Lower Calif., Mexican, is meant. H, on further examination, the above conclusions prove to be correct, then the full -synonmy of^jhtusa, as far as known, will be, in addition to the abov^, all of which will come under the va.riety undata, as follows: "^ Cicada obtusa. Fab. Mantissa Ins. , p. 269, 1787. ') J'roronia parallela. Walk. Homop. Ill, p. 788, 1851. 0 Tetttgoiiia facialis. Sign Monog. An. Sc. Ent Fr. , p. 489, 1854. 0 TeUigonia herpes , Sign. Monog. An. Sc. Ent. Fr. . p. 796, 1855. w Oncometopia obl.ufi. Fowl. Bio. Homop. II, p. 228, 1899. o ? Oncometopia interjecta. Fowl. Bio. Homop. II, p. 228, 1899, pi 14, fig. 12. 0 ? Oncometopia ruhfscens. Fowl. Bio. Homop. II, p 233, 1899, pi. 14, fig. 24. 44 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. Several more of Fowler's species may fall in this list when the Mexican forms are more thoroughly known. His descriptions are very meagre, and he evidently paid little or no attention to genitalia, so that it is very hard to defi- nitely place any of his species until a specimen comes to hand that has the exact color pattern that he described, as he rarely makes any provision for variation in his descriptions. For the northern part of its range this species seems to be very constantly of the form figured, but farther south the smaller and darker varieties appear, none having been received, however, from nearer than central Mexico. From the extreme southern part of our range (Florida and Texas), a variety that is somewhat shorter and more rooust, proportionally, has been received. These specimens are usually very obscurely marked, and of a uniformly dull brown color, but the head pattern and genitalia are iden- tical with the common form. The color pattern of the head is quite definite in all of the varieties, except the very darkest, where it is obscured, but even here the "A" of the vertex, and the lines of the front can usually be traced in an oblique light, and form one of the best characters for distinguishing this species. Fowler speaks about the color pattern of the pronotum serving to separate this species. This is one of the most variable things about it, and it is little wonder that with such a character as a guide be added to the confusion, instead of helping to clear up the synonomy. ONCOMETOPIA LATERALIS FAB. i^ Cicada lateralis. Fab. Ent. Syst. Sup. , p. 524, i7g8. fl Cicada 7narginella, Fab. Svst. Rhynsr. , p. 96, 1803. ^ Cicada coslalis. Fab. Syst. Rhyng. Erata following, p. 314, 1803. \ /'ettigonia striata. Wa]k. Homop. Ill, p. 77S, 1851. 6 J'ettigonialugens,'W\\k. Homop. Ill, p. 775, i8Si. ^ '/'ettigonia pyrrhotelus. Walk. Homop. HI; p. 775, 1851. Much shorter thcin%fidata but nearly as broad; eyes not as prominent. Black, coarsely irrorate with yellow; Elytra red, veins black. Length, 7-8 mm.; width, 2.75 mm. Head and prouotuoi but slightly inclined, eyes moderately prominent, vertex slightly obtusely angled, twice as long on middle as at eye, length equal to half its basal width, four-fifths the prono- tal length. Front moderately gibbous, sloping back from the plane IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 45 of the vertex, very roundingly angled below. Elytra broad, and short, the costral area wider than adjacent cells, first sector forking before the cross nervure. Color; vertex and pronotum black, coarsely and irregularly dotted with yellow; on the pronotum the wrinkles are yellow, the pits black. Scute lum black, broken lines on the margins, u median line on the posterior half, and a pair of lines on anterior disc enclosing a number of yellow spots. Elytra red, with the nervures black; sometimes the disc is slaty blue, with light margins to the nervures. Front black, with round white spot^. Below black, sometimes marked with yellow. As seen from side, a narrow yel- low line extends around the vertex in front on a level with the eye and runs from the lower corner of the eye to the lateral margin of the abdomen and on back to the pygofers. Genitalia; female segment twice the length of the preceding, truncate, or verv slightly emarginate posteriorly, the lateral angles often depressed, leaving a semicircular disc; male plates, tri- angular, one fourth longer than their basal width, as long as the pygofers. Specimens are at hand from Ontario, District of Colum- bia, Virginia, Florida, Alabama, Tennessee, Mississippi, Manitoba, Minnesota, Iowa, Dakota, Nebraska, Arkansas, Texas, Montana, Wyoming, Colorado, Idaho, Washington, New Mexico, and Nicaraugua, Central America. XJ VAR LIMBATA. SAY. ^ Tettigonia Hmba(a,Sa\. Jou-. Acad. Nat. Sc. , Phila. , IV, p. 340, I825. "X Tettigonia septentrio/ialis, Wn\kr Homop. Supp. , p. 193,1858. Usually somewhat smaller and narrower than the typi- cal form, often with longer elytra, which gives them a somewhat linear appearance. Color, shining black, vertex and face usually with a few rather large yellow spots; pronotum with two ocellate orange spots well back of the anterior margin and in line with the ocelli; sometimes another pair on the outer angles of the scutellum. Below black, the lateral line extending from the eye back, broad and distinct. Specimens of this variety are at hand from Colorado, Dakota and Iowa, and it has been reported from Michigan and Canada, and Walker's species was from the Mackenzie river. The white lateral line will at once separate it from the black form of T. hierogli/phica, which it somewhat resembles. The species, as a whole, occurs from the Mackenzie river and Nova Scotia south throughout the whole continent, and to northern South America at least. It is somewhat y 46 lOVV^A ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. local in distribution in some parts. In Colorado it occurs everywhere, but in Iowa it has only been found in a few places along the northern border, and yet it occurs along- side in Missouri and Nebraska. This species is very vari- ble in size and color, the black on vertex and pronotum is fairly constant, while the elytra vary from a bright red to a bright slaty blue and on to shining black, and the irrorations on head and pronotum vary from white to orange, and in some Central American specimens they are rufus. The lateral white stripe, however, remains con- stant, and will at once distinguish this species. Fowler, in the Biologia, places this species under Tetti- gonia, along with puncfiilafa. This is an error; the resem- blance is only superficial. Lateralis possesses the angled front, the sulcate anterior tibiae and the exposed lateral margin to the abdomen, which make it a good Oncome- topia, and widely separates it from piiuctidata. <5 GENUS HOMALODISCA, STAL. Head, large; eyes, prominent, wider than pronotum; vertex and pronotum, inclined; vertex, triangular, the apex obtuse longer than pronotum, the disc with a distinct median furrow. Front and vertex forming an acute angle, the apex bluntly rounded. Front, flat in same plane as clypeus, the disc flat or concave. Pronotum, short, quadrangular, narrowing posteriorly. Elytra, hyaline or sub-hyaline, rarely coriaceous, the claval nervures often united for a considerable distance in the middle. Anterior tibiie, sulcate above, often broadened apically. This genus is closely related to Phera, of Stal, but may be known by the broader apex of the vertex and the flat or depressed front. KEY TO THE SPECIES. A. Elytra, hyaline, at least on basal half, the nervures distinct, apparently raised. B. Vertex, but slightly longer than pronotum, evenly irrorate, with fuscous; usually several irregular, retic- ulate veins between the first cross nervure and the fork of the tirsl sector triquetra, Fab.O BB. Vertex, one-half longer than pronotum, irregularly lined with fuscous, no extra cross-nervures between the sectors of elytra liturata n. sp.O AA. Elytra, opaque, the nervures concolorous, the flrst sectors forked half way between the first cross-nervure and the sec- ond insolita Walk.O IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 47 HOMALODISCA TRIQUETRA FAB., Plate II, Fig. 1. p€icada triquHra Fab. Syst. Rhyngt.. p. 63. 1803. O TeUigonia vitripennis Germ. Mag. Ent. IV, p. 61, 1821. rj TeUigonia coagulataSzy. Insects, La., p. 13, 1832. fjTettigonia ichfhyocephala Si?n An, Soc. Ent. Fr., p. 494, 1854. (vide Fowl). (jProconia ndmitt ens \^a.\k. Homop. Supp.,p. 227 1858. QPi-oconia aurigeraV^^AXk. Homop. Supp., p- 228, 1858. •(^I'hera vitirpennis Fowl. Bio. Homop. H, p 221, Plate XIV. Figure i, 1899. Longer and narrower than in the former genera, with a broad, triangular head, which is rounded at the apex. Elytra, hyaline. Length, 13 mm.; width, nearly 3 mm. Vertex, as long as its basal width, one-fifth longer than pro- nolum; disc, flat, sloping, with a median furrow and a depression before each ocellus, apex very bluntly rounding, the lateral mar- gins sharp. Front, sloping, disc concave, rounding up to meet the vertex in a right angle. Pronotum, very coarsely pitted, anterior and posterior margins nearly parallel. Elytra, with the venation strong, usually two or three irregular cross-nervures between the sectors at or before the first fork, the claval veins coalescing for a short distance, then widely separated. Anterior tibia?, sulcate above and somewhat widened apically. Color; vertex and pronotum deep testaceous brown, finely and regularly irrorate with yellow sometimes obscuring the brown. Elytra smoky subhyaline usually a broad, somewhat milky band, before the middle and an opaque red spot before the apical cells which sometimes extends forward along the costa. Fresh speci- mens often have a prninose spot just before the red one. Face and thorax below orange yellow, a spot on clypeus, sometimes a pair on face, the upper side of anterior tibia3, mottled on all the femora, and spots from which the spines on hind tibias arise, black. Abdo- men blue-black above, the lateral margins, broadly on the two basal segments, narrowly beyond, ivory white, the spiracles and a few spots along margin brown. The pygofers orange, abdomen below whitish, the disc of each segment black. Genitalia; female segment about twice the length of the preced- ing, slightly narrowing to the lateral angles which are acute, between these the posterior margin is triangularly incised one-third its depth, the apex of the incision is blunt and the margins sinuate. Male plates long, triangular, slightly, concavely narrowing ,to an acute apex. Specimens are at hand from Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Louisiana, Mississippi, Texas, and Mexico, and it has been reported from South Carolina. It seems probable that the references of this species to California belong to the fol- lowing species. The above synonomy is given with some hesitation. Fowler figures it under the name of vUrijjeiDiis and does not include triquetra at all. He evidently had our species 48 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. in hand, but his references of iclifhyocephala Sign, to tliis form seems doubtful. •^ HoMALODiscA LiTURATA N. sp. Plate II, Fig. 2. Smaller, narrower than triquetra with a longer head.. Straw yellow, five irregular brown lines on the head. Length, 11mm; width, 2.25mm. Vertex one-fifth longer than its basal width, half longer than the pronotuna, disc flat, very deeply grooved in the middle. Front very long and narrow, disc flat and in same plane as the clypeus. Pronotum short, disc flat, posterior margin more strongly curved than the anterior one. Elytra very narrow, nervures distinct, a single cross nervure between the sectors situated at over one-third the distance from the fork of the first sector to the base. Color; vertex pale yellow with five brown lines as follows: a narrow median one expanded on the apex, an interrupted line ou either side the middle, arising considerably back of the apex and usually somewhat reticulate anteriorly, a pair of heavier stripes arising either side the apex and running back to the ocelli, their basal portions forming part of the loop that runs from the ocelli around to the eye, the striations of the reflexed part of the front brown. Pronotum yellow, irregularly punctured with brown; usually four distinct dark spots on the anterior submargin. Scutel- lum yellow with large brown spots sometimes arranged in the form of an H. Elytra hyaline, the nervures red, an irregular opaque red patch on the costal half back of the middle, terminating just before the apical cells and omitting an oval hyaiin spot in the anterior end of the anteapical cells. Face and legs yellow, a spot on apex of front and anterior tibiae, fuscous. Abdomen black above, the terminal segment yellow, the lateral margins broadly white, at the base, narrowing apically, the spiracles dark. Below pale, sometimes a median line and the margins of the female seg- ment black. Genitalia; female segment half longer than the penultimate, the lateral margins parallel, the posterior margin in two slightly rounding divergent lobes, the Jiotch between them narrow and less than half the depth of th&f'ifr trigueira. Specimens are at hand from Phoenix, Ariz; Yuma, Cal- ifornia, and Comondu Lower, Calif, Mexico. The larger head and much narrower form together with the lineate arrangement of the markings will readily separate this- form ivoviPtriquetra. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 49 ^HoMALODiscA iNSOLiTA Walk. Plate II, Fig. 3. ^Prfconia inioWa, Walk, HomoiJ, Supii.. p. 227. lS^S. J'herainsolita, Fowl. Bio. lloinoi). II., p. 222, pi. xiv, tig. 2, 1S99. Resemblin^/'r/V«^/r«, but smaller and with a smaller head. Dirk testaceous, with the anterior half of pronotum and vertex irrorate with yellow. Male sometimes almost black. Length, 10.5 mm.; width, 2.25 mm. Vertex, no longer than the pronotum, very Hat, but little inclined, margins acute, nearly right angled before. Front, con- vex, disc flat above. Face, as seen from side, much deeper than in triquetra, the outline sinuate. Elytra, rather broad, coriaceous; venation, regular, not prominent, the claval veins united for a short distance, the cross-nervure at about the middle of the first sector. Color: dark reddish brown; a slightly olive tinge in the female. Vertex and anterior half of pronotum irrorate with pale yellow, sometimes a light median line in the furrow. Male very much darker, almost piceus on pronotum and elytra. Front and below, orange yellow; an ivory band arises on either side the apex of the vertex, below which it is indistinct, running back below the eyes, widening on the thorax and narrowing again on the margin of the abdomen. This stripe is narrowly margined with black, above and below, on the thorax. Fore tibire, dark fuscous. Genitalia: Female segment twice longer than penultimate, the posterior margin triangularly emarginate. The emargination rounds off into a narrow median slit, which extends two-thirds of the distance to the base. Male plates about as long as the ultimate segments, equilaterally triangular, rather stout. Specimens are at hand from Texas and Arizona, and it is reported from several points in Mexico in the Biologia. The evenly coriaceous elytra readily separates this from either of the other species. Neither Walker nor Fowler describe the genitalia, which is quite distinct, but there seems little doubt but that this is the form Walker described. 0 GENUS TETTIGONIA GEOFF. Head, bluntly conical, but slightly sloping, eyes rarely promi- nent; ledges over antennal sockets, as seen from above, fused with the vertex margin at apex, not prominent. Front, convex, but not gibbous; vertex convex, confused with the rounding front. Pro- notum, rather long, broadest at the lateral angles, the lateral and humeral margins nearly equal in length; posterior margin straight or roundingly emarginate. Elytra, covering the abdominal tergum; venation, simple non-reticulate, often obscured by the color mark- ings. Anterior tibia; simple. This genus is world-wide in distribution, and contains a very large number of species of many different forms. Our 4 50 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. species very readily fall into two groups, the first of which under "A" is the more typical and would include most of the tropical species. The second group, "AA," has a reduc- tion in the number of cross-nervures, narrower heads, and the face pushed downwards and forwards, instead of rounding back at the apex, giving the head a much greater depth. This is extremely emphasized m^fripunc- t((f((, and if it occurred here alone there might be reason for generic separation, but a most complete gradation in this character -is found running back from this si^ecies through bifida, hartii, occaforia and gofhicd to the other extreme \\?h icrofjli/p/i tea. O KEY TO THE SPECIES.* A. Elytra with three anteapical cells; head as wide as the pro- uotum, not as deep as the length of vertex and pronotum together. Face, in profile, strongly curved backwards, usually with the clypeus somewhat angled. B. Head with a pattern sometimes obscure, but not in the form of definite spots. C. Head pattein very complex, no parallel lateral bars. Length, over 6 mm hieroglyphica Say. ^ CC. Head pattern simple, the lateral bars running back parallel with the median pair. Length, 6 mm. or less gothica SignS^ BB. Head with definite spots, not coalescing into a pattern. C. Greenish blue, face with two stripes, posterior half of pronotum with black spots alropunctata Sign.^ CC. Reddish, face with three stripes, posterior half of pronotum with four longitudinal stripes dohrni Sign . O AA. Elytra with no cross-nervures between the branches of the first sector before the apical cell (occasional in occaforia). Q Head narrower than pronotum, deeper than the length of vertex and pronotum. Face, in profile, straight or in a single curve, rather long. ^ *^OT:^:-Tettigonia lineata Sign. (= coerideovittata Sign.) although cred- ited to the "United States"' in the original description, has not been included in this synopsis as no specimens "have been seen from points nearer than central Mexico, and it seems probable that the original refer- ence was an error. ^ Teitigonia aeshians Walk, is credited to California by Van Duzee, in his catalog, on what authority I do not know. Walker gave "West Coast of America" and Signoret "Para" as habitat for this species. It belongs to a group of distinctly tropical forms, and is doubtless South American in dis- tribution. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 51 B. Head and pronotum with definite longitudinal stripes. occatoria Say . '^ BB. Head and pronotum with transverse bauds parallel with margin, or none. C. The outer branch of the first sector forking to form an anteapical cell. Pronotum with transverse bands parallel to the margins. D. Green, vertex blunt, alternate transverse bands of light and dark on pronotum and vertex. E. Elytra green, the nervures black. Length, 5.5—6 mm bifida Say. '-' EE. Elytra green, the nervures pale or obscure, three white spots before the the apex. Length, 4.5 — 5 mm., much narrower than above. ^i?ow^/rzVa Sign. ^ DD. White, vertex longer, with three black spots. Elytra white, the nervures brown. tripunctata Fitch . O CC. The outer branch of the first sector, with its outer fork running to the margin. Pronotum, without marginal bands. Form, short and si out ^ hartii ^ ^ Tettigonia hieroglyphica Say, Plate III. ^TelfUjonia kieror/lyphica Say. ]our. Acad. Nat. Sc. Phil. VI. p. 313, 1831. Rather stout; vertex bluntly conical. General color, reddish or greenish on pronotum and elytra usually mottled, costa and claval suturs often broadly light, the markings on vertex in a complex pat- tern. The broad median band of scutellum light. A black spot on apex of vertex. Face, mottled; sometimes the whole insect is black. Length, 6—7 mm.; width, L5 mm. Vertex, slightly conical, bluntly right-angled, the lateral margin in advance of the margin of the eye; over three-fourths the length of the pronotum not quite three-fourths its basal width. Face, as seen from side, rounding back. Elytra, rather broad and compact; five apical and three anteapical cells. Genitalia; female segment two and one-half times as Io:3g as the penultimate, slightly narrowing posteriorly; posterior margin tri- angularly produced, the apex produced and rounding, who e seg- ment thin and membranous, strongly curved around the pygofers. Male plates two and one-half times as long as the ullimale seg- ment, long-triangular, their apices acute, margins fringed with soft hairs. The following varieties intergrade, but most of the speci- mens will readily fall into one of the following forms: •3 Var. hieroglyphica, Say. Plate III, Fig. i. Rad form — Structure as above. Color, a round black spot on the apex of vertex and face surrounded by a broad circular 52 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. band of white; from this on either side there is a band around the margin of the vertex to the eye, and usually a band runs down the middle of the front. Front irregularly mottled with black and white. Lorae and genae pale, clypeus white, with a medij^n black band. Vert-x with a median light line arising from a transverse spot at base, forking just before the middle the two forks angularly divergent, and again angularly recurved, forming a T, with the top piece broken upward to form nearly a right angle above; a band against either eye, from the anterior end of which a crescent extends in, nearly to the top of the T, an oblique line running in from behind either eye, sometimes interrupted to form a spot just inside either ocellus, white. Pronotum, reddish, with irregular creamy markings, usually the anterior margin is lighter, with dnh- nite markings, often a creamy band extends back from either eye and joins a band around the posterior margin. Scutellum, with the median half white, interrupted in the middle, a pairof round black dots in the anterior quadrangular part, a pair of white dashes along the mi'idle of the lateral margins. Elytra, reddish, the C03tal and sutural margin?, a line on either side the claval suture and a line between the claval nervures pale creamy, sometimes some irregu- lar mottliugs on the disc of the corium. Slaty form — Size and structure of the preceding form. Color slaty green, varying to fuscous, markings as in the preceding species, except that the light markings of the vertex are usually reduced in size. Face in the female often nearly all light, except for the black spots on the clypeus and apex of head; in the male, often black, with small light spots. Pronotum with a p ile area behind each eye, in the middle of which there is a black spot, the dark mai king along the anterior margin sometimes forming defi- nite spots. Light stripes on elytra, often broad, especially the pair next the claval suture. Light markings, often with a tinge of blue. ^ Var. dolobrata NOV. VAR. , Plate III, Fig. 2. Somewhat smaller than the preceding. Shining black, a few of the white markings of the typical form persisting, as follows: the margins of the clypeus, the genae, a line below the margin of the pronotum, the circle around the apex of head, a line against the eye, and the marking of the scutellum. Often there is part of a median line on vertex, and a pair of slender lines running from the inner corner of the eye back across the pronotum to the light margined claval suture. ^ Var. uhleri nov. var., Plate III, Fig. 3. Slightly stouter than typical hieroglyphica, elytra often consid- erably longer; grayish green, with light blue-green mottlings; black markings on vertex and scutellum much reduced in size and intens- ity, remaining only as narrow lines margining the original white pattern, giving quite a strikingly different appearance to the vertex. The whole central area is now light from the apical circle back, a pair of approximate lines on the basal half and a heavier pair between them and the ocelli converging before the middle. The IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 53 areas between the ocelli and the eyes are ligh% often partly enclosed by a black circular line and with a heavy black spot in the middle. The reflexed portions of the front striated with dark. Pronotum, as in other forms, the markings smaller and more numerous. Elytra mottled with blue-green, the nervures somewhat fuscous, claval sutures often broadly light. Reddish form — Reddish, pronotum and elytra mottled with creamy, anterior margin of pronotum and scutellum distinctly red- dish, dark markings often obscure or wanting, the outer pair of lines on vertex often enlarged, somewhat lobed. ^ Var. confluens Uhl. , Plate III, Fig. 4. (^ Proconia oonjluens, Uhler. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sc, Phila., p. 285, 1861. Stouter than even the preceding varieties, elytra usually long nearly parallel margined. Dark testaceous, shading to fuscous, elytra slightly and obscurely mottled. Vertex and scutellum fus- cous, a few of the light markings of tchleri persisting, as follows; a dash back of the apex of vertex, three lines on the disc, a trans- verse spot at base and a margin next the eyes. Often light mark- ings on pronotum, the lateral ones arranged in rows, apex of scu- tellum light. The face is usually light, with dark mottlings. Ely- tra often with the mottlings arranged in light stripes, especially along costa and claval suture. This species, as a whole, is very variable in size and color, and recalls 0. iimJafa a,ndP lateral is in their red, green and black forms. The varieties readily fall into two series on strnctural characters. The first hasV^ ierof/lyph ica, and dolo- hrafa as the extreme in darkening np. These forms are the only ones found in the Mississippi valley and as far west as central Kansas; they ocp^r also in Texas, Arizona and Mexico. The second series has uJtleri as the common form, and con- fluens as the dark extreme. The iihleri is the common form in Wyoming, Colorado, Arizona and New Mexico, and extends westward to the coast. The specimens from the western coast, including Idalngr, are much larger, and have longer elytra, and are mostly con/iuens. Specimens of this species are at hand from Illinois, Iowa, Missouri, Nebraska, Kansas, Ark^^nsas, Texas, Wyo- ming, Colorado, Utah, New. Mexico, Arizona, Idaho, Wash- ington, Vancouvers Island Oregon, California and Mexico. All specimens received d.^hieroghjp]iica from points east of Illinois belonged to the following species: <^ Tettigonia gothica Sign., Plate IV, Fig. 1. Tettigonia gothica S\gn. An. Soc. Ent. Fr.. ]>. 345, 1854. 54 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. ^ Teffigonia similig Woodw. Bull. III. St. Lah. III., p. 25, 1887. O 7'ettigonia hieroglyphica, in ref. from Eastern States (nee Say). Smaller th?iiP hieror/ 1 i/jjJiica, which it much resembles, pale reddish or grayish green, with several nearly parallel lines on the disc of the vertex and a point at apex black. Length, 5.5 — 6 mm.; width, 1.25 mm. Vertex slightly narrower and more pointed than in hieroglyphica, three-eighths wider than its luiddlelength, over two-thirds the leugtli of the pronotum, the margins rounded, apex slightly conical, the lateral margin rounding directly to and confluent with the margin of the eye. Front and clypeus as seen from side are evenly round- ing, the rostrum reaching back to the scutellum. Elytra with the nervures somewhat more pronounced than in hieroglyphica. vena- tion similar. Color; head pale reddish or greenish yellow, apex wiih a black point surrounded by a light circle. Front all light or with a light median stripe and numerous short fuscous arcs. Clypeus unmarked cr with but a minute black point. Vertex with the margins of the reflexed portions slightly angularly lined, a line from the angle fol- lowing the suture to the ocelli, inside of these on the disc there is a pair of loops, their outer limbs often curving around to the ocelli and sending a branch back to the posterior margin. These loops often reduced in size to feeble lines, and their inner limbs some- times broken or wanting. Pronotum with the anterior third light yellow, disc olive or brownish, sometimes with a distinct pattern, often without definite marking. Scutellum with the median half of posterior disc light, margins and anterior disc often clouded with fuscous. Elytra grayish green or reddish unicolorous with the nerv- ures light, or mottled with creamy yellow, the nervures slightly darkened. Genitalia; female segment nearly three times the length of the penultimate, the posterior margin triangularly produced, whole segment transversely convex. Ma'e plates long, triangular, two and one-half times as long as the penultimate segment, nearly half longer than their combined basal width, their margins fringed with hair. Specimens have been examined from Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, District of Columbia, New York, Ohio, Illinois, Kentucky, Alabama, Iowa, Nebraska, Kan- sas, Colorado, Arizona and southern California; and besides tliese, it has been reported from New Jersey (siini- //.v), and Ottawa, Can. and Massachusetts (as Jii('rof//i/p/n'ca). This species has been very generally confused with hiero- (jlnphicd and reported under that name. All specimens determined as that species that have been received and examined from points east of Illinois have proved to IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 55 belong to this one, and it seems quite certain that all records for hlerogliipliica from farther east than that, should be referred to this species. Typical examples of similis determined by Woodworth have been examined. "^Tettigonia atropunctata Sign., Plate IV, Fig. 2. Tt>ttigo}naatropiiiicfatn S'win. An. Soc. Ent. Fr.. ]). 3S4. 1S54. 0 rettioonm cir illata (Uhler MS. ). Baker ^descrip. ) Psyche \'III, p. 2S5, 1S98. Tettigoaia atropunctata Fo\\\. Bio. Homop. II, p. 206, Pi. 17, Fig. 27, igjo. General form oPhieroghjpJi'ica somewhat narrower, ver- tex and pronotum each with about five black spots. Pos- terior half of pronotum and elytra blue. Length, 6 — 7 mm.; width, 1.25 mm. Vertex bluntly rounded, slightly narrowed at the eyes, two- thirds the length of the pronotum. Face, as seen from side, similar to gothica. clypeus slightly prominent, elytral venation similar to that oil^othica. Color; head pale yellow, sometimes washed with pale blue, a black spot at the apex, surrounded by a pale circle. Front with a stripe either side of the middle, the lateral margin and the clypeal suture black, the two stripes are often effaced in the middle, leaving only a dash at the ends, clypeus with a black dash, vertex with a spot on the middle, a dash against each ocellus on the outside, and h, cres- cent on either side anteriorly along the line of the frontal suture, ProQotum with the anterior half pale, broadest behind the eyes, a black spot behind the outer corner of either eye, a pair just inside the eyes on the sub-margin, and three dots between these latter. Posterior half bright blue, with a large transverse spot behind the middle on either side, and a small dot or longitudinal spot between them. Elytra bright blue, the nervures narrowly black. Legs, orange. Genitalia; female segment three times the length of the preced- ing, the median line elevated into a strong keel, posterior margin strongly angled, the apex formed by the convex keel. Male plates long, t lender, style-like, about three times the length of the ulti- mate segment, the margins with fine hairs. Numerous specimens are at hand from Arizona and California. It is reported as being one of the most abun- dant and injurious Jassids in southern California. Signoret described this species from Brazil, and Powder has it (figured) from Mexico. Neither author's figures are very good for the insect as it occurs in our territory, but Signoret's description, which is very full and complete, and includes face markings and genitalia, both very striking and distinctive, leaves no doubt as to this being the species 56 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. described. Specimens labeled cirri] bda, in Baker's hand- writing, are in the National Museum collection. ^Tettigonia dohrnii Sigx. Plate IV, Fig. 3. ^Tettigonia dohrnii Siffn. An. Sor. Ent. Fr. . p. 792. PI. 24, Fip. 13, iSsc. ^Tettigonia mirora lUhler MS. ) Baker (description ) Psvche VI, p. 286. 1S98. Tettigonia dohrnii Fowl. Bio. Homop. II, p. 268, 1900. c^TettigoniadelicataFowl. Bio. Homop. II, p. 269, PI. 18, Fig:. 5, 1900. MQ?>Qmh\\\-i^atropn)ictata in structure, rather longer and narrower. Head and anterior part of pronotum pale, with transverse rows of spots, rest of pronotum and elytra pale reddish, with darker stripes. Length, 7 mm.; width, 1.25 mm. Vertex, bluntly rounding, three-fourths the length of the pro- notum, narrower than in the preceding species, the disc very flat, slightly transversely depressed. P^yes, small, hardly as wide as the pronotum at the lateral angles; pronotum, rather long, narrowing anteriorly. Elytra, long and narrow; venation of iht-fiieroglyphica pattern, the anteapical cells longer and narrower; outline of face as in that species. Color; vertex, pale creamy; a spot at the apex, which is one of five equidistant ones on the anterior margin, and behind these a pair of oblique dashes with their inner ends enlarged and obliquely truncate; black. Posterior sub margin with four quadrate red- dish spols, the inner pair elongate. Front, pale; three longitudinal lines, the median line not reaching the apical dot, either side of which there is a black dash below, a pair of spots below the auten- ual pit", another pair below these, and a third pair on the get a3. Clypeus, with a black dash above. Pronotum, with the anterior part light, broadening out behind the eyes, the sub-margin with six quadrangular reddish fuscous spots in a row; posterior disc tinged with reddish, with four longitudinal testaceous lines, the outer pnir short and divergent; scutellum, yellow, with the transverse suture, and three dots at base, reddish fuscous; sometimes the basal dot.s are extended into longitudinal lines. Elytra, broadly pale along the uervures, the central portion of the cells darker. Legs, yellow. Genitalia; female segment over twice the length of the penulti- mate; posterior margin, broadly roundingly produced; disc, con- vex. Male plates, one-third longer than the ultimate segment; rather broad at base, rapidly narrowing to the long acute points, which are much exceeded by the pygofers. Specimens are at hand from Arizona and Mexico. The Arizona specimens are from the Van Duzee collection, and bear the label, "Ariz. C. U., Lot 34," and under this, "Cor- nell U., Lot 45, Sub. 410." They were sent to Prof. Van Duzee asvT. aurora Uhler, and are doubtless from the IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 57 same lot as the two specimens Baker described. The Mexican specimens are paler and answer the Signoret description, except that there are fonr longitudinal stripes on the pronotum. One of the Arizona specimens has the median pair coalesced, w^hich would give the three stripes of his description and figure. o Tettigonia occatoria Say. Plate IV, Fig. 4. ^Tettigonia orcatoria Sav. Jour. .'\cad. Nat. Sc. Phila. VI, p. 311, 1S31. '^'J etUgonia complu Fo\v\. Bio. Hoinop. II, p. 271, PI. 18, Fig. 11,1900. ^Tettiyoida occatoria Fowl. Bio. Homop. II, p. 279, PI. 18, Fig. 29, 1900. Smaller tha,n dokrfni, which it resembles in form; longer and narrower then^g-oi/iu-a. Pale, with four divergent stripes on head and five parallel ones on pronotum; dark brown. Elytra, with a transverse white band before the apex. Length, 6 mm.; width, 1 mm. Vertex, nearly flit, rather long, angled with a blunt point, the length and breadth at base equal; almost as long at pronotum. Pro- notum, broader than the eyes. Elytra, long and narrow; venation, obscure; two apical cells, sometimes th^ee. Outline of face, as seen from side, almost straight, resembling bifida. Color; vertex, yellow, a black spot on the apex just below the margin; a stripe arising just outside and behind the apex on either side running back between the ocellus and the eye; a median dash some distance from apex, which abruptly terminates [in a pair of stripes, which run back parallel with the first pair, but inside the ocelli. Pronotum, with tive stripes, the median one arising on the base of the vertex and continuing to the apex of scutellum; another pair of stripes arising beneath the eyes and running back below the margin of the pronotum onto the elytra, where, together with the two pairs from the head, they break up into six stripes on each side, of which the outer pair furnishes three on the corium and the' other two pairs the three on the clavus. These stripes are of a velvety brown, the outer pair darker anteriorly. The space between these stripes, the margins of the elytra, except the apical, some shade of yellow. Just before the apex of the elytra is a cres- cent-shaped, transverse band, which may be yellow or hyaline. Face and below, pale yellow; a few short fuscous arcs on the side of the front. Legs, pale. Genitalia; female segment scarcely twice the length of the pre- ceding; posterior margin obtusely rounding or almost truncate. Male ultimate segment very short; plates rather broad-triangular, their apices slightly produced; much exceeded by the pygofers. Specimens are at hand from Florida, Mississippi and Texas, where it is apparently common. It is also a com- mon Mexican insect. Specimens are at hand from many localities, but the two commoner forms are somewhat 58 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES different in color and both strikingly different from the form from the United States. One of these forms has the stripes black, the disc of the pronotum and elytra blue- green, with very faint stripes; often a bright blue band inside the claval suture. The other variety has the stripes very broad and definite, of a blue-black; the spaces be- tween the stripes yellow on vertex, becoming greenish on the pronotum and bright green on the elytra. Through- out this variation the structure and pattern remains the same, except that the transverse light band at the apex of the elytra is often much broader or doubled by a nar- row, black line. Fowler figured this latter variety as occatoria, and described our common foriH di^couipfa. His two following species, tunicafa and sororia, probably also belong here. ^ Tettigonia bifida Say. Plate V., Fig. 1. ^Tettiqoina Inliila S?\.\. Jour. Acad. Nat. Sc. , Phil. IV, p. Sis-lysi- s' TeltKioiiin l^inlht Walk. Uomop. 111. p. ^^o. 1851. " Ttiti'ionut i,i.ri,iii,. Walk. Homop. Ill, p. 780 1851. Tettiyonia bijldti O. & B. la. Acad. Sc. IV, p. 175, i897- Head short and blunt. Color green, alternate circular bands of light and black on head and pronotum, nervures broadly black. Length, 5.5 — 6 mm.; width, 1.2 mm. Verlex short, conical, half the length of the pronotum, nearly twice wider than long, eyes small, narrower than pronotum at the lateral angles. Eiytra broad, venation simple, no cross nervures between tne sectors before apical cells, outer fork of lirst sector figain forking near its middle. Face, as seen from side, very gently curved. Color; vertex black, the concave posterior margin with a light band which extends behind the eyes, another light band parallel with this across the disc, just in front of the ocelli, a spot on either side of the apex, sometimes connected with the anterior band by divergent lines. Ledge above antenna? black, margined with light. Face pitchy, outer margin of genaj and the suture between front and genjB narrowly light, sides of front against ait^nnai rufous. Pronotum with a broad black band on the anterior margin, broad- est in the middle, bordered behind by a narrow light band, the humeral and posterior margins with a narrow bind of ivory white, in front of which there is a broader band of black, sometimes this band margined in front by another pale one, the disc green. Scu- tellum yellow, with the transverse impression black. Elytra green, the nervures black, except for the apical cells, which are entirely smoky. Legs, yellow. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 59 Genitalia; female segment about half longer than the precedicg one, the posterior margin with the median half slightly rouudingly produced, whole segment very convex. Male plates scarcely as long as the ultimate segment, equilaterally triangular, their apices slightly divergently produced. Plates less than half the length of the pygofers. Specimens are at hand from New Hampshire, Vermont, New York, District of Columbia, Ohio, Iowa, Kansas, Florida, Tennessee, Alabama, Mississippi, Mexico and the West Indies. It occurs all over the eastern half of the United States from Canada to Florida, west to Iowa and Mississippi, and on into eastern Kansas and Nebraska; but a careful search in the west ends of these states and in Colorado has failed to find it. <^ Tettigonia geometrica Sign. Plate V, Fig. 2. ^ Tetfigouia oeomehnca Sign. An Soc. Ent. Fr. . p. 12, PL 1, Fig. 12, 1854. Tetfujonia yeo?netrica Bak. Psyche VIII, p. 285, 1898, Resembling^ hijida in form and color, but smaller and lacking the black lines on the elytra. Length, 4.5-5 mm.; width, scarcely 1 mm. \^ Vertex slightly shorter than in bifida, elytra narrower, vena- tion similar, the fork of the outer branch of the first sector occur- ring well behind the middle instead of at or before it, as in bifida, and its branches somewhat more divergent. Color; vertex black, with the two light crescentiform bands as in bifida, the anterior one narrower and almost broken on the frontal sutures; the two spots at the apex larger, approximate. Face black, the antenna^ and themargins of the led^e above light. Pronotum and scutellum as in bifida Elytra bright green, the apical cells smoky, margined in front by three pale spots, the outer one the largest; the costal margin and usually the outer branch of the first sector light yellow. Some Florida males are much dark- ened up, but the )igh> spots on the wings remain or become enlarged. Genitalia; as iu bifida, but so much smaller that they are made out with difticulty. Specimens are at hand from the District of Columbia, Ohio, Kentucky, Florida, Arkansas and Mexico. Besides these, it has been reported from Illinois, Alabama and Louisiana. The Ohio River seems to be nearly its northern limit, as ifc has only been taken in southern Ohio and Illinois, and careful collecting in Iowa has not revealed it. It doubtless occurs throughout all the Southern States from 60 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. Maryland and Illinois south to Florida and Texas, and on throutjjh Mexico to South America. Ileadily separated from bifida by the much smaller size and the green elytra with the three white spots before the smoky apex. Some Florida males are almost black, and might be confused with hartii males, if they were not so much more slender than that species. ^ Tettigonia tripunctata Fitch. Plate V, Fig. 3. ' '/'HUao'iia frl/)iin.ctaf.a Fitch. Homop. N. Y. St. Cab., p. 55, 1851. 'Not^ettigonia tripunctata Sign. Monog. No. 175; Fowler Bio. , p. 253. Resembling b/p'da in form and structure, smaller, and with a longer head. White, with the nervures and three spots on vertex, black. Length, 5 mm. Vertex long, conical !y pointed, almost as long as the pronotum. Pronotum as wide as the eyes at the lateral angles, narrowed in front. Elytra inclined to be flaring, venation simple, no cross nerv- ures between the sectors, the second fork of the tirst sector occur- ring beyond the middle of the outer branch, the two veins often scarcely separated. Face, as seen from side, gently curved, very deep. Color; white, vertex with a spot on the apex, and circles around the ocelli black, a few brown arcs on the reflexed portion of front and often a brown point on the middle of the disc. Front with very short brown arcs, the ends of which are enlarged and form four longitudinal lines, the two on either side uniting just before the clypeus and extending below the middle of that piece where they unite. Pronotum with the margins very narrowly lined with brown, two transverse bands on the disc, one parallel with each margin, equidistant on the median line, the posterior one abbreviated. Scutellum with an abbreviated median brown line. Elytra with the margins, nervures and claval suture narrowly lined with brown, paler at the apex. Legs and below pale. Genitalia; female segment nearly twice the length of the preced- ing, slightly rounding or truncate posteriorly. Male plates broad at base, obtusely triangular, their apices produced into attenuate points; the whole scarcely as long as the large ultimate segment. Specimens are at hand from Maryland, District of Columbia, New Hampshire, New York, Oliio and Mexico, and it has been reported from Canada, Illinois, Mississippi and Missouri. The Mexican specimens have the vertex much broader and blunter, as in the Mexican form ofwi/ida, and the spot on the center of the disc is distinct and black. Fowler in IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 6L the Biologia follows Signoret in his use of fripuiicfata, but as suggested by Van Duzee, Ent. News V, p. 155, this is evidently a mistake and refers to a distinct species which should be called nifjrifasciaftf Walk., and which should not only include pallida and alhida but also loiigattata and Candida of Walker. The markings on the head and pro- notum are quite different and the genitalia as described by Signoret could not apply to the true tripiDictata. As described and figured by Signoret nigrifasciaia should be close to reniista Stal., which belongs to the got h lea group with the retracted face. Tettigonia hartii, Plate V, Fig. 4. Tettigonia hartii Wood. MSS. Form and structure or fripandafa, hut shorter and much stouter built, especially the head. Female slaty gray, median line of front and nervures lighter. Male much smaller, shining black. Length, 9 4.5 — 15 mm.; \. B'io. Homop II, p. 274, PI. 18, Fig. 17, 1900. Helachara fulviceiihala, ¥\\.c\\ MSS. Small, moderately stont, vertex blunt, shorter than pronotum. Elytra densely reticulated before the apex. Green with the head pale, washed with reddish. Length, 9 5.5 mm., s 4-5 mm. Vertex bluntly conical, nearly right angled, two-thirds the length of the pronotum, ocelli large. Face in profile convex. The clypeus slightly elevated, front broad rounding with the vertex. Pronotum rather long, strongly emarginate on the median third posteriorly. Elytra as xu^mollipes, but with the reticulations more numerous, much more numerous than in the two preceding species. Color; vertex and face pale, finely irrorate with brown and washed with reddish orange, a pair of spots against the ocelli on the inside and a marginal line sometimes emphasized in the spots at the apex, creamj-; ocelli shining black; anterior margin of pro- notum and the scutellum pale yellow; disc of pronotum and elytra green or grayish green; nervures and margin pale, distinct. Legs and below pale yellow, margins of the abdominal sternites in the female reddish. Genitalia; female segment half longer than the penultimate, pos- terior margin truncate, the median half roundingly produced. Male valve short, nearly as wide as the plates at base, plates long, acutely triangular, slightly longer than the ultimate segment. 74 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. Specimens are at hand from South Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, Texas, California, and Mexico, and it was described from Cuba. Signoret's description is very good, and fits our species in every particular except that he gives the length as 3 mm.; this would be too small, but the length line on the plate is fully 4 mm., which would fit the males of this species, and they also more often possess the "three white points at the apex," which he describes. EXPLANATION OF PLATES. The figures on a plate, except where otherwise noted, are drawn to the same scale. The drawings were made by my wife from my pencil sketches and under constant supervision as regards struc- tural accuracy. PLATE I. •^ Fig. l.—Aulacizes irrorata. Female, typical form. a, profile; b, elytron; c, 9 genitalia; d, j- genitalia. Fig. 2. — Oncometopia undata. Female, typical form. a, profile; b, elytron; r, $ genitalia; d, $ genitalia. PLATE II. Fig. \.—Homalodisca triquetara. Female, typical. a, profile; b, elytron; c, $ genitalia; a', ^ genitalia. C Fig. 2. — Homalodisca liturata. Female. a, profile; b, elytron; c, 9 genitalia. £ Fig. 3.— Head and etc., of Homalodisca insolita. Female. a, profile; c, 9 genitalia; d, J' genitalia. PLATE III. 0 Fig. 1. — Tettigojiia hieroglyphica. Typical form from Iowa. a, profile; b^ elyirou; c, 9 genitalia; d, ^genitalia. ^ Fig. 2.— Variety dolobrata from Iowa. 0 Fig. 3. — Head, etc.. of variety uhleri from Col. k, variety uhleri from Washington showing long elytra. ^ Fig. 4. — Head, etc., of variety confluens from Washington. PLATE IV. V Fig. 1. — Tetligotiia gothica. Typical markings. a, profile; b, elytron; c, 9 genitalia; d ^genitalia; e, face. k, head, etc., of same with light markings. 0 Fig. 2.— Head, etc., of Tettigonia atropunctata from California. c, 9 genitalia; rf, $ genitalia. O Fig. 3— Head, etc , of Tettigonia dohrni from Arizona. c, 9 genitalia; d, $ genitalia. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. Plate ^fe^lWnaai dLu IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCK? PI: t iv IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. T5 "^ig. 4,— Head, etc., of lettigonia occatoria from Mississippi. The figures on the lower half of the plate are drawn to a smaller scale than those on the upper. PLATE V. ^ Fig, \. — Tettigonia bifida. Female. a, protile; b, elytron; c, 9 genitalia; d, $ genitalia. <^ Fig. 2.— Head, etc., of Tettigonia geometrica. b, elytron. 0 ¥\g. ^. — Tettigonia tripunciata. a, profile; b, elyirou; c, 9 genitalia; d, j^ genitalia. 0 Fig. ^.— Tettigonia hartii. Female from Ohio. a, protile; 6, elytron; c 9 genitalia; d, *WxUiaiW. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 79 subsequent staining, as witness most of the chromic acid and osmic acid compounds. Some years ago I experimented on the eggs of Anihlij- stoma with many of the fixing fluids commonly used by cytologists. I used also a fluid recommended in the fourth edition of Lee's Microtomist's Vade-Mecum, having the formula: Chromic Acid 2 per cent 64 parts. Glacial Acetic Acid 4 parts. Formalin, Commercial, 32 parts. At an early stage in the experimentation all fixing fluids containing osmic acid and platinic chloride were dis- carded, not only because of their imperfect penetration, and on the part of osmic acid great blackening power, but also because of their gelatinizing properties, causing the embryos to adhere so firmly to the glass dishes containing them that mutilation resulted on removing them. On sectioning the embryos I was surprised to find that those fixed in the chromo-acetic-formalin mixture and stained in toto in Czoker's alum cochineal show^ed Karyo- kinetic figures in abundance and with great distinctness. None of the other fluids used approached it in faithfulness of preserving details. To determine the contracting or swelling effects of vari- ous fixing fluids, eggs of Amhlijstoma tigrinum near the end of gastrulation were used. At this stage the Qgg is a nearly perfect sphere, containing a large cavity eccentric- ally situated, so that one side of the egg is very thin- walled. In this condition the embryo is very susceptible to the shrinking or swelling effects of reagents. Eggs, all in the same stage of development, were measured, and then fixed and hardened for several hours, and finally measured a second time. The following were the changes^in diame- ter according to the fixing fluid used: In Perenyi's fluid, 7^ per cent increase; in Kleinenberg's fluid, 5 percent decrease; in picric acid alcohol (0.2 per cent in 50 per cent alcohol) 3| per cent decrease; in forma- lin-alcohol (commercial formalin 2 per cent 4 parts, 95 per cent alcohol 6 parts) Si per cent increase; in 4 percent §0 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. commercial formalin lOi per cent increase; in the chromo- acetic-formalin mixture no change in diameter. In fixing mammalian tissues chromo-acetic-formalin gives good results, in some tissues better results than I have been able to obtain with any other fixing fluid. It seems to be especially good for glands and mucous epithelium. I have not obtained satisfactory results in treating nerv- ous tissue with it. In the fifth edition of the Vade-Mecum Lee suppresses the formula for this fixing fluid, and con- cludes that his previous good results with it were acci- dental. I cannot agree with him. In two or three days after being prepared the fluid changes from the chromic acid brown color to a chrome alum blue, due to the reduction of the chromic acid to chromic oxide. At the same time some of the formalin is oxidized to formic acid. Before these changes take place I find that the fluid has the characteristic defects of chromic acid; that is, the fixation and general preserva- tion is not uniform, and staining is rather difficult. After six months standing the fluid does not appear to deteriorate. The length of time required for fixation depends upon the size of the object. I have not observed any indication of bad results after treatment- of 24-48 hours. Fixation should be followed by thorough washing in water, but the latter process is not necessarily so prolonged as when chromic acid alone is used. The formalin itself being such a good preservative one is allow^ed considerable lati- tude in the time of hardening. Living embryos in w^iich the muscular system is far enough developed te be functional are likely to become distorted when killed in the chromo-acetic-formalin. My custom has been to allow them to die slowdy in chromo-acetic acid (chromic acid 0.2 per cent, acetic acid 0.1 per cent). This they do retaining their natural shapes. As soon as dead they are transferred to the chromo-acetic- formalin mixture. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 81 NOTE ON THE TIME OF SEXUAL MATURITY IN CERTAIN UNIOS. BY H. M. KELLY. Ill the coarse of a recent study* of the parasites of the Unioniclse, the following data in regard to the time of sexual maturity in certain species, and their method of carrying their glochidia, were obtained. This primary inquiry involved the microscopical examination of the sexual glands of each individual. And in females whose gills were found swollen v^ith the sexual product, the por- tion of these organs forming the marsupium and the stage of development of its contents, were also noted. The examinations were made at three seasonal periods: (1) in the latter part of April and through the month of May; (2) through July and the first half of August; (3) through October and in early November. It is unfor- nate that the two gaps thus made— the month of June, and the latter part of August and all of September — occur well within the limits of the times of sexual activity. This, with the comparative scantiness of material in cer- tain species, at the critical period, has reduced the value of the observations. Where, however, blanks occur in the following tabulation, it is often not difficult to infertile condition from either the state of the other sex at that time, or from the result of later examinations of the same sex. With the exceptions noted below, the Unios examined are from the vicinity of Havana, Illinois, and Mount Ver- non, Iowa, and of species common to the two regions. Data from Unio-couq)l(uiatus,'f Alasuwdonta man/inafa, * H. M. Kel y,'99. Bull. III. State Lab. Nat. Hist., Vol V., .Art. VIII. "A Statistical Study of the Parasites of the Unionidje. " t Those who are not acquainted with Simpson's recent classification of the UnionidK used herein, will lind no difficulty in connecting these names with those previously in common use. The specific names with proper inflectional endint.'s remain the same, except that Unio cor nutus becomes Obliquaria reflexa. The genera Quadrula. Unio, Obliquaria, Plagiola and Lampsilis are divisions of the former jrenus Unio, Alasmodonta is synonomous with former Marginata, and Strophitus has been removed from Anodonta. 82 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. KHchihita, and tapijaniana,^n(\ LampsiJis iiasutiis a,nd oc/ira- ceus from Pennsylvania waters are included. Two of these examinations, as indicated in the accompanying tables, occurred in September. Table I. shows the distribution of the material exam- ined by species, sex, and time of observation. In addition to the fourteen hundred and ninety-eis-ht included, thirty- one were excluded because the determination of sex was impossible through infestation of the sexual organs by parasitic cercaria to the utter atrophy of the germinal tissue. A single individual of Q. tn'gona was hermaphro- dite. Table II. exhibiting the findings, is largely self-explana- tory. The similarity of the closely related forms, in their time of maturity and method of carrying the young, ia apparent. Because in certain species, the old glochidia are found still in the marsupium when examined in May, it is inferred that in these cases they have been carried through the preceding winter. Furthermore, though this is not shown in the tabula- tions, for the reason that in most species throughout the time of sexual maturity a sufficient number of both sexes are in a condition plainly unripe, and because of the absence of the glochidia and swollen gills containing them in certain females, when others of their species are normally gravid, it is believed that the period of sexual maturity does not always recur every year. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 83 TABLE I. SEASONAL AND SEXUAL DISTRIBUTION OF MATERIAL. April May July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. M. F. M. F. M. F. M. F. M. F. M. F M. F. lb 20 14 6 4 39 10 4 12 35 '6^ 8 14 2 13 i^ 6 17 'I 15 13 2 2 3 .... Quadrula asper'rima Lea (Juadrula pustulata Lea ... 14 7 9 II 4 5 10 — 2 4 "3' 8 :::: Quadrula rubiginosa Lea l4 17 5 2 6 9 29 9 7 I 10 3 43 4 2 16 12 27 Unio complanatus Sol Alasmodonta confragosa Say... 13 12 20 "6' 2 ' 6 6 3 5 4 3 Alasmodonta rugosa Bar Alasmodonta marginata Say ... '.'.'.' I 4 II 6 "s 4 I Strophitus edentulus Lea Anodonta imbecilis Say , Anodonta suborbiculata Say.. 4 4 2 2 18 14 5 14 18 2 6 3 2 2 2 3 ' 2 2 2 Anodonta corpulenta Coop Obliquaria relle\a Raf 6 1 "8 5 2 3 12 7 6 2 5 6 1 Plagiola securis Lea Plagiola elegans Lea... Plagiola donaciformis Lea ..„ "8 6 2 I "6 11 "3 24 I 6 19 3 "6 2 21 I 5 19 3 2 4 I 3 .... 3 4 Lampsilis ligamentinus Lam... Lampsilis luteolusLam .... ^IL Lampsilis anodontoides Lea Lampsilis rectus Lam Lampsilis ochraceous Say Lampsilis ventricosus Bar Lampsilis alatus Say "3 7 2 4 8 4 2 10 7 II 6 '28 23 3 25 32 3 J 50 2 Lampsilis gracilis Bar T = 3 2 84 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. TABLE II. SEXUAL CONDITION. Sperm Rioe in Ova Ripe in Gills Filling in Portion of Gills Occu- pied by Marsupiuna Old Glochidia Found in Quadrula niultiplicata Quadrula tuberculata. Quadrula metanevra.. Ouadrula lachryTiosa. Quadrulaasperrima.-- (Juadrula pustulata... Quadrula pustulosa.-- Quadrula plicata Quadrula trigona Quadrula rubiginosa.. Quadrula ebena -- Unio gibbosus Unio complanatus Alasmodonta confragosa Alasmod'ntacomplanata Alasmodonta rugosa Alasmodonta marginata Alasmodonta undulat Alasmodonta tap paniana Strophitus edentulus — Anodonta imbecilis Anodonta suborbiculata Anodoata grandis Anodonta corpulenta — Obliquaria reflexa Plagiola securis Plagiola elegans Plagiola donaciformis... Lampsilis parvus Lampsilis ellipsis LampsUis ligamentinus. Lampsilis luteolus Lamp=ilis nasutus Lampsilis anodontoides Lampsilis rectus Lampsilis ochraceus... Lampsilis ventricosus. Lampsilis alatus Lampsilis laevissimus. Lampsilis gracilis Julv May July July July S May, July } Oct May . July May, July. July July, Aug. y July. July. July. May. July. July July, July Aug July Julv May July, Aug. July, Aug. Aug Whole, all four... Whole, all four... Whole, all four... Whole, all four... \A hole outer pair Whole outer pair Aug Aug July )uly Aug July Whole outer pair .. Whole outer pair .. Whole outer pair .. Whole outer pair .. Whole outer pair .. Whole outer pair .. Whole outer pair .. Mav, July July May May, July May. July Whole outer pair .. Whole outer pair . . Post. part, outer pair July luly, July Aug July July May May, July May, July May, July May, July May, July Aug July, Aug. July Aug Julv. Aug Aug July May- July. Au -Ju july-Aug, Mav ■ ■ July Aug May, July. Post. Post. Post Post. Host. Post. Post. Post. Post. Post. Post. Post, outer [jair outer pair outer pair ouler pair outer pair outerpair outer pair outerpair outerpair outerpair outerpair outerpair May. July Post, part, outer pair Oct Nov. , May Nov. Sept. Sept. (, Oct. Nov. 1 May Oct. Oct.',"No"v' M ay Nov. Oct. Nov. Oct., Mav I Oct. , Nov. I May Oct. Nov. Nov. , May IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 85 THE INFLUENCE OF CHLORINE AS CHLORIDES IN THE DETERMINATION OF OXYGEN CON- SUMED IN THE ANALYSIS OF WATER. J. B. WEEMS. J. C. BROWN. One of the most valuable determinations in the analysis of water and sewage is the determination of the oxygen .consumed. In the deep well waters of the state, the amount of chlorine in the form of chlorides in many cases is very high, as may be seen by the investigations of the Geological Survey,* on the artesian waters. In this investigation it was found that chlorides were present in the following amounts, as shown in the analysis of water from the places named: McGregor 967. parts per million. Manchester 80. Boone 152. " Davenport 273. " " '' Centerville 3S8. The selections made contain large amounts of chlorine as chlorides, and while there are many other waters which contain only small quantities of chlorides, it is readily seen that the deep well waters vary between wide limits in the amounts of this substance present in them. It may be said in a general sense, that the amount of chlorine found in the analysis of the deep well waters of the state varies from a small quantity to 1000 parts of chlorine as chlorides per million. It has been recognized for some years that the presence of chlorine in combinations in the form of chlorides has a certain effect upon potassium permanganate when boiled in the presence of sulphuric acid; and the problem which naturally presents itself is, to what extent is the * Iowa Geological Survey, Vol. 6. $6 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. permanganate solution effected by the presence of a cer- tain amount of sodium chloride in the water with which it is desired to make the determination of oxj^^en con- sumed. The next considertion given was that of selecting the methods which are in general use for the determination of the oxygen consumed. As a result of an investigation of the literature on the subject it may be said that the four following methods are those which are most generally used : I. KuBEL Method.* 100 c.c. of the solution is taken and placed in a flask; 5 c.c. of sulphuric acid (dilute 1.3) is added with a quantity of standard potassium permanga- nate solution. The contents of the flask are boiled for five minutes; then 10 c.c. of standard oxalic acid solution is added and the solution titrated to color with standard permanganate. II. ScHULZE Method. 100 c.c. of the sample is taken and placed in a flask to which there is added 1-2 c.c. of sodium hydrate (one part of sodium hydrate to two parts of water) and a quantity of standard potassium perman- ganate which will insure a permanent color to the solu- tion. The contents of the flask are boiled for ten minutes, allowed to cool to a temperature of 50-60^, and 5 c.c. of dilute sulphuric acid is added; 10 c.c. of standard oxalic acid is then placed in the flask and the contents titrated with standard potassium permanganate. The permanganate solution used in both the Kubel and Schulze methods is a 1-100 normal. III. The Association Method f as recommended by the chemical section of the American Association for the advancement of science. To 200 c.c. of the water to be examined in a 400 c.c. flask, add 10 c.c. of dilute sulphuric acid (1.3) and such measured quantity of the permanganate as will give a persistent color; boil ten minutes; add, if necessary, more perman- ganate in measured quantities so as to maintain the red * Konig, Landwirstschafttiche und gewerblichewichtiger Stoffer. 2nd auf. p. 607. tLetfmann & Beam, Examination of Water, p. 41. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 87 €olor; remove the flask from the lamp, add lOc.c. of oxalic acid solution to destroy the color, or more if required by the excess of permanganate, and then add permanganate, drop by drop, till a faint pink tint appears. From the total quantity of permanganate used deduct the equivalent of the oxalic acid used, and from the remainder calculate the milligrams of oxygen consumed by the oxidizable organic matter in the water. IV. The English Method.* This method is the one generally used in England by the Society of Public Analysts. "Two determinations are made, the amount of oxygen absorbed during fifteen minutes and that absorbed during four hours; both are to be made at a temperature of 80°F. It is most convenient to make these determina tions in l2oz. stoppered bottles, which have been rinsed with sulphuric acid then with water. Put 2o0 c.c. or 3,500 grains in each bottle, which must be stoppered and immersed in a water bath or air bath until the temperature rises to 80°F. Now add to each bottle 10 c c. or 100 grains of the dilute sulphuric acid, and then 10 c.c. or 100 grains of the standard potassium per- manganate solution. Fifteen minutes after the addition of the permanga- nate, one of the bottles must be removed from the bath and two or three drops of tlie solution of potassium iodide added to remove the pink color. After thorough admixture, run from a burette the standard solution of sodium hyposulphite until the blue color is just discharged. If the titra- tion has been properly conducted, the addition of one drop of the solution of potassium permanganate will restore the blue color. At the end of four hours remove the other bottle, add potassium iodide, and titrate with sodium hyposulphite as just described Should the pink color of the water in the bottle diminish rapidly during the four hours, further measured quantities of the standard solution of potassium permanganate must be added from time to time so as to keep it markedly pink." It will be noticed that the method of the Association is very similar to the Kubel method and only differs from it in using double the quantity of water and reagents in the determination, and boiling for ten minutes. It would naturally be expected that the results from an investigation of these methods, that the action of the chlorine as chlorides would be very little if any in the Schulze and English methods, for in the first there is an alkaline condition present and in the second the temper- ature is so low that it is only slightly above ordinary temperature. * Analyst. i88i, p. 136; also Leffmann & Beam, Examination of Water, p. 39. 88 lOAVA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. In the Kubel and Association methods, however, a reac- tion would be expected and the permanganate acted upon to a certain extent. As the results from the investigation of these two methods were the same the following table will give the amount of permanganate decomposed for both methods in terms of oxygen consumed. Parts per million of ohlnrine as Oxygon consum- d in parts sodium chloride iu sample. per milliou. 5 ('3 10 08 15 10 20 13 25 15 50 18 100 ■ 23 200 28 300 33 400 3S 500 48 600 63 700 72 800 80 mo 83 1000 V)8 1100 1.08 1200 1.24 1400 1.44 1600 1.56 1800 1.68 From these results it is seen that in waters that contain large quantities of chlorides, it is well to give consideration to the action due to the presence of chlorides on the per- manganate solution where the Kubel or the Association method is used, for the determination of oxygen consumed. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. A STUDY OF SOME COTTON SEED OILS. J. B. WEEMS. H. N. GRETTENBERG. Ill connection with an investigation which w^as recently made at the Experiment Station it became necessary to investigate a number of cotton seed oils, wdiich were pre- pared for general use. When it is realized that cotton seed oil, wdiich is one of the cheaper oils, is used in many cases for adulterating oils of a better class it is seen that any data regarding this substance is of value to those who are engaged in the analytical branch of chemistry. The samples which were investigated were of different grades, as may be seen by the following outline: Sample No. I — ''Butter Oil.'' Probably could be used as an addition to lard to lower the melting point of this sub- stance and used in the manufacture of oleomargarine. Sample No. II — ''Cooking Oily Intended for use when oil is desired for cooking purposes. Sample No. \ll—"S>ioir Flaked A good grade of cotton seed oil intended for general use. Sample No. IV — Salad Oil. Prepared for use as a salad oil and could be readily used for adulteration of olive oil. Sample No. V — Conuiion Oil, known as "Summer White." Sample No. VI — Labeled "Summer Yellow." Sample No. VII— Labeled "Winter Yellow." Sample No. YUl "Crude Oil.'' Sample No. IX — Purchased in New York market as com- mon "Cotton Seed Oil." Allen* gives the standards for cotton seed oil as follows: Specific Gravity 9S°-100°C 867— .873 Saponification Equivalent 190.8-^209. 7mg lodin Number 102—111 'Commercial Organic Analysis, Vol. 2. pt. 1. p. 93. 90 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE^ Benedict* and Lewkowitsche give the following con- stants for cotton seed oil: Specific Gravity 99° .8735 Saponification Equivalent 191—196.5 lodin Number 100 9—116.9 The specific gravity is that found by Allen .while the saponification equivalent is also the result of the investi- gations of that author. The lodin number is that found by Wiley. COTTON SEED OILS. I. u. III. IV. V. VI. VII. VIII. IX. Specific Gravity •90035 • 315 195.6 • 9005 .22 198.6 .88 04. 81 88.12 .9003 .217 194.4 • 53 95-61 82. c8 .9005 .5C2 194.2 • 51 n • 9005 .872 195.1 1.8: 94.08 96.5 194.9 94^ 58 97.4 .9003 .609 192.1 1-47 94. 73 106.2 .90C6 • 557 192.1 1.85 93- 97 106.7 .9005 • 54 i9i-8 • 85 94.66 101.8 Saponification (equivalent in mg, KOH for i-sram.) Soluble Acids Insoluble Acids Iodine Absorption - It will be noticed that the specific gravity of the samples investigated varies from .9003 to .9006 and with an average of .90045. This is considerably higher than that given by either Allen or Benedict and Lewkowitsche. The limits of the value of the Saponification equivalent as given by Allen are very wide wdiile the other authors give a more restricted limit for the constants of these oils. The results from the samples vary from 192.1 to 198.6 and with an average of 194.6, the better oils having the higher and the common oils the lower values. In the lodin number there is a great variation which depends largely on the nature of the oil, whether of the better grade or not. The common and crude oils gave results which came within the limits for the constants as stated by x\llen and also Benedict and Lewkowitsche. The better grades of oils, however, give results for the lodin absorption which are much lower than the limits given for the constants by the authors as quoted. The methods used in the investigation are those of the Association of Official Agricultural Chemists and pub- lished in bulletin No. 46 of the Division of Chemistry (revised edition). The results given are the average of three determinations for each sample. *Oil Fats and \Va.\es. p 306. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, 91 A STUJn^ OF A CONTAMINATED WATER SUPPLY. J. B. WEEMS. J. C. BROWN. A pure water supply is one of the most valuable posses- sions which nature can give to any community. The value of a pure water supply is realized more readily by those who live in a city or town where the population is concentrated than by those living in the country where the families are isolated. A contaminated water supply is a very expensive pos- session for a city, and as the natural result of experience, great attention, is given to insure a pure water supply by the larger cities and towns. Expensive water works and filter beds are erected in order that pure water may be supplied, and the money spent for this purpose is one of the best investments that can be made by a city or town. In the country and small towns, shallow wells are used as a means of obtaining a water supply. The water which is furnished by these shallow wells is, no doubt, at first. in a pure condition, but in course of time little or no atten- tion is paid to the surroundings, and a natural result is that a condition is reached which is favorable for the con- tamination of the well. The average individual depends entirely on the taste and smell of a water to determine whether it is pure or not. As long as the water remains clear and has no offensive taste or odor, the water will be regarded as pure. And in this lack of realization, as it were, by those who use shallow wells, there is no doubt the cause of many an epidemic of diseases, the germs of which are readily distributed by means of water. A recent epidemic of typhoid fever gave an opportunity for a chemical investigation of a number of shallow wells, the object of the investigation 92 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. being to determine, if possible, the source of the epidemic. It was recognized after an investigation of the hygienic conditions that the water or milk supply must have been the means of transmitting the germ which caused the epi- demic, A thorough investigation of the water supply proved that there was no indication whatever of any con- tamination; and, naturally, attention was given to the milk supply as the probable cause of the disease. A chemical examination was made of every well which supplied water to those who furnished the milk sujDply. All of the samples collected were analyzed at once on reaching the laborator3^ The results of the analysis showed that all of the wells furnished good water except one shallow well, which gave the following results: Free Ammouia 054 parts per miilion. Albuminoid Ammonia 174 Solids on Evaporation 904. '' " Solids at 180O 752. Solids on Ignition 440. " • " Nitrogen as Nitrites 2 " " •' Nitrogen as Nitrates 24. " " " Oxygen consumed in 15 minutes.. .16 " " Oxygen consumed in 4 hours 96 " " Chlorine as Ciilorideg 24. " " " When the results of this analysis are examined it will be noticed that the amount of nitrogen as nitrates is 24 times that of the standard of the State Board of health. The large amount of chlorine and solids in addition to the large amount of nitrogen as nitrates shows most conclu- sively that the well was contaminated. A second analysis of water from the same well a short time after the first analysis gave the following results: Free Ammonia 104 pai ts per million Albuminoid Ammonia 086 " " Solids on Evaporation 8 74. " " " Solids at 180° 714. " . '• Solids on Ignition .506. " " " Nitrogen as Nitrates 40. " " " Nitrogen as Nitrites 16 " " " Oxyeen consumed in 15 minutes. .64 " " Oxgen consumed in 4 hours 06 " " " Chlorine as Chlorides 26. " " " IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIEXCES. 93 111 comparing the results of the second analysis with the first analysis, it will be noticed that the amount of nitro- gen as nitrates, has increased from 24 parts to 40 parts per million, while the albuminoid ammonia has decreased. These results indicate that the nitrogen in the organic matter which was present in the water has been changed during the process of nitrification into nitric acid. This change has probably taken place during the passage of the water through soil in which the conditions w^ere favorable for the nitrifying process. When inquiries were made regarding the use of this well, the claim was made by the owner that it was not used, but that a deeper w^ell, which was near the shallow well, furnished the water. It was discovered, however, on visiting the place one morning, that a bucket of water was being pumped from this well for drinking purposes, and w^as supplied to a number of men working on the railroad near the place. The deep well proved to have a very lim- ited supply of water when tested; and it was then claimed that the shallow well water was used only for washing out the milk cans, etc. A case of typhoid fever had occurred in the family of the farmer during the summer, and on tracing the case it was found, that this case and the epi- demic were closely related when consideration w^as given to the time necessary for the development of the disease The number of cases were from forty-five to fifty, and almost the entire number of patients came from those who used the milk furnished by the farm with the contaminated well. It was also found on investigation by the physician that a number of the laborers on the railroad had devel- oped cases of typhoid fever. The conclusion naturally reached is, that the well was contaminated from some source, and at the time at which the case of typhoid fever was in progress in the family of the farmer, contained the typhoid germ. The use of this water for washing milk cans without boiling, transmitted the germ to the milk, and by the milk to the digestive system of the persons using the milk. 94 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. The well which proved to be the source of the epidemic was the only one which was contaminated among the wells examined, yet we cannot but realize that there are distrib- uted in the small towns and on the farms many such wells, which are in the condition of a gun which is not supposed to be loaded, but is liable to " go off " at any time with disastrous results. There is no doubt that little or no attention is given to the water and milk supplies as long as Providence in some mysterious manner protects those w^ho tempt her in many ways, but wdien the penalty is paid, it is a costly one, for instruction furnished by " experience " is in many cases very expensive. DIPHENYL ETHER DERIVATIVES. ALFRED N. COOK. (1) HISTORICAL INTRODUCTION. (2) PREPARATION OF A NITRO-METHYL DERIVATIVE. (3) OXIDATION OF THE METHYL GROUP TO AN ACID AND THE PREPARATION OF SOME OF THE SALTS OF THE ACID. (4) REDUCTION OF THE NITRO GROUP TO FORM A BASE AND THE FORMATION OF THE PLATINUM SALT. (5) BIBLIOGRAPHY. Historical:— In the year 1854, Dr. K. List and Dr. H. Limpricht (Ann. 90, 190) were studying the products of the destructive distillation of copper benzoate and succeeded in identifying the principal product as phenyl benzoate. During the process of purification they separated from this by fractional distillation a substance to which they assigned the formula, CR^O^, and called it phenyl oxide. (Dr. John Steinhause had previously studied the products of the distillation of copper benzoate (Ann. 58, 91), but did not detect the substance in question). Limpricht IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 95 (Lehrbucb, p. 713)) afterwards made a further study of the compound and assigned it to the formula C,oH,„0. Rudolph Fittig (Ann. 125, 328), in 1863, prepared from the; above mentioned distillate by means of sulphuric acid a com- pound which he called diphenyl and assigned the form- ula, CHj.CoHs and made the supposition that the reaction took place according to the following equation: 0-|-2H,S0, -CeH,. H,SA+(aH,).-h2 H,0. Kekule (Lehrbuch. Vol. Ill, 19), opposed the formula of List and Limpricht on the ground of Fittig's work, and argued that it must be monohydroxy diphenyl (HO.CeHj.CsHs), which would have the same empyrical' formula. C. Lesimple in 1867 (Ann. 138, 375), prepared a substance by distilling tryphenyl phosphate with an excess of lime, which he called phenyl oxide, although his analysis shows that the per cent of hydrogen was .9 too low. The melt- ing point also was 53' too high, but this he could not have known, as List and Limpricht's compound remained a liquid. (This was afterwards shown by Hoffmeister to be due to impurities.) In view of all the uncertainty that existed, W. Hoffmeister in 1871 (Ann. 151, 191), set out to determine whether diphe- nyl ether had really been prepared or not. He repeated the experiments of List and Limpricht, but distilled off the compound in question from the phenyl benzoate with steam instead of separating by fractional distillation, and thus obtained the substance in a much purer state. It was then a crystalline solid, and had a melting point of 27' C. He showed that diphenyl could not be obtained from this crystalline compound by the action of sulphuric acid, but that it occurred as an impurity when diphenyl ether was made by the method of List and Limpricht, and Fittig had simply separated it. Kekule was therefore wrong with regard to the constitution of the compound. He also 90 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. showed that Lesimple (Ann. 159, 192), had made dipheni- lene oxide instead of diphenyl oxide. Up to the present time diphenyl ether and its derivatives have been prepared by at least thirteen different methods, and have been studied by no less than twenty-five different chemists, among whom were Fittig and Kekule. While the methods are various, the yield in almost every case is remarkably small. The leading methods that have been used are as follows: W. Hoffmeister (Ber. 3, 747) prepared diphenyl ether by warming diazo benzine sulphate and phenol, but the yield was very small. Hirsch (Ber. 23, 370) used the chloride instead of the sulphate and modified the method in some other respects and obtained a yield of 50 per cent of the aniline used. Merz and Weith (Ber, 14, 187) obtained a small yield by heating phenol with zinc chloride, and also with aluminum trichloride. Gladstone and Tribe (Jr. Chem. Soc, 41, 5 and ditto 49, 27) made various methyl phenyl ethers by distilling the corresponding aluminum cresolates. Willgerodt (Ber. 12, 127S) obtained a large yield of the trinitro derivatives by heating pikryl chloride with one molecular equivalent of potassium hydroxide. One of the most productive methods that has been used is that originated by Haeussermann and Teichmann (Ber. 29, 1446), and also independently by F. Ullmann (Ber. 29, 1S78). The heated potassium phenolate and several of its derivatives with the various nitro halogen derivatives of benzine and obtained, as a rule, a good yield. Experimental Pakt: — In approaching the study of diphenyl ether derivatives, it was suggested by Dr. H. W. Hillyer of the University of Wisconsin, that the method of Haeussermann and Teichmann might be extended to the Cresols, and in the following account it will be seen that this was accomplished with a good degree of success. It has seemed best to adopt the nomenclature of Haeus- sermann and Bauer (Ber. 29, 2083) as the simplest, and at the same time susceptible of very extended application. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 2-nitro-4'-methyl phenyl ether NO., -0-< >CH. This compound was prepared by the action of o-brom nitro benzene on potassium p-cresolate and the reaction takes place according to the following equation: N0...aH,Br+K0.CaH,.CH3=N0,.aH.0CVH,.CH3+IvBr. The potassium p-cresolate was made by treating one part of p-cresol with a molecular equivalent of potassium hydroxide dissolved in one part of water, evaporating to dryness on the water bath, with continual stirring and then drying in the air bath at 100 °C. for half an hour. This method yielded a very good product, which was of a slight yellow color. An endeavor to prepare the cresolate by dissolving metallic potassium in the cresol, as did Haeussermann and Teichmann (Ber. 29, 1446), and F. Ull- mann (Ber. 29, 1S7S), with phenol in making derivatives of diphenyl ether, yielded a dark tarry product which very materially effected the yield and purity of the diphenyl ether which was made from it. The above mentioned ether was made in the following manner: One part by weight of potassium p-cresolate was heated in a small Florence flask on a fusible metal bath with three parts of o-brom nitro benzene to 125-130° C. when a vigorous action began, accompanied by a rise of temperature of sev- eral degrees. As soon as the action had ceased, which required about five minutes, the melt was cooled and extracted with ether. The above mentioned ether extract was washed with potassium hydroxide solution to remove any free cresol which might be present. The excess of o-brom-nitro benzene was distilled off with steam, and the phenyl ether was distilled under diminished pressure to free it from any remaining trace of ortho-brom nitro ben- zene, and the solid, and higher boiling substances which w^ere extracted with the sulphuric ether. Under a pres- sure of 25 mm. o-brom nitro benzene boils at 150° C, while 2-nitro-4'-methyl phenyl ether boils at about 220° C. 98 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. under the same pressure. The yield was one gram of the- ether for every gram of the cresol used. On crystallizing several times from alcohol it was completely purified and analysis yielded the following results: Carbon. Hydrogen. Nitngen. Calculated for CisHiiN 03 ..68.04 4.83 6.11 per cei t, I ....68.13 4.75 6.28 per cent. II ....68.20 4.77 6.32 per cent. The compound melts at 49° C. It distills with partial decomposition at ordinary atmospheric pressure. It is not volatile with steam. It is very soluble in hot alcohol, from which it crystallizes out in beautiful sulphur yellowy and apparently monoclinic crystals of sufficient size to be easily measured with the goniometer. It has no taste, but feels like sulphur when taken into the mouth. It is very soluble in ether, acetic acid, chloroform, benzene, toluene, aniline, nitro benzene, ethyl acetate, acetone, benzoyl chlo- ride, brom benzene and carbon disulphide. It is sparingly soluble in petroleum ether, and insoluble in water and hydrochloric acid. It is dissolved by concentrated sul- phuric acid with slight charring and by concentrated nitric acid with apparent oxidation, brown fumes being given off. 2-Nitro phenyl ether-4'-carbonic acid N02.C6H40C,H4.- COOH — This acid was prepared by dissolving the above mentioned ether in glacial acetic acid (which had been prepared by distilling Kahlbaum's glacial acetic acid from chromic acid) warming on the steaming water bath and adding very slowly a cold solution of chromium trioxide in glacial acetic acid until a test portion failed to become turbid upon diluting with a large amount of a weak solu- tion of sodium hydroxide. To accomplish this, three or four times the theoretical quantity of chromium trioxide was necessary. To a portion of the ether many times the theoretical quantity of chromium trioxide sufficient for oxi- dation was added and no trace of the acid could be found in the solution. The acid itself had thus probably become completely oxidized. When the oxidation of the ether was judged to be complete, the acid was precipitated from the acetic acid solution by diluting with a large amount of IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 99 water. It was purified by washing with water, dissolvino: in weak ammonia and filtering to remove any traces of the original mother substance, reprecipitating with hydro- chloric acid and recrystallizing from dilute alcohol two or three times. The yield in the first experiment was 24 per cent of theory. Later experiments apparently yielded better results, but the resulting quantity of acid was not weighed. The pure acid melts at 182-3^ C. It is of a light yellow color and has no taste. It is slightly soluble in hot water, from which on cooling it crystallizes out in tufts of radial needles. It is insoluble in petroleum ether, sparingly soluble in sulphuric ether, but is very soluble in warm alcohol and in dimethyl aniline, benzal- dehyde, nitro benzene, toluene, glacial acetic acid and glycerine. The acid was analyzed by determining the amount of silver in the silver salt which yielded results as given below. In the second analysis the silver salt had darkened somewhat by being allowed to remain some time in con- tact with a solution of silver nitrate during the process of manufacture: Calculated for AgC^jH^NO. I. II. Ag. 30.09 30.09 30.59 A portion of the acid was dissolved in dilute ammonium hydroxide, the excess of ammonia evaporated off and observations made as to the character of the precipitates yielded by various metallic salts, with results as follows: Copper sulphate light greenish blue. Aluminum chloride white. Lead nitrate white floculent. Manganese chloride white. Cobalt chloride light pink. Magnesium sulphate white. Ferric chloride yellowish white. Ferrous sulphate light yellow. Cadmium chloride white crystalline. Mercuric chloride white. Platinum tetrachloride yellow. Nickel, calcium, strontium and barium salts yielded no precipitate with the dilute solutions used. The solution was very dilute, and in some cases would undoubtedly have yielded a precipitate if it had been more concen- 100 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. trated as e. g., the barium salt. When the acid is dis- solved ill a solution of sodium, potassium or ammonium h3^droxide a deep yellow colored solution is obtained. Silver-2-nitro-4' phenyl ether carbonate AgOOC- CaH40CoH4.]Sr02 The silver salt w^as prepared by dissolv- ing a portion of the acid in dilute ammonium hydroxide, evaporating off the excess of ammonia and precipitating with silver nitrate. It separates out in pinkish curdy lumps. It is sufficiently soluble in water to yield a slight turbidity when hydrochloric acid is added to the solution. When pure and dry it is very stable and is not decomposed by direct sunlight, even when exposed for several hours. It is insoluble in inorganic solvents in general, and melts with decomposition at about 220^ C. One part of the salt is soluble in 2180 parts of water at ordinary room tempera- ture. Barium-2-nitro-4'-phenyl ether carbonate Ba [OO.C,- H40C,H4. N0J-|-1|II,0. The barium salt was prepared by adding a little more than the theoretical quantity of barium hydroxide to a strong water solution of the ammo- nium salt obtained as given above in the manufacture of the silver salt. The excess of barium was precipitated from the solution by passing in a stream of carbon diox- ide. The salt crystallizes out from a hot water solution on cooling in pearly flesh-pink scales. One part of the salt dissolves in 122 parts of boiling water and in 948 parts of cold water. Before making an analysis it was dried over sulphuric acid for several days and then dried in the air bath for three or four hours at 100-110° C. Between 80 and 100 degrees it took on a much deeper hue, which seemed to be permanent and lost water corresponding to li molecules. Two analyses resulted as follows: Calculated for BaCCisHsNOfje+Pi^HcO. I 11 Barium 19.87 per cent . 19.32 per cent 19.08 per cent- Loss of water 7 64 7.35 7.03 2-amido-4'-m ethyl phenyl three H.N.aH.OCoH^.CHa The amido ether was prepared by dissolving the previ- ously described phenyl ether in alcohol and water and reduc- ing with tin and hydrochloric acid while warming on the IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 101 water bath to 40 or 50 degrees. During the reduction the solution was sky blue, but when complete it usually changed to a pinkish color. The end of the reaction was determined by taking a test portion and diluting with sev- eral times its own volume of water. If any unreduced ether was present it would be precipitated, forming a white turbidity. The tin was removed from the solution by means of hydrogen sulphide and, on concentration on the water bath, the hydrochloride crystallized out in white needles, which were very stable when dry, but unstable in contact with water. The hydrochloride melts at 220 ^ C. It is somewhat soluble in hot, but much less soluble in cold water, and insoluble in organic solvents in general. The constitution of the compound was ascertained by determining the platinum in the platinum salt, as given below. An attempt to prepare the free base by precipitating it with an alkaline hydroxide from a water solution of the hydrochloride proved unsuccessful. It decomposed in the bell jar over sulphuric acid before it could be thoroughly dried. 4-Methyl-2'-amido phenyl ether chlor-platinate (CH3.aH,0aH,.NH,),.H,PtCl,+UH,0 The platinum salt w^as prepared by precipitating the amido hydrochloride in water solution with chlor platinic acid. It is of a greenish yellow color and melts with decomposition at 150^0. The salt was dried for several days over sulphuric acid and then in the air bath at 100-110 ^C for three or four hours wdien it lost weight corresponding to one and one-half molecules of water. On being heated it assumes a much deeper tint, but on coming in contact with the air again it acquires its original color. It is very hygroscopic and gains weight very rapidly while being weighed. An analysis resulted as follows: Calculated for (CisHisNOj^.H^PtCU+IVaHiQ Found. Platinum 34.1 percent 24.1 percent. Loss of water 3.23 3.03 A further study of diphenyl ether derivatives is being carried on in the chemical laboratory of Morningside Col- 102 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. lege, and as this paper is to be made the basis for future work a bibliography of diphenyl ethers is here appended. BIBLIOGRAPHY. (1) Ann. 90, 209. — List and Limpricht obtained diphenyl ether as one of the products of the destructive distillation of copper benzoate. (2) Ann. 125, 328.— Rudolph Fittig obtained diphenyl from the above mentioned distillate. (8) Ann. 138, 375.— C. Lesimple obtained a compound by distilling phenyl phosphate with lime, which he called phenyl ether. (4) Ann. 159, 191, and Ber. 3, Ul.—W. Hoffmeister pre- pared phenyl ether by treating diazo-benzene sulphate with phenole and made a thorough study of the com- pound. (5) Ber. 23, 3709.— Hirsch varied Hoffmeister's method and greatly increased the yield. (6) Ber. 6, 564. — Maikopar made a dinitro derivative by acting on dinitro chlor benzene with an alcoholic solution of potassium hydroxide and phenol. (7) Ber. 13, 887. — Willgerodt prepared a tetra nitro- derivative by heating dinitro-potassium phenolate with dinitro-chlor benzene in a sealed tube. (8) Ber. 14, 187. — Merz and Weith prepared pheny ether by heating phenol with zinc chloride, and also aluminum chloride (see also correspondence, Ber. 12, 1925.) (9) Ber. 15, 1123. — Niederhausern prepared methylene diphenyl-oxideby distilling sodium phenolate with sodium meta-phosphate. (10.) Ber. 17, 1764.— Willgerodt and Huetlin prepared derivatives by acting on potassium phenolates with dinitro- chlor benzene and pikryl chloride. (11) Ber. 17, 2638. — Bausch prepared a dimethyl deriva- tive by heating para-cresol with zinc chloride. (12) Ber. 29, 1446. — Haeussermann and Teichman pre- pared various derivatives by acting on halogen-nitro ben- zene derivatives with potassium or sodium phenolates. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 103 (13) Ber. 29, 1S7S.--F. Ullman, independently from the above mentioned investigators, made a few compounds by the same method. (14) Ber. 29, 20S3, and Ibid, 30, 738.— Haeussermann and Bauer continued the work begun by Haeussermann and Teichman and prepared numerous compounds. (15.) Jr. Chem. Soc. (Lond.), 41, 5, and Ibid, 49, 27.— Gladstone and Tribe prepared phenyl ether and derivatives by distilling aluminum phenolate, aluminum thymolate, and aluminum cresolates. ll()) Chem. News, 42, 3. — See No. 15 above. (17) Chem. News, 42, 146.— See No. 8 above. (15) Jr. Pr. Chem. 1, 143.— See No. 4 above. (19) Jr. Pr. Chem. (2) 28, 273.— Klepl prepared earbonyl phenyl oxide by the action of triphenyl phosphate on sodium salicylate. (20) Jr. Pr. Chem. (2) 28, 193.— Klepl prepared phenyl ether by distilling para-phenoxy benzoic acid with caustic baryta. (21) Jr. Pr. Chem. (2) 28, 201. — liichter prepared diphenyl oxide by distilling sodium salicylate and tri- phenal phosphate. (22) Monats Hefte, 17, 65.— B. Jeitles distilled calcium phenyl phosphate and obtained, among other things, diphenyl ether. (23) Gazetta, 28 (1), 197.— G. Ortoleva and A. Paratoner treated diphenyl ether with sulphonyl chloride and obtained chlorine derivatives. (Abstract in Journal of the London Chemical Society, 1898.) 104 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. SOME RECENT ANALYSES OF IOWA BUILDING STONES; ALSO OF POTABLE WATERS. NICHOLAS KNIGHT. A. Building Stones— The rocks herein described were analyzed in the chem- ical laboratory of Cornell College, under the direction of Dr. N, Knight. The composition of the rocks varies from nearly tyj^ical dolomite to admixtures in different propor- tions of calcium carbonate and dolomite. 1, This is a bluish drab saccharoidal rock, situated near the base of the Iowa Devonian series, at Rochester, Iowa. It is of special interest because locally believed to contain silver. A miner's shaft twenty-two feet deep has been sunk to it, and several analyses are said to have been made, showing a large amount of silver. Professor W. H. Norton, of the Iowa Geological Survey, was unable to authenticate any of the analyses. He found no geological grounds for the slightest suspicion of any precious metal in these beds. This analysis was made, not to disprove the presence of silver, but to show the lithological change from the subjacent dolomites of the Silurian. The speci- men was analyzed by Miss Minerva Herrinton, A. B. CaCOo 78.75 percent. MgCUs 20.16 per cent. Ff.;03 and AhOa O.iO 8ic2 0.4 percent MnO_... 0.2 percent. Total yy.G i per cent. The rock varies widely from a true dolomite, which con- tains CaCOa 54.35 MgCOi 45.65 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 105 2. The Coggon beds, as described by Professor W. H. Norton in the reports of the Iowa Geologial Survey, overlie the Gower stage of the Silurian, and are immedi- ately beneath the Otis beds of the Wapsipinnicon stage, the lowest Devonian terrane recognized in Iowa. The lithological affinities of the Coggon are with the Niagara, but the very meagre fauna inclines rather toward the Onondaga limestone of the Devonian. The specimen from Bieler's quarry in Cedar county, was analyzed by Miss Herri n ton. CaCOi 58.2 per cent. MgCUs 39.5 Fe203 and AhOs 0.9 SiU. 1.3 Total 99.8 per cent. This is not a true dolomite, but more nearly approaches it than the rock described in 1. 3. The Gower stage as defined by Professor Norton includes two distinct lithological types: A hard crystal- line rock used exten.sively for lime, and hitherto known as the LeClaire limestone; and a granular, evenly-bedded rock which furnishes the best building stone in the state. This was until recently designated as the Anamosa beds, which have usually been assigned rank as a distinct geo- logical formation; but the Iowa Geological Survey in it& recent reports, has taken them to be but' a lithogical phase of one formation. The name Goiver has been assigned them from the township in Cedar county in which the important Bieler quarries are situated. Both types of rock are found in the Bieler quarries. The specimen of the granular laminated building stone was analyzed by Miss Herrinton. It varies only slightly from a true dolo- mite. CaCUs 56.4 per cent. MgCUs 42.6 Fe203 and AI2U3 0 7 Si02 0.4 Total lOU.l per cent. 106 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 4. Specimen of the Clower phase taken from the quarry at Mount Vernon. Analyzed by Mr. E. A. liayner. CaCOs 54.02 per cent. MgCOs 44.73 FeeOs and AhOs 0.61 SlOs 0.-29 Total !»1).05 The rock is nearly a typical dolomite. 5. The rock at the Palisades on the Cedar river, six miles distant from Mount Vernon, is similar in composi- tion to the Mount Vernon Rock. It is stratified, but not granular. Building stone occupies layers adjacent to others which are burned for lime. The specimen was analyzed by G. R. Greaves. CaCOs 53.64 per cent. MgCOs 43.89 per cent. Ve-.Os and AhOs 0.52 SiOa 1.98 Total 100.03 per cent. 6. This is of the same type as 3. It is a finely lam- inated building stone, but crystalline instead of granular. The specimen analyzed by Miss Herrinton is from the large quarries at Lime City. It is nearly a dolomite in compostion. CaCOs 55.3 per cent. MgC03 43.0 FezOsand AI2O3 1.4 SiOe 0.6 'J'otal 100.3 per cent. 7. This is also a representative of the Gower limestone and of the LeClaire lithological phase. The specimen was taken from a ledge on Rock creek, two and a half miles southwest of Tipton. The ledge is notable for its excep- tionally high dip, reaching 70 = . It varies but little from a true dolomite. The analysis was made by G. R. Greaves. CaCOs 55.76 per cent. MgCOs , 43.85 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 107 FesOs and A2IO3 0.26 SiO: 0.12 Total yy.99 per cent. Each of the seven specimens examined is nearly pure calcium and magnesium carbonates. The admixtures of iron, alumina, and silica are quite insignificant. B. Potable Waters of Mount Vernon — 1. Prof. W. //. Notions Well. The well is eighty feet deep and draws its water supply from sand situated between an upper yellow and a lower blue till. The num- bers in this and in the succeeding analyses express the parts of the substances in a million parts of water in con- formity with the report of the committee of the American Association for the Advancement of Science.* The water was analyzed in May, 1900, by F. E. Welstead. Total solids at 110° 364.8 CaCOs 218.2 M g C O3 105.8 Si02 21 6 Feii03 and AhOs 2.6 NaCl and KCl 19.8 Na-iCOa and K2CO3 2.8 CO2 free and partly united 15 9 Nitrates 0.05 Free ammonia 0.00 Albuminoid ammonia 0.00 2. Professor A. Collins Well. Analyzed May, 1900, by E. A. Rayner. The depth of the well is one hundred and twenty feet. A dense blue till begins at a depth of eighty- five feet, and extends as far down as the excavation was made. In the upper yellow till, a layer of sand and gravel was found at a depth of seventy to seventy-five feet. Total solids at llO'' 359.8 CaCOs 1 95.00 MgCOs 102.4 SiOi 21.2 Fe203 and AI2O3 1.6 *Journalof .\nalytical Chemistry. Vol. Ill, page 398. 108 IOWA xiCADEMY OF SCIENCES. NaClandKri 214 CO2 free and partly united G1.5 CaS04 10 3 Nitrates 0.57 Free ammonia 0.064 Albuminoid ammonia 0.088 3. JoliH Leigh- s Well. The depth is one hundred and fifty feet of which the last fifty feet are in the Niagara limestone. Analyzed May, 1900, by Miss Herrinton. Total solids 370.6 CaCO" 215.0 ' MgCO. 102.9 SiOi 20.8 Fe203 and Al-Os 7.8 NaCland KCi 6.6 Na=C03 and K2CO3 10.00 CO2 free and partly united 162.00 Sulphates 0.00 Nitrates 0.57 Free ammonia 0.00 Albuminoid ammonia 0.00 4. G. W. Young's Well. This is in the same locality as Mr. Leigh's. The well is one hundred and fifty-three feet deep, of which fifty- three feet are in the Niagara lime- stone. The analysis was made May, 1900, by F. E. Welstead. Total solids 348.3 CaCOs 230.0 MgC( '3 73.9 Si02 20.4 Fe'iOs and AI2O3 3 OO NaCl 19.00 KCI.*. trace. CO2 free and partly united 159.00 Sulphates 0.00 Nitrates 1.00 Free ammonia 048 Albuminoid ammonia 072 5. Tlie Mount VeDiou City Water. The well is three hundred and thirty feet deep and extends three hundred and fifteen feet into the Niagara limestone. It goes nearly through the Niagara, as shown by thin layers of shale that were found near the base of the boring, trans- itional to the heavy shales of the Maquoketa stage, beneath IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 109 the Ordovician. The water contains twenty to twenty-five per cent less of calcium and magnesium carbonates than the other waters examined. This may result from an artesian character of the well, the water coming from sandstones underneath the Niagara; or a small adjacent stream may find its way into the well through fissures in the rock. Several analyses showing a varying amount of free and albuminoid ammonia may incline rather to the latter alternative. The analysis was made in May, 1900, by Miss Herrinton. Total solids ',86 6 CaCOa 154.9 MgCOs 07 0 Si02 23.00 FesUs and AhOs 80 NaCl and KCl 24.00 COs free and partly united 114.00 CaS04 4 08 Nitrates 1 38 Free ammonia 0 084 Albuminoid ammonia 0.032 (). The Cedar Biver. The sample was taken from the river at Ivanhoe bridge, May, 1900; analyzed by Mr. Rayner. Total solids 234 2 CaCOs. 147 1 MgCOs -,7.5 SiOe 2 0 Fe203 and AI2O3 2.2 NaCl and KCl 20 0 CO2 free and partly united 80.0 CaS04 5.1 Nitrates 0.77 Free ammonia 0.12 Albuminoid ammonia 0.27 In all the waters examined the ratio of magnesium car- bonate to calcium carbonate is about one to two with the exception of Mr. Young's water where the ratio is one to three. We desire to thank Professor W. H. Norton for valuable suggestions in connection with these investigations. 110 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. CONTRIBUTION TO THE STUDY OF REVERSIBLE REACTIONS. W. N. STULL. The object of this investigation has been to determine the points of equilibrium in the reactions resulting when solutions of metals are treated with hydrogen sulphide, and to determine the changes of those points with regard to changes of temperature. As the work advanced the importance of the question of the rate of the reactions became more and more apparent, and as a result I have dealt at considerable length with this factor and with the effects of temperature and agitation upon it. The two metals first employed are zinc and cadmium, chiefly because an investigation of the action of hydrogen sulphide upon these would not only serve the original pur- pose of the study, but, it was thought, might throw consid- erable light upon their quantitative separation. The present paper, which is to be considered as merely preliminary, deals with the rate of the reactions in solutions of zinc and cadmium. Of course when hydrogen sulphide acts upon zinc chlo- ride we have a reversible reaction represented as follows: ZnCl. i H,S :irr^ 2HC1 + ZnS, which in the beginning runs rapidly from left to right, but diminishing as zinc sulphide and free hydrochloric acid are formed and react upon each other in the direction from right to left. By "diminishing" is here meant the dimin- ishing effect, and not the rate of interaction between the molecules. This is dependent only upon the concentra- tion of the reacting substances, and a specific rate of the reaction which is independent of the concentration. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. m If we call the original concentration of zinc C, and start with a neutral solution the equivalents of ZnS pre- cipitated or the HCl set free at any moment X, — and the specific rates of the reactions from left to right and from right to left, respectively, k and k„ then the rates at any moment will be (C - K)h.k and Ko.k' and equilibrium will be reached when (C - X)h.k = X„.k', where h represents the hydrogen sulphide which is regarded here as constant. Before proceeding with the presentation of the data, a few w^ords regarding the quantitative methods used are desirable. It was necessary to determine the total acid in each solution at the beginning, and the metal remaining in the solution at the end of any chosen period. From these data the free acid at the end of any period coukl be calculated. Sulphuric acid was determined as barium sulphate in the usual way, hydrochloric acid volumetric- ally by the method of Volhard, cadmium as the sulphide which was weighed in a Gooch crucible, and zinc by the ferrocyanide method of Lyte. The last named method seems not to have attained a use to which its accuracy and rapidity entitles it, and a few Avords in recommendation of it are not deemed inap- propriate. The solution is acidified with hydrochloric acid and titrated with a solution of potassium ferrocyanide which has been standardized by a zinc solution of known strength, the titrations being carried on at about 70°. Uranium acetate is used as an indicator. A few drops may be added to the solution which is colored brown when the ferrocyanide is added in slight excess. It is more exact to bring a drop of the solution under titration and near the end point, in contact with a drop of the indicator on filter paper. A brown line is formed where the two drops flow together. With care titrations are concordant to a few hundredths of a per cent., and the method seems to deserve rank among the standard methods of volumetric analysis. The zinc used in this work was a pure distilled specimen from Schuchardt, which dissolved without residue and gave 112 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. a sulphide which was perfectly white. The cadmium was from the same manufacturer and gave a pure, bright yellow precipitate in acid solution. The solutions to be treated with hydrogen sulphide were placed in tubes holding about 100 c.c, immersed in a large water bath kept at constant temperature by means of a thermostat, and a stirrer driven by a small hot air motor. At first a thermometer graduated in tenths was placed in the solution and the temperature kept within l/O.l*^ of the desired point, but this was discontinued when it was found how small is the influence of temperature upon the rate of precipitation. At temperatures above that of the laboratory the hydrogen sulphide was first passed through a tube immersed in the bath and containing water, in order to compensate for any loss by evaporation. The hydrogen sulphide was generated in a Kipp's appa- ratus and washed by passing it through water. The rate of the gas was about two bubbles per second, or about three to four liters per hour. Where not otherwise stated the temperature of precipitation was 20°. At first the thought was to make the determinations in duplicate and to this end the gas was passed through two solution tubes connected tandem. The following table shows the results. Numbers 1 and 3 are the solutions nearer the Kipp's apparatus and 2 and 4 are their dupli- cates. The solution used was nearly neutral zinc chloride: NO. OF EXAMINATIONS. TIME— HOURS. ?, zI^•c IN SOLUTION. ;,: FREE ACID IN SOLUTION 1 2 3 4 8 3 3 3 1.454 1.736 1.503 1.750 3.24 2.93 3.18 2.b6 The fact that the duplicates contain much more zinc than 1 and 3 led at once to the conclusion that precipi- tation was by no means completed in three hours, even though the gas had actively bubbled through the solutions during the entire time. This came somewhat as a sur- prise, and naturally all other objects w^ere placed aside until it could be determined whether it was practicable to IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 113 reach an equilibriuiii in this reaction. To this end the fol- lowing series of determinations was made. As may be seen from the table the precipitation is most rapid about an hour after the beginning, then falls slightly and soon becomes nearly uniform. In general it may be said, that within the total period, the amount of precipitation is nearly proportional to the time, and at the end of seven and a half hours the reaction is yet far from a state of equilibrium. The result is plotted in curve "M," and from it one might easily infer that with sufficient time the precipitation of zinc even in this strength of acid might be complete. SKRIES II. NO, OF ZN IN FREE HCI. 1 i 4.30 2 1 3.84 0.57 3 n 3 47 0 98 4 2 .soo 1 53 5 2i 2.7S 1.76 6 3 2 63 1 92 7 3i 2.48 2.09 8 4 2.31 2.27 9 4i 2.25 2.. 35 10 5 2 13 2.48 11 5i 1.98 2 65 12 6 1.92 2 72 13 6i 1 81 2.84 14 7 1 69 2 98 15 7i 1 55 3.18 Experiments were now undertaken to ascertain the influence of time alone. The results are given in the table below, in which X represents the time during which the gas was passed through the solution, and Y gives the time during which the solution was allowed to stand in contact with the precipitated zinc sulphide before it was filtered and the zinc determined. The results evidently point to a three-sided equilibrium between hydrogen sulphide, zinc chloride and hydrochloric acid: NO. OF EXAMINATIONS. X. M. ZN IN SOLUTION. FREE Hcl. i 2 3 2 1 1 IS 18 43 l.lJS 2.40 2.40 3.62 2.18 2.17 114 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. Four other experiments were performed consecutively upon the same solution with the results given below. In experiment (3) the solution after standing twelve hours was shaken for one and one-half hours, and a portion fil- tered off and the zinc determined. It should be mentioned that all the solutions after long standing smelled strongly of hydrogen sulphide. ^o. OF EXAMINATIONS. X. M. ZN IN SOLUTION. FREE HCI. 1 2 3 4 1 1 1 3i ]3 rsi m 1 83 1.56 1 57 0.1-9 2.ii2 3.11 3.10 3 87 Series III and IV are not comparable since the precipi- tation vessels and the volumes of the solutions were not the same. Even though the agitation seemed to have little effect as shown in Series IV, it seemed desirable to try a series of experiments to determine the effect of agitation while hydrogen sulphide is passing through the solution. To this end two solutions at the same temperature were sim- ultaneously treated with hydrogen sulphide flowing from two generators and at very nearly the same rate. In one of the tubes was a small stirrer. The effect seems to be a slight acceleration of the reaction. NO. OF EXAMINATIONS. TIME. TOTAL HCI. ZN REMAINING IN STIRRED SOLUTION. ZN IN SOLUTIONS NOT STIRRED. 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 4.!56 4 86 4.86 4 86 3 53 2.85 2.15 1.73 3.65 2 80 223 2.01 The effect of temperature was next considered. A new solution of zinc containing 3.94 per cent of hydrochloric acid and 3.49 per cent of zinc was used, with the results given in Series VI. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. SERIES VI. 115 NO. OF EXAMINATIONS. TEMPERATURE. TIME. ZN REMAINING IN SOLUTION. 1 2 2u- 50° 5 hours 5 hours. 1.41 1.49 It is evident tliat a difference of 30^ causes very little difference in the rate of precipitation, and probably the point of equilibrium is only very slightly shifted by change in temperature, but the latter point has not yet been determined. A solution of zinc sulphate was next used, in order to determine the part played by the acid. The method employed was essentially the same as that previously described, namely, fractional precipitation and the deter- mination of the zinc and free acid in the several frac- tions. The rate of the gas was, as before, about four liters per hour. It w^ill be observed that the precipitation is practically complete at the end of seven hours, even though 4.47 per cent of free sulphuric acid was present. In general the curve closely resembles that of the chloride. SKRIES VII. NO. OF KXAMINATIONS TIME ZN REMAINING IN SOLUTION. FREE H2S04. 1 H 1.60 2.18 3 2 1.25 2 65 3 3 .75 3 40 4 4 .38 395 5 5 .18 4.26 6 6 .07 4.38 7 7 .03 4.47 In order to find the point of equilibrium, if possible, a solution containing more acid was used. As may be observed in Series VIII, precipitation was still going on at the end of ten and a half hours when there was 5.25 per cent of free acid in the solution. The results are shown graphically in curve Y. 116 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. SKRIES VIII. NO. OF EXAMINATIONS. TIME. ZN REMAINING IN SOLUTION. FREE H2 SO4. 1 I 4.24 U 96 3 2 3.68 1.76 3 'S 3.85 2.28 4 4 2.95 2,88 5 ^ 2.54 3 49 6 H 2.85 3.77 7 'i 2 08 4.18 8 9 1.80 4 61 9 m 1.37 5 25 The next solution experimented upon was one of cad- mium chloride, which contained 9.47 per cent of the metal and a total of 11.33 percent of hydrochloric acid. Cad- mium is so similar to zinc that the results could be pre- dicted with reasonable certainty. The following table gives the data from which it may be seen that cadmium sulphide was still being slowly precipitated at the end of eight hours from a solution containing more than ten per cent of free acid. NO. OF EXAMINATIONS. TIME. CD. REMAINING IN SOLUTION. FREE Hcl, 1 •^ 4.00 8 72 2 3 2 96 9 40 3 4 2 42 9 94 4 5 1 81 10 15 5 7 1.75 10.19 6 8 1 64 10.26 In summarizing the results several facts are to be noted. The reactions studied are surprisingly slow, whereas most heavy metals are immediately precipitated by hydrogen sulphide. The precipitation curve, as one would expect, slants rapidly at first, but after passing the gas through the solution two or three hours the curve assumes a direc- tion more and more nearly parallel with the axis of abcissa. The characte* of the curve, moreover, is inde- pendent of the character of the acid. (See Figure 2.) Agitation hastens the precipitation only very slightly, and it may be assumed that it does not alter the point of equilibrium. A moderate rise in temperature retards the reaction of hydrogen sulphide and zinc only slightly, and probably IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 117 does not greatly influence the point of equilibrium, though the evidence in this regard is not conclusive. Solubility usually increases with temperature, and we should expect _ u . 7 / J .„z:/ , Z..J__ I ,.i„..r: ....__ 7^ y"^ -'* ^ ^-^ "" ^06 K^V>V-'^'M -<>vo»N-»V>-^'^%V»,«.^V,(, >.'>J<'IN^vj,tj^.,,,^N '^ of zirn remaining m j Car Z^' a^ Glutton c u rt/e -fo * "y"= curi/e for Xn SO — se ries i/lil . Figure 2. more zinc sulphide to dissolve in a given time at the higher temperature, and that, therefore, the effect of the reaction, ZnCl,-fH,S =Zn+2HCl from left to right would be less in any given period. The decrease in the active mass of hydrogen sulphide at the higher temperature should, leaving change in ionization out of account, contribute to the same result. There are, 118 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. however, in such a complex system so many unknown or unmeasurable influences that speculation seems hardly justifiable at this stage of the work. It is hoped that the foundations have been laicj for the more accurate separation of zinc and cadmium through hydrogen sulphide. Every teacher of Chemistry knows how often in analytical work zinc is precipitated with the metals of the copper group and lost, and how often cadmium fails to come down in its proper place in that group. From the data given above it is evident that the long continued action of hydrogen sulphide will precipitate zinc from a solution containing less than about four per cent of free hydro- chloric acid. It is also evident that cadmium will not be completely precipitated within a reasonable length of time if the solution contains more than about eight per cent of the same free acid. This leaves a working latitude of only about four per cent of free acid, and the difference becomes practically even less when we take into account the acid set free in the reaction. The exact conditions necessary to effect the most nearly complete separation of zinc and cadmium at a single pre- cipitation will receive further study. I wish here to take the opportunity to express my sin- cere thanks to Dr. W. S. Hendrixson at whose suggestion this work was begun, and to whose kindly aid and advice is largely due any success which this little study may have attained. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 119 DEPOSITIONAL EQUIVALENT OF HIATUS AT BASE OF OUR COAL MEASURES; AND THE ARKAN- SAN SERIES, A NEW TERRANE OF THE CARBONIFEROUS IN THE WESTERN INTERIOR BASIN. BY CHARLES R. KEYES. For a long time it has been known that in Iowa and the neighboring states to the south a break in sedimentation exists at the base of the coal measures. It has been noted in various places in the reports of the Iowa geological sur- vey and reference has been made to it in various other publications. Of its real significance no hint has ever been given. Recently the correlation of the various formations making up the coal measures has been in progress, and some exceedingly interesting results have been attained. It has been possible to compare the sections in the northern part part of the Western Interior coal field with those of the southern part. The basal horizon of Iowa and Mis- souri coal measures has been found to belong some 20,000 feet above the Lower Carboniferous or Mississippian. Our Lower Coal Measures are high up in the middle Carbonif- erous, instead of being near the stratigraphic bottom. West of the Mississippi river the unconformity at the base of the coal measures is known to extend in a north and south direction from about the north boundary of Arkansas to the southern limit of Minnesota. From the Mississippi river the rocks have a general dip westward. Over a considerable belt of country west of the great river the juncture of the coal measures with the underlying formations is visible. The width of this belt is from 100 to 200 miles. How much farther westward it 120 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. extends is not known, since the horizon soon is covered too deeply by the overlying strata. On the highest parts of the Ozark dome in Missouri, the coal measures are still found resting upon the uneven channeled surface of the Lower Carboniferous. South of the southern boundary of Missouri there is no evidence that any break in sedimentation occurs between the coal measures and Lower Carboniferous formations. How far east of the Mississippi river the unconformable relations exist is not known. However, to the points where the basal line of coal measures dips beneath the eastward sloping strata, the unconformity is everywhere observable. The plane of unconformity at the base of the coal meas- ures represents clearly an old land surface that was sub- jected to erosion for a period long enough for the tilted strata to be completely beveled off from the Kaskaskia limestone down to the Cambrian sandstones. During the interval between the deposition of the last of the Lower Carboniferous formations of the region and the coal meas- ures of the upper Mississippi valley enormous denudation had taken place. Heretofore the extent of this erosion has been little appreciated. The evidence already at hand indicates plainly that the surface on which the coal measures of the upper Missis- sippi valley were laid down was quite diversified. There were hills and vales, differing in elevation by several hun- dreds of feet. Some of these have been especially noted by Bain* and other members of the Iowa Geological Survey. There were broad drainage basins and deep narrow gorgesf . In some localities even traces of extensive dendritic stream systems are discernible. Some of the most notable of these are those recently described by Shepherd:|: in south- west Missouri. If we wish to get a general conception of what this old surface relief actually was, we gather something of its real character by comparing it with the relief now existing. *Iowa Geol. Sur. , Vol. I, p. 174, 1893. fMissoun Geol. Sur. , Vol. I, p. 167, 1891. IMissouri Geol. Sur., Vol. XII, p. 127, 1898. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 121 The topographic contrasts are certainly nearly as marked in the old as they are to-day over the same area. The phenomenon under special consideration has been generally regarded as local in its nature; the same, as many unconformities recurring at many places in the coal meas- ures. That it signifies an important sequence of events has never been sufficiently emphasized. That the horizon is really a great hiatus has never been fully considered. That the interval represents a period in the history of the region of much longer duration than it took to form all of the coal measures above it is a phase of the subject never before suggested. It has lately been shown that the present Ozark uplift is of comparatively recent date; that is, Tertiary. In con- sidering the region as it was in Carboniferous times, the dome niust be neglected, and the area regarded as forming a lowland plain, the same as the rest of the region was known to be. This is farther indicated by the fact that on the highest parts of the dome remnants of the coal meas- ures are still found on the beveled edges of the older strata- The oscillation of the Carboniferous shore-lines in the upper Mississippi valley has already been described in detail§. This evidence goes to show that immediately after the Kaskaskia beds were laid down, land existed north of the present Arkansas-Missouri boundary. This was a region of profound and prolonged denudation. South of the line sedimentation continued. The land waste from this northern district was carried into the southern water area. The u'^rthern area, after the close of the early Carbonif- erous period, being an area of denudation suggests an area to which the waste must have been carried and deposited. There is also suggested a depositional measurement of the erosional period. In correlating the Iowa and Missouri formations of the coal measures with those of the Arkansas valley a tabular ilMissouri Geol. Sur. , Vol. VIII, p. 351, 1895. §IowaGeol. Sur., Vol. I, p. 118, 1893. 122 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES statement of the sections appears to present the facts most clearly. SERIES. IOWA KANSAS. INDIAN TERRI- TORY. ARKANSAS. Oklahoman .... Missourian. . Ues Moines . (Wanting) Mississippian Oklahoman. . Missourian. .. Missourian . . Des Moines. . (Wanting) Mississippian Poteau Des Moines Arkansan Mississippian... Cavaniol . . . Lower C M. Mississippian Poteau* Productive C. M. and Lower CM, Mississippian. *Not the same as Poteau of Indian Territory. The thickness of the coal measures of the Mississippi valley is greater than anywhere else in the United States. If two east and west cross-sections, one on the north side of the Ozark dome and the other through the Arkansas valley, are contrasted, the Carboniferous series present about the following measurements: SERIES. NORTHERN SECTION. SOUTHERN SECTION. 1 5(10 2,000 50(» Wanting. 1.000 I.O'Mt Missourian 1,500 Des Moines . . ... S.nOO Arkansan 20 000 Mississippian 1 500 From the foregoing it will be seen that the Lower Car- boniferous, or Mississippian series, with its minor divisions, is well defined in northern Arkansas. The Kaskaskia Figure 3. Relations of tlie Mississippi valley members of Carbonifer represents Arkansan. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 123 terrane is easily identified, passing upward, south of the Boston ridge, into the coal measures. The basal horizon of the lowest coal measures of Missouri, or Des Moines series, is believed to extend southward and to the south of the Arkansas river to coincide approxi- mately with the Grady coal horizon or the base of the Cavaniol. With the base of the Des Moines series of Missouri thus located in Arkansas, and the top of the lower Carbonif- erous well defined it leaves in the south an immense thick- ness of nearly 19,000 feet of sediments that are in the north wholly unrepresented by deposits. The 19,000 feet of sed- iments were laid down during the period represented by the stratigraphic break at the base of the northern coal measures. The magnitude of the hiatus at the base of the coal measures of Iowa, Missouri, and Kansas is readily appreci- ated when we find a place where sedimentation uninter- rupted attained a vertical measurement of 19,000 feet. The period of which there is no measurable record in one part of the region finds in an adjoining district sediments of greater significance than all the coal measures above the break. Here, then, is a case in which, on the one side of an old shore-line, is the land that suffered profound denudation, and on the other the water area in which sedimentation was carried to a prodigious extent. In point of time the one is the exact equivalent of the other. Arkansas Series. If the recent correlations of the different sections of the coal measures -n the Western Interior basin can be regarded as even approximate, there exists in the south, below the basal horizon of the Des Moines series, another great series which is now called the Arkansan series. Heretofore the coal measures of Arkansas have been regarded as anomalous. They present an enormous devel- opment as compared with the coal measures of other parts 124 IOWA ACADExMY OF SCIENCES of the Mississippi valley, and even of other portions of North America. Peviodi NoBrHERN Section SouTHERwSECTfoN Thiekzwss Cklahoiatin Misiourian ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^1 2000' ^^^''''oines' m^^^ ^^^B^^^ „... 18,000' 1700' Figure 4.— Shows the relative thickness of the members of the Mississippi valley coal measures north and south. The thickness of the coal measures of the Arkansas valley as estimated by Branner* is nearly 24,000 feet. If present correlations be correct the highest of these beds in Arkansas are not above the horizon of the Bethany limestone of Kansas. For the deposition of such an enor- mous sequence there must have existed exceptional con- ditions. The great development of the coal measures in Arkansas is not widespread, but is confined to a compara- tively limited area. The noteworthy feature in the lithology of the Arkansas coal measures is their make-up of shales and sandstones, with an almost total absence of marked limestones. While this characteristic is remarkable through such an extensive succession, it points clearly to attendant physical condi- tions that are unmistakable, and that are now known to be in perfect harmony with the historical record of other parts of the region. The Lower Carboniferous formations are well understood in Arkansas. It is now known that the Boone cherts are Am. Jour. Sci., (4), Vol. II, p. 235, IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 125 essentially the Augusta formation of Missouri, and are continuous with that formation as developed in the south- western part of the last mentioned state. The widely recognized Batesville sandstone has been proved by Weller* without much doubt, to be the equivalent of the Aux Vases sandstone of the Mississippi river region, the basal member of the Kaskaskia formation. It is now generally agreed that the Boston group of northwestern Arkansas is the equivalent of the Kaskaskia limestone and Chester shales of the Mississippi river. Typical Kaskaskia fossils have been found in the shales of this group in the extreme northwestern corner of the state,* and in the adjoining parts of Missouri. The exact line of demarkation between the Lower Car- boniferous and the coal measures has not been drawn in Arkansas. In the northwestern part of the state Sim- monds,* without giving any reasons or data for deducing his conclusions, had regarded a thin shaly limestone (called the Kessler) lying about 78 feet above the Pentrem- ital limestone as the topmost member of the Mississip- pian. As the shales beneath the Kessler limestone carry thin coal seams with an abundant flora it may be that these as well as the Kessler may eventually prove to belong more properly with the coal measures. At present it is uncertain just where the separating line between the Mississippian and coal measures should be placed. In the Boston mountains, the stratigraphic suc- cession is apparently unbroken from the Boone cherts (Augusta) upwards. Above the Batesville sandstone the undoubted Kaskaskian beds upwards assume more and more the character of coal measures. Into the latter the former appear to gradually merge. No evidence of uncon- formable relationships is anywhere noted in this region. Nor do any of the Arkansas geologists mention any facts indicating that a stratigraphic break might exist. The zone of uncertain age is, however, thin; and the ♦Trans. New York Acad. Sci., Vol. XVI, p. 251, 1897. * American Geologist, Vol. XVI, pp. 86-gi, 1895. * Arkansas Geol. Sur. , Ann. Rept 1888, Vol. IV, p 109, if 126 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. basal line of the Arkansas coal measures ma}^ be regarded as determined within very narrow limits. All evidence at hand goes to show clearly that in Arkansas, sedimentation was continuous during the Car- boniferous, that enormous deposits were laid down during the period, and that while the beds were being formed there was no marked orogenic movements in the region. From the north down to the Arkansas line the Des Moines series of the coal measures is well demarked below by the unconformity separating it from all other rocks. Its lowest horizon at this point appears to coincide with the horizon taken as the base of the Cavaniol group of Indian Territory, as traced in detail by Drake. The Cavaniol in turn is correlated in the main with the Upper or Western coal-bearing division or Poteau of Arkansas, which also includes part of the productive coal measures. The base of the Cavaniol group is now taken to be the Grady coal. This horizon may be considered as limiting above the great Arkansau series of the coal measures. The latter is therefore entirely below the horizon of any part of the Des Moines series as represented in Missouri and far- ther north. Notwithstanding its tremendous thickness in central Arkansas the unusual development may be considered as local in nature. From bottom to top it appears to repre- sent practically the same uninterrupted deposition. Although divisible into a number of subordinate forma- tions it is throughout essentially a compact, homogeneous geological unit. Hence from every standpoint it is thus best considered. The Arkansas geologists have not yet had opportunity to publish in detail their latest opinions regarding the forma- tions or terranes w4iich they consider as making up the coal measures of the state. Winslow's section, however, is not without interest, and is given below: Sebastian stage Boonville stage Spadra stage Appleton stage Norristown stage Danville stage IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 127 The conditions under which the Arkansan series was deposited are of unusual interest. The deposition of such an enormous mass of sediment as is found making up the coal measures of the Arkansas valley must have re- quired some unusual conditions. Branner* has attempted to explain the circumstances as follows: If we inquire into the reason for the great thickness of coal measures sediment in the Arkansas Valley, I believe it to be found in the drainage of the continent during Carboniferous times. The rocks of this series in Arkansas contain occasional marine fossils, and these marine beds alter. nate with brackish or freshwater beds whose fossils are mostly ferns and Such like land or marsh plants. This part of the continent was, therefore, probably not much above tide level. The drainage from near the Catskill mountains in New York flowed south and west. The eastern limit of the basin was somewhere near the Archsan belt extending from New England to central Alabama. This Appalachian water-shed crossed the present channel of the Mississippi from central Alabama to the Ouachita uplift, or to a water-shed still farther south and now entirely obliterated and buried in northern Louisiana. In any case the drainage flowed westward through what is now the Arkansas valley, between the Ozark island on the north and the Arkansas island on the south. The chief objection to this idea is, that we now know that the northern Ozark isle and the Ouachita part of the uplift did not exist as mountainous uplifts in carboniferous times. North of the Missouri- Arkansas line the region was land, to be sure, after the lower Carboniferous marine beds were laid down. South of that line sedimentation con- tinued in deepening waters. The sediments were carried from the north or northeast and dumped off the shore, rapidl}^ building the latter outward. There may have been a great land area in northern Lou- isiana, and probably was. If so, what is now the Arkansas river valley was a broad, deep estuary opening out to the w^est. And the sediments came in from both sides as well as from the head towards the east. The conditions were then similar to those presented now by the Lower Mississippi plain, only the great embay ment opened to the west instead of the south. The present Arkansas valley, however, has probably been formed entirely since Tertiary times, and by a system of ♦Am. Jour. Sci.,{4), vol II., p.236, i8g6. 128 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES drainage in no way dependent upon the Carboniferous drainage. Where the great uplift of Missouri and Arkan- sas over the northern part embraced by the so-called Ozark isle and the southern part composing the Ouachita moun- tains were made up of resistant limestones, these yielded less quickly to erosion than the central soft shales, and the Arkansas river which happened in the old peiieplain to traverse the central part of the uplifted area was able to cut its way down as fast as the region rose and was thus able to maintain its old course. The present uplift, which is due to one general movement, is now apparently divided into two elevated regions separated by a low valley. NAMES OF COALS WEST OF THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER. BY CHARLES R. KEYES. The coals of commerce acquire names by which they are widely known, and upon which their reputations stand. These names are not geological titles; and coal samples having the same name may, and usually do, come from different mines and even from different horizons. Many analyses and physical tests are made for various industrial purposes from samples taken from the railroad cars, after the latter have reached their destinations. In the American coal fields, east of the Mississippi river, some coals noted for particular qualities are widely known by special designations. The names have a peculiar value in purely scientific work because the seams are of great areal extent. The geological positions of such coals are inferred as soon as the names are mentioned. In the Western Interior coal field, numerous names of coals are widely known to the trade; but on account of the rather limited lateral extent of most of the seams their geological horizons cannot be easily inferred. In the fol- lowing pages is given a list of all of the important coals IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 129 known to the trade, together with the first references to the introduction of their names into scientific literature. In this sense their enumeration is as geological titles. The general geological section of the Carboniferous of the Western Interior coal field is about as follows, the middle three series constituting what is commonly called the coal measures: SEKIES. TERBANES. THICKNESS IN FEET. Oklahoma Not here differentiated. 10 Uottonwood limestones. 500 Atchison shales ■60 Korbes limestones. ir;0 Platte shales. 50 Hlattsmouth limestones. 300 Missourian. Lawrence shales 35 Stanton limestones. 100 Parkville shales. 50 lola limestones 7.T 'I'haver shales 100 Bethany limestones Marais des Cygnes shales. auo Des Moines. Henrietta limestones. 100 (Cherokee Shales 275 Sebastian. Spadra, Norristown. Boonville. Arkansan. Appleton. Danville. Millstone grit Mississippian Not here ditierentiated The terranes being the stratigraphical units, are the main sub-divisions to be regarded in the present connection. All appear to be more or less well defined throughout the ser- ies in which they occur. Over a greater part of the area, the more resistant members — the limestones— form usually prominent topographic features. In this role they appear as conspicuous ridges or eastward facing escarpments, run- ning with many minor sinuosities nearly parallel to one another and separated from each other by lowlands which are worn out on the softer shales. In consequence, the individual layers of the latter are usually so covered with talus and other rock waste, and so easily weathered and 130 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. converted into mixed clays and soils, that there is small chance for the shales to crop out. On the whole, the different formations are remarkably well outlined on the surface of the ground, and the stratigraphical bearings of any particular locality are readily made out with ease and confidence. The layers of the area occupied by. the coal measures are, with some minor exceptions, tilted toward the west, and are now beveled. Deformation has not yet been suffi- ciently marked to change this general arrangement, except perhaps at the extreme southern extremity of the great coal fields, where the Ouachita mountains cross. Nowhere else is the lenticular character of the strata and terranes better shown than in the coal measures. In- appreciation of this fact has led to great over-estimations of the actual thickness of the coal measures as a whole, and of its several parts. This element of error will be largely overcome when it is more carefully considered that the various formations form a series of limited, interlocking lenses, instead of continuous sheets of nearly uniform thickness over the entire district occupied by the coal- beariug terranes. The slightly tilted and beveled beds, as we find them in the region under consideration, present phenomena comparable to the shingled roof of a house. If, along the surface, the thickness of the various outcropping strata were measured successively and then added together, a very different result would be obtained regarding the thickness than if the measurements were made in a boring. In the case of both the shingles and the tilted strata there would be enormous over-estimates of values. That this is really so in regard to strata was recently shown in central Iowa, where a test cross section was made under very favor- able conditions. The added surface measurements gave a figure three times as great as the actual borings. There are in the so-called coal measures, composing what the geologists of the region now^ term the Arkansan, Des Moines and Missourian series, fifteen distinctive shale formations, separated in the upper part of the section by extensive limestones. All of these terranes carry coal to IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 131 some extent, though in several the amount is so small that it may be neglected altogether, for it is no greater than is found in almost every geological formation. None of the last named have any claim to the title of coal-bearing strata. One important feature which has been clearly brought out by the recent investigation is the fact that the great workable coal bodies of the Trans-Mississippian region are definitely limited in their stratagraphic extent. By this great restriction in geological range of the coals as com- pared with that formerly supposed, the figures for the actual available tonnage are, perhaps, not so much affected as are the figures for the areal extent of the district that can now be regarded as a possible producing field. To present the proposition more clearly, we may tabulate the coal production of the entire region according to the percentages, in each state, that each geological formation, or terrane, supplies. TERRANE PERCENTAGES OF COAL PRODUCTION. FORMATIONS. o 'Z < MI8SOURIAN series: 0.2 6.0 0.3 1.3 0.2 0.8 0.2 92.5 DES MOINES series: Marais des Cygnes shales 1.0 15.4 83.4 0.1 18.5 81 4 0.4 7.0 Cherokee shales 90.0 10.0 100.0 91 4 ARKANSAS SERIES It appears somewhat startling that from the Cherokee division alone should come nine-tenths of the total coal output. Yet this is about the proportion that it will con- tinue to supply in the future. If anything, the Cherokee percentage wall increase, rather than diminish, as the Hen- rietta coals come from a single seam. At least, there appears to be only one seam in a locality belonging to the 132 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. Henrietta, but it is not believed that it is everywhere the same continuous bed. At present, hov^ever, this median member of the Des Moines series furnishes about 7 per cent, of the total supply. The coal of the Henrietta division lies everywhere very near the base of the formation. Hence, if we should take a few feet of this terrane and add it to the Cherokee, we would have practically 98 per cent, of the entire Trans-Mississippian output of coal north of the Arkansas river coming from the lowermost member of the coal measures of this region — the Cherokee shales. It is a noteworthy fact that south of the Boston moun- tains the coal measures thicken enormously, and that the coal horizons, instead of being near the base of the section, are high above the Mississippian limestones. This is believed to be explainable by the fact that a very considerable part of the Arkansas and Indian Territory coal measures are by depositions unrepresented north of the southern boundary of Missouri. In the northern portion of the field the great erosion unconformity, which everywhere is found at the base of the Des Moines series, probably represents the time when, in the south, deposition was going on. This great sequence in Arkansas lying below the horizon of all the Cherokee, as displayed north of the Boston mountains, is perhaps sufficiently important to receive a taxonomic rank equivalent to the Des Moines or the Missourian. The exact upper limiting horizon of this great Arkansan series is not as yet determined. The thickness of the Cherokee shales may be taken to be about 300 feet. From this measurement they taper out eastwardly to a feather edge. If the total thickness of the coal measures (Des Moines and Missourian series) north of Arkansas are taken at 2,000 feet, the basal one-seventh furnishes 98 per cent, of the v\diole output. NAMES OF COALS. Ardmorecoal, lower, Gordon. (Missouri Geol. Sur., Vol. IX, Sheet Kept. No. 2, p. 21, 1894.) In Macon county, Missouri, one of the lower coals of the Cherokee Beech coal, Marbut. (Missouri Geol. Sur., Vol. XII, pt. ii, p. 348, 1898.) In Howard county, Mi-souri, a thin seam in the Henrietta division. BeviiF coal, McGee. (Trans. St. Louis Acad. Sci., Vol. V, p. 334, 1888.) IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 133 In Macon county, Missouri, the principal seam opened. Cherokee division. Boicourt coal, Haworth. (Kansas Univ. Quart., Vol. Ill, p. 30.5, 1895.) In Linn county, eastern Kansas, near base of Marais des Cygnes division Brooks coal, Haworth. (Kansas Univ. Quart., Vol. III. p 305, 1895 ) One of the seams in the lower portion of the Thayer shales in Wilson county, southeastern Kansas. Carbon coal, McGee. (I'rans. St. Louis Acad Sci., Vol. 5, p. BS4, 1888.) In Macon county, Missouri, one of the lower seams in the Cherokee. Chariton coal, Norwood. (Missouri Geol Sur., Kept. 1873-4, p. 298, 1874.) In Scliuyler county, north Missouri, the equivalent of the Mystic seam of Iowa. Henrietta division. Chariton river coal, Norwood. (Missouri Geol. Sur., Rept. 1873-4, p. 298, 1874.) Same as Chariton coal. Cherokee coal, Hay. (Trans. Kansas Bd, Ag.ic , 187.5, p. 12,5, 1876 ) One of the three principal seams of Kansas, in what is now known as the Cher- okee shales. Coal hill coal, Winslow. (Arkansas Geol. Sur., Ann. Rept., 1888, Vol. Ill, p. 31, 1888 ) Near middle of Arkansan series in Johnson county, Ark, Columbus coal, Haworth. (Kansas Univ. Quart., Vol. Ill, p. 300, 1895.) In the extreme southeast corner of Kansas, a seam lying in the lower part of the Cherokee Cross coal, Marbut. (Missouri Geol. Sur., Vol. XII, pt. ii, p. .859, 1898.) In Chariton county, Missouri, a thin seam in the Henrietta division. Douglass county coal, Haworth. (Kansas Univ. Quart., Vol. Ill, p. 305, 1895 ^ In east-central Kansas, a term given to the seam in the upper part of the Lawrence. Edwards coal, Winslow. (Missouri Geol. Sur. Vol. IX, Sheet Rept. No. 1, p. 64, 1892 ) One of the lower seams in Lafayette county, Missouri, lying in the middle part of Cherokee. Eureka coal, Winslow. (Missouri Geol. Sur., Vol. IX, Sheet Rept. No. 2, p. 53, 1894.) Ihe lowest bed in Macon county, northeast Missouri, and situated in the Cherokee Farmington coal, Gordon. (Iowa Geol. Sur., Vol. IV. p 223, 1895.) A small pocket at the base of the Cherokee, in Van Buren county, Iowa. Fayette coal, Broadhead. (Missouri Geol. Sur., Rept. 1873-4, p 190, 1874.) In Howard county, in central Missouri, a title given to one of the principal seams of the Cherokee. Fort Scott coal, Saunders (Trans Kansas Bd. Agric, 1872, p. 388, 1873.) Widely applied to one of the chief coals in southeastern Kansas, lying in the Henrietta division. Fort Scott coal bed, Broadhead. (Missouri Geol. Sur., Rept. 1873-4, p. 13.3, 1874 ) Seam in Vernon county, in southwest Missouri, located in the Henrietta division. Fort Scott red coal, Haworth. (Kansas Univ. Quart., Vol. Ill, p. 298, 1895.) In southeastern Kansas, a seam near the top of the Cherokee. Franklin county coal, Haworth. (Kansas Univ. Quart., Vol. Ill, p. 805, 1895.) In east-central Kansas, a name applied to several seams occurring near the base of the Lawrence. Glasgow coal, Broadhead. (Missouri Geol. Sur., Rept. 1873-4, p. 187, 1874 ) In Howard county, in central Missouri, applied to a seam in the Cherokee. 134 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. Grady coal, Chance. (Trans. Am. Inst. Min. Eng., Vol. XVIII, p. 656, 1890.) In basal part of equivalent of Des Moines series, in eastern Indian territory. Hilltown coal, Norwood. (Missouri Geol Sur., Kept. 1873-4, p. 293, 1874.) In Schuyler county, in north Missouri, the equivalent of the Mystic seam of Iowa, Henrietta division. Holden coal, Broadhead. (Missouri Geol. Sur. Iron Ores and Coal Fields, pt. ii, p 168, 1873 ) A thin seam in the lower part of the Marais des Cygnes division, in western Johnson county, west-central Missouri. Honey creek coal, Marbut, (Missouri Geol. Sur., Vol XII, pt. ii, p 78, 1898.) A small seam in Henry county, Missouri, in the upper part of the Cherokee. Huntington coal, Winslow. (Arkansas Geol. Sur., Ann. Rept., 1888, Vol. Ill, p. 28, 1888.) At base of equivalent of Des Moines series in western Arkansas. Hydraulic limestone bed, Winslow. (Missouri Geol. Sur., Vol. I, p. 133, 1891.; Local name for the Tebo seam in Henry county, Missouri, the posi- tion of which is in the median Cherokee. Independence coal, Haworth. (Kansas Univ. Quart , Vol. Ill, p 305, 1895.) One of the seams of Montgomery county, southeastern Kansas, in the lower part of the Thayer shales. Jordan coal, Winslow. (Missouri Geol Sur., Vol. I, p. 134, 1891.) 'Ihe lowest bed in Henry and adjoining counties Missouri. Its location is near the base of the Cherokee. Lacona coal, St. John. (Geology Iowa, Vol I, p. 273, 1870.) In central Iowa applied to a seam near the base of the Marais des Cygnes division. La Cygne coal, Haworth. (Kansas Univ. Quart., Vol III, p. 30"), 1895.) In Linn county, eastern Kansas, at base of the Marais des Cygnes division. Leavenworth coal, Winslow. (Missouri Geol. Sur , Vol. I, p. 103, 1891.) The principal seam at Leavenworth Kansas, and mined at depths of about 800 feet. It lies in the Cherokee Lebec coal, Broadhead. (Missouri Geol Sur., Rept. 1873-4, p. 71, 1874.) One of the lower beds in the Cherokee, of Cedar county, southwest Missouri. Lewis coal, Marbut (Missouri Geol. Sur., Vol XII, pt ii, p. 147, 1898.) A local bed in Henry county, Missouri It lies in the Cherokee division. Lexington coal, Broadhead, (Missouri Geol. Sur., Iron Ores and Coal Eields, pt. ii, p. 46, 1873.) Along the Missouri river in western Missouri, the principal seam of the Henrietta division. Lick Creek coal field, Hawn. (Missouri Geol. Sur., 1st and I'd Ann. Kepts., pt. ii, p. 123, 1855.) Basal coal of the Cherokee, in Halls county, in northeast Missouri. Lonsdale coal, St. Juhn. (Iowa Geol. Sur., Vol. I, p. 282, 1870.) In Guthrie county, Iowa, one of the uppermost seams of the Mar,ais des Cygnes division. Macon City coal, Gordon. (Missouri Geol. Sur., Vol. IX, Sheet Rept. No. 2, p. .'3, 1894.) In Macon county, Missouri, one of the upper seams of the district. Cherokee division. Marshall coal, St. John. (Iowa Geol. Sur., Vol. I, p. 279, 1870.) In Guthrie county, Iowa, one of the median seams of the Marais des Cygnes division. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 135 Mammoth coal, Broadhead. (Missouri Geol. Sur., Rept. 1873-4, p 338, 1874.) 'J'he thick local pocket in Callaway county, central Missouri. Base of the Cherokee. Mammoth coal, Marbut. (Missouri Geol. Sur., Vol. Xli, pt. ii. p. 147, 1898.) A local bed in the Cherokee division, deposited in Henry county, Missouri. Marais des Cygnes coal, Swallow. (Kansas Geol. Sur., Prelim. Hep'., p. 22, 1866 ) Main coal of Marais des Cygnes, or Pleasanton formation, in eastern Kansas. Marais des Cygnes group, Broadhead. (Missouri Geol. Sur.,Pvept 1873-4, p. 124, 1874 ) Name applied in Vernon county, in southwest Missouri, to the upper part of the Cherokee. Mastodon coal, Broadhead. (Missouri Geol. Sur.. Rept. 1873-4, p. 338, 1874.) A limited pocket, 80 feet thick, in Callaway county, Missouri. Base of Cherokee. Mayberry coal. Chance. (Trans. Am. Inst. Min. Kng. Vol. XVIII, p. 655, 1890.) At top of the equivalent of Des Moines series, in the Choctaw field, in eastern Indian Territory. McAlester coal, Chance. (Trans. Am. Inst. Min. Eng., Vol. XVIII, p. 657, 1890 ) Near middle of equivalent of Des Moines series, in Choctaw field, in eastern Indian Territory. Mendota coal, Winslow. (Missouri Geol. Sur., Vol. 1, p. 57, 1891.) This is the Mystic seam of Iowa; and its horizon is in the Henrietta division. Now applied in northeast Missouri, in Putnam county chiefly. Mormon Ridge coal, Beyer. (Iowa Geol Sur , Vol. IX, p. 218, 1899.) In lower part of Des Moines series, in Boone county, Iowa. Mound City coal, Haworth. (Kansas Univ. Quart , Vol III, p. 30-5, 189".) In Linn county, e istern Kansas, in median part of Marais des Cygnes division. Muchakinock coal, Bain (Iowa Geol Sur , Vol IV, p. 361, 1895 ) One of the most extensive seams in the lower part of the Cherokee, in Mahaska county, Iowa. Mulberiy coal, Broadhead (Missouri Geol. Sur., Rept. 1873-4, p. 168, 1874.) In Bates county, in southwest Missouri, refers to a seam near the base of the Marais des Cygnes division (Pleasanton.) Muiky coal, Broadhead. (Missouri Geol. Sur., Iron Ores and Coal Fields, pt. ii, p 46. 1873 ) Title given in Lafayette county, Missouri, to the second principal coal bed. Mystic coal, Keyes. (Iowa Geol. Sur , Vol. II, p. 408, 1892.) In Appa- noose county and adjoining country, the principal coal mined. Henrietta division. Neodesha -coal, Haworth. (Kansas Univ. Quart., Vol. Ill, p. 305, 1895.) One of the seams in the lower part of the Thayer division, in Wilson county, southeast Kansas. Modaway coal, Broadhead. (Missouri Geol. Sur., Iron Ores and Coal Fields, pt. ii, p 398, 1873.) Name applied to the principal coal seam of the Nodaway river valley, in northwest Missouri. It lies about 75 to 100 feet above the base of the Atchison shales. Norman coal, Chance. (Trans. Am, Inst. Min. Eng.. Vol. XVIII, p 658, 1890.) Near middle of equivalent of Des Moines series, in Choctaw coal field, in eastern Indian Territory. 136 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. Oberholz coal, Broadhead. (Missouri Geol. s-ur., Iron Ores and Coal Fields, pt. ii, p. 64, 1873 ) In Kay county, Missouri, the equivalent of the Lexington seam. Henrietta division. Osage coal, Owen, (Geol. Sur. Wisconsin, Iowa and Minnesota, p. 138, 1852.) Name applied to very thick seams found on the Osage river and on the Missouri river above the mouth of the Osage, in central Missouri. The seam is really disconnected and consists of very limited pockets of great thiekness— 75 feet in some cases. They may be considered as situated at the very base of the Cherokee. Osage coal, Haworth (Kansas Univ. Quart , Vol. ill, p. 278, 1895.) in Osage county, Kansas; it appears to lie in the Platte shales. Osage coal, Saunders. (Trans. Kansas Bd. Agri , 1872, p. 388,1873) A name known widely through central Kansas for one of the principal coal seams. Platte shales. Osage coal field. Hay. (Trans Kansas Bd. Agri , 1875, p 125, 1870 ) The seam is in the Platte shales, in central Kansas. Osage City coal, Haworth. (Kansas Univ. Quart. Vol. Ill, p. 304 1895 ) Seam in Osage and adjoining counties, in Platte shales. Osage river coal, King. (Proc. American Asso. Adv. Sci., Vol. V, p 174, 1851.) In basal part of Cherokee, in central Missouri. Osage river coal, Johnson. (U. S. 28th Cong;, 1st Sess., Senate Doc. 436, p. 539, 1844.) Seam exposed on the Osage river, in central Missouri. Base of Cherokee. Oswego coal, Crane. (Univ. Geol. Sur Kansas, Vol. Ill, p. 154, 1898.) In southeast Kansas, a name given to a coal seam that is, perhaps, the same as the Pittsburg seam of the Cherokee shales. Ouita coal, Winslow. (Arkansas Geol. Sur., Ann. Kept. 1888, Vol. Ill, p. 34, 1888.) In lower part of Arkansan series, in Pope county, Arkansas. Panoracoal, St. John. (Iowa Geol Sur., Vol. I, p 274, 1870.) One of the lower seams of the Marais des Cygnes, in Dallas county, Iowa. Philpott coal, Winslow. (Ark. Geol. Sur., Ann liept. 1888, Vol. III. p. 33, 1888.) Near the top of Arkansan series, in Johnson county, Ark. Pittsburg coal, Haworth (Univ Geol. Sur., Kansas, Vol III, p. 27, 1898.) In the lower part of the Cherokee, in southeast Kansas. It is also called the Weir City-Pittsburg heavy coal, or lower Weir City-Pittsburg seam. Pleasanton coal, Haworth. (Kans. Univ. Quart., Vol. Ill, p. 305, 1895 ) In Linn county, eastern Kansas, base of Marais des Cygnes division. Eich Hill coal, Winslow. (Missouri Geol Sur., Vol. I, p. 146, 1891.) The leading seam mined in Bates county, Missouri. It lies in the Cherokee. Rulo coal bed, Broadhead. (Missouri Geol. Sur., Iron Ores and Coal Fields, pt ii, p. 132, 1873 ) Name applied in northwest Missouri to a thin seam, best exposed at Rulo, Nebraska which lies near the base of the Atchison shales; now known to be the equivalent to the Nodaway seam. Secor coal. Chance (Trans. Am. Inst. Min. Eng., Vol. XVIII, p. 658, 1890.) Near middle of equivalent of Des Moines series, in Choctaw field, in eastern Indian Territory. Shinn coal, Winslow. (Arkansas Geol Sur., Ann. Rept. 1888, Vol. Ill, p. 35, 1888.) Near base of Arkansan series in Pope county, Arkansas. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 137 Silver Lake coal, Beede. (Trans. Kansas Acad Sci., Vol. XV. p. 30, 1898 ) One of the upper coal seams of the lower Waubansee (Atchison) shales. It is mined in Shawnee county, Kansas, at Silver Lake, and also southwest of Topeka. Spadra coal, Winslow. (Arkansas Geol. Sur., Ann. Kept. 1888, Vol III, p. 32, 1888 ) Near middle of Arkansan series in Johnson county, Arkansas. Spring Creek coal seam, Broadhead. (Missouri Geol. Sur., Rept 1873-4, p. 236, 1874 ) Believed to be the same as the Mystic or Mendota coal of Putman county, Missouri, adjoining Sullivan county on the north. It lies in the Henrietta division. Summit coal, McCee. (Trans. St. Louis Acad. Sci., Vol V, p. 334, 1888.) In Macon county, Missouri, the highe-t seem mined. Upper part of Chero- kee. Tebo coal, Winslow. (Missouri Geol. Sur , Vol T, p. 134, 1891.) Appel- lation of the chief seam in Henry county, Missouri. Horizon is middle Cherokee. Thayer coal, Haworth. (Kansas Univ. Quart., Vol. Ill, p. 305, 189.5 ) A seam in the median part of the Thayer shales, in Neosho couny, southi ast- ern Kansas. Topeka coal, Haworth. (Kans. Univ. Quart., Vol. Ill, p 27S, 1895.) One of the seams in the Platte shales, in Shawnee county, Kansas. Warrensburg coal, Broadhead. (Missouri Geol. Sur., Iron Ores and Coal Fields, pt. ii, p. 184, 1873 ) A thin seam in the upper part of the Cherokee division, in Johnson county, Missouri Wapello horizon, Bain. (Iowa Geol Sur, Vol. IX, p. 99, 1899.) An extensive coal in southeast Iowa, lying in the lower part of the Cherokee. Waverly coal, Winslow. (Missouri Geol. Sur., Vol. IX, Sheet Rept. No. 1, p. 60. 1892 ) In eastern Lafayette county, Missouri, the lowest seam mined. Cherokee division. Wbee'er coal, St. John. (Iowa Geol. Sur., Vol. I, p. 276, 1870 ) One of the lower coals of the Marais des Cygnes, in Warren county. Iowa. What Cheer coal field. Bain. (Iowa Geol. Sur , Vol. IV. p. 284, I89.i. This coal seam, in Keokuk and Mahaska counties, Iowa, lies very near the base of the Cherokee. Wier City Pittsburg View, Haworth and Kirk. (Kansas Union Qua t , Vol. II, p 105, 1894.) In southeast Kansas, the most important seam of the Cherokee. VOLCANIC NECKS OF PIATIGORSK, SOUTHERN RUSSIA. BY CHARLES E. KEYES. (Abstract.) On the Rostov and Wladikavkas railroad, in southern Russia, there rises out of the flat steppes, a few hours be- fore reaching the last mentioned place, a remarkable group 138 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. of steep-sided hills, or mountains, each isolated from the others. The principal town of the region is Piatigorsk, which is about ten miles from the railway station of Mine- rain iy a Vody. The purpose of referring at this time, to these hills,which reach elevations from 1,500 to 2,500 feet above the plain (figure 5), is to call attention to certain geological phe- nomena that are unusually well developed; and incidentally to exhibit photographs of the highest mountain peak in Europe, which is nearby. Figure 5. Volcanic necks of Piatigorsk, four miles away. The plain around Piatigorsk is made up of flat-lying Tertiary deposits. Out of these rise the isolated volcanic mountains, composed mainly of white or gray trachytes. The ash and scoriaceous materials have all been removed, leaving the harder lavas which occupied the pipes of the vents and the central parts of the cones, standing out in abrupt mounds. These vents appear to represent the dying stages of the great outburst which gave birth to the towering volcanic cone of Mt. Elburz, twenty miles distant. Authorities have long considered Mt. Blanc, in the Alps, to be the highest point in all Europe. Its height above sea-level is placed at 15,780 feet. Recent measurements show that the Caucasus mountains present no less than five peaks, every one of which is more elevated than any part of the Swiss district. Mt. Elburz is an isolated cone on the north flank of the great Caucasian chain, and rises to a height of 18,526 feet IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 139 above the level of the Black sea, or nearly 3,000 feet beyond the highest level of Mt. Blanc. As an elevation Mt. Elburz is a much more striking object of the landscape than the Swiss mountain, for the reason that it rises directly out of the low-lying steppes, the level of which is only a few hundred feet above sea-level, so that it slopes from peak to foot nearly down to the datum plane, while the base of Mt. Blanc is several thousand feet above the sea. Kasbec (16,546 feet), Dikhtau (16,925 feet), Koshtantau (17,096 feet), and Ihkara (17,278 feet) are names of other high peaks in the more central parts of the Caucasus. Mt. Blanc is visible about 100 miles. Mt. Elbnrz is said to be visible 200 miles distant. That is to say: If Elburz were located at Kansas City we could from the State House steps on clear days catch glimpses of its snow-crowned top. The photographs were taken on one of the excur- sions of the International geological congress, and the larger one is probably the best ever obtained of the mountain. A COMPARISON OF MEDIA FOR THE QUANTITA- TIVE ESTIMATION OF BACTERIA IN MILK. BY C. H. ECKLES. During the past three years the writer has made quanti- tative estimates of the bacteria in a large number of milk samples. During this work certain facts developed which have very important relations to the accuracy of such esti- mates. It was early observed that ordinary peptone agar is entirely unsuited for the purpose as a very small number develop as compared with the same medium to which 2 per cent, of lactose has been added, or with gelatine. It was also observed that when students were given peptone agar to use in isolating milk bacteria, that they very rarely, if ever, found the acid organism, although it often consti- tuted a majority of the entire number present in the milk. 140 lOAVA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. These observations led to the constant use of lactose media when it was desired to make a quantitative estimate or to isolate the acid organism. A more recent study of the work done by various inves- tigators led to the conclusion that much of the counting of bacteria which has been done is of little value on account of the kind of media used, and the lack of knowledge regarding the relation it bears to the number of organisms developed. It is also evident that mistakes, due to the same cause, have been made in regard to the kind of bacteria most common in milk. The most common mis- take has been a failure to recognize that the bacterial flora of milk is composed, as largely as it is, of acid- producing bacteria, mostly of a single species. In order to get a definite result a short series of experiments was recently undertaken with the following objects in view: First — a. To find how the number of milk bacteria developing on peptone agar compared with number grow- ing on the same media with 2 per cent lactose added, h. Same comparison between ordinary peptone gelatin and 2 per cent lactose gelatin, c. Same comparison between peptone and lactose gelatin and peptone and lactose agar. Second. — What effect does the kind of media have on the relative proportion developing, of those causing acid coag- ulation; those having no effect on milk; and those coag- ulating by action of an enzyme? IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 141 The table which follows shows the data accumulated: d o Q MEDIA USED. 1 e li ACID CLASS. NO EFFECT ON MILK. ENYZME PRO- DUCING. J2 • iz; ^1 u ? 5. The wood of this species is light brown, close-grained, soft, light, and checks in drying. In New England it is said to be used in the final baking of bricks and in the manufacture of gunpowder. According to Professor Macbride, this species is common along the Yellow river in Allamakee county. Specimens from Allamakee and Jones counties are in the State uni- versity herbarium. Professor Arthur reports the species from Floyd county. Arthur, Contr. to the Flora of Iowa, p. 29; Flora of Floyd County in History of Floyd County, p. 310; Botanical Gazette, Vol. 7, p. 127; Macbride, Iowa Geol. Sur., Vol. 4, p. 119. Corjflus americana Walt. Fl. Car. 236, 1788. Hazel-nut. A shrub, four to eight feet high, growing in clumps, young shoots hispid, twigs glabrous; leaves ovate, acuminate, ser- rulate all around, petioled, glabrous above, tomentulose beneath, base obtuse to cordate; involucre of two leaf-like laciniately margined pubescent bractlets, exceeding the oval or oblong nut. This species makes up much of our thickets. We have observed thickets covering hundreds of acres composed mostly of this hazel with an occasional shrubby bur oak, red haws, plums, etc. Under present conditions the hazel is found along the highway, open upland woods, and uncleared thickets. The only economic value which this species possesses is the use of its fruit which is ripe in August and September. The nuts are small, somewhat striate, compressed, light brown, a half inch or less in length. These nuts have been gathered to a considerable extent and sold in the markets. The difficulty in hulling them has retarded their greater use. A certain species of chipmunk store up quantities of hulled nuts in burrows and some gatherers, knowing the habits of these rodents, sys- tematically rob them of their winter's store much to the profit of the gatherers. 174 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. Oar specimens are from Johnson, Van Buren, Decatur, Ringgold, Page, and Shelby counties. We have observed the species in Winneshiek, Allamakee, Dubuque, Musca- tine, Wapello, Appanoose, Clarke, Adams, Montgomery, and Pottawattamie counties. The State University herba- rium has specimens from Winnebago, Emmet, Cerro Gordo, Delaware, Dallas, Webster, Jasper, and Dickinson counties. Professor Bessey reports the species from Story, Fayette, and Des Moines counties; Professor Pammel from Wood- bury and Boone counties; Messrs. Nagel and Haupt from Scott county; Professor Macbride from Humboldt county; Mr. J. P. Anderson, by note, from Lucas county; and Mr. Mills, by letter, from Henry county. Parry, in Owen's Report Geol. Sur. Wis., Iowa, and Minn., p. 618; Bessey, Contr. to the Flora of Iowa, p. 119; Arthur, Contr. to the Flora of Iowa, p. 29; Hitchcock, Trans. St. Louis Acad, of Science, Vol. 5, p. 517; Nagel and Haupt, Proc. Davenport Acad, of Nat. Sciences, Vol. 1, p. 163; Pammel, Proc. Iowa Acad, of Sciences, Vol. 3, p. 132; Iowa Geol. Sur., Vol. 5, p. 237; Vol. 9, p. 240; Fink, Proc. Iowa Acad, of Sciences, Vol. 4, p. 101; Fitzpatrick, Proc. Iowa Acad, of Sciences, Vol. 5, p. 127; Vol. 5, p. 163; Vol. 6, p. 196; Iowa Geol. Sur. Vol. 8, p. 313; Cameron, Iowa Geol. Sur., Vol. 8, p. 198; Macbride, Iowa Geol. Sur., Vol. 7, p. 107; Vol. 9, p. 152; Vol. 10, p. 238 and p. 647; Reppert, Iowa Geol. Sur., Vol. 9, p. 386; Barnes, Reppert, and Miller, Proc. Davenport Acad, of Nat. Sciences, Vol. 8, p. 256; Arthur, Flora of Floyd county, in History of Floyd County, p. 309; Bot. Gaz., Vol. 7, p. 127. Cory Ins rosfrata, Ait. Hort. Kew., :^: 364, 1789. Beaked hazelnut. Professor Bessey reports this species from Fay- ette county in his contribution to the Flora of Iowa in the Fourth Report of the Iowa Agricultural College. No other observer has recorded this species as occurring in Iowa, although the state is within the range of the species. We very much doubt if this species has ever been collected in Iowa. Ostnja virginiana (Mill.) Willd. Hop-hornbeam. Iron- wood. A tree, twenty to fifty feet high, with grayish, lOVVA ACADEMY OF SCIENCKS. 175 furrowed bark; leaves ovate or oblong-ovate; acuminate, sharply and doubly serrate, glabrous above, downy beneath, short-petioled; flowers appearing before or with the leaves; nut small, smooth, ovoid-oblong, sessile at the base of a large inflated oblong closed bag formed from the bractlet, the loosely imbricated involucre hop-like, bristly-hairy at the base. Carpinas vh-giniana Mill. Gard. Diet., Ed. 8, 1768; Ostrfia vinjinica Willd. Sp. PI. 4: 469, 1805. This species occurs on wooded bluffs and is frequent throughout the state. The flowers appear in April and May and the fruit is ripe in July and August. The w^ood is dense, strong, durable, and valuable for constructions requiring great strength. Our specimens are from Winneshiek, Johnson, Henry, Decatur, Union, and Fremont counties. We have observed the species in Allamakee and Clayton counties. The State University herbarium has specimens from Emmet, Cal- houn, Cerro Gordo, Webster, Delaware, Lee, and Potta- wattamie counties. Professor Pammel reports the species from Harrison, Boone, Hardin, and Woodbury counties; Professor Bessey, from Story and Des Moines counties; Professor Arthur, from Floyd county; Professor Fink, from Fayette county; and Professor Macbride, from Dubuque, Dickinson, and Humboldt counties. Bessey, Contr. to the Flora of Iowa, p. 119; Arthur, Flora of Floyd county, in History of Floyd County, p. 300; Botanical Gazette, Vol. 7, p. 127; Contr. to the Flora of Iowa, p. 29; Hitchcock, Trans. St. Louis Acad, of Science, Vol. 5, p. 517; Pammel, Proc. Iowa Acad, of Sciences, Vol. 3, p. 132; Iowa Geol. Sur., Vol. 5, p. 237; Vol. 9, p. 240; Vol. 10, p. 312; Fink, Proc. Iowa Acad, of Sciences, Vol. 4, p. 101; Fitzpatrick, Proc. Iowa Acad, of Sciences, Vol. 5, p. 127 and p. 163; Vol. 6, p. 196; Iowa Geol. Sur., Vol. 8, p. 313; Cameron, Iowa Geol. Sur., Vol. 8, p. 198; Macbride, Iowa Geol. Sur., Vol. 4, p. 119; Vol. 7, p. 107; Vol. 9, p. 152; Vol. 10, p. 238 and p. 647; Reppert, Iowa Geol. Sur., Vol. 9, p. 386; Shimek, Iowa Geol. Sur., Vol. 10, p. 162; Barnes, Reppert. and Miller, Proc. Davenport Acad, of Nat. Sci- ences, Vol. 8, p. 256; Rigg, Notes on the Flora of Calhoun County, p.[.25; Sargent, Forest Trees of N. A., p. 158. 176 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIKNCES. Carpinus caroliniana Walt., Fl. Car., 236, 1788. Ameri- can Hornbeam. Blue Beech. A small tree, ten to thirty feet high, with smooth bluish gray bark; leaves ovate- oblong, acute or acuminate, doubly serrate, base rounded to subcordate, short-petioled, both sides green, glabrous above, somewhat pubescent on the veins beneath; bract- lets veiny, 3-lobed at the base, the middle lobe twice the length of the lateral ones, sparingly toothed; fruit a small ovoid nut, which is borne at the base of a large bractlet. This species is frequent in the northeastern and eastern portions of Iowa. It occurs in woods near streams and i3looms in April and May, while the fruit ripens in August and September. The majority of the individuals are but little better than mere shrubs or bushes. The wood is hard, strong, of a light brown color, and is very durable. Owing to the scarcity and small size of the species the wood has but little utility in Iowa, though for small articles, as levers, handles, etc., nothing better could be used. Specimens in our collection are from Muscatine and Johnson counties. We have observed the species in Alla- makee, Clayton, Dubuque, Des Moines, Van Buren, and Wapello counties. The State University herbarium has specimens from Emmet, Delaware, Henry, and Lee coun- ties. Professor Bessey reports the species from Boone county; Professor Pammel, from Plardin county; Professor Fink, from Fayette county; Messrs. Nagel and Haupt, from Scott county; and Professor Macbride, from Hum- boldt county. Bessey, Contr. to the Flora of Iowa, p. 119; Arthur, Contr. to the Flora of Iowa, p. 29; Nagel and Haupt, Proc. Davenport Acad, of Nat. Sciences, Vol. 1, p. 163; Fink, Proc. Iowa Acad, of Sciences, Vol. 4, p. 101; Fitzpatrick, Proc. Iowa Acad, of Sciences, Vol. 5, p. 127 and p. 163; Pammel, Iowa Geol. Sur., Vol. 5, p. 237; Vol.8, p. 314; Vol. 10, p. 312; Cameron, Iowa Geol. Sur., Vol. 8, p. 198; Mac- bride, Iowa Geol. Sur., Vol. 4, p. 119; Vol. 7, p. 107; Vol. 9, p. 152; Vol. 10, p. 647; Reppert, Iowa Geol. Sur., Vol. 9, p. 836; Gray's Manual, 6th Ed., p. 474; Barnes, Reppert, IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 177 and Miller, Proc. Davenport Acad, of Nat. Sciences, Vol. 8, p. 256; MacMillan, Met. Minn. Valley, p. 1S6. THE FAGACEAE OF IOWA. BY T. J. AND M. F. L. FITZPATRICK. FAG ACE AE Driide, Phan., 409, 1879. OAK OR BEECH FAMILY. The oak family comprises five genera and 375 species. The family is of v^ide geographical distribution, and from an economic point of view, of very great value. Four genera occur in the United States, namely, Fagus (the Beech), Castanea (the Chestnut), Quercus (the Oak), and Castanopsis. The number of species and varieties recog- nized is 87. Of this number 82 belong to the genus Quer- cus, one each to Fagus and Castanopsis, and three to Castanea. The only genus indigenous to Iowa is Quercus, the oak, and the number of species recognized is 15. The chestnut, Castanea dentata (Marsh.) Borkh. has been planted in some communities and seems to thrive. A fine grove of this species may be seen in the southern part of Johnson county and solitary or few trees that are hardy, ornamental, and useful are infrequently observed near dwellings. As the species ranges from Maine to Michigan, south to Tennessee, Iowa may be said to occupy a geographical position suited to chestnut raising. The wood of the species is coarse-grained and very durable. The beech, Fagus americana Sweet, ranges from Nova Scotia to Florida, westward to Wisconsin and Texas, but occurs nowhere in Iowa, yet the species might very nat- urally be expected. The beech belongs to a rather numer- ous class of species that may be found to the north, east, or south of Iowa, yet refuses to enter within our limits, or if at all, only in very restricted localities in the north- eastern or eastern portions of the state. 12 178 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. The oak has been looked upon as the peer of forest trees; aye, even taken as the symbol of strength. Its close, strong fibers enable the tree to resist a thousand storms. Its vitality readily causing a new growth to be rapidly spread over the narrow path riven by the lightning. Some of the species live several hundred years ere storms, fungi, accidents, and natural old age have at last consumed the the tree's vitality and death results. Let us pass through a native oak grove of eastern Iowa. At first we shall be struck by the remarkable paucity of large trees, though here and there fine ones are seen. Further observation, however, reveals many decaying stumps, clearly indicating the cause of the scarcity. In place of the primeval there are numerous young trees which collectively constitute the so-called second growth. On noticing species we find they bear a rather general numerical relation to each other. Sometimes one species predominating, and again another, so as to receive the dis- tinctive names of white oak, bur oak, or the so-called black oak groves. One particular grove on the uplands is com- posed largely of scarlet oak [Q. cocciiiea Wang.); the trees are thick set, limby or not, as is convenient for them; stately, thriving or passive as the seasons of average moist- ure or drought appear. Here and there may be seen a solitary red oak {Q. rubra L.), or at best but few individ- uals, for they seem not to thrive in numbers where the scarlet oak abounds. The bur oak {Q. niacrocarpa Mx.) fares better, though not many individuals may be counted in close proximity with the scarlet oak, yet passing in cer- tain directions we find the number increasing until we are in a typical bur oak grove. We said we were on the uplands, but we find on passing to the lowlands that the bur oak is there. The trees are large, but the quality of the timber is comparatively poor. The white oak {Q. alba L.) has much the same habit as the bur oak. Solitary individuals occurring among the scarlet oaks and in cer- tain places predominating, though as we pass from point to point we may find white oaks mixed with bur oaks along with scarlet oaks, until differentiated by natural causes. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 179 into preclominaDt or subordinate numerical positions. Let us pass over to the bluff side next the river, and here we ma}^ expect to find a few chestnut oaks {Q. acuminata Mx.)- Sarg. As the chestnut oaks we usually find are few and small, we look upon them as curiosities in the oak line. Rarely do we find a Quercitron or black oak [Q. velutina Lam.) mixed in our typical oak grove. Let us pass to southeastern or southern Iowa, and we find the relations of the bur, white, scarlet, and red oak remaining much the same as in eastern Iowa, except that the shingle oak {Q. imhricaria Mx.) or laurel oak, as it is called in Iowa, makes itself numerous on the uplands, dis- placing in many localities the scarlet oak. On the second bottoms we find the swamp white oak {Q. phdanoides: (Lam.) Ludw.) flourishing, and in the swampy portions of the lower bottom the pin oak {Q. palustris Du Roi) occurs'- abundantly. The swamp white oak and the pin oak some- times intermingle on neutral ground, but not to mutual benefit. Returning to the uplands we find groves of black- jack or barren oak [Q. manjlandica Muench) growing fre- quently on rather sterile soil. The trees are small, rough formed, apparently stunted, much branched, so much so that getting wood from these groves is slow and laborious. Infrequently we find a water oak [Q. nir/ra L.) in these black-jack groves. This species occurs along streams and swamps in the eastern portion of the United States, but in Iowa we have seen it only on the uplands. Passing out on the prairie we find many colonies of the ground or scrub chestnut oak [Q. prinoides Willd.). The species is small, only two or three feet high, of heavy root, and of no economic value save the acorns, which are stored by the prairie squirrels. The roots are a rather formidable obstacle to the breaking of the sod, taxing the patience of the breaker and the draft team. On the prairie, too, we find the bur oak. Instead of the fine, large trees we have scrubs, only a few feet high, but seemingly thriving, in small colonies, and apparently striving to be the prototype of a future forest. 180 IOWA. ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. In central and western Iowa we find the red oak fre- quently displacing the scarlet oak. The white oak is fre- quent, along with the bur oak, w4iich is stately or shrubby, according to location. Occasionally a few chestnut oaks occur along the bluffs in central Iowa. In central Iowa is also found the Texan red oak {Q. texana Buckley), an unusual find. It will be seen that central and western Iowa have few species as compared with the eastern and southern portions. Forests are more extensive in the eastern portion. The larger rivers of the state are all eastern, and the Father of waters is our eastern border. The forest primeval established itself in a narrow strip along our eastern border, sending out branches of tenuous width up the tributaries. The forests of central and west- ern Iowa are meager because they had to be established in a fire-swept zone and had not reached their fullness ere the advent of civilized man. The problem of forest condi- tions, especially near the rivers, having been solved in the eastern portion, there was opportunity for the increase of species. But the hardy ones were established first, and others followed. The forests of central and western Iowa had made their beginning. The sturdy species had stood the test on favorable ground, and others were following, but the advent of man changed conditions. He made the the prairie a farm and converted the young forests into heat and building materials. Passing backward in time for a space of fifty years we find the state but thinly settled and nearly all its inhab- itants on the eastern side. There were many oak forests with fine, large oaks. The settler chose the best of con- venient size to build his home. The sawanill on being brought and conveniently located was energetically employed in producing building materials to be used in the rising villages or on the farms. Thousands of trees were made into rails to be used in the old-fashioned worm fences. The advent of the railways caused an increase in the demand for oak timber for many years. The timber was rapidly disappearing and many citizens felt apprehen- sive. But as time goes on conditions change. The uni- IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 181 versal application of metals materially checked the strain on the timber resources, so that to-day our oak groves, as a rule, are suffering only from the demands for fuel and fence-posts, along with the greed for more pasture land. The opening of the large coal fields in southern Iowa materially reduces the fuel demand. The Oak family may be characterized as trees or shrubs, with alternate petioled, pinnately-veined leaves, deciduous stipules, and small monoecious, apetalous flowers. The staminate flowers are in pendulous, sometimes erect or spreading aments, wath a 4-7-lobed perianth, and 4-20 stamens. The pistillate flowers are solitary or several together, surrounded by an involucre composed of wholly or partially united bracts, which develop into a bur or cup. Perianth 4-8-lobed, adnate to the ovary. Ovary 8-7- celled; ovules 1-2 in each cell, pendulous, only one in each ovary developing. Represented in Iowa by the genus QuERcus L. Sp. PI. 994, 1753. * Acorns maturing the first year: leaves not bristle-tipped t Leaves deeply lobed or pinnatifid. Quercus alba L. Sp. PI. 996, 1758. White Oak. Bark light gray; leaves oblong or obovate-oblong, green above, smooth, pale or glaucous beneath, short-petioled, sinuate- pinnatifid; lobes linear or oblong, obtuse, entire or lobed, base acute; acorn ovoid-oblong, cup depressed-hemispheric, shallow, about one-third the height of the acorn; scales obtuse, appressed, woolly, at length glabrous, lower ones knotty. This species occurs in upland woods, and is more or less common throughout the state. The wood is hard, tough, close-grained, of a brown color, and very strong, qualities which give utility and durability. Hence for construction materials the white oak is held in great esteem. The set- tlers drew from this oak materials for their houses, fences, etc. The trunks which were long and straight made excel- lent framing timbers, as sills, cross-beams, etc., unequaled rails or posts for fences, clapboards or shingles for roofs. On the advent of the local sawmills many trees were cut 182 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. and sawed into lumber. In the line of rail fences the white oak had no competitor for durability. Rails are now in use that have resisted the elements for forty years, though the average life cannot be stated to be so long, but is probably ten or fifteen years shorter. On the building of the railways large quantities of white oak timber were used for piling, bridge material, or ties; many of the ties being fashioned with a broad-ax driven by human power. The primeval trees are nearly all gone. The second growth consists of numerous individuals and constitutes the major portion of our white oak groves. The older trees range from sixty to one hundred feet in height and have a trunk diameter of from three to five feet. The young grove trees are from thirty to sixty feet in height, and are from four to ten inches in diameter. The former are usually much-branched, the branches rather large, while the latter are slender and with few or many small, slender branches. The second growtli material gives excel- lent fuel, posts, small piling, etc. Our specimens are from Johnson, Van Buren, Appanoose, and Decatur counties. We have observed the species in Winneshiek, Allamakee, Clayton, Jefferson, Wapello, Ringgold, and Union counties. The State University has specimens from Delaw^are, Louisa, Lee, Dallas, Webster, and Pottawattamie counties. Professor Bessey reports the species from Stor> and Des Moines counties; Professor Fink, from Fayette county; Professor Pammel, from Boone and Hardin counties; Mr. Reppert, from Muscatine county; Messrs. Nagel and Haupt, from Scott county; Professor Macbride, from Dubuque and Humboldt counties; Mr. Gow, from Adair county; and Mr. Mills, by letter, from Henry county. White, Geol. Sur. of Iowa, Vol. 1, p. 138; Bessey, Contr. to the Flora of Iowa, p. 119; Arthur, Contr. to the Flora of Iowa, p. 29; Hitchcock, Trans. St. Louis Acad, of Science, Vol. 5, p. 517; Nagel and Haupt, Proc. Davenport Acad, of Nat. Sciences, Vol. 1, p. 163; Fink, Proc. Iowa Acad, of Sciences, Vol. 4, p. 101; Fitzpatrick, Proc. Iowa Acad, of Sciences, Vol. 5, p. 127 and p. 163; Vol. 6, p. 196; Iowa IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 183 Geol. Sur., Vol. 8, p. 314; Clow, Proc. Iowa Acad, of Sci- ences, Vol. 6, p. 61; Pammel, Iowa Geol. Sur., Vol. 5, p. 237; Iowa Cleol. Sur., Vol. 9, p. 240; Vol. 10, p. 312; Came- ron, Iowa Geol. Sur., Vol. 8, p. 198; Macbride, Iowa Geol. Sur., Vol. 4, p. 119; Vol. 7, p. 107; Vol. 9, p. 153; Vol. 10, p. 647; Reppert, Iowa Geol. Sur., Vol. 9, p. 386; Barnes, Reppert, and Miller, Proc. Davenport Acad, of Nat. Sci- ences. Vol. 8, p. 256. Qnercus minor {MnYsh.) Sarg. Post or Iron Oak. Usually a small tree, with rough, gray bark, and broadly obovate, deeply lyrate-pinnatifid leaves which are dark green above and brown-tomentulose beneath; divisions 3 to 7, some- times undulate or toothed; fruit sessile or nearly so; cup hemispheric, bracts lanceolate, subacute, slightly squar- rose; acorn ovoid, two to three times the length of the cup. Qiiercas alba minor Marsh., Arb. Am. 120, 1785; Querciis stellata Wang., Amer. 78, PL 6, f. 15, 1787; Quercus obtiisi- loba Mx., Hist. Chen. Am., 1,P1. 1, 1801; Quercus minor '^^x- gent, Gard. and For. 2:471, 1889. The wood of this species is hard, close-grained, brown, and very durable. The specific gravity of this oak is greater than any other, save one of our species. The small trees make excellent posts for wire fences. The rarity of the species in Iowa prevents its use to even a limited extent. So far as we know, it is found in Iowa only in Appanoose county, where we have observed the species for several years. It grows in dry soil on the upland ridges, where it occurs in small groves. The species is found in Michigan on the north, and southwestward in Texas, and extends as far east as Massachusetts. Profes- sor Arthur includes the species in his catalogue under the name, Quercus obfusiloba Mx., but gives no locality. Arthur, Contr. to the Flora of Iowa, p. 29; Fitzpatrick, Proc. Iowa Acad, of Sciences, Vol. 5, p. 163. Quercus macrocarpa Mx., Hist. Chen. Am. 2, PI. 23, 1801. Mossy-cup or Bur Oak. Tree 100-150 feet or more in height; sometimes shrubby, with gray, flaky, deeply-fur- rowed bark, the twigs rough or corky- winged; leaves 184 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. obovate or oblong-obovate, deeply sinuate-lobecl or pin- natificl, grayish, downy beneath; fruit sessile or short- peduncled; cup deep, one-half to quite enclosing the ovoid acorn, the scales thick, pointed, the upper subulate tipped, giving a fringed border. This species is common in rich woods where it reaches its maximum development. It, however, persists in small groves on the exposed prairie where the trees are often little more than shrubs. It is a hardy tree, and gives val- uable timber, though not held in so high esteem as the white oak. Primeval trees are now infrec| uent, but many are 100 to 150 feet high and four to five feet in diameter. The settlers drew heavily from this oak for rails, posts, lumber, framing timber, and fire wood. The young generation of trees would bid fair in time to equal or surpass their pred- ecessors were it not that far too many find the ever need- ful woodpile an early resting place. Specimens before us are from Johnson, Van Buren, Decatui-, Ringgold, and Fremont counties. We have observed the species in Winneshiek, Allamakee, Clayton, Dubuque, Scott, Muscatine, Jefferson, Appanoose, Taylor, Page, Union, Adams, Montgomery, and Pottawattamie counties. The State University herbarium has specimens from Emmet, Winnebago, Floyd, Cass, Hancock, Webster, Dallas, Delaware, Louisa, Lee, Jasper, Dickinson, Wood- bury, and Lyon counties. Professor Fink reports the spe- cies from Fayette county; Professor Bessey, from Story and Des Moines counties; Professor Pammel, from Hamil- ton, Hardin, and Boone counties; Professor Macbride, from Humboldt county; Mr. Gow, from Adair county; Mr. J. P. Anderson, by note, from Lucas county; and Mr. Mills, by letter, from Henry county, a total of forty-three coun- ties. Doubtless there is not a county in the state that has not this species. White, Geol. Sur. of Iowa, Vol. 1, p. 138; Bessey, Contr. to the Flora of Iowa, p. 119; Arthur, Contr. to the Flora of Iowa, p. 29; Hitchcock, Trans. St. Louis Acad, of Sci- ence, Vol. 5, p. 517; Nagel and Haupt, Proc. of the Daven- port Acad, of Nat. Sciences, Vol. 1, p. 163; Pammel, Proc. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 185 Iowa Acad, of Sciences, Vol. 3, p. 182; Iowa Geol. Sur., Vol. 5, p, 238; Vol. 10, p. 313; Fink, Proc. Iowa Acad, of Sciences, Vol. 4, p. 101; Fitzpatrick, Proc. Iowa Acad, of Sciences, Vol. 5, p. 127 and p. 163; Vol. 6, p. PJ6; Iowa Cleol. Sur. Vol. 8, p. 314; Gow, Proc. Iowa Acad, of Sciences, Vol. 6, p. 61; Cameron, Iowa Geol. Sur., Vol. 8, p. 198; Mac- bride, Iowa Geol. Sur., Vol. 4, p. 119; Vol. 7, p. 107; Vol. 9, p. 153; Vol. 10, p. 238 and p. 648; Reppert, Iowa Geol. Sur., Vol. 9, p. 386; Shimek, Iowa Geol. Sur., Vol. 10, p. 163; Barnes, Reppert, and Miller, Proc. Davenport Acad, of Nat. Sciences, Vol. 8, p. 256. tt Leaves sinuate, crenate, or toothed. Quercus plafauoides (Lam.) Sudw. Swamp White Oak. Tree forty to one hundred feet high; bark gray, flaky; leaves obovate or oblong-obovate, base cuneate and entire, margin coarsely sinuate-crenate, white-downy beneath; acorns ovoid oblong, in pairs on long peduncles; cup hem- ispheric, scales lanceolate, pubescent, appressed, the upper acute or acuminate. Quercus prinus platanoides Lam., Encycl., 1:720, 1783; Quercus hicolor Willd., Neue Schrift, Ges. Nat. Fr., Berlin, 3: 396, 1801; Quercus platanoides Sudw., Rep. Secy. Agric, 1892:327, 1893. The wood of this species is denser than the white oak, but not so dense as that of the post oak and is tough, hard, strong, and close-grained. So far as our observations go, trees rarely exceed eighteen or twenty inches in diameter. The wood is valuable for fuel, posts, lumber, etc. The species has a limited range in Iowa, though of frequent occurrence in that range. The small size of our trees pre- vents its use much beyond posts and fire wood. Our speci- mens are from Jefferson, Appanoose, Decatur, and Ring- gold counties. Professor Pammel reports the species from Lee, Muscatine, and Clayton counties; and Messrs. Barnes. Reppert, and Miller, from Scott and Muscatine counties. Arthur, Contr. to the Flora of Iowa, p. 29; Pammel, Proc. Iowa Acad, of Sciences, Vol. 1, pt. 2, 1890-1891, p. 91 ; Fitzpatrick, Iowa Geol. Sur., Vol. 8, p. 314; Proc. Iowa Acad, of Sciences, Vol. 5, p. 163; Vol. 6, p. 196; Barnes, 186 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. Reppert, and Miller, Proc. Davenport Acad, of Nat. Sci- ences, Vol. 8, p. 256; Sargent, Forest Trees of N. A., p. 141. Querais cwnnihidta (Mx.) Sarg, Chestnut or Yellow Oak. A tree attaining large size; bark gray, flaky; leaves lance- olate or oblong, acute or acuminate, equally and coarsely toothed, slender-petioled, base obtuse or rounded, pale beneath; acorn globose; cup hemispheric, thin, shallow^, subsessile; scales ovate, appressed. Quercus pr'niKs arititii/i- ata Mx., Hist. Chenes Am. No. 5, PI. S, 1801; Quercna mnhl- enhergii Engelm., Trans. St. Louis Acad., Vol. 8, p. 891, 1877; Quercus acuiii'niafa Sarg., Gar. and For., Vol. 8, p. 98, 1895. This species is frequent in eastern and southern Iowa, preferring rocky bluffs and bottoms. The wood is hard, dense, close-grained, durable, and of much strength. The specific gravity is the greatest of our species. This species gives valuable timber, and has been much used until the major portion of the large trees are all gone. Near Keo- sauqua are quite a number of large trees still growing, and Professor Pammel reports that fine, large trees are com- mon in the valleys of Boone county. Our specimens are from Johnson, Des Moines, Van Buren, Henry, Appanoose, Decatur, Ringgold, and Fremont cjunties. We have observed the species in Union, Adams, and Montgomery counties. The State University herbarium has specimens from Jackson, Delaware, and Lee counties. Professor Mac- bride reports the species from Allamakee county; Profes- sor Fink, from Fayette county; Messrs. Nagel and Haupt, from Scott county; Mr. Reppert, from Muscatine county; and Professor Pammel, from Boone and Clayton counties. Arthur, Contr. to the Flora of Iowa, p. 29; Hitchcock, Trans. St. Louis Acad, of Science, Vol. 5, p. 518; Nagel and Haupt, Proc. Davenport Acad, of Nat. Sciences, Vol. 1, p. 168; Pammel, Proc. Iowa Acad, of Sciences, Vol. 1, pt. 2, 1890-1891, p. 91; Iowa Geol. Stir., Vol. 5, p. 288; Fink, Proc. Iowa Acad, of Sciences, Vol. 4, p. 101; Fitzpatrick, Proc. Iowa Acad, of Sciences, Vol. 5, p. 168; Vol. 6, p. 196; Iowa Geol. Sur., Vol. 8, p. 814; Cameron, Iowa Geol. Sur., Vol. 8, p. 198; Reppert, Iowa Geol. Sur., Vol. 9, IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 187 p. 386; Macbride, Iowa Geol. Sur., Vol. 4, p. 119; Vol. 7, p. 107; Barnes, Reppert, and Miller, Proc. Davenport Acad. of Nat. Sciences, Vol. 8, p. 256. Quercus prhioides Willd., Neue Schrift, Ges. Nat. Fr. Berlin, 3:397. 1801. Ground Oak. This species much resembles the preceding; usually one to four feet high; leaves oval or obovate, coarsely toothed or, undulate, shorter petioled; cups deeper, sessile; scales appressed, ovate or lanceolate; acorn ovoid. Quercus priniis hiimiUs Marshall. This species seems to differ from Quercus acum'uKda (Mx.) Sarg., by its low stature and leaf outline. Our experi- ence indicates that this species has a well developed root system. The roots being comparatively large and much ramified. Small groves of this oak which we have seen grubbed made large heaps of roots, reminding one of brush heaps in clearings. These roots have suggested the com- mon name of ground oak. Wherever this oak occurs there is considerable difficulty in breaking the prairie soil. "So far we have observed this species only in Appanoose and Decatur counties, but in those counties it was a common .species in dry prairie soil. Mr. J. P. Anderson informs us that it occurs in Lucas county. No doubt the species occurs in many of our southern counties. Jh*. Vasey reports the species from Iowa. Vasey, Am. Ent. and Bot., Vol. 2, p. 282; Bessey, Contr. to the Flora of Iowa, p. 119; Arthur, Contr. to the Flora of Iowa, p. 29; Fitzpatrick, Proc. Iowa Acad, of Sciences, Vol. 5, p. 163; Iowa Geol. Sur., Vol. 8, p. 314. ** Leaves bristle-tipped; acorns maturing: the second year, t Leaves deeply lobed or pinnatifid. Quercus rubra L., Sp. PI. 996, 1753. Red Oak. This ;species may be characterized as a large tree with reddish, coarse wood; leaves mostly oval in outline, deeply lobed, sinuses rounded, lobes somewhat triangular-lanceolate, remotely coarsely-toothed, pubescent when young, becom- ing mostly glabrous; acorn ovoid, one-fourth immersed; <€up saucer-shaped, sessile or subsessile; scales ovate, obtuse 188 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. or the upper acute, appressecl. Q/iercus amhigiia Mx., f. Hist. Arb. Am., 2, 120, PI. 24, 1812. The red oak is a common tree of the upland woods, flow- Qxm^ in May and June, and ripening its acorns in October or November. With us individual trees rarely measure four feet in diameter, and the majority range from two to three feet. The bark is dark gray, and but slightly rough- ened on the branches, but is rarely deeply furrowed and darker colored on the trunk. The tree is a rapid grower, but gives coarse-grained wood from which inferior lumber may be sawed, or when dry, a rapid burning fire wood giving considerable heat may be had. Some use has been made of this oak for certain kinds of furniture. In the days of board fences this oak was taken by the farmers to local mills and made into six or eight-inch width lum- ber for fence material. The users claimed that the lumber from this species was less liable to warp than other availa- ble kinds. A limited use of the red oak for fence posts showed early decay of the portions in contact with the soil. This oak does very well for foundation piling. The species ranges west of our limits to Kansas and Texas and eastward to Nova Scotia. ' Witliin our limits the primeval individuals have been mostly removed, but a sturdy second growth has taken their places. Our speci- mens are from Johnson, Appanoose, Decatur, Ringgold, Union, Page, Fremont, and Pottawattamie counties. We have observed the species in Winneshiek, Allamakee, Cla}^- ton, Wapello, Lee, Van Buren, Taylor, and Montgomery counties. The State University herbarium has specimens from Winnebago, Cerro Gordo, Dallas, Louisa, Webster, Emmet, and Delaware counties. Professor Macbride reports the species from Humboldt, Dickinson, and Dubuque counties; Professor Pammel, from Woodbury, Hardin, and Boone counties; Messrs. Nagel and Haupt, from Scott county; Professor Fink, from Fayette county; Professor Bessey, from Des Moines county; Messrs. Barnes, Reppert, and Miller, from Muscatine county; Mr. Gow, from Adair county; Mr. Mills, by letter, from Henry county; and Mr. J. P. Anderson, by note, from Lucas IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 189 county, a total of thirty-seven counties. In all probability the red oak occurs in every county in Iowa. Bessey, Contr. to the Flora of Iowa, p. 119; Arthur, Oontr. to the Flora of Iowa, p. 29; Hitchcock, Trans. St. Louis Acad, of Science, Vol. 5, p. 518; Nagel and Haupt, Proc. Davenport Acad, of Nat. Sciences, Vol. 1, p. 163; Pammel, Proc. Iowa Acad, of Sciences, Vol. 3, p. 132; Iowa Geol. Sur., Vol. 9, p. 240; Vol. 10, p. 313; Fink, Proc. Iowa Acad, of Sciences, Vol. 4, p. 101; Fitzpatrick, Proc. Iowa Acad, of Sciences, Vol. 5, p. 128 and p. 164; Vol. 6, p. 196; Iowa Geol. Sur., Vol. 8, p. 314; Gow, Proc. Iowa Acad, of Sciences, Vol. 6, p. 61; Cameron, Iowa Geol. Sur., Vol. 8, p. 198; Macbride, Iowa Geol. Sur., Vol. 4, p. 119; Vol. 7, p. 107; Vol. 9, p. 153; Vol. 10., p. 238 and p. 648; Reppert, Iowa Geol. Sur., Vol. 9, p. 387; Barnes, Reppert, and Miller, Proc. Davenport Acad, of Nat. Sciences, Vol. 8, p. 256; Sar- gent, Forest Trees of N. A., p. 148. Qiiercus pnlustris DuRoi, Harbk., 2:268, PI. 5, f. 4, 1772. Pin Oak. Leaves long-petioled, ovate, deeply pinnatifid, sinuses broad and rounded, lobes divergent, remotely coarsely toothed; acorn ovoid, one-third immersed; cup saucer-shaped, scales triangular ovate, acute or obtuse, appressed. This species, commonly known as the swamp orpin oak, usually occurs in groves on river bottoms, often in sw^ampy soil. The grove trees are tall, slender, and but little branched. Solitary trees in the open are much branched; the branches are long, slender, spreading, horizontal, or even drooping. The wood was used somewhat by the early settlers for rails, though inferior tor the purpose; also, the long, slender trunks, when of proper size, were readily con- verted by a skillful woodman with a broad-ax, into framing timber for barns and other buildings. When properly sea- soned and used for inside material the pin oak does very well. For wood or construction material requiring resist- ance to the elements, this species furnishes a poor quality. In Iowa the pin oak has a very limited raiige. Our speci- mens are from Muscatine, Lee, Appanoose, and Decatur counties. The State University has a specimen from 190 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. Louisa county. Professor Macbride reports the species- from Johnson county; Professor Bessey, from Des Moines county; and Messrs. Barnes, Reppert, and Miller, from Scott county. Thus it will be seen that there is a cres- cent distribution of this species in Iowa, the localities all being southeastern. The species ranges northward to Wis- consin, southward to Arkansas, eastward to Massachusetts, and Delaware. Bessey, Contr. to the Flora of Iowa, p. 119; Arthur, Contr. to the Flora of Iowa, p. 29; Pammel, Proc. Iowa Acad, of Sciences, Vol. 1, pt. 2, 1890-1891, p. 91; Fitzpat- rick, Proc. Iowa Acad, of Sciences, Vol. 5, p. 164; Iowa Geol. Sur., Vol. 8, p. 314; Reppert, Iowa Geol. Sur., Vol. 9, p. 387; Macbride, Iowa Geol. Sur., Vol. 7, p. 107; Barnes, Reppert, and Miller, Proc. Davenport Acad, of Nat. Sci- ences, Vol. 8, p. 257. QiiercHS iexana Buckley, Proc. Phila. Acad., 1860:444,, 1860. Texan Red Oak. This oak is very similar to Quercus palustris DuRoi, becoming a large tree; bark reddish- brown, wnth broad ridges; leaves obovate in outline,, bright green above; paler and with tufts of wool in the axils beneath, deeply pinnatifid into 5-9 triangular or oblong lobes which are entire or coarsely few-toothed, the lobes and teeth bristle-tipped; acorn ovoid, 2-3 times the height of the deeply saucer-shaped cup; scales obtusish or acute, appressed. The Texan red oak we have not seen. We include it on the authority of Professor Pammel, who states that it occurs at Webster City, Hamilton county. Britton and Brown refer the species to Iowa. Pammel, Iowa Geol. Sur., Vol. 5, p. 238; Britton and Brown, Illust. Flora. Vol. 1, p. 517. Quercus coccinea Wang., Amer. 44, p. 4, f. 9, 1787. Scar- let Oak. Becoming a large tree; bark internally reddish or gray; leaves deeply pinnatifid, glabrous and white green above, pale and somewhat pubescent in the axils of the veins beneath, becoming scarlet in autumn; acorn ovoid or ovoid-globose, one-half or more immersed; cup liemis- IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 191 pheric or top-shaped, scales triangular-lanceolate, appressed or the upper slightly squarrose, glabrate. In eastern Iowa this oak is one of the principal trees of the young upland woods. The trees usually run from six to eighteen inches in diameter and twenty-five to forty feet high. Large trees are infrequent, owing to the fact that they have been removed and the time is too short since the prairie fires have been stopped or since the pri- meval trees have been destroyed for the new trees or the second growth ones to attain any considerable size. The wood is as heavy as the vv^hite oak, but not so strong or durable, and is coarse-grained. This oak makes up the bulk of the cord wood on the market in those portions o the state where coal is not a local output. The farmers also draw their supplies of firewood from the young groves of this species, especially since much has been winter- killed during the uiiseasonable winter of 189S-'99 and was seasoned standing. For the w^ood market the long, slen- der trees, the prevailing form in the groves, readily yields to the woodman's ax to form the conventional market wood. For the best results, the tree, if growing, should be felled about a year before market time, cut into four-foot lengths, and if necessary, split to convenient sizes and corded. When the wood is dry it is then delivered on the market to the consumers. The final preparation consists in sawing the cord sticks twice and splitting to convenient sizes. When dry the wood readily burns and gives much heat, but is not reckoned as a lasting wood. In those por- tions of the state where coal is an output this oak is much used for coal props. The young trees are selected and prepared in the same manner as in making cord wood, except the length of the pieces is about three and a half feet, but varies according to the thickness of the coal vein. These pieces having the ends sawed transversely are placed upright in the coal mines as the coal is removed to prevent the falling of the roof of the mine. In the rural districts a limited use of the oak for fencing may be observed, but such fences are short lived. The scarlet oak is sometimes used for foundation piling. 192 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. The flowers appear in May and June, and the acorns ripen in September and October. Within Iowa the species is widely distributed. The species ranges northward into Minnesota, southward into Missouri, eastward to Maine, but apparently not to the westward of Iowa. Our speci- mens are from Johnson, Appanoose, Decatur, Ringgold, Fremont, and Pottawattamie counties. We have observed the species in Allamakee, Dubuque, Jackson, Scott, and Taylor counties. The State University herbarium con- tains specimens from Delaware county. Professor Fink reports the species from Fayette county; Mr. Reppert, from Muscatine county; Professor Hitchcock, from vStory and Blackhawk counties; Professor Macbride, from Hum- boldt county; and Mr. Mills, by letter, from Henry county. Arthur, Contr. to the Flora of Iowa, p. 29; Hitchcock, Trans. St. Louis Acad, of Science, Vol. 5, p. 518; Fink, Proc. Iowa Acad, of Sciences, Vol. 4, p. 101; Fitzpatrick, Proc. Iowa Acad, of Sciences, Vol. 5, p. 128 and p. 164; Vol. 6, p. 196; Iowa Geol. Sur., Vol. 8, p. 314; Cameron, low-a Geol. Sur., Vol. 8, p. lOS; Macbride, Iowa Oeol. Sur., Vol. 4, p. 119; Vol. 7, p. 107; Vol. 9, p. 153; Vol. 10, p. 648; Rei:fpert, Iowa Geol. Sur., Vol. 9, p. 387; Sargent, Forest Trees of N. A., p. 148. Quercns vehd'ina Lam., Encycl., 1:721, 1783. Black Oak. Quercitron. This species very much resembles Quercus cocci nea Wang.; the outer bark is dark brown, rougher, the inner bright orange; leaves pinnatifid or lobed to beyond the middle, brown-pubescent or stellate-pubescent when young, glabrous when mature, dull green above, pale green and usually pubescent on the veins beneath, leaf- lobes triangular-lanceolate or broad-oblong, usually coarsely toothed at the apex, lobes and teeth bristle- tipped; acorn ovoid, about twice the length of the cup, cup hemispheric or top-shaped, commonly short-stalked, scales more or less pubescent, the upper somewhat squarrose. Quercus tinctoria Bartram, Travels, 37, name only, 1791; Quercus cocci nea var. tinctoria A. Gray, Man., Ed. 5, 454, 1867. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 193 The Quercitron is infrequent in Iowa, and occurs in upland woods. The species is readily distinguished in the woods, but not so readily from the herbarium specimens. The color of the outer and inner bark is the safest guide. The pubescence in the axils of the veins beneath varies, and is to be found in Qaercus cocchiea Wang. The squar- roseness of the scales intergrades. The Quercitron has been confused with the scarlet oak to such a degree by Iowa botanists that it is extremely difficult to give any definite information regarding its range in Iowa. The reports of the species from eastern Iowa seem, the more credible. We have looked upon the reports from western Iowa with considerable suspicion. For many years the species has been recognized as occurring in Johnson county. Dr. White reported the species from Iowa, and was quoted by Professor Bessey. Professor Macbride reported the species from Dubuque and Humboldt counties; Messrs. Nagel and Haupt, from Scott county; Professor Pammel, from Hardin county; Profes- sor Fink, from Fayette county; Mr. Gow, from Adair county; Mr. Rigg, from Calhoun county; and Messrs. Barnes, Reppert, and Miller, from Scott and Muscatine counties. White, Geol. Sur. of Iowa, Vol. 1, p. 13S; Bessey, Contr. to the Flora of Iowa, p. 119; Arthur, Contr. to the Flora of Iowa, p. 29; Nagel and Haupt, Proc. Davenport Acad, of Nat. Sciences, Vol. 1, p 163; Fink, Proc. Iowa Acad, of Sciences, Vol. 4, p, 101; Cow, Proc. Iowa Acad, of Sci- ences, Vol. 6, p. 61; Cameron, Iowa Geol. Sur., Vol. 8, p. 198; Macbride, Iowa Geol. Sur., Vol. 7, p. 107; Vol. 9, p. 153; Vol. 10, p. 648; Pammel, Iowa Geol. Sur., Vol. 10, p. 313; Barnes, Reppert, and Miller, Proc. Davenport Acad, of Nat. Sciences, Vol. 8, p. 256; Rigg, Notes on the Flora of Calhoun county, p. 25. Quercus ellipsoidalisFt. J. Hill, Botanical Gazette, Vol. 27, p. 204, 1899. Tree twenty-five to sixty feet high, one to three feet in diameter, bark rather smooth, shallow-fissured, dark- ish colored near the ground, dull gray above, dull red within, 13 194 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. yellowish next the wood; leaves similar to Quercus palus- tris Dulloi; acorn solitary or in pa,irs, ellipsoidal, varying to somewhat cylindrical or globose, one-third to one-half immersed; cup turbinate or cup-shaped, thinnish, usually tapering into a peduncle; scales narrowly ovate, obtuse or .truncate, brownish, pubescent, closely appressed. This species is represented in Iowa by one tree growing near Big Rock, Scott county. Further search will proba- bly find the species of frequent occurrence. Hill, E. J., Bot. Gaz., Vol. 28, p. 215; Barnes, Reppert, and Miller, Proc. Davenport Acad, of Nat. Sciences, Vol. 8, p. 256. ft Leaves 3-5-lobed toward the apex. Quercus nianjlandica Muench, Hausv., 5:253, 1770. Black- jack or Barren Oak. Our representatives of this species are usually small trees; leaves obovate, stellate-pubescent above, rusty-downy beneath when young, 3-5-lobed toward the apex, lobes entire or bristle-toothed, base rounded or subcordate; acorn ovoid, twice the length of the cup, sur- mounted by a conical dome; cup deep; scales oblong-lan- ceolate, appressed, pubescent. Quercus nigra B L., Sp., PI. 995, 1753. So far as our observations go this species occurs only in dry soil on the uplands. It is infrequent or even rare, occurring in Decatur and Appanoose counties, where our specimens were obtained. The probabilities are that the species occurs in Iowa only on the southern border. The species occurs in Nebraska, ranges southward to Texas and eastward to Ohio and ^ew York, but does not occur northward. Specimens from Decatur county were sent to the Missouri Botanical Gardens for final determination. Fitzpatrick, Proc. Iowa Acad, of Sciences, Vol. 6, p. 197. Quercus nigra L., Sp., PI. 995, 1753. Water Oak. With us this species is usually small; leaves spatulate, or some- times entire and rounded, coriaceous, short-petioled, both sides green and glabrous, tufts of hair in the axils of the veins beneath; acorn globose, ovoid, with a slight but IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 195 broad dome, one-third or one-half immersed; cup saucer- shaped. The character of the dome of the acorn readily distin- guishes this species from Quercus marylandica Muench. Our specimens were obtained in one locality in Decatur county, which, so far as we know, is the only locality in the state. We published the species in Vol. 8, p. 314, Iowa Geological Survey as frequent. The publication was based upon genuine specimens, but at that time we had not learned to distinguish the species from Quercus mayylandica Muench. We now believe that Quercus nigra L. is a rare species in Iowa. We have also published the species in Proceedings of the Iowa Academy of Sciences, Vol. 5, p. 164. All the trees we have observed occurred on dry uplands, and were associated with Quercus marylandica Muench. Arthur, Contr. to the Flora of Iowa, p. 29; Fitzpatrick, Proc. Iowa Acad, of Sciences, Vol. 5, p. 164; Iowa Cleol. Sur., Vol. 8, p. 314. ttt Leaves entire. Quercus imhricaria Mx., Hist. Chen. Am., 9, PI. 15, 16, 1801. Laurel Oak. Shingle Oak. Leaves lanceolate or oblong, entire, bristle-tipped, acute at both ends, short-petioled, glabrous above, persistently downy beneath; acorn subglobose; cup hemispheric, shallow, scales ovate- lanceolate, appressed. In Iowa this species is found only in the southern half of the state and in that portion it is common, forming much of the upland woods. Trees rarely exceed one or two feet in diameter. The w^ood is light reddish brown and coarse-grained. The wood is utilized for fuel, coal props, and to a very limited extent for local lumber. Our specimens are from Johnson, Washington, Decatur, Ring- gold, and Clarke counties. We have observed the species in Jefferson, Wapello, Appanoose, and Union counties. The State University has specimens from Henry, Des Moines, Van Buren, and Taylor counties. Mr. Reppert reports the species from Muscatine county. 196 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. White, Geol. Sur. Iowa, Vol. 1, p. 138; Bessey, Contr. to the Flora of Iowa, p. 119; Arthur, Contr. to the Flora of Iowa, p. 29; Pammel, Proc. Iowa Acad, of Sciences, Vol. 1, pt. 2, 1890-1891, p. 91; Fitzpatrick, Proc. I.owa Acad, of Sciences, Vol. 5, p. 164; Vol. 6, p. 196; Iowa Geol. Sur., Vol. 8, p. 314; Reppert, Iowa Geol, Sur., Vol. 9, p. 387; Macbride, Iowa Geol. Sur., Vol. 7, p. 108; Gray's Manual, Ed. 6, p. 478; Barnes, Reppert, and Miller, Proc. Davenport Acad, of Nat. Sciences, Vol. 8, p. 257; Sargent, Forest Trees of N. A., p. 154. SHRUBS AND TREES OF MADISON COUNTY. H. A. MUELLER. Madison county is considered a prairie country, yet fully one-fourth of its area is covered with shrubs and trees of some description. The county is traversed from the west to the east by three medium-sized streams. North River, Middle River, and Clanton Creek; thus it is known as the "Three-river country." North River, v\rith its two larger tributaries. North Branch and Cedar Creek, is situated in the north half of the county. The principal timber areas along these streams are in Douglas, Jefferson, and Union townships. Middle River flows through the central part, while its largest tributary, Clanton Creek, flows through the south half from the southwest to the northeast. The larger bodies of timber along these two streams lie prin- cipally in Lincoln, Scott, Walnut, and South townships. Nearly three-fourths of South township has been covered with timber. South River flows through a small portion of the southeast part. There is not much timber growing on this stream. Grand River, west of the Mississippi-Mis- souri divide, flows through the southwest corner of the county. Some timber is found along this stream and its branches. The surface of Madison county is quite rolling, notably so in the eastern portion. The streams flow through well- IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 197 developed valleys which have been cut down into the Des Moines stage of the Carboniferous. Nearly everywhere along the brow .of the bluff are exposures of limestone of the Missourian stage. Sandstone of the Des Moines stage is found in the eastern part of the county. The hill slopes, and ridges lying near the larger streams are loess-covered; the prairies are covered with a dark, black loam. On the hills and clay ridges grow the white and black oaks, the ironwood and the hickory. The basswood and the bur oak flourish on the lower slopes; the ash, the elms, the buckeye, the walnuts, and the hard maple on the bot- toms. Along the river banks are found the box-elder and soft maple, the cottonwood and the willow. The hazel, the plum, the crab apple and the haw may be found every- wiiere. In spite of the fact that the primeval forest is nearly exhausted, the timber area has increased to a considerable extent since the first advent of man in 1846, After the prairies were broken out no more fires swept over the country, keeping the timber confined to a narrow strip along the streams. Thus within the last forty years there has developed what is known as "second-growth" timber, which is found growing on the outskirts of the original timber area. At present not many large trees are left standing, and these are rapidly disappearing. Since the fencing is done almost entirely with wire, only fence posts are in demand. These posts are made principally from second-growth white and bur oak. Wood for fuel is still quite plentiful, yet it is diminishing at a rapid rate. What will be the outcome of the forest conditions of Madison and other counties of Iowa? Will the hills and valleys be stripped of the clothing nature intended they should have, or will man awake to his folly and cease destroying the forests without replacing them? This is a question worthy of intelligent consideration. The prob- lem of forests has been solved in some of the European countries, especially in Germany 198 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. Since good farming land has increased so much in value within the last five years the timber land will be encroached upon more and more for farming purposes. All the best timber land has been under the plow for some time. The portion that remains now consists mostly of the steep hill- slopes and clay ridges on either side of the streams. One hopeful fact is that the small wood lots are being gathered together into larger areas and used for pasture, thus to a certain extent preserving the timber, yet pastur- ing is detrimental to young trees. Man and the goat are doing their part in destroying the young trees and under- brush of the steep hills. Madison county has enough rough land, unfit for the plow, to grow sufficient timber to supply all her people with fuel and fence posts, if the proper care be given it. A good oak post can be grown in twenty years, and timber for fuel in less time. Is it not true that the government should make some provisions to preserve the forest upon land that is of little use otherwise than grazing? The following is a list of shrubs and trees found in Madison county: Angiospermse. Dicotyledones. TiLIACEiE. Tilia americana Linn. Basswood. Linden. Common on bottoms and lower slopes of hills between the oak ridges and the bottom land. RuTACEiE. Xanthoxylom aniericanum, Mill. Prickly Ash. Common everywhere. Celastrace^. Celnstrus scandens Linn. Climbing Bitter-Sweet. Frequent, found everywhere climbing over shrubs. Euoniimus atropurpuyens Jacq. Wahoo. Burning Bush. This is quite common on the bottoms and along ravines. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 199 Uhamnace^. Ceanothus americaniislAnn. New Jersey Tea. Red-Root. Quite common on the prairies and edge of the timber. Rhamnus lanceolata Pursh. Buckthorn. Common among cherry and plum thickets. VlTACE^. Vitus rlparia Michx. The wild grape is very common along our streams and ravines. It may be found along every old fence or hedge row. Ampelopsis quinqiiefoUa Michx. Virginia Creeper. Common, Dry woods and fences. Sapindace^. jEscuIus (/labia Willd. Ohio Buckeye. Very common on the river bottoms. Acer dasijcarpum Ehrh. Soft Maple. Very common along the river banks. This tree com- poses ninety per 'cent of our artificial groves. Acer saccharinum. Sugar or Hard Maple. Rock Maple. Common, found principally in groves on the river bot- toms. Negundo aceroides Moench. Box Elder. Ashleaved Maple. Very common along the rivers and tributaries, grow- ing in rich, alluvial soil. Anacardiace^e. Rhus glabra Linn. Common Sumac. Smooth Sumac. Very common everywhere. Rhus toxicodendron Linn. Poison Ivy. Poison Oak. Very common in timber and along fences and hedge rows. Leguminos^. Gledifschia triacanthos Linn. Honey-Locust. Not common. Robinia pseud-acacia Linn. Black Locust. Found only v^here planted, or escaped from cultiva- tion. Gijmnocladus canadensis Lam. Kentucky Coffee Tree. Frequent in rich soil of river bottoms. 200 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. Leguminos^. Amorpha canescens Nutt. Lead Plant. Common on the prairies. Amorpha frutkosa Linn. False Indigo. Very common on wet, swampy ground on bottoms and along sloughs. Rosacea. Pruniis cnnericana Marsh. Wild Plum. Common everywhere on rich soils. Prumis pennsylva nica L.f. Wild Red Cherry. Rare. Pninus virginiana Linn. Choke Cherry. Common. Found in rich soils with the plum. PruiiKS serotina Ehrh. Wild Cherry. Black Cherry. Very common everywhere. Physocarpus opulifolius Maxim. Einebark. Frequent along banks of streams and ravines. Rnhus villosHS Ait. Blackberry. Common on slopes of hills. Much killed by pasturing. Buhiis occidentalis Linn. Black Raspberry. Not so common as the Blackberry, and found in the same localities. Rosa hlanda Alton. Wild Rose. Very common. Rosa Arkansana Port. Found on the prairies. Pyriis coronaria Linn. American Crab- Apple. Very common, growing in clumps in rich soil, along with the Plum. Crafcegus coccinea Linn. Red Haw. Hawthorn. Not common. CmUegus cnis-gaUi Linn. Cockspur Thorn. Rare. CraUegus tome}itoso Linn. Thorn Apple. Very common. Found same localities with Plum and Crab-Apple. Amelanchier canadensis T. & G. June-berry. Service- berry. Common on steep hillsides along ravines. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 201 Saxifragace^. Rihes gracilis. Wild Gooseberry. Common in rich soil in open ground and along fenc& rows and hedges. CORNACE^. Corn lis sericea. Common along streams and in wet places. Cornus altemifoHa L. f. Alternate-leaved Cornel. Quite common on hillsides. Cornus panicuJata L'Her. Panicled Cornel. Common everywhere in thickets. CAPRIFOLIACEiE. Sambrucus Canadensis Linn. Elderberry, Very common on low, rich bottoms Difficult to kill on cultivated lands. Vihirrnnm leniago. Black Haw. Rare. Sjimphoricarpos vulgaris Michx. Very common along roadsides and open ground where the hazel has been cleared. This shrub has become quite a nuisance in timber pastures and along fences^ and hedge rows. Lonicera glanca. Ht)neysuckle. Frequent in woods on hillsides. RUBIACE^. Cephalanthus occidentalis Linn. Button-Bush. Not frequent; found only in ponds and wet places. Oleaceje. Fraxinus americana Linn. White Ash. Quite common on river bottoms and along" streams. Urticace^. Ulmus puira Michx. Red Elm. Slippery Elm. Common. Rich upland and bottoms. JJlmus americana Linn. Very common. Everywhere in damp woods. 202 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Urticace^. UhuHs racemosa Thomas. Hickory Elm. Rock Elm. Not common. There were several large groves in an early day on North River. A few trees are now found about the mouth of North Branch. Celtis occidentalis Linn. Hackberry. Common on river bottoms and along ravines. Monis rubra Linn. Red Mulberry. Not common. River bottoms. Platanacb^. Platanus occidentalis Linn. Sycamore. Buttonwood. Along streams near water's edge and old river chan- nels on gravel beds. Union and Douglas townships. JUGLANDACE^. Jughnis cinerea Linn. Butternut. White Walnut. Common on rich river bottoms; trees have been cut two and one-half to three feet in diameter. Juglans 7iigra Linn. Black Walnut. This tree was very common in an early day on the rich bottoms, but the large trees have all been cut. They were sold and shipped East. In early days rails were split from the best logs. There are many groves of young trees. Car 11 a alba Nutt. Shell bark Hickory. Common on the uplands. Carija amara Nutt, Bitternut. Common everywhere. Trees on the upland are dying from the effects of drouth and pasturing. CUPULIFER^. Corylus americana Walt. Hazelnut. Very abundant on the outskirts of the timber, and where the trees are small and scattered. Ostri/a virginica Willd. American Hop-Hornbeam. Ironwood. Common along steep hillsides. Quercus alba Linn. White Oak. Common on clay ridges. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 203 Qiiercus Miihlenhergii. Chesthiut Oak. Not common. Found on steep, rocky hillsides. Qiiercus macrocarpa Michx. Bur Oak. Very common. Found everywhere, but more abun- dant on the upland. Quercus j)alustris Du Roi. Spanish Oak. Frequent. Quercus rubra Linn. Red Oak. Common. Quercus coccinea Wan^. Scarlet Oak. Quite common on upland. Quercus coccinea Var. tincforia Gray. Black Oak. Jack Oak. Common on upland. Salicace^. Salix trisfis. Dwarf Willow. Cray Willow. Somewhat rare. Found on upland bordering thickets. Salix hiimilis Marsh. Prairie Willow. Common on uplands. Salix discolor Muhl. Pussy Willow. Rare; wet places. Salix longifolia Muhl. Sand-bar Willow. Common in low, wet places and on sandbars. Salix nigra Marsh. Black Willow. Very common along the banks of streams. Popidns tremuloides Michx. American Aspen. Quaking Asp. Rare. Upland. Populus monilifera Ait. Cottonwood. Very common along streams, the largest trees grow- ing on very low ground near the water. This tree makes very rapid growth. Trees become large enough for lumber in thirty to forty years. Monocotyledones. LlLIACE^. Sniilax hispida Muhl. Greenbrier. Quite common in rich woods. 204 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. GYMNOSPERM^. CONIFERiE. JiDiipenis Virginia IK I Linn. Red Cedar. Rare. Found on steep bluffs along North River and Cedar Creek. In Douglas Township there was a small grove on a rocky bluff, wherein the trees reached a foot or more in diameter. A TERRACE FORMATION IN THE TURKEY RIVER VALLEY, IN FAYETTE COUNTY, IOWA. BY G. E. FINCH. The Turkey River flows, in the lower part of its course, through the driftless area in Fayette county, through wide bottom lands. These are usually a half-mile, sometimes a mile or more in width, showing considerable progress in base-leveling. Fringing the bluff's on one or both sides of the river may usually be found a " bench," rising ten or twenty feet above the general level of the valley. A few rods north- west of the Huntsinger bridge over the Turkey River in Dover township, Fayette county, a small tributary called Dry Run, coming from the north, has cut into the side of one of these terraces from top to bottom, showing in a broad, concave curve, a section about 300 feet long and 25 feet high. Several formations are exposed. Starting at bed rock and extending upward about three feet, is an iron-stained formation that seems to be residual. It is composed largely of cherty fragments from the lower part of the Maquoketa shales with a smaller mixture of green- stones and quartz pebbles, all imbedded in rusty earth. Above this occurs some eight feet of a loess-like material, merging into a soil at the top. Somewhat abruptly above this, the bank changes to thin-bedded sand and gravel strata for about four feet. Then occurs six feet of lime- stone fragments with a small percentage of glacial peb- bles, packed so close and even in horizontal layers as to INSERT FOLDOUT HERE IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. Terrace near Huntsinger Bridge, Dover Township, Fayette County, Iowa. Soil merging into a layer of limestone fragments and interbedded loess masses followed bv banded sand and gravel which rests upon loess topped by soil. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 205 suggest stratified rock in places. This formation gradually merges into two or three feet of loess soil at the top of the section. In places in the formation composed of limestone fragments, are inclusions of loess in detached, irregular blocks. Most of these are small, but one was observed that was estimated as twelve feet long and two and one- half feet thick. All the loess masses are irregular and sharply separated from the surrounding rock fragments. The terrace can be traced for over half a mile; first, a short distance east and west in the river valley, then bend- ing sharply to the north and fringing the valley of Dry Run on the west. At the end of the terrace next the river an exposure shows the limestone fragments of the formation underlying the subsoil, to be often as large as a foot across; while at the exposure before described, which is some distance up Dry Run from the river, they are not more than two or three inches in width. Back of the terrace is a loess-covered hill of moderate slope, estimated at 75 feet in height. Across the river, fully half a mile away, is a terrace opposite the one described, and seeming to be at the same level. The presence of the loess and soil in the lower half of the section described is evidence that antecedent to the formation of the terrace, the ground subsequently covered by it was dry land above the reach of the river. After- wards a stream as large as the Mississippi at Lansing, Iowa, flowed through the valley, filling it from bluff to bluff. It drowned the mouths of tributary streams and backed up their valleys for a considerable distance. Thus the layers of sand and gravel w^ere laid; then occurred the deposit of the lime-rock fragments, largest in the strong waters of the main stream and growing smaller where the waters were embayed. Lastly came the rapid recession of the swollen waters. That the deposition of the terrace was at a rapid rate is shown by the burial of the loess fragments in the loose rock without any erosion or disintes'ration. It w^ould seem probable that they were deposited while frozen; otherwise they would surely have been worn away. The flat 206 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. top of the terrace, several rods in width, renders it impos- sible that such fragments dropped off from some over- hanging bank. If we assume that the terrace was depos- ited by the river while at its present size and that it has since cut down its valley leaving the terrace above it, we are at a loss to account for the soil-covered loess immedi- ately under the terrace deposits. It seems evident, there- fore, that the terrace in question was formed by a very brief and great rise in the waters of the Turkey river. PURE FOOD LAWS. C. 0. BATES. The demand for cheap goods and the intense strain pro- duced by commercial competition has induced many deal- ers and manufacturers to adulterate their products. This practice enables them to satisfy the buyer and outwit their competitors, not to speak of the immediate financial advantage. Many and wonderful have been the schemes to cheapen and multiply food and drug products. Some of them have been along the lines of honest scientific investigation and discovery. And their triumphs remain as perpetual monu- ments to such thought and enterprise. It is not to this side of the subject that we wish to give attention in this paper, but to the other side of the subject, viz.: the schemes for cheapening and multiplying food products by fraud and deception. There is no law until there is an infringement of rights. Pure food laws, like the common laws of England, are the outgrowth of the just and righteous demand of an honest, prosperous and progressive people. It is not a " King John '' that they have to contend with, but a more subtile, selfish and powerful " King Mammon . " While the question of Pure Food Laws is in its incipient stage in this country, it should receive the hearty support of every thoughtful IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 207 person. Such laws are based on sound principles, and when properly brought to light, will be sustained by an intelligent public sentiment. It was the dream of Napoleon to obtain food direct from the elements and their ordinary compounds without the aid and intervention of life force, but he did not resort to mixing ground cigar boxes with cinnamon, or pulverized cocoanut shells with pepper in order that each soldier of his army might receive his full weight of rations. A greater army than Napoleon's striving for greater conquests exists on the American continent to-day, viz.: The American people, striving not only to establish good government and individual protection, but also to extend this good government and individual protection to the very food we eat and drink. In order to do this it is necessary that the government call to its aid all the light that sci- ence is able to give; and as chemistry is the most funda- mental and exact of the sciences, to begin with, the work will be largely one of chemical investigation. Among the many subjects that may come before the Academy of Sciences of the State of Iowa, none would be of more interest or of greater value to the public than the investigation first, of food products, and second, their effects on the human system. The wholesale adulteration of food products, is a great evil, injurious alike to the reputable dealer and to the public. A drug is adulterated when it differs in strength, quality of purity, from that laid down in the Pharmacopeia. A food is adulterated: First, if any substance has been mixed with it so as to lower or depreciate or injuriously affect its quality or purity; second, if any inferior substance has been wholly or in part substituted for it; third, if any valuable or necessary ingredients have been abstracted from it; fourth, if it is an imitation, or sold under the name of another article; fifth, if it consists wholly or in part of deceased or decomposed animal or vegetable sub- stance; sixth, if it is colored, coated, polished or powdered, whereby damage or inferiority is concealed, or if by any means it is made to appear better or of greater value than •208 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. it is; seventh, if it contains any added substance or ingre- dients which are poisonous, or injurious, or deleterious to health, or if it contains any deleterious substance not a necessary ingredient in its manufacture. Candies are adulterated with chalk, or baryta, to give them weight; adulterated with flour to give them bulk; and adulterated with analine to give them color, and adul- terated with saccharine to give them sweetness. Strained honey is adulterated by dropping into a half- pound glass jar of glucose, a small piece of highly flavored honey in the comb, with an occasional fragment of the body of the bee. In some instances this might with propriety be called the adulteratiion of glucose instead of the adultera- tion of honey. Syrups are adulterated with glucose and colored with analine colors, soured syrups are neutralized and reboiled, thereby producing compounds that are very deleterious to health. Flavoring extracts, such as lemon and vanilla, are as a usual thing adulterated, containing an exceedingly small amount of the essential reagent, and are colored with coal tar products or caram'l. In some instances there is abso- lutely none of the essential reagents in the so-called extracts. And so on we might mention almost the entire list of the grocer's goods and many of the druggist's stock of goods. Second. As to the effects on the human system, foods may be divided into three classes: First, those that are wholesome; second, those that are questionable; tltird, those that are harmful. The unsuspecting public has a right to be protected from harmful and questionable foods; the public also a right to be protected in the case of adulterations, whether or not they are injurious to health. Greed for gold in America is doing what malice in bar- barous and semi-barbarous countries is doing, viz. : put- ting poison even in the foods we drink. The law lends a helping hand in the case of buiglary and piracy, but is IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 209 slow to declare against the man who robs your food of its nutritious qualities. The man who steals your purse is punished by the law; the man who steals your health is protected by the law; the man who counterfeits your money is imprisoned; the man who counterfeits your food is not molested in his nefarious practice. As Congress- man Cousins has said: "It is about time in this country when it should not be necessary to hold a coroner's inquest or have a chemical analysis before asking a blessing." All the state food laws that have thus far been enacted are of a similar character, and are based on the laws of Massachusetts or upon the laws of Ohio, which are the same as those of Massachusetts made more specific. The National food law proposed and known as the " Brosius Bill," affects only interstate commerce and the territories of the United States. It is similar to the laws of Massa- chusetts, but has been greatly weakened by the insertions that manufacturers have smuggled in. As far as I can ascertain the pure food laws are well in force in some of the states, while in others, aside from the dairy laws, they are a dead-letter. In New York, and Massachusetts, and Indiana, the enforcement of the food laws has been delegated to the the State Board of Health, and not to special commis- sioners whose sole duty is to see that the laws are enforced, and if necessary, prosecute the offenders. The result has been that the State Board of Health in each instance has been exceedingly lax. In Connecticut the Food Commissioner has charge of the enforcement of the laws, the analytical work being done at the State Agricultural Experiment Station, and the result has been that the laws have been well enforced. In Michigan, Ohio, and Wisconsin, the laws have been quite well enforced by a somewhat similar arrangement, but in each instance the battle is fought along one or both of two lines, viz.: First, the definition and application of the words "mixture" or "compounds"; second, proving guilty knowledge on the part of the vendor. 210 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. Ill regard to the first, the law usually permits the sale of mixtures or compounds, provided they are labeled " mix- ture " or " compound," but the end of the law is defeated in some instances. For example, such goods as compound pancake flour, compound syrups, etc., are perfectly legiti- mate articles of food. But when it comes to compounding spices, it is evidently a different matter. The consumer may know, in a sense, what he is getting, but a label that confesses the crime, is evading the law in a bold manner. In regard to guilty knowledge on the part of the vendor of adulterated foods it is difficult to convict. It will be claimed in his behalf that intent is the essence of crime. But if a saloon-keeper unintentionally sells to a minor, still he offends, and may be prosecuted successfully for his offense. It will work no hardship in the long ran to hold the grocer responsible for the purity of his goods. It is suc- cessfully done both in Michigan and Wisconsin. The grocer takes pains to buy his goods from a reliable house under written guarantee, then if he is prosecuted he can fall back on the wholesaler, likewise the wholesaler can fall back on the manufacturer. NOTES ON THE EARLY DEVELOPMENT OF ASTRAG ALUS CARYOCARPUS. F. W. FAUROT. While a student at the University of Nebraska the writer became interested in plant embryology, a subject which has attracted much attention during the past few years, especially since the remarkable work of Stras- iaurger', Guignard', and other European botanists. Many American botanists, however, have since done much work along embryological and cytological lines, viz.: Chamber- lain, Webber, Schaffner, Harper, Coulter, and others. Most of the work that has been done is of a purely tech- nical and botanical character, excepting that done in the PLATE IX. Fig. 1. Young flower in which the pistil is not completely formed. Fig. 2 Very young pistil showing budding of nucellus, n Fig. 3. Young ovule with an arnhisporial cell {a), and showing origin of the integuments {h), dermatogen of nucellus d. Figs. 4-5. '1 here are two archisporial cells, a. Fig. 6 Four archisporial cells, a; shows also decreased amount of nucel- lar tissue, nt, and integuments, b. PLATE X. Fig. 7. The lower archisporium {a) developing into macrospore at the expense of the other three cells, a^ Fig. 8. The macrospore (a) has attained nearly its full size, and only rudiments of the other three cells are present, a,. Fig. 9. A two-celled embryo sac, a. Fig. 10. A four-celled embryo sac (a), the tip of which is now in close relationship to dermatogen, d. Fig 11. An eight celled embryospsac (a), but only two cells of egg appa- ratus {e) are shown. Ihree antipodal cells {at), polar nuclei which have not yet united, pn. Fig. 12. The same as 11, but a little later stage, polar nuclei pn. in process of fusion. Fig. 13. Mature embryo sac ready for fertilization. Egg apparatus e, definutive nucleus dn, antipodals at. Fig. 14. Egg cell undergoing process of fertilization. Kgg nucleus en, pollen nucleus />w, pollen tube//. rig. 15. Fertilized egg e\ endorsperm nucleus end. Fig. 16. Egg cell !uus odoratus). like Cnicus arcensis, are perennial, and propagate by under- ground rhizomes, this being the chief mode of propagation for the Canada thistles in the west.* * Although this species seeds abundantly in the east, seed is seldom produced in the west. Though many hundreds of plants have been e.xamined by the writer west of Lake Michigan, in but a few instances have seed been found. A few were once found near Lincoln Park, and in abundance near Milwaukee, and once in northeastern Iowa. Experiments made as to their germination proved that the seed found in Milwaukee germinated freely. t.Ludwig. Lehrbuch der Biologie der Pflanzen 489. "Anton Kerner von Marilaun. Pflanzenleben, 5S. C. M. Weed. Ten New England Blossoms and Their Insect Visitors. 126. L. H. Pammel. Flower Ecology . 71. Herman MuUer. Fertilization of Flowers, Eng. Trans , Thompson. 340. Charles Robertson. Flowers and Insects. Rosacea? and Composite. Trans. Acad. Sci.. St. Louis, 6: 475. Halsted, B. D. : Observation Upon the Common Thistle. Rep. Dept. of Bot. la. Agrl. Coll 1S»6: 29. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCI CniCHs discolor. /. head; =■, leaf; 3-4, pappus; 3, of outer row of fiowers: 4, inner row of flowers; j, outer bracts; 6, inner bracts; S, flower showing anthers, filaments and style. (Char- lotte M, King.) IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. Cnicus altissimits, /, head; 2, leaf; j. outer bracts; 4, inner bracts: j, flower; c, corolla; b, pappus; (/, anthers; c, stvle; «, achene; b, style and pollen; 7, anthers; S, pollen grain. (Charlotte M. King. ) IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 217 Fip. 10. Trichomes of thistle leaves and bracts. /, from bracts of C. muticus ; 2, leaves of C. discolor; j, leaves of C. lou'ensis : 4, bracts- of C cancscens ; 5, leaves of C. lanceolatus. Protection. — The thistles are admirably protected from herbivorous animals by their spiny leaves and bracts. This is true in a marked degree by such species as C. arven- sis and C. lanceolatiis, in a less degree by ('. ultissinms and C muficus. The involucral bracts are spiny, as in C. /anceolatHS^ somewhat spiny in ('. (i/fi.^siiHHs and C. (n-rcnsls^ with a broad glutinous ridge in C. loivensis, C. discolor and C. Hillii The spiny bracts serve to protect the plant from herbivorous animals and some crawling insects. This glu- tinous ridge not only prevents crawling insects from going into the head, bat many small flying insects, especially 218 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Fig. II. Leaf and bracts of Cnicus loivensis 3, outer bracts showing tiie dorsal glutinous ridge and stout spines; 4, the inner long bracts. Diptera are held fast. The writer has observed ants and several different kinds of Diptera on these glands. Pollination. — Several of the species have been studied in detail. Below^ will be found some of the references. f All of the thistles bear conspicuous heads. The heads are many flowered and very attractive. Each flower con- sists of a long tubular corolla with a spreading limb. The tube is very much contracted. The anthers are united into a tube, the lower portion being usually sagitiate. The pollen grains of all the species are very spiny, and owing to this fact they adhere readily to the insect's body. The filaments are frequently hairy, or in some cases somewhat pilose. The flowers are strongly proterandi'ous. In the first stage a large quantity of pollen is pushed out by the style through the opening of the anthers. This is accom- plished by the small brush hairs which occur at the joint on the style. In some few cases, however, these hairs are very much reduced. These hairs not only help to push the pollen out, but it prevents it from falling to the bot- tom of the corolla tube. The stamens, especially in C. lowensis and C. (tlfissiutHs and ('. discolar are sensitive. By placing a brush or a lead pencil on the anthers they :10\VA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. Cnictts loivensis VAX. Crattyi. /.head; 2, leaf ; j, outer bracts; 4, inner bracts; 5, leaf, b'< pappus; 7, achene. (Charlotte M. King. ) IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. Ciiicus undulatus. /, head; 2, leaf; j, outer bracts; ^, inner bracts; j.achene and pappus; 6, flower with stamens; c, style; b, corolla. (Charlotte M. King.) IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 219 will be seen to move from one side and back in an irregu- lar manner. A contraction of the filaments takes place; and it is this contraction that causes the pollen to be pushed out. This motion takes place when the insect :seeks the nectar which is secreted by a ring surrounding Fig. 12. Pollination of thistle. a. The outer glandular bract; a>, dorsal glutinous ridge flower with the anthers in the process of lengthening out. i, flowers in the male stage before opening. <% flower fully mature with the pollen pushed out and the spreading lobes of the corolla. eutschl. Fl. 1: pt. 2. 130. 1804. 2 Ed. Pursh. Fl. Am. Sept 2: 506. 1814. A. Gray. Syn. Fl. N. Am. 1 : 398. 1884. Watson & Coulter. Gray's Man. 296. 1890. 6 Ed. Cirsium arvense, Scop. Fl. Carn, 2: 126. 1772. 2 Ed. DeCandolle. Prodr. 6: 643. 1837. Torrey & Gray. Fl. N. Am. 2: 460. 1848. Gray Man. 274. 1868. 5 Ed. Serratula arvensis, L. Sp. PI. 820. 1753. Carduus arvensis, Robs. Brit. Fl. 163. 1777. Britton & Brown Illust. Fl. N. St. H: 489. /: 4:{y71. 1898. Smooth perennial, spreading by creeping root-stocks, one to three feet high, corymbosely branched at the top; stem smooth; leaves lan- ceolate, sessile, and deeply pinnatitid, lobes and margins of leaf with spinv teeth; heads small, three-fourths to an inch high, bracts appressed, the outer with a broad base, inner narrow, all with an acute tip, never spiny, somewhat arachnoid; flowers purple, dioe- IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 227 cious, in staminate plant flowers exserted with abortive pistils, in pistillate less so, scarcely exceeding the bracts stamens with abortive anthers, tubes of the corolla six lines long, anther tips acute, fila- ments minutely pubescent, young achenium pubescent, all of the bristles of the pappus plumose. Distribution, Iowa. — Houston County, Minnesota, Minne- sota and Iowa line, L. H. Pammel, No. 581, I. S. C. Bed- ford, A. Ct. Lucas. Ames, E. R. Hodson. Lawler, P. H. Rolfs. Near Tama City, C. E. Arnold. Decatur and John- son Counties, T. J. and M. F. L. Fitzpatrick. Johnson County, Emma G. Linder. Moscow and Muscatine, Ferd. Reppert. Keokuk, Lee county; Cedar Rapids, Linn County, and Johnson county, Shimek. REFERENCES TO OCCURRENCE IN THE STATE. Arthur, Contr. Fl. la. 1: 20; Bessey, Contr. Fl. la. 109; Hitchcock, Cat. Anth. and Pterid. Ames. 505; Fink, Sperm. Fl. Fayette. la. 94; Fitzpatrick, Fl. So. la. 152; Man of Fl. PI. la. 95; Nagel and Haupt. Phaen. of Daven- port. 159; Pammel, Weed Pests. la. Agrl. Exp. Sta. 13: 73;— Weeds of Cornfields. 44, 2 f.\ Barnes, Reppert, and Mil- ler, Fl. Scott and Muscatine Counties. 234; Halsted, Prel. List of la. Weeds. 42. CNICUS MUTICUS, Pursh. Cnicus muticus Pursh. Fl. Am. Sept. 506. 1814. Ell. Sk. 2: 268. 1824. Gray. Proc. Am. Acad. 10: B9. 1874. Gray. Syn. Fl. N. Am. 1: 405. 1884. Watson & Coulter. Gray's Man. 296. 1890. 6 Ed. Cnicus glutinosus, Bigel. Fl. Bost. 291. 1824. 2 Ed. Cirsium muticum, Michx. Fl. Bor. Am. 2: 89. 1803. DeCandolle. Prodr. 6: 652. 1837. Torrey and Gray. Fl. N. Am. 2: 458. 1843. Gray. Man. 1868. 274. 5 Ed. Cirsium bigelovii, D.C. Prodr. 6: 652. 1837. Carduus muticus, Pers. Syn. 2: 386. 1807. Britton & Brown. Illust. Fl. N. St. 3: 489. /. 4010 1898. 228 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. Tall braDching perennial, three to eight feet high, stem striate, smooth with age, few leaved, branches bearing few medium-sized heads with purple flowers; leaves deeply pinnatifid, divisions lanceo- late, the principal lobes somewhat spiny, upper surface slightly roughened, lower decidedly arachnoid, woolly when young, less so with age; heads one to one-fourih inches high, scales of the invo- lucre closely appressed, cobwebby, outer with a broad base and a glutinous line on back, inner long acuminate, appendage with ser- rated margins, flowers purple, tube seven and one-half lines long, lobes three lines long, anthers with acute tips, appendage pubes- cent, filaments hairy, bristles of pappus of outer flowers barbellate, inner plumose, achenes one and three-fourths lines long, smooth. Distribution, /om;^.— Mason City, Forest City, Winne- bago county, Shimek. S. U. I, REFERENCE TO OCCURRENCE IN THE STATE. Arthur, Contr. Fl. la. 1: 20. CNICUS DISCOLOR, Muhl. Cnicus discolor. Muhl. Willd. Sp. 3:1670. 1804. Ell. Sk. 2: 271. C. altissimus, var. discolor. Gray. Proc. Am. Acad. 1 : 40. 1884. Watson & Coulter. Gray's Man. 296. 1890. 6 Ed. Cirsium discolor, Spreng. Syst. 3: 373. 1826. DeCandolle. Prodr. 6: 640. 1837. Torrey & Gray. Fl. N. Am. 2: 457. 1843. Gray. Man. 273 1868. 5 Ed. Carduus discolor, Nutt. Gen. 2: 130. 1818. Britton & Brown. Illustr. Fl. N. St. 3: 485. /. 4060. 1898. Serratula discolor, Poir. Diet. Enc. 6: 565. Tall, branching, leafy perennial, Ave to seven feet high, with heads larger than C. altissimus, stem striate, slightly hirsute; leaves radical, twelve to fourteen inches long, dneply pinnatitid, the divisions frequently divided, prickly toothed, the upper surface slightly hirsute, the lower woolly, stem leaves deeply pinnatifid, linear or linear-lanceolate with falcate segments, ihe larger twice or thrice cut, tipped with prickly spines, upper surface smoothish, the lower white, woolly; single heads terminating the branches, with purple flowers; heads one and one-half inches high; bracts of the globose involucre somewhat appressed, slightly arachnoid. X .,/>.■ IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIKNCES. 229 lower bracts ovate with a broad base and a weak pricklj recurved bristle, slight dorsal gland, inner linear lanceolate with a nearly colorless entire appendage; flowers purple, tube of the corolla nearly eleven to twelve lines long, lobes of the corolla terminating in clavate tips, anther tips acme, filaments pubescent; bristles of pappus plumose; achenium twenty-two lines long, smooth, upper part yellow. The species is certainly fairly constant and may usually be readily separated from typical C. altissimus and C. lotvensis. In the character of its head it approaches C. loumisis, but the more numerous segments of the smaller leaves separates it from that species. It is certainly markedly different from C. altissimus. Frequent along roadsides and in timber. Distribution . — Ames, Pammel & Combs. No. 68; Fred Rolfs. Keokuk, P. H. Rolfs. Johnson County, Oct., 1893, T. J. & M. F. L. Fitzpatrick. Muscatine, Iowa, Ferd. Rep- pert. Winnebago County, B. Shimek, S. U. I. Skunk River Valley, Lee County, Paul Bartsch. Muscatine County, Reppert, 435. Mr. Reppert reports a w^hite-flowered form along the Cedar river. REFERENCES TO OCCURRENCE IN IOWA. Arthur, Contr. Fl. la. 1: 20; Barnes, Reppert, and Miller, Fl. Scott and Muscatine Cos. 234. Hitchcock Cat. Anth. and Pterid. Ames, 505. Pammel Notes on the Fl. West la. 125. Weeds of Cornfields. 39: 42. 2f. Halsted Prel. List of Iowa Weeds. 42; Fink, Sperm. FL Fayette la. 94; Fitzpatrick, Fl. S. la. 152; Man. Fl. PI. la. 95. CNICUS ALTISSIMUS, Willd. Cnicus altissimus, Willd. Sp. ^i: 1671. Ellis. Sk. 2:268. 1824. Gray. Proc. Am. Acad. 10: 42. 1874. Gray. Syn. Fl. N. Am. 1 : 404. 1884. Watson & Coulter. Gray's Man. 296. 1890. 6 Ed. Cirsium altissimum, Spreng. Syst. 3: 373. 1826. DeCandolle. Prodr. 6: 640. 1837. 230 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. Gray. Man. 68. 5 Ed. Carduus altissimus, L. Sp. PL 824. 1753. — Britton & Brown Illustr. Fl. N. St. 3: 485. /: 4059. 1898. Tall, widely branched, biennial, five to ten feet high, stems hairy when young, becoming smoothish or with a few scattered bristles when old, rather small heads terminating the branchlets; leave«^, radi- cal— a foot or more long, ovate or oblong, nearly entire or spinulose, the upper with a few prominent or spinulose teeth or somewhat pin- natitid. upper surface slightly rough, and lower woolly; arachnoid heads one and one-fourth to one and one-half inches high; bracts of the involucre arachnoid when young, the outer with a broad base and a black gland running down the back, tipped with a weak spreading bristle, inner bracts much longer than the outer, termina- ting in a colorless recurved triangular tip with a serrated margin, tube of the corolla eight to nine lines long, filaments pubescent, anther tips acute, anchenium smooth, two and one-fourth lines long, bristles of pappus all plumose. This species is at once distinguished from C. Ioivent;is Sind C. discolor by its much smaller heads, less deeply pinnatifid leaves, and the smaller number of. branches. It is the tallest of all our thistles, and always grows in forests or on the border of woods. It extends to the Mississippi and some of the immediate tributaries. It rarely occurs in the interior of the state. Common in the eastern states, extending southwest to Missouri and Arkansas, in the tim- bered regions of the Mississippi Valley. Distribution. — Clinton, Lyons, No. 66, L. H. Pammel. Dubuque, Iowa, L. H. Pammel. Jasper County, H. W. Norris. The following specimens examined by me are typical: Iowa — Johnson County, Decatur County, T. J. & M. F, L. Fitzpatrick. Muscatine County, Ferd. Reppert. Ames, Hitchcock. Clalva, F. R. S. khy] S. U. I. Iowa City, T. H. Macbride. Johnson County, B. Shimek. REFERENCES TO OCCURRENCE IN IOWA. Arthur, Contr. Fl. Ta. 1: 20. Bessey, Contr. la. Fl. 109. Nagel & Haupt, Phaeu. of Davenport 159. Barnes, Rep- pert, and Miller, Fl. Scott and Muscatine Counties 234; Halsted, Prel. List la. Weeds 4*J; First Blooming of Spring IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCKS. 231 PI. 52; Fink, Sperm. Fl. Fayette la. 94; Fitzpatrick, Fl. N. E. la. 121. Fl. of S. la. 152.— Man. Fl. PI. la. 95. CNICUS lOWENSIS, Pammel n. sp. Plants three to four feet high, bearing large heads with purple flowers; stem striate, hirsute or nearly glabrous, roughened; leaves, the upper lanceolate with prominent spinose teeth shallowly lobed or occasionally deeply lobed, the lower lobes prominent, upper sur- face rough with a few spreading hairs, lower surface floccose, woolly; heads large, one and three fourths to two inches high: invo- lucre somewhat arachnoid, outer scale ovate with a weak spread- ing bristle, and a prominent glutinous dorsal ridge, the inner long, linear lanceolate with an erose appendage; flowers purple, corolla tube eleven lines long, lobes with clavate tips, anther tips acute, filaments with shaggy hairs, bristles of pappus plumose, achenium smooth, upper part yellow, striate, two and one-fourth lines long. Type No. 65 (I. S. C. Distr.) Ledges Boone County. Iowa. Pam- mel. Type specimens in Herbarium I. S. C. Gray Herbarium and Missouri Botanical Garden. Kossuth Co., 606. Pammel. Ontario (E. R. Hodson). DistrihuiioH, loiva. — Ledges, Boone Co., 65, Pammel and Ball (not C. altissimus). Ames, 694, Pammel. Eagle Grove, Pammel. Spirit Lake, Little Rock, C. R. Ball. Ontario, E. R. Hodson. Kossuth Co., 606 1. S. C, Pammel. Emmet Co., R. L Cratty. Rock Creek Twp., Jasper Co., H. W. Norris. Decatur Co., T. J. & M. F. L. Fitzpatrick. Atlantic, Wagner, S. U. 1. Iowa City, Lindner. Granite, Lyons Co., B. Shimek. Council Bluffs, Dubai and Cavanagli, S. U. 1. Coll. Logan Twp., Calhoun Co., G. B. Rigg. Armstrong, Emmet Co., B. Shimek. Kansas. — Manhattan, (Coll. '?). South DaA'ofr^— Opposite Hawarden, Iowa, Pammel. REFERENCE TO OCCURRENCE IN IOWA. Hitchcock, Cat. Anth. & Pterid. Ames, 505; under C. altis- simus. Cnicus lowensis variety Crattijii. Pammel n. v. The variety differs from the type in the fact that the leaves are usually less deeply cut. The heads are smaller, and the stem, as well as the leaves, more or less canescently tomentose. Mamed in honor of R. I. Cratty, who has carefully studied the flora of Iowa for many years. 282 IOWA ACADKMY OF SCIENCES. Distribution. — Emmet County. (Herb. S. U. I.) Little Rock, Spirit Lake, C. R. Ball. CNICUS UNDULATUS, A. Gray. Cnicus undulatus, A. Gray. Proc. Am. Acad. 10: 42. 1874. . A. Gray. Syn. Fl. N. Am. 1 : 403. 1884. Cirsium undulatum, Spreng. Syst. Veg. 3: 374. . DeCandolle, Prodr. 6: 651. 1887. . Torrey & Gray, Fl. N. Am. 2: 456. 1843. . Gray Man. 273. 1868. 5 Ed. Carduus undulatus, Nutt. Gen. 2: 130. 1818. . Greene. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. 1892: 359. . Britton & Brown. Illustr. Fl. N. St. 3: 486. / 4063. 1898. Low biennial two to four feet high, white woolly, branches bear- ing a single head with purple flowers; stem striate, white woolly, or somewhat glabrate below; leaves, the lower eight inches to a foot or more long, undulate, lobed or pinnatitid, with prickly den- tate lobes, upper surface at first arachnoid later smoothish; lower densely canescent with prominent veins connecting with spinescent tips, upper sessile, lanceolate or oblong-lanceolate, deeply pinnati- fid, to spinescently lobed; heads one and three-fourths to two inches high, flowers purple; bracts of the involucre appressed, arachnoid, outer ovate to lanceolate with a rather weak prickle and a thick glu- tinous ridge on back, inner bracts long, lanceolate acuminate, straw colored and serrate, flowers purple, corolla tube ten lines long, the corolla lobes four lines long, tips clarate, anther tips strongly acute, filaments pubescent; achenium smooth, pappus of outer flowers merely barbellate, the inner plumose. This is an extremely variable species. Its distribution is said to be from Lake Huron, calcareous islands to the Northwest territory and to British Columbia and Oregon. The species is certainly not common east of the Missouri. In company with Mr. Cratty the writer found what undoubtedly should be referred to his species in Kossuth County. No. 607 (I. S. C). This is not typical for the species, but in its habit of growth and character of leaves more nearly approaches this than C. canescens. It is certainly not C. altissimus wOsY filipendnlus. ^■y r^ii IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 233 This species is common in Nebraska and Colorado, but in western Nebraska, Kansas and Colorado the species has a tendency to vary into the var. inegacepltdlus. Distribution. — Kossuth County, Pammel, 607 I. S. C. Also reported from Muscatine County. REFERENCE TO OCCURRENCE IN IOWA. Barnes, Miller, and Keppert, Fl. Scott and Muscatine Counties. 234. CNICUS UNDULATUS,VAR. MEGACEPHALUS, A. Gray. C. undiilatus var. meqacephalus. A. Gray. Proc. Am. Acad. 10: 42. 1874. . Syn. Fl. N. Am. 1 : 403. 1884. Carduus undidattis megacepJialus. (A. Gray.) Porter Mem. Tor. Bot. Club 5: 345. 1894. Britton «fe Brown, Illustr. Fl. N. St. 3: 486. 1898. Branches bearing single large heads with purple flowers two to two and one-half inches high, involucre more or less strongly appressed, scales with a prominent glutinous ridge, achenium four lines long, striate. Distribution, Iowa. — Boone, introduced, G. W. Garver. CNICUS CANESCENS, Pammel n. c. Cnicus undulatus var. canescens. Gray. Proc. Am. Acad. 10:42. 1874. . Gray. Syn. Fl. N. Am. 1 : 403. 1884. Cirsium canescens. Nutt. Trans. Am. Phil. Soc. 7: 420. . Torrey & Gray. Fl. N. Am. 2: 461. 1843. Branching perennial two to four feet high, woolly throughout, branches bearing single medium-sized ht^ads. stem angled, white woolly; leaves, radical eight inches to a foot long, the divisions usually two-lobed, prominently ribbed, ending in f-tout spines; stem leaves, except the lower, one to four inches long, pinnatifid, the upper sessile, slightly undulate with numerous sharp bristles, the upper surface slightly roughened, and a slight cottony down, the lower white woolly; heads one one-half to two inches high, bracts of the involucre somewhat arachnoid, lower scales with a broad base, glutinous ridge, and ending in a minutely serrated spine, inner scales long attenuated, tips straw-colored; flowers purple. 234 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. corolla tube ten cue-half lines long, anther with very acute tips, achenium one and one-half lines long, pappus plumose. A specimen in the Engelmann Herbarium as well as several in the Gray Herbarium, are ticketed Cirslum canes- cens. In the Gray Herbarium is a specimen ticketed Cirslum iindfdafum B, Torrey and Gray. Flora of North America, (2: 456), collected by Mr. Charles A. Geyer, in August, 1839, and labeled "Fertile prairies, near Devil's Lake, the only specimen found; please return it to Mr. Nicollet after examination." There is a note by Dr. Gray: "Not improbably our C. iindulatum var. ^." Dr. Gray, in his revision of the genus Chiicus for the Synoptical Flora of North America (' : 403) says: Var. canescens, Gray, is merely a form with smaller heads, sometimes not over an inch high, leaves varying from ciliately-spinulose dentate to deeply pinnatitid. Cirsium canescens and C. brevifolium, Nutt. Trans. Am. Phil. Soc. 7: 421— Minnesota to Mexico and S. Utah. Another specimen is ticketed ''Cirsium hookerianinn sas- katchawan, collected by Bourgeau, in 1858, in Palliser, Brit. N. A. Exp." Another specimen of the Rocky Mountains, by Burt, in 1849; this was referred by Dr. Gray to C. undu- latus in the Syn. Fl. N. A. ( 1 : 403). One specimen each in the Gray and Engelmann Herbarium, is ticked " C. canes- cans, Nutt. Collected by Dr. Hay den on the Upper Platte." This in the Gray Herbarium is placed under the variety canescens by Dr. Gray. Rydberg correctly consid- ered it as distinct, and referred his form to Cardmis plat- tensis spinosior; this specimen is clearly a form of Ryd- berg's C. plat fens is. The Fendler specimen, No. 73, collected near Fort Kearney, also belongs here. This species seems to be quite common in the Sand Hill region of Nebraska. This species and the Cuicits Nelson i are closely allied to Cnicus Pitcheri. In the Gray Herbarium is a specimen marked ""Cnicus a/tissintus, Willd. var. _/77/■yJf«f/?///^s•, Gray. Sandbars of Mis- souri river. Sioux City, Iowa, Hitchcock," Dr. Sereno Watson having referred our Iowa material to the variety IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 235 'C.filipendiilus, Prof. A. S. Hitchcock has a note in Botan- nical Gazette referring to the distribution of this species, supposing it to be southern. The C. JUipendulus {Cirsiiim filipendulum, Engehiiann), I believe is a good species. It is marked by its tuberous roots and deeply pinnatifid and spiny leaves. This species more nearly approaches C. discolor. It is not canescently tomentose as C. canesceiis. Distrihnflon. — I would refer the following to C. canes- cens, No. 67, Sioux City, Pammel; northwest Iowa, Sept., '95, Pammel; Sioux City, Hitchcock; Sioux City, Pammel; Armstrong, Emmet County, Cratty; Montana, John Craig. The w^riter has seen this abundantly in the vicinity of Sheridan, Wyoming. It is the only one of our native species that occurs in patches. It is undoubtedly perennial; specimens in our herbarium from Montana by Professor Craig, show it to come from a deep seated root; and likewise, in the Gray herbarium. The writer has received the species quite fre- quently during the past four years from northwest Iowa, in which this opinion was expressed by those sending it. REFERENCES TO OCCURRENCE IN IOWA. Hitchcock, Notes on the Fl. of la. Bot. Gazette. U: 129. Pammel as C. nndulatus and C. altissimus \?iV. filipendulus in Notes on the Fl. of West Iowa. 124. CNICUS NELSONI n. sp., Pammel. A branching biennial, plants from two to three feet high, some- what hairy, bearing numerous ochroleucus heads, which terminate the branches. Stem, prominently striated, white woolly at tirst, becoming smoothish with age. Leaves radical, five to six inches long, deeply pinnatifid, the prominent lobes with yellow spines, lower surface densely tomentose, upper woolly, becoming glabrate with age. The stem leaves sessile and decurrent, the upper two to six inches long, with prominent spiny lobes. The spine is yel- lowish. Leaves more or less canescently tomentose, upper surface arachnoid, woolly, becoming smoothish with age. Heads, one to one and a fourth inches high, rarely one and a half. Involucre somewhat turbinate. The bracts with a prominent glutinous ridge tipped with a yellow spine, outer bracts ovate-lanceolate, inner .long acuminate and straw colored, tips minutely serrated. Flowers 23b IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. ochroieucus, tubes of the corolla eight and one-fourth to one-half lines long, lobes three and a half lines long, strongly clavate, anther tips acute, bases sagittate, filaments hairy. Achenium light brown throughout, with dark longitudinal stria?. Pappus of outer flowers merely barbellate, inner plumose with strongly clavate tips. Type No. 8093, L-iramie, Wyoming, Nelson. Laramie,. Wyoming, No. 871, from similar locality, should also be referred to it, although the latter number approaches C. plaffpHsifi-spinotiior, except with reference to the size of heads, which in C. plafff^Hsis-spitiosio/- are somewhat larger. Professor Nelson's 8093 is taller and much less canescently tomentose with age. The species is named in honor of Prof. Aven Nelson, who has done so much for the botany of Wyoming. Cnicus Hum, Can by. Cnicus HilUi, Canby Gard. and Forest. 4: 101. 1891. C. odoratus, Muhl. C. odoratus, Muhl. Cat. 1 Ed.,. Hitchcock Cat. Anth. & Pter. of Ames. 505. Cardaus Hi/lii, Canby. Porter. Bull. Torr. Bot. Club 5: 344. 1894. . Britton & Brown Illustr. Fl. N. St. H: 488.. /• WGSAS'dS. Low, sparingly branched perennial; root fusiform, tuberou.«, eight to twelve inches long; one to two feet high, with purple flowers; stem woolly, the branches bearing single heads; radical leaves, Fig. 15. Cnicus Hillii. variable, long; stem leaves, lower sp^iulate. oblong, with spinulose margins to the point of attachment, upper sessileand clasping, usually pinnatifid, lobes broad and rounded, acute or obtuse, with spinulose teeth and stout bristles, leaves slightly hairy on lower surface, upper smoothish; heads two one-half inches high, outer bracts of the involucre ovate lanceolate with a prominent dorsal glutinous ridge,. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 237 tipped with a soft bristle, inner long acuminate, narrow lanceolate ending withanerose appendage. Distribution, Iowa. — Ames, Ball, Combs. Gilbert Sta- tion, G. W. Carver. Ontario, E. R. Hodson. Dubuque, L. H. Pammel. Muscatine, Ferd. Reppert. Ames, Hitchcock, S. U. I. Mason City, B. Shimek. Des Moines, Pammel. North English, W. D. Fitz water. The specimens collected by A. S. Hitchcock at Ames have large heads and large flow^ers with the scarious erose bracts and acuminate anther tips. The basal outer bracts are very large. And in its genaral characters resembles specimens collected by Mead in Hlinois and Westchester, Darlington and Trelease at Ithaca, N. Y., and by Engel- mann in the American bottoms opposite St. Louis. After an examination of a considerable amount of material I find that there is a great deal of morpho- logical variability in Cniciis Hillii and C. odoratvs. The Cnicus Hillii seems to be quite variable, which is evidenced by the careful drawings of Messrs. Barnes, Reppert, and Miller. But in their figures the inner bracts are simply long acuminate. All the Muscatine specimens that I have examined reveal the fact that the inner bracts are not only long acuminate, but are erose; this seems to be true of all the specimens of this species which I have exam- ined. It is a good character. A specimen collected by William Boot in Cambridge, Mass., and preserved in the Gray Herbarium, is typical of C. odoraiiis; this has the appendages long acuminate, but not erose. It is possible, of course, that the C. odoratus may reach the state of Iowa, but it is doubtful. It seems to be an Atlantic coast species. REFERENCE TO OCCURRENCE IN IOWA. Arthur, Contr. Fl. la. 1 : 20. Hitchcock as Cnicus odor- atus, Muhl, Cat. Ant. & Pter., Ames. Barnes, Reppert, and Miller, Fl. Scott and Muscatine Cos. 234, 281, pi. 1-2. Halsled, Prel. List la. Weeds 42. Fitzpatrick, Man. Fl. PI. la. 95. 238 IOWA ACADEMY OF SC1EN(^ES. CNICUS LANCEOLATUS, Willd. Cnicus koiceo/atus, Willd. Prodr. Fl. Berol. 259. 1787. . A. Gray. Syn. Fl. N. Am. 1 : 39S. 1SS4. . Watson & Coulter. Gray's Man. 295. 6 Ed. 1890. Cirsium lanceolafiuH, Scop. Fl. Car. 2. 130. 1770. 2 Ed. . DeCandolle. Prodr. 6: 636. 1837. . Torrey & Gray. Fl. N. Am. 2: 456. 1848. . Gray. Man. 1868. 5 Ed. Carduus lanceolatus. Linn. Sp. PI. 821. 1753. . Britton and Brown. Illustr. Fl. N. S. H: 485. ./: 4058. 1898. Branching biennial, three to four feet high, tomentose whea young, becoming dark green and villous or hirsute with age, branchlets bearing large heads; leaves lanceolate, decurrent on the stem with prickly wings deeply pinnatifid, the lobes with rigid prickly points, upper face roughened with short hairs, lower face with a cottony toraentum; heads one and three-quartei-s to two inches high, bracts of the involucre lanceolate, rigid when young, more flexible with age. long attenuated prickly pointed spreading tips, arachnoid woolly; flowers huroiaphrodite, tube of the corolla ten lines long, anther tips acute, filaments pubescent, achenes smooth one and a half lines long, pappus of numerous plumose bristles. Distribution, loira. — Troublesome weed in pastures and along roadsides in all parts of the state, most abundant in clearings. Ames, Emma Sirrine, No. 232; Fred Rolfs. Glendon, 0. P. Miller. Keokuk, P. H. Rolfs. Des Moines, L. H. Pammel. Johnson County, Van Buren County, Decatur County, Appanoose County, T. J. & M. F. L. Fitzpat- rick. Muscatine Iowa, Ferd. Reppert. Skunk River Valley, Lee County, Bartsch. Johnson County, B. Shimek. Ames, P. H. Rolfs. Grand Junction, H. Johnson, Guthrie County, H. Johnson. REFERENCES TO OCCURRENCE IN IOWA. Arthur, Contr. Fl. la. 3; 259; Bessey, Contr. Fl. la. 109r Hitchcock, Cat. Anth. Pterid. Ames, 504; Barnes, Reppert, and Miller, Fl. Scott and Muscatine Cos. 234; Fink, Sperm, of Fayette, la. 94; Nagel & Haupt, Phaen. of Davenport, IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 239 159; Pammel, Weed Pests, Bull. la. Agrl. Exp. Sta. 13: 72; Notes on Some Intr., PI. 114; Some Obnoxious Weeds, 445, p/ 5; Weeds of Cornfields 41, 2 f.; Halsted, Prel. List la. Weeds. 42; Fitzpatrick, Fl. N. E. la. 120. BIBLIOGRAPHY PERTAINING TO IOWA SPECIES. Arthur J. C. Contributions to the Flora of Iowa. A catalog of the Pbanrogamaus plants. 1: 43, 1876, Charles City. . Contributions to the Flora of Iowa. 3: 258-261. Proc. ? Davenport Acad, of Nat. Sci. 258-261. Barnes W\ D., Reppert Ferd, Miller A. A.. The Flora of Scott and Mus- catine Counties. Proc. Davenport Acad. Nat. Sci. 8: 199- 287. PL 1-2. 1900. Separate. Bessey C. E., Contributions to the Flora of Iowa. Biennial Report Agrl. Coll. & Farm. 4: 90-127. 1872. Fink Bruce, Spermaphyta of the Flora of Fayette. la. Proc. la. Acad. Sci. 4: 81-107. Fitzpatrick T. J., Notes on the Flora of Northeastern Iowa. Proc. la. Acad. Sci. 5: 107-183. . T. J. &M. F. L., Flora of Southwestern Iowa. Proc. la. Acad of Sci. 5: 134-173. Halsted Byron D., Preliminary List of Iowa Weeds, Bull. Dept. of Bot. Agrl. Coll. 1888:36-54. 1888. . Time of First Blooming of Spring Plants, Bull. Dept. of Bot. la. Agrl. Coll. 1886:48 62. 1886. Nagel J. J. «& Haupt J. G., List of Phajnogamous Plants collected in the Vicinity of Davenport, Iowa. Proc. Davenport Acad. of Sci. 1: 153. Hitchcock A. S., Catalogue Anthophyta and Pteridophyta of Ames, Iowa. Trans. Acad. Sci. St. Louis. 5: 477-532. Pammel L. H. Notes on the Flora of Western Iowa. Proc. la. Acad, of Sci., 3: 106-135. Contr. Bot. Dept. I. S. C. of Agrl. & Mch. Arts. 1. . Weeds of Cornfields. Bull. Agrl. Exp. Sta. I. S. C, Agrl. & Mech. Arts. 39. 22 f. . Notes on Some Introduced Plants of Iowa. Proc. la. Acad, of Sci. 4:110-118. Con. Bot. Dept. I. S. C. A. Mech. & Arts. 4: 1897. . Weed Pests. Bull. la. Agrl. Exp. Sta. 13: 72. . Some obnoxious weeds of Iowa. Rep. la. State Agl. Soc. 436—450. 4 pi. I. f. 240 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. BACTERIOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION OF THE IOWA STATE COLLEGE SEWAGE. L. R. WALKER. INTRODUCTION. As an introduction to the consideration of the Iowa State College sewage, the kinds of sewage, the necessity of disposal, and several of the most important methods with their merits and disadvantages will be discussed. It has been my object in the following paper to bring together the data obtained from the bacteriological analysis of the college sewage, including daily samples from the effluent and weekly samples from the manhole and tank. Together with this data are given the daily temperatures of the air and of the sewage, at the time of taking samples; also, the soil temperatures, which were taken once a week. Besides this data it has seemed desirable to give the methods employed in the determination of the number of bacteria per cubic centimeter of the sewage. And lastly, a partial interpretation of the results obtained, has been attempted, special attention having been given to the percentage of gas producers present in the manhole, tank, and effluent, and to the fluctuations, during the different days and seasons, of the number of bacteria per cubic centimeter in the samples from the manhole, tank, and effluent. The determination of the species of bacteria present in the sewage has not been attempted, only incidentally. From a sanitary point of view there is no question of more vital importance than the proper disposal of sewage. The lack of such disposal brings a multitude of evils, IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 241 which often culminate in prolonged illness, or even death; not only is waste of all kinds a menace to the public health, but it is also a repulsive sight to the aesthetic tastes of any civilized community. This last factor alone would make sewage disposal a question of considerable importance, as the value of property depends to a consid- erable extent upon its attractiveness, and anything which takes away from its good appearance deducts from its market value. The question of sewage disposal is coming to be recog- nized by the officers of the state boards of health in the various states. Perhaps, as leaders in this movement, may be mentioned Massachusetts, Connecticut and Maryland. The State Board of Health of Iowa (14), in its annual report for 1899, called especial attention to the almost utter lack of adequate means of sewage disposal in the small towns and cities of the state, and urges that some action be taken toward securing proper sewage disposal. In considering the question of sewage disposal it may be w^ell to define what is meant by sewage. Sewage, accord- ing to Barwise (3), comes from the Anglo-Saxon word seon, which means to flow down and includes the liquid contents of a sewer. Rafter and Baker (5), however, give sewage as including not only the combined water and waste matters flowing in sewers, but the mixed solids and liquid matter. This latter, it seems, is a better definition as it includes the solid excreta as well as the matter in solution. The kinds of sewage will necessarily vary with the im- posed conditions. The most common may well be termed domestic sewage, which contains kitchen slops and all the common refuse of ordinary dwellings. Factory sewage is more complex in most cases, depending, of course, upon the particular kind of factory under consideration. Pack- ing house sewage would hardly come in this category, yet it plays a very important part in sewage disposal on ac- count of its peculiar constituents. Surface sewage, if such it may be called, is composed chiefly of water, and the washings from the streets, alleys, etc. City sewage being 16 242 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. essentially a compound of all the above mentioned, with the addition of others not enumerated, make it very com- plex and hard to deal with, as the plan adopted must needs be one which takes into account all its peculiarities and treats it accordingly. After what has been written on the subject of the necessity of sewage disposal it seems almost needless to try to add anything new. Yet it may be of interest to make a brief review of the already published facts. That sewage is a source of contamination and disease has long been established, many cases of typhoid fever have been directly traced to the lack of proper sewage disposal or the contamination of drinking water with sewage. Barwise records an outbreak of typhoid fever at Wesleyan Univer- sity, Middletown, Conn., in which there is indisputable evidence that it was due to the eating of oysters which had been grown in water contaminated with sew^age. He also reports an interesting case of sewage contamination of the water supply at Tees. Bacillus typJiosHs is not the only pathogenic germ found in sewage as numerous experiments have shown, that Bacillus aidhyacis, (1) (the Bacteridie da charbon, of the French) not only lives in w^ater but that it maintains its vitality for some time is well know. The spirillum of Asiatic cholera has been known to retain its vitality in the domestic water supply of Berlin from 267 to 382 days. (15). The Bacillus coli-communis and Bacillus cloacea' while strictly speaking are not pathogenic are always to be regarded with suspicion when they occur in water as they frequently do. (5). Many disease germs may live in sewage for a short time and be propagated there. Thus it can be readily seen that polluted water is a possible source for almost any bacteriological disease. It is a fact of common observation that sewage pollution of streams is detrimental to the fish it contains, and indeed cases are recorded where the entire fish life of a stream for a given distance has been destroyed by sewage pollution. A case of this kind happened in our own state a few years ago at Marshalltown. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 243 If no diseases were produced by unpurified sewage, the stench arising from it would be sufficient reason for urging its purification. In this connection it may be well to state that Dr. L. P. Kinnicutt, (15) of Polytechnic, Boston, in a paper, "Sewer Air and Mistaken Ideas Regarding It," main- tains with a considerable force of reason that it is not as harmful as commonly believed, but even this does not do away with the fact that it is decidedly disagreeable. Now that we have noticed some of the reasons for sew- age purification it may be well to investigate some of the various means by which it may be accomplished. In a short paper it is impossible to go into details of all the various systems or indeed to even consider them all. So this paper will be confined to the treatment of the follow- ing systems: Natural dilution, sewage farming, chemical precipitation, filtration both continuous and intermittent, the septic tank, and the combination of several of these systems into combined systems. The natural dilution of sewage can hardly be called a system, and yet it is the only means employed in the vast majority of cases. It is nothing more or less than the allow- ing of sewage to flow into the natural waterways, seas, etc. In this way the concentrated sewage becomes diluted (hence the derivation of the name applied) and nature does the rest. If it were not for the fact that the majority of towns and cities draw their water supply from the rivers on which they are situated, in some few cases it might do very well. A great many factors must be considered in determining the effectiveness of natural dilution, among which the most important are the rapidity of the stream and the volume of water that it carries. As all the rivers in Iowa are relatively small and unimportant this method cannot be considered as sufficient in itself in this state. The system of sewage farming has been employed quite extensively in various places, but is not commonly consid- ered as a success. The method employed is similar to that used in irrigation. The sewage is allowed to flow through a system of trenches provided with flood gates so that the flow can be controlled. The theory is, and it is correct, that the 244 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. plants of the fields to which this is applied will, finally incorporate it into their own tissues after it has been decom- posed by bacteria. As can be readily seen such a system must have several serious disadvantages. First, granting that sewage farming will purify the sewage, which no doubt can be done to a greater or less extent owing to the imposed conditions it is still doubtful whether or not it could be carried on successfully in a great majority of cases. In the first place the land must be of such a character as to per- mit of the irrigation system; secondly, if the sewage were applied continuously, it would be disastrous to the crops, killing them out as well as preventing the nitrification of the sewage by limiting the supply of oxygen to the soil. In the third place, the amount of desirable land required would in many cases be very expensive if it could be obtained at all. Mr. B. S. Brundell, M. Inst. C. E., who has constructed many sewer farms, among them a farm at Dorchester, Eng- land, which is one of the most successful from a sanitary point of view, wrote as follows: "Sewage if properly ap- plied to land may be purified, but the operation is not prof- itable. That is to say, sewage farming cannot, save in ex- ceptional instances, be made to pay." Mr. Brundell also brings up the additional factor of cold winter weather and seriously doubts whether or not the system could be suc- cessfully used in cold countries on account of the protracted cold winter. A very good short account of the Berlin, Ger- many, sewage farm is given by Barwise. Chemical precipitation was an effort made on the part of some to entirely purify sewage by the addition of chemi- cals. The principal precipitants used are lime, iron, alumi- num hydrate, alum, and copperas. Although the chemicals used for this purpose are almost innumerable, results tend to show that only the solid matter in suspen- sion is removed, while the sewage is deodorized for the time being. Extensive experiments with chemical pre- cipitation of sewage were made by Mr. Bibden in England as well as by the Massachusetts State Board of Health in America under the supervision and charge of Allen Hazen. The cost of constructing a plant for the chemical precipi- IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 245 tation of sewage is considerable, beside^ there is left on hand a sludge which must be disposed of. This would not be a serious drawback if it were valuable as, a fertilizer, but chemical analysis seem to show the contrary to be true. On the whole, chemical precipitation is not re- garded with favor by the majority of experts. Filtration is the application of raw or precipitated sewage to beds composed of various substances, either continuously or intermittently. In 1870 the first report of the royal commission on the best means of preventing the pollution of rivers was made. In regard to the filtration method it contained the following: "The process of filtration through sand, chalk, or cer- tain kinds of soil, if properly carried out, is the most effective means for the purification of sewage. In con- tinuous filtration the sewage is applied to the beds indef- initely without giving them time to rest. This was found to be unsuccessful so a system of allowing the beds to rest at stated periods was tried and found to be highly success- ful. This latter method is known as the intermittent fil- tration of sewage. This system of filtration recognizes the fact that the active agents in the purification of sewage are minute plants; variously named microbes, mi- cro-organisms, germs, bacteria, etc. Bacteria is the name now commonly accepted and used in scientific writings and discussions. Certain species of bacteria have the power of breaking up the complex organic compound of sewage into simpler inorganic harmless compounds. This process is commonly spoken of as nitrification and the bacteria as nitrifying organisms, because the chief inorganic substances formed them are nitrites and nitrates. There are other species of bacteria however that decompose organic materials into various gases, hydrogen (H), carbon dioxide (CO.), marsh gas (CH4), nitrogen (N), ammonia (NHs),etc. Gas-produc- ing bacteria will be spoken of again in connection with the septic tank. Filter beds, as those used for filtration of sewage are called, are composed of various materials: sand, gravel, 246 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. coke breeze, chalk, clinkers, clay, cinders, ballast, etc. Experiments with different materials have been tried at various places. The Massachusetts State Board of Health has probably done the most work along this line in America. Dibden and Thudicum of England, however, are the pioneers in this line of investigation. There is no small amount of discussion as to the relative merits of the vari- ous substances used as fillers in filter beds. But no matter what the material, the object to be obtained in all cases is the same, namely, a substance that will serve as a resting place for the gelatinous masses of bacteria. Any substance that will do this and still be porous enough to admit of complete aeration may be termed a successful filler. For plans of beds, materials used, dimensions, etc., no better information can be obtained than that in the Mas- sachusetts State Board of Health reports, and for the plans and specifications of the Iowa State College Sewage Plant by Prof. Marston (19). There remains yet the septic tank. It is a tank in which the sewage is retained for a limited time in order to allow the anaerobic bacteria to work. Two kinds have been employed, the open and the closed. Most experimenters along these lines are now of the opinion that one is as effective as the other, on account of the scum (composed essentially of bacteria) that covers the sewage in the tank. According to L. P. Kinnicutt (16) the following changes are due to anaerobic bacteria in a septic tank. First, the decom- position of cellulose and allied substances, and the formation of marsh gas. Second, the decomposition of complex nitrogenous organic matter, with the production of am- monia, hydrogen and odoriferous substances. Third, the removal of oxygen from nitrates with simultaneous oxida- tion of organic matter. As has been stated before, the filter bed gives an excel- lent opportunity for the action of aerobic bacteria, to which, according to Kinnicutt, the following changes are due: The conversion of urea, and similar substances into ammonium salts, and the conversion of ammonium salts IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 247 into nitrates. This being the case the question at once arises, why would not the system of intermittent filtration and of the septic tank work well together. Experience has taught that they do and it is to a system of this kind that the remainder of this paper will be devoted, taking as a basis the sewage system of the Iowa State College. Great credit is due Prof. Marston, who introduced this system in Iowa. TABULATED BACTERIOLOGICAL RESULTS. E 0 TEMPERATURE. ^ 1 s s H a DATE 1 1 September i.. September 2.. September 3.. September 4. September S- September 5.. September 5.. September 6.. Septeaiber 7.. September 8.. September g.. September 10.. September i[ .. September 12.. September 12.. September 12.. September 13.. September 14.. September 15.. September 16.. September 17.. September 18.. September 19., Septemper 19., September 19.. September 20.. September 21.. September 22.. September 23.. September 24.. September 2^.. September 26.. September 27.. September 27.. September 27.. September 28.. September 29.. September 30.. October i W. E. . 880 1,320 600 E E W E EE ■..■.■::.■: W. E 9,000,000 Tank I , 800. 000 E. E I,' 840 1,560 W E W. E E. E . VV E W. E E. E .. 8,600 ooc Tank 2, 050. 000 E. E 2,400 3.600 2,760 3,960 3,780 2,920 4,080 W. E E E W. E W, E W E W E 7,260,000 Tank 2, 170. 00 W. E 3,660 2,520 2,760 5,400 9,000 9,120 8,040 8,160 W. E WE W E W. E WE W E E. E 9,600,000 Tank 6, 960, 000 E E 4,400 4,100 3,800 3,760 3,720 3,720 E. E E. E 8,815,000 3,245,000 3,660 E E E. E October 3 October 3 October 3 October 4 E. E Manhole 4, 800, 000 Tank 4, 200,000 E. E 5,160 4,820 \Z 5,400 6,120 7.280 E E October 6 W E October 7 October 8 W. E W. E October 9 October 10 E E W E October 10 Manhole 6,480,000 Tank 4,618,000 October n E E . 4,200 4,080 October 12 E. E 248 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCKS. BACTERIOLOGICAL RESULTS — Continued. TEMPERATURH. October 13 — October 14. ... October 15 October 16. . . . October 17. ... October 17 October 17 October 18. ... October 19 October 20 October 21 October 22 October 23. ... October 24. . . . October 24. . . . October 24 . . . October 25 October 26. ... October 27 October 28..,. October 29 October 3 .... October 31. ... October 31 October 31.... November i, November 2 November 3, November 4. November 5 November 6 November 7 November 7 November 7 November 8 November 9 November 10 November 11 November 12 November 13 November 14 November 14 November 14 November 15 November 16 November 17 November 18 November 19 November 20 November 21 November 22 November 23 November 24 November 24 November 24 November 25 November 26 November 27 November 28 November 29. November 30. December 1. December 2. December 3. December 4. December j. December 6. December 7. December 8. December 9. December 10. E. E E. E E. E E. E E. E. Manhole . . . Tank E. E E. E No sample. No sample. W. E W. E W E Manhole. . . Tank W. E. ... E. E W. E W. E E. E E. E W. E Manhole .. Tank E. E.... W. E ... E. E W. E.... W. E.... W. E... W. E.... Manhole lank W. E... W. E.... E. E E. E E. E W. E.... W. E.... Manhole Tank. . . . E. E.... E. E E. E W. E.... W. E.... E E.... E. E.... E. E E. E . . . . E. E Manhole ... Tank E. E No efHuent . E E No effluent No effluent. E. E No effluent E. E E. E E. E E. E E. E E E Effl'nt frozen Effl'nt frozen E. E 6, 760, 000 7,560,000 6, 064, 800 5, 796. 000 3.600 5,760 4.820 4,360 3.720 5, 650. 000 4.700 2,640 4.200 3.700 3.820 4,600 3.240 3.720 3.580 2,040 1.320 2, J 5, 200,000 4,941,000 3.600 3.720 2,280 2,280 2,400 2,640 2,040 2.520 3.180 3.560 2,520 4.360 4, 120 4.500 2,720 2,560 3,520 2,760 3.080 3,240 2,280 1,800 Node- i-elm't 2,060 1,620 3 640 920 I 640 1,840 3.880 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. BACTERIOLOGICAL RESULTS— Continued. 249' S 0 TEMPERATURE. | 0 c c DATE. < i Decemberii... December ii... Decemberii... December 12... December 13... December 14... December 15. .. December 16... December 17... December 18... Decembt-ri8. .. December 18. Decemberi9... December 20... December2i... December 22... December 23. .. Decemrer24... December 25... December 25... December 25... December 26. December 27. .. December28... December 29. .. December 30... December 31... 1900. , anuary i . anuary 1 ' anuary i [ anuary 2 , anuary 3 anuary 4 February i.... February i.... February i — February 2 — February 3. .. February 9. .. February 9 — February 15.... February 15.... February 22 February 22 . .. February 25. .. February 25 .. February 29 .. February 29 .. March 6 March 6 March 10 March 10 March 11 March 12 March 13 Marcli 14 March 14 March 14 March 15 March 18 April I Apiil 2 April 3 April 4 April <; April 6 April 7 April 8 April 9 April 10 E E 1.080 92,000 Tank 288,000 Effl'nt frozen W F 2,120 7.800 2,920 2,160 W F W E W E W E W' E Manhole 1,087,000 1.248,000 W E 2,520 2,800 680 3.440 3,720 3.240 2,960 W E W E W E W E 1,270,000 Tank 1,008,000 W E 3.120 2,740 2,560 2, 120 1,200 600 720 W E WE . . .. W E 816,333 848,000 2.319- 848, 000 Tank 726,000 800 920 1,000 7.272 W E W E 848, 000 363. 700 726, 000 830. W E 287,900 W E 1.800 1,280 3 451 651,200 Tank 509,000 12.240 20.600 468,700 Tank 419, 200 132, 400 108. 000 Nodevel. 66, 520 2*3,810 3 451 Manhole 345,^33 80. boo No devel. MonhnlA 184,600 98, 700 W E 23, 400 39,000 21,000 12,000 W E W E 204, 500 126,300 W E 36, 000 Manhole 58,800 132, 125 26. 480. 112,500 16,800 15,000 15,600 12,600 6,000 13,400 14,400 13.200 21,000 24, 000 W E W E W E W E w: E.v.;.:::: 250 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. BACTERIOLOGICAL RESULTS -Continued. e 0 TEMPERATURE. 2 c 1 c DATE. < 1 .'Vprilii April 12 April 12 April 12 April 13 April 14 April 15 April i6 W E I7,oco 15,600 W E 3,151,200 1,999.800 W E 24,000 16,800 18,600 19,200 18,000 17,500 7,200 4,800 30,000 14,400 12,000 6,000 5.400 W E W E W E W E April i8 April 19 .■\pril 20 .•Xpril 21 April 22 Anril 11 W E E E E E E E E E April 24 W E E. E April 25 April 25 April 26 .■\pril 27 April 28 .^pril 29 April 30 May I Ma'ihole 1.090,800 787.800 W E 61 degrees 64 degrees 63 degrees 59 degrees 63 degrees 63 degrees 64 degrees 7,200 480 6,600 4,200 5,400 3,600 4,200 W E W E W. E W. E 13,260 2,121,000 1,392,800 May 2 May 2 May 2 May 3 May 4 May 5 W E 666. 600 Tank 242, 000 W E 62 degrees 60 degrees 63 degrees 61 degrees 61 degress 61 degrees 61 degrees 63 degrees 62 degrees 63 degrees 6^ degrees 68 degrees 68de>;rees 64 degrees 65 degrees 63 degrees 60 degrees 61 degrees 62 degrees 63 degrees 1,500 10, 200 3,000 3,600 2,400 210 2,400 1,940 2,000 4, 160 4,200 3,600 3,000 9,600 2,700 2,100 1.500 1,200 W E W E 73 degrees 72 degrees 69 degrees 71 degrees 76 degrees 70 degrees 72 degrees 71 degrees 73 degrees 56 degrees 69 degrees 62 degrees 50 degrees 67 degrees 72 degrees 78 degrees 78 degrees ^11 I W.E E.E E.E E.E W E May 9 May 10 May II W E Mav 13 May 14 Mav 15 MaV 16 W E W E W E E.E W.E W E MaV 17 Ma'v 18 Mav 19 Mav 20 W E W E E.E W K Mav 22 May 22 Manhole 900. 000 1 , 800, 000 Mav 23 May 24 Mav 25 Mav 26 W E 76 degrees 7S degrees 77 degrees 81 degrees 82 degrees 76 degrees 79 degrees 80 degrees 81 degrees 63 degrees 63 degrees 64 degrees 65 degrees 67 degrees 68 degrees 68 degrees 68 degrees 69 degrees 2, TOO 1,800 2,400 4,200 3,000 3,600 2,400 2,800 1,800 W E W E Mav 27 May 28 Mav 29 Mav 30 May 31 W E W E W E W.E 1,021,000 783, ,300 une I une 2 [ une 3 une 4 _ une 5 " une 5 une 5 une 6 [ une 7 une 8 "une 9 E.E E.E E.E W E 82 degrees 81 degrees 80 degrees 73 degrees 82 degrees 6g degrees 69 degrees 69 degrees 60 1,200 1,800 5,400 W.E 69 degrees 1,272,6C0 Tank 1.636,200 W.E W F 81 degrees 80 degrees 79 degrees 78 degrees 85 degrees 69 degrees 69 degrees 69 degrees 69 degrees 69 degrees 150 2,100 1,800 3,000 90 W E E.E IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. BACTERIOLOGICAL RESULTS— Continued. 251 1 s 0 TEMPER.ATURE. ii c n 1 D.ATE. < 1 1 E.E W E 51 degrees 70 degrees 74 degrees 83 degrees 79 degrees &9 degrees 69 degrees 67 degrees 69 degrees 69 degrees 15,800 4,000 3,000 6,000 2.400 una 12 una 13 una 14 una 15 una 15 una 15 una 16 una 17 una 18 una 19 una 19 una 19 una 20 una 21 una 22 una 23 una 24 una 25 una 23 — una 26 E.E W E - E.E 1,545,400 1,324,000 E.E W.E W.E W E 78 degrees 75 degrees 73 degrees 82 degrees 09 degrees 68 degrees 68 degrees 69 degrees 3,000 4,100 ■ 1,363,600 Tank 1,090,000 W.E E E 80 degrees 76 degrees 74 degrees 73 degrees 73 degrees 86degrets 89 degrees 69 degrees 69 degrees 69 degrees 69 degrees 69 degrees 70 degrees 72 degrees 77 degrees 67 degrees 72 de. rees 72 degrees 72 degrees 72 degrees 72 degrees 70 degrees 69 degrees 72 degrees 76 degrees 75 degrees 76 degrees 72 degrees 68 degrees 68 deg ees 68 degrees 62 degrees 62 degrees 62 degrees 72 degrees 72 degrees 72 degrees 74 degrees 72 degrees 72 degrees 67 degrees 67 degrees 72 degrees 72 degrees 71 degrees 71 degrees 71 degrees 68 degrees 66 degrees 70 degrees 72 degrees 72 degrees 73 degrees 73 degrees 71 degrees 71 degrees 3,600 2,400 1,200 l,4>0 1 1,040 15,000 1,600 2,400 114,130 250 900 ^ 370 6,000 8,040 4,800 4,200 9,600 3,600 2tC 1,260 „9o 1,800 360 980 - E E W.E E.E K. E \V E Manhole Tank 1 , 090, 800 1,318,100 1,515,000 1,391:300' una 27 una 28 una 29 una 30 E E 76 degrees 81 degrees 76 degrees 64 degrees 70 degrees 85 degrees 92 degrees 90 degrees 84 degrees 77 degrees 82 degrees 72 degrees 72 degrees 78 degrees 82 degrees 84 degrees 69 degrees 72 degrees 78 degrees 68 degrees 73 degrees 72 degrees 82 degrees 78 degrees 75 degrees 78 degrees 90 degrees 80 degrees 76 degrees . W.E..:.:;.: E. E E E .... 2,359 W.E W.E uly 2 uly 3 W.E W.E Outlet flooded Outlet flooded W E uly 6 uly 7 uly 8 uly 9 uly 10 uly II uly 12 uly 12 ulv 12 W E E E Outlet flooded Outlet flooded VV E Manhole .. .. Manhole .. .. Manhole .. .. Tank Tank Tank Tank WE 363,600 104,030 242, 400 (Agarf)... (Agar) (Agart) .. (Agart) .. 7,575,000 (Gelatine) (Agart)... (Agar) (Gelatine) 426. 000 342, 400 uly 12 uly 12 uly 12 uly 12 uly 12 ujy 13 uy M "y 15 uly 16 uly 17 E.E E E W E W E 9,090,000 4,302,600 4, 578." 333' E.E Manhole Tank E.E E.E E.E E.E * Effluent.... E.E uly 17 uly 18 uly 19 uly 20 »iy 21 uly 22 uly 23 uly 23 uly 23 (Toott) •• 3,908,700 1,346,600 Manhole .. .. Tank ♦Effluent.. .. *Efliuent.... * Effluent E E uly 24 uly 25 uly 26 uly zi'.''. '.'.'.'. uly 29 uly 30 ■llv Tl W.E E.E W E W E 2,270 August I Augrust 1 E.E Manhole .. .. * Effluent under water, f .Agar for gas. ft Too thick to count. 252 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. BACTERIOLOGICAL RESULTS— Continued. TEMPERATURE. August 1 August 2 August 3 August 4 August 5 August 6 August 7 August 7 August 7 August 8 .August 9 August 10 August II August 12 August 13 A gust 14 August 15 August 16 August 17 ."Vugust 7 August 17 August 18 .August 19 August 20 August 2t August 22 Angust 22 August 22 August 2\ August 24 .August 25 .\ugust 26 August 27 .August 28 August 29 August 30 August 31 Tank .. .. W.E E.E WE E.E.... W.E.... WE Manhole. Tank E.E E.E W.E E.E ♦Effluent ♦Effluent ♦Effluent ♦Effluent ♦Effluent W.E Manhole. Tank .... ♦Effluent ♦Effluent ♦Effluent W. E E.E Manhole. Tank W.E E.E E.E E.E E.E W.E.... W^E E.E W.E degrees degrees degrees degrees degrees degrees degrees degrees degrees degrees 64 degrees 74 degrees 71 degrees 74 degrees 7^ degrees 75 degrees 76 degrees 71 degrees 68 degrees 76 degrees 75 degrees 76 degrees 76 degrees 87, 870 100 3,600 70 60 400 92 degrees 76 degrees 70 degrees 68 degrees 80 degrees 79 degrees 75 degrees 75 degrees 85 degrees 86 degrees 84 degrees 80 degrees 81 degrees 80 degrees 88 degrees 83 degrees 82 degrees 76 degrees 76 degrees 75 degrees 73 degrees 73 degrees 72 degrees 72 degrees 73 degrees 73 degrees 84,00^ 403- I18 560. Effluent under water. Average number of germs per cubic centimeter, in effluent. MONTH. August September. October.... November. December. 1899. AVERAGE. 3,246 3, 660 4.230 2,361 2.3«9 January February. . March April May iune "ly August S«ptember. 830 3.451 23, 480 13.263 3.077 2.359 2,370 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 253 Average number of bacteria per c.c. in manhole and tank. August, 1899 September. 1899. October, 1899 ... November. 1899. December. 1899. January. 1900 . . . , February, 1900.. March, 1900 April, 1900 May, 1900 June, 190:- July, 1900 August, 1900 September. 1900 2.392,600 8,8i5,oco 6,064,800 4,537.333 816,333 848.000 345,533 132, 125 2, 121,000 1, 021, coo 1,318,100 3,908,700 403, 118 1,181.533 1,358-300 3,24s, 000 4,941,000 3,014,000 848,000 726. 000 233, 8to 112. 500 1.392,800 783, 300 1,391,300 4,578,333 215.700 383.733 BACTERIOLOGICAL ANALYSIS OF THE COLLEGE SEWAGE FROM SEPT. 1, 1899, TO SEPT. 1, 1900. The college sewage system is a combination of several systems combined into one. It combines the system of the septic tank with that of intermittent filtration. For a very excellent and (^20) detailed description, see the article in Centralblatt No. 15, on the Iowa State College Sewage D'sposal Plant, by Drs. Pammel, Weems, and Professor Marston, and Contribution No. I of the Iowa State Col- lege (19). Bacteriological analysis have been made of the effluent each day, while once each week samples have been taken from the manhole and the tank, as well as the efflu- ent, of which both bacterological and chemical analyses have been made. The chemical analyses have been under the direction of Dr. Weems, who has from time to time published some very interesting results, but as it is my intention to deal with the bacteriological side only, no chemical results will be given, only as they may serve to elucidate some point in connection with the bacteriological analyses. In making the cultures, petri dishes of a standard size have been used. The dilution method has been employed with the manhole and tank samples, it having been found on trial that without dilution it was practically impossible 254 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. to count the number of colonies. For this dilution one-^ tenth of a cubic centimeter of sewage is put into ten cubic centimeters of sterilized water, and one-tenth c.c. of this taken to make the culture. With the effluent no dilution has been made. Two methods of counting the plates have been employed. One is to divide the plates by means of a dividing circle into tw^enty equal divisions, counting three of these divisions, dividing by three to strike an average^ and multiplying by twenty the number of divisions on the plate, and by ten, the denominator of the fractional part of a c.c. of sewage taken to make the culture. Of course, when dilutions were made the above result was multiplied by the denominator of the fractional part of a c.c. used, as to illustrate, 21+18+12 -51^3-17X20 -340X10 3,400X 101^=343,400. The above sample being diluted by ten c.c. of sterilized w^ater to 1-10 of a c.c. of sewage. The other method is practically the same. The plate is divided into sixty square centimeters; three square centi- meters are averaged and multiplied by the number of square c.c. in the plate and the fraction of the denominator of the dilution. In each method care was taken to obtain a good average of the plate. As an illustration, if there was a spot where the colonies were especially thick or thin, counts were^ taken from them, and also from a spot containing about an average number of bacteria, if possible. The pipettes, petri dishes, etc., used in the work, were- sterilized by dry heat for one hour and kept away from dust and moisture. The media used in these experiments has been, in the main, ordinary agar agar, gelatine having been used on sev- eral occasions to determine the variations between the number of colonies produced by agar and gelatine cultures respectively. It was found that on gelatine plates there is usually a slight increase in the number of colonies, but on account of the liquefying properties, it has not given as much satisfaction as agar cultures. Another method employed for the determination of gas producers is of special interest, as it can be show^i by IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 255 making parallel cultures the relative number of gas pro- ducers present in a c.c. of sewage. A method which has given excellent results is as fol- lows: Take a tube of ordinary agar, melt and pour in a petri dish, after it has cooled to such a degree that it is just liquid, add one-tenth cc. of sewage and immediately turn it around rapidly in order to secure equal distribu- tion of the sewage; then, after it has been cooled so far as to become solid, add another tube of melted agar, care being taken that it is not too hot, after which, without stirring, set it away to develop. This last agar forms a layer containing no germs, if the work has been properly done. The anaerobic gas producers working in the lower portion produce gas, which appears in the agar as minute air bubbles. The effluent of July 12, 1900, after standing one week, showed 25 gas producers in the plate, and as one-tenth c.c. of sewage from the effluent was used in making the culture, there would be 250 gas producers to the c.c. of effluent. The number of germs counted from a parallel culture was 2,400, which means that approximately ten per cent of the total number of germs were gas producers, the above result being obtained from the sample of efflu- ent taken from the west bed. The temperature of the air and sewage being 72° Fahrenheit. A similar culture from the tank on the same date showed 118 gas producers in the plate, making 114, 130 gas producers to the c.c. of sewage, or about 33| per cent of the germs in the tank at that time were gas producers, the temperature of the sewage in the tank being 62°. The total number of germs for the c.c. being 342,400. The manhole sample taken July 12th and examined July 17th, shows a still greater percentage, there being 104,030 gas producers to the c.c, or 43 per cent of the germs in the raw sewage at that time were gas producers. The tem- perature of the raw sewage was 68°, the total number of germs to the c.c. on an ager culture being 242,400. Other cultures were made in the same manner, with approxi- mately the same results. 256 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. It will be noticed that the percentage of gas producers is highest in the manhole, and low^est in the effluent, while the number in the tank lies between, which would seem to show that the gas producers are destroyed while the sewage is passing through the tank and filter bed, which is very desiraable, in view of the fact that gas pro- ducing species, while not actually condemned as patho- genic, are to be regarded with suspicion. The primary object of bacteriological analysis of sew- age is to determine the number of germs present per c.c. in the sewage at the different stages of its purification. By such data the efficiency of the beds and other parts of the system may be readily determined. The number of germs present per c.c. determine the relative purity of the water, but far more important from a sanitary standpoint, is the kind of germs present. But little attention has been given to the determination of species, except incidentally. Bacillus cloacea, B. coli- ■communis, and some others were determined by Dr. Pam- mel and 0. J. Fay, while I have run out B. prodigiosns, B. mutabalis, and several other species. Bacillus prodigiosus does not occur in the sewage to any •considerable extent, it having been found up to date only three times; once in the tank on June 19th, and twice in the effluent, once on the 22nd of June in the east effluent, and once on the 27th of June in the west effluent. At no time was more than one colony found on the plates in any of the above cultures. Its appearance at that time is both significant and interesting; significant in showing the efficiency of the beds but two colonies having been found one coming from each bed, at an interval of five days from each other, which would seem to indicate that the germs were present in very small quantities and that the beds are about equal from the standpoint of efficiency. It is interesting from the fact that it presumably found its way into the sewage by washing petri dishes contin- ually in a sink in the laboratory which empties into the sewer. The original culture having been obtained at Marshalltown about the middle of March, 1900. This one IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 257 example gives sufficient evidence of the possibility of the transmission of disease germs by means of water, and especially sewage. One question which presents itself on the accompany- ing data is the wide degree of fluctuation in the number of germs per c.c. found in the effluent. Take for example the results from June 1, 1900 to June 15th, inclusive. The number of bacteria to the c.c. ranged from sixty on June 1st to 15,800 on June 15th. Why this difference? After considerable research and observation it seems that at least three factors would largely deter- mine the number of bacteria to the c.c. present at any par- ticular time. Perhaps of primary importance is the temperature of the sewage and thus indirectly of the soil through which it is filtered, and the air. It is a well rec- ognized fact that the warmer the sewage up to a certain point the faster the division of bacteria takes place, hence a larger number of germs would be found in warm sewage and during warm wealher. Take the result for June 1, 1900 the air was 82 degrees Fa^irenheit, the sewage 69 degrees and the number of germs per c.c. is 60. The fol- lowing day, June 2nd, the air is one degree cooler and the water the same temperature, yet there are 1,200 bacteria to the c.c. Take from the first of June to the 11th and although the temperature of the sewage is constant the number of germs per c.c. fluctuates from 60 to 15,800. The soil temperature for June 11th was 69 degrees. As the soil temperatures have been taken but once a week it is impossible to give its variations in temperature from day to day. Second, the condition of the sewage to be purified will determine to a very great degree the number of bacteria to the c.c. but by comparison of the data it will be seen that this does not offer a satisfactory explanation in itself. Take for instance the results for November 14, 1899 as compared with those of June 19, 1900. While the num- ber of bacteria to the c.c. in the effluent varies only by 400 (November 14, 1899, 4,500. June 19, 1900, 4,100) the num- ber of germs in the raw sewage varies some five and one- 17 258 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. third millions to the c.c. If this were the principal cause of fluctuation the effluent of November 14th should con- tain about 41,000 bacteria to the c.c. other things being equal. Along with the above the amount of organic matter present would have a considerable influence, as it would serve as food for the bacteria. Hence fission would be more rapid and the number of bacteria to the c.c. increased, but no data bearing on this point are at hand. The third factor would be the time of taking the samples, whether at the beginning or toward the end of the discharge. It is presumed that during the period that the bed is resting the bacterial life increases; accumulat- ing in the interstices between the material of which the filter is composed. When the discharge comes on the beds the pressure and hence the force being greater at that time than at any other, also the number of the bac- teria in the interstices being greatest then, might not the force of the sewage wash these bacteria free and hence through the bed into the effluent? If such be the case the number of bacteria to a c.c. would be greatest at the beginning of the discharge and least at the end. While I have not been able to make experiments to fully elucidate this point I feel quite confident from numerous observa- tions in taking samples that such may be the case. Of course all of these factors and probably others acting in unison complicate the problem to such an extent that until more data is at hand it will be impossible to accu- rately determine the exact amount of variation caused by each factor. By referring to the tables containing the average num- ber of germs per c.c. for each month, of manhole, tank, and effluent, it will be observed that there is considerable fluct- uation. It will also be noticed that the results for the manhole, tank, and effluent decrease on the whole together. The month containing the lowest average for the effluent is August in 1900 as well as 1899. The largest average for the effluent in 1900 is March after which there is a gradual decrease until September. Several things must be taken IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 259 into account in considering the cause of these fluctuations. One is that during March and April there are greater fluct- uations in temperature, as well as in the humidity of the atmosphere and it is possible that such a condition might favor the rapid multiplication of bacteria. Again, in July and August and the major part of June, college was not in session, hence the sewage was not so strong. In a general way it would appear that the factors considered in connec- tion with the fl actuations of the efiluent are applicable here also. One point which is rather interesting is that on different occasions, (June, July, 1900, also December of the same year), the average number of germs to the c.c. in the tank was larger than that of the manhole for the same period. The explanation of this seeming inconsistency seems sim- ple enough after taking into consideration the fact that bacteria increase very rapidly, and that the sewage is allowed to collect in the tank until 20,000 gallons have been accumulated, when it is discharged automatically by a Miller's Automatic Siphon. Now, if the flow in the tank is slow (which is often the case) for any reason, the water stands longer, and hence more time is given the bacteria to multiply. It must be borne in mind that the environment in the tank is especially favorable for the rapid production of bac- teria as there is an abundance of organic matter present, while the tank being closed would tend to raise the tem- perature of the sewage rather than to lower it, which would further facilitate the rapid development of germ life. Leone's experiments on the preserving of the Mang- fall water shows very clearly what might be expected from letting sewage accumulate slowly in the tank. It takes some times seventeen to twenty hours and even longer for the tank to fill. Below are given the tabulated results of his experiments together with some similar observations made by Cramer on the water from the Lake of Zurich. 260 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. leone's observations. No. of Micro-organisms in one CC.of water. Water at time of collection contained 5 Water after standing twenty-tour hours in sterilized tlask lOo Water after standing two days in sterilized flask 10,500 Water after standing three days in sterilized flask 67,000 Water after standing four days in sterilized flask 315,000 Water alter standing five days in sterilized flask More than one-half million Cramer's observations. Hours and days during which Number of Micro-organisms the water was preserved. in one CC. of water. 0 hours 143 24 hours 12,457 3days 328,543 8days 233,452 17 days 17.436 70 days 2,500 The work along these lines on the college sewage may be said to have just begun, and future experiments and data will materially assist in the intelligent interpretation of the results obtained during the last year. BIBLIOGRAPHY. 1. Abbott, A. C— 'i'he Principles of Bac'eiiology E43.9G 1897 2. Adams, Julius W — Sewage and Drains for Populous Districts 228.53 1889 3. Barwise, Sidney— The Purification of Sewage 150 13 1899 4. Billet, Albert- La Morphologic etdu Developpement des Bacteriacees...289 14 1890 5. B&ker, M. N. and Rafter, G. W.— Sewage Disposal of the United States 598.7. 116 1893 6. Burton, W. K — Water Supply of Towns 304.257 1894 7. Clark, D. W. and Demps-^y, G D.— Drainage of Lands, Towns and Buildings 351.115 1890 8. Davis, Floyd- Report of Investigation of the Marshalltown Water Supply. .Paper 9. Denipsey, G. D and Claik, D. K — Drainage of Lands, Towns and Buildings 351.115 1890 10. Folwell, A. Prescott— Sewage,! he Designing, Conai ruction and Maintenance of Sew- age Systems 372.12. f36. 1899 11. Frauklaud, Percy and C C — Microorganisms in Water 12. Gerhard, P. W.— Drainage and Sewage of Bu'ld'ngs 302 97 1894 13. Iowa, Report of the S' ate Board of Health 59130 1889 14. Iowa, Report of tbe State Board of Healih 1899 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 261 15. Kinnicutt, L. P.— Sewer Gas and Some Mistaken Ideas Concerning It 16. Kinnicutt, L. P.— Eoglisli Experiments on tiie Bacteriological Treatment of Sewage 17. Klamperer, P. and Levy, E.— Clinical Bacteriology 441.89 190O 18. Levy, E. and Klamperer, P. — Clinical Bacteriology 441.89 1900 19. MarstoD, A. Pammel L. H. and Weema, J. B.— Iowa State College Sewage System.— Contr. Iowa State College 31. 6f. 1900 20. Muir. R. and Ritchie, J.— Manual of Bacteriology 564.126 1899 21. Mason, Wm. — Water Supply 477.29.1m. 1897 22. Massachusetts Report of State Board of Health, 1890. 23. Nichols, W. R.— Water Supply from a Chemical and Sanitary Standpoint 232.47 1893 24. Pammel, L. H. Weems, J. B. andMarston, A.— Centralblatt f. Bact. u. Parasiten RundeNo. 15, 1. S. C. Sewage System, separate 25. Pammel, Emma and Pammel, L. H. — Separate aus dem Centralblatt fur Bakteriologie, Parasiten- kunde und Infektionskrankheiten 26. Slater, J. W.— Sewage Treatment, Purification and Utilization 271.2 1888 262 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. NOTES ON THE BACTERIOLOGICAL ANALYSIS OF WATER. BY L. H. PAMMEL. The recent epidemic of typhoid fever at the college is of interest to us and especially the methods now in vogue with reference to the examination of water for various organisms. During the recent epidemic and previously the well waters in the vicinity of Ames as well as the college water supply were examined at various times. An examination has also been made of water coming from wells of the parties who have furnished milk to the college. It should be stated here that this report is not completed owing to the fact that some of the species have not been sufficiently determined. From the nature of the case it requires a great deal of patient and careful work to run out the different species, so that the biological examination was not completed. Thanks are due to Mr. F. W. Faurot, Mr. A. D. McKinley, Mr. H. H. Thomas, Miss Nellie Nicholas, Miss Estella Paddock, and Mr. L. R. Walker for assistance in carrying out this work. In the paper on the Iowa State College Sewage Disposal Plant will be found a brief note on the water of the deep well previous to this spring. Examinations have been made from time to time, and as a result of our work, we found that the water during the winter months varied from no bacteria to 50 per cubic centimeter, thus showing an unusually good supply of water. A Marston, J. B. Weems and L. H. Pammel. The Iowa State College Sewage Disposal Plant and Investigations. Proc. la. Engineering Soc. 1900. Contr. la. State Coll. Argrl. & Mech, Arts. 1:19. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 263 BRILEY SHALLOW WELL. Depth, 45 feet; 18-inch glazed tile, cemented at the joints, covered with boards on top. The well has not been used since October 20th. G.A.S TEST. IE O.SO H GELATINE. < date". b ;j"" LITMUS AGAR. October 17th October i8th October 25th .. October 25th .... October 25tb .... October 25tb .... October 2Qth Present .... First pumping One-half barrel pumped One barrel pumped I Yi barrel pumped Present 18,000 12,000 6,000 1,440 2,000 2,400 125 ■'125' Used. Used. Used. Used. Used. Used. Some acid- pro- ducing germs. BRILEY DEEP WELL. Depth, 185 feet; 2-inch pipe and casing. October 17th .... 60 Used. No acid-produc- October 17th .... None 30 ing germs. October i8th .... None 30 October 27th .... 30 Used October 29th 30 PRITCHARD WELL AND TANK — WELL. Depth, 170 feet; 3-inch casing well and inside a 2-inch pipe. October 18th 20 30 20 60 20 3c 20 40 Used. October 22d October 18th ducing. Open tank used for watering stock, above well. October 29th .. . 225 225 October 29th October 31st October sgth V/" cc 3'/^ cc Acid reaction. 264 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. PETERSON WELL AND TANK. — WELL. Depth, 185 feet; 120 feet down to cylinder. Cased. Two inch iron, with about four inch of casing. Located two miles north of Ontario. GAS TEST. IE tt (U II ^- H GELATINE. tc DATE. 3 si o-c 3 .5- si LITMUS AGAR. October 27th 7 CO 150 170 1,500 3,36c 9,000 80 150 1,500 October i8th 1,800 7,200 Octaber 18th 80 Non-acid. TANK. Open tank for watering stock. October 18th . . T. CC 2,600 360 2,240 25 ■4,'2oo' 320 Acid producing October 29th Acid lomolds October 18th 220 non acid. SKELTON WELL. Thirty-five feet deep, ten inch casing. October 18th 30 10 30 October 27th 3 cc Acid October 31st . . 200 90 633 200 October 27th NO. 2 633 RIVER WATER. SKUNK RIVER WATER. DATE SQUAW CREEK WATER. DATE. 3 •- " 1) s T5 D s . e| 1 3 J; ^^ April 30th 1,800 1,800 27,000 Mayigth 300 11,200 16,200 8,520 2,400 May >th May 9th August 8th May 19th . ... August 8th July 6th IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 265 Investigations carried on with the water supply of var- ious wells in the vicinity of Ames by Messrs. McKinley and Thomas and Mr. Faurot gave the following results: FAUROT S WELL. DATE. E 3 z REMARKS. April 23d 1,600 4,500 9,360 9,480 220 5,032 April 23d May 22d Average OTIS HOUSE WELL. 80 3 200 54,000 120 None 120 360 3,000 2,400 May 21st Collected without ice. May 28th Collected without ice. luly 2d Indication of something in pipes. Indication of something in pipes. After pumping 15 minutes, collected with ice. With ice— first pumping. With ice— after pumping. First pumping— no gas. Second pumping -no gas. August 8th August 8th October 4th October 4th October 23d October 23d Average 6,028 LABORATORY TAP. None. None. 360 523 700 80 376 Mav 2ist . . Poured immediately. October 4th October 17th October 17th November 6th Average Poured immediately. Poured immediately. Poured immediately. Poured immediately. PARSON S WELL. May 7th 3,600 Failure. 1,300 90 150 170 Well full. Well full. Well full. With ice. With ice. With ice. MavizSth July 2nd First pumping. Very little water in well. First pumping. Very little water in well. Second pumping Very little water in well. August 8th October 23d October 23d Average . Without ice. Second pumping. No gas. Without ice. First pumping. 266 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. illsley's well. DATE. REMARKS. May 7th 8,000 Failure. 600 1,200 590 220 80 800 May 28th July 2d .... August 8th August 8th October 23d October 23d Without ice. First pumping. With ice. Second pumping. No gas. Second pumping. First pumping. Average 1,642 WELL AT HOUSE NEAR BRICK YARD. May 2ist July 2d August 8th .. August 8th .. October 4th. . October 4th.. Average First pumping. With ice. Second pumping. With ice. First pumping. With ice. Second pumping. CREEK WATER. May 19th July 2d August 8th.... August 8th .. October 4th.. Average Witiiout ice. With ice. With ice. OLSEN S WELL. May 28th 10 August 8th 60 With ice. Wind mill in operation one-half day. August 8th 350 Wind mill in operation one-half day. October 4th 600 With ice. First pumping. October 4th 120 With ice. Second pumping. October 23th .... 620 Without ice. First pumping. October 23th 240 Without ice. Second pumping. No gas. Average 286 FOUNTAIN WATER IN PARK, STORY CITY, IOWA, October 7th. October i3ih Without ice. Poured i Poured immediately. laboratory. No gas. HIGH SCHOOL, STORY CITY, IOWA. October 7th. October 13th Collected without ice. No gas. Poured at well. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. HENRYSON's well, story city, IOWA. HYDRANT, STORY CITY, IOWA, 267 DATH. 1 1"' 3 a. REMARKS. October 7th October 13th 280 230 Collected without ice Poured at well. Produced gas. October 7th. . October 13th. 520 Without ice. No gas. 30 Poured at hydrant. C. & N. W. WELL AT WEBSTER CITY, IOWA. Without ice. Gas. A. J. HAVILAND S WELL, FORT DODGE, IOWA. October 5th. Without ice. 30 moulds. WILL HAVILAND S WELL, FORT DODGE, IOWA. October 5th. 5,400 Without ice. The records kept by Miss Nicholas were as follows munn's well. May 5th September 27th October 8th October 27th..., May 5th September 24th.... October nth 570 300 80 Agar used. Agar used. Agar used. pammel's well. September gth August nth September 27th 1,300 400 510 Agar used. Agar used. Agar used. budd's well. Agar used. Agar used. Agar used. Litmus agar used. Non-acid producing. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. reed's well. DATE. 3 7^ REMARKS. May 17th May 31st September 19th.. .. October 27th . . 2, coo 1,200 7C0 Agar used. Agar used, .'^gar used. Litmus agar used. Acid and non-acid. MILLER S WELL. May 17th May 31st. 270 Agar used. 400 Agar used. PAXTON S WELL. May 17th September 19th. September 27tli, 1,900 Agar used. 1.300 Agar used. 2,4co Agar used. HARDIN S WELL. May 31st. 30 Agar used. LINCOLN S WELL. May 5th May 31st September 27th , Agar used. ) Agar used. [■ No gas at any time. Agar used. ) HUNT S CISTERN. May 17th 150 Agar used. HOOVER S SPRING. May 17th.... October 27th 2,400 Agar used. 40 Litmus agar used. Non acid producing. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 269 The following are the results of Miss Nicholas of exam- ination of samples, the second after discarding a few pails- full. The medium used was ordinary agar. DATE. 1 c a S 3 a 1 Lincoln... Miinn Budd Lincoln... Reed Kinkade.. 460 240 2^800 230 September Qth October 8th . .... ... 170 6,000 The Kinkade well is very shallow and the second sample was collected after several barrels of water had been pumped out, therefore the much greater number of bacteria in the second sample may be due to sediment. All of the shallow wells examined contained gas-produc- ing germs. The Paxton well produced 30 cc. of gas in the fer- mentation tube, 10 cc. of which was CO^ and 20 cc. CH . The Reed well produced 100 cc. of gas (40 cc. CO, and 60 cc. CH4). The water from the Kinkade well produced a very great amount of gas. The Brllei/ Shallow Well. — In conjunction with Dr. Weems and Mr. McKinley on another occasion the writer collected samples of the water at the Briley well, and later Mr. Faurot also collected this water twice. The second time when Mr. Faurot collected these samples we got an unusually large number of germs per cubic centimeter. That collected by the writer on October 17 had 18,000 and that by Mr. Faurot had 6,000. It is worthy of note in this connection that the samples collected by myself on October 17 contained 18,000 germs per cc, that in one of the samples collected by Mr. Faurot on October 25, the number of germs had diminished very materially, the largest number found was 6,000. On October 21) the highest number obtained was 125 per cc. 270 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. In regard to the last plates poured it is a singular fact that but a very small development occurred, and this is strange since we had such an unusual development before running from 6,000 to 18,000 per cubic centimeter. In regard to the condition of the well it looks as though the water coald easily have drained off from the surface, but nevertheless upon removing some of the boards from the top of the well I found that the water might easily have entered between the cracks of some of the boards. In fact I found moisture on the inside on the upper tile, showing the water had run down. One can readily see how B. coli-couuuiinis or other foreign organisms could get into the w^ater. Gas was produced in one tube poured by Mr. Faurot and a slight amount in another. In this case we made the usual test. We also obtained gas from the first plates that I poured. The samples collected on October 29 were kept for forty days in the laboratory and then were examined by Mr. McKinley and Mr. Thomas with the following results: • E WELL. be j: 0 u 0 o Z Briley Shallow Well 45 feet. 185 feet. 200 Brilev Deep Well 20 Kitchen Tap None. 3^ feet. 185 feet. 30 340 Peterson Deep Well 1.000 Pritchard Well 170 feet. 30 Various species were found. Some of these have been excluded as having no connection with Bacillus ft/pJiosus or B. coU-communis. On the other hand there are a number of species that belong to the typhosus group culturally so far as has been carried out. Our work was interrupted although cultures of all of the species were made and placed away for further study. Fire destroyed the entire labora- tory so no further study can be made. One peculiar pearly white Bacillus developed in consid- erable quantity, in fact at least three-fourths of the colon- IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 271 ies belonged to this species. This Bacillus though actively motile had none of the cultural peculiarities of B. typhosus. Two species are quite commonly found in surface waters, namely the B. cloacw first detected by Jordan in sewage. I am inclined to think that both B. coli-commmiis and B. cloacce occurred in the Briley shallow well, but the definite separation was not carried far enough to determine this point to my satisfaction, though Dr. Eli Grimes states B. coU-cowmunis was found. THE COLLEGE WATER SUPPLY. It is certainly worthy of mention in this connection that all of the species found in the college water supply in the tank are non-liquefying, and the fact that gas was found on one occasion does not argue that the college water sup- ply w^as contaminated. The simple fact that the species here found did not produce gas in the proportion given for B. coli-comnianis, namely, of two parts of H. to one part of COo, but represented by formula one to two. It is also a significant fact that morphologically none of the species found indicated either B. coli-commuriis or B. tijpJiosus in the college water supply. Of the oft-repeated statement that sewage contamina- tion might have occurred, I wish to state that the writer, together with Professor Marston, climbed to the top of the tow^er and investigated conditions, and everything was found in its usual good condition. There was certainly no indication of growth of algae on the water, nor were there any indications of other filthy conditions. In fact, the water, and everything connected with it, seemed to be in an ideal state. The statement has also been made that owing to the fact that the college at different intervals used the supply from the spring, and in this way became contaminated. An investigation made of the college spring water, as well as the different hydrants and cisterns, those of Professor Stanton, Professor Curtiss, and the old Sexton well, indi- Experimental Investigations St. Brd Health, Massachusetts, l»!i89-1890: 836, and later found by Moore to be widely distributed in the soil. Russell and Bassett. Trans. Anier. Pub. Health Asso. , 585. 272 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. cate unusually good water, with the exception that in the Curtiss well and the Sexton well gas was produced, but this undoubtedly came from the surface soil. The spring water showed no gas whatever, nor was any obtained from the hydrant which was next to the spring. The samples and plates were carefully plated. BACTERIA FOUND IN OTHER WATER SUPPLIES. We have found quite commonly in all of our waters the B. Uquefaciens-fliiorescens. The Tyrothrix of Duclaux is certainly also common. Most attention has been given to the chromogenes. The common genera of Bacillus and Micrococcus w^ere represented, and of the these the Micro- cocci were found more frequently than the Bacilli of these Micrococcus roseus-flavus, Hefferan, M. agilis, A. Cohn, and others were found. BACILLUS TYPHOSUS IN WATER. Now, as to the relative vitality of Bacillus typliosus in water; many determinations have been made, and it would not be strange if the Bacillus tt/phosus should not be found in water. It is usually held by sanitarians that water is the most frequent source of infection. The evidence of B. typhosus in water, in most cases, is circumstantial; but I recall a case where Dr. Ravold found it in Mississippi river water, and bacteriological journals report cases of its occurrence in wells and streams, but the reported findings of the organism under such circumstances are not numerous. It is very evident that the typhoid fever bacillus will not grow in the ordinary media with other pathogenic o-gan- isms, nor are the special media much more satisfactory. It is evident from the results obtained from several investi- gators that not much can be expected from the organism after four weeks. It is certain that the typhoid fever organism will not multiply freely in water. MILK AS A SOURCE OF CONTAMINATION. As to the bacteria found in the milk supply, an investi- gation has been made, but this work was not completed, IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 273 owing to the destruction by fire of all of our cultures. We found present in the milk a large number of chromogenes, but none of these, of course, can be referred to, or are in any way related to the typhoid fever bacillus. On the other hand, we did find B. coli-comntunis, but it does not necessarily follow that the B. coli-coitiviKuis comes from human dejecta, as this organism is very commonly found in connection with cow stables, and the organism being found quite frequently in the intestinal tract of animals as well as man. Therefore this cannot be considered to be the cause, nor as an argument against the use of milk. This work, however, was not completed, and hence a final statement cannot be made. COMPARISON WITH THE SEWAGE BACTERIA. The results of the work carried on on the College Sew- age Plant show the following conditions with reference to the purification, and it is of interest to compare these results with the water obtained from the Briley well. It will be seen that in every case, excepting the last one, that the Briley well contained many times more organisms than the effluent of either filter bed. DATE From -Air Water Manhole Tank Effluent September ist W. E W.E E. E W. E .... E. E 90 degrees 72 degrees 62 degrees 63 degrees 82 degrees 75 degrees 71 degrees 73 degrees 72 degrees 72 degrees 68 degrees 68 degrees 72 degrees 74 degrees 74 degrees 74 degrees 960 2,400 September 3d September 4th September 5th September 5th September 5th September 6th September 7th 390 230 242, 400 Manhole . W. E W. E W. E E. E 1,212,000 83 degrees 82 degrees 90 degrees 87 degrees 1,800 460 September 8th September gth September loth September loth September loth September nth September 12th 230 310 424,200 Maiiliole . E. E E. E W. E W. E W. E 62 degrees 72 degrees 73 degrees 74 degrees 72 degrees 74 degrees 74 degrees 72 degrees 70 degrees 64 degrees 68 degrees 64 degrees 65 degrees 67 degrees 67 degrees 66 degrees 1,363,000 68 degrees 69 degrees 70 degrees 84 degrees 8; deLTees 440 no September 13th 480 September 15th W. E 1 5S degrees E. E . . . 1 61; deprees 100 September i6th E. E Tank 68 degrees September 17th September 17th September i8th 484,600 Manhole . W. E W. E E. E W. E E.E 696, 600 50 degrees 66 degrees 72 degrees 71 degrees 79 degrees 460 September 20th 420 September 21st •^jo September 22d X 274 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. From September 23cl to September 28th, inclusive, the sewage effluent pipe was under water, hence no samples. DATE. From Air Water Manhole Tank Effluent September 29th September 30th E. E W. E W. E Tank 69 degrees 68 degrees 72 degrees 64 degrees 64 degrees 65 degrees 67 degrees 980 t 568. 400 October 1st Manhole . W. E E. E W. E E. E E. E W. E E. E Tank . . 896. 600 80 degrees 75 degrees 81 degrees 80 degrees 72 degrees 63 degrees 40 degrees 67 degrees 67 degrees 67 degrees 67 degrees 68 degrees 68 degrees 68 degrees 62 degrees 61 degrees 70 degrees 360 October 4th I 800 October 5th 450 October 7th 1,800 260, 000 October 8th Manhole . W. E 1,333,200 63 degrees 2,400 From 10th to 13th, inclusive, the beds were being cleaned and the sewage was turned directly into the creek from the tank. October 14th October 15th October 15th W. E W. E Tank 63 degrees 63 degrees 63 degrees 63 degrees 63 degrees 64 degrees 62 degrees 62 degrees 61 degrees 360 210 I,2r2,000 Manhole . W. E W.E E. E October i6th 60 degrees 55 degrees 63 degrees 120 130 Too thick to count. Estimated at 5,000,000. CONCLUSION. It may be stated that so far as the analysis show the col- lege water supply may be considered excellent. It is true that in a number of instances more organisms were found than at other times, but an examination made from time to time shows that the number is not unusually large, and on the whole that we may consider our water supply practi- cally pure, and I should also state that the water from the spring supply is unusually good. We should bear in mind that the failure to find the typhoid fever bacillus in the water supply or milk of the Briley well is not at all surprising. It is a well known fact that the saprophytic species grow so readily in the nutrient media that the typhoid fever bacillus has not the same chance to grow. The same may also be said with reference to milk, only here we are dealing with such a large IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 275 number of species that it would be a mere accident to dis- cover the organism. As said heretofore it seems to me to be reasonable that the milk formed a favorable medium for the growth of the organism, and be it specially remem- bered that Mr. Briley, from his own testimony, failed to wash the cans with boiling water as should have been done. The milk cans could easily have been contaminated, and the failure on his part to wash the cans, it seems to me, made it not only possible but probable that these germs propagated in the milk. A comparison of the water of the Briley well and the college effluent shows that the Briley well had a greater amount of contamination than the college effluent from the sewage filter beds. DRIFT EXPOSURE IN TAMA COUNTY. BY T. E. SAVAGE. A few months ago, in making some improvements in the roadbed of the Chicago & Northwestern Railroad, a deep cut was made in a hill about three miles west of the city of Toledo, in Tama county, Iowa, where the following section was exposed: 5. Fine giaineH, yellowish colored loess elaj without gravel or l)owlders 4^ 4. Bed of sand in alternating bands of finer and coarser grained material 8 3. Bed of clay, containing numerous pebbles and boAvlders 24 2. Band of brown colored, somewhat sandy soil, containing impressions of vegetalile remains and a few bits of wood, 1^ 1. Bed of bjuisb colored clay, with numerous pebbles and bowlders down to the base of the exposure 16 In the section given above. Number 5 is the common fine grained loess that forms the surface soil over most of the neighboring region. It contains no pebbles nor bowl- ders, nor any calcareous matter, as shown by the want of action when treated with hydrochloric acid. It is of a yellowish color in the upper part, becoming tinged with brown in the central and lower portions. 276 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. Number 4 is a bed of loose sand, in which the layers of finer grained material alternating with those of coarser texture indicate a deposit along the bed of a stream in which the strength of the current was variable. This sand bed contains no trace of calcium carbonate throughout its entire thickness. It was probably laid down by the waters which resulted from the melting of the Kansan ice. Number 3 is a thick bed of clay, which bears numerous pebbles and bowlders of various sizes. Many of the lighter colored bowlders have partially decayed, and are so rotten that they can be broken apart with the hands. For a depth of four feet from the top the material has a some- what reddish appearance. This color gradually changes with the depth through yellow and gray to the bluish color of the main body of clay. In the upper portion are several pockets and lentils of rather fine-grained sand. The bed is cut by numerous joints and cracks into prismatic and irregularly shaped blocks and fragments. It is calcareous throughout, hydrochloric acid producing vigorous efferves- cence at the very top, immediately below the layer of sand, as well as in every portion of its depth. Number 2 is a layer very different in character from that which overlies it, or from that which is found below\ It is dark brown in color and is largely composed of more or less perfectly decayed vegetable matter mixed with a soil which contains a considerable amount of sand. Near the upper portion of this layer may be found a few f?-ag- ments of wood and bits of roots and darker colored patches of carbonaceous material. The bed contains no trace of calcareous matter. It forms a conspicuous band eighteen to twenty-four inches in thickness, which is exposed at this horizon for a distance of forty rods. Number I is a bed of drift w^hich resembles in many respects Number 3 above. Many of the pebbles and bowlders which it carries are beautifully polished and stri- ated. In the lower portion it is bluish gray in color, but to a depth of three or four feet from the top the clay has a slightly reddish tinge. This red color, however, is not so marked as in the oxidized surface materials of the IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 277 Kansan drift. This bed is not cut up into irregular blocks by the presence of such numerous joints and cracks as appear in the clay found in Number 3 above. At the top of this number, just below the soil band, the calcareous matter has been entirely leached out for a depth of eigh- teen to twenty-four inches. At a depth of thirty inches from the top there is in some places a slight action in response to hydrochloric acid, and in the other places at '-d^^^ / Fig. 16. Drift exposure along the C. & N. W. Ky. , lu-ar Toledo, Iowa, the same depth the acid produces no action whatever. At a depth of three feet the acid usually produces slight effervescence. At four feet in depth the action with acid is still stronger than at three, while at a depth of six feet from the top, and so on down to the base of the expos- ure, the acid never fails to produce a prompt and vigorous action. CONCLUSION. In the above exposure the following conditions seem to indicate the presence of two different drift sheets. 278 IOWA. ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. First. Buried soil. Lying between two thick beds of drift there is an apparent soil horizon, dark brown in color, in w^hich are imbedded numerous small bits of wood and darker colored fragments of organic matter. Second. Leaching. The bed of clay which overlies the soil horizon is very calcareous to the base. The soil band contains no trace of calcareous matter, nor does any such material appear for a depth of two feet below it. At a depth of thirty inches a slight quantity is present in the clay. This quantity gradually increases with the depth until at six feet below the soil band and from there to the base of the ex- posure the quantity is considerable as shown by the vigorous action wdth acid. This would indicate a long interval dur- ing which the old soil band was at the surface and subjected to the leaching effects of the atmosphere and of percolating water before it was buried by the overlying materials which were carried by a later sheet of ice. Third. Oxidized zone. The reddish color of the clay to a depth of three or four feet below the soil horizon would indicate a period during which these materials were exposed to the oxidizing effects of the air. The oxidation resulted in the changing of the iron found in the clay from the form of carbonate, in which form it usually occurs in the blue clays, to that of the oxide known as hematite, in which form it imparts a reddish color to the clays when it is present; The above exposure is about eight miles south of the border of the lowan drift plain, and is wdthin the area in which the Kansan drift forms the surface materials. It is thought by the writer, that Number 3 of the exposure represents the Kansan drift; Number 2, the soil horizon which represents the Aftonean interglacial period, while Number 1 is referred to the bowlder clay of the pre-Kan- san drift sheet with its upper portion leached and partially oxidized as described above.