JOURNAL CF Sine KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE Official Publication of the Academy JUL 07 2000 | y Volume 61 Number 1 Spring 2000 The Kentucky Academy of Science Founded 8 May 1914 GOVERNING BOARD ExecuTivE COMMITTEE 2000 President: Blaine R. Ferrell, Department of Biology, Western Kentucky University, Bowling Green, KY 42101 President Elect: Ron Rosen, Department of Biology, Berea College, Berea, KY 40404 Vice President: Jerry W. Warner, Department of Biological Sciences, Northern Kentucky University, Highland Heights, KY 41099 Past President: Gordon K. Weddle, Department of Biology, Campbellsville University, Campbellsville, KY 42718 Secretary: Stephanie Dew, Department of Biology, Centre College, Danville, KY 40422 Treasurer: William E. Houston, 161 Morningstar Court, Bowling Green, KY 42103 Executive Secretary (ex officio): Donald Frazier, Science Outreach Center, University of Kentucky, Lex- ington, KY 40536-0078 Editor, JOURNAL (ex officio): John W. 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Sci. 61(1):1-5. 2000. Earthworms (Oligochaeta: Lumbricidae) in High-Maintenance and Low-Maintenance Lawns in Lexington, Kentucky Brittney Jones Math, Science & Technology Center, 1600 Man O’War Boulevard, Lexington, Kentucky 40513 and Paul J. Kalisz! Department of Forestry, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky 40546-0073 ABSTRACT We sampled earthworms in Lexington, Kentucky, and compared populations in high-maintenance lawns (maintained by professional lawn-care companies) to those in low-maintenance lawns (maintained by indi- vidual owners without the use of lawn-care chemicals). We sampled 15 high-maintenance and 15 low- maintenance lawns with similar distributions in terms of geographic location within Lexington, age of house, and length of time the lawn was managed under the current maintenance regimen. Earthworms were col- lected during the period 6 Apr-10 Apr 1998 in each lawn by using formalin as an extractant. Significantly more earthworms per unit area were collected from high-maintenance as from low-maintenance lawns. Conversely, low-maintenance lawns had significantly greater earthworm dry mass per unit area and dry mass per individual earthworm. These results suggested that high-maintenance lawn care resulted in stunted growth of earthworms. Since earthworms are one of the most important members of the soil fauna, we suggest that organic methods and alternative plant systems be substituted for chemically maintained lawns. INTRODUCTION There are more than 25 million acres of lawn in the United States (PLCAA 1999). In 1997, 22% of households employed profes- sional lawn-care companies to maintain their lawns, and the demand for professional lawn care was increasing at an annual rate of ca. 3% (PLCAA 1999). Over 70 million pounds of chemicals are applied annually to lawns with the annual application rate increasing 5-8% per year (Jenkins 1994, p. 186). By the mid to late 1980s, the average lawn owner in the U.S. was using higher concentrations of chemicals ' Corresponding author. than farmers (Jenkins 1994, p. 186) and more synthetic chemical fertilizers were being ap- plied to these lawns than were being applied to all food crops in India (Jenkins 1994, p. 142). It is recognized that soil animals in general, and soil invertebrates in particular, are essen- tial to healthy soils (e.g., Brady and Weil 1996). In the eastern U. Se especially in dis- turbed ecosystems, earthworms (Oligochaeta: Lumbricidae) account for a large proportion of the total soil invertebrate biomass and play an essential role in many natural cycles (Ed- wards and Bohlen 1996: Lee 1985). ae worms may therefore be considered effective biological indicators of soil quality (Blair et al. 2 Journal of the Kentucky Academy of Science 61(1) 1996). In turf ecosystems, including lawns, earthworms are positively associated with many favorable soil characteristics including low amounts of thatch, low bulk density, high water infiltration and percolation rates, high organic matter concentrations, deep rooting, low plant wilting proneness, low plant disease severity, and uniform dispersion of microbes (Christians 1998; Turgeon 1999). Professional lawn-care services utilize many types of chemicals including fertilizers, fungi- cides, herbicides, insecticides, and plant growth regulators. Standard sources (e.g., Christians 1998; Vengris and Torello 1982) recommend as many as nine fertilizer appli- cations and six herbicide applications annually, with insecticides applied as needed. Even when used at labeled rates some registered lawn-care chemicals are highly toxic to earth- worms and other soil invertebrates, while oth- ers are less toxic but still cause chronic effects and significant mortality (Potter 1994; Potter et al. 1990). To date, much research dealing with the toxicity of lawn care chemicals has been performed in laboratories or under con- trolled conditions at research facilities. Ed- wards and Bohlen (1996, Appendix A), for ex- ample, provided a summary of the specific ef- fects of about 200 individual chemicals on earthworms, and Potter et al. (1990, 1994) de- scribed the effects of 40 commonly used pes- ticides and plant growth regulators on earth- worms in turf. Unlike controlled research plots, real lawns are simultaneously subject to many types of chemicals and to other types of stress such as dessication and compaction. In our study, we sampled earthworms in real lawns and com- pared populations in high-maintenance lawns (maintained by professional lawn-care com- panies using synthetic chemicals) to those in low-maintenance lawns (maintained by indi- vidual owners by mowing but without using chemicals). MATERIALS AND METHODS Study Area Our study was conducted in Lexington, Fayette County, the second largest city in Kentucky. Lexington, founded about 1779, presently occupies about 12,000 ha and has a population of ca. 242,000. The landscape is a rolling karst plain underlain by phosphatic Lexington Limestone of Ordovician age. Al- though the study area is largely urbanized, na- tive soils are mapped as the Maury-McAfee Association (Sims et al. 1968). About 85% of the map unit is deep and moderately deep, well-drained soils in residuum on olde with silt loam A horizons, silty clay loam B horizons, and clay C horizons (Alfisols and UI- tisols in the USDA taxonomy); the remaining 15% is silt loam soils in alluvium in sinkholes and drains (Mollisols and Inceptisols). The climate is temperate, humid, and con- tinental. Mean annual temperature and pre- cipitation, respectively, are 13°C and 1148 mm. Weather during the 5-day sampling pe- riod of 6 Apr-10 Apr 1998 was normal, with maximum and minimum daily temperatures of 18°C and 7°C, and 30 mm of total precipita- tion. Soils were near optimal moisture content during the sampling period since there had been no extended dry periods and since rain- fall during the preceding 12 months was ca. 8% above average (University of Kentucky Ag- ricultural Weather Center 1999). Lawn Care Survey A Lawn Care Survey was used to locate co- operators and to provide a pool of potential experimental lawns. The survey asked whether the lawn was maintained using lawn-care chemicals (herbicides, fertilizers, etc.), and, if so, if the lawn was maintained by a profes- sional lawn-care service. In addition, the sur- vey identified age of the house, length of time the lawn was maintained under the current maintenance regimen, and other factors that could influence our research. A total of 340 survey forms was distributed through the ad- ministrative offices of the Math, Science & Technology Center and the University of Ken- tucky. Two hundred and four completed sur- vey forms were returned. To minimize vari- ability in maintenance regimen, we first elim- inated all lawns that were maintained by own- ers themselves using lawn-care chemicals. We also eliminated lawns with underground irri- gation systems and fenced-in pets. We then carried out a stratified-random sampling of the remaining lawns to select 15 high-mainte- nance and 15 low-maintenance lawns with about equal distributions in terms of geo- graphic location within Lexington, age of Earthworms in Lawns—Jones and Kalisz 3 Table 1. Characteristics of earthworm populations and of mature and immature earthworm specimens in lawns main- tained by individual owners without the use of lawn care chemicals (low-maintenance) and in lawns maintained by professional lawn care services (high-maintenance) in Lexington, Kentucky. Within a row, different letters indicate that the characteristic differed between maintenance types at the indicated level of significance (P) using Mann-Whitney tests; n = 15 of each type lawn. Earthworm characteristic Number (no/sample frame) Total dry mass (mg/sample frame) Individual dry mass, mature (mg/individual) Individual dry mass, immature (mg/individual) house, and length of time the lawn was man- aged under the current maintenance regimen. Thirty lawns were chosen since this was the number that could be sampled within 1 week, the maximum sampling period that we judged still short enough to avoid variability in weath- er or other factors that could cause earth- worms to move deep into the soil or to aesti- vate. All experimental lawns were associated with single-family homes, were regularly mowed, and were less than 4000 m? in size. Field and Laboratory Methods Earthworms were collected during the pe- riod 6 Apr—10 Apr 1998. The sequence of sampling alternated between high-mainte- nance and low-maintenance lawns, with ran- domized order within each type of lawn. On each lawn, a single random point was chosen away from the influence of structures, walk- ways, trees, and plant beds. Grass was clipped and thatch removed from a smail area sur- rounding the point, and a square 0.1-m? frame was located on the prepared area. Next, 4 li- ters of 0.05% formalin was poured into the soil within the frame. This chemical acts as an ir- ritant that causes many types of earthworms to emerge from soil (Lee 1985) and is consid- ered the single best method for routine mon- itoring of lumbricids (Blair et al. 1996). We collected all earthworms flushed from the soil within the frame during a 10-minute period immediately after adding the formalin solu- tion. We used the dry mass of these earth- worms as the experimental variable to test for difference in earthworm abundance in high- and low-maintenance lawns. Specimens were returned to the laboratory and anaesthetized in 10% EtOH. Each speci- men was identified to genus (immature) or Low-maintenance High-mainenance Median value iP 3.7 b 6.0 a 0.03 320 a 187 b 0.02 130 a 68 b 0.007 43a 19 b <().001 species (mature); anaesthetized length and av- erage diameter were measured. Calculations and Statistical Analysis Dry mass of each specimen was calculated by using anaesthetized length and diameter to calculate volume, assuming the anaesthetized shape to be a right circular cylinder. Volume was then converted to dry mass using Ed- ward's (1967) average values for density (1.064 g/cm?) and percentage dry matter (26%) of lumbricids. Non-parametric Mann-Whitney tests were used to compare high-maintenance versus low-maintenance lawns in terms of the num- ber and total dry mass of earthworms collect- ed per plot and the dry mass of individual earthworms. This was done for all specimens together and for immature and mature speci- mens separately. Spearman’s correlations were used to examine relationships between num- ber and mass of earthworms, age of house, and length of management regimen. Results of all procedures were evaluated at the 0.05 level of significance. All statistical analyses were done with the SPSS computer program (SPSS 1997). RESULTS There was no significant difference between high-maintenance and low-maintenance lawns in the age of the house (P = 0.68) or the length of time the lawn was managed under the current maintenance regimen (P = 0.08). Median values for house age and length of maintenance, respectively, were 26 yr and 12 yr. The genera Lumbricus, Aporrectodea, and Eiseniella were recorded, with Lumbricus dominant in both types of lawns, accounting for 89% of the specimens collected. There was 4 Journal of the Kentucky Academy of Science 61(1) no significant difference (P = 0.19) between the two types of lawns in the proportion of specimens that were immature; the median value was 72%. Maximum earthworm lengths were 60 and 65 mm, respectively, in high- maintenance and low-maintenance lawns; large specimens of L. terrestris were not col- lected. Significantly more earthworms per unit area were collected from high-maintenance versus low-maintenance lawns (Table 1). Con- versely, low-maintenance lawns had pee cantly greater earthworm dry mass per unit area and dry mass per individual earthworm (Table 1). Neither number nor dry mass of Sno a was significantly correlated with house age or le ngth of management. DISCUSSION The conclusion I formed was that the lawn earth- worm is a starved earthworm.... The lawn earth- worms were much smaller and were not nearly so vigorous in their movements. ... The wonder was that worms should be found living in such numbers in the lawn soil in these somewhat unnatural condi- tions. W. H. Hudson 1919, p. 345-346 Our study of high- and low-maintenance lawns supports the conclusion reached 80 years ago by W. H. Hudson (see quote above). The mass of individual earthworms from low- maintenance lawns was similar to the normal range ee by Lee for Lumbricidae (1985, Table 7) whereas the mass of individual earth- worms from high-maintenance lawns was about half normal. Although it is difficult to estimate earthworm densities using the for- malin extraction technique (Lee 1985; Ed- wards and Bohlen 1996), densities calculated from our Table 1 of ca. 80 and 120 individuals/ m?, respectively, for low-maintenance and high-maintenance lawns are far below the 100 to >2000 individuals/m? recorded by Lee for Lumbricidae in temperate pastures (1985, Ta- ble 7). We interpret this as indicating that earthworm growth in our study was more like- ly stunted by the lawn-care chemicals used in high- maintenance lawns than by competitive interactions or ov ercrowding. Other research also supports this conclusion by showing that some lawn and agricultural chemicals may ad- versely affect non-target organisms inchiding earthworms and other soil invertebrates (Pot- ter 1994: Potter et al. 1990). In addition to direct toxicity, such adverse effects may be sublethal and chronic, resulting in slow growth or weight loss (Edwards and Bohlen 1996). Since low-maintenance and high-maintenance lawns were similar in terms of house age and length of time each maintenance regimen had been in use, the direct effect of maintenance regimen was not confounded by residues from past practices or by unequal representation of old and new houses. Invertebrates such as earthworms have both utilitarian and intrinsic value (Samways 1994). The utilitarian value of earthworms as one of the most important members of the soil fauna is widely recognized (Blair et al. 1996; Chris- tians 1998: Edwards and Bohlen 1996; Lee 1985; Turgeon 1999). In addition, it may be argued that ethical consideration of the intrin- sic value of all species requires that humans, at a minimum, avoid causing death or pain to other species when such avoidance has little or no effect on human welfare (Samways 1994). This means that chemicals harmful to earthworms and other soil invertebrates should be avoided unless essential to human survival, health, or opportunity for fulfillment. Pimentel et al. (1992) reviewed a wide va- riety of literature and concluded that the en- vironmental and public health costs of using pesticides were so high that even the contri- butions of pesticides to economic profitability of agriculture was questionable. Furthermore, it was concluded that in agriculture it was pos- sible to reduce pesticide usage by one-half with only minor effects on food prices since, in large part, pesticide use was driven by high cosmetic standards rather than by nutritional standards or plant health requirements (Pi- mentel et al. 1991). This suggests that lawn maintenance, which is clearly less essential to humans than agriculture, should be based on safer and less damaging practices than pres- ently used. In particular, utilization of organic methods for restoring and maintaining soil fer- tility and health, or of native flora or other plant types that can be more naturally and eas- ily maintained than turf, may be reasonable substitutes for the present system of chemical- based lawn care. Organic lawn care should be- come more popular with homeowners as in- formation on organic practices (e.g., WSHU- FM and Duesing 1999) and commercial ser- vices (e.g., Bass Custom Landscapes, Inc. Earthworms in Lawns—Jones and Kalisz 5 1999) becomes available through the intemet (e.g, WSHU-FM and Duesing 1999) and as recommendations on specific techniques be- come available through government organiza- tions such as the USDA Cooperative Exten- sion Service (e.g., Bruneau et al. 1997). ACKNOWLEDGMENTS We thank all the people who gave us per- mission to sample their lawns, Janet Powell for help with the literature, and Elizabeth Kikuchi and Walter Koetke for material and moral sup- port. This is a publication of the Kentucky Ag- ricultural Experiment Station. LITERATURE CITED Bass Custom Landscapes, Inc. 1999. “Alternatives to the ‘Dead Zone.” 2 pp. 21 Oct 1999. . Potter, D. A. 1994. Effects of pesticides on beneficial in- vertebrates in turf. Pages 59-70 in A. Leslie (ed). In- tegrated pest management for turf and ornamentals. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL. Potter, D. A., M. C. Buxton, C. T. Redmond. C. G. Pat- terson, and A. J. Powell. 1990. Toxicity of pesticides to earthworms (Oligochaeta: Lumbricidae) and effect on thatch degradation in Kentucky bluegrass turf. Econ. Entomol. 83:2362-2369. Potter, D. A., P. G. Spicer, C. T. Redmond, and A. J. Powell. 1994. Toxicity of pesticides to earthworms in Kentucky bluegrass turf. Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxi- col. 52:176—181. Samways, M. J. 1994. Insect conservation biology. Chap- man & Hall, London, UK. Sims, R. P., D. G. Preston, A. J. Richardson, J. H. Newton, D. Isrig, and R. L. Blevins. 1968. Soil survey of Fayette County, Kentucky. USDA Soil Conservation Service, Washington, DC. SPSS. 1997. SPSS Base 7.5 for Windows: User’s Guide. SPSS, Inc., Chicago, IL. Turgeon, A. J. 1999. Turfgrass management. 5' ed. Pren- tice Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ. University of Kentucky Agricultural Weather Center. “Lexington Climate Data” 1999: no pagination. 7 Aug 1999. . Vengris, J., and W. A. Torello. 1982. Lawns. Thomson Publications, Fresno, CA. WSHU-FM and Bill Duesing. “Safe and Beautiful Lawns.” 1999. 2 pp. 9 Apr 1999. . L. Sci. 61(1):6-9. 2000 influence of Topography on Local Distributions of Plethodon cinereus and P. richmondi (Plethodontidae) in Northern Kentucky and Southwestern Ohio Stanley E. Hedeen Department of Biology, Xavier University, Cincinnati, Ohio 45207 ABSTRACT In northern Kentucky and southwestern Ohio, the more drought-tolerant ravine salamander, Plethodon richmondi, generally occupied regions with steeper slopes while the red-backed salamander, P. cinereus, was A | g | I located in areas with less relief. On each of six slopes where their ranges overlapped, a relatively higher proportion of P. richmondi occurred on the upper area of the slope where drier conditions predominate, and a relatively higher proportion of P. cinereus existed on the lower portion of the slope where moist microhabitats are more common. Within the range of P. cinereus, four isolated P. richmondi populations coexisted with P. cinereus on dry nose slopes. The local distributions of P. cinereus and P. richmondi are related to topographic features affecting soil moisture content. INTRODUCTION The geographic ranges of the red-backed salamander, Plethodon cinereus, and the ra- vine salamander, P. richmondi, overlap in eight states (Petranka 1998). However, the species usually are not syntopic in their areas of over- lap (Highton 1972; Minton 1972; Pfingsten 1989a). Pfingsten (1989b), for example, re- ported that P. richmondi replaces P. cinereus in three eastern Ohio counties that contain some of the steepest slopes in the state. The purpose of my study was to investigate the in- fluence of topographic features on the local distributions of the two salamanders in north- ern Kentucky and southwestern Ohio. METHODS From 1991 through 1997, I conducted spring and autumn searches for the presence of P. cinereus and P. richmendi (P. electromor- phus sp. nov. according to Highton 1999) at 202 locations in Boone, Kenton, and Campbell counties in Kentucky, and in Hamilton and Butler counties in Ohio. In 1998 and 1999, I returned to six valleyside locations of sympatry and surveyed the salamander population at each as I ascended along a series of switch- backs from the streambank at the bottom to the ridge at the top. Salamanders were found by overturning all manageable surface rocks and fallen logs encountered during my ascent. The animals and cover objects always were re- turned to their original positions. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Only P. richmondi populations were record- ed from the rolling land in the unglaciated southern portion of the three Kentucky coun- ties (Figure 1). In the glaciated area of Ken- tucky, exclusive P. richmondi populations were found only in the stream-dissected lands lo- cated near the Ohio River in northwestern Boone County and between the Licking and Ohio rivers in northeastern Kenton County and northern Campbell County. In glaciated southwestern Ohio, exclusive P richmondi populations in Hamilton County were found only in the stream-dissected areas between the Great Miami and Ohio rivers and between the Little Miami and Ohio rivers. Plethodon rich- mondi populations in Butler County were lo- cated along valley slopes of the Great Miami River and its tributaries. In total, exclusive populations of P._ rich- mondi occurred at 63 sites. Exclusive popula- tions of P. cinereus occurred at 111 sites, all located within the glaciated areas of Kentucky and Ohio that are less dissected. In general, P. richmondi occupied regions with steeper slopes while P. cinereus was located in areas with less relief. Pfingsten (1989b) characterized P. richmon- di as a more drought-resistant species, and Thurow (1968) suggested that P. richmondi re- places P. cinereus at sites that are slightly drier in summer. The contrasting ranges of the two species in northern Kentucky and southwest- Local Distributions of Plethodon—Hedeen i o Plethodon cinereus @ Plethodon richmondi © Both species on Se eo al) ir eae en 7 Ot GREAT I A MIAMI i BUTLER CO. © ! RIVER ! ° I { ~ 1 1 Ps : i © e I fo) o | .° e LITTLE <<, ° ss 1 MIAMI Z! | RIVER £'O, fo) enon i 1 (Gita Sen 2° eee 1 | ZZ) O mo) (o} Ope ° ° 3 —=I9 Co fo) | 8c © HAMILTON Co® ° eS roo) 5 ae Oo Oo oo oo 800 © ° O% o oe ©° a0 329° 0 00 9 goog °; a eo Oo of : . e t Co 0 ee a & y e, Ogid oe e () I 1 0B} - 1 mm)) and invertebrate predators were the most consistent between sites and seasons. Collectors (detritivores feeding primarily upon fine particulate organic matter (FPOM, 0.5-1 mm) deposited either on the substrate surface or within the interstices, or suspended in the water column) and scrapers (grazing herbi- vores feeding upon periphyton and associated material) were more variable in their abun- dances among sites and seasons. Collectors were the most abundant group in both streams in all seasons, ranging from 33% to 56% in BEH and 42% to 50% in PBH. Scrap- ers were the second most abundant group and reached their greatest abundance in winter with lowest proportions observed in summer 14 Journal of the Kentucky Academy of Science 61(1) PBH-Summer BEH-Summer PBH-Fall BEH-Fall PBH-Spring BEH-Spring PBH-Winter BEH-Winter a 28 40 52 64 76 88 100 Percent Similarity Figure 1. Dendrogram showing percent similarity between Poll Branch Hollow (PBH) and Big Everidge Hollow BEH), Letcher County, Kentucky among seasons 1998-1999. and fall. Relative proportions ranged from 17% to 33% in BEH and 13% to 32% in PBH. Shredders represented a smaller proportion at both sites, being most abundant in summer and least in winter. The relative abundance of shredders ranged from 12% to 20% in BEH and 9% to 23% in PBH. Similarly, predators were most abundant in summer and least in winter. Predator abundance ranged from 13% to 21% in BEH and 12% to 20% in PBH. DISCUSSION Community Composition The invertebrate fauna in BEH and PBH consisted mainly of insect larvae typically as- sociated with clean, high-gradient streams in the region. The dominant taxa found in this survey were immature insects that are consid- ered to have univoltine life cycles (Brigham et al. 1982: Merritt and Cummins 1996; Stewart and Stark 1988; Wiggins 1996) and are known to inhabit both intermittent or perennial streams (Feminella 1996). With regard to life history, only a few species were thought to un- dergo semivoltinism in the study streams (e.g., Acroneuria, Nigronia, Cordulegaster, and Styl- ogomphus). The thermal regime exerts consid- erable influence on insect voltinism (Sweeney 1984) and in small, forested streams like BEH and PBH, cool annual temperatures may limit the degree of multivoltinism, which is com- mon in larger, warmer streams (Hynes 1970). I considered overall taxon richness in both study areas to be fairly high, but values varied markedly among sampling season. By contrast, Harker et al. (1980) suggested that small pris- tine mountain streams in Kentucky may have reduced richness and diversity due to low nu- trient or alkalinity values. Vannote and Swee- ney (1980) also indicated that low flow, lower habitat diversity, and greater thermal constan- cy may limit invertebrate taxon richness in small streams. Seasonal differences in species richness are typical of small streams including BEH and PBH that are faced with periods of intermittency where life history adaptations determine species presence and absence. To- tal EPT richness, which is often highly corre- lated with taxon richness, was also high in each stream. Those EPT taxa, in general, represent a group of organisms that are intolerant of en- vironmental stress including water pollution (Lenat 1988) and typically proliferate in clean mountain streams. In my study, BEH had 51 EPT taxa including 14 taxa not encountered in PBH, while PBH had 42 EPT taxa with 6 taxa not collected in BEH. Based on my results, significant differences among richness in BEH and PBH cannot be entirely explained. Wagner and Benfield Macroinvertebrate Communities—Pond 15 Table 3. Seasonal differences in the percent composition of the 5 most abundant taxa occurring in composited Surber samples (n = 4) in Big Everidge Hollow (BEH) and Poll Branch Hollow (PBH), Letcher County, Kentucky during spring (mid-April), summer (late-June), fall (early- December), and winter (early-February). BEH Paraleptophlebia (31) Epeorus (9) Leuctra (9) Baetis intercalaris (4) Diplectrona (4) Spring Summer Leuctra (15) Paraleptophlebia (9) Leucrocuta (7) Sweltsa (7) Fall Paraleptophlebia (12) Diplectrona (10) Ectopria (7) Ameletus (5) Parametriocnemus (5) Winter Epeorus (24) Ephemerella (10) Diplectrona (8) Baetis tricaudatus (5) Paraleptophlebia (5) (1998) found that old-growth forested streams in North Carolina had less biodiversity than catchments logged 85+ yr ago but greater bio- diversity than watersheds logged 25 to 50 yr ago. Their data suggested that macroinverte- brate communities continue to be influenced by logging long after reforestation. In my study, it had been over 50 yr since PBH was clearcut, and 25 yr since it was strip-mined. Observations on substrate composition and microhabitat availability revealed that a mod- erate degree of embeddedness (~50%) was evident in PBH riffles and pools, indicating that interstitial spaces were more frequently clogged with fine sediment. This can result in decreased colonization area for benthic ma- croinvertebrates. Chronic bank erosion from upstream channel modification (i.e., past coal mining and associated instream settling pond and roads) contributes to substantial sedimen- tation and substrate embeddedness. Other factors contributing to lower taxon richness in PBH may be related to water chemistry (i.e., elevated metals and conductivity from coal mining) or disturbance history (ie., logging and mining) and the possible extirpation of headwater species from PBH. With regard to water chemistry, the data found in my study are in very close agreement with those found Stenonema meririvulanum (17) PBH Paraleptophlebia (15) Epeorus (12) Cinygmula (11) Amphinemura (7) Tanytarsus (7) Leuctra (21) Ectopria (10) Paraleptophlebia (10) Diplectrona (7 Acroneuria (7) Diplectrona (30) Neophylax (10) Leuctra (10) Epeorus (5) Paraleptophlebia (4) Ephemerella (21) Epeorus (19) Diplectrona (10) Sweltsa (5) Neophylax (4) by Dyer (1982) who sampled mined and un- mined streams having similar sized watersheds within the Line Fork drainage. In mined streams, he found elevated conductivity and metals in similar proportions as those found in PBH in my study. In undisturbed streams, his values were very similar to those I found in BEH. Although many of the dominant taxa I found were common to both streams, differ- ences in the less frequently collected taxa in BEH appeared to affect total and mean rich- ness indices. For example, sensitive habitat specialists that are locally rare (e.g., the cad- disflies Molanna, Theliopsyche, and Goerita), may be locally extirpated when exposed to se- vere or long-lasting disturbance events such as forest clear-cutting and mining. Drastic chang- es in the food resource base and increased wa- ter temperature are probably the driving fac- tors behind faunistic change (Gurtz and Wal- lace 1984: Stone and Wallace 1998). However, severe sedimentation and embeddedness can cause substantial declines in insect abundance (Waters 1995) or perhaps eliminate rare spe- cies from particular stream reaches. Tempo- rary extirpation is probable when severe dis- turbance events occur at the stream source where reinvasion by drifting organisms is dis- 16 Journal of the Kentucky Academy of Science 61(1) 100% r 90% 80% 70% ° = = 60% 3 @ Predators E 50% & Shredders Z 40% 0) Scrapers 3 @ Collectors = 30% | 20% | 10% Oo% BEH PBH BEH PBH BEH PBH BEH PBH Spring Summer Fall Winter Figure 2. Relative Proportion of Functional Feeding Groups in Big Everidge Hollow BEH) and Poll Branch Hollow PBH Kentucky Letcher (¢ sounty, rupted. Recolonization by adult dispersal is possible, although fauna ‘restricted to head- water streams become somewhat isolated when the stream drains directly into larger streams (e.g., Line Fork Creek). In this case, eolenieaal me occur by “over the moun- tain” adult dispersal which for some EPT taxa, is a “chance event” or may take considerable time (J. Morse, Clemson Univ., pers. comm., 6 Aug 1998). Seasonal trends in estimated densities were consistently found among both study streams. Significant differences between the study streams are probably a result of previously mentioned embeddedness; however, water chemistry and disturbance history may also have an affect on macroinvertebrate abun- dance in PBH. Small headwater streams in- cluding BEH and PBH frequently undergo periods of intermittency during the summer months. This has a considerable impact on macroinvertebrate recruitment and overall rel- ative densities from season to season as well as from year to year (Feminella 1996). More- over, low nutrient or alkalinity levels associat- ed with pristine streams may limit macroin- vertebrate densities and secondary production on an annual basis. among seasons 1998-1999. Functional Feeding Groups Although most benthic macroinvertebrates are considered omnivorous feeders, they can be categorized into “guilds,” or groups of or- ganisms using a particular resource class. An analog to the trophic guild idea is the use of functional feeding groups based on an organ- ism’s morpho-behavioral adaptations for food acquisition (Cummins 1973) rather than solely on the basis of what food is eaten. There is much debate on the overall utility of function- al feeding group analysis since certain species are facultative feeders, or may show marked differences in food use among various life his- tory stages (Allan 1995). However, the relative abundances of feeding guilds still provide use- ful information on the oueaall trophic organi- zation and food resource dynamics of stream reaches. The abundances of the various functional feeding groups did not vary greatly between streams. I expected shredders to be dominant in both streams based on observed inputs of leaf and wood debris into the stream from ri- parian vegetation. However, since quantitative sampling was conducted in riffles, the shred- der component could be underestimated as Macroinvertebrate Communities—Pond 17 the niche of many shredders (e.g., Eurylo- phella funeralis, Pycnopsyche spp.) were found in pools that had accumulated more de- tritus than in riffles. Because benthic algal communities are limited by light in small streams, grazing herbivores (scrapers) are pre- dicted to be less represented in forested head- water streams and to reach their greatest abundance in mid-order streams (Vannote et al. 1980). This was not the case in my study; scrapers were well represented in both streams. The unusually high abundance of scrapers was probably a relict of riffle sam- pling. Collectors further contribute to detritus breakdown in all aquatic systems and their abundance gives a general indication of how much organic matter is stored within a stream reach or specific habitat. Collectors outnum- bered other feeding groups in both study streams in each season, indicating fine detritus as the dominant food-particle size. Unlike the seasonally available food resources used by shredders and scrapers, collectors are not gen- erally limited by seasonality since FPOM transport and deposition is flow dependent and may be affected by biological processing rates (Webster 1983). The relative abundance of predators is generally predicted to remain constant both spatially and temporally along the stream continuum (Vannote et al. 1980). The proportion of this trophic group in each stream appeared to follow this prediction with respect to seasonality and the headwater po- sition of the stream. \ Diversity and the Biotic Index The diversity and biotic indices implied ex- ceptional water quality in BEH and PBH. Very little seasonal differences were observed in these community-level attributes, suggest- ing temporal stability in the communities. The low biotic index values showed that pollution- intolerant species dominated both streams. Al- though the mHBI responds primarily to or- ganic or other toxic pollution, it is less sensi- tive to sedimentation unless the problem is both severe and chronic (pers. obs.). Stone and Wallace (1998) reported that after 16 years of forest succession, mHBI (NCBI) val- ues were not significantly different between a reference stream and one disturbed by clear- cut logging. Since BEH is undisturbed, the presence of several tolerant taxa (TV > 7.0) may suggest that these taxa are “colonists” or “ecological generalists” and that the tolerance values demonstrate euryoecic characteristics. However, the proportion of invertebrates hav- ing high tolerance values in BEH was low, im- plying that these taxa were sporadic colonizers of the stream. Although the % similarity metric strongly suggested different communities among sites (except in winter), assemblages generally con- tained many overlapping taxa. Despite low % similarity between sites, it appeared that sea- sonality was the main factor affecting com- munity composition as indicated by the cluster analyses. The lower degree of community sim- ilarity between seasons was anticipated since many of the univoltine species can be tem- porally absent from the community depending on individual life histories. Egg diapause is common in headwater stream invertebrates, and many species remain within hyporheic habitats for extended periods (Williams 1987) and thus appear to be seasonally absent. These seasonal influences appeared to outweigh dif- ferences possibly associated with disturbance history. CONCLUSION In this study I found that the macroinver- tebrate communities in BEH and PBH rep- resented rich and diverse faunas dominated by aquatic insects that are considered to be highly sensitive to anthropogenic disturbances. How- ever, significant differences and dissimilarities in community structure were observed. The reduced number of species and density of in- dividuals in PBH were possibly related to mi- crohabitat differences among riffle substrates or water chemistry. Riffle embeddedness was probably the most notable microhabitat fea- ture limiting macroinvertebrates in PBH. Both logging and mining through stream channels have the potential to affect downstream hab- itats by intensified erosion and sedimentation. The fact that BEH could consistently support more species and individuals sheds light on the importance of undisturbed watersheds for sustaining invertebrate biodiversity and pro- duction. Despite these pair-wise differences, seasonality was the driving force behind over- all community structure within respective streams. Functionally, the study streams dis- played similar feeding guild abundances, in- 18 Journal of the Kentucky Academy of Science 61(1) dicating no differences in the food-energy base. No exceptionally rare species were col- lected; however, one stonefly genus (Yugus) is reported for the first time in Kentucky; infre- quently collected caddisflies like Molanna and Theliopsyche were found in BEH. Based on my observations of other first-order streams in southeastern Kentucky, the present study re- vealed that the stream draining BEH did not necessarily harbor a unique stream assem- blage but nevertheless characterized a sensi- tive and diverse community that has adapted to relatively continuous, natural ecosystem processes and may be suggestive of the pre- historic norm. However, because of the inter- mittent nature of BEH and PBH, extreme variation in community structure is possible from year to year. This necessitates the need for continued biological monitoring in these streams. Furthermore, research on other as- pects of stream ecosystem structure and func- tion (e.g., nutrient cycling, organic matter re- tention and transport, primary and secondary production) in BEH and PBH would be valu- able to our understanding of the dynamics of old-growth forested watersheds in Kentucky. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I thank Dr. J. Maki (Division of Natural Ar- eas, Eastern Kentucky University), and M. Brotsge and R. Watts (LCW) for logistical help and for the opportunity to collect in LCW. I greatly peas taxonomic. assis- tance provided by R. F. Kirchner (stoneflies), P. Randolph (mayflies), and KDOW person- nel: R. Houp (caddisflies), M. Vogel and C. Schneider (midges). Thanks to J. Brumley, M Compton, S. McMurray, and S. Pond for as- sistance in the field, and to G. Schuster (EKU) and J. Jack (University of Louisville) for re- views and comments on the manuscript. This is Publication 16, Lilley Cornett Woods Ap- palachian Ecological Research Station of East- em Kentucky University. LITERATURE CITED Allan, J. D. 1995. Stream ecology: the structure and func- tion of running waters. Chapman and Hall, London, UK. Barels, G. 1985. A study of the small mammal populations of Lilley Cornett Woods, Letcher County, Kentucky. M.S. Thesis. Eastern Kentucky Univ., Richmond, KY. Brigham, A. R., W. U. Brigham, and A. Gnilka (eds). 1982. The aquatic insects and oligochaetes of North and South Carolina. Midwest Aquatic Enterprises, Mahom- et, IL. A. V., and P. P. Brussock. 1991. Comparisons of benthic invertebrates between riffles and pools. Hydro- biologia 220:99—108. Cairns, J., Jr, and J. R. Pratt. 1993. A history of biological monitoring using benthic macroinvertebrates. Pages 10-27 in D. M. Rosenberg and V. H. Resh (eds). 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E., and J. B. Wallace. 1984. Substrate-mediated response of stream invertebrates to disturbance. Ecol- ogy 65:1556—1569. Harker, D. F., M. L. Warren, K. E. Camburn, S. M. Call, G. J. Fallo, and P. Wigley. 1980. Aquatic biota and water quality survey of the Upper Cumberland River basin. Kentucky Nature Preserves Commission Technical Re- port. Hudson, J. E. 1972. A comparison of breeding bird pop- ulations at selected sites in the southern Appalachians and in the Boston Mountains. Ph.D. Dissertation. Univ. Kentucky, Lexington, KY. Hynes, H. B. N. 1970. The ecology of running waters. Univ. Toronto Press, Toronto, Canada. Kentucky Division of Water. 1996. 1996 Kentucky Report to Congress on Water Quality. Natural Resources and Environmental Protection Cabinet, Frankfort, KY. Lenat, D. R. 1988. Water quality assessment of streams using a qualitative collection method for benthic ma- croinvertebrates. J. North Am. Benthol. Soc. 7:222-233. Lenat, D. R. 1993. A biotic index for the southeastern United States: derivation and list of tolerance values, with criteria for assigning water quality ratings. J. North Am. Benthol. Soc. 12:279-290. Martin, W. H. 1975. The Lilley Cornett Woods: a stable mixed mesophytic forest in Kentucky. Bot. Gaz. 136: 171-182. Brown, Macroinvertebrate Communities—Pond 19 Martin, W. H., and C. Shepherd. 1973. Trees and shrubs of Lilley Cornett Woods, Letcher County, Kentucky. Castanea 38:327—335. Merritt, R. W., and K. W. Cummins (eds). 1996. An in- troduction to the aquatic insects of North America, 3rd ed. Kendall/Hunt, Dubuque, IA. Muller, R. N. 1982. Vegetation patterns in the mixed me- sophytic forest in eastern Kentucky. Ecology 63:1901— 1917. Pielou, E. C. 1975. Ecological diversity. Wiley, New York, NY. Romesburg, H. C., 1990. Cluster analyses for researchers. Robert E. Krieger, Malabar, FL. Shannon, C. E., 1948. A mathematical theory of com- munication. Bell Syst. Techn. J. 27:379-423, 623-656. Sokal, R. R., and F. J. Rohlf. 1973. Introduction to bio- statistics. Freeman, San Fransico, CA. Sole, f. D., S. Lassetter, and W. H. Martin. 1983. The vascular flora of Lilley Cornett Woods, Letcher County, Kentucky. Castanea 48:174—188. Stewart, K. W., and B. P. Stark. 1988. Nymphs of North American stonefly genera (Plecoptera). Entomological Society of America, Lanham, MD. Stone, M. K., and J. B. Wallace. 1998. Long-term recovery of a mountain stream from clear-cut logging: the effects of forest succession on benthic invertebrate community structure. Freshwater Biol. 39:151—169. Sweeney, B. W. 1984. Factors influencing life-history pat- terns of aquatic insects. Pages 56-100 in V. H. Resh and D. M. Rosenberg (eds). The ecology of aquatic in- sects. Praeger, New York, NY. Thorp, J. H., and A. P. Covich (eds). 1991. Ecology and classification of North American freshwater inverte- brates. Academic Press, New York, NY. Vannote, R. L., G. W. Minshall, K. W. Cummins, J. R. Sedell, and C. E. Cushing. 1980. The river continuum concept. Can. J. Fish. Aquatic Sci. 37:130-137. Vannote, R. L., and B. W. Sweeney. 1980. Geographical analysis of thermal equilibria: a conceptual model for evaluating the effect of natural and modified regimes on aquatic insect communities. Am. Naturalist 15:667— 695. Wagner, P. F., and E. F. Benfield. 1998. The long-term effects of logging on aquatic insect assemblages in southern Appalachian streams. Abstract in Bull. North Am. Benthol. Soc. 15(1):131. Waters, T. F. 1995. Sediment in streams: sources, biolog- ical effects, and control. Am. Fish. Soc. Monogr. 7. Webster, J. R. 1983. The role of benthic macroinverte- brates in detritus dynamics of streams: a computer sim- ulation. Ecol. Monogr. 53:383-404. Wiggins, G. B. 1996. Larvae of the North American cad- disfly genera (Trichoptera), 2nd ed. Univ. Toronto Press, Toronto, Canada. Williams, D. D. 1987. The ecology of temporary waters. 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Ky. Acad. Sci. 61(1):23-29. 2000. Constructed Wetlands for Domestic Wastewater Treatment: Survey and Performance in Kentucky George F. Antonious Department of Plant and Soil Science, Atwood Research Facility, Kentucky State University, Frankfort, Kentucky 40601 and Richard C. Warner Department of Biosystems and Agricultural Engineering, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky 40546 ABSTRACT Many residents of Kentucky live in rural areas not served by sanitary sewers. Wastewater must be disposed of in a manner that controls pathogens and other pollutants to protect the public health and minimize impacts on surface and groundwater. A promising solution to the wastewater problem in rural areas is an onsite subsurface flow (SSF) constructed wetland (CW) system for proper wastewater disposal. This paper summarizes results of an extensive CW survey of data collected from 67 county health department offices in Kentucky and the results of monitoring five existing SSF CW systems selected from Marshall, Letcher, and Fayette counties. Counties were grouped into those with <5 CW systems, 5 to 10, 10 to 50, 50 to 100, and >200; counties not using CW systems; and counties not having an exact wetland inventory or updated information. The most common plants used in SSF systems were cattails (Typha latifolia), reed canary grass (Phalaris arundinacea), blue water iris (Iris versicolor), softstem bulrush (Scirpus validus), pickerel weed (Pontederia cordata), and sweet flag (Acorus calamus). The selected SSF CW systems were monitored monthly for temperature, pH, dissolved oxygen (DO), biochemical oxygen demand (BOD,), total suspended solids (TSS), nitrate nitrogen (NO,-N), ammonia nitrogen (NH,-N), orthophosphate (PO, ion), and fecal coliform (FC) bacteria. Effluent BOD, and TSS concentrations averaged 12.3 and 19.8 mg/liter, indicating 68.6 and 84.1% removal, respectively. Ammonia nitrogen removal was low (51%), while nitrate levels dropped from 7.3 in influent wastewater to 1.8 mg/liter in effluent wastewater indicating 75% removal. Removal of orthophosphate ions (soluble phosphorus) averaged 46%. FC reduction averaged 94.7% but still far exceeded the reference level established by EPA. Dissolved oxygen increased from 0.53 mg/liter in influent wastewater to 1.35 mg/liter in the effluent discharge. The limited capacity for NH,-N, PO,, and FC removal necessitates further research into system design to increase efficiency. INTRODUCTION In areas where municipal sewage treatment is not an option because the bedrock is near the surface and infiltration is impossible or where the water table is high and contami- nants could be discharged directly to ground- water, onsite constructed wetland (CW) sys- tems are appropriate. A CW system is defined as a designed and man-made complex that simulates natural wetlands for human use ben- efits. The character of the wetlands can be de- signed to fit the need presented by a particular wastewater to meet specific performance stan- dards. Hammer (1989) indicated that each wetland should consist of five adjustable com- ponents: (1) substrates with various rates of hydraulic conductivity, (2) plants adapted to water-saturated anaerobic substrates, (3) water 23 column flowing in or above substrate’s surface, (4) invertebrates and vertebrates, and (5) aer- obic and anaerobic microbial populations. CW systems are becoming increasingly important as a technology for improving water quality. In SSF CW systems, wastewater is supposed to remain below the media surface; odor and in- sect vector problems are thus eliminated. In addition, no public-access problems exist be- cause wastewater is not exposed. The emergent aquatic plants used in SSF CW systems have the ability to transmit oxy- gen and other gases from the atmosphere through their leaves and stems above water to their root system, thereby producing an aer- obic rhizosphere and thus increasing biological activity. In SSF systems, oxygen does not dif- fuse widely through the bed media but, at the Journal of the Kentucky Academy of Science 61(1) icrosites adjacent to the root hairs, this ox- vgen is the major source in these systems. Further, its availability influences both the rate of BOD removal and nitrification of ammonia Reed and Brown 1992). For optimum per- formance, therefore the roots must penetrate to the bottom of the media to increase avail- ability of oxygen throughout the profile. The subme srged portions of the plants can takeup nutrients and other wastewater constituents and serve as the substrate for attached micro- bial growth. Morphology of aquatic plants varies widely, but for wastewater treatment purposes the plant type is determined by the depth of root and rhizome penetration. Treatment of domestic sewage is a problem confronting small communities throughout the U.S. (Wolverton 1987a). SSF CW _= systems have the capacity to remove a large percentage of the total nitrogen and other pollutants in wastewater (Gersberg et al. 1983) and to sat- isfy regulatory effluent criteria established by the EPA (1993); they can be installed in a suit- able location proximal to the home, taking ad- vantage of land elevations. In all systems, the pollutants are removed by a complex variety of physical, chemical, and biological processes (Brix 1993). The major removal mechanism for nitrogen in CW systems is nitrification-de- nitrification (Gersberg et al. 1983). Oxygen plays an important role for many changes in wastewater composition. One oxygen source in these wetland beds is the leakage from roots of the aquatic plants. Therefore, it is essential to bring the wastewater into direct contact with the root zone. Brix and Schierup (1990) indicated that oxygen may also be supplied as a result of atmospheric air movement into the bed as the feedwater level falls during the flow-off period of an intermittent flow regime and also possibly as a result of flow around the gravel particles and through air-filled pores. A major part of the treatment process for degradation of pollutants is attributed to the microorganisms living on and around root-sys- tems of ihe plant in a symbiotic relationship (Wolverton 1987b). During microbial degra- dation of pollutants, metabolites are produced which the plants absorb and utilize along with nitrogen, phosphorus, and other minerals as a nutrient source while microorganisms use some or all metabolites released through plant roots as such a source. The synergistic effect of this type of technology removes many of the substances contributing to BOD (e.g., NO,, NO,, NH,, and PO, ions) from domestic sew- age wastewaters. A BOD, level of <20 mg/ liter and TSS level of <20 mg/liter meet reg- ulatory effluent criteria, according to EPA reg- ulations (EPA 1993). The increasing interest in CW systems for wastewater treatment in Kentucky is evi- denced by the increasing number of wetlands being constructed. The number of operating systems has increased from fewer than five (Reed and Brown 1992) to over 4000 (Thom et al. 1998). The need for alternative waste- water treatment systems in Kentucky, due to the vulnerability of Kentucky's groundwater to pollution, had been indicated by many authors (Antonious and Byers 1996; Antonious et al. 1998a, 1998b; Steiner and Combs 1993). At least half of Kentucky's aquifer systems occur in karstic regions, which make these aquifers highly susceptible to contamination from the surface (Anonymous 1994). The purpose of our paper is to highlight some of the important operational and moni- toring issues that must be addressed by the scientific and engineering communities for im- proving constructed wetland performance in Kentucky. The main objectives of the study were (1) to establish a wetland inventory that contains type and number of aquatic plants used in CW systems in Kentucky, (2) to iden- tify counties in Kentucky that employ CW technology, and (3) to provide information on the treatment efficiency of SSF CW systems used for single-home wastewater treatment. MATERIALS AND METHODS Wetland Survey The survey data were obtained from differ- ent sources in Kentucky through personal col- lection, electronic files and printed reports, telephone contacts with the Cabinet of Hu- man Resources, and the Department of Health Services/Environmental Management Branch in Frankfort. Each county health de- partment was also contacted individually through telephone inquiries and was request- ed to submit all CW information within the respective district. According to the 1996 sur- vey of Kentucky’s 120 counties, 26 counties do not employ CWs. Within the remaining 94 Constructed Wetlands—Antonious and Warner 25 LEACH FIELD 50 FEET DISTRIBUTION Septic Tank | es Inlet CONTROL BOX (Outlet) Figure 1. Schematic diagram of subsurface flow (SSF) constructed wetland systems in Kentucky for a three-bedroom house. Note that the dosing pit receives wastewater from the septic tank (500 gallon tank) and permits equal distribution throughout the system. Effluent from the wetland system enters a distribution piping of 50 x 3’ long “leach field” before reaching the soil. Circular spots inside wetland beds denote sampling ports used for monitoring the system performance. counties, 27 counties do not have an exact wetland inventory or updated information. A database (d-base III version 1.1) and a com- puter program were created to organize CW records in 67 counties. The information col- lected included the type, number, and distri- bution of aquatic plants used in the different counties and the number of CW systems per county. Wetland Design The wetlands we monitored treat wastewa- ter from single-family dwellings (each home has three bedrooms). The wetland cells were plastic-lined (21.34 m [70’] long, 1.22 m [4’] wide, and 0.46 m [18”] deep). This type of SSF, commonly called a rock-plant filter, was developed by National Aeronautic and Space Administration (NASA) at the National Space Technologies Laboratory in Mississippi (Wol- verton 1987b). Generally, the trench was par- tially filled with No. 2 rock (crushed lime- stone) to a depth of 0.36 m to prevent clog- ging; the water level was maintained at 0.36 m; and the trench was then covered with No. 5 and 6 rock to a depth of 0.46 m. The inlet of the systems received wastewater from the septic tank. The estimated wastewater flow throughout each system was 1.36 m°/day (360 gallons/day). One plant (cattail, Typha latifol- ia) per 0.37 m? of bed surface was set out by CW installers for optimum efficiency (Gers- berg et al. 1983). Wetland Monitoring Five CW systems were selected for moni- toring from Marshall, Letcher, and Fayette counties. Influent and effluent wastewater from each wetland cell was sampled monthly from fixed sampling ports throughout the bed- rock system, the inlet (influent port), and from the discharge end (effluent port) of the wet- land system (Figure 1). Samples were moni- tored for temperature, pH, and dissolved ox- ygen (DO) in the field and analyzed for bio- chemical oxygen demand (BOD.,) in the 5-day test, total suspended solids (TSS), nitrate ni- trogen (NO,-N), ammonia nitrogen (NH,-N), orthophosphate (PO, ion), and fecal coliform (FC) bacteria. The water quality parameters of the collected samples were analyzed at the Water Quality and Environmental Toxicology laboratory at Kentucky State University by the use of standard methods (APHA 1995). Am- monia (NH,-N) was determined by the selec- tive ion electrode method 4500-F; BOD, by method 5210-B; nitrate (NO,-N) by method 4500-NO,-E; orthophosphate by method 4500-P-E; pH by method 4500-H; and total suspended solids by method 2540-D. FC bac- terial analysis was conducted using the mem- brane filter standard method no. 9222 (APHA Journal of the Kentucky Academy of Science 61(1) CI 200 Ne 9 Figure 2. 1995). All samples were collected from sam- pling ports 13 cm above the bottom of the system to avoid disturbing any sediment and were analyzed within 6 hours of sampling; ac- cordingly, no preservatives were added to the samples. Data were analyzed for each water- quality parameter using analysis of variance (ANOVA) procedure (SAS Institute 1991). Means were compared using Duncan’s LSD test (Snedecor and Cochran 1967). RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Most of the SSF CW systems documented in Kentucky are in the southwestern counties (Figure 2). Because of the plant (hydrophyte) diversity present in a natural marsh, many types of plants have been utilized on CW sys- tems. Table 1 shows the main species of plants used in SSF CW systems in Kentucky. The plants most commonly used are cattails, Typha latifolia; reed canary grass, Phalaris arundi- nacea; blue water iris, [ris versicolor: softstem bulrush, Scirpus validus; pickerel weed, Pon- tederia cordata; and sweet flag, Acorus cala- mus. Overall BOD, average value dropped sig- nificantly (P < 0.05) from 39.4 (influent port) Number of subsurface flow (SSF) constructed wetland systems used for wastewater treatment from single- family dwellings and their distribution in Kentucky counties. to 12.3 mg/liter at the discharge, an overall removal of 68.6%. TSS also decreased from 124.5 to 19.8 mg/liter at the discharge port, an 84% removal (Table 2). A common permit re- quirement of BOD, and TSS is 20 mg/liter reference level (EPA 1993). Results also indicated that NO, concentra- tion was significantly reduced from 7.3 mg/li- ter in influent port to 1.8 mg/liter at the dis- charge end of the system (75.2% removal). Because hydrogen ions are produced in the nitrification process, the pH of the system can drop. Below a pH of 6.5, the nitrification pro- cess is inhibited (Ogden 1994). Accordingly, to maintain the system performance sufficient al- kalinity must be present or added to the sys- tem. For this reason, the limestone used as a bedrock in CW systems may aid in the nitri- fication process by adding alkalinity to the wastewater. However, data in Table 2 indicate that the pH of the influent and of the effluent wastewater was about 7 (neutral). Sutton (1990) reported that the alkalinity destruction rate is 7.1 mg alkalinity (as CaCO) per mg of NH,-N (ammonia-nitrogen) oxidized. The systems under study cannot satisfy the discharge requirements of FC removal. Over- Constructed Wetlands—Antonious and Warner 7 Table 1. house in Kentucky. Plant Cattails Reed Canary Grass Blue Water Iris Softstem Bulrush Scientific name Typha latifolia Phalaris arundinacea Iris versicolor Scirpus validus Pickerelweed Pontederia cordata Sweet Flag Acorus calamus Tall Fescue Festuca elatior Arrow Head Sagittaria latifolia Yellow Water Iris Iris pseudacorus Calla Lily . Zantedeschia aethiopica Cardinal Flower Lobelia cardinalis Buttercup Ranunculus flabellaris Other Plants? = Species of plants commonly used for subsurface flow (SSF) constructed wetland system for a three-bedroom Number! of CWs % 136 24.9 69 12.6 67 122 64 11.7 56 10.2 55 10.1 Pil 3.8 18 3.3 10 1.8 8 1.5 4 0.7 3 0.5 36 6.6 1 Number of SSF constructed wetland (CW) systems in Kentucky counties that correspond to each aquatic plant type (based on the 1996 survey conducted ) y: y Pp q P YE ) in this study). Total number of CW systems reported in the survey is 547. 2 Other plants indicate plants used in CW systems other than those described in this table (based on the 1996 survey). all average counts of FC were 1.3 X_ 10°/100 ml of wastewater in influent and 6.8 X 10*/ 100 ml at the discharge end of the system (ef- fluent); however, these remaining levels (Table 2) are still far higher than the discharge re- quirements. Removal of FC bacteria using SSF CW systems is 97.8%. This, however, is not sufficient to meet the usual requirement of 200 colonies/100 ml of water (EPA 1993). The ability of SSF CW systems to remove phosphorus (PO, ions) over the long term ap- pears to be limited. The systems removed 46% of incoming phosphorus (Table 2). Phosphorus removal is dependent on substrate (bedrock) chemical composition. The limited capacity for phosphorus removal (Antonious and Byers 1996; Antonious et al. 1998b; Reed 1991) also could be due to the short retention time and limited interaction with the underlying sub- strate matrix. Wetlands have the capacity to remove large percentages of total nitrogen in wastewater through various biological and chemical reac- tions. Chemoautotrophic nitrifying bacteria, mainly Nitrobacter and Nitrosomonas, oxidize ammonia (NH) to nitrite (NO,) and nitrate (NO), respectively. Nitrate and NO, are re- duced by facultative bacteria to nitrous oxide (N,O) and nitrogen gas (N,) in the anaerobic denitrification process. Oxygen consumption in this process is due to the direct microbial oxidation of organic matter and oxidation of reduced substances (Davido and Conway 1991). Systems with good aeration will likely have most of the nitrogen in the nitrate form. Results of monitoring CW systems selected from Kentucky indicate that treatment of am- monia (NH) is generally less successful than BOD and TSS, with only a few systems dem- onstrating rolienle treatment (Antonious and Table 2. Impact of a subsurface flow (SSF) constructed wetland system for a three-bedroom house on some wastewater quality parameters!. Wastewater parameter Influent Effluent TSS, mg/liter 124.52 + 79.66 a 19.82 + 10.10 b BOD,, mg/liter 39.35 + 19.27 a 12.34 = 7.74 b NH,-N, mg/liter 45.32 + 24.40 a 22.90 + 15.29 b NO,-N, mg/liter 7.30 + 2.06 a 1.8] + 1.50 b Fecal coliform (colonies/100 ml of water) 128465 + 3466592 a 67687 + 167919 a Phosphate Ion (PO,), mg/liter Cale ara 1.76 + 1.04b Dissolved O,, He 0.53 + 0.16 b 1.35 + 0.69 a pH 7.17 +023 a 7.08 + 0.19 a Temperature, °C 14.14 + 126a 13.00 + 2.30 a ‘Each value in the table is an average (n = 60) + SE of 3 years sampling of 5 SSF constructed wetland systems monitored in Marshall, Letcher, and Fayette counties, Kentucky. Values within a row having different letters are significantly different from each other, using Duncan’s LSD test (P < 0.05) 28 Journal of the Kentucky Academy of Science 61(1) Byers 1996: Antonious et al. 1997). The con- straint in treating NH, may be due to inade- quate oxygen in the w etland water column to support biologic: al nitrification of NH,. Most aquatic organisms need dissolved oxygen (DO) levels of 2 mg/liter or more to survive (Anon- ymous 1999). Choate et al. (1993) indicated also that inadequate DO for nitrification pre- vented the satisfactory treatment of NH,. Lev- els of NH, were significantly lower ( 22 meg/ liter) in wastewater Seiinene ‘than in ee (45 mg/liter) (Table 2). This decrease in NH, level should a accompanied by an increase in NO, level during the same sampling period if the nitrification process is occurring properly in the system. But what is clear from the per- centage of NH, removal (51%) is that the sys- tems were not effective in reducing ammonia (NH,). In systems of good performance, the decrease in NH, is due mainly to nitrification during aeration and the decrease in NO,-N is due to denitrification and absorption by wet- land plants. If not treated, FC, NH, and NO, move rap- idly with wastewater through the soil into the groundwater, which may subsequently be used as a source of drinking water. In Kentucky, groundwater is an important source of rural domestic water (KDEP/DOW 1989). The Commonwealth is characterized by 50% karst- ic topography, which is particularly vulnerable to groundwater pollution. Surface activities impact this karstic groundwater through con- tamination by bacteria and nutrients such as FC, PO,, NH, and NO, due to the presence of open conduits. The long-term effects of these contaminants can be very serious, es- pecially if the water table is high or the soil layer thin. Tchobanoglous (1993) indicated that “The SSF systems that have become pop- ular are essentially copied from European practice, with little or no attention to system hydraulics.” As a consequence, a number of the CW treatment systems have failed to meet expectations. One of the major water-quality problems observed during our study is, with few exceptions, the inability of these systems to meet the discharge requirement limits for ammonia, which is believed to be due to the insufficient availability of oxygen to support the activity of the root-attached nitrifying bac- teria. As a result, a large part of the bed be- comes anaerobic, w face precludes nitrification of the wastewater flow passing through the an- aerobic zone. Further research in the system design is needed to increase efficiency for FC, NH,, NO,, and PO, removal. Every failure of an onsite system and every improperly in- stalled onsite system or improper disposal of wastewater can create a potential severe threat to the public and the environment. Wetland problems originate from poor design, instal- lation, or homeowner maintenance. Installa- tion and homeowner maintenance errors can be reduced through hands-on-training and ed- ucation. Our future objective at Kentucky State Uni- versity/Water Quality Research is to combine different types of cells to achieve the desired performance (Antonious 1999). A peat/gravel filter, which has the important advantage of removing N and P from wastewater (Brooks and McKee 1992), can be used for nitrifica- tion. In addition, plant species, plant intensity, water depth, and rock type and porosity can be selected for optimum efficiency. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS We acknowledge Cynthia Popplewell and Frank Young for collecting and assembling the data, John Snyder for his help in organizing the survey data, and Carol Baskin for review- ing an earlier draft of the manuscript. This re- search was funded partially by a 319-NPS grant to Kentucky State University under agreement No. C9994659-95-1 and by a grant from USDA/CSREES to Kentucky State Uni- versity under agreement No. KYX-10-99-33P. LITERATURE CITED [APHA] American Public Health Association. 1995. Stan- dard methods for the examination of water and waste- water, 19th ed. American Public Health Association, Washington, DC. Anonymous. 1994. Kentucky report to congress on water quality. Kentucky N Natural Resources and Environmen- tal Protection Cabinet, Division of Water, June 1994. Anonymous. 1999. Nitrogen runoff from upper midwest affects gulf hypoxia. Keeping Current, an update on Wisconsin's water resources programs and issues. Uni- versity of Wisconsin Extension, Volume 7, Number 1. Antonious, G. F., and M. E. Byers. 1996. Performance of a constructed wetland for on-site wastewater treatment. Trans. Kentucky Acad. Sci. 57:120-125. Antonious, G. F., F. Young, M. E. Byers, C. R. Warner, W. O. Thom, and T. Maxson. 1997. An overview on constructed wetlands in Kentucky. Pages 49-51 in Pro- Constructed Wetlands—Antonious and Warner 29 ceeding of the Kentucky non-point source conference, 16-17 September 1997, Lexington, KY. Antonious, G. F., W. O. Thom, and R. C. Warner. 1998a. Onsite constructed wetlands values and functions. Pag- es 66-68 in Proceeding of the Kentucky non-point source conference, 29 September—1 October 1998. The Center for Rural Development, Somerset, KY. Antonious, G. F., F-Young, and M. E.Byers. 1998b. Con- structed wetlands for water quality improvements. J. Kentucky Acad. Sci. 59:93. (Abstract). Antonious, G. F. 1999. KSU constructed wetland research project. J. Kentucky Acad. Sci. 60:50. (Abstract). Brix, H., and H. H. Schierup. 1990. Soil oxygenation in constructed reed beds: the role of macrophyte and soil- atmosphere interface oxygen transport. Pages 53-66 in P. F. Cooper and B. C. Findlater (eds). Proceedings of the international conference of the use of constructed wetlands in water pollution control. Pergamon Press, Oxford, U.K. Brix H. 1993. Wastewater treatment in constructed wet- lands: system design, removal processes, and treatment performance. Pages 9-22 in G. A. Moshiri (ed). Con- structed wetlands for water quality improvement. Lewis Publishers, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL. Brooks, J. L., and J. A. McKee. 1992. Application of peat on-site wastewater treatment systems in the Ontario en- vironment. Pages 23-30 in Alternative septic systems in Ontario. Conference Proceeding of Waterloo Center for Groundwater Research, Waterloo, Ontario, Canada. Choate, K. D., J. T. Watson, and G. R. Steiner. 1993. TVA’s constructed wetlands demonstration. Pages 509-516 in G. A. Moshiri (ed). Constructed wetlands for water quality improvement. Lewis Publishers, Baco Raton, FL. Davido, R. L., and T. E. Conway. 1991. Nitrification and denitrification at the Iselin march/pond/meadow facility. Pages 477-483 in D. A. Hammer (ed). Constructed wetlands for wastewater treatment: municipal, industri- al, and agriculture. Lewis Publishers, Chelsea, MI. [EPA] Environmental Protection Agency. 1993. Subsur- face flow constructed wetlands for wastewater treat- ment. A technology assessment. United States Environ- mental Protection Agency, Office of Water WH-547, July 1993. Gersberg, R. M., B. V. Elkins, and C. R. Goldman. 1983. Nitrogen removal in artificial wetlands. Water Res. 17: 1009-1014. Hammer, D. A. 1989. Constructed wetlands for waste- water treatment: municipal, industrial and agricultural. Lewis Publishers, Chelsea, MI. [KDEP/DOW] Kentucky Department of Environmental Protection-Division of Water. 1989. Kentucky nonpoint source pollution assessment report, 1989 update, Frankfort, KY. Ogden, M. H. 1994. Ammonia removal in constructed wetlands as a function of water treatment. Pages 120- 127 in E. Collins (ed). On-Site Wastewater Treatment. Proceedings of the Seventh Intemational Symposium on Individual and Small Community Sewage Systems, 11-13 December 1994, Atlanta. GA. Reed, S. C. 1991. Constructed wetlands for wastewater treatment. BioCycle 32:44 49. Reed, S., and D. S. Brown. 1992. Constructed wetland design. The first generation. Water Environ. Res. 64: 776-781. SAS Institute. 1991. SAS/STAT Guide, release 6.03 edi- tion. SAS Institute Inc., SAS Campus Drive, Cary, NC. Snedecor, F. W., and W. G. Cochran. 1967. Statistical methods. 6th ed. Iowa State Univ. Press, Ames, IA. Steiner, G. R., and D. W. Combs. 1993. Small constructed wetland systems for domestic wastewater treatment and their performance. Pages 491-498 in G. A. Moshiri (ed). Constructed wetlands for water quality improve- ment. Lewis Publishers, Boca Raton, FL. Sutton, P. M. 1990. Process chemistry and kinetics of bi- ological nitrification. Pages 87-311 in Nitrogen control. USEPA 1990. Technomic Publishing Co., Lancaster, PA. Tchobanoglous, G. 1993. Constructed wetlands and aquat- ic plant systems: Research, design, operational, and monitoring issues. Pages 23-33 in G.A. Moshiri (ed). Constructed wetlands for water quality improvement. Lewis Publishers, CRC Press Inc., Boca Raton, FL. Thom, W. G., Y. T. Wang, and J. S. Dinger. 1998. Long- term results of residential constructed wetlands. Pages 220-227 in Onsite wastewater treatment. Proceedings of the Eighth National Symposium on Individual and Small Community Sewage Systems. 8-10 March 1998, Orlando, FL. Wolverton, B. C. 1987a. Artificial marshes for wastewater treatment. Pages 141-52 in K. R. Reddy and W. H. Smith (eds). Aquatic plants for water treatment and re- source recovery. Magnolia Publishing, Orlando, FL. Wolverton, B. C. 1987b. Aquatic plant/microbial filters for treating septic tank effluent. Pages 173-181 in K. R. Reddy and W. H. Smith (eds). Aquatic plants for water treatment and resource recovery. Magnolia Publishing, Orlando, FL. Acad 61(1):30-33. 2000 x ‘annyberry (Viburnum lentago L.; Caprifoliaceae) Excluded from the Kentucky Flora Timothy J. Weckman Department of Biological Sciences, Eastern Kentucky University, Richmond, Kentucky 40475 ABSTRACT According to historic and current botanical literature Viburnum lentago L., nannyberry, is an element of the Kentucky flora. A request for all herbarium specimens of Viburnum taxa collected in Kentucky was sent to 28 herbaria across eastern United States; 1023 specimens were received in response. Of the 20 labeled as V. lentago, none was referable to that species. Extensive fieldwork across all physiographic regions of Kentucky was undertaken to try to locate occurrences of V. lentago; no populations were found. Viburnum lentago is rejected as an element in the Kentucky flora. Diagnostic characteristics are provided to differentiate V. lentago from closely allied species with which it is often confused. INTRODUCTION Viburnum lentago L., nannyberry, is a small tree or a large shrub distributed in north cen- tral and northeastern United States and adja- cent Canada (Little 1976). Its habitat has been described as rocky hillsides, woodland edges, sedge meadows, stream banks, shrubby swamps, and swampy woods (Elias 1987; Voss 1996). Botanical literature from the early 1800s to the 1990s includes nannyberry as a component of the Kentucky flora (Browne and Athey 1992; Duncan and Duncan 1988; Gar- man 1913: Heineke 1987; KSNPC 1996; Lin- ney 1882; McAtee 1956: M’Murtrie 1819; Short et al. 1833; Torrey and Gray 1841; Wharton and Barbour 1973). Several county or regional floras and generic treatments have also reported V. lentago as occurring in Ken- tucky (Greenwell 1935; Huffaker 1975; Kear- ney 1893; Rader 1976) and have cited herbar- ium specimens to document its occurrence. Conversely, V. lentago has been omitted or re- jected for Kentucky during much of the same time period by other studies (Braun 1943; Eli- as 1987; Gunn 1968; Jones 1983; KSNPC 1997; Little 1976; Medley 1993). Thus the lit- erature concerning presence or absence of V. lentago in the flora of Kentucky is ambiguous. Early works by Short et al. (1833) and Tor- rey and Gray (1841) stated that V. lentago oc- curs in Kentucky. In the late 1800s Kearney (1893) also reported V. lentago as occurring in Kentucky and referred to vouchers of V. len- tago collected in Harlan County. Additionally, Linney (1882) reported V. lentago in his sur- vey results from five central and west central 30 Kentucky counties. In the early part of the 20th century Garman (1913) included V. len- tago in his Kentucky woody plant list and as- cribed it to Bath, Bell, and Fayette counties. Unfortunately, very few Garman collections survived the fire at the University of Kentucky in 1948 (Jones and Meadows 1948). In her flora of Nelson County, Greenwell (1935) also reported collecting V. lentago from a “lime- stone hillside, Cox Creek.” In a statewide treatment, Braun (1943) reported nine species in the genus but omitted V. lentago. However, V. lentago was again included in the Kentucky flora by McAtee (1956). He reported the range of V. lentago as including the northeast- em states and adjacent Canada with occasional populations in Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, and Kentucky (Ballard County). In the mid 1960s Gunn (1968) found no V. lentago plants in his survey of Jefferson, Bullitt, Hardin, Jefferson, Meade, Nelson, Oldham, Shelby, and Spencer counties. Gunn also rejected the claims of Greenwell and M’Murtrie because “no speci- men was located to support the author's claim.” Wharton and Barbour (1973) included V. lentago and noted that nannyberry is “often planted where a large shrub is desired, but in the wild it is rare in Kentucky.” In a flora of a portion of Tygarts Creek in Carter County, Huffaker (1975) noted that V. lentago was “frequent.” Rader (1976) conducting a biosys- tematic study of V. rufidulum Raf. and V. prunifolium L., reported collecting V. lentago in Franklin County, Kentucky. She also pro- vided a range map showing V. lentago distrib- uted across much of north central and eastern Nannyberry—Weckman 31 Kentucky. In a nationwide treatment, Little (1976) mapped V. lentago as absent from Ken- tucky as did Jones (1983), who mapped V. len- tago to the north and east of Kentucky at more northerly latitudes or, for populations east of Kentucky, at higher elevations. In the late 1980s, V. lentago was again mapped in Ken- tucky by Duncan and Duncan (1988). In the 1990s, V. lentago was also recorded as occur- ring in the Cumberland Plateau of Kentucky by Browne and Athey (1992). And as recently as 1996, nannyberry has been state listed as rare based on historical records (KSNPC 1996). The goal of my study was to address the ambiguity in the literature regarding the oc- currence of V. lentago in Kentucky. I reviewed all literature ascribing V. lentago to Kentucky, examined and annotated all obtainable her- barium vouchers collected in Kentucky and identified as V. lentago, and searched for pop- ulations of this species in likely habitats across the state. MATERIALS AND METHODS Literature reviews of botanical research in Kentucky were compiled by Davies (1953), Fuller (1979), Fuller et al. (1989), and Medley (1993). Sources within these compilations in- clude primary research articles and floristic lists for the state that contain reference to Vi- burnum taxa, including V. lentago. A review of these sources was conducted to find referenc- es about V. lentago in previously published works. A review of the literature also revealed likely locations of specimens and was useful in directing loan requests. Requests for loans of all Viburnum taxa col- lected in Kentucky were sent to 28 herbaria across eastern United States. I hoped to locate all V. lentago material as well as any Viburnum material mis-identified but referable to V. len- tago. Herbaria nearby, or without lending pol- icies, were visited in person. Habitat require- ments of nannyberry were compiled from field guides and manuals (Deam 1932; Elias 1987; Gleason and Cronquist 1991; Voss 1996) to aid in my field search for Viburnum conducted from 1994 to 1998 across all physiographic re- gions of the state. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Fifteen literature citations, including regional and county floras as well as state-wide plant lists, were found to include V. lentago as part of the Kentucky flora. A lesser number of sources (seven), either did not mention or spe- cifically rejected V. lentago from Kentucky. Only four of the sources cited collections, col- lection number, and herbarium of deposit of specimens labelled as V. lentago collected in Kentucky. Although most published sources indicated that V. lentago occurs in Kentucky, the number of these claims based on speci- mens were few. No previous reference was lo- cated that reviewed all specimens and litera- ture sources to address the presence/absence ambiguity of nannyberry. Loan requests and herbarium visits resulted in locating 1023 Viburnum specimens collect- ed in Kentucky. Twenty vouchers labelled as V. lentago were received from 14 herbaria. Three purported V. lentago collections, cited in the literature and expected on loan, were not received. The V. lentago vouchers, col- lected in Kentucky between 1831 and 1988, represented material from the Bluegrass, Mis- sissippian Plateau, Cumberland Plateau, and Coastal Plain physiographic regions of the state. All of these were referable to other spe- cies in Viburnum (Table 1), most commonly V. prunifolium. Numerous problems were encountered when trying to assemble nannyberry vouchers for review. Many early Kentucky collections have been lost or exist only outside the state. In several cases, collections could not be lo- cated in herbaria. For example, although num- bered specimens were cited in their publica- tions, neither Rader’s collection of V. lentago from Franklin County nor Greenwell’ collec- tion of V. lentago from Nelson County could be located. Additionally, Athey’s collection of V. lentago from the Cumberland Plateau (cited in Browne and Athey 1992) could not be lo- cated at MEM or MUR. Additional efforts were taken to travel to the field sites specified by Greenwell and Rader and to relocate the Viburnum populations they may have sam- pled. The Nelson County search yielded col- lections of V. prunifolium (23 Apr 1995, Weck- man and Weckman 1329 EKY) and V. ruft- dulum (23 Apr 1995, Weckman and Weckman 1328 EKY). The Franklin County search also produced collections of V. rufidulum (27 Sep 1998, Weckman and Weckman 4420 EKY) and V. prunifolium (27 Sep 1998, Weckman and Journal of the Kentucky Academy of Science 61(1) Summary of Kentucky specimens misidentified as Viburnum lentago in various U.S. herbaria. Herbarium Referable to: nnn _——2$ $$$ eee Year collected PH Viburnum rufidulum 29 lable | TG lactoe an 1 number H. H. Eaton 110 1831 |. S. Terrill s.n. 1892 J. S. Terrill s.n 1892 H. Garman s.n 1893 T. H. Kearney 325 1893 T. H. Kearney 325 1893 T. H. Kearney 325 L893 T. H. Kearney 325 1893 T. H. Kearney 325 1893 H. Garman s.n. 1900 S. F. Price s.n. 1902 E. J. Palmer 16574 1919 E. J. Palmer 16574 1919 E. J. Palmer 16574 1919 R. A. Greenwell s.n 1933 ]. Grossman 615 1965 C. W. Conn s.n. 1974 W. Meijer et al. 1189 1974 W. Huffaker et al. 805 1974 W. Huffaker et al. 1155 1974 L. L. Rader 1086 1975 H. Bryan 2008 1988 R. Athey it Weckman 4410 EKY). Habitats at both sites were unlike those described for nannyberry populations. Insufficient locality data were available to attempt relocation of the Athey Cumberland Plateau site. However, 102 of the 120 counties of Kentucky across all physio- graphic regions of the state were searched. These field efforts resulted in ca. 375 collec- tions of Viburnum from 98 Kentucky counties, but no native or adventive V. lentago was lo- cated. af It should be noted that correctly deter- mined V. lentago material was received in a loan from MDKyY. These collections (Carr, 22 Jun 1936, MDKY accession #00720, 00721), although labeled as collected in Kentucky, are rejected as representing Kentucky material. Most likely, these vouchers represent collec- tions made in New York and mislabeled in processing subsequent to the death of the col- lector (Cranfill 1980, p. 63; H. Setser, More- head State University, pers. comm., 5 Dec 1996; A. Risk, Morehead State University, pers. comm., 14 Nov 1997). Viburnum lentago is cultivated in the state according to Medley (1993) in Bernheim For- est, Bullitt County, and Cherokee Park, Jef- ferson County. It is also known from cultiva- tion in Madison County (Berea College cam- KES V. prunifolium UK V. prunifolium UK V. prunifolium A V. prunifolium GH V. prunifolium MO V. prunifolium NY V. prunifolium US V. prunifolium UK V. prunifolium SIU V. rufidulum A V. prunifolium MO V. prunifolium PH V. prunifolium NA could not be located BEREA V. prunifolium UK V. rufidulum MDKY V. prunifolium MDKyY V. prunifolium MDkKyY V. prunifolium TENN could not be located EKY V. prunifolium MEM could not be located pus, 10 Sep 1993, Abbott 6274 BEREA; Berea College campus, 3 Jun 1997, Weckman 3505 EKY); in Powell County at Natural Bridge State Park (Hemlock Lodge, 7 May 1994, Weckman and Weckman 686 EKY; Hemlock Lodge, 6 Jul 1995, Weckman and Weckman 1723 EKY); and on the campus of Northern Kentucky University (J. W. Thieret, Northern Kentucky University, pers. comm., 31 Dec 1999). Because V. lentago is used in cultivation in Kentucky, it has the potential to naturalize at some point. Viburnum lentago is most often confused with V. prunifolium and to a lesser degree with V. rufidulum. It may be differentiated from V. rufidulum by leaf and pubescence character- istics. Leaves in V. rufidulum are thick, elliptic in outline, rounded to retuse at the tip, and rusty-red tomentose on petioles, midrib, and buds. The leaves of V. lentago, in contrast, are thin, generally oblong in outline, long acumi- nate at the tip, and covered below with golden brown, peltate scales. Differences distinguish- ing V. prunifolium from V. lentago include acute leaf tips and lack of peltate scales on the lower leaf surface in V. prunifolium. Addition- ally, the calyx is stipitate on the fruit of V. prunifolium, but sessile in V. lentago. Viburnum lentago is thus rejected as an in- Nannyberry—Weckman 33 digenous element of the flora and is known only as a cultivated plant in Kentucky at this time. Managers of forest lands, preserves, and natural areas in Kentucky should be cognizant of the non-native status of this species in the state. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I thank the curators of the following her- baria and collections for access to specimens: A, APSC, BEREA, Campbellsville University, Campbellsville, Kentucky, Cumberland Col- lege, Williamsburg, Kentucky, DHL, EKY, GA, Georgetown College, Georgetown, Ken- tucky, GH, College of Agriculture Herbarium, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky (KES), KNK, MDKY, MEM, MICH, MO, MOR, MU, MUR, NA, NCU, NY, PH, TENN, SIU, UK, US, and WKU (acronyms follow Holmgren et al. 1990, except KES). LITERATURE CITED Braun, E. L. 1943. An annotated catalog of spermato- phytes of Kentucky. J. S. Swift Company, Cincinnati, OH. Browne, E. T., and R. Athey. 1992. Vascular plants of Ken- tucky: an annotated checklist. Univ. Press of Kentucky, Lexington, KY. Cranfill, R. 1980. Ferns and fern allies of Kentucky. Ken- tucky Nature Preserves Comm. Sci. Techn. Ser. 1. Davies, P. A. 1953. The status of floristic studies in Ken- tucky. Trans. Kentucky Acad. Sci. 14:49-58. Deam, C. C. 1932. Shrubs of Indiana, 2nd ed. Wm. B. Burford Printing Company, Indianapolis, IN. Duncan, W. H., and M. B. Duncan. 1988. Trees of the southeastern United States. Univ. Georgia Press, Ath- ens, GA. Elias, T. S. 1987. The complete trees of North America: field guide and natural history. Gramercy Publishing Company, New York, NY. Fuller, M. J. 1979. Field botany in Kentucky: a reference list. Trans. Kentucky Acad. Sci. 40:43-51. Fuller, M. J., M. Woods, and J. T. Grubbs. 1989. Field botany in Kentucky: reference list II. Trans. Kentucky Acad. Sci. 50:161-173. Garman, H. 1913. The woody plants of Kentucky. Bull. Kentucky Agric. Exp. Sta. 169:1-62. Greenwell, R. A. 1935. A flora of Nelson County, Ken- tucky with a selected list of economically important plants. Nazareth College, Louisville, KY. Gunn, C. R. 1968. The flora of Jefferson and seven ad- jacent counties, Kentucky. Ann. Kentucky Soc. Nat. Hist. 2:1-322. Gleason, H. A., and A. Cronquist. 1991. Manual of the vascular plants of northeastern United States and ad- jacent Canada, 2nd ed. New York Botanical Garden, Bronx, NY. Heineke, T. E. 1987. The flora and plant communities of the middle Mississippi river valley. Ph.D. Dissertation. Southern Illinois University, Carbondale, IL. Holmgren, P. K., N. H Holmgren, and L. C. Barnett. 1990. Index Herbariorum. Regnum Vegetabile No. 120. Part I: the herbaria of the world, 8th ed. New York Botanical Garden, Bronx, NY. Huffaker, W. M. 1975. A preliminary survey of the vas- cular flora of Upper Tygarts Creek, Carter County, Ken- tucky. M.S. Thesis. Morehead State University, More- head, KY. Jones, T. H. 1983. A revision of the genus Viburnum sec- tion Lentago (Caprifoliaceae). Ph.D. Dissertation. North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC. Jones, G. N., and E. Meadows. 1948. Principal institu- tional herbaria of the United States. Am. Midl. Natu- ralist 40:724—740. Keamey, T. H., Jr. 1893. Notes on the flora of southeast- em Kentucky, with a list of plants collected in Harlan and Bell counties in 1893. Bull. Torrey Bot. Club 20: 474-485. [KSNPC] Kentucky State Nature Preserves Commission. 1996. Rare and extirpated plants and animals of Ken- tucky. Trans. Kentucky Acad. Sci. 57:69-91. [KSNPC] Kentucky State Nature Preserves Commission. 1997. Rare and extirpated plants and animals of Ken- tucky: 1997 update. Trans. Kentucky Acad. Sci. 58:96— 99. Linney, W. M. 1882. Report on the botany of Madison, Lincoln, Garrard, Washington, and Marion counties, Kentucky. Bull. Kentucky Geol. Surv., Ser. II. 7:3-57. Little, E. L., Jr. 1976. Atlas of United States trees. Vol. 4. Minor eastern hardwoods. USDA Misc. Publ. 1342. McAtee, W. L. 1956. A review of the nearctic Viburnum. Published by the author, Chapel Hill, NC. M’Murtrie, H. 1819. Sketches of Louisville and its envi- rons; including, among a great variety of miscellaneous matter, a florula louisvillensis. S. Penn, Louisville, KY. Medley, M.E. 1993. An annotated catalogue of the known or reported vascular flora of Kentucky. Ph.D. Disser- tation. University of Louisville, Louisville, KY. Rader, L. L. 1976. A biosystematic study of Viburnum prunifolium and Viburnum rufidulum (Caprifoliaceae). M.S. Thesis. University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN. Short, C. W., R. Peter, and H. A. Griswold. 1833. A cat- alogue of the native phaenogamous plants and ferns of Kentucky. Transylvania J. Med. Assoc. Sci. 6:490-501. Torrey, J., and A. Gray. 1841. Viburnum. Pages 13-19 in A flora of North America. [Reprint of 1838-1843 edi- tion. New York: Hafner, 1969. | Voss, E. G. 1996. Michigan flora, Part III. Cranbrook Inst. Sci. Bull. 61 and University of Michigan Herbarium, Ann Arbor, MI. Wharton, M. E.. and R. W. Barbour. 1973. Trees and shrubs of Kentucky. Univ. Press of Kentucky, Lexington, KY. J. Ky. Acad. Sci. 61(1):34—45. 2000 Some Algae of Land Between The Lakes, Kentucky and Tennessee, I. Chlorophyta Gary E. Dillard Center for Biodiversity Studies, Department of Biology, Western Kentucky University, Bowling Green, Kentucky 42101 ABSTRACT This paper lists 124 species of chlorophyte algae collected at Land Between The Lakes, Kentucky and Tennessee, and previously unreported or infrequently reported as occurring in Kentucky. Included are first Kentucky records for species of the genera Chlorogonium and Docidium. INTRODUCTION Land Between The Lakes (LBL) is a 170,000-acre national recreation area in west- ern Kentucky and Tennessee. LBL is an in- land peninsula resulting from the impound- ment of the Cumberland and Tennessee riv- ers, giving rise to Lake Barkley on the eastern border and Kentucky Lake on the western border. Over a period of several years (1989— 1999) I secured periodic samples of the phy- toplankton and metaphyton from Duncan Lake (Lyon County, Kentucky) and Energy Lake and Hematite Lake (Trigg County, Ken- tucky) and analyzed them for the algal taxa present. Phytoplankton was collected with a plankton net (80 zm), and metaphyton was collected by hand squeezing aquatic macro- phytes present in the lakes. CHECKLIST OF CHLOROPHYTA Nomenclature follows that of Prescott (1962); Prescott, Croasdale, and Vinyard (1972, 1975, 1977): Prescott, Croasdale, Vin- yard, and Bicudo (1981); Prescott, Bicudo, and Vinyard (1982); Croasdale, Bicudo, and Prescott (1983); Komarek and Fott (1983); Kadlubowska (1984); and Mrozinska (1985). All previous reports of chlorophyte algae from Kentucky are presented with descriptions and pertinent literature citations in Dillard (1989a, 1989b, 1990, 1991la, 1991b, 1993). Checklist entries preceded by a double asterisk repre- sent new generic reports for Kentucky; those preceded by a single asterisk represent new reports of infra-generic rank. Others represent records of algal taxa infrequently reported from Kentucky. 34 VOLVOCALES **Chlorogonium euchlorum Ehrenberg. Dun- can and Energy lakes. Pl. 1, Fig. 1. TETRASPORALES Gloeocystis planctonica (West & West) Lem- mermann. Duncan, Energy, and Hematite lakes. Pl. 1, Fig. 2. CHLOROCOCCALES Planktosphaeria gelatinosa G.M. Smith. Duncan, Energy, and Hematite lakes. PI. Ly hig as. Tetraedron minimum (Braun) Hansgrig. Duncan, Energy, and Hematite lakes. PI. 1. Big. 4. T. regulare Kuetzing. Energy and Hematite lakes. Pl. 1, Fig. 5. Schroederia setigera (Schroeder) Lemmer- mann. Duncan Lake. Pl. 1, Fig. 6. Sphaerocystis schroeteri Chodat. Duncan, En- ergy, and Hematite lakes. Pl. 1, Fig. 7. Oocystis parva West & West. Duncan and He- matite lakes. Pl. 1, Fig. 8. *O. solitaria Wittrock. Duncan Lake. Pl. 1, Fig. 9. Eremosphaera viridis DeBary. Duncan and Hematite lakes. Pl. 1, Fig. 10. *Nephrocytium obesum West & West. Dun- can, Energy, and Hematite lakes. Pl. 8, Fig. 12. Kirchneriella lunaris (Kircher) Moebius. Dun- can and Hematite lakes. Pl. 1, Fig. 11. K. obesa (West) Schmidle. Duncan and He- matite lakes. Pl. 1, Fig. 12. Selenastrum gracile Reinsch. Duncan and He- matite lakes. Pl. 1, Fig. 13. Ankistrodesmus falcatus (Corda) Ralfs. Dun- Algae of Land Between the Lakes—Dillard Peso wee veces Dewey ee. -~ .° - Agora 2p _G@ wer Mem eee ee th TE Hew pepe eters em Plate 1. 35 1. Chlorogonium euchlorum; 2. Gloeocystis planctonica; 3. Planktosphaeria gelatinosa; 4. Tetraedron mini- mum; 5. T. regulare; 6. Schroederia setigera; 7. Sphaerocystis schroeteri; 8. Oocystis parva; 9. O. solitaria; 10. Ere- mosphaera viridis; 11. Kirchneriella lunaris; 12. K. obesa; 13. Selenastrum gracile; 14. Ankistrodesmus falcatus. 36 Journal of the Kentucky Academy of Science 61(1) can, Energy, and Hematite lakes. Pl. 1, Fig. 14. A. spiralis (Turner) Lemmermann. Duncan and Energy lakes. Pl. 2, Fig. 1. Closteriopsis longissima Lemmermann, Dun- can and Hematite lakes. Pl. 2, Fig. 2. Quadrigula chodatii (Tanner-Fullman) G.M. Smith. Duncan lake. Pl. 2, Fig. 3. Golenkinia radiata (Chodat) Wille. Duncan and Hematite lakes. Pl. 2, Fig. 4. Botryococcus braunii Kuetzing. Duncan, En- ergy, and Hematite lakes. Pl. 2, Fig. 5. Dictyosphaerium pulchellum Wood. Duncan and Hematite lakes. Pl. 2, Fig. 6. Coelastrum cambricum Archer. Hematite Lake. Pl. 2, Fig. 7. C. microporum Naegeli. Energy and Hematite lakes. Pl. 2, Fig. 8. Crucigenia tetrapedia (Kirchner) West & West. Duncan and Hematite lakes. Pl. 2, Fig. 9. * Scenedesmus bicaudatus (Hansgirg) Chodat. Hematite Lake. Pl. 2, Fig. 10. S. dimorphus (Turpin) Kuetzing. Duncan, En- ergy, and Hematite lakes. Pl. 2, Fig. 11. S. obtusus Meyen. Duncan, Energy, and He- matite lakes. Pl. 2, Fig. 12. S. quadricauda (Turpin) Brebisson. Duncan, Energy, and Hematite lakes. Pl. 2, Fig. 13. Actinastrum gracillimum G.M. Smith. Hema- tite Lake. Pl. 2, Fig. 14. *Sorastrum americanum (Bohlin) Schmidle. Duncan Lake. Pl. 2, Fig. 15. Pediastrum boryanum (Turpin) Meneghini. Duncan, Energy, and Hematite lakes. Pl. 2, Fig. 16. P. duplex Meyen. Duncan, Energy, and He- matite lakes. Pl. 2, Fig. 17. P. simplex Meyen. Duncan and Energy lakes. Pl. 2, Fig. 18. MICROSPORALES *Microspora pachyderma (Wille) Lagerheim. Hematite Lake. Pl. 3, Fig. 1. CHAETOPHORALES Coleochaete orbicularis Pringsheim. Hematite Lake. Pl. 3, Fig. 2. C. scutata Brebisson. Hematite Lake. Pl. 3, Fig. 3. OEDOGONIALES Several species of Oedogonium and Bulbo- chaete were collected from Duncan, Energy, and Hematite lakes but could not be identified to the species level due to the absence of ma- ture Oospores. *Oedogonium boscii (LeClerc) Wittrock. Duncan Lake. Pl. 3, Fig. 4. *O. capilliforme Kuetzing. Duncan Lake. PI. 3, Fig. 5. *O. cardiacum (Hassall) Wittrock. Hematite Lake. Pl. 3, Fig. 6. O. grande Kuetzing. Hematite Lake. Pl. 3, Fig, 7. Bulbochaete varians Wittrock. Duncan Lake. Pl. 3, Fig. 8. ZYGNEMATALES Several species of Spirogyra, Mougeotia, and Zygnema were collected from Duncan, Energy, and Hematite lakes but could not be identified to the species level due to the ab- sence of mature zygospores. Spirogyra communis (Hassall) Kuetzing. Dun- can and Hematite lakes. Pl. 3, Fig. 9. S. pratensis Transeau. Energy Lake. Pl Aa Fig. 10. S. varians (Hassall) Kuetzing. Hematite Lake. Pl. 3, Fig. 11 *Mougeotia boodlei (West & West) Collins. Hematite Lake. Pl. 3, Fig. 12. M. sphaerocarpa Wolle. Energy Lake. Pl. 3, Fig. 13. *Zygnema decussatum (Vaucher) Agardh. Duncan Lake. Pl. 3, Fig. 14. Spirotaenia condensata Brebisson. Hematite Lake. Pl. 4, Fig. 1. Netrium digitus (Ehrenberg) Itzigson & Rothe. Duncan and Hematite lakes. Pl. 4, Fig. 2. *Gonatozygon brebissonii DeBary. Duncan, Energy, and Hematite lakes. Pl. 4, Fig. 3. Penium margaritaceum (Ehrenberg) Brebis- son. Duncan, Energy, and Hematite lakes. Pl. 4, Fig. 4. Closterium abruptum West. Duncan Lake. ith 4, Fig. 5. C. ehrenbergii Meneghini. Duncan and He- matite lakes. Pl. 4, Fig. 6. C. setaceum Ehrenberg. Duncan and Hema- tite lakes. Pl. 4, Fig. 7. ** Docidium baculum Brebisson. Duncan and Hematite lakes. Pl. 4, Fig. 8. **D. undulatum Bailey. Hematite Lake. PI. 4, Fig. 9. Algae of Land Between the Lakes—Dillard On Plate 2. 1. Ankistrodesmus spiralis; 2. Closteriopsis longissima; 3. Quadrigula chodatii; 4. Golenkinia radiata; 5. Bo- tryococcus braunii; 6. Dictyosphaerium pulchellum; 7. Coelastrum cambricum: 8. C. microporum; 9. Crucigenia tetra- pedia; 10. Scenedesmus bicaudatus: 11. S. dimorphus; 12. S. obtusus; 13. S. quadricauda; 14. Actinastrum gracillimum; 15. Sorastrum americanum: 16. Pediastrum boryanum; 17. P. duplex; 18, P. simplex. 38 Journal of the Kentucky Academy of Science 61(1) Plate 3. 1. Microspora pachyderma; 2. Coleochaete orbicularis; 3. C. scutata; 4. Oedogonium boscii; 5. O. capilliforme; 6. O. cardiacum; 7. O. grande; 8. Bulbochaete varians; 9. Spirogyra communis; 10. S. pratensis; ll. S. varians; 12. Algae of Land Between the Lakes—Dillard 39 17 20 Plate 4. 1. Spirotaenia condensata; 2. Netrium digitus; 3. Gonatozygon brebissonii; 4. Penium margaritaceum; 5. Closterium abruptum; 6. C. ehrenbergii; 7. C. setaceum; 8. Docidium baculum; 9. D. undulatum; 10. Pleurotaenium constrictum; 11. P. ehrenbergii; 12. P. nodosum; 13. Tetmemorus brebissonii; 14. Cosmarium baileyi; 15. C. bipunctatum; 16. C. biretum; 17. C. blyttii; 18. C. botrytis; 19. C. depressum; 20. C. granatum; 21. C. margaritatum. 10 Journal of the Kentucky Academy of Science 61(1) *Pleurotaenium constrictum (Bailey) Wood. Hematite Lake. Pl. 4, Fig. 10. P. ehrenbergii (Brebisson) DeBary. Duncan and Hematite lakes. Pl. 4, Fig. 11. P. nodosum (Bailey) Lundell. Hematite Lake. Pl. 4, Fig. 12. Tetmemorus brebissonii (Meneghini) Ralfs. Duncan Lake. PI. 4, Fig. 13. Cosmarium baileyi Wolle. Duncan and Ener- gy lakes. Pl. 4, Fig. 14. *C. bipunctatum Boergesen. Hematite Lake. Pl. 4, Fig. 15. C. biretum (Brebisson) Ralfs. Duncan Lake. Pl. 4, Fig. 16. C. blyttii Wille. Duncan and Hematite lakes. Pl. 4, Fig. 17. C. botrytis (Meneghini) Ralfs. Duncan Lake. Pl. 4, Fig. 18. C. depressum (Naegeli) Lundell. Duncan, En- ergy, and Hematite lakes. Pl. 4, Fig. 19. C. granatum Brebisson. Hematite Lake. Pl. 4, Fig. 20. C. margaritatum (Lundell) Roy & Bissett. Duncan, Energy, and Hematite lakes. Pl. 4, Fig. 21. C. meneghinii Brebisson. Duncan and He- matite lakes. Pl. 5, Fig. 1. C. moniliforme (Turpin) Ralfs. Energy and Hematite lakes. Pl. 5, Fig. 2. *C. nymannianum Grunow. Duncan Lake. PI. D, Fig. 3. C. obtusatum Schmidle. Duncan and Energy lakes. Pl. 5, Fig. 4. *C. orthostichum Lundell. Hematite Lake. PI. 5, Fig. 5. C. ovale Ralfs. Duncan, Energy, and Hematite lakes. Pl. 5, Fig. 6. *C. phaseolus Brebisson. Hematite Lake. PI. 5, Fig. 7. *C. porrectum Nordstedt. Hematite Lake. PI. 5, Fig. 8. C. portianum Archer. Duncan and Hematite lakes. Pl. 5, Fig. 9. C. pyramidatum Brebisson. Duncan and He- matite lakes. Pl. 5, Fig. 10. C. subtumidum Nordstedt. Hematite Lake. PI. 5, Fig. 11. C. turpinii Brebisson. Duncan and Hematite lakes. Pl. 5, Fig. 12. Cosmocladium pusillum Hilse. Duncan Lake. PI. 5, Fig. 13. Arthrodesmus convergens Ehrenberg. Duncan and Hematite lakes. Pl. 5, Fig. 14. A. extensus (Borge) Hirano. Energy Lake. PI. 5, Fig. 15. A. octocornis Ehrenberg. Hematite Lake. PI. 5, Fig. 16. Xanthidium antilopaeum (Brebisson) Kuetz- ing. Duncan Lake. PI. 6, Fig. 1. *X armatum (Brebisson) Rabenhorst. He- matite Lake. Pl. 6, Fig. 2. Staurastrum alternans (Brebisson) Ralfs. Duncan, Energy, and Hematite lakes. PI. 6, Fig. 3. S. arctiscon (Ehrenberg) Lundell. Duncan and Hematite lakes. Pl. 6, Fig. 4. S. botryophilum Wolle. Duncan and Hematite lakes. Pl. 6, Fig. 5. *S§. brasiliense Nordstedt. Duncan and He- matite lakes. Pl. 6, Fig. 6. S. chaetoceros (Schroeder) G.M. Smith. He- matite Lake. Pl. 6, Fig. 7. *S. crenulatum (Naegeli) Delponte. Hematite Lake. Pl. 6, Fig. 8. *§. curvatum West. Duncan and Hematite lakes. Pl. 6, Fig. 9. *S. dickiei Ralfs. Duncan Lake. Pl. 6, Fig. 10. *S. hexacerum (Ehrenberg) Wittrock. Hema- tite Lake. Pl. 6, Fig. 11. S. leptocladum Nordstedt. Hematite Lake. PI. 6, Fig. 12. *S. limneticum Schmidle. Duncan and Energy lakes. Pl. 6, Fig. 13. S. setigerum Cleve. Duncan and Hematite lakes. Pl. 6, Fig. 14. *Euastrum abruptum Nordstedt. Hematite Lake. Pl. 7, Fig. 1. *E. affine Ralfs. Hematite Lake. PI. 7, Fig. 2. E. ansatum Ehrenberg. Duncan Lake. Pl. 7, Fig. 3. E. binale (Turpin) Ehrenberg. Duncan, En- ergy, and Hematite lakes. Pl. 7, Fig. 4. E. denticulatum (Kirchner) Gay. Duncan and Energy lakes. Pl. 7, Fig. 5. E. didelta (Turpin) Ralfs. Hematite Lake. PI. 7, Fig. 6. E. elegans (Brebisson) Ralfs. Duncan and He- matite lakes. Pl. 7, Fig. 7. *E. evolutum (Nordstedt) West & West. Dun- can Lake. Pl. 7, Fig. 8. E. insulare (Wittrock) Roy. Energy Lake. PI. (bea E. verrucosum Ehrenberg. Duncan, Energy, and Hematite lakes. Pl. 7, Fig. 10. Micrasterias americana (Ehrenberg) Ralfs. Duncan and Hematite lakes. Pl. 7, Fig. 11. Algae of Land Between the Lakes—Dillard 4] 15 16 14 Plate 5. 1. Cosmarium meneghinii; 2. C. moniliforme; 3. C. nymannianum; 4. C. obtusatum: 5. C. orthostichum; 6. C. ovale; 7. C. phaseolus; 8. C. porrectum; 9. C. portianum; 10. C. pyramidatum; 11. C. subtumidum; 12. C. turpinii; 13. Cosmocladium pusillum; 14. Arthrodesmus convergens; 15. A. extensus; 16. A. octocornis. 42 Journal of the Kentucky Academy of Science 61(1) Plate 6. 1. Xanthidium antilopaeum; 2. X. armatum; 3. Staurastrum alternans; 4. S. arctiscon; 5. S. botryophilum; 6 S. brasiliense; 7. S. chaetoceros; 8. S. crenulatum; 9. S. curvatum; 10. S. dickiei; 11. S. hexacerum; 12. S. leptocladum 13. S. limneticum; 14. S. setigerum. Algae of Land Between the Lakes—Dillard 43 13 Plate 7. 1. Euastrum abruptum; 2. E. affine; 3. E. ansatum; 4. E. binale: 5. E. denticulatum; 6. E. didelta; 7. E. elegans; 8. E. evolutum: 9. E. insulare; 10. E. verrucosum; 11. Micrasterias americana; 12. M. apiculata; 13. M. denticulata; 14. M. laticeps; 15. M. pinnatifida. 14 Journal of the Kentucky Academy of Science 61(1) Plate 8. .°) 1. Micrasterias truncata; 2. Sphaerozosma aubertianum; 3. Teilingia excavata; 4. Onychonema laeve; 5. Spon- dylosium moniliforme; 6. Hyalotheca dissiliens; 7. H. mucosa; 8. Desmidium aptogonum; 9. D. grevillii; 10. D. swartzii; 11. Bambusina brebissonii; 12. Nephrocytium obesum. *M. apiculata (Ehrenberg) Ralfs. Duncan Lake. Pl. 7, Fig. 12. M. denticulata Brebisson. Hematite and En- ergy lakes. Pl. 7, Fig. 13. M. laticeps Nordstedt. Duncan Lake. PI. 7, Fig. 14. M. pinnatifida (Kuetzing) Ralfs. Hematite Lake. Pl. 7, Fig. 15. M. truncata (Corda) Brebisson. Duncan and Hematite lakes. Pl. 8, Fig. 1. Sphaerozosma aubertianum West. Hematite Lake. Pl. 8, Fig. 2. Teilingia excavata (Ralfs) Bourrelly. Duncan and Hematite lakes. Pl. 8, Fig. 3. Onychonema laeve Nordsted. Duncan and Hematite lakes. Pl. 8, Fig. 4. Spondylosium moniliforme Lundell. Duncan and Hematite lakes. Pl. 8, Fig. 5. Hyalotheca dissiliens (J.E. Smith) Brebisson. Duncan, Energy, and Hematite lakes. Pl. 8, Fig. 6. H. mucosa (Mertens) Ehrenberg. Duncan and Hematite lakes. Pl. 8, Fig. 7. Desmidium aptogonum Brebisson. Duncan and Hematite lakes. Pl. 8, Fig. 8. D. grevillii (Kuetzing) DeBary. Hematite Lake. Pl. 8, Fig. 9. Algae of Land Between the Lakes—Dillard 45 D. swartzii Agardh. Duncan and Hematite lakes. Pl. 8, Fig. 10. Bambusina brebissonii Kuetzing. Hematite Lake. Pl. 8, Fig. 11. LITERATURE CITED Croasdale, H., C. Bicudo, and G. Prescott. 1983. A syn- opsis of North American desmids, Part II. Desmidi- aceae:Placodermae, Section 5. University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln, NE. Dillard, G. 1989a. Freshwater algae of the southeastern United States, Part 1. Chlorophyceae: Volvocales, Te- trasporales and Chlorococcales. J. Cramer, Stuttgart, Germany. Dillard, G. 1989b. Freshwater algae of the southeastern United States, Part 2. Chlorophyceae: Ulotrichales, Mi- crosporales, Cylindrocapsales, Sphaeropleales, Chaeto- phorales, Cladophorales, Schizogoniales, Siphonales and Oedogoniales. J. Cramer, Stuttgart, Germany. Dillard, G. 1990. Freshwater algae of the southeastern United States, Part 3. Chlorophyceae: Zygnematales: Zygnemataceae, Mesotaeniaceae and Desmidiaceae (Section 1). J. Cramer, Stuttgart, Germany. Dillard, G. 1991a. Freshwater algae of the southeastern United States, Part 4. Chlorophyceae: Zygnematales: Desmidiaceae (Section 2). J. Cramer, Stuttgart, Ger- many. Dillard, G. 1991b. Freshwater algae of the southeastern United States, Part 5. Chlorophyceae: Zygnematales: Desmidiaceae (Section 3). J. Cramer, Stuttgart, Ger- many. Dillard, G. 1993. Freshwater algae of the southeastern United States, Part 6. Chlorophyceae: Zygnematales: Desmidiaceae (Section 4). J. Cramer, Stuttgart, Ger- many. Kadlubowska, J. 1984. Siisswasserflora von Mitteleuropa. Chlorophyta, VIII (Conjugatophyceae I: Zygnemales). Band 16. Gustav Fischer, New York, NY. Komarek, J., and B. Fott. 1983. Das Phytoplankton des Siisswassers. Chlorophyceae: Chlorococcales. Band XVI, 7, 1. E. Schweizerbart’sche Verlagsbuchhandlung, Stuttgart, Germany. Mrozinska, T. 1985. Siisswasserflora von Mitteleuropa. Chlorophyta, VI (Oedogoniophyceae: Oedogoniales). Band 14. Gustav Fischer, New York, NY. Prescott, G. 1962. Algae of the western Great Lakes area, rev. ed. Wm. C. Brown, Dubuque, IA. Prescott, G., C. Bicudo, and W. Vinyard. 1982. A synopsis of North American desmids, Part II. Desmidiaceae: Placodermae, Section 4. University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln, NE. Prescott, G., H. Croasdale, and W. Vinyard. 1972. Des- midiales: Part I, Saccodermae, Mesotaeniaceae. North American Flora, Ser. II, Part 6: 1-84. ' Prescott, G., H. Croasdale, and W. Vinyard. 1975. A syn- opsis of North American desmids, Part II. Desmidi- aceae: Placodermae, Section 1. University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln, NE. Prescott, G., H. Croasdale, and W. Vinyard. 1977. A syn- opsis of North American desmids, Part II. Desmidi- aceae: Placodermae, Section 2. University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln, NE. Prescott, G., H. Croasdale, W. Vinyard, and C. Bicudo. 1981. A synopsis of North American desmids, Part II. Desmidiaceae: Placodermae, Section 3. University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln, NE. |. Ky. Acad. Sci. 61(1):46-49. 2000. Effect of Artificial Nest Density and Wetland Size on Canada Goose Clutches in Constructed Wetlands near Cave Run Lake, Kentucky Brian C. Reeder and Teresa L. Caudill Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences, Morehead State University, Morehead, Kentucky 40351 ABSTRACT Artificial nesting structures have commonly been used to increase the breeding success of Canada geese, Branta canadensis, in wetland habitats. We examined the effects of nest density and wetland size on brood and hi itching success 10 years old) near Cave Run Lake, Kentucky. Wetland basins were 0.2—16.1 ha; nest densities ranged from 0. 9-7. 4 structures per hectare. The size in recently constructed wetlands (mean average clutch was smaller than most previous researchers have found (3.6). The percentage that hatched (62%) was in the normal range. Density did not affect the number of eggs laid (r? = 0.09, P = 0.09, n = 33) or the percentage that hatched (r = 0.07, P = 0.13, n = 33). Larger wetlands had larger clutches (1° = 0.13, P = 0.04, n = 33), but the percentage of eggs that hatched was not significantly greater (r? = 0.08, P = 0.01, n = 33) food for egg laying, but that larger wetlands can provide better habitat, even at nest densities up to T/ha. . We surmised that these young constructed wetlands may not yet be providing sufficient These constructed wetlands with artificial nests do not provide the same resources and habitat to Canada geese as natural wetlands. INTRODUCTION The number of waterfowl is directly related to the amount of suitable wetland habitat in a region (Merendino et al. 1995). Wetland hab- itat is rare in Daniel Boone National Forest; therefore, 110 wetlands with a combined area of almost 69 ha were constructed by the U.S. Forest Service to enhance populations of wet- land flora and fauna. As part of this effort, ar- tificial nesting structures were placed in these wetlands in an attempt to increase breeding success of Canada geese (Branta canadensis). Artificial structures have been found to pro- duce more goslings than natural shoreline nesting sites (Ball 1990). When these nests are placed in wetlands at higher densities than the habitat can support, density dependent theory suggests that some factor should cause popu- lation growth to decline. One way birds can accomplish this is to reduce reproductive out- put—for example by laying fewer eggs or by nest abandonment. High nest densities can re- sult in nest desertion due to aggressive con- flicts between neighboring breeding pairs (Ewaschuk and Boag 1972; Lokemoen and Noodward 1992). The size of the wetland also affects repro- ductive success. Larger wetlands should have more loafing sites for ganders and more avail- able food. The objective of our research was to determine if nest density and wetland size 46 affect two factors of Canada goose reproduc- tive success: clutch size and the percentage of eggs that hatch. MATERIALS AND METHODS The 33 wetlands assessed are located in northeastem Kentucky in Daniel Boone Na- tional Forest. The watershed of the study area is dominated by mixed-mesophytic forest in sparsely populated regions of Rowan, Bath, Menifee, and Rowan counties near Cave Run Lake. All the constructed wetlands were relatively young: some were built 24 years before our study, some less than 2 years (mean = 9.7 + 8.6; + SE). The wetlands were built by dig- ging out and sometimes diking suitable sites. All had some water control structure to allow filling and draining. Wetland sizes ranged from 0.2 to 16.2 ha. Most wetlands were 0.4 to 2.4 ha; only three were larger than 3 ha. All the wetlands were roughly rectangular and about 1-2 meters deep. There was little variation in shape or water depth among sites. We as- sessed 56 artificial nests placed in open water. Artificial nest densities ranged from 0.2 to 7.4 structures/ha (mean = 2.1 + 1.6). Emergent vegetation never covered more than 30% of any wetland (mean 6%). The landscape around each basin was similar: forest and open water. The amount of forest directly adjacent Goose Breeding Success—Reeder and Caudill 47 a NONBRA DHE NA log (eggs/nest) log (% hatch) -.8 -.6 -4 = -2 0 2 4 6 log (nest density) Figure 1. Relationship between artificial nest density (nest/ha) and clutch size (a) and hatching success (b) among Canada geese in constructed wetlands near Cave Run Lake, Kentucky. to the wetland had no significant affect on re- productive success. Field data were collected from 11 Mar—5 May 1996. Each nesting structure was ob- served, from cover, for 30 minutes at least six times. Clutch counts (number of eggs/nest) were obtained 23-27 Apr 1996; egg survival (percentage of eggs that successfully hatched) was surveyed 17-23 May 1996. Normal biases in calculating egg success (Mayfield 1975) were not applicable because success was not measured as a minimum of one hatch per nest and no nests were abandoned or destroyed. Because the data included counts, densities, and percentages, they were log transformed to fit the assumptions of parametric statistical models (Zar 1984). Effects of density-depen- dence and habitat size are usually assumed to be linear (Colinvaux 1993); therefore, we used a simple linear regression model, with nest density and wetland size as independent vari- ables, and eggs/nest and hatching success as dependent variables. Analysis of variance test- ing was used to determine if regressions were significant (Zar 1984). We chose 95% confi- dence as our significance limit for all analyses. RESULTS All structures studied were used by Canada geese. Out of the 226 eggs laid during the breeding season, 62% produced live goslings. The average clutch had 3.6 + 2.6 eggs. Two structures were used by more than one mating pair at the same time (gang nesting). No eggs log (eggs/nest) log (% hatch) -8 -6 -4 -2 0O 2} 4 6 8 1 12s log (ha) Figure 2. Relationship between wetland size (ha) and clutch size (a) and hatching success (b) among Canada geese in constructed wetlands near Cave Run Lake, Ken- tucky. hatched from those nests. All other nests had at least one egg hatch (93.9% nest success). Geese nesting closer together laid fewer eggs, but the effect of density was insignificant (x2 = 0.09, P = 0.09, n = 33, Figure la). The percentage of eggs that hatched was not sig- nificantly influenced by nest density (r = 0.07, P = 0.13, n = 33, Figure 1b). Larger wetlands had larger clutches (1? = 0.13, P = 0.04, n = 33, Figure 2a). Larger wetlands also seemed to have a greater chance of having a successful hatch, but the effect was insignifi- cant (r2 = 0.08, P = 0.10, n = 33, Figure 2b). DISCUSSION Our geese laid fewer eggs per nest than most other researchers have found, but our hatching rates are within the range of other studies (3.6 eggs/nest with 63% hatching). Geis (1956) found a mean clutch size of 5.4, with 2.9 eggs hatching (54%). Data summa- rized by Lebeda and Ratti (1983) indicated an average clutch size of 4.4 and 62% brood suc- cess—with 1 or more eggs hatching from 56% of all nests observed. Brakhage (1965) com- piled data from previous studies and found an average clutch of 5.1, with 73-93% success- fully hatching. Brakhage (1965) studied Can- ada geese in artificial nests at high densities (about 60 meters between nests). He reported open-water nesters had an average clutch of 5.5 eggs with 72% hatching. Although our clutches were smaller than normal, we did not find a significant effect of 48 Journal of the Kentucky Academy of Science 61(1) high nest density on the number of eggs laid. This could also be attributed to the nest being in the open water (Gosser and Conover [1999] found that geese prefer islands to shoreline edges), in a relatively undisturbed surrounding landscape. Ewaschuk and Boag (1972) and Kossack (1950) found that high nest densities result in greater numbers of agonistic inter- actions between nesting pairs, resulting in high desertion rates. Ewaschuk and Boag (1972) described a correlation between den- sity and nest success, but only five data points were used to determine the relationship. The lake island they studied had densities ranging from an extraordinary 20-23 nests/ha (an or- der of magnitude greater than our average density). They found some of the lowest suc- cess rates compared to other studies (averag- ing 52% of nest hatching one or more eggs), which they attributed mostly to agonistic in- teractions and predation. Gloutney et al. (1993) found that human disturbance influ- ences nest fate, especially in the early stages of egg laying. Agonistic interactions, predation, and hu- man disturbance were not significant in our study; no nests were deserted. This was prob- ably because all of our wetlands are in low population areas surrounded by intact forests. Therefore, some other factor must have re- duced the brood size. Young geese typically have smaller clutches (Brakhage 1965); so a possible explanation is the geese we examined were younger. A more plausible explanation is that the geese could not obtain sufficient food (Martin 1987). All wetlands had some forest nearby providing adequate cover, but they may not have had sufficient forage. Dense “growth of emergent vegetation can increase nesting suc- cess (Ewaschuk and Boag 1972; Poly 1979). Our sites averaged 6% emergent vegetative cover. Recently constructed ecosystems are not providing the functions and values of nat- ural habitats (McKinstry and Anderson 1994; Weller 1990). Further support of this theory is that larger wetlands (presumably with more resources) had larger broods and somewhat higher hatching rates. We found a significant effect of island size on clutch size. Geis (1956) noted that large islands (>10 ha) had an order of magnitude more nests per unit area than small (<0.5 ha) islands. Geis’s highest nest densities were only about 1.2 nest/ha on Flathead Lake, Montana. High densities can result in more gang brood- ing (Brakhage 1965), but Warhurst and Book- hout (1983) found gang brooding did not af- fect reproductive success in diked Lake Erie marshes when densities were 3.1 nest/ha. We can conclude that nests can be placed in high densities in wetlands without having a significant effect on hatching success. To in- crease breeding success of Canada geese, managers should construct wetlands as large as possible, and in relatively undisturbed are- as. Building fewer large wetlands could have a negative effect on biodiversity. Brown and Dinsmore (1986) found that wetland complex- es with many small wetlands supported a high- er diversity of waterfowl than a single large area. Landscape position should also affect success. Sites with nearby sources of food would be favorable. We did not examine sur- rounding landscape in detail because of our lack of surrounding land use diversity. We did find it is important to encourage the growth of emergent aquatic macrophytes to provide a suitable habitat and food. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Thanks to the Daniel Boone National For- est Morehead Ranger District, especially Mr. Thomas Biebighauser, for financial and logistic help. Funding was also provided by the More- head State University Dr. Roger Barbour Fund, the Morehead State University Re- search and Creative Productions Committee, and the Morehead State University Institute for Regional Analysis and Public Policy. LITERATURE CITED Ball, I. J. 1990. Artificial nest structures for Canada geese. Pages 1-8 in D. H. Cross (compiler). Waterfowl Man- agement Handbook. U.S. Fish Wildlife Leafl. 13.2.12. Brakhage, G. K. 1965. Biology and behavior of tub-nesting Canada geese. J. Wildlife Managem. 29:751-771. Brown, M., and J. J. Dinsmore. 1986. Implications of marsh size and isolation for marsh bird management. J. Wildlife Managem. 50:392-397. Colinvaux, P. A. 1993. Ecology 2 New York, NY. Ewaschuk, E., and P. A. Boag. 1972. Factors affecting hatching success of densely nesting Canada geese. J. Wildlife Managem. 36:1097—1 106. Geis, M. B. 1956. Productivity of Canada geese in the . John Wiley and Sons, Goose Breeding Success—Reeder and Caudill 49 Flathead Valley, Montana. J. Wildlife Managem. 20: 409-419. Glouimey, M. L.. R. G. Clark A. D. Afton. and G. J. Huff. 1993. Timing of nesting searches for upland nesting wa- terfowl. J. Wildlife Managem. 57:597-601. Gosser, A. L. and M. R. Conover. 1999. Will availability of insular nesting sites limit reproduction in urban Can- ada goose populations? J. Wildlife Managem. 63:369— 373. Kossack, C. W. 1950. Breeding habits of Canada geese under refuge conditions. Am. Mid]. Naturalist 43:-627— 649. Lebeda, C. S., and J. T. Ratti. 1983. Reproductive biology of Vancouver Canada geese on Admiralty Island, Alaska. J. Wildlife Managem. 47-297—-306. Lokemoen, J. T., and R. O. Woodward. 1992. Nesting wa- terfowl] and waterbirds on natural islands in the Dakotas and Moniana. Wildlife Soc. Bull. 20:163—-171. Martin, T. E. 1987. Food as a limit on breeding birds: a life-history perspective. Annual Rev. Ecol. Syst. 18:453— A487. Mayfield, H. F. 1975. Suggestions for calculating nest suc- cess. Wilson Bull. 73:-456—466. McKinstry, M. C., and S. H. Anderson. 1994. Evaluation of wetland creation and waterfowl use in conjuction with abandoned mine lands in northeast Wyoming. Wetlands 14-284-299. Merendino, M. T_ G. B. McCullough, and N. R. North. 1995. Wetland availability and use by breeding water- fowl in southern Ontario. ]. Wildlife Managem. 59-527— 532. Poly, D. M. 1979. Nest site selection in relation to water level and some aspects of hatching success in giant Can- ada geese (Branta canadensis maxima). M.S. Thesis. Middle Tennessee University, Murfreesboro. TN. Warhurst, R. A. and T. A. Bookhout. 1983. Effect of gang brooding on survival of Canada goose goslings. J. Wild- life Managem. 47:1119-1124. Weller, M. W. 1990. Waterfowl] management techniques for wetland enhancement restoration and creation use- ful in mitigation procedures. Pages 517-528 in J. A. Kusler and M. E. Kentula (eds). Wetland creation and restoration: the status of the science. Island Press. Washington, DC. Zar, J. H. 1984. Biostatistical analysis, 2nd ed. Prentice- Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ. Acad. Sci. 61(1):50-59. 2000. Surveys of Bird Communities on Little Black and Black Mountains: Implications for Long-term Conservation of Montane Birds in Kentucky Michael J. Lacki Department of Forestry, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky 40546 ABSTRACT Considerable attention has been placed on cataloging and protecting the avifaunal communities inhabiting forests at the highest elevations (circa. 1200 m and above) in the Cumberland Mountains of southeastern Kentucky. However, few data are available on forest bird communities at lower elevations in this region, particularly locations historically or presently subject to disturbance from logging or mineral extraction. I surveyed bird communities at 16 forested sites in May and June 1999 at Little Black and Black mountains at elevations ranging from 730 to 1005 m. Sites surveyed were historically disturbed by logging and or mining and were proposed for additional logging and mining activities. Surveys indicated that bird communities were a mix of forest interior and early-successional species and included birds of both northern and southern affinities. Nine species known from the highest elevations in Kentucky were present. Species recognized by the Kentucky State Nature Preserves Commission as having special concern status in the state that were recorded during surveys included blackburnian warbler (Dendroica fusca), Canada warbler (Wilsonia cana- densis), cerulean warbler (D. cerulea), dark-eyed junco (Junco hyemalis), golden-winged warbler (Vermivora chrysoptera), and rose-breasted grosbeak (Pheucticus ludovicianus). These data suggest that habitat exists at mid-elevations in the Cumberland Mountains for several rare species of birds in Kentucky. A long-term strategy for monitoring the effects of land-use practices on bird communities in the Cumberland Mountains is recommended. INTRODUCTION The status of forest-dependent bird species has become a topic of increasing attention, as land-use practices continue to alter the land- scape pattern in heavily-forested regions (As- kins et al. 1990; Freemark and Collins 1992; Robbins et al. 1989; Rosenberg et al. 1999; Walters 1998). Conversion of contiguous for- est into a fragmented mosaic of forest and non-forest habitats is believed to alter popu- lation levels and bird species composition (Faaborg et al. 1995; Robinson and Robinson 1999: Robinson and Wilcove 1994). It has been hypothesized that a reduction in block size of forest habitats can lead to source-sink dynamics, such that smaller blocks provide in- sufficient conditions for adequate replacement through reproduction in existing breeding bird communities (Rosenberg et al. 1999; Schmidt and Whelan 1999). Loss of available forest habitat not withstanding, declines in abun- dance and reproductive performance of breeding birds have been attributed to brood parasitism by brown-headed cowbirds, Mol- othrus ater (Brittingham and Temple 1983; Mayfield 1977; Robinson, Rothstein et al. 1995), nest predation by vertebrate predators 50 (Martin 1992: Robinson 1992; Wilcove 1985), and loss of basal area and changes in forest structure (Annand and Thompson 1997; Baker and Lacki 1997; Buford and Capen 1999; Rob- inson and Robinson 1999; Schulte and Niemi 1998). The Cumberland Mountains in southeast- em Kentucky support a predominantly forest- ed landscape that provides habitat for a rich mix of bird species, including many with northern and southern affinities (Mengel 1965: Palmer-Ball 1996). Included within this region are forest habitats situated at the high- est elevations in the state, on mountain tops achieving elevations in excess of 1200 m (Fen- neman 1938). These high-elevation habitats support a number of bird species believed to breed nowhere else in Kentucky (Mengel 1965; Palmer-Ball 1996). Although both breeding and non-breeding surveys of birds exist for several locations in the Cumberland Mountains (e.g., Croft 1969; Davis et al. 1980; Wetmore 1940), most attention has been paid to bird communities of Black Mountain, with disproportionate sampling effort allocated to the highest elevations (Barbour 1941; Breiding 1947: Davis and Barbour 1978; Davis and Bird Communities—Lacki Sill eee Survey Areas +— 1km Figure 1. Location of areas where birds were surveyed on Little Black and Black mountains, Harlan County, Kentucky, in May and June 1999. Inset: Outline map of Kentucky showing location of survey area. s Smith 1978; Howell 1910; Lovell 1950a, 1950b). Much less is known about breeding bird communities at mid-elevations and at lower summits, such as on Little Black Moun- tain. Data quantifying the response of bird com- munities to changes in forest habitats in Ken- tucky are limited (Baker 1996; Baker and Lacki 1997; McComb and Muller 1983; Mc- Comb et al. 1991), with virtually no data ex- isting for the Cumberland Mountains. In this paper, I present baseline data on bird com- munities and existing habitat conditions in for- est habitats at Little Black and Black moun- tains, where a history of logging and or mining disturbance exists and where future distur- bance events are planned. The results of these surveys are compared to historical patterns of occurrence and abundance of bird species in the Cumberland Mountain region; the impli- cations for long-term conservation of montane bird communities in Kentucky are discussed. STUDY AREA AND METHODS Survey sites were located in Harlan County, Kentucky, at Little Black and Black mountains (Figure 1). Sites included both northwest and southeast facing slopes at elevations ranging from 730 to 1005 m on both mountains. Little Black and Black mountains are situated in the Cumberland Mountains physiographic section (Fenneman 1938), a segment of the state com- 52 Journal of the Kentucky Academy of Science 61(1) prising the Cumberland Crest avifaunal region ‘Mengel 1965). The Cumberland Mountains comprise 2% of the land mass in Kentucky and contain the highest elevations in the state, reaching a maximum on Black Mountain of 1265 m (Palmer-Ball 1996). Little Black Mountain lies to the southeast of Black Moun- tain, with a summit lower (ca. 1100 m) in el- evation. The mountains represent a syncline with horizontal strata comprised of shales, coal, and sandstone of the Pennsylvanian se- ries (Braun 1940; Lovell 1950b). Soils are largely mature with deep horizons (Braun 1940). The vegetation of the Black Mountain re- gion is composed of a matrix of segregates of the mixed mesophytic forest association (Braun 1940). Historically, oak-chestnut forest predominated on drier slopes and ridges (Braun 1940); however, American chestnut (Castanea dentata) has largely disappeared, as evidenced by Lovell (1950b) describing “skel- etons of many large chestnuts” at Black Moun- tain in the late 1940s. The composition of veg- etation in the Black Mountain area differs from that of adjacent mountains by exhibiting a lack of red spruce (Picea rubens) and fraser fir (Abies fraseri) trees, and having a limited abundance of pines (Pinus virginiana) (Braun 1940: Croft 1969: Lovell 1950b). The Cumberland Mountains were primarily forested prior to settlement, with open habitat limited to cliffs, rock outcrops, riparian zones, and natural disturbances such as fire and windthrow (Palmer-Ball 1996). The region re- mains forested, especially at higher elevations, but alteration of some of the landscape has occurred due to logging, mining, agricultural uses, and land clearing for settlements (Palm- er-Ball 1996). The original mixed mesophytic forest does remain at higher elevations where logging, fire, or mining have not occurred (Palmer-Ball 1996). Birds were surveyed using a modified, fixed- radius point-count method (Blondel et al. 1970; Hutto et al. 1986). Bird occurrence, pri- marily of singing males, was recorded by spe- cies in concentric distance bands of <50 m and =50 m (Ralph et al. 1993). Surveys were made at 16 survey sites, eight each at Little Black and Black mountains. All birds seen or heard during surveys were recorded. All sur- veys were conducted between 0600 and 0900 EDST to coincide with peak singing activity of the majority of bird species (Robbins 1981). Survey periods were 12 min in duration, wait- ing 3 min from the time of arrival at the survey site prior to beginning data collection to allow disturbed birds to resume normal singing ac- tivity (Reynolds et al. 1980). Surveys were conducted on 12 and 13 May and 15 and 16 June 1999 at Little Black Mountain, and on 14 and 15 May and 17 and 18 June at Black Mountain. All survey sites were sampled once in May and once in June. Sampling in both May and June accounts for the use of the site by migrants and early and late-breeding resi- dents (Baker and Lacki 1997). Weather was favorable for all surveys, with temperatures ranging from 52° to 66°F. Light rain occurred periodically on the morning of 13 May but did not appear to affect surveys as birds continued to sing throughout the drizzle. A qualitative description of the vegetation was made at each survey site in June. A list of species present in the mid- and overstory was compiled with the dominant and co-dominant tree species recorded. Stem diameters of the dominant species at each survey site were cat- egorized as follows: <30 cm, 30-45 cm, >45- 60 cm, and >60 cm. Further, evidence of dis- turbance was noted and successional status at each survey site categorized as recently logged, early successional, mid-successional, or intact second-growth forest. Data on bird occurrence within 50 m from the observation point at survey sites were compared between locations and months of sampling by species richness (i.e., number of species, S), bird abundance (i.e., number of birds, N), and species diversity (ie., Shannon index, H’); the latter was calculated using base10 logarithms with the program provided in Ludwig and Reynolds (1988). Data were analyzed by two-way analysis of variance, with an alpha of 0.05 as the level of significance. RESULTS There was no difference between survey sites at Little Black Mountain and Black Mountain for either species richness (F = 0.49, P = 0.49), bird abundance (F = 0.10, P = ().76), or species diversity (F = 0.64, P = (0.43): however, differences were observed among months of sampling for species rich- ness (F = 4.37, P = 0.046) and bird abun- Bird Communities—Lacki 53 Table 1. Mean + SE for species richness (number of species, S), bird abundance (number of birds, N), and spe- cies diversity (Shannon index, H’) of bird communities surveyed on Little Black and Black mountains, Kentucky, in May and June 1999. Data are based on eight surveys per location X month combination and include only birds recorded within 50 m of sampling points. Month Parameter _ Little Black Mountain Black Mountain May S DDD eA 11.0 + 1.20 N eons 2229 ES = we Ts. H’ 2.38 + 0.11 2.26 + 0.12 June S 9.50 + 0.89 Chay se ILI N 14.1 + 1.63 12.8 + 1.50 H’ 2.15 + 0.11 2.08 + 0.15 dance (F = 5.49, P = 0.03), with species rich- ness and bird abundance higher in May than in June (Table 1). No difference was observed between months of sampling for species di- versity (F = 3.09, P = 0.09). All interactions between location and month of sampling were not significant (P > 0.05). I detected 44 species of birds within 50 m of sampling points and recorded an additional seven species either beyond 50 m or while in transit among survey sites (Table 2). All total, I observed 47 species at Little Black Mountain and 39 species at Black Mountain. Birds ob- served only at Little Black Mountain included American crow (Corvus brachyrhyncos), blackburnian warbler (Dendroica fusca), com- mon yellowthroat (Geothlypis trichas), dark- eyed junco (Junco hyemalis), eastern phoebe (Sayornis phoebe), mourning dove (Zenaida macroura), northern cardinal (Cardinalis car- dinalis), ovenbird (Seiurus aurocapillus), ruby- throated hummingbird (Archilocus colubris), yellow-bellied sapsucker (Sphyrapicus varius), yellow-billed cuckoo (Coccyzus americanus), and yellow-breasted chat (Icteria virens). Birds observed only at Black Mountain includ- ed orchard oriole (Icterus spurius), white-eyed vireo (Vireo griseus), and yellow-rumped war- bler (D. coronata). Species of birds observed that are recognized as endangered (E), threat- ened (T), or of special concern (S) status in Kentucky (KSNPC 1996), included blackbur- nian warbler (T), Canada warbler (Wilsonia canadensis, S), cerulean warbler (D. cerulea, S), dark-eyed junco (S), golden-winged war- bler (Vermivora chrysoptera, T), and rose- breasted grosbeak (Pheucticus ludovicianus, S). Table 2. Species and numbers of birds recorded within 50 m of sampling points at survey sites on Little Black and Black Mountains, Kentucky, in May and June 1999. Additional species recorded beyond 50 m or observed in transit among survey sites are considered anecdotal and are indicated by an (*). Little Black Mountain Black Mountain Species May June May June ee Archilochus colubris l Bonasa umbellus a * Cardinalis cardinalis 6 4 Carduelis tristis 3 ] 3 2 Catharus fuscescens l ZA 4 l Coccyzus americanus * Colaptes auratus * 3 Contopus virens ** ] 2 Corvus brachyrhynchos * Cyanocitta cristata ] 2 * 3 Dendroica caerulescens 9 3! 10 8 D. cerulea 2 2 2 D. coronata ] D. fusca ] D. pensylvanica 8 10 12 5 D. tigrina 2 ] D. virens 2 3 Dryocopus pileatus * l ] Empidonax virescens 1 2 Geothlypis trichas 1 Helmitheros vermivorus 1 1 Hylocichla mustelina 9 2 10 4 Icteria virens 1 Icterus spurius 1 Junco hyemalis % Meleagris gallopavo * ts Mniotilta varia 8 4 i 3 Ophorornis formosus 4 4 1 * Parus bicolor 3 1 * ] P. carolinensis 5 4 * Passerina cyanea § 7 4 2 Pheucticus ludovicianus 5 4 il 2 Picoides pubescens 2 1 l ] P. villosus 1 l Pipilo erythrophthalmus 10 4 ll 6 Piranga olivacea 5 5 2 6 Polioptila caerulea 3 4 Sayornis phoebe * Seiurus aurocapillus 5 4 Setophaga ruticilla 8 7 + 5 Sitta carolinensis 1 a 7 Sphyrapicus varius ] Thryothorus ludovici- 4 1 3 ] anus Vermivora chrysoptera * l Vireo flavifrons 2 * V. griseus * V. olivaceus 10 6 16 1] V. solitarius | {i 4 5 Wilsonia canadensis 3 ] W. citrina 16 16 20 14 Zenaida macroura ] 54 Journal of the Kentucky Academy of Science 61(1) [ble 3. Number of survey sites with woody plant spe- cies at Little Black and Black mountains, Kentucky, in June 1999. Number of sites where the species was iden- tified as a canopy dominant is indicated in parentheses. Data are based on eight sites per location. Number of sites Little Black Species Mountain Black Mountain Acer pensylvanicum | A. rubrum 3 5 5 (4) A. saccharum (1) 3 (2) Amelanchier laevis l Betula lenta 5) Carya sp. (rough—bark) | Carya spp. (smooth—bark) l 3 Fraxinus americana 3 3 Liriodendron tulipifera 8 (3) 6 (4) Magnolia acuminata 2 l Morus rubra | Nyssa sylvatica l Oxydendrum arboreum 2 Pinus virginiana (Gy) Prunus serotina 2 2 Quercus alba 2 Q. falcata QO. muehlenbergii 3 (1) 3 Q. prinus 3 (2) Q. rubra 2 3 (1) Robinia pseudoacacia § (7) 5 (1) Salix nigra 2 Sassafras albidum l 2 Tilia spp. 4 (2 Species recorded most frequently within 50 m of survey points, included black-throated blue warbler (D. caerulescens, N = 30), chest- nut-sided warbler (Dendroica pensylvanica, N = 35), hooded warbler (Wilsonia citrina, N = 66), red-eyed vireo (Vireo olivaceus, N = 43), and rufous-sided towhee (Pipilo erythro- phthalmus, N = 31). I observed no brown- headed cowbird (Molothrus ater), a brood par- asite, but did record two avian nest predators, American crow and blue jay (Cyanocitta cris- tata). I recorded 24 species of trees at survey sites (Table 3). Black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia), sugar maple (Acer saccharum), sweet birch (Betula lenta), and yellow-poplar (Lirioden- dron tulipifera) were most frequent at Little Black Mountain; basswood (Tilia sp.), black lo- cust, red maple (A. rubrum), and yellow-pop- lar were most frequent at Black Mountain. Maximum diameter size class at survey sites at Little Black Mountain ranged from <30 cm to 60cm, and from <30 cm to >60 cm at Table 4. ameter size class of canopy trees and stage of succession at Little Black and Black mountains, Kentucky, in June 1999. Data are based on eight sites per location. Number of survey sites with a maximum di- Number of sites Little Black Black Moun- Mountain tain Maximum diameter class <30 cm 3 2 30-45 cm 3 0 >45-60 cm 2 4 >60 cm 0 2 Stage of succession Recently logged 4 0 Early successional 3 Mid-successional 0 3 Intact second-growth forest 0 2 Black Mountain (Table 4). All survey sites at Little Black Mountain were either in an early successional stage or were logged just prior to surveys. Habitats at survey sites at Black Mountain were more varied and included ear- ly, mid-, and late successional stages. DISCUSSION After surveying birds at four major moun- tain groups in southeastern Kentucky, Croft (1969) concluded that the higher elevations in Kentucky were characterized by a meager “complement of northern species.” He attri- buted his observations to the absence or pau- city of coniferous tree species and to the harmful effects of logging and mining in the region. Further, he suggested that mined lands supported an overall lower abundance of birds when compared with habitats of undis- turbed, intact forest at the same elevation. My survey results paralleled his observations. Mean values for species richness, bird abun- dance, and species diversity were consistently below values reported by Baker and Lacki (1997) for bird communities on the Cumber- land Plateau, Kentucky. Moreover, mean val- ues for bird communities on Little Black and Black mountains were lower regardless of whether the data were compared to bird com- munities in no-harvest, high-leave harvest, low-leave harvest, or clearcut harvest sites (Baker and Lacki 1997); however, sites sam- pled by Baker and Lacki (1997) were at ele- vations below 400 m. Given that many of the sites surveyed in this study were already im- Bird Communities—Lacki 55 pacted by logging or mining to some extent, attributing lower mean values of richness, abundance, and diversity of birds to distur- bance effects or to the shorter growing season at higher elevations cannot be resolved. The differences observed between months of sam- pling for species richness and bird abundance were likely due to the presence of migrants being recorded as they were passing through in May. Similar trends have been reported elsewhere in the state (Baker and Lacki 1997; Lacki and Baker 1998). Data for tree species composition at survey sites did reveal a limited frequency of conifer species, as predicted by Braun (1940), Croft (1969), and Lovell (1950b). Virginia pine (Pi- nus virginiana), the only conifer recorded, was found at only a single survey site on Black Mountain. A lack of conifers likely prevents summer residence by some species that breed in coniferous forests further south in latitude at high elevations, such as golden-crowned kinglet (Regulus satrapa), red-breasted nut- hatch (Sitta canadensis), and winter wren (Troglodytes troglodytes) (Alsop 1991; Raben- old et al. 1998). Thus, these data concur with those of Croft (1969), and suggest that the paucity of coniferous tree species serves as an additional constraint on the richness, abun- dance, and diversity of birds in the Cumber- land Mountain region. Mengel (1965) labeled the bird community of the Cumberland Mountains as the Cum- berland Crest Avifaunal region and attributed its distinctiveness to the presence of nine bird species that do not breed elsewhére in Ken- tucky: blackburnian warbler, black-throated blue warbler, blue-headed vireo (Vireo solitar- ius), Canada warbler, chestnut-sided warbler, dark-eyed junco, golden-winged warbler, rose- breasted grosbeak, and veery (Catharus fus- cescens). Recent studies have demonstrated that the blue-headed vireo breeds elsewhere in the state (Lacki and Baker 1998; Yacek and Lacki 1998). Regardless, all nine species were observed in this study, suggesting that forests at mid-elevations at Little Black and Black mountains support breeding habitat for these rare species of birds. Of these, only golden- winged warbler was not observed in June, the period in which singing males are reflective of breeding residents. Croft (1969) saw this spe- cies on a number of occasions in June though, at both Pine and Black mountains. Golden-winged warblers are known to hy- bridize with blue-winged warblers (Vermivora pinus) in Kentucky (Palmer-Ball 1996); Croft (1969) reported on a golden-winged warbler emitting the song of a blue-winged warbler during his surveys. The bird was situated at an elevation of 670 m in the valley between Pine and Black mountains. I also observed a gold- en-winged warbler singing a song intermedi- ate between its typical song and that of a blue- winged warbler. This bird was observed short- ly after I completed a survey on 13 May at an elevation of 760 m at Little Black Mountain. The bird was perched in a willow (Salix nigra) thicket singing a “bee buzz buzz” song, one “buzz” note short of the typical golden-winged warbler song and one “buzz” note longer than that of the blue-winged warbler song. I ob- served two other golden-winged warblers, but none was heard singing. Although common elsewhere in the state (Palmer-Ball 1996), blue-winged warblers have yet to be reported in surveys of the Cumberland Mountains (Croft 1969; Davis et al. 1980; Mengel 1965; this study); thus, the status of the blue-winged x golden-winged warbler complex in the Cumberland Mountains remains unresolved. Based on the summarized historic and atlas survey data in Palmer-Ball (1996), no prior re- cord of a dark-eyed junco exists for Little Black Mountain, extending the known sum- mer range of this species in the state. This bird was observed at ca. 0800 on the morning of 15 June while in transit between survey sites. The bird was perched within 5 m of the intersection of two logging roads at the crest of the mountain. An immature orchard oriole was recorded during surveys at Black Moun- tain on 14 May. This bird was perched at the edge of a small clearing (<0.5 ha in size) in otherwise intact, second growth forest at an elevation of 850 m. This species is known to occur at lower elevations in the Cumberland Mountains (Croft 1969; Howell 1910) and was classified as a probable breeding resident in Harlan County, Kentucky (Palmer-Ball 1996). This observation would suggest that the spe- cies does breed in Harlan County and occurs at elevations somewhat higher than previously reported. Although hooded warblers and red-eyed vir- 36 Journal of the Kentucky Academy of Science 61(1) eos were the two most frequently observed species, data indicated that several edge or shrub-scrub species were prevalent at survey sites on Little Black or Black mountains, in- cluding American goldfinch (Carduelis tristis), Carolina wren (Thryothorus ludovicianus), chestnut-sided warbler, indigo bunting (Pas- serina cyanea), northern cardinal, and rufous- sided towhee. These observations reflect the successional status of vegetation at most sur- vey sites and are consistent with data for tree species composition that demonstrated domi- nance by invasive species such as black locust, yellow- -poplar, and red maple. Croft (1969) hy- pothesized that mining in the Black Mountain region was likely resulting in a lower abun- dance of forest- inhabiting birds and leading to an increase in disturbance associated species. These data indicate that shrub-scrub species have likely benefited from the increase in edge habitat: however, the abundance of American redstart (Setophaga ruticilla), black-and-white warbler (Mniotilta varia), black-throated blue warbler, hooded warbler, rose-breasted gros- beak, and wood thrush (Hylocichla mustelina) observed in this study indicate that forest-in- habiting birds will recolonize previously dis- turbed sites as succession leads to an increase in vegetative complexity and stratification (Balda 1975; Niemi and Hanowski 1984). In fact, Croft’s (1969) suggestion that the hooded warbler would likely be the species most im- pacted by strip mining is not supported by these data. Point count data do not directly reflect breeding success of singing males because the most critical element of breeding habitat is nest site quality (Merrill et al. 1998). For ex- ample, birds heard during surveys may rep- resent unmated males in residual patches of habitat (Gibbs and Faaborg 1990; Probst and Hayes 1987; Van Horn et al. 1995) or immi- grants drawn to sink habitats from source pop- ulations elsewhere (Pulliam 1988; Martin 1992; Robinson 1992). Thus, any inferences drawn solely from point count data must be viewed with caution. The habitat measures ob- tained, however, indicate that breeding habitat of forest-inhabiting birds at mid-elevations in the Cumberland Mountains continues to be altered by logging and mining activities and is consistent with reported findings (Croft 1969; McComb et al. 1991; Mengel 1965). The dominant vegetation characteristic of mixed mesophytic forest (Braun 1940), has been re- placed in many localities by direct plantings of black locust, along with volunteer species typ- ical of disturbed habitats, such as yellow-pop- lar and sassafras (Sassafras albidum) (Croft 1969; McComb et al. 1991; this study). Thus it is likely that populations of forest-inhabiting birds are being negatively impacted both by fragmentation, particularly where mined lands are returned to fescue (Festuca arundinacea) grasslands, and by changes in the condition of existing forest habitat (McComb et al. 1991). Of added concern are the potential effects that nest parasitism by the brown-headed cow- bird and nest predation by vertebrate preda- tors could have on breeding success of FS rest- inhabiting birds of the Cumberland Moun- tains. Fragmentation of forests, regardless of whether it is by logging, mining, or agricul- ture, increases edge habitat and is known to be associated with increased levels of nest par- asitism and nest predation (Brittingham and Temple 1983; Martin 1988; Robinson, Thompson et al. 1995; Wilcove 1985). Al- though no study of nest parasitism exists for the Cumberland Mountain region, brown- headed cowbirds are known to be attracted to reclaimed strip mines in eastern Kentucky (Claus et al. 1988) and have been observed entering larger blocks of interior forest on the Cumberland Plateau (Lacki and Baker 1998). Even though I observed no brown-headed cowbird in this study, Croft (1969) reported this species to be “widespread in moderate numbers” on the ridgetops he surveyed; thus, the potential threat of brood parasitism exists for the Cumberland Mountain region. Rosen- berg et al. (1999) have demonstrated that the brown-headed cowbird is less likely to inhabit fragmented habitats at higher elevations throughout the species’ distribution. I observed two avian nest predators during my surveys: American crow and blue jay. These species have also been seen at the high- er elevations in the Cumberland Mountains (Breiding 1947; Croft 1969; Wetmore 1940), but their impact on nesting success of breed- ing birds in Kentucky is unknown. As with the brown-headed cowbird, avian nest predators appear to be less common in fragmented hab- itats at higher elevations (Rosenberg et al. 1999). Bird Communities—Lacki De SUMMARY McComb et al. (1991) urged for a “proac- tive plan” to preserve mature forest species of wildlife in the Cumberland Mountains. To re- duce the effects of logging and mining they recommended four steps be taken: reforesta- tion of mined lands, carefully planned timber harvests (i.e., location and size), extending the length of timber rotations beyond 80 yrs in some portions of the landscape, and develop- ing a regional plan to optimally allocate the distribution of seral stages. Their overall goal was to minimize cumulative effects of land use on wildlife. Clearly, their message has yet to be heard. Existing conservation efforts in the Cum- berland Mountains of Kentucky have centered around the protection of the highest elevations at the top of Black Mountain and the control of mountaintop removal as a method of coal extraction (KSNPC 1998). Mountaintop re- moval involves the exposure of coal seams by removal of all biological and mineral material above the surface of the coal. This material is then disposed of in lower lying areas following completion of mining, resulting in permanent disfigurement of the landscape. Although laudable achievements in their own right, lim- iting the scope of conservation efforts in east- em Kentucky to these two measures has short- sighted and long-term consequences for the bird communities of the Cumberland Moun- tains. Based on earlier surveys (Croft 1969; Davis et al. 1980; Mengel 1965; Wetmore 1940) and data collected in this Study, it is clear that mid-elevations in the Cumberland Mountains support a number of sensitive bird species, including species unique to this re- gion of the state. Protection of only the high- est elevations on Black Mountain will provide for a limited acreage of mature forest habitat that could likely be inadequate to sustain breeding populations of these sensitive species over time (Faaborg et al. 1995; Freemark and Collins 1992: Robinson, Thompson et al. 1995; Robinson and Wilcove 1999). Further, even if mountaintop removal is eliminated as a means of coal extraction, unregulated mining at mid- elevations by alternative means could still re- duce the amount of available mature forest habitat to where the Cumberland Mountains in Kentucky revert from being a “source” hab- itat region to that of a “sink” habitat region for forest-inhabiting birds (Pulliam 1988: Rosen- berg et al. 1999; Schmidt and Whelan 1999). The development of a regional plan, as sug- gested by McComb et al. (1991), could have long-reaching benefits for the conservation of avifauna in eastern Kentucky. I would also rec- ommend several steps in addition to the ideas put forth by McComb et al. (1991). First, es- tablish a permanent system of monitoring that would include surveys of birds in all seral stag- es at low, mid-, and high elevations in the Cumberland Mountains and that would track species patterns over time as habitats mature or change due to land use practices and nat- ural disturbance. Second, initiate research into nesting success of birds in disturbed and un- disturbed habitats, with particular attention paid to causes of nest failure. Third, develop a Geographic Information Systems data base of habitats so that the frequency, block size, and distribution pattern of existing habitats could be identified. This information would al- low for objective decision-making when allo- cating permits to log or mine, such that pres- ervation of sufficient mature forest habitat to protect bird communities at low, mid-, and high elevations in the Cumberland Mountains could be achieved. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Funding was provided through contracts from Manalapan Mining Company, Inc., Ev- arts, Kentucky, and Applied Science Corpo- ration, Lexington, Kentucky. I thank J. Phillips and J. Robinson for logistic advice. D. Cre- means provided assistance with graphics. 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Effects of selective logging on forest bird populations in a frag- mented landscape. Conservation Biol. 13:58-66. Rosenberg, K. V., J. D. Lowe, and A. A. Dhondt. 1999. Effects of forest fragmentation on breeding tanagers: a continental perspective. Conservation Biol. 13:568-583. Schulte, L. A., and G. J. Niemi. 1998. Bird communities of early-successional burned and logged forest. J. Wild- life Managem. 62:1418-1429. Schmidt, K. A., and C. J. Whelan. 1999. The relative im- pacts of nest predation and brood parasitism on season- al fecundity in songbirds. Conservation Biol. 13:46—57. Van Horne, M. A., R. M. Gentry, and J. Faaborg. 1995. Patterns of ovenbird (Seiurus aurocapillus) pairing suc- cess in Missouri forest tracts. Auk 112:98-106. Walters, J. R. 1998. The ecological basis of avian sensitiv- ity to habitat fragmentation. Pages 181-192 in J. M. Marzluff and R. Sallabanks (eds). Avian conservation: research and management. Island Press, Covelo, CA. Wetmore, A. 1940. Notes on the birds of Kentucky. Proc. U.S. Natl. Mus. 88:529-574. Wilcove, D. S. 1985. Nest predation in forest tracts and the decline of migratory songbirds. Ecology 66:1211- 1214. Yacek, H. F., Jr., and M. J. Lacki. 1998. Nesting activity of the blue-headed vireo in Wolfe County, Kentucky. Kentucky Warbler 74:90-91. id. Sci. 61(1):60—-63. 2000 NOTES Seasonal Prevalence of the Digenetic Trematode Proterometra edneyi (Azygiidae) in the Snail Elimia ebenum (Pleurocercidae) at Anglin Falls, Ken- tucky. whose larval and adult stages were first described from Proterometra edne yt is a digenetic trematode the snail Elimia semicarinata and experimental and nat- ural infections of several species of darters (Etheostoma spp respectively (1). To our knowledge, natural snail in- fections have been reported from streams in only seven 1, 2, 3). The prevalence of P. edne yi Kentucky counties infections in snail populations has been low at these sites, ranging from 0.45% at North Elkhorn Creek in Scott to 12.6% at South Elkhorn Creek in Fayette Little information is available concerning the County (2 County (1 seasonal prevalence of this worm. Uglem and Aliff (1) ob- served mature cercariae between from their monthly July 1980 to October 1981) collec- tions of Elimia semicarinata, but no specific data regard- ing monthly prevalence were reported. Monthly preva- lence can provide critical information regarding annual 12 cel Overall Prevalence March and October loss/recruitment of trematodes within snail populations and optimal times for transmission to the next host in the worms life cycle Our preliminary survey revealed the presence of P. ed- neyi rediae and cereariae in the snail Elimia ebenum and the adult worm in the striped darter Etheostoma virgatum at Anglin Falls, Rockcastle County, Kentucky. Our study was initiated to assess the seasonal prevalence of P. edneyi in the snail population at this site. Anglin Falls is part of the Cumberland River drainage. The falls area, currently maintained by Berea College, is dedicated as a Kentucky State Nature Preserve encom- passing 123 acres containing a number of intermittent streams. Beginning in June 1995, we collected 146—150 Elimia ebenum during the 4th week of each month through May 1999. Snails were placed individually into 50-ml beakers containing ca. 35-40 ml of filtered stream water. The beakers were then incubated in an environ- mental chamber at 20°C and a 12 hr light:12 hr dark cycle for 24 hr. Beakers were observed twice during this period Cl Prevalence Mature Infections PREVALENCE (%) — Z. =) = JUL 0 ~ < SEP OCT Figure 1. NOV ai & 1 Moz m | €( eS = FEB MAR APR MAY MONTH Monthly prevalence of Proterometra edneyi in the snail Elimia ebenum (solid box) and snails releasing mature cercariae of this species (stippled box) during June-May 1998-1999 at Anglin Falls, Kentucky. Notes 61 PREVALENCE (“%) INFECTED SNAILS ” AP Neg ‘ SNAIL SHELL SIZE CLASSES (cm) Figure 2. Prevalence of Proterometra edneyi in three size classes of the snail Elimia ebenum collected from June to May 1998-1999 at Anglin Falls, Kentucky. N = number of snails/size class. with a dissecting microscope to determine which snails were releasing cercariae and thus possessed mature cer- carial infections. Snail shell length was then recorded, and all snails were crushed to determine the presence/absence of rediae. Representative specimens were deposited in the U.S. National Parasite Collection (USNPC) with the fol- lowing accession numbers: immature cercariae, 088844.0; cercariae, 088845.0; and rediae, 088846.0. The 12-month prevalence of P. edneyi in Elimia ebenum at Anglin Falls was 4.02% (72/1790) in snails measuring between 0.9 and 3.1 cm. With the exception of November, prevalence revealed a continuous low-level infection in the snail population from June 1998 through May 1999 (prevalence range = 1.33-12.00%; Figure 1). There was a marked increase in the number of mature cercarial in- fections in April and May along with an overall increase in May prevalence (Figure 1). An increase in the preva- lence of infection was also observed with increases in snail size (Figure 2). The low prevalence of infection observed for P. edneyi in Elimia ebenum at Anglin Falls corroborates the obser- vations made for this parasite in Elimia semicarinata (1, 2). Our observation of higher worm prevalence with in- creased snail size (Figure 2) also supports previous obser- vations of P. edneyi infections in Elimia semicarinata (1). In samples of snails between 1.0 and 2.0 cm in length, Uglem and Aliff (1) found the greatest prevalence in snails between 1.6 and 1.8 cm. Based on the prevalence of mature cercarial infections, the primary period of P. edneyi transmission to Etheos- toma virgatum at Anglin Falls must occur in spring. Riley and Uglem (4) speculated that seasonal emergence peaks of cercaria, are, in part, associated with the arrival of mi- grant hosts in their study of strains of the closely related species Proterometra macrostoma. According to Kuehne and Barbour (5), Etheostoma virgatum (which is common in second-, third-, and fourth order streams), sometimes enters the lower reaches of tiny woodland tributaries (like those found at Anglin Falls) in April to spawn. Such be- havior would place this definitive host in close proximity with the mature/infective cercarial stage, which is most prevalent during this time (Figure 1). Further investiga- tions into seasonal movements of this darter at Anglin Falls will be required to verify this association. This study was supported by grants from the Andrew Mellon Foundation (Appalachian College Association) and the Undergraduate Research Creative Projects Program (URCPP) at Berea College. We acknowledge Dr. Guenter Schuster for reviewing the manuscript. LITERATURE CITED. (1) Uglem, Grlyana iH Aliff. 1984. Proterometra edneyi n. sp. (Digenea: Azygi- idae): behavior and distribution of acetylcholinesterase in 62 Journal of the Kentucky Academy of Science 61(1) ercariae. Trans. Am. Microscop. Soc. 103:383-391. (2) Lewis, M. C. 1988. Effects of environmental light and light:dark cycling on cercarial emergence and behavior of Proterometra edneyi and P. macrostoma (Trematoda: Di- genea). Ph.D. Dissertation, Univ. Kentucky, Lexington, KY. (3) Riley, M. W. 1992. Intraspecific variation in the fish trematode Proterometra macrostoma (Digenea: Azy- giidae). Ph.D. Dissertation, Univ. Kentucky, Lexington, KY. (4) Riley, M. W., and G. L. Uglem. 1995. Protero- metra macrostoma (Digenea: Azygiidae): variations in cer- carial morphology and physiology. Parasitology 110:429- 436. (5) Kuehne, R. A., and R. W. Barbour. 1983. The American darters. Univ. Press of Kentucky, Lexington, KY.—Jessica Schuster, Emilia Boiadgieva, Kelly Ad- ams, Lauren Roth, and Ron Rosen, Department of Bi- ology, Berea College, Berea, Kentucky 40404. Chromosome Number of the Sandstone Rock- house Endemic Thalictrum mirabile (Ranuncula- ceae), and Clarification of its Endemism.—Sandstone rockhouses are semicircular recesses extending far back under cliff overhangs that are large enough to provide shelter for humans. Four ferns and seven flowering plants appear to be endemic, or nearly so, to sandstone rock- houses in the eastern United States (1, 2). The endemics have been classified following a cytologically based scheme: paleoendemic, neoschizoendemic, holoschizoen- demic, patroendemic, or apoendemic (1, 3). A diploid or polyploid species with no apparent closely related extant diploid ancestor is a paleoendemic. Schizoendemics have the same chromosome number as their closely related pa- rental taxa but are of various ages: geographically restrict- ed, youthful species (neoschizoendemic) and widespread, “mature” or ancient species (holoschizoendemic). A re- stricted diploid species ancestral to a widespread polyploid is a patroendemic, whereas a restricted polyploid derived from a widespread diploid is an apoendemic. Thalictrum mirabile Small (Ranunculaceae) was the only endemic flowering plant of the rockhouses that lacked a chromosome count, and thus it was classified ten- tatively as a neoschizoendemic (1). The purpose of my study was to (1) determine the chromosome number of T. mirabile, and (2) evaluate the species’ classification as a neoschizoendemic. Thalictrum mirabile grows mostly around plunge basins and groundwater seeps/springs and at the heads of streams on the floor of rockhouses, and it is present on wet cliffs with slight overhangs (1, 4). The species was reported from Kentucky, Tennessee, North Carolina, Georgia, and Alabama by Park and Festerling (4). On the other hand, it is not listed for Tennessee by Wofford and Chester (5), North Carolina by Radford et al. (6), or Geor- gia by Jones and Coile (7). Thalictrum mirabile is very similar to its putative parental taxon, T. clavatum DC. The species are distinguished primarily by achene morphology (1, 4, 8). Thalictrum clavatum occurs in rich woods, on cliffs and seepage slopes, and along streams from Virginia to Kentucky south to South Carolina and Georgia (4, 9). Jensen (10) reported that T. clavatum from western North Carolina had a meiotic chromosome number of n = 7. The base chromosome number (x) in Thalictrum is seven (8). Although Keener (9) included Jensen's (10) chromosome count of T. clavatum in his treatment of Thalictrum, other recent taxonomic manuals (4, 8) have not. Moreover, the chromosome number of T. clavatum was omitted from Darlington and Wylie (11) and from Bolkhovskikh et al. (12), even though that of other species of Thalictrum in Jensen (10) was included in both sources. I used young flower buds to determine the meiotic chromosome number of T. mirabile (cf. 13). Flower buds were collected from several genets in a population of T. mirabile in a rockhouse in Powell County, Kentucky, on 7 May 1999. A voucher specimen is deposited at OS (Walck 568). Plant material was placed in a 3:1 solution of abso- lute ethanol:glacial acetic acid for 2 days, and then trans- ferred to 70% ethanol for 1 day. Anthers were removed from buds, placed in acetocarmine, macerated on a mi- croscope slide, and then squashed with a cover slip. Slides were observed with a compound microscope, and chro- mosomes counted. The chromosome number for T. mirabile was deter- mined to be n = 7. This count is identical to that reported for T. clavatum (10). Thus, it is most appropriate to keep T. mirabile as a neoschizoendemic. I thank Daniel J. Crawford for his guidance in this study. LITERATURE CITED. (1) Walck, J. L., J. M. Baskin, C. C. Baskin, and S. W. Francis. 1996. Sandstone rock- houses of the eastern United States, with particular ref- erence to the ecology and evolution of the endemic plant taxa. Bot. Rev. 62:311-362. (2) Farrar, D. R. 1998. The tropical flora of rockhouse cliff formations in the eastern United States. J. Torrey Bot. Soc. 125:91—108. (3) Favar- ger, C., and J. Contandriopoulos. 1961. Essai sur lendémisme. Ber. Schweiz. Bot. Ges. 71:384—408. (4) Park, M. M., and D. Festerling, Jr. 1997. Thalictrum. Pag- es 258-271 in Flora of North America Editorial Commit- tee. Flora of North America north of Mexico. Oxford Univ. Press, New York, NY. (5) Wofford, B. E., and E. W. Chester. 1998. A comparison and reconciliation of the checklist and atlas of Tennessee vascular plants with pub- lished volumes of the flora of North America. Castanea 63:466—-473. (6) Radford, A. E., H. E. Ahles, and C. R. Bell. 1968. Manual of the vascular flora of the Carolinas. Univ. North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill, NC. (7) Jones, S. B., Jr, and N. C. Coile. 1988. The distribution of the vascular flora of Georgia. Department of Botany, Univ. Georgia, Athens, GA. (8) Gleason, H. A., and A. Cron- quist. 1991. Manual of vascular plants of northeastern United States and adjacent Canada, 2nd ed. New York Botanical Garden, Bronx, NY. (9) Keener, C. S. 1976. Studies in the Ranunculaceae of the southeastern United States. I. Thalictrum L. Rhodora 78:457-472. (10) Jen- Notes 63 sen, H. W. 1944. Heterochromosome formation in the ge- nus Ilex. Am. Naturalist 78:375-379. (11) Darlington, C. D., and A. P. Wylie. 1955. Chromosome atlas of flowering plants, 2nd ed. Allen & Unwin, London. (12) Bolkhov- skikh, Z., V. Grif, T. Matvejeva, and O. Zakharyeva. 1969. Chromosome numbers of flowering plants. Academy of Sciences of the USSR, V. L. Komarov Botanical Institute. “Nauka,” Leningrad. (13) Love, A., and D. Léve. 1975. Plant chromosomes. J. Cramer, Vaduz.—Jeffrey L. Walck, Department of Evolution, Ecology, and Organis- mal Biology, The Ohio State University, 1735 Neil Ave- nue, Columbus, OH 43210-1293: Present address: De- partment of Biology, P.O. Box 60, Middle Tennessee State University, Murfreesboro, TN 37132. D. D. ic) Guidelines for Contributors to the Journal . GENERAL . 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