on JOURNAL Mit OF THE KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE Official Publication of the Academy Volume 65 Number 1 Spring 2004 Nilay MAY 24 9007 4) The Kentucky Academy of Science Founded 8 May 1914 GoveERNING Boarp 2004 EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE 2004 President: Robert W. Kingsolver, Kentucky Wesleyan College/kingsol@kwce.edu President Elect: Bruce Mattingly, Morehead State University/b.mattin@morehead-st.edu Vice President: Miriam Steinitz-Kannan, Northern Kentucky University/kannan@nku.edu Past President: Robert J. Barney, Kentucky State University/rbarney@kysu.edu Secretary: Dawn Anderson, Berea College/dawn_anderson@berea.edu Treasurer: Kenneth Crawford, Western Kentucky University/kenneth.crawford@wku.edu Executive Secretary (ex officio): Donald Frazier, University of Kentucky/dfrazie@pop.uky.edu Editor, JOURNAL (ex officio): John W. Thieret, Northern Kentucky University/thieretj@exchange.nku.edu DIvIsIOn AND AT-LARGE REPRESENTATIVES Physical Sciences (2004): Jennifer Muzyka, Centre College/muzyka@centre.edu Biological Sciences (2005): Thomas Rambo, Northern Kentucky University/rambot@nku.edu At-Large (2005): Ralph Thompson, Berea College/ralph_thompson@berea.edu Social Sciences (2006): David Hogan, Northern Kentucky University/hogan@nku.edu Physical Sciences (2006): Mark Blankenbuehler, Morehead State University/blanken@morehead-st.edu Program Coordinator (ex officio): Robert O. Creek, Eastern Kentucky University/rcreek@chpl.net Director, Junior Academy of Science (ex officio): Elizabeth K. Sutton, Campbellsville University/ eksutton@campbellsville.edu Editor, NEWSLETTER (ex officio): Susan Templeton, Kentucky State University/ templeton@gwmail.kysu.edu Editor, KAS Webpage (ex officio): Claire Rinehart, Western Kentucky University/claire.rinehart@wku.edu AAAS/NAAS Representative (ex officio): Guenter Schuster, Eastern Kentucky University/ guenter.schuster@eku.edu COMMITTEE ON PUBLICATIONS Editor and Chair: John W. Thieret, Northern Kentucky University/thieretj@exchange.nku.edu Abstract Editor: — Robert J. Barney, Kentucky State University/rbarney@gwmail.kysu.edu Index Editor: Varley E. Wiedeman/varleyw@mac.com Editorial Board: Ralph Thompson, Berea College/ralph_thompson@berea.edu Susan Templeton, Kentucky State University/stempleton@gwmail.kysu.edu Claire Rinehart, Western Kentucky University/claire.rinehart@wku.edu All manuscripts and correspondence concerning manuscripts should be addressed to the Editor. The JOURNAL is indexed in BIOSIS, Cambridge Scientific Abstracts, Selected Water Resource Abstracts, State Academies of Science Abstracts, and Zoological Record. Membership in the Academy is open to interested persons upon nomination, payment of dues, and election. Application forms for membership may be obtained from the Secretary. The JOURNAL is sent free to all members in good standing. Annual dues are $25.00 for Active Members; $15.00 for Student Members; $35.00 for Family; $350.00 for Life Mem- bers. Subscription rates for nonmembers are: $50.00 domestic; $60.00 foreign. Back issues are $30.00 per volume. The JOURNAL is issued semiannually in spring and fall. Two numbers comprise a volume. Correspondence concerning memberships or subscriptions should be addressed to the Executive Secretary. © This paper meets the requirements of ANSI/NISO Z39.48-992 (Permanence of Paper). INSTITUTIONAL AFFILIATES Fellow University of Kentucky University of Louisville Sustaining Member Campbellsville University Kentucky State University Morehead State University Murray State University Northern Kentucky University Western Kentucky University Member Asbury College Bellarmine University Berea College Centre College Cumberland College Eastern Kentucky Univerity Kentucky Wesleyan College Madisonville Community College West Kentucky Community & Technical College Associate Member Pikeville College Transylvania University INDUSTRIAL AFFILIATES Associate Patron Touchstone Energy Associate Member Hoffman Environmental Research Institute Third Rock Consultants Wood Hudson Cancer Research Lab Figure 1. European wall lizards (Podarcis muralis). The larger female on the left has a re- generated tail as compared to the male on the right. Artwork by Katharina Schmidt-Loske. JOURNAL OF THE KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE ISSN 1098-7096 Continuation of Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science Volume 65 Spring 2004 Number 1 J. Ky. Acad. Sci. 65(1):1-4. 2004. The Introduction of European and Italian Wall Lizards (Podarcis muralis and P. sicula; Reptilia, Lacertidae) into the United States John W. Ferner Department of Biology, Thomas More College, Crestview Hills, Kentucky 41017 ABSTRACT Several populations of lacertid lizards were introduced to the United States during the last century. Of these, the European wall lizard (Podarcis muralis) in Cincinnati, Ohio, and northem Kentucky and the Italian wall lizard (Podarcis sicula) on Long Island, New York, and in Topeka, Kansas, have become well established. These urban populations are successful in that they have little competition from native species and are pre-adapted for the climate at these latitudes. Local scientists are taking advantage of the opportunity to study the natural history and population ecology of these populations. INTRODUCTION One of the most successful invasive groups of Old World reptiles found in the United States is from the family Lacertidae. Conant and Collins (1998) reported five possible ex- tant populations of two lacertid lizard species in the eastern U.S. The first introduction of wall lizards was an accidental escape of several individuals of Podarcis sicula from an animal dealer in Philadelphia in 1927 (Kauffeld 1931); this population may now be extinct (Smith and Kohler 1977). A small population of P. sicula was established in Topeka, Kansas, from a similar loss of specimens by a pet deal- er about 50 years ago (Collins 1982). A third population of this species was introduced to Long Island, New York, in 1966 (Gossweiler 1975). A record of Podarcis muralis from Van Wert, Ohio, reported by Conant and Collins (1998) has recently been determined to be Darevskia valentini by Bischoff and Deichsel (2002) and was likely only a single specimen included in a shipment to an equipment com- pany. No known population of D. valentini ex- ists in the U.S. However, a successful intro- duction of P. muralis has occurred in Cincin- nati, Ohio (Vigel 1977). A review of the sys- tematics and natural history of the species can be found in Gruschwitz and Bohme (1986). When I first moved to the Cincinnati area in 1977, it was the local naturalist and nature cin- ematographer Karl Maslowski who told me the interesting story of the amazing “Lazarus Lizards” of Cincinnati (Maslowski and Mas- lowski 1979). THE PODARCIS MURALIS INTRODUCTION The confusion about the original introduc- tion of Podarcis muralis in Cincinnati was clar- ified in a recent paper by Deichsel and Gist (2001). Based on this report, it now appears that 10 individuals were released, rather than the previously thought number of two (Vigle 1977). George Rau, a member of the locally well-known Lazarus family, released the liz- ards on Torrence Court in eastern Cincinnati when he was a child in 1951 or 1952 (Deichsel and Gist 2001). The source of these lizards of the subspecies P. muralis muralis was near Lake Garda, about 120 km away from Milan, Italy (Deichsel and Gist 2001). bo In 1958, Rau claims to have also introduced 10 additional lacertid lizards at the same loca- tion from the island of Vedra off Ibiza, Spain, which were likely Podarcis pityusensis vedrae (Deichsel and Gist 2001). Deichsel and Gist (2001) pointed out that there is no evidence that this introduction was successful, which is likely due to its coming from a warm maritime climate where it does not need to enter dor- mancy in winter. On the other hand, Hedeen (1984) pointed out that the annual precipitation and temperature curve for Milan, Italy, and Cincinnati, Ohio, are almost identical, indicat- ing that P. muralis was pre-adapted to its new home. Both Lake Como (the site of origin re- ported by Vigle 1977) and Lake Garda (the site of origin reported by Deichsel and Gist 2001) are near Milan in Lombardy Province in north- em Italy (Hopkins 1997). SUBSEQUENT DISPERSAL In the original report in the literature of Po- darcis muralis in Cincinnati, Vigle (1977) men- tioned that the populations had spread to an oval-shaped distribution of about 1 X 3 km sur- rounding the reported site of release. He re- ported that they had dispersed over roads that were heavily traveled. Hedeen (1988) found that a second population was established at the Cincinnati Zoo and Botanical Garden by indi- viduals that had escaped from an exhibit at the Children’s Zoo. This extended the population about 4 km to the northwest of the original one. About that same time I confirmed reports from S.F. Platek (pers. comm.) that P. muralis spread up the floodplain and across the Little Miami River to the northeast from the original introduction. As Kauffeld (1931) speculated for P. sicula in Philadelphia, Hedeen and Hedeen (1999) reported that railroad rights-of-way have been a major avenue for the east-west dispersal of the original population. The first anecdotal report of Podarcis muralis having crossed the Ohio River into northem Kentucky came from a high school teacher in Covington in 1988, Extensive searching of the area near Scott Boulevard and Twentieth Street by the author and Matthew Draud yielded no sightings. Other stories of young fishermen crossing the bridges and bringing wall lizards back to use as bait circulated in the herpetolog- ical community. It was not until September 1993, however, that the first documented state Journal of the Kentucky Academy of Science 65(1) record of the species was made in Fort Thomas, Campbell County, Kentucky (Draud and Ferner 1994). Soon after that, G. Pille (pers. comm.) reported the release of several P- muralis cap- tured from the Cincinnati population into gar- dens in Park Hills, Kenton County, Kentucky, which were immediately confirmed as an estab- lished, reproducing population (Ferner and Fer- ner 2002). Both these Kentucky populations have spread in a radius of about 0.5 km around the residential neighborhoods in which they were introduced. RESEARCH ON THE INTRODUCED POPULATIONS Introduced species provide research oppor- tunities relative to both their basic biology as well as their process of colonization. Podarcis muralis from the Cincinnati population has had aspects of its natural history such as home range (Brown et al. 1995), reproductive cycle (Kwiat and Gist 1987), and freezing tolerance (Claussen et al. 1989) studied in detail. The food habits of the Long Island population of P. sicula have been found to be very similar to some European populations (Burke and Mer- curio 2002). Burke and Ner (2004) reported the seasonal and diel activity of this species in New York to be impacted by the lower mini- mum temperatures than found in Italy. They found the wall lizards are inactive for 5 months over the winter in the U.S., as com- pared to at least some activity throughout the year in the Italian populations. An additional area of inquiry of great interest with introduced populations is their genetic make up relative to such questions as genetic drift and selective pressures. Loss of variability is expected with introduced species because of their initial small gene pool (Gorman et al. 1978). Deichsel and Gist (2001) reported on unpublished data by R.M. Brown that indicates an absence of allozyme variation at 14 allozyme loci in the Cincinnati population of Podarcis muralis, which is now thought to have been established by the introduction of just 10 in- dividuals. Further genetic studies of these spreading populations will be of interest. THE FUTURE OF THE INTRODUCED POPULATIONS While many intentional or accidental intro- ductions of invasive species may not be suc- Wall Lizard Introductions—Ferner 3 cessful, those that become established warrant our concer. Three populations of Podarcis seem to be so well established that their long- term survival is likely. While there were some reports that the Philadelphia P. sicula had died out in the 1940s, Conant (1959) found them to be doing well in the original location as they may be to this day (Conant and Collins 1998). Brown et al. (1995) reported a decline of P, muralis in some neighborhoods in Cincinnati due to real estate development and restoration of retaining walls. However, my observations confirm that these are only very localized set- backs and overall the lizard populations re- main vigorous and are continuing to disperse. Another concern with introduced species is what impact they will have on other native or introduced species in the region (Frankenberg 1984; Salzburg 1984). Hedeen (pers. comm.) and I have not yet found sympatry between Podarcis muralis and the three native species in the Cincinnati and northern Kentucky re- gion. These three species are Sceloporus un- dulatus, Eumeces fasciatus, and E. laticeps, with S. undulatus near the northerm limit of its range and E. fasciatus having no confirmed records in northern Kentucky (Conant and Collins 1998). While old museum records of these species can be found in the vicinity where the wall lizards now roam, recent sight- ings of the native species in urbanized areas are lacking. Podarcis muralis is known to be an aggressive competitor and well adapted for urban environments (Deichsel and Gist 2001): it appears that the wall lizards have no com- petition from native species. What would happen if Podarcis muralis moves from urban areas into more natural habitats such as those in California Woods City Park in Cincinnati or Devou Park in Cov- ington, Kentucky? Wall lizards have dispersed to the edges of many such habitats where some native species may still remain. Based on a foraging mode using olfactory cues, these lacertids (Cooper 1995) seem more similar to the skinks than to the iguanid lizards. While relying heavily on olfaction, wall lizards also respond well to visual cues and therefore may be a very broad-based competitor (Amo et al. 2004). Mesocosm experiments similar to those done by Tiebout and Anderson (2001) are cur- rently being done by students at Thomas More College to determine the potential for niche overlap should the alien wall lizards move into the range of the native lizards in the Cincinnati region. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I thank Guntram Deichsel for his help in obtaining the frontispiece illustration, which was kindly donated by Katharina Schmidt-Los- ke of Bad Muenstereifel, Germany. Com- ments by J. P. Ferner on an early version of the manuscript are greatly appreciated. LITERATURE CITED Amo, L., P. Lopez, and J. Martin. 2004. Wall lizards com- bine chemical and visual cues of ambush snake preda- tors to avoid overestimating risk inside refuges. Anim. Behav. 67:647-653. Bischoff, W., and G. Deichsel. 2002. A specimen misiden- tified as Podarcis muralis (Laurenti, 1768) from Ohio, USA, re-determined as Darevskia valentini (Boettger, 1882) (Reptilia, Lacertilidae). Salamandra 38(2):113-117. Brown, R. M., D. H. Gist, and D. H. Taylor. 1995. Home range ecology of an introduced population of the Euro- pean wall lizard Podarcis muralis (Lacertilia; Lacertidae) in Cincinnati, Ohio. Am. Midl. Naturalist 133:344—359. Burke, R. L., and R. J. Mercurio. 2002. Food habits of a New York population of Italian wall lizards, Podarcis sicula (Reptilia, Lacertidae). Am. Midl. Naturalist 147: 368-375. Burke, R. L., and S. Ner. 2004. Seasonal and diel activity patterns of Italian wall lizards, Podarcis sicula campes- tris in New York, USA. Northeast Naturalist. In press. Claussen, D. L., M. D. Toownsley, and R. G. Bausch. 1989. Supercooling and freezing tolerance in the European wall lizard, Podarcis muralis. Am. Zool. 29:267-272. Collins, J. T. 1982. Amphibians and reptiles in Kansas, 2nd ed. Univ. Kansas Mus. Nat. Hist. Public Edu. Ser. 8. Conant, R. 1959. Lacerta colony still extant at Philidel- phia. Copeia 1959(4):335-336. Conant, R. and J. C. Collins. 1998. Reptiles and amphib- ians: eastern/central North America. Houghton Mifflin, Boston, MA. Cooper, W. E. 1995. Foraging mode, prey chemical dis- crimination, and phylogeny in lizards. Anim. Behav. 50: 973-985. Deichsel, G., and D. H. Gist. 2001. On the origin of the common wall lizards Podarcis muralis (Reptilia, Lac- ertidae) in Cincinnati, Ohio, USA. Herpetol. Rev. 32(4): 230-232. Deichsel, G., and W. Bischoff. 2002. Geographic distri- bution. Dareuskia valentini. Herpetol. Rev. 33(1):65. Draud, M., and J. Ferner. 1994. Geographic distribution. Podarcis muralis. Herpetol. Rey. 25(1):33. Ferner, J. W., and J. P. Ferner. 2002. Geographic distri- bution. Podarcis muralis. Herpetol. Rev. 33(3):226. Frankenberg, E. 1984. Interactions between two species 4 Journal of the Kentucky Academy of Science 65(1) of colonizing house geckos, Hemidactylus turcicus and Hemidactylus garnotii. J. Herpetol. 18(1):1-7. Gorman, G. C., Y. J. Kim, and S. Y. Yang. 1978. The ge- netics of colonization: loss of variability among intro- duced populations of Anolis lizards (Reptilia, Lacertilia, Iguanidae). J. Herpetol. 12(1):47-51. Gossweiler, W. A. 1975. European lizards established on Long Island. Copeia 1975(4):584—585. Gruschwitz, M., and W. Bohme. 1986. Podarcis muralis (Laurenti, 1798)—Mauereidechse. Pages 155-208 in W. Bohme (ed). Handbuch der Reptilien und Amphibien Europas. Band 2/11. AULA-Verlag, Wiesbaden, Germany. Hedeen, S. E. 1984. The establishment of Podarcis mur- alis in Cincinnati, Ohio. Herpetol. Rev. 15(3):70-71. Hedeen. S. E. 1988. Geographic Distribution. Podarcis muralis. Herpetol. Rev. 19(1):19. Hedeen, S. E., and D. L. Hedeen. 1999. Railway-aided dispersal of an introduced Podarcis muralis population. Herpetol. Rev. 30(1):57-58. Hopkins, D. J. 1997. Merriam-Webster’s geographical dic- tionary. Merriam-Webster, Inc., Springfield, MA. Kauffeld, C. F. 1931. Lacerta melisellensis fuumana at Phil- adelphia. Copeia 1931(4):163-164. Kwiat, G. A., and D. H. Gist. 1987. Annual reproductive cycle of an introduced population of European wall lizards (Podarcis muralis) in Ohio. J. Herpetol. 21(3):205-209. Maslowski, K., and S. Maslowski. 1979. Wall lizards invade the O’Bryanville area. The Cincinnati Enquirer, Feb- ruary 11, p. L2. Salzburg, M. A. 1984. Anolis sagrei and Anolis cristatellus in southern Florida: a case study in interspecific com- petition. Ecology 65(1):14-19. Smith, H. M., and A. J. Kohler. 1977. A survey of her- petological introductions in the United States and Can- ada. Trans. Kansas Acad. Sci. 80:1—24. Tiebout, H. M., and R. A. Anderson. 2001. Mesocosm experiments on habitat choice by an endemic lizard: implications for timber management. J. Herpetol. 35(2): 173-185. Vigel, G. O. 1977. The history and distribution of an in- troduced population of Lacerta muralis (Reptilia, Sau- ria, Lacertidae), in Cincinnati, Ohio. (Abstract). Her- petol. Rev. 8(3)(Supplement):19. J. Ky. Acad. Sci. 65(1):5-11 . 2004. Search for the Parity-violating Energy Difference between a d- and l-iron Complex A. S. Lahamer and S. B. McClure Department of Physics, Berea College, Berea, Kentucky 40404 S. M. Mahurin Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37831 and R. N. Compton Department of Physics and Chemistry, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tennessee 37996 ABSTRACT Méssbauer spectra for /- and d- enantiomers of the Fe(phen),Sb,(C,H,O,).-8H,O complex are reported. The data show a small but reproducible energy shift of the Fe-Méssbauer spectra for the two enantiomers of 0.004 + 0.002 mm/sec. This shift corresponds to an energy difference of 1.9X10-! eV (AE/E~10-”). This energy difference is of the order of the parity violation energy difference (PVED); however, early theoretical calculations suggest that this shift may not be due to PVED. Other possible effects for this energy shift are discussed. INTRODUCTION The word chirality or handedness was first introduced into science by Lord Kelvin (Wil- liam Thomson) who said “I call any geomet- rical figure, or groups of points, chiral, and say that it has chirality, ifits image in plane mirror, ideally realized, cannot be brought to coincide with itself” (Lord Kelvin 1904). Two objects, which are mirror images of each other, are called enantiomers. Chiral molecules lead to macroscopically chiral phases of matter with different properties. Limonene (C,,H,,) exists in two chiral forms that are mirror images of each other. The d-limonene has the pleasant scent of or- ange; the /-limonene, of lemon. The /-enantio- mer of carvone (C,,H,,O) smells like spear- mint; its d-enantiomer, of caraway. The /-form of cocaine (C,,H,,NO,) is psychoactive but its d-enantiomer is not. The /-enantiomer of the artificial sweetener aspartame (C,,H,,N,O;) is 200 times sweeter than sugar, but the d-en- antiomer is actually rather bitter tasting. The [-thalidomide cures the symptoms of morning sickness, but its d-enantiomer is a tragic te- ratogen, and although it is racemised in the body, it could never be safe for women of childbearing age. On a biological level, most living things use l-amino acids in protein and d-sugars in the backbone of DNA, which generally spirals in one direction. It turns out that the natural /- amino acids are slightly more stable than their d mirror images. Many plants like honeysuckle twine in one direction and not the other. This asymmetry in biology is a feature of funda- mental physics. The reason the /-amino acids are slightly more stable than their d mirror images is because the /-amino acids are lower in energy than their enantiomers. It has been suggested that this shift in energy may be due to the nuclear weak force (Letokhov 1975). In physics, when radioactive atoms B-decay (via the weak force), the electrons they shoot off tend to have a left-handed spin. Wu (1957) discovered that when the ®Co nucleus was placed in a magnetic field, electrons from the beta decay were preferentially emitted in the direction opposite that of the aligned angular momentum of the nucleus. Out of the four fundamental forces in na- ture, the parity-violating weak force is the only one known to be chiral. The presence of weak neutral currents within the nucleus gives rise to an anapole moment for all atoms and, as a result, all atoms are chiral. The small optical activity for a number of atoms has been mea- 6 Journal of the Kentucky Academy of Science 65(1) sured and has provided a test of the standard model of low energy nuclear physics (Wood et al. 1997). Chirality at the atomic level requires that non-superimposable mirror-image mole- cules (enantiomers) differ in total energy by the minute parity violating energy difference (PVED). Letokhoy (1975) suggested that the electroweak interaction would lift the degen- eracy between the enantiomers predicted by normal quantum electrodynamics. A number of calculations of the PVED for small mole- cules have been published (Bakasoy et al. 1998; Hegstrom et al. 1980; Lazzeretti and Zanasi 1997; Khriplovich 1991; MacDermott and Tranter 1992: Mason and Tranter 1984; Masterson and Wieman 1995; Zanasi et al. 1999). In our experiment, the /- and d- forms of the highly optically active Fe(phen),Sb, (C,H,O,)2°8H,O molecule were prepared. The crystals have been characterized with X-ray diffraction. Preliminary measurements of the Mossbauer spectra of the /- and d- forms of these molecular crystals show a small differ- ence in the energy of the two enantiomers of 0.004 + 0.002 mm/sec (1.9X107!° eV, AE/ E~10~1%). This energy is of the right order of magnitude to be ascribed to the PVED if one scales the values predicted theoretically for smaller amino acids by the atomic number to the 6.2 power; however, these are closed shell molecules and the PVED is expected to be small (AE/E~ 10-8) (Daussy et al. 1999; Laer- dahl et al. 2000; Laerdahl and Schwerdtfeger 1999). MATERIALS AND METHODS The /- and d- enantiomers of the Fe(phen);Sb,(C,H;O,)28H,O complex were obtained by initially reacting FeCl,-H,O with a solution of phenanthroline monohydrate (C\,H;N,-H,O) to produce the Fe(phen),?* cation. To resolve the /-enantiomer, commer- cially available potassium antimonyl-(+)-tar- trate was added to the above solution to pro- duce |-Fe(phen),Sb,(C,H,O,)28H,O. The d- enantiomer was synthesized using potassium antimonyl-(—)-tartrate (obtained by some slight modifications of the procedure of Schlessinger (1962) for preparing sodium ar- senyl-(+)-tartrate in which unnatural tartaric acid was used instead of the natural (+) tar- taric acid) as the resolving agent. An early x- Figure 1. cations showing the propeller shapes of the ligands bond- ed to the central iron atom. Structures of the / and d forms of Fe(phen),?* ray diffraction study of this molecule has shown that the /-Fe(phen),?* is in the form of the left handed propeller (Zalkin et al. 1973). Figure 1 shows the molecular structure of the two enantiomers of the Fe(phen),?* cation, which consists of a central iron atom with three planar phenanthroline ligands arranged to form a propeller shape. It is important to be clear on what is meant by /- and d- enantiomers since this molecule has an unusual optical rotatory dispersion (ORD) curve as seen in Figure 2. The I- des- ignation refers to the counterclockwise rota- tion of plane polarized light (as one looks at the light source) at a wavelength of 589 nm, commonly known as the sodium D line. Thus, it is common to describe it as (—);s9Fe(phen);. Similarly, the d-enantiomer rotates plane po- larized light in the clockwise direction at the sodium D line and is described as (+)ss9Fe(phen);. Figure 2 also shows the cir- cular dichroism for this compound. Thus, Fe(phen), is seen to be a highly optically ac- tive molecule. Despite the large specific rotation exhibited by the Fe(phen), molecule at some wave- lengths, [aw], = +710°, the two enantiomers are quite unstable with respect to racemiza- tion in solution. Many racemization studies have been performed on this particular mol- Energy Difference between a d- and /-iron Complex—Lahamer et al. 7 400 S00 Wavalength (nm) 600 Figure 2. Plot of the circular dichroism (CD) and the optical rotatory dispersion (ORD) for the d- Fe(phen),Sb,(C,H,O,)2. The mirror enantiomer shows the expected opposite CD and ORD. ecule by a variety of investigators (Baslo et al. 1954). These studies revealed that the iron complex racemizes by an intramolecular mechanism in which the bonds between the phenanthroline ligands and the central iron atom distort and twist. This intramolecular mechanism reduces the activation energy for racemization, thus providing a possible expla- nation for the ease with which the enantio- mers racemize. We measured the half-life of the racemization rate at room temperature for the Fe(phen),; to be ~2 minutes in acetoni- trile. The half-life increases to 23 min when dissolved in water. These short racemization half-lives present difficulties in performing ex- periments on the enantiomers in solution un- less the experiments are done at low temper- atures where the complexes are more stable. The rapid racemization would indicate that the phenanthroline ligands are not strongly bonded. Physically, the material comes in the form of a deep red powder, which dissolves quite easily in water, or any polar solvent. To ensure that we had actually synthesized the molecule of interest and to determine if the two enan- tiomers had the same crystal structure, an x- ray diffraction pattern (Figure 3) was mea- sured for the d- and /-Fe(phen),Sb,(tartrate). From the x-ray diffraction patterns, there seem to be a minor variation in only peak- amplitudes between the two species. RESULTS AND DISSCUSION Mossbauer spectroscopy is a powerful tech- nique to probe the iron site to discern the in- teractions between electrons and the iron nu- cleus. In Méssbauer spectroscopy, the °"Fe nucleus is excited from the ground state with I = % to the first excited state with I = %, where I is the nuclear spin of the iron nucleus. The photon energy, 14.4 keV, required for achieving this °’Fe nuclear resonance is ob- tained from a radioactive source *’Co which undergoes an electron capture process. Appli- cation of Doppler velocity of few mm/sec will not only compensate the recoilless loss but also modulate the 14.4 keV energy for the res- onance to be observed. A plot of the trans- mitted gamma-radiation versus the applied ve- locity (Doppler) to the source constitutes a Mossbauer spectrum. From the Méssbauer spectrum one can determine the chemical shift (due to the net s-electrons density at the nucleus), the quadrupole interaction (due to the interaction between the electric field gra- dient tensor and the quadrupole moment of the iron nucleus), and the magnetic hyperfine interactions of the iron site (due to electron and nuclear spin interactions). These three pa- rameters are known as isomer shift (6), quad- rupole splitting (A), and hyperfine magnetic field (hmf), respectively. As stated earlier, under normal quantum electrodynamics, the total energies of enantio- mers are degenerate. The PVED splits this degeneracy for each electronic level, one in- creasing and the other decreasing in energy. Any obvious difference in the observed Méss- bauer transition energies between enantio- mers might be attributed to a difference in the PVED. Méssbauer absorbers were prepared from the J- and d- enantiomers of the Fe(phen),Sb,(C,H,O,).:°8H;O complexes with densities of order to 0.1482 and 0.1812 mg/ cm? respectively. Room temperature °’Fe Mossbauer effect spectra were obtained using 57Co in rhodium matrix source and a Wissel system II constant acceleration spectrometer. The spectrometer had an intrinsic *’Fe line- width of 0.12 mm/sec. Each spectrum was ac- cumulated over 2 million counts per channel. Two separate measurements were made on one sample (both /- and d- enantiomers). A 8 Journal of the Kentucky Academy of Science 65(1) | ceoe (iat) lt LAA LA Peal,, Mi f il i Relative Intensity pen 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 Position [°2Theta] I-Fe(phen) Relative Intensity d-Fe(phen (phen) 3 20 30 40 50 Position [°2Theta] Figure 3. Upper: The x-ray diffraction patterns for the d-enantiomer of Fe(phen),Sb,(tartrate). The same graph was obtained for the /-enantiomer. Lower: The x-ray diffraction patterns for both /- and d-Fe(phen),Sb,(tartrate) at smaller angles. Energy Difference between a d- and [-iron Complex—Lahamer et al. 9 G 1 d - Fe(phen)3Sb2(CsH206)2-8H2O QD xo) o (S) 2 w (= oO =e i w i} T T T T T T T 4 3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 v (mm/s) © N al ; 1 - Fe(phen)3Sb2(CsH20s)2-8H2O = SFO eT Si = A = wi | eo | © Qi) S SI = 4 eel LQ a! i= =| 21 N | s T T T T 1 T T N14 3 -2 1 0 1 2 3 4 v (mm/s) Figure 4. The Méssbauer data for the two enantiomers. The plots show the data along with two doublets which were used to obtain the fitted curves. 10 Journal of the Kentucky Academy of Science 65(1) Table 1. Summary of the results of the Lorenzian line fitting routine of both enantiomers. 6 is the isomer shift, A is the quadrupole splitting. The uncertainties expressed in the parentheses refer to the quality of the fit for each experimental data set. Run 6, - 84 number Enantiomer 5 (mm/sec) A (mm/sec) (mm/sec) 1 l 0.3241 (83) 0.219 (17) 0.007 d 0.317 (23) 0.216 (58) 2 l 0.3191 (53) 0.2164 (97) 0.002 d 0.3174 (29) 0.223 (58) 3 l 0.316 (15) 0.223 (25) 0.005 d 0.311 (76) 0.23 (15) 4 l 0.3177 (99) 0.214 (22) 0.002 d 0.316 (17) 0.222 (28) second experiment was performed on a sec- ond sample in which the /- and d- were not known to the Méssbauer experimentalist in advance (blind experiment). The data from all of the three experiments were consistent. Room temperature °*‘Fe Moéssbauer effect spectra observed for the two enantiomers studied here are shown in Figure 4. The spec- tra were analyzed (fitted) using two sets of quadrupole doublets. The results of the fit are shown in Table 1. CONCLUSIONS In summary, the first experimental evidence for an energy difference between enantiomers of chiral molecules in a crystal has been re- ported. Analysis of all of the data on isomer shift of the major doublet (doublet 2) yields a difference in their isomer shift of 0.004 mm/ sec, which corresponds to an energy differ- ence of 1.9X10-! eV. All four sets of data show that the d-enantiomer lies below that of the /-enantiomer by ~1.9X10~ eV. Although this energy difference is on the order of mag- nitude of that predicted by a Z°? scaling law of the lower Z parity violation energy differ- ence, it could be due to some, as yet unde- termined, properties of the crystals or an ef- fect of the chiral antimony tartrate on [Fe(phen,)]*? (Hegstrom et al. 1980; Laerdahl and Schwerdtfeger 1999). However, x-ray dif- fraction data indicate that the enantiomers are structurally identical. Clearly more detailed calculations and further experiments are need- ed. Plans for 'Sn probe to measure the en- ergy differences for Sn(phen),Sb,(C,H,O,)>: 8H,O enantiomers using '°Sn Méssbauer spectroscopy are underway. The larger Z (50) of Sn would predict an increase over the pre- sent results by ~70. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The first author thanks Smith T. Powell III, Ralph L. Thompson, and Katrina Rivers Thompson for many discussions and for proof- reading the manuscript and to my wife, Iman, who supported my endeavors. LITERATURE CITED Bakasov, A., T.-K. Ha, and M. Quack. 1998. Ab initio cal- culation of molecular energies including parity inter- actions. J. Chem. Phys. 109:7263-7285. Basolo, F., J. C. Hayes, and H. M. Newmann. 1954. Mechanism of racemization of complex ions. IT. kinetics of the dissociation and Eacomaen of tris-(1,10-phen- anthroline)-iron(II) and tris-(2,2'-dipyridyl)-iron(II) complexes. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 76: 3807-3809. Daussy, Ch., T. Marrel, A. Klain, C. T. Nguyen, Ch. J. Borde, and Ch. Chardonnet. 1999. Limit on the parity nonconserving energy difference between the enantio- mers of a chiral molecule by laser spectroscopy. Phys. Rey. Lett. 83:1554-1557. Hegstrom, R. A., D. W. Rein, and P. G. H. Sandars. 1980. Calculation of the parity nonconserving energy differ- ence between mirror-image molecules. J. Chem. Phys. 73:2329-2341. Khriplovich, I. B. 1991. Parity nonconservation in atomic phenomena. Gordon & Breach Publishing Group, Am- sterdam, Netherlands. Laerdahl, J. K., and P. Schwerdtfeger. 1999. Fully relativ- istic ab initio calculations of the energies of chiral mol- ecules including parity-violating weak interactions. Phys. Rev. A 60:4439-4453. Laerdahl, J. K., P. Schwerdtfeger, and H. M. Quiney. 2000. Theoretical analysis of parity-violating energy dif- ferences between the enantiomers of chiral molecules. Phys. Rev. Lett. 84:3811-3814. Lazzeretti, P., and R. Zanasi. 1997. On the calculation of parity-violating energies in hydrogen peroxide and hy- drogen disulphide with random-phase approximation. Chem. Phys. Lett. 279:349-354. Letokhoy, V. S. 1975. On difference of energy levels of left and right molecules due to weak interactions. Phys. Lett. A 53:275-276. Lord Kelvin. 1904. Baltimore Lectures on molecular dy- namics and the wave theory of light. C.J. Clay and Sons, London, UK. MacDermott, A. J., and G. E. Tranter. 1992. The search for large parity-violating energy differences finds fruit in thiosubstituted DNA analogues. Chem. Phys. Lett. 194:152-156. Mason, S. F., and G. E. Tranter. 1984. The parity-violating energy difference between enantiomeric molecules. Molec. Phys. 53:1091-1111. Energy Difference between a d- and /-iron Complex—Lahameer et al. 11 Masterson, B. P., and C. E. Wieman. 1995. Pages 545— 576 in Atomic parity nonconservation in precision tests of the standard electroweak model. World Scientific, Singapore. Schlessinger, G. C. 1962. Inorganic laboratory prepara- tions. Chemical Publishing Company, New York. Wood, GC. S., S. C. Bennett, D. Cho, B. P. Masterson, J. I. Roberts, C. E. Tanner, and C. E. Weiman. 1997. Measurement of parity nonconservation and an anapole moment in cesium. Science 275:1759-1763. Wu, GC. S. 1957. Experimental test of parity conservation in beta decay. Phys. Rey. 105:1413-1415. Zalkin, A., D. Templeton, and T. Ueki. 1973. Crystal struc- ture of I-tris(1,10-phenathroline)iron(II) bis(antimony (III) d-tartrate) octahydrate. Inorgan. Chem. 12:1641— 1646. Zanasi, R., P. Lazzeretti, A. Ligabue, and A. Soncini. 1999. Theoretical results which strengthen the hypothesis of electroweak bioenantioselection. Phys. Rev. E 59:3382— 3385. J. Ky. Acad. Sci. 65(1):12-20. 2004, The 1974-1975 Archaeological Excavations at Owl Cave (15Ed43), Mammoth Cave National Park, Kentucky Kenneth C. Carstens Department of Geosciences, Murray State University, Murray, Kentucky 42071 ABSTRACT Archaeological excavations in the vestibule of Owl Cave (15Ed43) during winter 1974-1975 revealed the presence of Early, Middle, and Late Archaic/Early Woodland occupations. Analysis of the archaeological record from Owl Cave indicates that Early Archaic environmental exploitation was focused toward deer hunting and was without evidence of horticulture. Middle Archaic cultures using the Owl Cave vestibule exploited a wider range of resources, following a more diffuse economic subsistence pattern. The incipient horticultural evidence from the “large caves” in the Mammoth Cave area (e.g., Mammoth, Salts, and Lee), and from evidence within the archaeological record at Middle and Late Archaic shell mounds in the Big Bend region of Green River, probably arose from a diffuse economic subsistence pattern as evidenced by the number of environmental zones exploited by Middle Archaic Owl Cave residents and as exemplified by the Horizon II archaeological record at Owl Cave. Late Archaic/Early Woodland levels at Owl Cave contain meager evidence of plant domestication (a single Cucurbita seed hull). INTRODUCTION Archaeological excavations at Owl Cave in Mammoth Cave National Park (MCNP), Ken- tucky, began outside the cave entrance in fall 1974 but, due to excessively bad weather, were moved into the gridded south portion (four, 1 X 1 m test units: C, D, E, and F) of Owl Cave vestibule. Excavations continued from De- cember through January 1975. Additional ex- cavations were carried out by Dr. Darlene Ap- plegate from Western Kentucky University in 1999 prior to installation of a cave gate at Owl Cave (Applegate 1999). The content of this paper, however, addresses only the materials recovered during the 1974-1975 Owl Cave ex- cavations supervised by Carstens. The Owl Cave excavations were a part of a larger project directed by Dr. Patty Jo Watson of Washington University, St. Louis, Missouri, that addressed the origins of plant domesti- cation in the Eastern Woodlands (Crothers 2001; Crothers et al. 2002; Marquardt and Watson n.d.; Watson 1969, 1974; Watson and Kennedy 1991). The general excavating format used at Owl Cave included removing deposits by 10 em ar- bitrary levels and taking four flotation samples when possible per level. (Flotation samples are 10 liter bags of soil removed from each excavation level, then separated for micro- scopic and macroscopic evidence of seeds, ar- tifacts [ceramic, lithic, bone, ground stone], and animal bones.) Excavation was accom- plished by troweling and occasionally by shov- el-skimming. Whenever prehistoric artifacts were found in situ, they were plotted using a cartesian coordinate system for spatial (hori- zontal) and temporal (vertical) control. Exca- vations were halted when limestone bedrock was encountered. CAVE STRATIGRAPHY Variations in depositional processes at Owl Cave may be related to both cultural and nat- ural processes. Cultural occupation in the grid-south area of Owl Cave vestibule began ca. 8000 years ago and occurred before the deposition of loamy sands. Numerous artifacts were found lying on limestone bedrock within the cave excavations. Occupation was not in- tensive at any one time but occurred sporad- ically as revealed by the excavation of four 1 X 1 meter excavation units. Several lenses of ash, and/or ash and charcoal, indicate that fire building occurred inside the vestibule area, but no hearths were encountered within any of the excavations. Although charcoal flecks were present, not enough were collected for a radiocarbon date. It appears that prehistoric use of the cave ceased by 2000 years ago. Limestone breakdown (ceiling collapse) was deposited concurrently with the deposition of cultural deposits; however, this natural depo- sition was probably not a major consideration for transitory vestibule inhabitants. Soil and Archaeological Excavations at Owl @ave_ Carstens 13 Table 1. Stratigraphical sequence and date ranges at Owl Cave, Mammoth Cave National Park, Kentucky. Excavation unit and level (G D 13; 1 Horizon Date range 1 12 1 1 H IM 4000-2500 years ago 23 305 2 23 HI 5000-2400 years ago 4 68 3 47 HI 8000-4000 years ago pollen samples were collected from the com- bined deposits, but the analysis of these sam- ples by specialists was never completed. These samples are now curated in the cultural re- sources lab at Washington University, St. Lou- is, Missouri, and at Mammoth Cave National Park, Edmondson County, Kentucky. Based on the cultural and natural deposits at this site, three cultural periods were distin- guished in the Owl Cave excavations: a basal Horizon I, which probably dates between 8000 and 4000 years ago; a middle Horizon II, which probably dates between 5000 and 2400 years ago; and a Horizon III, which overlaps with Horzion II and dates between 4000 and 2500 years ago (Table 1). This dating sequence is based on the presence of temporally diag- nostic bifacial projectile point styles (e.g., ar- rowheads) that have been dated by conven- tional radiocarbon dating methods. ARTIFACT DESCRIPTIONS The artifacts recovered from Owl Cave ves- tibule may be grouped into the following cat- egories: utilized and non-utilized chipped stone, vertebrate faunal remains, non-verte- brate faunal remains (not discussed in this pa- per), and botanical remains. The following is a brief description of these categories pre- sented by cultural horizon. A total of 462 pieces of chipped stone was recovered from the four test units. Two dif- ferent methods of analysis were used for the chipped stone materials recovered in situ and from the screening box: (1) hand tabulations for units C, E, and F; and (2) computer tab- ulations of morphological traits for unit D. The former analysis concentrated on the fluc- tuation of blade, non-blade, and waste flake production through time. It also emphasized the specific area of the core from which the flake was detached. All chert was examined for possible special methods of treatment, such as heat-treating. The computer-tabulated study was accomplished to provide a single strati- graphic control sample that might demon- strate developments in lithic technology through time. Similar controls and studies have been used at other archaeological sites in MCNP. Only 8% of the excavated chipped stone sample evinces utilization. This very small per- centage supports the idea that the site was used sporadically and that cultural activities at the site were not intensive. The utilized ma- terials can be subdivided into bifacial (projec- tile and non-projectile) and unifacial catego- ries. A biface is a chipped stone tool that is worked on two opposing faces. A unifacial tool has workmanship (chipping) along only one edge. The bifacial category represents about 5% of the total chipped stone category and 64% of the total utilized stone inventory. Horizon I, representing the lowest strati- graphic levels of the site, contained three pro- jectile points/knives; Horizon II had four, and Horizon III contained one projectile fragment (Figure 1). The three projectiles from Horizon I varied in shape, yet the three styles are com- mon Early to Middle Archaic forms, ca. 8000- 5000 years ago. One point is a small, triangu- lar, untyped side-notched version. It resem- bles a Lamoka projectile (ca. 3000-5000 years ago) but occurs in a context with other points that pre-date Lamoka style projectiles (Ritchie 1932). This projectile point form is not com- mon in the central Kentucky karst area, but another similar side-notched point was found on the surface at Owl Cave. This Lamoka-like point is very similar in size and appearance to Tremble and Merom side-notched points of the Wabash Valleys Riverton culture that dates between 4000 and 3000 years ago (Win- ters 1969:151—154). A second point was found in test unit C, level 4. This projectile point, similar to the MacCorkle style, is characterized by a large, corner-notched, triangular blade with a bifur- cated base. This point was used ca. 8000 years ago. "The third projectile form is similar to the Cypress Creek I point type (Lewis and Lewis 1961:13). Cypress Creek I projectiles were found in the Stratum IV horizon at the Eva site and have been dated to 7200 B.p. = 1500 (M-357). On the basis of projectile point ty- 14 of the Kentucky Academy of Science 65(1) Figure 1. Excavated and surface collected projectile points from Owl Cave, Mammoth Cave National Park, Kentucky. A. Adena projectile form, Horizon II. B—D. Surface collected early and middle projectile point forms. E-F. Buck Creek projectile forms, Horizon II. G. MacCorkle projectile form, Horizon II. H. Turkey-tail projectile form, Horizon Il. I-K. Horizon I projectile forms (I, MacCorkle; J, Cypress Creek; and K, Lamoka-like). pology, Owl Cave Horizon I should date be- tween 8000 and 5000 years ago. The four projectiles points recovered from Horizon II include three recognizable projec- tile forms: two Buck Creek, a MacCorkle, and an Adena. The Early Archaic MacCorkle form was found above the Buck Creek type in Test Unit E, out of temporal context. It likely rep- resents either artifact mixing in the shallow Horizon II deposit of Test Unit E or the con- tinued use, reuse, or curation of an earlier projectile variety found on site by Native Americans. The Buck Creek projectile style was described by Seeman (1975:106-108). It is a small (ca. 2-4 cm) triangular point that has straight to incurvate lateral margins and usually a straight to slightly expanding stem. The stem cuts deeply into the blade, produc- ing a barbed projectile. Seeman places this projectile type in the Late Archaic to Early Woodland periods for southern Ohio (ca. 4000 to 2400 years ago). This projectile type has been found in Late Archaic deposits (ca. 5000 to 3500 years ago) (Hay 1957:9-15) in Mont- gomery County, Tennessee. The Adena point may be found in contexts ranging from Early Woodland to Late Woodland but usually dates between 2800 and 2400 years ago. Thus, pro- jectile point typology indicates Owl Cave Ho- rizon II probably dates to the Late Archaic/ Early Woodland transitional period, ca. 5000- 2400 years ago. A fragment of one projectile point resem- bling nthe Turkey-tail was recovered from Ho- rizon III. According to Bell (1960), this form is transitional Late Archaic—Early Woodland and has been found in contexts dating be- tween 4000 and 2500 years ago. This time Archaeological Excavations at Owl Cave—Carstens 15 range overlaps with Horizon I. Numerous tur- key-tail points have been found in Mammoth Cave National Park, especially on the surface at Salts Sink (Watson 1974:14). The metrical descriptions of the non-pro- jectile, bifacial and unifacial, utilized chipped stone materials, described by horizon, illus- trate that the total number of utilized non- projectile materials is small, and that the data reveal insight about chipped stone tool pro- duction at Owl Cave. The frequency of utilized non-projectile ar- tifacts increases slightly from Horizon I to Ho- rizon II. This increase is followed by a de- crease in Horizon III. The mean length/width and mean thickness/weight ratios also exhibit some variability and similarity between bifacial non-projectile forms and unifacial tools. There is a tendency for bifacial tools to be larger and heavier than unifacial tools at Owl Cave through time. A possible explanation for this is that bifacial tools may perform more “heavy- duty” tasks than do unifacial tools, such as butchering, as opposed to skinning or scrap- ing. Unifacial tool length also appears to de- crease through time, yet the average width per tool increases. Such a size change may repre- sent a functional difference of tool use through time. Unifacial tools at Owl Cave demonstrate a change from multi-purpose cutting-scraping tools (e.g., jackknife-like function) to a more specific (specialized) func- tion (e.g., end scrapers). There also appears to be a cultural selectivity for either flake size or flake task, as length-width and _thickness- weight categories do not overlap as would be expected if there were no cultural selection for flake size. Flake type characteristics of the non-uti- lized chipped stone materials indicate that there is an infrequency of decortication flakes (chipped flakes with an exterior cortex) in the entire chipped stone industry at Owl Cave. Fifteen percent of the hand-tabulated material was comprised of decortication flakes, but only 5% had primary coverage (i.e., more than 90% of the surface covered with cortex). This may indicate that chert and semi-finished chipped stone tools were “roughed-out” elsewhere and brought back to Owl Cave for completion and use. This pattern remains somewhat constant throughout the cultural horizons with per- centages of 6.6 for HI, 5.3 for HII, and 4.0 for HII, respectively. Additional evidence is found in the extremely high and diachronically consistent percentages of non-identifiable waste flakes, which consistently constitute about 50% of the non-utilized chipped stone materials (Horizon I, 53%; HII, 49%; HIII, 45%). The total weight of waste flake averages less than 0.9 g per flake. I would suggest that similar chipped stone tool manufacturing ac- tivities (tool manufacture and completion, and tool maintenance) occurred throughout the sporadic occupations at Owl Cave. FAUNAL REMAINS A total of 272 non-human vertebrate faunal remains was recovered from the four test ex- cavations in Owl Cave vestibule. Seventy-five percent of these vertebrate remains (N = 204) were identified to genus. Of this total, the re- mains of white-tailed deer were the most abundant, constituting 81% of the identifiable remains. The predominance of deer bone to non- deer bone demonstrates that a focal hunting pattern was emphasized at Owl Cave. Empha- sis on deer hunting occurs diachronically and is very similar in frequency to the focal hunt- ing evidenced at other Early Archaic through Late Archaic sites (e.g., the Eva site, the Carlston Annis site, and the Riverton site) (Crothers n.d.; Glore n.d.; Lewis 1996; Lewis and Lewis 1961; Phillips and Brown 1983; Marquardt and Watson n.d.; Webb 1950; Win- ters 1969). A gradual decrease in the hunting of smaller animals (e.g., squirrels, rabbits, and raccoons) also occurs through time. A com- plete absence of turkey in Horizon III may be significant and may further substantiate the subsistence commitment to a hunting pattern focused on deer. Conversely, however, the number of exploited floral ecological zones in- creases through time. The changes in faunal frequencies, especially between Horizons II and III (Late Archaic to Early Woodland) may be related to changes in the economic subsis- tence system or social structure of the site’s inhabitants. That is, emphasis in subsistence pursuits may have changed from focal hunt- ing-focal niche exploitation to focal hunting and limited multi-niche exploitation. A shift such as this could explain the continued dom- inance of deer hunting and the decrease in the exploitation of lesser animals if diffuse niche 16 Journal of the Kentucky Academy of Science 65(1) exploitation was shifting toward gathering and processing of plant foods. There is some in- dication, such as charred hickory nut-shell fragments and several carbonized seeds, that lant fruits were being collected (Wagner 1976, 1978). The cultural selectivity for a particular an- atomical area of the deer is also indicated by the data. Skeletal remains from the excavated sample consistently reflect selection for four areas of the deer: cranial (usually represented by antler fragments), axial (vertebral column), pectoral (forelimbs), and pelvic (hind limbs). A fifth category, general appendicular, in- cludes those bone fragments probably repre- senting long bones (e.g., femur, tibia, meta- podial, and humerus); these were too small for exact identification. There appears to be a def- inite selection for the pelvic and rear anatom- ical areas, especially that area from the innom- inates through the tibia that contains the max- imum amount of meat and fat on a deer. Axial and cranial fragments are relatively low in fre- quency. The element most frequently identi- fied for the cranial area was antler, especially in Horizon II. However, many of these antler remains belonged to the same fragmented antler tool that was not reassembled until after the identification process and therefore skewed the frequency tabulations. Nonethe- less, the preponderance of antler tools at the site indicates that deer antler was of techno- economic importance to the prehistoric inhab- itants of Owl Cave and that selectivity for cer- tain anatomical areas of the deer was practiced by the occupants of Owl Cave throughout each occupation. SEASONALITY Three independent lines of evidence indi- cate that the vestibule of Owl Cave was used in the late fall to early winter: species of ani- mals present in the archaeological record, age of identified animals, and type of identified botanical materials. Kentucky winters are usually mild, and an- imals that might be less available (e.g., box turtle and squirrels) in areas north of the Ohio River are occasionally accessible in the Green River area year round. Secondly, tooth erup- tion rates of white-tailed deer indicate that the dental remains of deer found within Horizons I through HI range between 1.5 and 1.75 years of age. Hence, because deer are usually born in late May to early June, the dental re- mains represent deer killed between October and January of the following year. The pres- ence of charred hickory nut- shell in associa- tion with these deer remains gives additional support to this seasonality of site occupation, unless the nut remains were stored (there is at present no evidence of storage pits or con- tainers from Owl Cave). BONE TOOLS Ten bone tools and tool fragments were re- covered from the excavations in Owl Cave ves- tibule. All of these tools were made from deer bone, especially deer antler (60%). Only four bone tools were found in Horizon I. Two of these tools made from deer antler are frag- ments from the distal antler tine and were probably used as an antler pressure flaker. An- other bone tool probably functioned as a side scraper or as some other hide-working imple- ment. The last specimen is a small fragment of a deer long-bone shaft. It is pointed and exhibits some degree of use. It may have func- tioned as a small bone punch or awl. Horizon II also contained four bone tools and/or tool fragments. Three of these tools, made from deer antler, demonstrate distal “edge wear” of the kind expected had they been used to knap chert by means of pressure flaking or indirect percussion flaking. The Comin specimen probably functioned as an awl or bone punch for leather working. Only two bone tools were fanaa in Horizon Ill. One specimen may be either a punch or fragment of an antler projectile point. How- ever, the lack of wear (polish) on the distal end and the absence of a socket for hafting on the proximal end indicate that neither suggestion is completely satisfactory. The other specimen is a long bone shaft fragment with a small semi-circular depression along the lateral edge. The depression is highly polished over an area ca. 8 mm in length. This tool may have been used as an sleet len or spokeshave for such items as wood or cane. The bone tool inventory is small in number, but the repetition of similar tool types indi- cates that the bone tool industry functioned similarly through time at Owl Cave and ap- pears to have been rather limited in its variety. Archaeological Excavations at Owl Cave—Carstens 17 BOTANICAL An analysis of charred botanical remains re- covered in the 63.5 mm? fine screen mesh sift- ing screens (Wagner 1976) and by flotation (Wagner 1978) offers insight into the botanical subsistence base at Owl Cave. Wagner's data, when presented by cultural horizon, indicate that both charred wood and hickory nut (Car- ya) remains were somewhat equally repre- sented and utilized during Horizon I. The fre- quency of hickory nuts continue to increase into Horizon II, while the frequency of charred wood diminishes rapidly. Both types of charred botanical remains, especially hick- ory nut, become infrequent in Horizon III. A charred walnut (Juglans) hull was found in Horizon II. A single squash (Cucurbita) seed hull was found in Horizon III, indicating the possible presence of horticultural activity or associated activity occurring at Owl Cave during Horizon III (ca. 4000-2500 years ago). This is the same time interval of incipient hor- ticulture observed at the large caves in MCNP (Mammoth, Salts, and Lee), and within the Late Archaic shellmound deposits west of the Park in the Big Bend Region of Green River in Ohio and Butler counties (Prentice 1994). INTERPRETATION OF THE OWL CAVE VESTIBULE CULTURAL REMAINS The cultural deposits in Owl Cave range in age from ca. 8000 to 2500 years ago. This tem- poral span may be divided into three cultural horizons on the basis of projectile point ty- pologies and stratigraphic similarities. Overall, the material cultural remains are similar throughout the cultural horizons except for fluctuations in frequency. It is the changing frequencies of certain artifacts and ecofacts that enable an interpretation of the cultural record. Horizon I is the oldest of the three cultural horizons. Projectile point typology indicates that Horizon I dates between 8000 and 5000 years ago. The artifacts within this horizon demonstrate sporadic activity at a special pur- pose site. Both the techno-economic and re- lated subsistence pursuits appear to be fo- cused. The techno-economic cultural subsys- tem is inferred from the material remains, such as tool types and/or tool kits. There is a low degree of variation and frequency of tool types and/or tool kits. Tool types include sey- eral projectile point forms, bifacial knives, sev- eral unifacial scrapers, an antler tine flaker, and several bone splinter awls or punches. This limited tool kit is indicative of hunting, butchering, and hide-working activities. The predominance of deer remains indicates that deer hunting was the focal activity. Selection for certain anatomical areas of the deer and prior primary chipped stone biface reduction was possibly a function of distance from Owl Cave. That is, both primary butchering follow- ing the kill of the deer, and the initial cortext removal and initial chipping on bifacial tools, occurred at distances away from the Owl Cave site; selected portions of the deer carcass (pri- marily antlers and hind quarters) and partially completed chipped stone tools were brought back to the site for consumption and comple- tion, respectively. Based on the presence of charred botanical remains, it appears that hickory nuts were gathered to supplement the protein-rich diet. The frequency of this gathering process in Horizon IJ is not as great as in Horizon II. As is the case with Horizons II and III, there were no vegetal processing tool kits recovered in Horizon I. The overall interpretation of Horizon I is that focal techno-economic subsistence strat- egies were employed sporadically between 8000 and 5000 years ago. These activities fo- cused on the hunting of deer. The hunting and processing of deer may well have been accom- plished by a small band of hunters, probably all male. The sporadic human occupancy of Owl Cave vestibule during Horizon I occurred between the late fall and early winter seasons. Horizon II seemingly dates from about 5000 to 2400 years ago and is therefore equiv- alent with the Late Archaic to Early Woodland cultural periods. Projectile points changed in style from side-notched and bifurcated-types to stemmed varieties. Chert flakes appear to have been selected by size to make up a slight- ly more diversified chipped stone tool kit con- sisting of unifacial (smaller) and bifacial (larg- er) tools. There is also a greater range in the number of ecological habitats exploited as in- terpreted by the types of biological remains (ecofacts) preserved at the site (Figure 2). Larger frequencies and greater varieties of this material were interpreted as representing 18 Journal of the Kentucky Academy of Science 65(1) %to total {_] % to Horizon 4 Zones] 6 Zones WE Hil cw Open Woodland Sandstone Bluff Transitional Waters Edge-Wet Woods Closed Woodland River Edge WWR- Wet Woods to Ridges 6 Zones RE wwa Animal Habitats Exploited by Owl Cave Inhabitants Figure 2, Animal habitats exploited by Owl Cave inhabitants, Mammoth Cave National Park, Kentucky. a more diffuse techno-economic subsistence adaptation. The continued dominance of deer hunting, however, argues against defining the cultural adaptation as diffuse. Yet the greater variance of Horizon II subsistence practices argues for an increase in population size, or an increase in occupation intensity, or both. Although the array of eco-niche exploitation in Horizon II increases slightly, the intensity and importance of multi-niche exploitation is not indicated by the Owl Cave data. The data do indicate incipient diffuse exploitation practic- es. The importance of this non-intensive, mul- ti-niche subsistence “dabbling” is that it hints of a greater cultural awareness and use of en- vironmental resources than is evidenced in Horizon I. It is possible that changes were oc- curring in the overall social structure of the Owl Cave culture as a result of some unknown stress factors during the Horizon II period, e.g., INcrease in population pressure or emnvi- ronmental change or both (Boserup 1965; Co- hen 1977). Or, as Cleland (1976) suggested, social change may have resulted from the ob- servable successfulness of the Horizon I focal hunting pattern (Sauer 1950, 1952; Watson and Watson 1969). In theory, the result of a successful focal economy is that innovation is “born of luxury, not necessity” (Cleland 1976: 61). It is the implied sedentism and success- fulness of the focal economy that provides economic security and experimentation with local environments, out of which cultural change gradually occurs. The evidence indi- cates that the initial multi-niche contact that is evinced in Horizon II of Owl Cave exhibits characteristics of a new mode of cultural ad- aptation in the central Kentucky karst. Al- though there is no definite evidence of horti- cultural activities in the upper portions of Owl Cave’s Horizon II, as there is at Salts Cave between 2800 and 2400 years ago, there is ev- idence of a slight increase in the number of ecological niches exploited by the Owl Cave inhabitants. It is this expansion of environ- mental-zone exploitation that is interpreted as a period of early plant experimentation and economic (subsistence) change. However, per- sistence of more refined and developed hor- ticultural pursuits depends on its own success. Horizon III overlaps with the terminal range of Horizon II and probably dates be- Archaeological Excavations at Owl Cave—Carstens 19 tween 4000 and 2500 years ago. The undis- turbed portion of Horizon III is a continuation of the more open or “diffuse” economy of Ho- rizon II. The general decrease in the frequen- cy of similar chipped stone and bone tool types in Horizon II, and the continued but minor importance of multi-niche exploitation, are interpreted as a decrease in site use. The example of Cucurbita may represent possible horticultural pursuits. As in Horizons I and II, Horizon III probably was occupied during the late-fall (October) to early-winter seasons by a small band of hunters. The charred squash hull may indicate storage of Cucurbita as part of the Owl Cave occupant’s subsistence base. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I thank the National Park Service and, in particular, the administration of Mammoth Cave National Park for allowing the excava- tions at Owl Cave; Dr. Steve Ward for field assistance; Dr. Gail Wagner for laboratory as- sistance; and my former doctoral committee at Washington University, St. Louis, for support, guidance, and suggestions. LITERATURE CITED Applegate, D. 1999. Archeological assessment of the Owl Cave Gate Installation Project, Mammoth Cave, Ken- tucky. Department of Anthropology, Western Kentucky University, Bowling Green, KY. Bell, R. E. 1960. Guide to the identification of certain American Indian projectile points. Spec. Bull. Oklahoma Anthropol. Soc. 2. Boserup, E. 1965. The conditions of agricultural growth: the economics of agrarian change under population pressure. Aldine Publishing Company, Chicago, IL. Carstens, K. 1975. Surface archaeology in Mammoth Cave National Park, Kentucky. Paper presented at the 40th annual meeting of the Society for American Archaeol- ogy, Dallas, TX. Carstens, K. 1980. Archaeological investigations in the central Kentucky karst. Ph.D. Dissertation. Department of Anthropology, Washington University, St. Louis, MO. Cleland, C. E. 1976. The focal-diffuse model: an evolu- tionary perspective on the prehistoric cultural adapta- tions of the eastern U.S. Midcontinental J. Archaeology. 1(1):59-76. Cohen, M. N. 1977. The food crisis in prehistory. Yale Univ. Press, New Haven, CT. Crothers, G., n.d. Vertebrate fauna from the Carlston An- nis site. In W. Marquardt and P. Watson (eds). Archae- ology of the Middle Green River Region, Kentucky. Univ. Alabama Press, Tuscaloosa, AL. In press. Crothers, G. 2001. Mineral mining and perishable remains in Mammoth Cave: examining social process in the Ear- ly Woodland period. Pages 314334 in P. Drooker (ed). Fleeting identities: perishable material culture in ar- chaeological research. Center for Archaeol. Invest., Oc- casional Paper 28. Carbondale, IL. Crothers, G., C. Faulkner, J. Simek, P. Watson, and P. Willey 2002. Woodland cave archaeology in eastern North America. Pages 502-524 in D. Anderson and R. Mainfort (eds). The woodland southeast. Univ. Alabama Press, Tuscaloosa, AL. Glore, M. n.d. Zooarchaeological analysis of Bt 5, opera- tion C. In W. Marquardt and P. Watson (eds). Archae- ology of the middle Green River region, Kentucky. Univ. Alabama Press, Tuscaloosa, AL. In press. Hay, T. B., Jr. 1957. The Coleman's cave investigation. Tennessee Archeol. 14(1). Lewis, R. B. 1996. Kentucky archaeology. Univ. Press of Kentucky, Lexington, KY. Lewis, T. M. N., and M. K. Lewis. 1961. Eva: an archaic site. Univ. Tennessee Press, Knoxville, TN. Marquardt, W., and P. Watson (eds). n.d. Archaeology of the middle Green River region, Kentucky. Univ. Ala- bama Press, Tuscaloosa, AL. In press. Phillips, J. L., and J. A. Brown (eds). 1983. Archaic hunt- ers and gatherers in the American Midwest. Academic Press, New York. Prentice, G. 1994. A settlement pattern analysis of pre- historic sites in Mammoth Cave National Park, Ken- tucky. Ph.D. Dissertation. Department of Anthropology, Univ. Florida, Gainesville, FL. Ritchie, W. A. 1932. The Lamoka lake site. Res. and Trans. New York State Archaeol. Assoc. 7(4). Rochester, NY. Sauer, C. 1950. Cultivated plants of South and Central America. Pages 487-543 in J. H. Steward (ed). Hand- book of South American Indians. Bur. Am. Ethnol. Bull. 143. Sauer, C. 1952. Agricultural origins and dispersals: the do- mestication of animals and foodstuffs. Am. Geogr. Soc. Reprinted 1969, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA. Seeman, M. 1975. The prehistoric chert quarries and workshops of Harrison County, Indiana. Indiana Ar- chaeol. Bull. 1(3). Bloomington, IN. Wagner, G. E. 1976. Aboriginal plant use in west-central Kentucky. A preliminary report of surface sites in the Mammoth Cave area. Paper presented at the 17th an- nual meeting of the Society for Economic Botany. Univ. Illinois, Champaign-Urbana, IL. Wagner, G. E. 1978. An archaeobotanical analysis of five sites in the Mammoth Cave area. Master's Thesis. Department of Anthropology, Washington Uniy., St. Louis, MO. Watson, P. 1969 The prehistory of Salts Cave, Kentucky. Rep. Invest. 16. Illinois State Museum, Springfield, IL. Watson, P. (ed). 1974. The archaeology of the Mammoth Cave area. Academic Press, New York. Reprinted 1997, Cave Books, Saint Louis, MO. Watson, P., and M. Kennedy. 1991. The development of horticulture in the eastern woodlands of North Ameri- 20 Journal of the Kentucky Academy of Science 65(1) ca: women’s role. Pages 255-275 in J. Gero and M. Webb, W. 1950. The Carls[t]on Annis Mound, Site 5, But- Conkey (eds). Engendering archaeology, women and ler County, Kentucky. Reports in Anthropology 7(5). prehistory. Basil Blackwell Publisher, Oxford. Univ. Kentucky, Lexington, KY. Watson, R. A., and P. J. Watson. 1969. Man and nature: Winters, H. 1969. The Riverton culture: a second millen- an anthropological essay in human ecology. Harcourt, nium occupation in the central Wabash valley. Rep. In- Brace & World, Inc., New York. vest. 13. Illinois State Museum, Springfield, IL. J. Ky. Acad. Sci. 65(1):21-26, 2004. Nesting Success of Forest Songbirds in Mixed Mesophytic Forests in Eastern Kentucky Michael J. Lacki, Henry F. Yacek Jr., and Michael D. Baker Department of Forestry, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky 40546 ABSTRACT Despite numerous studies of predation and parasitism effects on nesting in forest songbirds, virtually no data exist on nesting success of songbirds in the heavily forested region of the Cumberland Plateau in eastern Kentucky. We surveyed the abundance of avian nest predators and brown-headed cowbirds (Molothrus ater) and examined nesting success of forest songbirds in older-growth (>70 yr old) stands located within a fragmented forest (91.7% intact) versus an unfragmented forest (99.7%) matrix in the Daniel Boone National Forest, Kentucky. Data indicated that cowbirds were more prevalent in roadside counts in the fragmented forest than in the unfragmented forest (P < 0.01). Furthermore, cowbirds were more commonly observed in older-growth stands in the fragmented forest than in the unfragmented forest (P < 0.05). Parasitism by cowbirds on songbird nests was evident in the fragmented forest (31.2%); no nest found in the unfragmented forest showed signs of parasitism. American crows (Corvus brachyrhynchos) were commonly observed in all older-growth stands, suggesting that this species is the predominant avian nest predator in forests of this region. Nest predation was evident in older-growth stands in both forests, with 43.8% of nests subject to predation in stands in the fragmented forest versus 25% in the unfragmented forest. Percent nest failure of hooded warblers (Wilsonia citrina) was higher (P < 0.05) in older-growth stands in the fragmented forest (86%) versus the unfragmented forest (14%). Our data reflect patterns largely consistent with studies com- pleted in other heavily forested landscapes in eastern North America. We suggest that management of forests on public lands in eastern Kentucky consider minimizing fragmentation effects on forest songbirds, and we encourage the continuation of wilderness areas that provide source populations of forest songbirds and serve as benchmark habitats for evaluating fragmentation effects in this region. INTRODUCTION Monitoring trends in populations of North American passerines, especially neotropical migrant land birds, continues to be a focus of conservation efforts (Finch and Stangel 1993; Gale et al. 1997). Of special interest are the forest songbirds, species that are dependent upon large expanses of forestland to success- fully recruit fledglings into the adult breeding population (Askins 1994). The status of forest songbirds continues to be a concern because of land-use practices that modify and fragment heavily forested landscapes (Rosenberg et al. 1999). Increases in the extent of fragmentation of forest habitats have been shown to affect a number of changes in forest songbird behavior and ecology in the vicinity of edge habitats, including reduced density of birds (Burke and Nol 1998; Lent and Capen 1995), reduced pairing success of adults (Gibbs and Faaborg 1990; Villard et al. 1993), lowered availability of potential nest sites and food (Burke and Nol 1998), increased nest predation (Pomeluzi et al. 1993: Robinson et al. 1995b), and increased brood parasitism by brown-headed cowbirds (Molothrus ater; Robinson et al. 1995a). The entire picture is muddled, however, by region- al differences in the influence of fragmenta- tion effects, by the considerable variation in species responses to fragmentation across their distributions, and by a dearth of knowl- edge on fragmentation effects for some geo- graphic regions (Carrie 1999; Robinson et al. 1995b). Evidence suggests that effects due to pre- dation and parasitism on nesting songbirds in forest-dominated landscapes may be less se- vere than for forest songbirds in highly frag- mented, agricultural landscapes (Rudnicky and Hunter 1993; Welsh and Healy 1993). The prevailing thought is that small cuts in heavily forested landscapes are temporal in time and space and are likely to be less at- tractive to encroachment by avian nest pred- ators and brown-headed cowbirds (Askins 1994; Welsh and Healy 1993). More study is needed, however, to assess variation in frag- mentation effects for individual species of for- est songbirds across their entire range and to XY) Journal of the Kentucky Academy of Science 65(1) evaluate regional differences in susceptibility of forest songbirds to fragmentation (Askins 1994; Rosenberg et al. 1999). Studies of nest predation and parasitism in heavily forested landscapes remain insufficient to fully evaluate the response of forest song- birds to fragmentation effects (Andren 1992; Rudnicky and Hunter 1993). This is especially true for forested landscapes where gaps cre- ated by logging activities are infrequent and temporal in time and space. The Daniel Boone National Forest in eastern Kentucky constitutes a large expanse of forested land with a varied history of disturbance ranging from clearcut harvesting to no-harvest wilder- ness areas. Presently, no study of nesting suc- cess of forest songbirds exists for this heavily forested region (Baker and Lacki 1997; Lacki 2000). Moreover, limited data are available on the effects of avian nest predators and cowbird parasitism on forest songbirds in the Cumber- land Plateau of Kentucky (Lacki and Baker 1998). This paper, a study of nesting success of forest songbirds on the Daniel Boone Na- tional Forest in eastern Kentucky, includes a comparison of the prevalence of avian nest predators and brown-headed cowbirds be- tween a forested landscape with a recent his- tory of timber harvesting, i.e., active harvest- ing within the last 15 years, and another land- scape managed as a wilderness area with tim- ber harvesting restrictions. STUDY AREA The Daniel Boone National Forest is a 271,000-ha parcel of predominantly forested land situated in eastern Kentucky on the Cumberland Plateau physiographic province (Fenneman 1938). Rough topography, a vast cliff system, and relatively mature ravine for- ests are characteristic of this region. Our study was conducted on two different ranger dis- tricts, Morehead and Stanton, of the Daniel Boone National Forest in Bath and Wolfe counties, Kentucky, respectively. All forest stands examined were situated between 37°45’ and 38°07'30" north latitude and 83°30’ and §3°37'30" west longitude, at elevations ranging from 276 to 346 m above mean sea level. Cli- mate is temperate, with humid, warm sum- mers. Thirty-year averages (1961-1990) for temperature and precipitation during May and June are 17.5°C and 22°C and 11.6 cm and 10.2 cm, respectively (Priddy 1993). Four older-growth forest stands were cho- sen for study, two on the Morehead Ranger District and two on the Stanton Ranger Dis- trict. Stands of timber were 70 to 100 years in age and 9 to 18 ha in size. Percent slope of stands ranged from 21% to 63%. Stands on the Morehead Ranger District were located within the Pioneer Weapons Hunting Area (fragmented forest, FF), an actively managed landscape containing stands of older-growth forest in a fragmented matrix that also includ- ed clearcuts and shelterwood cuts of various ages since timber harvest (Baker and Lacki 1997). We compared these with stands on the Stanton Ranger District in the Red River Gorge Geologic Area (unfragmented forest, UF), a largely intact, forested landscape man- aged primarily as a wildemess area. Recrea- tion opportunities are emphasized such that an extensive road network persists, equal to that on the Pioneer Weapons Hunting Area. Intact forest, or stands of timber not logged since 1987, made up a lower percentage of the landscape surrounding study stands on the FF (91.7% within a 3.2-km radius) than on the UF (99.7%). Since 1987, 251.5 ha of forest were logged within a 3.2-km radius of study stands on the FF versus only 11.3 ha near stands in the UF. Stands on the FF were im- mediately adjacent to one or more recent tim- ber harvests, i.e., clearcut or shelterwood cut, of less than 15 years in age and =16 ha in size; all stands sampled in the UF were at least 400 m from any edge. Both study areas were situated at the west- em end of the mixed mesophytic forest and the eastern limits of the oak-hickory forest (Hinkle et al. 1993). Stands on the Pioneer Weapons Hunting Area were dominated in the overstory by white oak (Quercus alba), chest- nut oak (Q. prinus), northern red oak (Q. rub- ra), scarlet oak (Q. coccinea), black oak (Q. velutina), yellow-poplar (Liriodendron tulipi- fera), and hickories (Carya spp.). Understories were made up of young red maple (A. rub- rum), flowering dogwood (Cornus florida), young American beech (Fagus grandifolia), spicebush (Lindera benzoin), and pawpaw (As- imina triloba) (Baker and Lacki 1997). Stands on the Red River Gorge Geologic Area had black oak, chestnut oak, scarlet oak, white oak, Nesting Success of Forest Songbirds—Lacki, Yacek, and Baker 23 Virginia pine (Pinus virginiana), shortleaf pine (BP. echinata), and hickories. Understories were dominated by rhododendron (Rhododendron maximum) and mountain-laurel (Kalmia lati- folia). METHODS To assess the prevalence of brown-headed cowbirds in the landscape surrounding forest stands, we established a series of 30 roadside counts in the FF and UF at known stations along the road network. Each count station was visited once in either May or June 1998. All stations were <1.6 km from a forest stand chosen for study and all stations were at least 0.3 km from each other. Counts were taken from the center of the road to maximize de- tection of cowbirds. The typical width of the gap associated with roads in the road networks was ca. 7 m. Stations were randomly selected for survey among sampling days. At each sta- tion, cowbirds were searched by sight and sound for a period of 10 min within an area of 50-m radius. Surveys were conducted be- tween sunrise and 0900, with all surveys com- pleted by a single investigator (HFY). We an- alyzed mean detection of cowbirds, i.e., cow- birds/roadside count, between the FF and UF using a Student's t-test based on a pooled es- timate of common variance (Sokal and Rohlf 1969). The null hypothesis was no difference in cowbird abundance in roadside counts be- tween the FF and UF; the alternative hypoth- esis was that cowbirds should be more abun- dant in roadside counts in the FF than the UF. Prevalence of avian nest predators, i.e., blue jay (Cyanocitta cristata) and American crow (Corvus brachyrhynchos), and brown-headed cowbirds in forest stands was determined us- ing 10-min counts at three stations per stand. All stations in all stands were positioned >50 m from any stand boundary. Surveys were conducted using the same daytime and sea- sonal constraints as described for the roadside counts. Target species were recorded by both sight and sound within an area of 50-m radius. All stations were visited four times from 12 May to 28 Jun 1998. To avoid problems of pseudo-replication, we chose the maximum number observed across the four samples at each station for use in statistical analysis. We compared the mean maximum detection, i.e., maximum number/survey station, of blue jays, American crows, and brown-headed cowbirds, respectively, between forest stands of the FF and UF. Because of small sample size and the likelihood that data were not normally distrib- uted, we used Wilcoxon Rank Sum tests to evaluate mean maximum detection values (Hollander and Wolfe 1973). The null hypoth- eses were that avian nest predators and brown-headed cowbirds were equally abun- dant between the FF and UF: the alternative hypotheses were that avian nest predators and brown-headed cowbirds should be more prev- alent in forest stands in the FF versus the UF. We conducted nest searches at the four old- er-growth forest stands from 11 May to 17 Jul 1998. For each nest located, we recorded the species of bird and the date of location. After- wards, we revisited each nest every 3 to 5 days and recorded the number of eggs, the number of hatched young, and eggs or hatched young of non-host species, i.e., cowbirds. We moni- tored a nest until the young fledged or the nest was abandoned or destroyed. We calcu- lated the proportion of nest failures of forest songbirds by species for stands in the FF and UF, respectively. In cases where data for a species were sufficient, we tested the propor- tion of nest failure between the FF and UF using a Z-test of the difference between two sample proportions (Daniel 1974). The null hypothesis was that nest failure of songbirds should be equal between the FF and UF; the alternative hypothesis was that nest failure should be greater for songbirds nesting in the FF versus those nesting in the UF. RESULTS Brown-headed cowbirds were more preva- lent in roadside counts within the FF (x + SE; 0.53 + 0.15 no./count) than in the UF (0.07 + (0.05 no./count; t = 2.99, df = 58, P < 0.01). Only two cowbirds were observed in 24 counts (8.3%) in the UF, whereas cowbirds appeared in 8 of 24 counts (33.3%) in the FF. Furthermore, mean maximum detection of cowbirds was higher (W = 26, df = 11, P< 0.05) in forest stands in the FF (1.67 = 0.42 max. no./survey station) than in the UF (0.33 + 0.21). There was no difference evident, in mean maximum detection of blue jays (W = 43, df = 11, P > 0.05), between stands in the FF (0.33 = 0.21 max. no./survey station) and the 24 Journal of the Kentucky Academy of Science 65(1) Table 1. Nests of songbirds found by species in forest stands of fragmented and unfragmented forests in eastern Kentucky, 1998. The number of nests, the total observation days, proportion of failed nests, and the cause of nest failures are indicated. Cause of failure No. Forest Species nests Fragmented Wilsonia citrina 6 Empidonax virescens 2 Mniotilta varia 2 Setophaga ruticilla 3 Dendroica discolor 2 Vireo olivaceus 1 Unfragmented Wilsonia citrina 7 Seiuwrus aurocapillus 6 Vireo solitarius 2 Dendroica virens 1 Total Proportion Depre- Para- Abandon- days failed dation sitism ment 95 0.83 2 ] 2 60 1.0 2 — — 30 0.5 ] — — 30 0.33 —_— —_— 1 29 1.0 ] — 1 19 1.0 ] — —_ 127 0.14 1 -- — 90 0.33 2 _— _ 25 0.50 1 — _ 14 1.0 —_ — ] UF (0.67 + 0.33). Blue jays were uncommon in surveys in all forest stands. American crows were more abundant, however, being equally common (W = 40, df = 11, P > 0.05) in stands in both the FF (2.67 + 0.71 max. no./ survey station) and UF (2.33 + 0.33). Thirty-two nests of nine species of song- birds were found during search efforts in 1998 (Table 1). Of these, 16 nests were located in stands in the FF and 16 nests in stands in the UF. Nests of hooded warblers (Wilsonia citri- na) were most common, with the proportion of nest failure in this species being greater for nests in stands in the FF than for those in the UF (Z = 3.75, df = 11, P < 0.01). Nests of ovenbirds (Seiwrus aurocapillus, n = 6) were observed only at sites in the UF. Five nests (31.2%) in stands in the FF had Zone brown- headed cowbird egg present, and included nests of hooded warblers (n = 4) and Acadian flycatchers (Empidonax virescens). Parasitism was responsible for failure of only one nest, however. No nest found in the UF showed ey- idence of parasitism by brown-headed cow- birds. Predation of nests was evident in stands in both forests, with seven nests (43.8%) sub- jected to predation in the FF and four nests (25%) subjected to predation in the UF (Table 1). The only confirmed nest predator observed was a copperhead (Agkistrodon contortrix mo- kasen) consuming a clutch of five eggs in an ovenbird nest at a site in the UF. DISCUSSION It is largely agreed that the principal cause of nest failure in forest songbirds is nest pre- dation, with nest predation perceived as a ma- jor factor regulating bird community assem- blages (Martin 1996). Although our study in- cluded only a single season of nest searching, the data are consistent with the above premise as nest predation (64.7%) represented the ma- jority of nest failures we observed. Predation has been shown to account for loss of 39% of nests of songbirds in bottomland hardwood forest (Twedt et al. 2001), and to cause 94% of all nest failures of forest songbirds in forests in Minnesota (Manolis et al. 2002). The relative importance of avian, mamma- lian, and reptilian nest predators in the older- growth stands we sampled was unclear. Blue jays were scarce in count surveys, suggesting that this species might have limited impact on nesting success of forest songbirds in eastern Kentucky. This is in contrast to other forested regions where blue jays were found to be common throughout forests regardless of the type of forest management practiced (Annand and Thompson 1997; Robinson and Robinson 1999). American crows were much more prev- alent than blue jays in stands in both frag- mented and unfragmented forests and, thus, appear more likely to negatively affect nesting success of forest songbirds in this region. Us- ing artificial nests, Luginbuhl et al. (2001) demonstrated a strong association between the abundance of corvids in point counts and the extent of predation on artificial nests of forest songbirds in Washington. Nest parasitism accounted only for a single (3.1%) nest failure in this study, even though eggs of brown-headed cowbirds were present Nesting Success of Forest Songbirds—Lacki, Yacek, and Baker 25 in 15.6% of the nests observed. Rates of nest parasitism have been reported for other heavi- ly forested landscapes and range from 9% in Louisiana (Twedt et al. 2001), 3.9% in east Texas (Carrie 1999), <2% in the Great Smoky Mountains National Park, Tennessee (Farns- worth and Simons 1999), and 1.8% in Min- nesota (Manolis et al. 2002). Roadside counts and surveys in forest stands demonstrated that cowbirds were more prevalent in fragmented than unfragmented forest in eastern Kentucky, comparable to findings reported for forests in southeastern Missouri (Annand and Thomp- son 1997). Regardless, studies across different forested regions have produced varying re- sults, with cowbird abundance not always re- lated to the extent of local forest fragmenta- tion (Robinson and Robinson 1999). Our data reflect patterns largely consistent with studies completed in other heavily for- ested landscapes in eastern North America: that nest predation rates are high regardless of the extent of fragmentation, and that parasit- ism of nests by brown-headed cowbirds is re- duced in landscapes with minimal habitat frag- mentation. Coker and Capen (1995) suggested that small (ca. 4 ha) irregularly spaced gaps in an otherwise contiguous forest landscape will not lead to elevated levels of parasitism by cowbirds. Whether this level of fragmentation would be harmful to nesting success of song- birds in unfragmented forests of eastern Ken- tucky remains unclear. We observed few cow- birds in roadside counts and no evidence of parasitism by cowbirds in the unfragmented forest, despite the existence of an extensive road network to facilitate recreation activity of humans. These findings suggest that existing management strategies for wilderness areas in eastern Kentucky are adequate for minimizing nest parasitism, although nest predation re- mains a problem for songbirds nesting in these forests. Suarez et al. (1993) described a “par- adox of predation” to address the fact that nest predation rates do not always decline with an increase in the size of forest fragment; thus, nest predation can be expected to continue in large tracts of forests in eastern Kentucky, no matter what extent of fragmentation is pre- sent. Regardless, based on our findings we suggest that management of forests on public lands in eastern Kentucky should be sensitive to minimizing fragmentation effects on forest songbirds (Baker and Lacki 1997; Lacki and Baker 1998). We encourage the continuation of wilderness areas, where logging is restricted and other disturbance effects are minimized, to provide for habitats that support source populations of songbirds and to serve as benchmark habitats for evaluating fragmenta- tion effects on songbirds in this region (Lacki 2000). ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The study was supported through a grant from the E. O. Robinson Trust and a Memo- randum of Understanding with the Daniel Boone National Forest. Additional funding was provided by the College of Agriculture, University of Kentucky. The Daniel Boone National Forest provided access to field sites and logistical support. We thank K. Helton, C. Slater, and S. Vorisek for assistance with nest searches and J. Lewis of the Daniel Boone National Forest for providing access to GIS land cover databases. This investigation (AES # 03-09-051) is connected with a project of the Kentucky Agricultural Experiment Station and is published with the approval of the director. LITERATURE CITED Andren, H. 1992. Corvid density and nest predation in relation to forest fragmentation: a landscape perspec- tive. Ecology 73:795-804. Annand, E. M., and F. R. Thompson, III. 1997. Forest bird response to regeneration practices in central hard- wood forests. J. Wildlife Managem. 61:159-171. Askins, R. A. 1994. Open corridors in a heavily forested landscape: impact on shrubland and _forest-interior birds. Wildlife Soc. Bull. 22:339-347. Baker, M. D., and M. J. Lacki. 1997. Short-term changes in bird communities in response to silvicultural pre- scriptions. Forest Ecol. Managem. 96:27—36. Burke, D. M., and E. Nol. 1998. Influence of food abun- dance, nest-site habitat, and forest fragmentation on breeding ovenbirds. Auk 115:96-104. Carrie, N. R. 1999. Brown-headed cowbird parasitism of wood thrush nests in eastern Texas. J. Field Omithol. 70:363-367. Coker, D. R., and D. E. Capen. 1995. Landscape-level habitat use by brown-headed cowbirds in Vermont. J. Wildlife Managem. 59:631-637. Daniel, W. W. 1974. Biostatistics: a foundation for analysis in the health sciences. John Wiley & Sons, New York, NY. Farnsworth, G. L., and T. R. Simmons. 1999. Factors af- fecting nesting success of wood thrushes in Great Smoky Mountains National Park. Auk 116:1075—-1082. 26 Journal of the Kentucky Academy of Science 65(1) Fenneman, N. M. 1938. Physiography of eastern United States. McGraw Hill, New York, NY. Finch, D. M., and P. W. Stangel. 1993. Status and man- agement of neotropical migratory birds. U.S.F.S. Gen. Techn. Rep. RM-229. Gale, G. A., L. A. Hanners, and S. R. Patton. 1997. Re- productive success of worm-eating warblers in a forest- ed landscape. Conservation Biol. 11:246-250. Gibbs, J. P., and J. Faaborg. 1990. Estimating the viability of ovenbird and Kentucky warbler populations in forest fragments. Conservation Biol. 4:193-196. Hinkle, C. R., W. C. McComb, J. M. Safley, and P. A. Schmalzer. 1993. Mixed mesophytic forests. Pages 203— 253 in W. H. Martin, S. G. Boyce, and A. C. Echter- nacht (eds). Biodiversity of the southeastern United States: upland terrestrial communities. John Wiley & Sons, New York, NY. Hollander, M., and D. A. Wolfe. 1973. Nonparametric sta- tistical methods. John Wiley & Sons, New York, NY. Lacki, M. J. 2000. Surveys of bird communities on Little Black and Black Mountains: implications for long-term conservation of montane birds in Kentucky. J. Kentucky Acad. Sci. 61:50-59. Lacki, M. J., and M. D. Baker. 1998. Observations of for- est-interior bird communities in older-growth forests in eastern Kentucky. J. Kentucky Acad. Sci. 59:174-177. Lent, R. A., and D. E. Capen. 1995. Effects of small-scale habitat disturbance on the ecology of breeding birds in a Vermont (USA) hardwood forest. Ecography 18:97— 108. Luginbuhl, J. M., J. M. Marzluff, J. E. Bradley, M. G. Raphael, and D. E. Varland. 2001. Corvid survey tech- niques and the relationship between corvid relative abundance and nest predation. J. Field Omithol. 72: 556-572. Manolis, J. C., D. E. Andersen, and F, J. Cuthbert. 2002. Edge effects on nesting success of ground nesting birds near regenerating clearcuts in a forest-dominated land- scape. Auk 119:955-970. Martin, T. E. 1996. Fitness costs of resource overlap among coexisting bird species. Nature 380:338-340. Porneluzi, P., J. C. Bednarz, L. J. Goodrich, N. Zawada, and J. Hoover. 1993. Reproductive performance of ter- ritorial ovenbirds occupying forest fragments and a con- tiguous forest in Pennsylvania. Conservation Biol. 7: 618-622. Priddy, T. 1993. Kentucky climate: 1961-1990. Kentucky Agricultural Experiment Station, PR-352, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY. Robinson, S. K., S. I. Rothstein, M. C. Brittingham, L. J. Petit, and J. A. Grzybowski. 1995a. Ecology and behav- ior of cowbirds and their impact on host populations. Pages 428-460 in T. E. Martin and D. M. Finch (eds). Ecology and management of neotropical migratory birds. Oxford Univ. Press, Oxford, UK. Robinson, S. K., F. R. Thompson, III, T. M. Donovan, D. R. Whitehead, and J. Faaborg. 1995b. Regional forest fragmentation and the nesting success of migratory birds. Science 267:1987—-1990. Robinson, W. D., and S. K. Robinson. 1999. Effects of selective logging on forest bird populations in a frag- mented landscape. Conservation Biol. 13:58-66. Rosenberg, K. V., J. D. Lowe, and A. A. Dhondt. 1999. Effects of forest fragmentation on breeding tanagers: a continental perspective. Conservation Biol. 13:568-583. Rudnicky, T. C., and M. L. Hunter, Jr. 1993. Avian nest predation in clearcuts, forests, and edges in a forest- dominated landscape. J. Wildlife Managem. 57:358— 364. Sokal, R. R., and F. J. Rohlf. 1969. Biometry. W. H. Free- man and Company, San Francisco, CA. Suarez, F., M. Yanes, and J. Herranz. 1993. Nature re- serves and the conservation of Iberian shrub-steppe passerines: the paradox of nest predation. Biol. Conser- vation 64:77-S1. Twedt, D. J., R. R. Wilson, J. L. Henne-Kerr, and R. B. Hamilton. 2001. Nest survival of forest birds in the Mis- sissippi Alluvial Valley. J. Wildlife Managem. 65:450- 460. Villard, M., P. R. Martin, and C. G. Drummond. 1993. Habitat fragmentation and pairing success in the ov- enbird (Seiurus aurocapillus). Auk 110:759-768. Welsh, C. J. E., and W. M. Healy. 1993. Effect of even- aged timber management on bird species diversity and composition in northern hardwoods of New Hampshire. Wildlife Soc. Bull. 21:143-154. J. Ky. Acad. Sci. 65(1):27-32. 2004. Effect of the Invasive Shrub Lonicera maackii (Caprifoliaceae; Amur Honeysuckle) on Autumn Herpetofauna Biodiversity Nicholas L. McEvoy and Richard D. Durtsche Department of Biological Sciences, Northern Kentucky University, Highland Heights, Kentucky 41099 ABSTRACT Amur honeysuckle, Lonicera maackii, is an Asian woody shrub that has spread throughout the eastern United States within the past 100 years. Despite a documented life history of the plant, no studies have been performed to determine the effect of this exotic species on native herpetofauna. The Cincinnati Nature Center (CNC), Clermont County, Ohio, one of the largest landholdings of remnant old-growth forest re- maining in that state, has recently been invaded by exotic plant species, predominantly L. maackii. We studied the effect of this exotic shrub on herpetofauna abundance, distribution, and body size at CNC in areas invaded and areas lacking L. maackii during the late summer and early autumn. The results suggest that the herpetofauna diversity was significantly greater in the non-invaded (H’ = 2.2) than invaded habitat (H’ = 1.8). Species evenness was also greater in non-invaded habitats, primarily due to some less abundant species (e.g., snakes) found in the L. maackii habitat. Amphibians (Plethodon glutinosus, Rana clamitans) had larger body mass in the non-invaded habitats, suggesting a loss in native food resources from areas encroached by L. maackii. A lack of ground resources may also explain the absence of turtles (Terrapene carolina) from invaded habitats, despite the use of these habitats by snakes. It appears that structural veg- etation changes by L. maackii influence the distribution of amphibian and reptile species, being perhaps beneficial for some (e.g., snakes) but not for others (e.g., frogs and turtles). INTRODUCTION Invasive species often change the composi- tion of biological communities by altering the diversity and abundance of species within those communities. Invasive species are able to rapidly populate an area and consume re- sources that might otherwise sustain native species. Plant species such as Eurasian milfoil (Myriophyllum spicatum), purple loosestrife (Lythrum salicaria), and kudzu (Pueraria montana) are prime examples of run-away species that were originally introduced as gar- den ornamentals or governmental solutions to erosion problems (Gutin 1999; Mack 1985). The Greater Cincinnati area and much of Ohio and Kentucky has experienced its own invasion with the Asian woody shrub Amur honeysuckle (Lonicera maackii, Caprifoli- aceae) with its spread throughout the eastern U.S. (Luken and Thieret 1996). Despite the well-documented life history of this plant (Lu- ken 1988; Luken and Goessling 1995; Luken and Mattimiro 1991), no studies have been conducted to determine the effect of this shrub on native herpetofauna. The Cincinnati Nature Center (CNC), Cler- mont County, Ohio, founded in 1965, has a 27 three-part mission to (1) provide the com- munity with the opportunity to experience, study, and enjoy the natural world; (2) en- courage understanding, appreciation, and re- sponsible stewardship of the environment through education; and (3) preserve the heri- tage and integrity of the natural and agricul- tural lands owned by CNC. The Rowe Woods location of CNC is a 360-ha preserve. As a nature sanctuary for the people of southwest- ern Ohio, it contains some otf the largest hold- ings of old-growth deciduous hardwoods in Ohio and supports several ponds, a stream, and some grasslands (www.cincynature.org). Much of the wildlife within the preserve re- mains undocumented, especially reptiles and amphibians. Moreover, portions of CNC con- tain exotic plant species, including the invasive L. maackii. The goal of our study was to un- derstand the effects of L. maackii on the rep- tile and amphibian biodiversity within Rowe Woods. We hypothesized that L. maackii af- fects the abundance, species diversity, and species evenness of reptiles and amphibians communities through changes to the habitat structure and potential resources. Our focus was on the abundance and diversity of her- petofauna species that inhabit the old-growth 28 Journal of the Kentucky Academy of Science 65(1) forests areas that contain invaded plant growth. Here we provide a tally of the amphibian and reptiles species abundances in the Rowe Woods habitat and the potential effects of L. maackii on autumn herpetofauna distribution patterns. No prior surveys of this type exist for CNC, and an understanding of herpetofauna biodiversity is important in explaining the her- petofauna’s contribution to the community in this old-growth forest system. These animals provide a major link in the food web as pred- ators of smaller vertebrates and invertebrates and as prey for other vertebrates. This re- search should be useful to wildlife managers and applied ecologists interested in the habitat specificity of reptiles and amphibians and in the range of tolerances exhibited by these an- imals under changing environmental condi- tions. MATERIALS AND METHODS This study took place at Rowe Woods, the main location of CNC, in Milford, Clermont County, Ohio (lat 39°07'35"N, long 84°14'46”W). Twelve locations for both invad- ed and non-invaded habitat were identified us- ing vegetation abundance maps provided by the Environmental Resource Management Center of Northern Kentucky University. Ar- eas with L. maackii were termed “highly in- vaded.” Herpetofauna collection plots were organized within these areas throughout the CNC along with corresponding “non-invaded” plots of similar terrain and general surround- ings. We censused the herpetofauna with a vari- ety of collection techniques to determine spe- cies presence or absence, their activity pat- terns, and habitat utilization (Heyer et al. 1994). Hide boards were deployed throughout the plots. These were simple structures to pro- vide animals with cover from predators and the drying effects of the sun. Hide boards were constructed from 0.64 cm thick OSB (Oriental Strand Board) plywood and were placed flat on the ground with sufficient clear- ance for organism entrance and exit. The boards were deployed along transects within each habitat type. Each board covered an area of 0.37 m?, and 4 boards were placed in each of the 24 survey plots. The boards remained in the plots for 7 days, when they were lifted in a search for herpetofauna. Haphazard walks (searches using hand- and rake-survey tech- niques) over 0.5-ha plots were conducted to manually search for animals in each habitat type. Collection intensity and duration were rated to equal 1 man-hour of searching in both plots termed “invaded” and “non-invaded.” The haphazard manual searches were most productive in finding organisms of interest. We recorded the habitat (“invaded”/‘non-in- vaded,” date, weather notes, general observa- tions on organism activity, position, microhab- itat, and species identifications. In addition, morphological measurements were collected from each individual, including sex, snout-vent length (SVL), mass, and carapace length (in turtles). Surveys were conducted on after- noons of alternate days from mid-August through mid-October 2001. Community composition and similarity be- tween invaded and non-invaded areas were evaluated for Species Richness (S) and Sgrensen’s Index of similarity (SI) (Brower et al. 1997; Smith and Smith 2001). SI ranges from 0 to 1, where 0 = no similarity and 1 = complete similarity. Biodiversity was evaluated for each area community type using the Shan- non Diversity Index (H’), and H’ was used in the calculation of species evenness (J’) within the two area types. Parametric t-tests were used to compare mean values of species num- bers and numbers of individuals within dis- tinct taxa between habitat types. Shannon di- versity indices (H’) were also compared with a Student's t-test. For comparison of evenness values (J’), confidence intervals (CI) were evaluated using a bootstrap technique (Dixon 2001). These confidence intervals were gen- erated with 2000 bootstrap iterations. All tests were considered significant at a = 0.05. RESULTS Thirteen species of reptiles and amphibians were collected within the 12 pairs of plots (Ta- ble 1). The herpetofauna species richness in non-invaded areas (S = 10) was similar to ar- eas containing L. maackii (S = 9). On a per-site basis, there was also no sig- nificant difference in the richness or abun- dance of reptiles and amphibians as a group between habitat types (Figure 1). Sgrensen’s Index was 0.632, suggesting a moderate num- ber of species shared between these two hab- Autumn Herpetofauna Biodiversity—McEvoy and Durtsche 29 Table 1. Species of amphibians and reptiles found within the Cincinnati Nature Center, Clermont County, Ohio. Amphibia Caudata (salamanders) Family Plethodontidae (lungless salamanders) Desmognathus fuscus (dusky salamander) Eurecea cirrigera (southern two-lined salamander) Plethodon cinereus (redbacked salamander) Plethodon glutinosus (slimy salamander) Plethodon richmondi (ravine salamander) Family Salamandridae (newts) Notopthalamus viridescens (central newt) Anura (frogs and toads) Family Bufonidae (toads) Bufo americanus (American toad) Family Ranidae (true frogs) Rana catesbeiana (bullfrog) Rana clamitans (green frog) Reptilia Testudines (turtles) Family Emydidae (box and water turtles) Terrapene carolina (eastern box turtle) Squamata, Serpentes (snakes) Family Colubridae (colubrids) Elaphe obsolete (black rat snake) Storaria dekai (brown snake) Thamnophis sirtalis (eastern garter snake) itats. There was also no significant difference between the mean number of frog and sala- mander individuals in the invaded and non- invaded habitats (Figure 2). Snakes were ob- served or collected only from the invaded hab- itats, and turtles were found only in the non- invaded habitats. The box turtle (Terrapene carolina) was the only land turtle we observed. The overall herpetofauna diversity in the non-invaded habitat (H’ = 2.2) was signifi- cantly higher than the invaded L. maackii hab- itat (H’ = 1.8; t,, = 2.7, P < 0.01). Evenness was also significantly higher in the non-invad- ed habitats (J’ = 0.93; CI = 0.887—0.981) than the invaded habitats (J’ = 0.80; CI = 0.715— 0.836). The lower diversity and evenness val- ues observed in the invaded habitat were in part due to having a large number of rare spe- cies (e.g., snakes) that were each represented by a single individual. Frogs and salamanders were found inhabiting both habitats, with the exception of the redbacked salamander (P. ci- nereus), the bullfrog (R. catesbeiana), and the toad (Bufo americana), which were found only in the non-invaded areas. Snout-vent length did not vary between habitats for those amphibians and reptiles @ = i= oO Qo ® He} [= =} z c oO (5) = # Species # Individuals Figure 1. Mean site abundances of amphibians and rep- tiles in invaded and non-invaded habitats at the Cincinnati Nature Center, Clermont County, Ohio. found in both habitat types (Figure 3). How- ever, significantly higher body masses were found in some frogs (Rana clamitans X,,.., = 20.36 g; tg = —3.63, P = 0.011) and salaman- ders (Plethodon glutinosus £,,.., = 3.85 g; ts = —3.02, P = 0.023) in the non-invaded habitats (Figure 4). DISCUSSION As invasive species continue to spread, changes are expected in community structure. The invasive L. maackii has come to dominate the understory shrub layer in some locations of southwestern Ohio (Gayek and Quigley 2001; Hutchinson and Vankat 1997, 1998). It is one of the first plants to leaf out in spring and one of last to drop leaves in fall. More- over, L. maackii is one of the last to have ber- ries in fall (Luken and Thieret 1996). Berries are consumed by animals (primarily birds), Mean Number of Individuals frogs salamanders snakes turtles Figure 2. Mean number of individuals per sampling area for major groups of amphibians and reptiles found in in- vaded and non-invaded habitats at the Cincinnati Nature Center, Clermont County, Ohio. 30 180 160 Invasive = V40 Non-invasive - E120 , 4 = 100 y 2 80 , aS % 60 : 2 QV 40 ny 20 ny 0 i A ao 2 and 3s 28 2 sR seh8 5525 SESEES SERS Ss fp Ss VS 3.4 QO oeR Sees Se bag & FE GOR acer Ue pat a er lamanders Es $8 frogs = & Figure 3. Mean body size as body length or snout-vent length (SVL) in mm for amphibian and reptile species found in invaded and non-invaded habitats at the Cincin- nati Nature Center, Clermont County, Ohio. which distribute seeds to new habitats (Ingold and Craycraft 1983; Luken and Thieret 1996). When in leaf, L. maackii has a dense canopy extending close to the ground that heavily shades the forest floor, changing the vegetative structure of secondary forests and native plant populations (Collier et al. 2002). Not only are native understory plants (annuals) and tree seedlings excluded due to a lack of light and nutrients (Gould and Gorchov 2000; Gorchov and Trisel 2003), but associated insect guilds could also decline following the loss of these native plants. The presence of exotic invasive plants has been shown to decrease native in- vertebrate populations numbers, in some cases leading to the disappearance locally of certain invertebrate species (Sumways et al. 1996). How other animal groups, particularly ecto- thermic vertebrates, respond to L. maackii may depend largely on the changes in habitat structure and resource availability for these vertebrates. The limitations of amphibian and reptile species abundance and diversity observed from all areas in this study may be a result of variations in temporal activities among her- Journal of the Kentucky Academy of Science 65(1) 30 25 Z Invasive y 620 (4. Non-invasive y D 4 B 4 ES y c 4 210 y 2 ; 5 g 0 dE S ~ in} BR) AU Raines: wee Ki) = nee eRe gs e FS 88 B08 58. 8.5. cases 2S Ss, 8 8 SL eee may fe a = Se s 5 aoe pee 22 salamanders Ee ¢ frogs 5 §& Figure 4. Mean body size as body mass (g) for amphib- ian and reptile species found in invaded and non-invaded habitats at the Cincinnati Nature Center, Clermont Coun- ty, Ohio. petofauna. Activity of individuals in the au- tumn may be sporadic as populations begin winter hibernation. This activity can be greatly affected by seasonal timing cues and food availability for building winter energy reserves. Moreover, several species are inactive in fall. For example, at CNC, the Jefferson salaman- der (Ambystoma jeffersonianum) is active above ground only in early spring during the breeding season, and the broad-headed skink (Eumeces laticeps) is active mainly in late spring and summer months (R. D. Durtsche pers. obs.). Due to these limitations of sam- pling and the season, where not every species may have been documented, the potential ex- ists that diversity indices are underestimates and the evenness values are overestimates of actual values for the entire herpetofauna com- munity. The non-invaded native habitat held a sig- nificantly greater (P < 0.01) diversity of am- phibian and reptile species than did the L maackii habitats based on Shannon diversity indices. While the site means suggest there were no significant differences in richness and abundance between habitats (Figure 1), this reflects the high degree of variation among the sites. There was, however, a moderate overlap Autumn Herpetofauna Biodiversity—McEvoy and Durtsche 31 in the species that occupied both habitats (SI = 0.632). The evenness values suggest that in- dividuals were not as evenly distributed among species in the invaded habitat as they were in the non-invaded habitat. The lower evenness value found in the L. maackii habitat can be attributed in part to the greater distribution of rare species, namely snakes. The snakes may prefer the invaded areas because these areas provide a lower canopy and a thicker shelter for them. This structural change in habitat may also provide ideal vantage points to am- bush prey, for example birds. Songbirds such as the American robin (Turdus migratorius) and the wood thrush (Hylocichlia mustelina) that use L. maackii as nesting sites have been found to experience higher predation than those birds nesting in native vegetation (Schmidt and Whelan 1999). The turtles may prefer the non-invaded areas because those areas are less dense and easier for them to traverse. Also, as L. maackii does not allow many other plant species to grow under it, the turtles may not find their needed food source within these areas. Native animals such as de- sert tortoises are known to be affected by alien plants, because these plants have altered the habitat structure and the species composition of food plants (Brooks and Esque 2002). The differences in food availability between habi- tats for some species may be expressed in the larger body size observed in the frogs (Rana clamitans) and salamanders (Plethodon gluti- nosus) from the non-invaded areas (Figure 4). In conclusion, significant differences in di- versity were found between invaded and non- invaded habitats, with L. maackii habitats hav- ing a lower herpetofauna diversity. It appears that areas invaded with L. maackii limit the community of amphibians and reptiles that ex- ist there. The evenness values suggest that there was a greater number of low population size species, like the guild of snakes, that were found in the L. maackii habitat. The species (e.g., snakes) that do live in L. maackii habitats may be able to exploit them because they can find shelter against predation and potentially can use a structural vantage point (within the branches of the shrub) for ambushing prey. Future studies should evaluate how these hab- itats, in particular those with L. maackii, are functionally used by amphibians and reptiles. AKNOWLEDGMENTS This research could not have been com- pleted without the enthusiastic cooperation of the Cincinnati Nature Center. We thank W. Creasy, J. Bellwood, and the staff of CNC; B. Dalton of the Environmental Resources Man- agement Center at Northern Kentucky Uni- versity for discussions of the delineations among the vegetation regions of CNC; R. Boy- ce for his comments and statistical assistance that improved the manuscript; and M. Pyron and an anonymous reviewer for constructive comments. These studies were carried out un- der the Ohio Division of Wildlife Wild Animal Permit number 306. This research was funded in part by Northern Kentucky University’s De- partment of Biological Sciences, a grant (to RDD) from the Center for Integrative Natural Sciences and Mathematics, and a Greaves Un- dergraduate Summer Research Fellowship (to NLM). LITERATURE CITED Brooks, M. L., and T. C. Esque. 2002. Alien plants and fire in desert tortoise (Gopherus agassizii) habitat of the Mojave and Colorado deserts. Chelonian Conservation and Biol. 4:330-340. Brower, J. E., J. H. Zar, and C. N. von Ende. 1998. Field and laboratory methods for general ecology, 4th ed. Mc- Graw-Hill, New York, NY. Collier, M. H., J. L. Vankat, and M. R. Hughes. 2002. Diminished plant richness and abundance below Lon- icera maackii, an invasive shrub. Am. Midl. Naturalist 147:60-71. Dixon, P.M. 2001. 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Seedling distribu- tion and potential persistence of the exotic shrub Lon- icera maackii in fragmented forests. Am. Midl. Natu- ralist 133:124—130. Luken, J. O., and D. T. Mattimiro. 1991. Habitat-specific resilience of the invasive shrub Amur honeysuckle (Lonicera maackii) during repeated clipping. Ecol. Appl. 1:104-109. Luken, J. O., and J. W. Thieret. 1996. Amur honeysuckle, its fall from grace. BioScience 46;18—24. Mack, R. N. 1985. Invading plants: their potential contri- bution to population biology. Pages 127-142 in J. White (ed). Studies on plant demography. John L. Harper Festschrift, Academic Press, London, UK. Samways, M. J., P. M. Caldwell, and R. Osborn. 1996. Ground-living invertebrate assemblages in native, plant- ed and invasive vegetation in South Africa. Agric., Eco- syst. and Environm, 59:19-32. Schmidt, K. A., and C. J. Whelan. 1999. Effects of exotic Lonicera and Rhamnus on songbird nest predation. Conservation Biol. 13:1502-1506. Smith, R. L., and T. M. Smith. 2001. Ecology and field biology, 6th ed. Benjamin Cummings, New York, NY. J. Ky. Acad. Sci. 65(1):33-38. 2004. Distribution and Habitat Use of the Allegheny Woodrat (Neotoma magister) in a Mixed-mesophytic Forest in Southeastern Kentucky James J. Krupa, Jeffrey W. Workman, Christopher M. Lloyd, Lonnie R. Bertram, Audrey D. Horrall, D. Kyle Dick, Kevin S. Brewer, Angela M. Valentine, Charles P. Shaw, Chad M. Clemons, Callie A. Prater, Joe E. Clemons Jr., Natalie J. Campbell, S. Brook Armold, Natalie J. Jones, and Amy M. Clark Department of Biology, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky 40506-0225 ABSTRACT The Cumberland Plateau (eastern coal fields) of eastem Kentucky constitutes the bulk of the range of the Allegheny woodrat (Neotoma magister) in the state. Previous studies of N. magister in Kentucky focused on populations in the extensive cliff lines of the Daniel Boone National Forest along the western edge of the Cumberland Plateau. The University of Kentucky’s Robinson Forest is on the Cumberland Plateau ca. 45 km east of the Daniel Boone National Forest. Robinson Forest lacks extensive cliff lines but rather has an abundance of small, isolated rock formations. This represents a distinctly different, and less studied, habitat occupied by N. magister. From February 2000 to June 2001, we examined 153 rock formations in Robinson Forest to determine the distribution and habitat use of N. magister. Of these rock formations, 38% had evidence of such use, but only 10% yielded specimens. All formations with fresh sign yielded N. magister, but only 10% without such sign yielded specimens. Ninety-seven percent of formations with evidence of N. magister (mostly as midden piles) were foun in high-elevation rock formations (rock outcrops and capstones) Hove 335 m. The total capture rate was 7.2 N. magister per 100 trap-nights, with 100% of all specimens trapped at high elevations. The majority of N. magister (79%) were trapped in the northwest section of the forest; only one specimen was trapped in the eastern half despite the large number of high-elevation rock formations and abundant evidence. This distribution may represent either a subpopulation exhibiting meta- population dynamics or a declining population caused by forest fragmentation. INTRODUCTION The Allegheny woodrat (Neotoma magister) occurs in high-elevation spruce forests and eastern deciduous forest. This species is close- ly associated with rock formations such as cap- stones and cliff lines (Hayes 1999; Myers 1977: Newcombe 1930: Poole 1940; Wiley 1980). Rock formations occupied by N. mag- ister have deep vertical and horizontal areviens that are dry and protected from snow, rain, and seeping water. The current range of N. magister extends from New Jersey south to Alabama and west to Indiana (Hayes 1999). Neotoma magister is not a federally endangered species but is con- sidered endangered, threatened, or of special concern in virtually every state within the northern part of its range (Bommarito 1999; McMurray 2001). Population declines and ex- tinctions have occurred in Indiana, New Jer- sey, New York, Ohio, and Pennsylvania (Bal- com and Yahner 1996; Beans 1992: Castleber- ry et al. 2002; Hicks 1989). Neotoma magister is not listed as endangered, threatened, or of special concern in Kentucky. 33 Multiple hypotheses have been generated to explain population declines of N. magister (Balcom and Yahner 1996; Hayes 1999; Meyer 1997; Page et al. 1998; Page et al. 1999). These include (1) human distnabemes in the form of encroachment of agriculture and ur- banization, (2) reduced acorn production due to oak defoliation by gypsy moths (Lymantria dispar), (3) hard mast reduction from the chestnut blight (Cryphonectria parasitica), (4) increased exposure to the lethal raccoon roundworm (Baylisascaris procyonis) due to increase in raccoon (Procyon lotor) popula- tions, (5) forest fragmentation, (6) climatic changes, and (7) increased predation pressure associated with habitat fragmentation. In Kentucky, N. magister is found primarily on the Cumberland Plateau, which covers the eastern third of the state. It is missing from the Bluegrass region of north-central Ken- tucky and from a portion of the southern Highland Rim that extends south to Tennes- see. Neotoma magister occurs in a narrow band on the Highland Rim west of the Blue- grass region (Bommarito 1999; McMurray 34 Journal of the Kentucky Academy of Science 65(1) 2001). Currently, the highest density popula- tions of N. magister in Kentucky are located in the Daniel Boone National Forest along the western edge of the Cumberland Plateau where 5400 km of clifflines provide prime habitat (Bommarito 1999; McMurray 2001). The University of Kentucky's Robinson Forest is located ca. 45 km east of Daniel Boone Na- tional Forest. The habitat favored by N. mag- ister in Robinson Forest differs drastically from that in the Daniel Boone National For- est. Cliff lines are essentially lacking; instead, an abundance of small, isolated capstones and rock outcrops are scattered through the forest. Much of the habitat surrounding Robinson Forest has been destroyed by surface mining and mountain top removal for coal. Robinson Forest has become increasingly isolated to the point of representing an island of mixed-mesophytic forest on the coalfields of southeastern Kentucky. Consequently, the for- est is experiencing ecological changes (both natural and in response to human activities) that have caused new species of mammals to invade the forest (e.g., meadow vole, Microtus pennsylvanicus), while previously common species (e.g., southern bog lemming, Synap- tomys cooperi) have become extremely rare (Krupa and Haskins 1996). Other species of mammals may be experiencing population changes as well (Krupa and Lacki 2002). Cur- rently, little quantitative information is avail- able documenting fluctuations by other mam- mal populations that may be sensitive to eco- logical changes in the forest. Baseline data are essential to determine future ecological shifts that may occur in the region. Thus, the pur- pose of this study was to determine distribu- tion and habitat use of N. magister in Robin- son Forest. From these resulta comparative data will be available for future studies. STUDY SITE The University of Kentucky's Robinson For- est is a maze of deep, narrow valleys, steep slopes, and narrow, winding ridges with ele- vations from 210 to 460 m (Overstreet 1984: Figure 1). The forest represents one of the largest remaining contiguously forested areas on the Cumberland Plateau east of the Daniel Boone National Forest. Robinson Forest is a second-growth forest located in Breathitt, Knott, and Perry counties with the largest con- tiguous tract in Breathitt and Knott counties. This forest has become increasingly isolated due to surface mining and logging on sections of the forest and adjacent lands. See Krupa and Lacki (2002) for a more detailed descrip- tion of the forest. The present study took place in the main 4085 ha tract located in Breathitt and Knott counties (Figure 1); this area represents the most protected and least disturbed section of the forest. Four distinct categories of sandstone rock formations occur in Robinson Forest. First, capstones are irregularly distributed through- out the forest and are always on ridge tops. These formations, at elevations from 425 to 460 m, range in length from 5 to 150 m. Sec- ond, high-elevation rock outcrops protrude from slopes above 335 m. These formations are always below ridge tops. Third, low-ele- vation outcrops protrude from slopes along streams at elevations from 214 to 300 m. Fourth, low-elevation rock talus slopes form along streams from 214 to 300 m; they are comprised of many large colluvial blocks that have gradually slid ona slopes. Only two such formations are known to exist in the forest. Typically, capstones and high-elevation out- crops have deep vertical and horizontal crey- ices, which are more extensive in capstones. Low-elevation outcrops typically lack crevices; rock piles that form talus slopes do have shal- low horizontal and vertical crevices. METHODS Rock formations were located in early 2000 using geological maps, road surveys, a 2-day aerial survey, and information provided by Robinson Forest staff. Between 18 Feb 2000 and 21 Jun 2001, we examined each formation for evidence of N. magister to help determine trapping effort. Middens were large and dis- tinct and the primary evidence of N. magister. These were comprised of sticks, woodrat seat, piles of shells of hickory nuts and acorns, scat of other mammals, pieces of freshly clipped leaves, human trash, bones, and feathers. Al- though other species of mammals are capable of depositing some of the above components (such as sticks, acorns, nuts, and scat) in rock formations, we are not aware of other species capable of constructing such large middens. Therefore the presence of middens was con- sidered evidence of N. magister. Because mid- Allegheny Woodrat—Krupa et al. 35 Figure 1. Map of the 4085-ha study area in Robinson Forest, Breathitt and Knott counties, Kentucky. Open circles represent examined rock formations that lacked any evidence of Neotoma magister. Solid circles represent rock for- mations that had evidence of N. magister, but where trapping yielded no specimens. Triangles represent rock formations where trapping yielded specimens. dens could be deposited by other mammal species, we trapped in all rock formations with evidence or suitable habitat (primarily crevic- es) for at least one night. Initially, we trapped in low-elevation rock formations that were wet, that lacked crevices, or that lacked evi- dence of N. magister during spring 2000. This was discontinued once it was clear N. magister were not present. We did not trap in six such sites. We trapped in all other rock formations. All trapping was with #102 Tomahawk live- traps (Tomahawk Trap Co., Tomahawk, WI) baited with a combination of apple slices, car- rots, and whole grapes. A large piece of cotton was placed in each trap, and each trap was placed in a horizontal crevice or under a rock ledge protected from wind and rain. Traps were covered with rocks and leaves for addi- tional shelter. They were set out from late morning until dusk and collected beginning at dawn the next morning. Depending on the size of the rock formation, the number of crevices, and the amount of evidence, two to eight traps were set. We trapped at three lo- cations with large middens and old scat twice (first in March 2000 then May 2001). Gener- ally we trapped at formations in close prox- imity on the same night. Rock formations were placed in one of the four categories, and elevation of each location was estimated based on topographic maps. Sex, body mass, and age (adult vs. juvenile) were recorded for each woodrat captured. All individuals were re- leased, unmarked, at site of capture. RESULTS We spent 44 days locating and examining 153 rock formations in Robinson Forest (Fig- ure 1). All total, 265 traps were set during 28 nights to catch 19 N. magister. The overall capture rate was 7.2% N. magister per 100 trap nights. In all, 58 (38%) of the 153 rock 36 Journal of the Kentucky Academy of Science 65(1) Table 1. Summary of the number of sites per rock formation, evidence, and habitat use of Neotoma magister, and trap success for the study from February 2000 to June 2001 in Robinson Forest, Breathitt and Knott counties. Numbers in parentheses represent the number of sites. Numbers in brackets represent the number of N. magister trapped. Note that traps were not set in 6 of the 16 low-elevation outcrops that were wet and lacked crevices. Traps were set in all other rock formations. Evidence Rock formation Number of sites N. magister scat Middens Capstones 40 11 21 High-elevation outcrops 95 14 30 Low-elevation outcrops 16 il 1 Talus slopes 2 1 1 All formations combined 153 o7 53 Percent of sites with at least one type Percent of sites with Fresh sign* Trap nights of evidence N. magister 2 119 [5] 55% (22) 13% (5) 8 115 [14] 34% (34) 11% (10) 0 12 6% (1) 0% 0 19 50% (1) 0% 10 265 [19] 38% (58) 10% (15) ° Fresh sign included soft and moist woodrat scat, green moss, and leaves that had not wilted. Leaves were from red maple, flowering dogwood, Christmas fern, and rattlesnake plantain. formations had evidence (old or fresh) of N. magister (Table 1), but only 15 (10%) yielded N. magister (four rock formations yielded mul- tiple N. magister). Of the 10 rock formations that had Real sign, all yielded N. magister. Fresh sign was in the form of soft and moist N. magister scat, green moss, and recently gathered leaves of red maple (Acer rubrum), flowering dogwood (Cornus florida), Christ- mas fern (Polystichum acrostichoides), and rattlesnake plantain (Goodyera pubescens). Neotoma magister were caught at five rock formations that lacked fresh sign. All rock formations with relatively dry, deep crevices had evidence of N. magister. Forma- tions with more numerous, complex crevices generally exhibited more evidence and larger middens.. Fifty-six (97%) of the 58 rock for- mations with evidence of N. magister were capstones or high-elevation outcrops (Table 1). Although there were more high-elevation out- crops than capstones (2.5 times more), a larger percentage of capstones (55%) had evidence of N. magister (versus 34% for high-elevation outcrops), and a larger percentage of cap- stones (13%) had N. magister captures than high-elevation outcrops (11%). Only one talus slope and one low-elevation outcrop had evi- dence of N. magister. With respect to midden locations, Robinson Forest was divided into three sections. The first and smallest section was south of Buck- horn Creek (Figure 1). Seven rock formations with evidence were found mostly above Miller Branch, and two of these (29%) yielded three N. magister. One of the four largest middens located during this study was found in this sec- tion along Improvement Branch (Figure 1); i did not yield a specimen. In the second sec- tion west of Clemons Fork, 25 rock formations had evidence of N. magister. Of these, 12 (48%) yielded 15 N. magister. The third and largest section was north of Buckhorn Creek and east of the Knott County boundary line (Figure 1). Twenty-four rock formations had evidence of N. magister in this section, and only one (4%) yielded N. magister. Three of the four largest middens were found in this section (two near Bee Creek and the largest along Snag Ridge Fork; see Figure 1). DISCUSSION Fresh sign was the most reliable evidence that N. magister were present since all for- mations “eed fresh sign yielded at least one specimen. We found that Virtually all evidence of N. magister was in rock formations that were both at high-elevations (outcrops and capstones) and a complex of dry crevices. Fur- ther, most N. magister were trapped in the northwest section; only one, in the eastern half of the forest. This was surprising considering the large number of high-elevation rock for- mations with dry crevices and abundant evi- dence of N. magister in the eastern region of the forest. The habitat use of N. magister in Robinson Forest is probably the result of location of the most complex rock formations. Neotoma mag- ister were not trapped at rock formations lack- Allegheny Woodrat—Krupa et al. 37 ing dry crevices. Specimens were generally found associated with the largest rock forma- tions exhibiting the most extensive and com- plex crevices that were dry. Such crevices were characteristic of high- elevation rock forma- tions and capstones tended to be larger with more extensive crevice systems. We do not know if a low-elevation rock formation with a complex system of dry crevices could attract N. magister; such habitat does not exist in the forest. The lack of N. magister in the eastern half of the forest is puzzling. This region has an abundance of high-elevation rock formations with complex crevices, and evidence of N. magister was extensive. Although fresh sign was virtually lacking, the largest midden piles in the forest were in this region. Two possible explanations for this distribution exist. First the Robinson Forest population of N. magister may exhibit a meta-population phenomenon where local sub-populations go extinct (Har- rison and Taylor 1997). Neotoma magister has been considered an example of meta- popula- tions comprised of sub-populations (Castle- berry et al. 2000) in other parts of its range. Similarly, the clustered rock formations and discontinuous distribution of N. magister in the forest suggest a meta-population. Local ex- tinction, migration, and recolonization are characteristic of meta-populations and may be characteristic of the Robinson Forest popula- tion as well. Thus the current distribution may simply indicate that the sub-population in Knott County is nearly extinct and may be- come reestablished in the future. The second, more plausible explanation for the distribution of N. magister in Robinson Forest may be that reduced recruitment in the eastern section is due to isolation from forest fragmentation. The northwestern section of the forest is connected to the only existing dis- persal corridor for N. magister. This corridor follows Buckhorn Creek as it flows to the west and empties into Troublesome Creek. The corridor continues along Troublesome Creek. High-elevation ridge tops with numerous cap- stones and high elevation outcrops flank these creeks. Neotoma magister are abundant in these rock formations (Krupa unpubl. data). It is possible that recruitment into Robinson Forest results as animals immigrate from the west. This may explain why 79% of all N. mag- ister were trapped in the northwestern section of the forest despite the suitable habitat to the east. In contrast, extensive clear cutting and mountain top removal to mine coal has oc- curred around the northern, southern, and eastern boundaries of the forest, resulting in forest fragmentation. Possibly, the eastern half of Robinson Forest may be more isolated with a lack of corridors for N. magister, despite the abundance of suitable rock formations. Thus flow of individuals into this section may be limited. Currently, we cannot conclude if the distri- bution of N. magister in Robinson Forest is the result of meta-population dynamics or of isolation from forest fragmentation. Further- more, we cannot determine if the population of N. magister in the forest is stable or in de- cline. Only a study that involves long-term trapping can determine what factors influence this population of N. magister. Such a study is currently underway. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This study was part of a course to provide field research experience for undergraduates (Bio 395 Research in Biology). We thank the Robinson Forest staff and the University of Kentucky Department of Forestry for provid- ing housing and vehicles during the study. The University of Kentucky Department of Biolo- gy also provided vehicles. We thank W. Mar- shall and A. Marshall Jr. for sharing their knowledge of location of rock formations in Robineen Forest; J. Larkin for providing ad- ditional information on location of rock for- mation as well as sighting and marking for- mations while flying over the forest; Mark Clemens for providing amazing expertise in piloting the plane and enthusiasm towards lo- cating rock formations; K. Haskins, K. Hop- per, and J. Wagner for helping with trapping; F. Ettensohn for his knowledge of the geology of Robinson Forest; K. Geluso for reading an earlier draft of this manuscript; and A. Fox for drawing the map of Robinson Forest. LITERATURE CITED Balcom, B. J., and R. H. Yahner. 1996. Microhabitat and landscape characteristics associated with the threatened Allegheny woodrat. Conservation Biol. 10:515-525. Beans, B. E. 1992. Without a trace: the puzzling demise of the Allegheny woodrat. Audubon 94:32-34. 38 Journal of the Kentucky Academy of Science 65(1) Bommarito, M. P. 1999. Distribution of the Allegheny woodrat in the Daniel Boone National Forest: Habitat characteristics and incidence of raccoon roundworm. M.S. thesis. Eastern Kentucky Univ., Richmond, KY. Castleberry, N. L., S. B. Castleberry, W. M. Ford, and P. B. Wood. 2002. Allegheny woodrat (Neotoma magister) food habits in the Central Appalachians. Am. Mid]. Nat- uralist 147:80-92. Castleberry, S. B., T. L. King, P. B. Wood, and W. M. Ford. 2000. Microsatellite DNA markers for the study of Allegheny woodrat (Neotoma magister) populations and cross-species amplification in the genus Neotoma. Molecular Ecol. 9:824-826. Harrison, S., and A. D. Taylor. 1997. Empirical evidence for meta-population dynamics. Pages 27-42 in I. A. Hanski and M. E. Gilpin (eds). Metapopulation biology: ecology, genetics, and evolution. Academic Press, New York, NY. Hayes, J. P. 1999. Allegheny woodrat/Neotoma magister. Pages 607-608 in D.E. Wilson and S. Ruff (eds). The Smithsonian book of North American mammals. Smith- sonian Institution Press, Washington, D.C. Hicks, A. 1989. Whatever happened to the Allegheny woodrat? The Conservationist March—April:34—39. Krupa, J. J. and K. E. Haskins. 1996. Invasion of the meadow vole (Microtus pennsylvanicus) in southeastern Kentucky and its possible impact on the southern bog lemmings (Synaptomys cooperi). Am. Midl. Naturalist 135:14-29, Krupa, J. J., and M. J. Lacki. 2002. Mammals of Robinson Forest: species composition of an isolated, mixed-me- sophytic forest on the Cumberland Plateau of south- eastern Kentucky. Occas. Papers Mus. Texas Tech Univ. 45, McMurray, B. E. 2001. Population parameters for the Al- legheny woodrat, Neotoma magister, in eastern Ken- tucky. M.S. thesis. Eastern Kentucky Univ., Richmond, KY. Myers, R. T. 1997. Microhabitat and ecology of the Alle- gheny woodrat in north-cental West Virginia. M.S. the- sis. West Virginia Univ., Morgantown, WV. Newcombe, C. L. 1930. An ecological study of the Alle- gheny cliff rat (Neotoma pennsylvanica Stone). J. Mam- mal. 11;204-211. Overstreet, J. C. 1984, Robinson Forest Inventory, 1980— 1982, Breathitt, Knott, and Perry counties, Kentucky. Department of Public Information, College of Agricul- ture, Department of Forestry. Univ. Kentucky, Lexing- ton, KY. Page, L. K., R. K. Swihart, and K. R. Kazacos. 1998. Rac- coon latrine structure and its potential role in trans- mission of Baylisascaris procyonis to vertebrates. Am. Midl. Naturalist 140:180-185. Page, L. K., R. K. Swihart, and K. R. Kazacos. 1999. Im- plications of raccoon latrines in the epizootiology of Baylisascariasis. J. Wildlife Disease 35:474-480. Poole, E. L. 1940. A life history sketch of the Allegheny woodrat. J. Mammal. 21:249-270. Wiley, R. W. 1980. Neotoma floridana. Mammalian Spe- cies 139:1—7. J. Ky. Acad. Sci. 65(1):39-50. 2004. Comments on Flora of North America Michael A. Vincent W. S. Turrell Herbarium (MU), Department of Botany, Miami University, Oxford, Ohio 45056 ABSTRACT Study of the flora (plants) of the North American continent has a long and interesting history. Several attempts at compiling a Flora (publication describing the plants) of North America have been made in the last 2 centuries, each of which fell short of completion. These attempts are discussed and an overview of the current Flora of North America north of Mexico is presented, with comments on each volume published. INTRODUCTION In the last half of the 20th century, floristic treatments were written for many regions of the world, such as Flora Europaea (Tutin et al. 1964-1980), Flora S.S.S.R. (Komarov et al. 1934-1964), Flora Reipublicae Popularis Sin- icae (Academia Sinica 1959—-present [an En- glish version is being published by the Mis- souri Botanical Garden]); and the ongoing Flo- ra of Australia (ABSR 1981-present). Until the last decade of that century, no compre- hensive Flora existed for North America. While there have been many state or regional Floras written for North America, this lack of a comprehensive treatise on the continent's plants resulted in a lack of understanding of the flora as a whole and has led to regional- izing of the application of plant names in groups for which no monographs have been completed. The need for such a floristic treat- ment for this continent has been voiced by many in the last 200 years (e.g., Asa Gray's [1880] remarks on the need for such a Flora), and the need has grown tremendously as the Information Age has advanced and the dispar- ities in regional application of names have be- come more and more evident. Several treatis- es have been written on the history of botany and floristics in North America (Ewan 1969a; Reveal and Pringle 1993). In this paper, I pre- sent a history of the publications dealing with the flora as a whole and discuss the current project, of which eight volumes are published. Throughout this commentary, I use the term “flora” when discussing plants in general, and the capitalized “Flora” when discussing a treatise written about those plants. HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE As is the case with all taxonomic endeavors, the publication of a Flora of a region needs to 39 be put in an historical perspective. In the case of the flora of North America, no comprehen- sive treatment of the flora has been completed to this day, in spite of the vast resources his- torically available in North America for floris- tic studies. There are many reasons why this is the case, perhaps chief among them the vast nature of the flora. There have been, however, several attempts at a Flora of the continent, and I will now outline some of the major ones. Although there were pre-Linnean descrip- tions of plants from the North American con- tinent, these names have no bearing on pres- ent nomenclature of our species; the current International Code of Botanical Nomenclature (Greuter 2000; available on-line at http:// www.bgbm.fu-berlin.de/iapt/nomenclature/ code/SaintLouis/0000St.Luistitle.htm) speci- fies Linnaeus Species Plantarum, (Linnaeus 1753) as the starting point for modern no- menclature. Linnaeus published the names of many new species of plants from North Amer- ica but made no attempt at compiling a Flora of the continent. Among the earliest writings strictly on the flora of North America are those of Gronovius (1739-1743; Flora Virgin- ica), Marshall (1785; Arbustum Americanum), and Walter (1788; Flora Caroliniana). In 1771, Johann Forster published a work with an ex- tremely ambitious title, Flora Americae Sep- tentrionalis, or, A Catalogue of the Plants of North America (Forster 1771). In spite of the promise of the name, this publication is ac- tually a small booklet of 51 pages in which Forster arranged plants known to him from the continent. An important figure in the history of North American botany is André Michaux, French botanist and friend of Thomas Jefferson. He was sent by the French government to the 40 Journal of the Kentucky Academy of Science 65(1) U.S. in 1785, along with his 15-year-old son Francois-André and several others, to search for timber trees, medicinal plants, and crop plants (Ewan 1969a; Ewan 1974; Savage and Savage 1986). The Michauxs traveled through- out the eastern U.S. from Florida north to Hudson Bay and west to the Mississippi River, collecting specimens and living plants. Accord- ing to legend, Michaux was forced to leave the country under a cloud (espionage?; Anony- mous 1997), though some authors (Savage and Savage 1986) stated that he left due to finan- cial hardships. André Michaux died on a trip to Madagascar in 1802. The elder Michaux’s book Flora Boreali-Americana was published posthumously (Michaux 1803). Frangois-An- dré (Michaux fils), who made several later trips to America, published a three-volume work on North American trees, Histoire des arbres forestieres de [Amerique Septentrionale (Michaux 1810-1813). Now I must mention Benjamin Smith Bar- ton (1766-1815), apparently only the second professor of botany in the U.S. and author of the first botanical textbook published in the U.S., Elements of Botany. Barton, hired as professor of botany at the College of Phila- delphia in 1789, planned to publish a Flora of the continent; he hired several European bot- anists as assistants to collect specimens for his Flora. The first, hired by Barton in 1807, was Frederick Pursh, a German gardener (Ewan 1979). Pursh left for London soon after being hired by Barton, and in 1814 he published on his own a two-volume work also titled Flora Americae Septentrionalis (Pursh 1814) (Figure 1), based partly on specimens in Barton's her- barium from the Lewis and Clark expedition. Thus, Barton was thwarted in his attempt at a Flora. In 1808, he hired an English naturalist, Thomas Nuttall, to collect specimens (Grau- stein 1967). Nuttall returned to England when hostilities arose between the U.S. and England in 1812; in 1818 he published his own book, Genera of North American Plants (Nuttall 1818), intended as a revision of Pursh’s work. The unfortunate Barton died in 1815, but his nephew, William P.C. Barton, published three volumes of a Flora of North America from 1820 to 1823 (Figure 2), though the work was never completed (Barton 1820-1823). The next player on the “North American Flora” field is Constantine Rafinesque- Schmaltz (1773-1840; Boewe 1982). Rafin- esque came to North America in 1802, col- lected some 10,000 specimens in 2 years, and retumed to Italy. He came back to the U.S. in 1815 and was professor of botany at Transyl- vania University in Lexington, Kentucky, from 1819 to 1826, after which he lived in Phila- delphia until his death. Rafinesque, consid- ered eccentric and unconventional, authored over 9500 new names of plants (Merrill 1949). In 1836 his New Flora and Botany of North America was published (Rafinesque 1836) (Figure 3). He also published one of the ear- liest treatments of medical uses of North American plants, his Medical Flora, in 1828 (Rafinesque 1828). The British botanist Sir William Jackson Hooker (Allan 1967; Isely 1994) published a major work on the flora of North America, though it was restricted to British possessions on the continent. His Flora Boreali-Americana (Hooker 1840) added tremendously to the knowledge of the flora of the continent, but it was incomplete and limited in scope. The next attempt at a truly continental Flo- ra was made by John Torrey (1796-1873: Isely 1994), professor of botany at Columbia Uni- versity, and his assistant, the young Asa Gray (1810-1888: Isely 1994), who aya later be- come at Harvard University one of the pre- eminent scholars of North American botany and author of Manual of botany (Gray 1848). Torrey hired Gray to co-write the Flora with him, but Gray ended up doing a substantial portion of the w riting himself (Dupree 1959). From 1838 to 1843 Torrey and Gray published A Flora of North America (Torrey and Gray 1838-1843) (Figure 4) in two volumes of sev- en parts, to high praise (Ewan 1969b; Rodgers 1942). Asa Gray himself began working toward a Flora of North America, published in parts from 1878 to 1897 as A Suen Flora of North America (Gray 1878-1897), but the work was not completed, though several edi- tions exist (Figure 5). Gray (1880) continued to hope for publication of a complete Flora, and late in his life he wrote on the subject, wistfully stating that while he would be unable to complete such a project, those coming after him would be required to complete it (but that everyone should continue to send him specimens and notes on interesting discover- ies). Comments on Flora of North America—Vincent 4] | Flora America Septentrionaliss Ch eo iea ee : AmD THE PLANTS OF- ax ~ FREDERICK PURSH. __IN Two VOLUMES. ie With a3 ExTY-roun BNORArI4G®. VOL. 1. Se _ LONDON: PRINTED FOR WHITE, COCHRANE, AND CO. Paar SLEET STREET. 1814, Figure 1. Title page from volume 2 of Pursh’s Flora Americae Septentrionalis, published in 1814. After the Torrey and Gray (1838-1843) and cept by Nathanael Lord Britton, of the New Gray (1878-1897) publications, focus in pub- York Botanical Garden, who began a serial lication shifted to regional floras. Until the publication titled North American Flora. This present-day Flora of North America, no other serial, which was published irregularly (New attempt at a continental Flora was made ex- York Botanical Garden 1905-1990), focused Journal of the Kentucky Academy of Science 65(1) FLORA OF NORTH AMERICA. GOLOVBED FIGURES, DRAWN FROM NATURE. - BY WILLIAM P. C. BARTON, M. D. URN. 7: PROPEEEOR OW GOTANY 1 THE UNVERATY OF PEWNETLVAMA. PHILADELPHIA: M. CAREY & S0N8—CHESNUT STREET. Figure 2. on monographs of various groups of vascular plants, fungi, algae, mosses, and so on, and was not a comprehensive treatment of the en- tire flora of the continent. North American Flora was published in two series, the first from 1905 to 1949 (94 parts), and the second from 1954 to 1990 (13 parts), totaling 107 vol- umes. A first try at a modern Flora was initiated in 1964, when the Council of the American Society of Plant Taxonomists established a committee to study the feasibility of such a project. This attempt, called Flora North America, was formally begun in 1966; several symposia were held to promote the concept Title page from Barton’s Flora of North America, published in 1820-1823, but never completed. (Gates 1971; Mickel 1969; Shetler 1971; Tay- lor 1971; Thome 197la, b). Flora North America was envisioned as an information Sys- tem, using GIS and various other computer systems as a means of storing and accessing the data (Crovello 1977; Krauss 1973: Morse 1977: Shetler 1971, 1975). In 1973 the Flora North America initiative ultimately failed for lack of funding (Irwin 1973; sgt and Spel- lenberg 1993; Rohr et al. 1977; Walsh 1973). In March 1973 the American Lee of Bi- ological Sciences passed a resolution con- demning the suspension of funding for the project (BioScience 23:213) and sent copies to President Richard Nixon and the Office of Comments on Flora of North America—Vincent 43 PERST PAARL ae INTROD. LEXICON, aes ar EEGu NEW FORA sli D BOTAN Yy OF. NORTH AMERICA. BEING A. SUPPLEMENTAL FLORA, : To the various Floras and Botanical Works of Michaux, _ Muhlenberg, Pursh, Nuttall, Elliot, Torrey, Beck, Ea- _ ton, Bigelow, Barton, Robin, Hooker, Reade Dantng. ee ton, ‘Schweinitz, Gibbs, é&c. en . a Besides ‘the gencral works of Linneas, Wildenow - _ Vahl, Vitman, Persoon, Lamark, Decandole, Sprengel, Jussieu, Adanson, Necker, Lindley; &c. Containing. nearly 500 additional or revised New Genera, and 1500. “additional or corrected New. Species, illustrated by eee in AuriKon Boranixon. BY C >. S. RAFINESQUE, A. M—PH. D.. Prof. of Botany, the historical and natural sciences— ple Member of many learned Societies in Paris, Vienna, a - Bonn, Bruxelles, Bordeaux, Zurich, Naples, é&c. and in Philadelphia, New York, Cincinnati, Lexington, &c. The Floral wealth in this wide land concealed, Will bo at last by learned care rovealed. PHILADELPHIA: VRINTED FOR THE AUTHOR AND PUBLISHER. . oF 1836. 4 a }. LL Figure 3. Title page from Rafineque’s New Flora and Botany of North America, published in 1836. TENE Re Be SESS FE resi ca Management and Budget. Subsequent tries at THE CURRENT ATTEMPT funding Flora North America through the Morin and Spellenberg (1993) presented a Man in the Biosphere project and the Nation- synopsis of the history of the current attempt al Park service were also unsuccessful (Morin at a Flora for continental North America, ti- and Spellenberg 1993; Ornduff 1994). tled the Flora of North America north of Mex- 44 Journal of the Kentucky Academy of Science 65(1) | ji FLORA OF NORTH AMERICA: CONTALNING ABRIDGED DESCRIPTIONS OF ALL THE KNOWN INDIGENOUS AND NATURALIZED PLANTS, GROWING NORTH OF MEXICO; ARRANGED ACCORDING TO THE NATURAL SYSTEM: JOHN TORREY anv ASA GRAY. j VOL. I.—PART I, NEW-YORK: G@. & C. CARVILL & CO. PHILADELPIUA; CAREY & HART. BOSTON; LITTLE, BROWN & CO. SCATCHERD & ADAMS, PRINTERS. Juuy, 1838. FL Figure 4. Title page from Torrey and Gray’s Flora of North America, begun in 1838. ico (FNA). After the failure of the Flora North America project in 1973, a renewed attempt at establishing the project came in 1982 at a meeting at the Missouri Botanical Garden, during a time when the need was seen for a comprehensive biological survey for the U.S. (Tangley 1985). At this meeting, a steering committee was set up, and planning began in earmest for preparation of the Flora. During the planning, it was decided that it would be specimen-based and that computerization of data for the Flora would be an important part of the project. Numerous papers and abstracts on the project that gave updates on the pro- gress of FNA (Morin 1991, 1993: Morin and Barkley 1990; Morin, Eckenwalder, and Thier- et 1991; Morin, Wagner, and Smith 1991; Morin, Whittemore, et al. 1988: Whetstone and Morin 1991) were presented between this first meeting and the publication of the first Comments on Flora of North America—Vincent pe 45 a Winn SYNOPTICAL HE@RA OF NORTH AMERICA: 9/49 | THE GAMOPETALA, BEING A Seconp Eprrion or Vou. I. Parr II., anp Vor. II. Parr I., coLtecrep. By ASA GRAY, LLD., F.M.RS.&L.S, Lond., R.I.A. Dubl., Phil. Soc. Cambr., Roy. Soc. Upsala, Stockholm, Gittingen, Edinb, ; Roy. Acad. Sci. Munich, &c.; Corresp. Imp. Acad Sci. St. Petersburg, Roy. Acad. Berlin, and Acad. Sci. Instit. France. FISHER PROFESSOR OF NATURAL HISTORY (BOTANY) IN HARVARD UNIVERSITY. Wublishey by the Smithzonian Institution, Washington. Miami UNIVERSITY. THE BIOLOGICAL LABORATORY. NEW YORK: IVISON, BLAKEMAN, TAYLOR, AND COMPANY. LONDON: WM. WESLEY, 28 ESSEX ST., STRAND, AND TRUBNER & CO. LEIPSIC: OSWALD WEIGEL. JANUARY, -1886. Figure 5. Title page from the second edition of Asa Gray's Synoptical Flora of North America, published in 1886. Publication of the first edition was begun in 1878. volume. A workshop on the future of floristics was held in 1988 in Alexandria, Virginia; rec- ommendations were made about how floristic information could be used, ideas on produc- tion of an ideal Flora were discussed, and di- rections for research were compiled (Morin, Whetstone, et al. 1989). The first volume of FNA was published in 1993, and now eight volumes, to be discussed below, are in print. FNA is available on-line at http://hua.huh. harvard.edu/FNA/, with links to pages titled Introduction, History, Scope and Rationale, Content, How to Cite, Administration, Funding, and the FNA Newsletter. FNA was 46 Journal of the Kentucky Academy of Science 65(1) originally envisioned as 12 volumes of vascular plants only, but volumes for bryophytes were eventually planned, and the entire Flora will now consist of 30 volumes. The contents for most published volumes (except Vol. 26, part 1 of the grasses, which can be accessed at http: //nerbarium.usu.eduAvebmanual/) can be ac- cessed on the FNA web site, and all descrip- tions, comments, keys, maps, and illustrations can be seen there. To date, eight volumes of FNA have been published. I will now outline the contents of each and comment on the vol- umes, their strengths and weaknesses, and at- tempt to compile the reviews of the project that have been written by others. Volume 1, dated 1993, presents the intro- duction to the entire Flora and contains infor- mational essays on the history of the project; the physical setting, past and present vegeta- tion, and human interactions with the flora; and commentaries on the taxonomic and clas- sification concepts used in FNA. The essays, an excellent introduction to the whole of the North American flora, can be used widely in any floristically or taxonomically oriented class. Reviews of the volume (Fiedler 1994; Harri- man 1994: Omduff 1994; Schmid 1994; She- tler 1994; Taylor 1993) have been very positive and even ecstatic. Volume 2, dated 1993, contains treatments of the pteridophytes and gymnosperms, coy- ering 26 families and 78 genera of pterido- phytes and 6 families and 20 genera of gym- nosperms, for a total of 555 species. Descrip- tions, keys, and detailed (though small) range maps are given for each species, and repre- sentative species are illustrated. Reviews of the volume (Harriman 1994; Judd 1994; Lis- ton 1994; Ornduff 1994; Schmid 1994, 1997; Shetler 1994; Taylor 1993) are generally pos- itive. Skoda (1997) presented an extremely de- tailed review of the volume and each taxon included in it and made new combinations for some of the species to bring them in line with current European thinking on pteridophyte nomenclature. When the second printing was issued, numerous corrections and rewrites were made without any indication of these changes; rather unfortunately, all printings show the same date. An example of such an unannounced change includes ranges given for some species of Botrychium in the Ophioglossaceae. This creates difficulties for people citing the volume in publications and could have been avoided by changing the date on the substantially rewritten printings. Volume 3, dated 1997, contains Magno- liophyta: Magnoliidae and Hamamelidae. In- cluded are treatments of 32 families contain- ing 128 genera and 738 species. Content, in much the same format as for volume 2, covers such large families as Fagaceae (97 species), Papaveraceae (285 species), and Ranuncula- ceae (63 species). Reviews of the third volume (Porter 1999; Reveal 2000; Schenk 1998: Schmid 1998) are generally positive. Volume 4, dated 2003, contains Magno- liophyta: Caryophyllidae, part 1, and includes 10 families encompassing 117 genera and 652 species. The two largest families included are Cactaceae (34 genera and 189 species) and Chenopodiaceae (27 genera and 168 species). Content is similar to that of volumes 2 and 3 but differs in that there is a color frontispiece and the maps for some taxa give distributions by means of a single dot on each state, rather than showing the detailed range. Overall qual- ity of the volume is comparable to that of the first three volumes except for the unfortunate change in the maps. There are not yet any published reviews of this volume. Some sur- prising changes from traditional nomencla- ture, such as that in Gleason and Cronquist (1991), can be found in volume 4, such as the adoption of Dysphania R.Br. for some familiar Chenopodium species (e.g., C. ambrosioides and C. botrys). There are several cases when distributional information given in the text does not agree with the map for the taxon. For example, Ohio is listed in the range for Dys- phania anthelmitica but there is no corre- sponding indication of the species for Ohio on the map, as is also the case for Spinacia oler- acea. Some new species for a given state have shown up in this volume, such as the listing of Atriplex littoralis L. for Ohio, not previously known for the state (Cooperrider et al. 2001). Conversely, some species reported for Ohio by Cooperrider et al. (2001) are not attributed to Ohio in the volume (e.g., Atriplex hortensis, Celosia argentea, Claytonia caroliniana, Mon- olepis nuttalliana, Salicornia europea [=S. de- pressa in this volume], and Salsola collina). In some of these instances, it is interesting to see distributions on maps that snake around Ohio, but never cross into it, which causes this writer Comments on Flora of North America—Vincent AT to wonder about the thoroughness of litera- ture and herbarium reviews by authors of treatments in the volume. Overall, nonethe- less, this is a fine volume with an unbelievable wealth of information and quite usable keys. It is a huge leap from our former understand- ings of some of these very difficult genera in North America. Volume 22, dated 2000, the first volume to treat monocot groups, contains treatments of Magnoliophyta: Alismatidae, Arecidae, Com- melinidae (in part), and Zingiberidae. Cover- ing 424 species in 89 genera and 30 families, this volume is the slimmest of all produced to date. Interestingly, I have been unable to lo- cate any published reviews of this volume, even though it has been in print for 4 years. The largest families treated are the Alismata- ceae (4 genera and 34 species), Commelina- ceae (6 genera and 51 species), Juncaceae (2 genera and 118 species), and Potamogetona- ceae (2 genera and 37 species). Other families included are the palms (Arecaceae), bromeli- ads (Bromeliaceae), cat-tails (Typhaceae), and aroids (Araceae). Once more, the information presented follows essentially the same format as the earlier volumes, and the maps are pre- sented in the more complete format found in volumes 2 and 3. A few changes from Gleason and Cronquist (1991) nomenclature are found in volume 22, such as the adoption of Stuck- enia Bomer for some plants formerly known as Potamogeton (e.g., S. filiformis and S. pec- tinata for Potamogeton filiformis and P. pectin- atus, respectively). Once again, some taxa not reported for (or excluded from) Ohio by Cooperrider et al. (2001) are given for the state in this volume, such as Lemna valdivi- ana. As has been the case with each volume, reading this one has been a great educational experience; I learned, for example, that the commonly cultivated (though politically incor- rectly named) “Wandering-Jew” is now to be called Tradescantia zebrina rather than Zebri- na pendula. The treatments presented in this volume are for the most part well prepared, with usable keys (even the Juncus key, which I tested thoroughly), good descriptions, and fine illustrations. Volume 23, dated 2002, contains the treat- ment of a single family, Cyperaceae. This is an enormous family, and the volume treats 27 genera and 843 species, 471 of which are en- demic to North America, and 51 of which are introduced. Carex, with 480 species and by far the largest genus treated in the volume, is fol- lowed by Cyperus (96 species), Rhynchospora (68 species), and Eleocharis (67 species). Again, I have been unable to locate any pub- lished reviews of this volume. The format is essentially the same as for previously pub- lished volumes, though all of the taxa in this volume are mapped “one dot per state/prov- ince,” which I find less than helpful, since the true extent of the species in a given state is impossible to ascertain from these maps. It is unfortunate that this change has been made in mapping the taxa. Be that as it may, this is a magnificent volume, crammed with knowl- edge and bursting at the seams with hard work. Some of the major changes from Glea- son and Cronquist (1991) include the splitting off from Scirpus of Schoenoplectus, giving rise to such mouthfuls as Schoenoplectus tabernae- montani (instead of Scirpus validus, which I personally find much easier to pronounce). Here and there, one will find the odd error, such as disconnects between distributional statements and maps, but the keys are well constructed and the illustrations are useful (it appears that all taxa are illustrated, which is certainly a great boon to the novice in the vast morass of Carex). Volume 25, dated 2003, covers the second half of the grass family (Poaceae), the remain- der of which will be covered in volume 24. These two volumes represent work begun in 1986 to revise Hitchcock and Chase’s (1950) Manual of Grasses of the United States, and brought into the FNA fold in 1999. The gen- eral format of the volume is the same as that of others already published, and most species are illustrated (in full page plates, a vast im- provement over the plates in previous vol- umes). The format of the maps is different from those in other volumes in that the dis- tributional ranges are given on a county-by- county basis, still in the small size, but the scale of each map changes as the shown range changes, so that a map for one species may show all of North America, while that for an- other may show only the southeastern quarter of the continent. This is a very helpful change. Although the maps provide a visual descrip- tion of where each species is found, I was dis- appointed with the elimination of verbal rang- 48 Journal of the Kentucky Academy of Science 65(1) es from the text. The taxa included in the vol- ume encompass not only native and intro- duced, naturalized species but also cultivated species such as crop plants, ornamentals, and some species that are not yet known but may be found in the Flora range. This inclusiveness shows forethought and is a valuable addition. Reviews of this volume (Bloodworth 2003b; Smith 2004) have been positive, and I have found the volume extremely helpful in grass identification. There are errors, such as some incorrect figures and maps, and a few prob- lems in textual discussions; these are pub- lished on a web site: http://herbarium.usu.edu/ grassmanual/fna25/. I have printed the cor- rected plates and maps and tipped them into my copy of the volume. When the first grass volume, and later a field manual, become available, this treatment will become my most heavily used part of FNA. Volume 26, dated 2002, covering the Lili- idae, includes treatments of some of the most popular and widely cultivated ornamental plants: lilies and orchids. The volume covers 11 families of monocots, encompassing 177 genera and 908 species. The largest family is Liliaceae, with treatments of 70 genera and 478 species, followed by Orchidaceae, with treatments of 69 genera and 207 species. Con- tent of this volume follows the same format as for earlier volumes, beginning with a color frontispiece and providing distributional range maps, rather than state dot maps as seen in volume 23; perhaps this is because some of the treatments were written longer ago. The volume opens, after the introductory, statisti- cal treatment, with a very useful chapter up- dating the reader on current ideas on monocot phylogeny and classification. This article shows the vast changes in thought on the subject from the “Cronquistian” arrangement with which many of us are familiar; the text of this volume, however, does not adopt many of the rearrangements discussed but follows Cron- quist in most cases, which is a shortcoming. Reviews of the volume (Bloodworth 2003a; Burkhart 2003) have been very positive. A few nomenclatural changes taken up in this vol- ume may surprise some readers, such as ap- plication of Maianthemum in a broad sense to include Smilacina, or the use of Manfreda for some former Agave species, or the sinking of Dioscorea quaternata into D. villosa. There are the occasional misfits between textual and map distributional data, but these are minor problems. As is the case for all volumes of FNA released to date, the treatments are scholarly and detailed and are a tremendous storehouse of knowledge. Any discussion of the current state of knowledge of the flora of North America must mention several other works that, while not a part of FNA, form an extremely important part of the overall knowledge of our flora. Among these is the recent CD publication of Kartesz and Meacham (1999), Synthesis of the North American Flora. This CD (which could be considered an expansion of the Kartesz and Kartesz [1980] checklist) includes valuable in- formation on the distribution of plant taxa in North America, providing sources for many of the data, and gives descriptive and other types of information. Another is the U.S.D.A. Plants web site (http://plants.usda.gov/), which pro- vides similar types of information and gives il- lustrations for some taxa and links to other web sites. Lastly, the Missouri Botanical Gar- den’s W°TROPICOS web site (http://mobot. mobot.org/W3T/Search/vast.html) provides in- formation on the nomenclature of plant taxa world-wide, including synonyms, publications citing a name, and photos of many species. In conclusion, it appears that the hopes ex- pressed by Asa Gray in 1880 are finally being realized, and that a comprehensive Flora of North America is becoming a reality. This is an exciting beginning to research on our flora and its relationships to the floras of other re- gions of the earth in a time when much of our world biotic diversity is under severe pressure. LITERATURE CITED (ABSR) Australian Biological Resources Study. 1951—pre- sent. Flora of Australia. Australian Government Pub- lishing Service, Canberra, Australia. Academia Sinica, 1959-present. Chung kuo chung tzu chih wu tu chih (Flora Reipublicae Popularis Sinicae). Academia Sinica Press, Beijing, China. 125 vols. ex- pected. Allan, M. 1967. The Hookers of Kew. 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Flora North America as an informa- tion system. BioScience 21:524—532. Shetler, S. G. 1975. The Flora North America information system. Page 67 in J. P. M. Brenan, R. Ross, and J. T. Williams (eds). Computers in botanical collections. Ple- num Press, London, England. Shetler, S. G. 1994. Flora of North America north of Mex- ico, Vols. 1 and 2 (review). Am. Soc. Pl. Taxonomists Newslett. 8(2):21—24. Skoda, B. 1997. Taxonomic comments on the “Flora of North America north of Mexico,” vol. 2, with some new nomenclatural combinations for Pteridophyta. Preslia 68:341-359. Smith, T. 2004. Flora of North America north of Mexico. Volume 25 (review). Pl. Sci. Bull. 50(1):30-31. Tangley, L. 1985. A national biological survey. BioScience 35:686-690. Taylor, I. E. P. 1993. Flora of North America, a landmark, maybe a renaissance, in floristics: commentary. Canad. J. Bot. 71:1535-1536. Taylor, R. P. 1971. The Flora North America project. BioScience 21:521—523. Thorne, R. F. 1971a. North temperate floristics and the Flora North America project. BioScience 21:511-512. Thome, R. F. 1971b. Summary statement on north tem- perate floristics. BioScience 21:511-512. Torrey, J., and A. Gray. 1838-1843. A Flora of North America. Wiley and Putnam, New York, NY. 2 vols. Tutin, T. G., et al. 1964-1980. Flora Europaea. Cam- bridge Uniy. Press, Cambridge, England. 5 vols. Walsh, J. 1973. Flora North America: project nipped in the bud. Science 179:778. Walter, T. 1788. Flora Caroliniana. J. Fraser, London, England. Whetstone, R. D., and N. R. Morin. 1991. Flora of North America Project. J. Alabama Acad. Sci. 62:102. J. Ky. Acad. Sci. 65(1):51. 2004. NOTE Lobed leaves in Salix exigua, sandbar willow (Sal- ieaceae), in Kentucky.—The genus Salix (Salicaceae), the willows, usually does not come to mind when lobed leaves are mentioned. The leaf blades of North American willows—usually described as ranging from linear to broadly obovate or elliptic—are typically entire to toothed. In the seedling stage, however, the sandbar wil- low, Salix exigua Nuttall (S. interior Rowlee), may have prominently lobed blades. In mid-summer (15 August 1982) we noted plants with such leaves in moist soil along the shore of the Ohio River in Campbell County, Ken- tucky (voucher: JWT 53869, KNK). The hundreds of young willows there ranged from rosette-like individuals to plants ca. 30 cm tall. At first glance we thought that they were one of the species of Rorippa, yellow cress, which occur infrequently in that habitat, and so we searched for flowering specimens. But, eventually noting that the distal leaves of taller individuals were not lobed and bore widely spaced, shallow teeth, we soon realized that here were seedlings of sandbar willow. Thickets of mature plants of that species were frequent along the river at the site. The leaf blades were more or less lanceolate and up to 6 cm long. The lowest ones bore up to 6 major lobes, with small, toothlike lobes sometimes interspersed. Transition to the distal, unlobed leaves was rather rapid (Figure 1). The seeds of willows are viable for only a short time, germinating usually in 12 to 24 hours after falling on damp soil (1). The shedding of seeds by sandbar willow in our area occurs in late June to mid-July. We assume that the seedlings we observed were plants of the year. Plant collectors often do not pay much attention to seedlings. We wonder how many other kinds of woody plants have seedlings with leaves so different from the leaves of mature individuals. We have noted, for example, that the first leaves of seedlings of Kentucky coffeetree (Gymnocladus dioicus) are but 1-pinnate, in contrast to the mature leaves, which are 2-pinnate. The first leaves of Fraxinus americana, too, are quite different from mature “ /¥ y Figure 1. Salix exigua, sandbar willow. Seedlings with lobed leaves; collected in mid-summer along the Ohio River in Campbell County, Kentucky. leaves of that species, being simple instead of pinnately compound. We acknowledge aid from Dr. Maggie Whitson and Dr. Michael Vincent. LITERATURE CITED. (1) U.S. Forest Service. 1948. Woody-plant seed manual. U.S.D.A. Misc. Publ. 654 — George F. Buddell II and John W. Thieret, Depart- ment of Biological Sciences, Northern Kentucky Univer- sity, Highland Heights, KY 41099. J. Ky. Acad. Sei. 65(1):52-53, 2004. Professor Willem Meijer (1923-2003) Willem Meijer, Emeritus Professor of Bi- ology, University of Kentucky, died of heart failure at the age of 80 on 22 October 2003 in Lexington, Kentucky. He was born in The Hague, The Netherlands, in 1923 and re- ceived his Ph.D. from the University of Am- sterdam in 1951. From 1951 to 1968, Dr. Mei- jer worked as a botanist in Java, West Sumatra, and North Bomeo. He joined the faculty of the then Botany Department at the University of Kentucky as an associate professor in 1968, became a full professor in 1983, and retired in 1993. His interest in natural history began in the early 1930s, and in 1939 he published his first paper, which was an essay on some bryophytes from near Amsterdam. During his early explo- rations of the coastal dunes, moist meadows, fens, and wetlands of The Netherlands, he de- veloped a strong interest in plant collecting and identification and in nature conservation. He was talking about these passions on the day of his death. His work in Indonesia involved botanical ex- ploration (part of which is chronicled in Flora Malesiana, Series I, Vol. 5, pp. 68-70), teach- ing, and development of herbaria. His re- search on bryophytes and other plants not only resulted in many publications but also thou- sands of specimens (over 14,000 from Indo- nesia) that he deposited in various herbaria, thus making the material available for study by future generations of botanists. He was a well-recognized authority on bryophytes, Dip- terocarpaceae (a family in southeast Asian rain forests with many valuable timber trees), and Rafflesia (a parasitic plant with the world’s largest flower). At the University of Kentucky, Professor Meijer enjoyed studying the flora and vege- tation of Kentucky and continuing his studies on tropical species. He was a challenging teacher for many unsuspecting, not-so-well- traveled undergraduates, who had no clue as to what they should do with a class handout written in German. He was avid about taking students on fieldtrips and made a lasting im- pression (for the better) on many of them. The students quickly learned, however, that it was best if one of them drove during field- trips, thereby allowing the Professor to de- vote full attention to expounding on the plants seen along the way. He organized a “protest” and one the Mathews Garden in Lexington from becoming a grassy lawn. Then he worked to increase the number of native species in the garden, making it a valu- able teaching resource. Dr. Meijer served as the major professor for eight M.S. and two Ph.D. students. Professor Meijer’s botanical travels took him not only to Indonesia but also to Ceylon; Pak- istan; Celebes; West Papua, New Guinea; west Africa; Venezuela; and Panama. He was a re- search associate of the Missouri Botanical Garden in St. Louis and was involved in the garden's tropical research efforts in southeast Asia and Latin America. Willem had a keen interest in people, plac- es, and natural history. He was constantly try- ing to motivate people to do things for the sake of conservation, including arguing with government officials in Indonesia about log- ging the rain forests and urging a Kentucky citizen to grow thousands of oak seedlings for a restoration project. Sometimes his demands really got on peo- ple’s nerves; however, no one held a grudge against this innocent scholar. People greatly respected his wealth of knowledge and real- ized that he was a kind and caring person, who was deeply concerned about saving the world’s biota, especially plants. He worried out loud on many occasions about the death of orang- utans as a result of the destruction of rain for- ests in southeast Asia. He was a “friend” of all plants and hated the idea that anyone would spray herbicides—even to kill dandelions in a lawn—and was not shy about speaking against this practice. Dr. Meijer touched many dive 2S, and his sense of humor and his passion for plants and nature conservation will not be for- gotten. Professor Meijer is survived by a daughter, In Memoriam: Willem Meijer Frederica, in Amsterdam; a son, Johan, and two granddaughters in Portland, Oregon; and a son, George, and two grandsons in Copen- hagen, Denmark. This Memorial Resolution was presented to the 53 University of Kentucky Senate at its 9 Decem- ber 2003 meeting. Carol and Jerry Baskin Department of Biology University of Kentucky Lexington, Kentucky J. Ky. Acad. Sci, 65(1):54. 2004. BOOK REVIEW Nicholas P. Money. 2002, Mr. Bloomfield’s Orchard: The Mysterious World of Mush- rooms, Molds, and Mycologists. Oxford University Press, New York, NY. 208 pages. ISBN 0-19-515457-6. $26.00. Fungi are among the most economically and ecologically important organisms on the planet. They are major decomposers in both terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. Yeasts are a key ingredient in the production of bread and of alcoholic beverages; molds are the cul- prits behind much food spoilage. Fungi are crucial symbionts of trees and other plants but also cause some genuinely nasty diseases of livestock, crops, and humans. Despite their importance, their often subterranean habits and slow-moving lifestyles keep them out of the public eye. Or, as so aptly stated by Dr. Money, a mycologist and professor at Miami University, Oxford, Ohio, “When making sense of life on earth, biologists (and filmmak- ers) usually rely on images of big cats and bleeding gazelles and ignore things like water molds that are hidden underwater in their par- allel lilliputian universe.” Mr. Bloomfield’s Orchard attempts to glam- orize the natural history of fungi while simul- taneously providing elegant insights into the nature of science and biological processes in general. That it manages to do all of these things with a pleasantly flowing and often hu- morous style is a testament to the mycological knowledge and enthusiasm of its author. The book covers some truly complex material in a light, straightforward manner that makes the technical details seem obvious. Though some background in the biological sciences will help readers appreciate the detail of the text, a de- gree in mycology, or even in biology, is not necessary for its interpretation and enjoyment. The text covers a broad array of fungal top- ics, with an overall emphasis on the mecha- nisms behind the unique lifestyles of these or- ganisms, and how scientists have used exper- imentation to unravel the mysteries of fungal growth and development. Though the chapter 54 titles are entertainingly whimsical (e.g., “Of fensive Phalli and Frigid Caps,” “Ingold’s Jew- els,” “Siren Songs”), an amazing amount of hard science is slipped in between fungal an- ecdotes. Convergent evolution, meiosis and mitosis, natural versus artificial groups, and the internal structures of cells are among the topics covered. Explanations of these subjects are concise and refreshingly clear, neither con- fusing to the novice nor too simplified for the scientist. The book begins with spore dispersal mech- anisms, focusing on the startling techniques of the stinkhorns or phallic fungi. Next up are gross but interesting fungal diseases, which help introduce the topic of fungal nutrition. Nutrition is further covered in a chapter on the mycelium, or vegetative body, of the fun- gus. Ascomycetes (such as yeast and morels), famous eccentric mycologists, the glorious and functional spores of aquatic fungi, and fungal pheromones and poisons also get their 15 min- utes of fame. The book concludes with an in- formative look at the making of a mycologist and how Dr. Money first became fascinated by the fungi. The one drawback of the text is the dearth of photographs. Although line drawings are provided, they fail to capture the weird beauty and wild variety of the macroscopic fungi. The drawings provide the reader with an idea of the structure of these organisms, but seem rather unreal to someone who hasn’t seen them in the field. A particular strength of the work is that each chapter can stand alone, and many of these would make good short reading assign- ments for AP or freshmen level biology stu- dents. All in all, Mr. Bloomfteld’s Orchard pro- vides both entertaining and educational read- ing and is well-suited to both mycological en- thusiasts and those who just enjoy natural history. Maggie Whitson Biological Sciences Northern Kentucky University Highland Heights, Kentucky 41099 J. Ky. Acad. Sci. 65(1):55-58. 2004. Kentucky Academy of Science: Awards 2003 Outstanding College/University Science Teacher Award The recipient of the 2003 Outstanding Uni- versity/College Science Teacher Award is Dr. Brent C. White, Matton Professor of Psychol- ogy at Centre College. Dr. White received his bachelor’s degree with honors from the Uni- versity of Utah, and his Ph.D. in psychology from Princeton University. Dr. White joined the faculty of the Department of Psychology at Centre College in 1971. In addition to his faculty position, Dr. White has served in nu- merous leadership positions over the years in- cluding chairperson of the psychology pro- gram, chairperson of the psychobiology pro- gram, chairperson of the life sciences pro- gram, and chairperson of the Division of Science and Mathematics. As a teacher, Dr. White sets high standards for his students as a whole, yet unselfishly works with individual students so they can reach their true academic potential. One sup- porter believes that Dr. White’s greatest strength as a teacher is his undying love of science. Another suggests that Dr. White's greatest strength is his innovation. Over the past 32 years, he has been an agent of contin- uous course improvement not only within his discipline of psychobiology, but also in psy- chology and science as whole. For example, he was instrumental in integrating a seamless lab- oratory experience into the existing introduc- tory psychology class. Similarly, he played a major role in developing a natural science course sequence for Centre’s general educa- tion program. Not content to teach the same classes and laboratories year after year, Dr. White has developed and taught 13 different courses in biology and psychology since join- ing the Centre faculty. Not only has he devot- ed considerable time and energy to the de- velopment of innovative curricula, he has also sought and received considerable external grant funds to support these efforts. Indeed, over the years, Dr.White has received seven instructional, equipment, and infrastructure grants from the National Science Foundation. Throughout his career, Dr. White has main- tained an active research program. Early in his 55 career, he conducted numerous laboratory studies concerning the role of catecholamine neurotransmitter systems in the regulation of behavior. This work resulted in numerous pa- pers and publications in prominent journals, including the journal Science. In the late 1980s, Dr. White switched gears and began to intensively study the social behavior of pri- mates. This research led to strong collabora- tions with colleagues both in the Columbian rainforest and the Louisville Zoo. In appreci- ation for his research and conservation efforts with primates, Dr. White received the “Good Egg” award from the Louisville Zoological So- ciety in 1987. From the laboratory and the zoo to the rainforest, he has always involved stu- dents in his research programs. Many of these students have presented the results of their work with Dr. White at meetings of the the Kentucky Academy of Science. Outside the classroom and laboratory, Dr. White has also been very active. He founded and is president of The Woolly Monkey Pres- ervation Foundation. He is also a member of several organizations that seek to study, pro- tect, and conserve primates in both natural and zoo settings. One of his supporters summed up the justification for the present awarded by stating, Dr. White “is a fine teach- er, he is one of the most productive research- ers in the science division at Centre, he main- tains high standards in all his academic pur- suits, he is respected among his peers and stu- dents in the community, and his positive attitude and tireless work ethic are an inspi- ration to all of us.” It is with great pleasure that the Kentucky Academy of Science recognizes this dedicated teacher and gifted researcher by bestowing upon him the Outstanding University/College Science Teacher Award for 2003. Outstanding Secondary School Science Teacher Award The 2003 recipient of the Outstanding Sec- ondary School Science Teacher Award is Ms. Diane Johnson, science teacher and science department head at Lewis County High School. Ms. Johnson received her bachelor’s 56 Journal of the Kentucky Academy of Science 65(1) degree in biology and chemistry, her master’s degree in biology, her rank | in leadership and principalship, and her supervision certification from Morehead State University. Currently, she is working on a doctoral degree in curric- ulum and instruction at the University of Ken- tucky. Over the past 22 years as a teacher at Lewis County High School, Ms. Johnson has passed on her love of science and learning to her stu- dents. One supporter noted that “Ms. Johnson has the one thing every outstanding teacher must possess, a passion for teaching and in- stilling knowledge in her students.” She never gives up on students and exhorts them to reach their full potential. She gives 110% ef- fort to make science meaningful to her stu- dents and expects no less effort from them. A parent of one of Ms. Johnson's former stu- dents stated, “While I appreciate Ms. Johnson for her knowledge, dedication, and creative lessons, I most appreciate the opportunities she made sure were available for her science students.” She has served as the sponsor of PULSAR, the school’s science club for the past 20 years, regularly arranging educational trips to major cities to visit museums and oth- er educational exhibits. Similarly, Ms. Johnson has served as the director of the local science fair for the last 15 years. Her students have been frequent poster presenters at regional and state science fairs and at the Junior Sci- ence and Humanities Symposium. In addition to her efforts on behalf of her students, Ms. Johnson has also been active at the regional, state, and national levels in sci- ence education. She currently serves as a re- source teacher in the ARSI master teacher program, sharing her knowledge and enthusi- asm with science teachers in Lewis, Bath, and Rockcastle counties to help improve their sci- ence programs. Since presenting her first pa- per at the meetings of the Kentucky Academy of Science in 1982, Ms. Johnson has been a frequent presenter at meetings of the Ken- tucky Science Teachers Association (KSTA) and the National Science Teachers Association (NSTA). Moreover, she has conducted over 200 workshops for science teachers in the dis- trict, region, state, and nation. In 2002, Ms. Johnson served as president of the Kentucky Science Teachers Association and is currently chair of the NSTA High School Program Con- vention committee. In addition to her many presentations and workshops, Ms. Johnson has also published articles in the Kentucky Teach- er, Charmed Particles, and the KSTA News- letter. Given her vast achievements, it is not sur- prising that Ms. Johnson has received numer- ous awards for her efforts. She received the Ashland Oil Teacher Achievement Award in 1990, the Outstanding Senior High School Teacher Award at the Northeast Kentucky Sci- ence Fair in 1992, the Mathematics Education Service and Achievement Award in 1995, and was accepted into the Toyota International Teacher Program in 1999. One of her col- leagues noted that “As most of us teachers reach the latter years of our career, we discuss retirement or other employment. Diane dis- cusses working on her doctorate and continu- ing to explore research based education. There are few teachers who share Diane John- son’s dedication, ambition, and drive.” She is an outstanding role model for both her stu- dents and her peers. The Kentucky Academy of Science is pleased to recognize Ms. Diane Johnson as its 2003 Outstanding Secondary School Science Teacher. Outstanding Academy Service Award The recipient of the 2003 Outstanding Academy Service Award is Dr. Donald T. Fra- zier, professor of physiology and biomedical engineering at the University of Kentucky Medical Center. A native of Martin, Kentucky, Dr. Frazier received his bachelor’s, master’s, and Ph.D. degrees from the University of Kentucky. He Fanaa to the Department of Physiology and Biophysics at the University of Kentucky in 1968 after establishing a success- ful research program in the neurophysiology of respiratory neurons at the University of New Mexico School of Medicine. He served as chair of the Department from 1980 to 1992. Dr. Frazier’s scientific accomplishments over the past 35 years are too numerous to list. He has published over 200 articles and abstracts in highly respected journals, he has maintained almost continuous funding for his research through grants from the National In- stitutes of Health, he has served on numerous scientific boards and review groups, and he has mentored dozens of Ph.D. students and Kentucky Academy of Science Awards 57 post-doctoral fellows. His distinguished re- search career was recognized by the Kentucky Academy os Science in 1994 when he received the Distinguished College/University Scientist Award. Since 1990, Dr. Frazier has devoted a con- siderable effort toward the improvement of science education at both the college and pre- college levels. He has served as director of the Science Outreach Center at the University of Kentucky since 1993. Under his direction, the center has received considerable funding over the past 10 years to provide support services for secondary science teachers and meaningful scientific experiences for students throughout the state. He served as President of the Ken- tucky Science Teachers Association in 1993— 1994 and is on the Executive Board of the East Kentucky Center for Science, Mathe- matics, and Technology based in Prestons- burg. A long-time member of the Kentucky Academy of Science, Dr. Frazier has served as executive secretary of the academy since 1997. In this volunteer position, he has directed the day-to-day operation of the academy and has had a major impact on the academy's pro- grams. As a result of Dr. Frazier’s support, the academy established its first permanent office with part-time administrative support in 1998. Working with multiple academy presidents and members of the Governing Board, his in- fluence and insight has been instrumental in numerous improvements in the organization and coordination of academy outreach pro- grams and in the annual meeting. He has strengthened ties between the academy and the University of Kentucky and has been in- volved in all major initiatives of the academy. Clearly, Dr. Frazier has contributed greatly to the image of the academy and its recognition throughout the Commonwealth. In recognition of his unselfish contributions to the academy, the Kentucky Academy of Sci- ence is pleased to present the 2003 Academy Service Award to Dr. Donald T. Frazier. Distinguished College/University Scientist Award The recipient of the 2003 Distinguished College/University Scientist Award is Dr. Ni- gel G.F. Cooper, professor of anatomical sci- ences and neurobiology, ophthalmology and visual sciences, and director of Integrated Pro- grams in Biomedical Sciences at the Univer- sity of Louisville School of Medicine. Dr. Coo- per received his bachelor’s degree in biology from Open University in England and his Ph.D. in anatomy and neurobiology from the University of Tennessee. He was recruited to the University of Louisville in 1991 after es- tablishing a very successful neuroscience re- search program at the University of Tennessee Center for the Health Sciences. What a coup for the Commonwealth of Kentucky! During his tenure at the University of Louisville, Dr. Cooper has established himself as a highly re- spected researcher and a leader in developing programs that have had a sustainable impact on biomedical education and research, not only at the University of Louisville but also at nearly every college and university in the state. Funded by the National Institutes of Health and the National Science Foundation, Dr. Cooper has maintained an active neuroscience research program for over 20 years. His re- search on the developing retina has shown that synaptic receptor molecules in the retina can be altered by light deprivation in new- borns but not in adult rodents and that stim- ulation of these same receptors can lead to enhanced transcription of apoptosis-associated genes in the inner layer of the retina. This finding has led to the development of a model for the study of certain neurodegenerative processes in the eye, and the search for the signal transduction pathway between the stim- ulus and cell death, which could be targeted for neurotherapeutic intervention. More im- portant, Dr. Coopers work may become the first model for understanding the pathogenesis of glaucoma, for which there is no known pathological cause for cell death by apoptosis in the inner retina during advanced intraocular pressure. Although Dr. Cooper's distinguished scien- tific career alone would be sufficient to qualify him for this award, his contributions to the development of biomedical research capacity at the University of Louisville and throughout the state are even greater. Soon after his ar- rival at the University of Louisville, he sub- mitted and received a large NSF-EPSCoR grant in developmental and neurobiology that provided funding for the recruitment of junior faculty using molecular genetic approaches to study the development and function of the 58 Journal of the Kentucky Academy of Science 65(1) nervous system. As a direct result of Dr. Coo- pers guidance and support, these recruited faculty now all have independent, federally funded research programs. This award also es- tablished training programs in molecular and gene-based technologies for graduate students and postdoctoral fellows in disciplines span- ning several departments at the medical school and the main campus. More recently, Dr. Cooper played a significant role in bring- ing five diverse faculty disciplines at the Uni- versity of Louisville together to develop an in- tegrated program in biomedical sciences (IPIBS). Recognizing his considerable leader- ship skills, he was his colleagues’ top choice to be the director of this program. Dr. Cooper's impact on biomedical research across the state has been equally impressive. Several years ago, he brought together bio- medical researchers from the state regional comprehensive universities and the private lib- eral arts colleges to discuss forming a research network. His efforts ultimately led to a six mil- lion dollar grant from the National Institutes of Health in 2001 to form the Kentucky Bio- medical Research Infrastructure Network (KBRIN). The KBRIN consortium consisting of 13 institutions across the state can only be described as incredible success. As a direct re- sult of Dr. Cooper's leadership, core facilities for genomics and bioinformatics research have been established at the University of Louis- ville and the University of Kentucky, providing access to researchers across the state to DNA sequencing, microarray technology, and super- computer facilities. This project also created two scientific research cores that provided ma- jor funding to 12 faculty members at the com- prehensive and private universities. In addi- tion, funding was provided for significant re- search infrastructure development across the state, and for summer research experiences for undergraduate students and faculty collab- orations. Although the network is now only beginning its third year of existence, it has al- ready had a lasting impact on biomedical ed- ucation and research throughout the state. As one supporter noted, “Dr. Cooper's has had the vision through the KBRIN program to en- courage, nurture, and promote the potential that lies within the scientists and students of the Commonwealth of Kentucky. He has made a difference.” In recognition of his distinguished scientific career and his significant contributions to sci- ence and science education in the Common- wealth of Kentucky, the Kentucky Academy of Science is pleased to present the 2003 Distin- guished College/University Scientist Award to Dr. Nigel G.F. Cooper. J. Ky. Acad. Sci. 65(1):59-63. 2004. Abstracts of Some Papers Presented at the 2003 Annual Meeting of the Kentucky Academy of Science Edited by Robert J. Barney AGRICULTURAL SCIENCES Residues and half-lives of pyrethrins on field-grown pepper and tomato fruits. GEORGE F. ANTONIOUS, Land-Grant Program, Department of Plant and Soil Sci- ence, Kentucky State University, Frankfort, KY 40601. The dried flower heads of Tanacetum cinerariifolium (Asteraceae) contain insecticidal compounds collectively called Apyrethrins@. Pyrethrins are the subject of intense interest for use in crop protection because their toxico- logical properties permit control of certain insect species at application rates as low as 5-10 g/acre. Botanically-de- rived insecticides have gained favor in recent years, due in part to the perception that, because they originate from plant material, they are more safe or natural. A field study was conducted at Kentucky State University Research Farm (Franklin County, KY). Seedlings of sweet pepper (Capsicum annuum ‘Bell Boy’ Hybrid and tomato (Lyco- persicon esculentum “Mountain Spring’ F1 Hybrid were planted. A multi-purpose insecticide formulation contain- ing pyrethrins 0.2%, technical piperonyl butoxide (PBO) 1.0%, diatomaceous earth 88.0%, and inert ingredients 10.8% was sprayed on pepper and tomato foliage when tomato fruits became red ripe and pepper became mature green at the rate of 6 lbs of formulated product per acre (5.4 and 27.2 g ai. of pyrethrin and PBO, respectively). Following spraying, pepper and tomato fruits were col- lected at different time intervals for residue analysis using high pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC). Dissipation rates and half-lives (T,,) of pyrethrins and PBO residues on pepper and tomato leaves and fruits were determined. Initial deposits (1 hr following spraying) of pyrethrins were significantly higher on pepper than tomato fruits. Half-lives on pepper and tomato fruits did not exceed 2 hr, Where concem exists over pesticide residues on treat- ed crops and in the environment, pyrethrins can be used to reduce the risk of exposure to synthetic pesticide resi- dues. Phytochemicals for pest control. DADDY N. BOA- TENG** and GEORGE F. ANTONIOUS, Land-Grant Program, Department of Plant and Soil Science, and TE- JINDER S. KOCHHAR, Department of Math and Sci- ences, Kentucky State University, Frankfort, KY 40601. Several wild tomato accessions of Lycopersicon hirsu- tum that are not consumed by humans were planted un- der greenhouse conditions for mass production of leaves. The foliage of the wild tomato L. hirsutum f. glabratum, L. hirsutum f. hirsutum, and L. pennellii (Solanaceae) is * Presenter ** Undergraduate student competition 59 covered with glandular trichomes (plant hairs). Glandular trichomes on the leaves of L.hirsutum f. hirsutum, L. hir- sutum f. glabratum, L. pennellii, and L. pimpinellifolium were counted monthly. Trichome contents were separat- ed, purified, and quantified using a gas chromatograph equipped with mass selective detector (GC/MSD) for bio- chemical composition. Considerable variations in bio- chemical constituents among accessions were detected. Two sesquiterpene hydrocarbons, zingiberene and curcu- mene, were found in L. hirsutum f. hirsutum. An average 3-month-old plant of L. hirsutum f. hirsutum (PI-127827) has 1.30 kg fresh leaves averaging about 28,130 cm? ex- posed leaf surface area produced 17.2 g zingiberene and 1.8 g of curcumene. Four methyl ketones (2-tridecanone, 2-dodecanone, 2-undecanone, and 2-pentadecanone) were found in L. hirsutum f. glabratum. Two methy] ke- tones, 2-undecanone and 2-tridecanone, which have in- secticidal activity against many herbivorous insects, pre- dominated hair secretions in five of the L. hirsutum f. glabratum accessions tested. Concentrations of total methyl ketones ranged from 81.3 ig/g fresh leaflets on L. esculentum cv. Fabulous (a commercial tomato cultivar) to 5.5 mg/g on L. hirsutum f. glabratum. Impact of soil management on herbicide movement in soil water. CLARENCE JORDAN**, GEORGE F. AN- TONIOUS, and MATTHEW A. PATTERSON, Land- Grant Program, Department of Plant and Soil Science, Kentucky State University, Frankfort, KY 40601. Runoff from agricultural watersheds carries enormous amounts of pesticides. During plant production, pesticides may move from application site into runoff water and run- off sediment following irrigation systems or natural rainfall events. Organic amendments, commonly used to enrich soils of low organic matter content, can modify the soil surface and stimulate soil microbial activity which could potentially lead to pesticide degradation and amount of chemical available for leaching. Field studies were con- ducted at Kentucky State University Research Farm (Franklin County, KY) to assess the influence of com- posted sewage sludge mixed with native soil at the rate of 50 tons/acre (on a dry weight basis) on trifluralin (Treflan) and napropamide (Devrinol) movement. Following pesti- cide spraying, triplicate water samples were collected pe- riodically for trifluralin and napropamide analysis using a gas chromatograph equipped with nitrogen-phosphorus detector (GC/NPD). Results have indicated that the use of sewage sludge can become a useful technique for trap- ping non-polar pesticides such as trifluralin and may re- duce surface and groundwater contamination by non-polar pesticides. 60 Journal of the Kentucky Academy of Science 65(1) Repellency of wild tomato leaf extracts to the two-spot- ted spider mite, Tetranychus urticae. LISA M. HAW- KINS* and GEORGE F. ANTONIOUS, Land Grant Pro- gram, Department of Plant and Soil Science, Kentucky State University, Frankfort, KY 40601, and JOHN C. SNYDER, University of Kentucky, Department of Hor- ticulture, Lexington, KY 40546. The potential of using allelochemicals from the leaves of wild tomato accessions for controlling mites is a prom- ising alternative to synthetic pesticides. In order to deter- mine the effectiveness of wild tomato accessions against the two-spotted spider mite, Tetranychus urticae, three separate solvents, chloroform, ethanol, and hexane, were used to extract several compounds from the leaves of the wild tomato plants. These compounds were identified by GC/MSD and the crude extracts were utilized in bioas- says. Crude extracts of three accessions of Lycopersicon hirsutum f. hirsutum, six accessions of L. hirsutum f. gla- bratum, one accession of L. pennellii, and one accession of L. pimpinellifolium were prepared. To determine the acaricidal performance of the wild tomato accessions, two bioassays were utilized. The first was used to test for mor- tality using a 6-hr no-choice test. The second utilized a ring bioassay to determine repellency. Both bioassay re- sults showed a greater response of the spider mites to the chloroform extracts of L. hirsutum f. glabratum accessions (PI-251304, PI-134417, PI-134418, and PI-126449). This study provides a new avenue for controlling spider mites using botanical extracts from wild tomato leaves. Reversed phase thin-layer chromatography for testing mobility of azadirachtin in soil. MATTHEW A. PATTER- SON* and GEORGE F. ANTONIOUS, Land-Grant Pro- gram, Department of Plant and Soil Science, Kentucky State University, Frankfort, KY 40601. Bioactivity, mobility and fate of pesticides in the envi- ronment depend mainly on their adsorption to soil parti- cles. Adsorption may reduce the concentration of pesti- cides in the soil solution, decrease their bioavailability, in- crease their rates of chemical degradation by soil micro- organisms, or decrease their mobility into runoff and infiltration water. The objectives of this investigation were (1) to study the impact of mixing soil with yard waste compost on the adsorption of azadirachtin residues and (2) to study the impact of humic and fulvic acids in yard waste compost on the mobility of azadirachtin. Mobility of azadirachtin was studied by a reverse-phase thin layer chromatographic (RPTLC) technique. Humic and fulvic acids were extracted from soil amended with yard waste compost. Results indicated that the R, values of azadi- rachtin decreased as the amount of humic acid (a signif- icant component of soil organic matter) and fulvic acid in soil increased. This information can be explored in soil management practices to reduce non-point source pollu- tion by pesticides. Application of sewage sludge in land farming: advan- tages and disadvantages. SAMUEL M. MUTISYA**, GEORGE F. ANTONIOUS, and MATTHEW A. PAT- TERSON, Land-Grant Program, Department of Plant and Soil Science, Kentucky State University, Frankfort, KY 40601. The Environmental Protection Agency estimates that ca. 15 million tons of biosolids and 31 million tons of yard waste are discarded annually in the U.S. Recycling this material as soil amendments for reclamation sites, forest- lands, and agricultural land would (1) reduce the need for landfill disposal and/or incineration and (2) reduce the im- pact of these disposal methods on environmental quality. The objective of this study was to assess the effect of class- A biosolid and yard waste compost on potato and bell pepper yields under field conditions. Field studies were conducted on a Lowell silt loam soil located at the Ken- tucky State University Research Farm, Franklin County, KY. Six replicates of each soil amendment were mixed with native soil at a rate of 50 tons/acre on a dry weight basis in standard USLE research plots (22 * 3.7 m, 10% slope). Total potato and pepper yields from yard waste compost amended soils (3330.9 Ibs/acre and 9187.1 Ibs/ acre, respectively) were significantly higher (P < 0.05) than yields from either the soil amended with class-A bio- solid (2835.2 Ibs/acre and 6984.2 lbs/acre, respectively) or the unamended soils (2429.6 lbs/acre and 7161.7 Ibs/acre, respectively). GEOGRAPHY Refining Kentucky's Level IV Ecoregions map by con- flation to the state boundary. DEMETRIO P. ZOURAR- AKIS, Kentucky Division of Conservation, Department for Natural Resources, Frankfort, KY 40601. The recently released Level IV Ecoregions Map for Kentucky represents a new and essential data layer. A part of the level IV Ecoregions map for the conterminous U.S., the data product was digitized at the 1:250,000 scale from yet smaller scale maps. The original electronic data set did not follow the official state boundary, digitized at a much larger scale, resulting in the creation of sliver poly- gons, particularly along the Ohio River. A refined digital layer, conflated to the official state boundary working at a larger scale is proposed. Commonplace GIS editing tech- niques were utilized for the removal of 190 outside slivers (91,776 acres or 0.35% of state area), followed by the sub- sequent merging of 175 inside slivers (140,342 acres or 0.54% of state area). Level III or IV regions were neither deleted nor added. Three level IV ecoregions lost 6 poly- gon features, bringing their total to 30, Reshaping of fea- tures was done near the state boundary to prolong un- dershoots. The new data layer was later reviewed and ap- proved by the original authors, constituting the official Kentucky data set. HEALTH SCIENCES Competitive foods negatively impact nutritional benefit of school lunch. SUSAN B. TEMPLETON* and MAR- Abstracts, 2003 Annual KAS Meeting 61 THA A. MARLETTE, Human Nutrition Research, Ken- tucky State University, Frankfort, KY 40601. We photographed trays of 743 sixth-graders before and after they ate lunch, then collected and weighed their left- overs. The before photos were compared to weighed por- tions from sample trays to estimate initial portion size; plate waste was subtracted to calculate students’ actual consumption. Nutrient content was analyzed using Nutri- tionist V; statistical analysis was performed using SPSS 10 for Windows. One-third of participating students pur- chased competitive food (CF) items along with lunch— non-carbonated drinks, chips, snack cakes, etc. Students purchasing CF items selected fewer items and/or smaller portions from the school lunch (SL) menu. The mean number of SL items selected was 4.9 for the SL group and 4.0 for the SL+CF group, while the mean total weight of SL items selected was 559 grams for the SL group and 423 grams for the SL+CF group (both signif- icant at P < 0.001). Students in the SL group consumed 81% of the SL calories they selected; students in the SL+CF group only consumed 74% of the SL calories they selected. The SL+CF students received only three- fourths the energy that SL students did from the SL items. While energy provided by CF items increased their total energy intake to 120% of the SL group's intake, 36% of CF calories came from sugar, and 37% came from fat. CF items contributed little to students’ protein, vitamin, and mineral intakes. Students’ lunchtime nutritional benefits can be increased by improving the palatability of SL items and restricting CF choices to more nutrient dense items. Menu offerings, preparation methods, and competitive food purchases impact school lunch plate waste. ESUGH- ANI OKONNY**, SUSAN B. TEMPLETON, and MAR- THA A. MARLETTE, Human Nutrition Research, Ken- tucky State University, Frankfort, KY 40601. Being overweight is increasingly prevalent among America’s children. Many choose high fat/high sugar snacks over nutrient dense fruits and vegetables. We pho- tographed lunch trays of 743 sixth-grade students in three local middle school cafeterias before the students ate, and then collected the leftovers. Plate waste was weighed for each food item. Intact portions on five sample trays were also photographed and weighed. Nutrient content of the plate waste was calculated using Nutritionist V and aggre- gated by student; SPSS 10 was used for statistical analysis. The most wasted foods were fruits (40% of initial portion weight was left) and vegetables (30%). Mixed dishes (piz- za, sandwiches, casseroles, ete.) had 22% wastage, meats had 21%, and grains had 16%. Students left 15% of their milk and 12% of cheese (used as a topping). The com- petitive food items purchased separately in the cafeteria were wasted least: salty snacks (5%), non-carbonated drinks (12%), and snack cakes/cookies (3%). Preparation method influenced waste for fruits (canned wasted less than fresh, P < 0.001) and potatoes (mashed wasted less than boiled or fries, P < 0.001). An average of 156 kcal of dietary energy was wasted by students who had pur- chased a la carte items with their school lunch, while 129 kcal was wasted by those who had school lunch items only (P < 0.05). Females wasted 167 kcal; males wasted 112 keal (P < 0.001). Consequently, lunchtime energy intake averaged only 24% of the Recommended Daily Allowance for girls and 25% for boys. Student comments indicated taste was a major factor in the wastage of food. Influences on food choices of sixth-grade students in- dicated by focus groups. MARTHA A. MARLETTE* and SUSAN B. TEMPLETON, Human Nutrition Research Program, Kentucky State University, Frankfort, KY 40601. Focus groups were conducted in three local schools to explore factors that influence food choices of sixth-grad- ers. A 24-hour food recall was included; participants used colored sponges to classify items by food source: home- prepared or comparable items, convenience items (frozen, ready to eat, etc.), items from fast-food restaurants, and snack items. At the end of each session, participants com- pleted a questionnaire about food choices and household eating patterns. Each session was recorded, transcribed into text documents, and analyzed using TextSmart. The survey data was analyzed using SPSS v 10.0. Forty sixth- grade students (29 female, 11 male) participated. Over half of the students reported taste was “very important,” appearance and health benefits were “somewhat impor- tant,” and incentives and cultural differences were “not important” influences on their food choices. The majority reported that mothers did menu planning, food shopping, and food preparation for the household. Although foods reported in the 24-hour recall showed that most partici- pants had milk for breakfast (52%), colas were the most consumed beverage (29%) for the evening meal. Seventy- five percent “usually” ate lunch in the school cafeteria. Over 20% reported eating only a salad and 13% reported skipping lunch “sometimes.” Over 15% brought lunch from home when they did not like the cafeteria offerings or could not eat the food for religious reasons. Nutrition education is needed to enable students to make better food choices. Menu ingredients and nutrient content in- formation should be furnished so students may take full advantage of the school lunch program. Changes in calcium (Ca), zinc (Zn), and copper (Cu) concentrations in plasma of rats fed varying levels of Ca, Zn, and Cu in the diet and exposed to a mixture of pes- ticides. HERMINE NGWANG**, ROBERT C. RIVERS, FRED N. BEBE, and MYNA PANEMANGALORE, Nu- trition and Health Program, Kentucky State University, Frankfort, KY 40601. The interaction between minerals Ca, Zn, and Cu and a mixture of pesticides was determined on plasma mineral concentrations in rats. Male, Sprague Dawley rats, weigh- ing 175-200 g, 6/grp were fed AIN 93M or the same mod- ified to contain 500 mg Ca (low Ca), 7 mg Zn (low Zn), 2 mg Cu (low Cu), 60 mg Zn (high Zn), or 12 mg Cu (high Cu) in combination: Control (CON), LCa+LZn, LCa+LZn+LCu, or HZn+HCu with or without pesti- 62 Journal of the Kentucky Academy of Science 65(1) cides. A mixture of Endosulfan, Thiram, and Acephate at 25% of LD50 was added to the diet of pesticide exposed groups. The rats were fed for 4 wk. Plasma Ca concen- trations (mg/L) declined by about 17% in groups fed low Ca diets and by a similar amount in the HZn+HCu group; exposure to pesticides in the diet decreased plasma Ca in the CON and LCa+LZn groups by 14% but not in the LCa+LZn+LCu and HZn+HCu groups (P z 0.05). Plas- ma Zn declined by more than 50% in the LCa+LZn and LCa+LZn+LCu groups, and the HZn+HCu diet also re- duced plasma Zn by 56%, but pesticide exposure did not further modify plasma Zn (P = 0.05). Plasma Cu de- creased by 82% in the LCa+LZn+LCu group and was similar to the control in all other groups; there was a 2.5- fold increase in plasma Cu in the pesticide exposed LCa+LZn+LCu group with no change in all the other groups (P = 0.05). This suggests interaction between pes- ticides, Ca, and Cu at the level of absorption. Arsenic in tap water primarily from private wells in cen- tral Appalachia. JOHN G. SHIBER, Division of Math & Science, Big Sandy Community & Technical College Dis- trict, Prestonsburg, KY 41653. Over 200 tap water samples from homes in 92 towns/ cities in eastern Kentucky, West Virginia, and Ohio were collected and analyzed for arsenic. 83% of the homes are serviced by private wells, 4% by private springs, and 13% by public water systems. Almost all samples collected from homes with public water supplies had no detectable ar- senic in their tap water. In contrast, arsenic was detected in half of the samples coming from homes with private wells. Of these, 43% had 0.5 to 1.0 ppb, 34% 1.1 to 3.0 ppb, 5% 3.1 to 5.0 ppb, 11% 5.1 to 10.0 ppb, and 7% had arsenic levels far exceeding its maximum contamination level (MCL) of 10 ppb. The MCL for arsenic was recently lowered from 50 ppb to 10 ppb amidst great controversy. Many scientists believe that even 1.0 ppb arsenic is too high for people who are chronically exposed because of its implication in cardiovascular diseases, diabetes, and certain cancers, i.e,, the same diseases very prevalent in central Appalachia, especially eastern Kentucky. Thou- sands of homes in this region still use wells as their pri- mary water source, and the Federal 2006 compliance law for public systems does not extend to private well users. These and other factors, together with the results of this pilot study, build a good case for a regional effort to alert private well owners to this potential toxic contaminant, facilitate getting their water analyzed for arsenic on the most sensitive equipment available, and inform them as to what can be done to remove arsenic from their water, if present. PHYSICS AND ASTRONOMY Gravitational lensing of black holes with a cosmological constant. SSODDHARTH MUNSIF** and SHAMANTHI FERNANDO, Department of Physics and Geology, Northern Kentucky University, Highland Heights, KY 41099. According to Einstein’s theory of gravity, the gravita- tional field of massive objects such as stars, galaxies, and black holes bends light in the direction of the object. This phenomenon is called gravitational lensing. Gravitational lensing is one possible way to detect black holes. We are currently studying black holes with a cosmological con- stant. PHYSIOLOGY AND BIOCHEMISTRY The health of white-footed mice (Peromyscus leucopus) in close proximity to human activities. RICHARD BLAL- OCK**, CALEB MATHIS, MANINDER VIRK, STE- PHEN COMPTON, STEVE COE, and TERRY DERT- ING, Department of Biological Sciences, Murray State University, Murray, KY 42071. Habitat loss of small mammals is becoming an increas- ing problem due to the development of rural and agri- cultural areas. When habitats become fragmented, popu- lation densities of small mammal species within fragments increase. With increased densities, the competition for mates and food increases as well. Increases in competition along with environmental pollutants can lead to increased stress, resulting in harmful physiological effects. To deter- mine the physiological effects of habitat fragmentation on white-footed mice, traps were placed in 1-3 ha forested areas surrounded by either agriculture fields or housing. Control groups were trapped in areas with minimal dis- turbance. Subjects were immunochallenged by injections of phytohemmaglutinin (PHA) and sheep red blood cells. The immune system was then assessed using white blood cell counts, hemagglutination assays, and the reaction to PHA. Subjects in residential and agricultural areas had a stronger reaction to PHA, a lower hematocrit, and a lower antibody titre than the controls. Dissections of test sub- jects showed that mice from residential areas had a small- er stomach and caecum mass than mice from control and agricultural habitats. The reproductive system and corti- costerone level were not affected by habitat type. These results suggest that mice found in agricultural and resi- dential areas have a reduced humoral immune response and a lower hematocrit, but a stronger cell-mediated im- mune system, than controls. The dissection data suggest that mice in residential areas had a lower quality diet than controls. Collectively, our results indicated that habitat fragmentation was associated with specific, rather than general, impacts on the health of white-footed mice. The effects of anthropogenic disturbance on the health of white-footed mice (Peromyscus leucopus). CALEB MATHIS**, RICHARD BLALOCK, MANINDER VIRK, STEPHEN COMPTON, STEVE COE, and TER- RY DERTING, Department of Biological Sciences, Mur- ray State University, Murray, KY 42071. Habitat fragmentation of white-footed mice due to ur- banization is believed to have an effect on the health of the animals in these areas. We tested the null hypothesis that habitat fragmentation has no effect on immunocom- petence, stress levels, masses of gastrointestinal organs, or Abstracts, 2003 Annual KAS Meeting 63 masses of reproductive organs. Adult male specimens were trapped live from the field and brought immediately into the laboratory for blood samples. Subjects were then injected with sheep red blood cells (SRBC) the following morning. Phytohemalutinin (PHA) injections were given 7 d post SRBC injections. Final blood samples were taken the eighth day after the SRBC injections. Subjects were then dissected and organs weighed. Change in WBC count in response to SRBC injection was less in mice found in disturbed patches; however the cell mediated immune response to the PHA injection was significantly greater than those of undisturbed patches. Humeral im- mune response showed no significant differences. To eval- uate stress, blood levels of corticosterone were measured as well as the mass of the adrenal glands. Mass of adrenal glands was found to be greater in mice caught in undis- turbed areas. Mass of the gut was found to be significantly greater in mice found in undisturbed patches, primarily due to a larger stomach and caecum. No significant dif- ferences were found in the masses of reproductive organs. We concluded that both positive and negative impacts on animal health were associated with human disturbance. SCIENCE EDUCATION Enhancing science instruction in middle schools: A col- laboration between Eastern Kentucky University and Madison Middle School. MATTHEW THOMPSON*® and TOM OTIENO, Department cf Chemistry, Eastern Ken- tucky University, Richmond, KY 40475, and MARGARET M. SOTO, Madison Middle School, Richmond, KY 40475. Through a grant from the National Science Foundation, Eastern Kentucky University is collaborating with several Appalachian middle schools on a project whose goal is to improve inquiry-based instruction of science, technology, and mathematics in Appalachian middle schools. The pro- gram provides fellowships for graduate and advanced un- dergraduate students to work with science and mathe- matics middle school teachers. It is being implemented by 12 teams, each composed of a fellow, a science or math middle school teacher, and an Eastern Kentucky Univer- sity faculty mentor. This presentation discusses the activ- ities of one of the two science teams at Madison Middle School. Action research implemented to improve zoology lab- oratory activities in a freshman biology majors course. DIANNE RAUBENHEIMER, Department of Educa- tion, and JENNIFER LEIGH MYKA, Department of Bi- ology, Brescia University, Owensboro, KY 42301. Action research was used to explore student impres- sions of both learning and enjoyment associated with spe- cific laboratory exercises in two semesters of a zoology laboratory. Previous laboratories had primarily included observations of slides, preserved specimens, and group dissections of preserved animals. Four laboratory activities (annelids, molluscs, echinoderms, and arthropods) were altered to include higher levels of intellectual challenge. Animal behavior experiments, a dichotomous key activity, tables of structures and function, classification exercises, and a model building activity were added to the traditional laboratory observation and dissections. A survey was given at the end of the semester to assay student reactions to the new activities, with Kendall’s coefficient of concor- dance showing an overall similarity between each student's ranking of preferred learning activities and of activities rated for enjoyment for the 2 yr studied. The survey also compared both student learning and student enjoyment for each type of activity done in the laboratory throughout the semester. Student enjoyment and student learning were significantly correlated by Spearman’s rank order correlation. In addition, the results of the survey were compared with results of a lab practical exam for one se- mester to determine if student impressions of learning correlated with performance. Preliminary analysis showed that students performed better on redesigned activity questions. The results of this study will be used to further adjust zoology laboratory activities to maximize both stu- dent enjoyment and student learning. In addition, a closer look at dissections as a learning tool will be implemented in the following semester. Implementation of an integrated, plant-based labora- tory project involving botany, genetics, and biochemistry students. JENNIFER LEIGH MYKA, Department of Bi- ology, Brescia University, Owensboro, KY 42301. To provide opportunities for interaction between fresh- men and upperclassmen in the biology program and to give students a personal experience with the interdisci- plinary nature of scientific research in their laboratory courses, an integrated, plant-based laboratory project was implemented during the fall semester 2003 at Brescia University. The objectives of the project were (a) collec- tion of plant material from the field by botany students, (b) preparation and analysis of plant genomic DNA by genetics students, (c) preparation of an enzyme extract by biochemistry students, and (d) presentation of results of the genetic and biochemical analyses by upperclassmen to the freshmen enrolled in botany. Botany students collect- ed specimens of two different plant species from three different sites as a part of an ecology lab activity. A portion of the leaf material was then tummed over to the genetics students for genomic DNA extraction from each sample, followed by agarose gel electrophoresis analysis. The re- maining plant material was tumed over to the biochem- istry students for root peroxidase extract preparation. En- zyme assays were performed and the enzyme specific ac- tivity was determined for each plant species. Both the ge- netics and biochemistry students then prepared scientific posters and presented their results to their peers during a scheduled botany lecture. Future goals include an ex- pansion of the project to comprise a larger portion of the laboratory course curriculum. 1. A. Guidelines for Contributors to the Journal GENERAL Original research/review papers in science will be con- sidered for publication in JKAS; at least the first author must be a member of the Academy. Announcements, news, and notes will be included as received. . Acceptance of papers for publication in JKAS depends on merit as evaluated by each of two or more review- ers. . Papers (in triplicate) may be submitted at any time to the editor. John W. Thieret Department of Biological Sciences Northern Kentucky University Highland Heights, KY 41099 Phone: (859) 572-6390: Fax: (859) 635-3490 E-mail: thieretj@exchange.nku.edu List in the cover letter your telephone/FAX numbers, your E-mail address, and the names, addresses, and telephone numbers of two persons who are potential reviewers. . Format/style of papers must conform to these guide- lines and also to practices in recent issues of JKAS, which are, in effect, a style manual. . Papers should be submitted in hard copy. Do not sta- ple pages together. Indent the first line of each paragraph (but not the first line of entries in the Literature Cited). 2. FORMAT Papers should be in 12-point type on white paper 8.5 x 11 inches, with margins at least 1 inch all around. Double-space throughout the paper (i.e., one full line of space between each two lines of text, literature cit- ed, or tabular data). Do not justify right margins. . Except for scientific names of genera and of infrage- neric taxa, which should be typed in italics, the same type (roman) should be used throughout (i.e., one type size only; bold only for paper title). . Sequence of sections in papers should, where appro- priate, be as follows: title of paper, name/address of author(s), abstract, body of paper, footnotes, table cap- tions, figure captions (all the preceding on consecu- tively numbered pages), tables, and figures. . The running head (top right) should give name(s) of author(s), a short version of paper title, and page num- ber of total. . The first page should include the running head and, centered near the top of the sheet, the paper's title and the name and address of author(s), These should be followed immediately by the abstract. (The first page should look as much as possible like the first page of articles in JKAS.) . The abstract, not to exceed 200 words, should be con- cise, descriptive, and complete in itself without refer- ence to the paper. 64 G. The body of the paper should, where appropriate, in- clude the following sections: Introduction, Materials and Methods, Results, Discussion, Summary, Acknowl- edgments, and Literature Cited. . No more than three levels of headings should be used: level 1, in capitals, centered; level 2, in capitals/low- ercase, flush left; level 3, in italics, a paragraph indent, with initial capital only (except proper nouns and ad- jectives), and followed by a period, the text then start- ing after one blank space. Personal communications (avoid if possible) should be indicated in the text as follows: (name, affiliation, pers. comm., date), e.g., (O.T. Mark, Wainwright College, pers. comm., 5 Jun 1995). STYLE . In text, spell out one-digit numbers unless they are used with units of measure (four oranges, 4 cm) and use numerals for larger numbers; do not begin any sentence with a numeral. . Use no footnotes except those for title page and tables. Footnotes, identified by consecutive superscript num- bers, should be entered on a separate sheet. . Measurements should be in metric and Celsius units. Define lesser-known symbols and give the meaning of acronyms at first use. Express time of day in the 24- hour system. Dates should be written day, month (ab- breviated to three letters), year without internal punc- tuation. Units with multiple components should have individual components separated by a virgule (e.g., g/ m? or g/m*/yr). . Names of authors of binomials may be included but only at the first mention of the binomial. Cultivar names are not italicized but are enclosed in single quotes. . Useful guides for contributors to JKAS are the follow- ing: Scientific style and format: the CBE manual for authors, editors, and publishers, 6th ed., Cambridge University Press, 1994; The Chicago manual of style, 14th ed., University of Chicago Press, 1993; The ACS style guide, American Chemical Society, Washington, DC, 1986; and AIP style manual, American Institute of Physics, New York, 1990. IN-TEXT CITATION OF LITERATURE . Cite publications in the text by author(s) and date— e.g., (Readley 1994); multiple citations should be in alphabetical order and separated by semi-colons—e.g., (Ashley 1987; Brown 1994; Foster 1975); multiple ci- tations of works by one author(s) should be in chro- nological order—e.g., (Jones 1978, 1983); publications by one author(s) in the same year should be distin- guished by a, b, c, ete.—e.g., (Smith 1994a, 1994b). For in-text references to works with one or two authors use names of both authors—e.g., (Jones and Williams 1991): for works with three or more authors use name Guidelines for Contributors 65 of the first author followed by et al—e.g., (Lee et al. 1985). B. Do not include any reference unless it has been pub- lished or accepted for publication (“in press”; see be- low). 5. LITERATURE CITED A. List all authors of each entry. Do not abbreviate jour- nal titles; abbreviations for these will be supplied by the editor. B. The first line of each reference should be typed flush left; the remaining lines should be indented. C. Examples of common types of references are given below. JOURNAL ARTICLE Lacki, M.J. 1994. Metal concentrations in guano from a gray bat summer roost. Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science 55:124-126. BOOK Ware, M., and R.W. Tare. 1991. Plains life and love. Pi- oneer Press, Crete, WY. PART OF A BOOK Kohn, J.R. 1993. Pinaceae. Pages 32-50 in J.F. Nadel (ed). Flora of the Black Mountains. University of Northwestern South Dakota Press, Utopia, SD. WORK IN PRESS Groves, S.J., IV. Woodland, and G.H. Tobosa. n.d. De- serts of Trans-Pecos Texas. 2nd ed. Ocotillo Press, Yucca City, TX. 6. ILLUSTRATIONS FIGURES (LINE DRAWINGS, MAPS, GRAPHS, PHO- TOGRAPHS) Figures must be camera-ready, glossy, black-and-white prints of high quality or laser prints of presentation qual- ity. These should be designed to use available space ef- fectively: a full page or part of one, or a full column or part of one. They should be mounted on heavy white board and covered with a protective sheet of paper; pho- tographs to be grouped as a plate should have no space between them. Dimensions of plates must observe page proportions of the journal. Each illustration in a plate may be numbered as a separate figure or the entire plate may be treated as one figure. Include scale bars where appro- priate. Lettering should be large enough to be legible after reduction; use lowercase letters for sections of a figure. Figure captions should be self-explanatory without refer- ence to the text and should be entered on a page separate from the text. Number figures in Arabic numerals. Statis- tics presented in figures should be explained in the caption (e.g., means are presented + SE, n = 7). TABLES Each table and its caption must be double-spaced, num- bered in Arabic numerals, and set on a sheet separate from the text. The caption should begin with a title relat- ing the table to the paper of which it is a part; it should be informative of the table’s contents. Statistics presented in the table should be explained in the caption (e.g., means are presented + SE, n = 7). Table should be sub- mitted in hard copy only; they need not be included on a disk. 7. ETHICAL TREATMENT OF ANIMALS AS RE- SEARCH SUBJECTS If vertebrate or invertebrate animals are involved in a re- search project, the author(s) should follow those guide- lines for ethical treatment of animals appropriate for the subjects, e.g., for mammals or for amphibians and reptiles. Papers submitted to JKAS will be rejected if their content violates either the letter or the spirit of the guidelines. 8. PROOFS Authors are responsible for correcting proofs. Alterations on proofs are expensive; costs will be assessed to authors. Proofs must be returned to the editor within 3 days after the author receives them; delay in return may result in delay of publication. 9. REPRINTS Forms for ordering reprints will be sent to the author when the proofs are sent. They are to be returned directly to Allen Press, not to the editor. 10. PAGE CHARGES Pages charges are assessed to authors of papers published in Journal of the Kentucky Academy of Science. 11. ABSTRACTS FOR ANNUAL MEETINGS Instructions on style of abstract preparation for papers presented at annual meetings may be obtained from the editor. Copies will be available also at each annual meet- ing of the Academy. 5 ay 2 hy) teil ree q a rd Vili BE rr an higiir a ee eae ey te) ov is, L, wrilrt > Hadt i \ i j te AP * i it Tis as i coh hhh eee RT tr wis » (lean Si Uap (th ‘heal ie ended Sadia: bes ee ke | thee iy, ain ve fi Sly a yu hoah seth q J ¥ 1" ‘A ae es | Peet ¢ wi Raper aoe , é ' Vieie A AL a Pte. i ¥ , vpthinte” une is i ie oe Mi areibiednn geo , ae. mea ly) bern! ee Pe data LAW iv orl mh PL A j th : Hy ‘ F Me at jieenigt fy 34 4 e ae ir’ ‘i, Sve’ ieee yellgne aa — bia Fae Ty Tee Re, NEWS 2004 Meeting of the Kentucky Academy of Science The Kentucky Academy of Science will hold its 2004 meeting at Murray State University on Thursday, Friday, and Saturday, November 4 through 6. (See details on our web site, http://kas.wku.edu/kas/meetinginfo.asp.) The academy encourages faculty and professional presentations in all sections to augment the increasingly strong showing by student members of K.A.S. in recent years. A new section in ecology and environmental science will be chaired this year by Albert Meier of Western Kentucky University. Our intent in creating this section is to provide expanded opportunities for professional interactions in these disciplines, particularly for population, community/systems ecologists, and environmental scien- tists who have not presented in the botany or zoology sections in the past. We have renewed the computer and information sciences section, to be chaired by Charles Frank of Northern Kentucky University. This section is open to the emerging informatics fields as well as to the more established areas of computer science. Engineering is also experiencing a revitalization this year under the direction of Dr. Ted Thiede, Murray State and University of Kentucky. The zoology section plans a sectional symposium with invited speakers in addition to contributed papers. Details will be available in future newsletters and on the web site this summer. Kentucky Heritage Land Conservation Fund The mission of the Kentucky Heritage Land Conservation Fund (KHLCF) is to award funding to purchase and preserve selected natural areas in the Commonwealth; to protect rare and endangered species and migratory birds; to save threatened areas of natural importance; and to provide natural areas for public use, outdoor recreation, and education. Established by the 1994 Kentucky Legislature, KHLCF is administered by a 12-member board appointed by the governor. The board can award grants to acquire and protect areas of natural significance to local governments, state colleges/univer- sities, and specified state agencies. Special consideration will be given to the funding of agencies working together to meet the listed goals. All acquisition applications, along with comprehensive management plans, must be submitted to and approved by the board. The year 2003 was another eventful year for the KHLCF board. During 2003 it received and reviewed a large number of applications and approved 14 projects in 13 counties. In 2003 local government projects were approved in Calloway, Clark, Green, Harrison, Livingston, Logan, and Oldham counties; state agency projects were approved in Franklin, Garrard, Hardin, Harlan, Larue, and Letcher counties. The board also approved the Pine Mountain Trail State Park and provided initial acquisition funds. The trail will traverse Bell, Harlan, Letcher, and Pike counties. Since the first awards were made in October 1995 the board has approved 116 projects in 56 Kentucky counties. Almost 20,000 acres have been purchased. The fund is supported by the state portion of the unmined minerals tax, environmental fines, the $10 additional fee to purchase a Kentucky nature license plate, and interest on the fund’s assets. For more information, contact the Department of Natural Resources, Commissioner’s Office, 663 Teton Trail, Frankfort, KY 40601. The phone number is (502) 564-2184; the e-mail address is www.heritageland.ky.gov. wv 3 9088 01325 6896 CONTENTS ARTICLES The Introduction of European and Italian Wall Lizards (Podarcis muralis and P. sicula; Reptilia, Lacertidae) into the United States. John W. Ferner 1 Search for the Parity-violating Energy Difference between a d- and I-iron Complex. A. S. Lahamer, S. B. McClure, S. M. Mahurin, and R. N. COMpt nn ise Fi iicecceseecsge Sensei onthe dantbe bObe Dees ead eee eee ata costae tae ate 5 The 1974-1975 Archaeological Excavations at Owl Cave (15Ed43), Mammoth Cave National Park, Kentucky. Kenneth C. Carstens.............. 12 Nesting Success of Forest Songbirds in Mixed Mesophytic Forests in Eastern Kentucky. Michael J. Lacki, Henry F. Yacek Jr., and Michael D. Baker s0ks ocicio incised decades Muasuavaadde deve cb spanentccsnshensunesddaneendaanaeaaeet ead eaaeenaaede 21 Effect of the Invasive Shrub Lonicera maackii (Caprifoliaceae; Amur Honeysuckle) on Autumn Herpetofauna Biodiversity. Nicholas L. McEvoy and ‘Richard: D: Durtsche > <:.5.02sccci0.020ds0scstesasescsstsectenesccessescausaconesseenves 27 Distribution and Habitat Use of the Allegheny Woodrat (Neotoma magis- ter) in a Mixed-mesophytic Forest in Southeastern Kentucky. James J. Krupa, Jeffrey W. Workman, Christopher M. Lloyd, Lonnie R. Bertram. Audrey D. Horrall, D. Kyle Dick, Kevin S. Brewer, Angela M. Valentine, Charles P. Shaw, Chad M. Clemons, Callie A. Prater, Joe E. Clemons Jr., Natalie J. Campbell, S. Brook Armold, Natalie J. Jones, and Amy MS Charest ivciasoenlesteas ohvodecnostaseeaee suas eot eet ees kas aheg ae acad seer Oe ne ce SEES REECE 33 Comments on Flora of North America. Michael A. Vincent ................+- 39 NOTE Lobed Leaves in Salix exigua, Sandbar Willow (Salicaceae), in Kentucky. George F. Buddell II and John W. Thieret ................2.+-e0eeeeceeceeeneeeeeneens 51 Obituary: Professor Willem Meijer (1923-2003). Carol and Jerry Baskin.... 52 Book ‘Review 322253 ee ea ooo se wn oenetbacelacteapaat asus gan dna hoeee ta deeee ene 54 Kentucky Academy of Science: Awards 2003.................c2ccececeececeecececeececeees 55 Abstracts of Some Papers Presented at the 2003 Annual Meeting of the Kentucky Academy of Science..................csceesececeececccceteccececcecececsecececeecseeees 59 Guidelines for Contributors to the Journal...............2....ceeeseceeceeceececteceeeereees 64