■.■^'■■ii>.*^-

^0ttrnal

OF THE

MARINE BIOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION

OF

THE UNITED KINGDOM.

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VOLUME V. (N.S.).

1897-99.

^PLYMOUTH:
PUBLISHED BY THE ASSOCIATION.

Agents in London: — Messrs. Dulau & Co., 37, Soho Square, W.

The, Council of the Marine Biological Association wish it to he
understood that they do not accept responsibility for the accuracy of
statements published in this Journal, excepting when those statements
are contained in an official reVort of the Council.

CONTENTS OF VOLUME V.

(NEW SERIES.)

PAIJE

Title . . . . . . . . i

Contents . . . . . . . . iii

List of Governors, Founders, and Members-
October, 1898 . . . . ... 357

Report of Council—

1896-97 . . . . . ... 100

1897-98 . . . . . ... 348

Balance Sheet, 1896-97 . . . ... 106

ditto 1897-98 . . . ... 353

Director's Report—

Aiigust, 1897 .• . . . ... 92

March, 1898 . . . . ... 232

October, 1898 . . . . ... 354

Inspection of the Laboratory . . ... 98

Allen, E. J.

Report on the Present State of Knowledge with Regard to the Habits

and Migrations of the Mackerel (Scomber scomber) . . . 1

On the Fauna and Bottom-deposits near the 30-fathoin line from the

Eddystone to Start Point, with Seven Tables and Sixteen Charts . 365

Browne, E. T.

On Tabularix. crocea in Plymouth Sound . . . . 54

On the Pelagic Fauna of Plymouth — September, 1897 • . .186

On keejjing Medusae Alive in an Aquarium . . . . 176

Byrne, L. W., and E. W. L. Holt.

Notes on the Reproduction of Teleostean Fishes in the South-Western

District . . . . ... 333

DUNCKER, GeORG.

Preliminary Report of the Results of Statistical and Ichthyological

Investigations made at the Plymouth Lal)oralory . . .172

Dunn, Matthias.

On the Occurrence of Large Numljers of Larval Hurring.s at the Surface 184

IV CONTENTS OF VOLUME V.

Dunn, Matthias, and E. W. L. Holt. * pace

Gadus Esmarkii, Xilsson, the Norway Pout, an Addition to the Fish

Fauna of the English South-Western District . . . 79

Garstang, W.

Hjort's Hydrographic Biological Studies of the Norwegian Seas. A

Review . . . . ... 56

Report on the Surface Drift of the English Channel and Neighbouring

Seas for 1897 . . . . ... 199

The Variations, Races, and Migrations of the Mackerel . . . 235

GiBBS, Hon. Henry.

Notes on Pontobdella muricata . . . ... 330

Harmer, S. F.

Notes on New or Rare British Marine Polyzoa . . . . 51

Holt, E. W. L.

Preliminary Notes on the Rejsroduction of Teleostean Fishes in the

South-Western District . . . . . . 41

Remarks on Dr. Petersen's Report of the Danish Biological Station for

1895 . . . . . ... 82

Notes on the Reproduction of Teleostean Fishes in the South-Western

District . . . . ... 107

Report on Trawling in Bays on the South Coast of Devon . . . 296

The Great Silver Smelt, Argentina silus, Nilsson, an Addition to the List

of British Fishes . . . . . . 341

On the Bottle-nosed Ray {liaia alba) and its Egg-purse . . .181

Holt, E. W. L., and L. W. Byrne.

Notes on the Reproduction of Teleostean Fishes in the South-Western

District . . . . ... 333

Holt, E. W. L., and Matthias Dunn.

Gadus Esmarkii, Nilsson, the Norway Pout, an Addition to the Fish

Fauna of the English South-Western District . . . 79

Holt, E. W. L., and S. D. Scott.

A Record of the Teleostean Eggs and Larvae observed at Plymouth in 1897 156

Meek, Alexander.

An Account of the Scientific Work of the Northumberland Sea Fisheries

Committee . . . . ... 72

Notes and Memoranda . . . . .89, 193, and 343

C<J I 0

New Series.— Vol. V., No 1— issued August, 1897.]

[Price 3s. 6d.

OCT 1 1897

3fournal

OF THE

MARINE BIOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION

OF

THE UNITED KINGDOM.

, . ^5i?fflr«R''?-'

-^- i--^^;^-^'H3."':x*;?/:^^^^--^^-■A^^i,"•-

THE PLYMOUTH LABOEATOET.

A

PLYMOUTH:

PRlN'TED FOR THE MARINE niOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION BY W. BRENDON & SON,

AND

PUBLISHED BY THE ASSOCIATION AT ITS OFFICES ON THE CITADEL HILL.

SENT FREE BY POST TO ALL MEMBERS OF THE MARINE BIOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION :
ANNUAL SUBSCRIPTION FOR MEMBERSHIP, ONE GUINEA.

Agents in London :— Messrs. Dulau & Co., 37, Soho Square, W.

PATRON.

H.R.H. THE PRINCE OF WALES, K.G., F.R.S

OFFICERS AND COUNCIL.

President.
Prof. E. Pay Lankester, LL.D., F.R.S.

Vice-Presidents.

The Duke of Argyll, K.G., K.T., F.R.S.

The Duke of Abercorn, K.G., C.B.

The Earl of St. Germans.

The Earl of Morley.

The Earl of Ducie, F.R.S.

The Right Hon. Lord Tweedmouth.

Lord Walsingham, F.R.S.

The Right Hon. A. J. Balfour, M.P.,
F.R.S.

The Right Hon. Joseph Chamber-
lain, M.P.

The Right Hon. Sir .John Lubbock,

Bart., M.P., F.R.S.
Prof. G. J. Allman, F.R.S.
Sir Edward Birkbeck, Bart., M.P.
Sir Wm. Flower, K.C.B., F.R.S.
A. C. L. GiJNTHER, Esq., F.R.S.
Prof. Alfred Newton, F.R.S.
Rev. Canon Norman, D.C.L., F.R.S.
Sir Henry Thompson.

Rear- Admiral Sir W. J. L. Wharton,
K.C.B., F.R.S.

COUNCIL.

Elected Members.

F. E. Beddard, Esq., F.R.S.
Prof. F. Jeffrey Bell, F.Z.S.

G. C. Bourne, Esq., F.L.S.

Sir John Evans, K.C.B. (Treas. R.S.)

G. Herbert Fowler, Esq.

S. F. Harmer, Esq.

Prof. W. A. Herdman, F.R.S.

Prof. S. J. HiCKSON, F.R.S.

J. J. Lister, Esq.

John Murray, Esq., F.R.S.

P. L. Sclater, Esq., F.R.S. (Sec. Zool.
Soc.)

D. H. Scott, Esq., F.R.S.

Prof. C!harles Stewart, F.R.S.

Prof. W. F. R. Weldon, F.R.S.

Robert Bayly, Esq.
J. P. Thomasson, Esq.

The Prime Warden of the Fish-
mongers' Company.

E. L. Beckwith, Es(|. (Fishmongers'
Company).

Governors.

Prof. BuRDON Sanderson, F.R.S.
(O.xford L^niversity).

Prof. Michael Foster, F.R.S. (Cam-
bridge University).

Sir William Flower, K.C.B., F.R.S.
(British Association).

Hon. Treasurer.
J. A. Travers, Es(|., Dorney House, Wey bridge.

Hon. Secretary.
E. J. Allen, Esq., The Laboratory, Citadel Hill, Plymouth.

PERMANENT STAFF.
Director — E. J. Allen, Esq., B.Sc,

Naturalists.
W. Garstang, Esq., M.A. | E. \\\ L. Holt, Esc^^.

OCT 1 )<^eji

Report on the Present State of Knowledge with

regard to the Habits and Migrations of the

Mackerel (Scomber scomber).

By

E. J. Allen, B.Sc,

Director of the Plymouth Laboratory.

Prepared by order of the Council of the Marine Biological Association for the use of

H.M. Inspectors of Irish Fisheries.

The mackerel {Scomher scomber) is a pelagic* and migratory fish, which
during the warmer months of the year frequents the coastal waters
in the northern temperate region of the Atlantic. The whole form
of the fish is evidently well fitted for swift motion and the free-
swimming mode of life. The spindle-shaped outline of the body,
its perfect curves and rounded surfaces, the absence of all irregular
projections which would tend to retard forward movement, the great
muscular development of the tail, and the deep forking of the caudal
fin, combine to produce an almost ideal adaptation for propulsion at
high speed through the water, t

The mackerel may be called also a pelagic-feeding fish, in con-
tradistinction to fishes such as many of the family of the Gadidae,
which are " ground " feeders ; that is to say, the mackerel feeds entirely
upon free-swimming organisms, whilst the ground-feeders hunt at the
bottom and amongst rocks, capturing prey which is not pelagic. The
difference is an important one in considering the habits of the fish.

During, at any rate, a great portion of the year mackerel swim in
shoals or schools. These shoals often contain an immense number
of fish, and the fish belonging to any particular shoal are usually
of about the same size. Schools of small fish and schools of large
may be found in the same neighbourhood at the same time, but they
appear to remain separate. Little is known as to the manner in which
fish keep together in shoals. From observations made in the Aquarium
at the Plymouth Laboratory, Bateson j concludes that grey mullet keep
together by sight. In this case also the shoals appear to arrange them-

* The term lieluglc is used in the sense in which it was originally employed by Johannes
Mliller, and subsequently by Haeckel. The mackerel is not a pelagic fish in the restricted
sense adopted by Giinther, who employs this term to include only such free-swimming
fishes as inhabit the open ocean at a great distance from land.

t Cf. Bashfort) Dean, Fishes, Living and Fossil, pp. 2-6.

X Journ. Mar. Biol. Assoc, N.S., vol. i. pp. 249-250.

NEW SERIES. — VOL. V. NO. 1. A

2 REPORT ON THE PRESENT STATE OF KNOWLEDGE

selves according to the sizes of the fish. The shoal does not seem to
have any definite leader, the fish following any individual which makes
a dart in a particular direction. Bateson found that at night the fish
lay on the surface of the water, with their heads pointing in different
directions, and that they did not move about in shoals. Similar obser-
vations on the mackerel have never been made. Fulton suggests that
the iridescent colouring on the sides of many fishes may assist them in
keeping together in shoals.*

Distribution. — The mackerel {Scomler scomber) occurs on the Atlantic
coast of Europe, from Bergen in Norway, southward to the Straits of
Gibraltar.! It is found also in the Mediterranean, being taken in large
numbers along the Spanish coast, the south coast of France, the coasts
of Corsica, and in the Adriatic. Mackerel are also mentioned as being
captured on the coasts of Tunis and of Morocco, but no definite
statement has been found as to whether the species is Scomber scomber
or Scomber colias.

In America Scomber scomber is found off the Atlantic coast, from
Cape Hatteras in the south, as far north as the coast of Labrador.
From Cape Hatteras northwards to the shores of Long Island it
is, however, only met with at some distance from land ; hence in
America it actually approaches the coast from Long Island to the
coast of Labrador. In many seasons mackerel are only found as
far north as Newfoundland, and there is little fishing of importance
even so far north as this.

An allied species. Scomber colias, the Coly or Spanish mackerel of
Europe, chub or thimble-eyed mackerel of America, has a more
southern distribution, extending on the European coasts as far north
as the south coast of Ireland, where, however, it is not taken in
numbers, and southwards to Madeira. It is also plentiful at the
Cape of Good Hope, where numbers were captured in 1889 and
1890 by American mackerel vessels, which had proceeded there for
the purpose.^ In American waters the species is found from the
Gulf of Mexico to the coast of Maine, and also on the Pacific coast
of the United States.

There is also a fish known in America as the "Spanish Mackerel"
{Scomheromorus maculatus), which extends on the east coast from Cape
Ann to Brazil. It is common in the Gulf of Mexico, but rare or
unknown about Cuba. §

* Fishery Board for Scotland. lOtli Report, 1891, p. 342.

t Occasional specimens may be taken further north and south than the limits here
indicated, but they are not present in sufficient numbers to give rise to a fishery.
t Report U.S. Fish. Com., 1889-91, p. 203.
§ Jordan and Everman. " Check-list of Fishes." Eeport U.S. Fish. Com., 1895.

OF THE HABITS AND MIGRATIONS OF THE MACKEREL. 3

Breeding. — The spawning of the mackerel was first investigated
by Sars,*' in 1865, on the coast of Norway. This naturalist found
that the fisli spawned near the coast, sometimes nearer than at others,
and that the eggs floated at the surface of the sea like those of the
cod, from which they could be distinguished by the presence of an
oil globule. The same facts were ascertained in 1871 by Mr. Matthias
Dunn, who obtained the spawning fish on the south coast of Cornwall,
about six miles from land, on the night of May lOth.f

The subject has since been investigated by other naturalists, more
especially by Cunningham, t at Plymouth, who has figured and described
the eggs and various stages of the larval fish.

The breeding season varies in different localities, occurring con-
siderably later in the year in the north than in the south.

In the Mediterranean (Gulf of Marseilles) Marion § found mackerel
with ripe reproductive organs chiefly in March and April, and considers
these two months to be the principal spawning period. No ripe fish
were ever found after May 19th. From the size of larv?e taken in May,
the same author comes to the conclusion that some fish must spawn as
early as January.

At Plymouth the spawning fish are found from 14 to 50 miles from
the coast. Spawning takes place from the end of May to the latter
part of July, and, according to Cunningham, appears to be distinctly
limited within those times. ||

On the south-west coast of Ireland, Green If states that spawning
takes place in May and June. Holt** obtained ripe eggs off this
coast in the tow-net on April 30th and May 4th. Mackerel examined
on April 1st were half and three-parts ripe. On May 12th, out of
50 fish all the males were ripe. The females were mostly half and
three-quarters ripe, but a few were ripe. Ripe fish were also seen
as late as June 20th, the specimen examined at the latter date
being called by Holt " a small autumn mackerel." The same author
states that it appears that successive shoals approach the coast at
different points and spawn in the neighbourhood, the larger fish being
the first to arrive.

* Report for 1875. English translation. Report of U.S. Fish. Com., 1877.

t Land and Water, May 20, 1871, p. 353.

X Journ. Alar. Biol. Assoc., N.S., vol. i. p. 25.

§ Ann. Mus. Nat. Hist. Marseille Zool. A2:)pliqu6e, i., 1889.

II Natural History of Marketable Marine Fishes, London : Macmillan & Co., Ltd.,
1896.

H "Notes on the Irish Mackerel Fisheries." Bull. U.S. Fish. Com., 1893.

** (1) "Survey of Fishing Grounds on the West Coast." Royal Dublin Society. Report
of Council for 1801.

(2) Scientific Transactions Roy. Dublin Soc, 1893. Fishes.

A 2

4 EEPORT ON THE PRESENT STATE OF KNOWLEDGE

Sars concludes that on the coast of Norway the spawning is confined
to the first fortnight in July.

From the information derived from mackerel fishermen in America,
and published in the Reports of the United States Fish Commission*
it is evident that the breeding season of the fish there also varies
on different parts of the coast, becoming later the further north one
gets. Although no definite statement by the naturalists of the
Commission as to the exact limits of the spawning period in different
localities has been published, it would appear that on the New England
coast spawning takes place principally in May and June, whilst in the
Gulf of St. Lawrence it is later, occurring during the latter half of
June and in July. On the other hand, in the south (south-east
of Cape Henry, and off the Virginia coast) spent fish were taken
in April, t

The following table shows the chief spawning period of the
mackerel in different localities, according to the information at

present available : —

Europe.
Locality. Spawning Period.

Mediterranean (Gulf of Marseilles) . March and April. (Possibly also

January and February.)

South-west of Ireland.

. May and June.

South-west of England

(off Plymouth)

. End of May to end of July.

Norway.

. First half of July.

America.

Locality.

Spawning Period,

Virginia Coast

. April.

New England Coast

(Massachusetts Bay)

. May and June.

Gulf of St. Lawrence.

. End of June and in July.

Rate of Growth. — Considerable uncertainty exists as to the rate
of growth of the mackerel, and the views of the authors who have
paid attention to the subject differ widely. The largest amount of
information bearing on the question has been collected by Marion
and Gourret on the Mediterranean coast of France.]; Young mackerel,
from 2 to 10 cm. (f to 4 inches), are caught in numbers at Marseilles and
Nice, more especially at the latter place, in April and May, and Marion
and Gourret both regard these fish as the young of the year. This,
however, compels them to assume that the spawning season begins

* See especially Report U.S. Fish. Com., 1881.

t Report U.S. Fish. Com., 1895.

t Ann. Mus. Nat. Hist. Marseille Zool. AppliqvAe, 1889-91.

OF THE HABITS AND MIGRATIONS OF THE MACKEREL. 5

as early as January, As already stated, however, spawning fish were
never obtained by them until Marcli and April. The small fish,
2-10 cm. (f to 4 inches) long in April and May, are considered to
have reached 10-13 cm. {4 to 5 inches) by August, and 15 to 18 cm.
(6 to 7 inches) by the end of the year. In the following February
fish from 20 to 24 cm. (8 to 9h inches) are taken, the age of which
Marion considers to be twelve months ; and since these fish have their
reproductive organs well developed, he is compelled to ask, not without
some hesitation. Does the mackerel spawn when only one year old ?

The question of the rate of growth of mackerel in the English
Channel is discussed by Cunningham,* and he also gives detailed
measurements of a large number of these fish caught in fine-meshed
nets in November, which varied in length from 15 to 20 cm. (G to
8 inches). The length of the larva at the time of hatching he states
to be 4"23 mm.f He also describes some young mackerel obtained by
Holt I in the North Sea. Twelve specimens taken on July 9th measured
from 6 to 9 mm. (-24 to '36 inch) ; three taken on the 27th and 28th
July were from 13-5 to 19'25 mm. ('54 to '77 inch). The largest of the
specimens already showed the adult characters, and Cunningham regards
them as being from one to two months old.

Day§ states, on the authority of Matthias Dunn, that at Mevagissey
young mackerel are plentiful in the bays in August and September,
when they are about 3 inches (7 to 8 cm.) long, reaching 6-7 inches
(16 to 18 cm.) in November. They then leave for the deep sea, and
return again in the following June, when they are 8 or 9 inches (21 to
23 cm.) long.

The best account of the growth of the mackerel in America is given
on the authority of Capt. Atwood,|| it being stated that the specimens
were seen by Prof. Agassiz. According to this account the mackerel
spawn in Massachusetts Bay in May and the first half of June. On
July 10th schools of mackerel 2 inches (5 cm.) long were present in the
bay, which had grown to about twice the weight (say 7-8 cm. long) on
August 4th. During the latter part of October young fish from 6h to
7 inches (say 16 to 18 cm.) were taken.

In the following table these various statements are placed side by
side, all the evidence at present available being included : —

* Journ. Mar. Biol. Assoc, N.S., vol. ii. pp. 230 to 233.

t Journ. Mar. Biol. Assoc, N.S., vol. ii. p. 71.

J Holt himself also mentions these fish. Jouni. Mar. Biol. Assoc, vol. ii. p. 396.

§ British Fishes, vol. i. p. 89.

II Eeport U.S. Fish. Com., 1881, p. 114.

REPORT ON THE PRESENT STATE OF KNOWLEDGE

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REPORT ON THE PRESENT STATE OF KNOWLEDGE

The rate of growth required to meet the views of the different
observers is approximately represented in the following table : —

Age.

Mediter-
ranean.

Cornwall.

British

Coasts.

America.

Cod.

Herring.

Marion and
Gourret.

Dunn.

Cuniiingliain.

Atwood.

Dannevig.

Meyer.

1

month ...

_

_

1-35 to

1"5 cm.

17 cm.

2

months ...

4-5 cm.

—

1-925 cm.

5 cm.

5 '5 cm.

3-4 cm.

3

6 cm.

7-8 cm.

—

7-8 cm.

7-0 cm.

4 '5-5 cm.

4

10-11 cm.

—

—

—

8 '5 cm.

5"5-6 cm.

5

12-13 cm.

—

—

—

11-5 to 157

6 -5-7 -2 cm.

6

7
8
9

>) ...

14-15 cm.

16-18 cm.

—

16-18 cm.

• —

—

17-18 cm.

—

—

—

—

—

lU
11

■

—

—

12

18

23-24 cm.

21-23 cm.

22-23 cm.

—

—

—

14
15
16

—

—

—

—

—

—

_

14-20 cm.

_

_

_

22

—

—

—

—

35-40 cm.

—

Two columns are added showing the rate of growth of the cod, as
determined by Dannevig from specimens reared in a large pond, and of
the herring, as determined by Meyer for the river Schlei, the observa-
tions in the latter case being confirmed by the rate of growth of larvae,
which Meyer succeeded in rearing in confinement.*

It will be seen that the rate of growth suggested by Cunningham is
much slower than that regarded as probable by the other observers. He
considers the fish from 16 to 2L cm., which are taken in November, as
being derived from the spawning of the previous year, being therefore
16 months old. At the same time he regards the mackerel, 22 to 23 cm.
long in June, as only one year old, and explains the difference as due to
the great individual variation in growth rate.

There are no doubt great difficulties in the way of accepting the very
rapid growth suggested by the French and American observers, and by
Mr. Dunn. If their view is correct, the rate of growth of the mackerel
will be much more rapid than that of the herring, approaching more
nearly that of the cod reared by Dannevig, The question is, however,
one which can only be settled by further research.

Size and Maturity. — With regard to the size at which the mackerel
begins to breed, practically nothing is known. Marion states! that
the fish which are 20-24 cm. (9 inches) long in February, and r>hich
he regards as one year old, have the reproductive organs well advanced.

* Soe Cunningham. Journ. Mar. Biol. Assoc., N.S., vol. ii. pp. 223 and 236.
t Ann. Mus. Nat. Hist. Marseille Zool. AppUquic, i., 1889, p. 87.

OF TUE HABITS AND MIGRATIONS OF THE MACKEREL. 9

At Plymouth iu June Cunningham*' found no signs of maturity in
fish 22'2 to 23"5 cm. (8"7-9'2 inches) long, nor in one female of 27'4 cm.
(10'7 inches). The smallest ripe female, which he records, is 29*5 cm.
(11*5 inches), and the smallest ripe male 30-3 cm. (11'8 inches). His
observations are, however, far too few in number to enable any general
conclusions to be drawn.

Food. — It has already been stated that the mackerel is a pelagic-
feeding fish ; that is to say, it feeds upon free-swimming organisms,
and not upon those which live on the bottom of the sea. The food
of this fish may be regarded as of two different kinds, and it adopts
two different methods for procuring it. In the first place it feeds
upon the smaller forms of the plankton, copepods and otlier crustaceans,
larvse of crustaceans, molluscs, echinoderms and worms, diatoms, and
even siphonophores and medusa^ obtaining its food like the herring,
by straining the sea- water through its gill-rakers, as it swims
open-mouthed through the sea. This method of feeding would appear
to furnish the fish with its principal food supply during the spring and
early summer, when it first approaches the coast. During the latter
part of summer, however, and in the autumn, small fish of other
species become abundant, and the mackerel then makes these its
chief article of diet. Young herring, sprats, pilchards, and rockling
are all devoured. These young fish are hunted by sight, the mackerel
darting at them and capturing them individually. The fine condition
of the autumn fish is due to the abundance of food which they obtain
in this way.

In its early stages the mackerel lives upon the small organisms of the
plankton, including larval fish. Marion found in the stomachs of small
mackerel at Nice, taken in May, copepods, zoeas of brachyura, and
sardine larvse.

Migrations. — The migrations of the mackerel have long been a
subject of speculation, but it cannot yet be said that much definite
knowledge, either as to their extent, or the causes which bring them
about, has been acquired. The recorded facts, sufficiently trust-
worthy and precise to be of practical use in the consideration
of the subject, are not numerous. The importance of the collection
of statistics showing the quantities of fish landed at various ports
during the different months of the year has not long been recognised,
and without independent knowledge as to the localities where the fish
have been caught those statistics which are published are very liable to
lead to false conclusions.

* Journ. Mar, Biol. Assoc, N.S., ii. [i. 232.

10 REPORT ON THE PRESENT STATE OF KNOWLEDGE

A comparative study of the Board of Trade statistics for England
and Wales has, however, proved of service, whilst the tables compiled
by the Irish Inspectors are of value, principally in showing the
fluctuations of the fishery in that country from year to year. By
far the most satisfactory statistics are those which are now being
published by the French authorities, but in their present complete
form these only date from the end of the year 1895. For the two
years previous to this valuable notes, giving statistics for some of
the more important ports, appeared from month to month in the
Bulletin des PSches Maritimcs, and these have been of considerable
use. Sars* gives much reliable information about the Norwegian
mackerel fisheries, and Marion and Gourrett about those of the
Mediterranean coast of France. A considerable amount of information
as to the mackerel fishery on the American coast is contained in the
Reports and Bulletins of the United States Fish Commission, and
these have here been freely made use of.

From the above sources a number of tables have been constructed,
which give an insight into the distribution of the mackerel fisheries at
different times of the year. In considering the information in these
tables it must be constantly borne in mind that the figures represent
the quantities of fish landed in particular districts or at particular ports.
In the absence of definite information as to where the fish were caught,
and also of the number and fishing power of the boats employed in the
fishery, great care must be exercised in drawing conclusions from them
as to the relative abundance of fish in different localities. They are
of more use in living an idea of the abundance of fish in the same
locality at different times of the year.

Table I,, which is to a large extent an arbitrary compilation, based,
however, where possible on the statistical tables which follow, shows at
what times of the year mackerel are present at the places mentioned,
and during which months they are taken in the largest quantities at
each place. Numbers from 0 to 5 are used to indicate the relative
abundance; but the series is independent for each place, the figure 5
representing the maximum for the year at the place referred to. Thus
the figure 5 stands opposite the month of May for both the south-west
of Ireland and the south of England. This means that in both these
districts mackerel fishing is most productive during that month. It
does not imply that the fish are as abundant in the one district as in
the other.

Where possible Table I. is constructed from the actual figures for
three years. Where this cannot be done the results are derived

* Report for 1875, EDglish Translation in lieport U.S. Fish. Com., 1877, pp. 667-680.
t Ann. Mus. Nat. Hist. Marseille Zool. Appliqu^e.

OF THE HABITS AND MIGRATIONS OF THE MACKEREL.

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from such general information as it lias been possible to find, and the
table does not pretend to anything more than rough approximation to
accuracy.

Table II., compiled from the English and French official statistics,
gives the average amount for three years of mackerel landed during
each year on the east, south, and west coasts of England and "Wales,
and at Gravelines and St. Varley-sur-Somme on the north, Douarnenez
on the west, and Cette on the south coasts of France. The full
statistics for the French coasts are only published for 1896, but the
ports selected may be regarded as representative. Cette and
Douarnenez have the largest mackerel fisheries on their respective
coasts. The fishery at St. Varley-sur-Somme, on the other hand, is
less important than that at either Boulogne or Fecamp; but the
statistics for this port are selected in preference, because the majority
of the mackerel lauded at the two other ports in the spring are
the products of the fishery carried on off the south-west coast of
Ireland. The figures for St. Varley-sur-Somme are therefore more
representative of the fishing on the north coast of France. Gravelines,
where mackerel are only landed in quantity during two months of the
year, represents the important autumn fishery in the North Sea.

Table III. gives the actual quantities of mackerel landed on the
three coasts of England and Wales for the three years 1893, 1894,
and 1895, and shows the fluctuations of the fisheries from year to
year.

Table IV. contains similar information for some representative
French ports for 1894, 1895, and 1896. -

Table V. gives the quantities landed at the more important French
ports during 1896.

With the information contained in these tables it is possible to form
a fairly correct idea of the distribution of the mackerel on the coasts of
both Europe and America during the different montlis of the year. As
the conditions change somewhat slowly, it will be most convenient for
our purpose to consider them during periods of two consecutive months.

January and February: Buropc. — Very few mackerel are taken in
any locality during these months. Those which are captured are chiefly
found in the western part of the English Channel, off" the south-west
coast of Ireland,* off the west coast of France (Douarnenez), and in
small numbers in the Gulf of Alarseille. Those caught in the English
Channel are found 30 to 40 miles from the coast, some being taken at
this distance south of Start Point, others south of Plymouth.t There is

* Inspector's Report, 1895. (Table, Spring Mackerel Fishery.)
t Joum, Mar. Biol. Assoc., vol. ii. p. 7.

OF THE HABITS AND MIGRATIONS OF THE MACKEREL.

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OF THE HABITS AND MIGRATIONS OF THE MACKEREL. 17

also mackerel fishing at this time of the year off the Lizard. The fish
taken are smaller than those captured later in the year, and are not
mature.

On the west coast of France (Douarnenez) the mackerel may appear
in February and remain from that time onwards {e.g., 1894, 150,000 kilos
were taken during this month). In other years {e.g., 1895, which was
extremely cold during the early months) they were not seen at
Douarnenez until the end of April.

Marion* states that at Marseille the ovaries of fish taken in January
were well developed. The eggs were 1 mm. in diameter, but were not
extruded on pressure. He also mentions small fish 20 to 24 cm. (8 to
9i inches) long in February, which he regards as one year old. The
reproductive organs of these are stated to have been well developed.
Gourretf records mackerel in January in the same locality, which were
20 to 30 cm. (8-12 inches) long.

No record has been seen of mackerel being taken during either
January or February in other parts of Europe than those men-
tioned.

America. — There is little evidence of mackerel being near the
American coasts at this time of the year. Brown Goode]: mentions
that instances are on record of mackerel having been captured in the
Gulf of St. Lawrence in mid-winter, but these appear to be simply stray
specimens. Captain J. W. Collins § reports that in the latter part of
February, 1882, many mackerel were taken from the stomachs of cod,
which had been captured 10 to 12 miles off Egg Harbour, N.J., in 12 to
15 fathoms. The mackerel appeared to have been only recently
swallowed. This observation is important, since it shows that mackerel
may be at no great distance from the coast without their presence being
easily detected.

March and April : Europe. — During the early part of March, and
often during the greater portion of the month, the conditions remain
much as they were during February. The mackerel in the English
Channel are still 20 to 40 miles from the coast, and they remain at
about this distance during the whole of these two months, increasing,
however, in abundance.

Towards the end of March, or early in April, large schools of full-
grown fish approach the south-west coasts of Ireland and the west
coast of France, and the great spring mackerel fishery commences.

* Ann. Mus. Nat. Hisl. Marseille Zoul. AppUqiu'c, vol. i. p. 85.
t Ann. Mus. Nat. Hisl. Marseille Zool. AppliqiUc, voL ii. p. 58.
I Report of U.S, Fish. Com., 1881, p. 97.
§ Bull. U.S. Fish. Cam., vol. ii., 1882, p. 273.

NEW SERIES. — VOL. V. NO. 1. ^

18

REPORT ON THE PRESENT STATE OF KNOWLEDGE

The date of tlie appearauce of the spring shoals varies considerably
from year to year. As already mentioned, in 1894 the fish were taken
iu numbers on the west coast of France, at ])ouarnenez and the
neighbouring fishing ports, as early as February. In the following year,
1895, none were seen at Douarnenez until the 20th of April, whilst
at Quimper they first appeared on March 22nd.'^'

The following dates, taken from the Reports of the Inspectors of Irish
Fisheries, give the times of commencement of the fishery for different
years at some of the principal Irish fishing ports : —

1891.

1892

1893.

189-1.

1895.

Kinsale

:\rarch 21 .

. April

8 .

. March 30 .

. March 21 .

. April 9

Baltimore

„ 24 .

>j

8 .

. April 4 .

. „ 27 .

• „ 3

Crookhaven .

„ 24 .

>>

9 .

. „ 4 .

. April 6 .

. „ 11

Knightstown

))

8 .

4 .

. :\rarch 21 ..

. „ 11

Fenit .

March (1) .

))

6 .

. March 31 .

. „ 26 .

■ „ 2

Comparing the dates of arrival of the large shoals in the years 1894
and 1895 on the south-west coast of Ireland, and those already given for
the west coast of France, it appears that the fish came earlier in 1894
than in 1895 in both localities, and in both years reached the French
coast earlier than the Irish, the difference in time being from a fortnight
to a month. In 1895, although the mackerel were at Quimper earlier
than in Ireland, they did not appear at Douarnenez until some ten days
after the commencement of the Irish fishery.

It is worthy of note that in certain bays on the west coast of Ireland
the large fish are taken in nets shot from canoes and row-boats close to
the shore some two or three weeks before they are captured by the
larger vessels working in the offing, where the water is 40 to 80 fathoms
deep.t As Mr. Green has pointed out, this seems to indicate tliat the
mackerel when approaching the shore keep deep down, the fish which
enter the bays being forced up into the upper waters by the rising of the
sea-floor.

At about the same time as the appearance of the schools off
the west coasts of France and Ireland — that is, towards the end
of March — mackerel fishing commences in the Mediterranean. Large
schools are found off Cette, on the south coast of France. At
Marseilles, on the other hand, the fish do not enter the Gulf until
considerably later.

* Bull. rkh. Mar., 1894 and 1895.

t GiiEEN, Rev. W. S. "Notes on the Irish Mackerel Fisheries." Bull. U.S. Fish. Com.,
1893, p. 357.

OF THE HABITS AND MIGRATIONS OF THE MACKEREL. 19

One important observation made during the early days of March,
1891, is recorded by Marion,* which shows that mackerel may be
present in deep water when not visible at the surface. After a strong
mistral the trawls of the "bateaux boeufs," fishing six miles from
shore off Cape Couronne, caught numbers of mackerel at depths of 100
to 150 metres. Marion considers that this accidental capture demon-
strates completely that the mackerel leave the surface and descend into
the deep water when the upper layers are agitated by strong winds.
This observation will be again considered and discussed in relation to
others.

After the advent of the spring schools fishing is abundant in the
Mediterranean (Cette), off the west coast of France, off the south-west
of Ireland, in the western portion of the English Channel, and off the
north coast of Cornwall. Mackerel are not, however, yet (April) taken
in numbers in the eastern portion of the English Channel, in the North
Sea, or on the coast of Norway.

In the Mediterranean the mackerel caught in April are breeding fish.
On the other coasts the shoals are composed of large fish about to
breed, but their reproductive organs are not yet ripe. The fish captured
off the south-west of Ireland appear to be the finest, and command
the best prices.

America. — On the American side of the Atlantic mackerel make
their first appearance at some distance from the coast, off Cape Hatteras,
at about the same time of year as they appear on the Irish coast. The
following list of dates of first catches is taken from the Bulletin of the
U. S. Fish Commission, vol. vi., 1886, p. 107.

Year. Date. Year. Date.

1879 . . April 13 1883 . . March 31.

1880

. April 2

1884 .

» 31

1881

March 22

1885 .

„ 28

1882

„ 31

1886 .

. April 10.

During April the fish move gradually northwards, but do not go close
to the shore. By the end of the month they are generally found off the
capes of Delaware.

Until the year 1886 it was the custom of the American mackerel
fishermen to go southwards in March, and capture these early shoals.
Many of the shoals were composed of large fish just about to spawn,
but the condition of the fish was not equal to that of those caught later
in the year, which had been feeding on the coast for some time. As
the fish did not readily take bait at this time, they were caught in
purse-seines. In 1887, to endeavour to counteract the considerable

• Ann. Mus, Nat. Hist. Marseille Zool. Appliquics, 1891, p. iii.

]i 2

20 REPORT ON THE PRESENT STATE OF KNOWLEDGE

decline of the mackerel fishery, an Act was passed by Congress pro-
hibiting the landing of mackerel between the first day of ISIarch and
the first day of June for a period of five years, the Act not to apply
to fish caught off-shore with hook and line. As no great good was seen
to result from this restriction of tlie fishery of the breeding fish, the
Act was not renewed after its expiration in 1892,

May and June : Europe. — In JNIay the spring mackerel fishing
reaches its height, and continues into June, falling off considerably
towards the end of that month. In the Mediterranean (Cette), on the
west coast of France, on the south-west coast of Ireland, and in the
western part of the English Channel, during both ]\Iay and June, the
fish are near the shore in large numbers, the quantities landed in all
these localities being at a maximum in May. With the exception
of the Mediterranean fish, which are all spent, spawning is actively
going on. Mackerel are plentiful during both these months on the
coast of Portugal.*

In the eastern portion of the English Channel {e.g., St. Varley-sur-
Somme) the fish are seldom abundant before June.t At Dieppe,
however, some mackerel are taken in both April and IMay, but the
maximum is not reached until June. At Guernsey fishing begins at
the middle or end of May, and lasts ten to twelve weeks.|

In the North Sea there is a small fishery on the Danish coast, which
commences in May ; but no fish are landed at the English North Sea
ports before June, and then they are not numerous in proportion to
those taken later in the year. The large Lowestoft and Yarmouth
mackerel boats are at this time of the year working off the south-west
coasts of England and Ireland.

In May and June mackerel are present off the west coast of Scotland,
often, no doubt, in numbers, though there is no great fishery for them.
On the southern coast of Norway, as far north as the heights of Bergen,
along the Swedish coast, and in the Kattegat, the large shoals appear
towards the end of May, and the principal fishery is carried on during
the latter part of that month and in June.

In general it may be said that in the more southerly and westerly
districts, where the fish arrive in April, they are most abundant in
May, whilst in the northerly and easterly ones they do not arrive
until towards the end of May, and are most abundant in June.

* Baldaque DA SitVA. Estado Aciucil dfis pcscos em Porclugal. See &ho Mitt. Deutsch
sccjischcreiverehis, 1895, ji. 61.

+ In o.xceptional years mackerel may be taken in this part of the Channel in numbers
in February and March. In Marcli, 1833, and in February and March, 1834, according to
Yarrel], boats from Hastings had large catches ; but it is not stated where the fish had been
captured. Yaukkll. L'ritiah Fishes, pp. 125, 126.

J HoLDSWOKTH. Deep-sca Fishing, p. 213.

OF THE HABITS AND MIGRATIONS OF THE MACKEREL. 21

It should be mentioned that in the English Channel and in the
Mediterranean, although the fish are close in-shore along the coast in
May, they do not enter Plymouth Sound and the Gulf of Marseille
in great numbers until later, in the former case not until July, in
the latter in June.

America. — We have already seen that towards the end of April the

mackerel on the east coast of the United States are taken as far north

as the capes of Delaware, but still at some distance from land. About

the beginning of May the fish approach the coast in the neighbourhood

of Long Island. They are present at about the same time in abundance

in the neighbourhood of Nantucket and in Massachusetts Bay.

Towards the end of the same month they are first taken off Nova

Scotia (May 20th, 1883 ; May 16th, 1884), but it is often much later

than this when they appear in the Gulf of St, Lawrence. At the

Magdalen Islands, near the mouth of the Gulf, mackerel most frequently

arrive during the first week in June. In 1884, which was a very late

year, owing to the fact that the ice did not leave the Gulf until June

2nd, no mackerel were taken until August.* When the fish are late in

appearing on the Massachusetts coast they are generally proportionately

late in reaching the Gulf of St. Lawrence. The years 1871 and 1872

offer a good example of this, as will be seen from the dates given

below : — f

Waquoit, Massachusetts.

1871. iJate of first appearance of mackerel, April 25th.

1872. „ „ „ „ „ May 10th.

Difference i?i time, 15 days.

Magdalen Islands, Gulp of St. Lawrence.

1871. Date of first appearance of mackerel, May 31st.

1872. „ „ ., „ „ June 20Lh.

Difference in time, 21 days.

With reference to the passage of the mackerel into the Gulf of St.
Lawrence, Captain J. W. Collins, of the U.S. Fish Commission, \ states
that during May and early June large bodies of these fish pass along
the shores of Nova Scotia and Cape Breton, from west to east, some
entering the Gulf by the Straits of Canso, others going round the north
of Cape Breton Island.

July and August. — Europe. At all the large fishing centres there
is a great falling off in the quantity of mackerel landed during these

* Bull. U.S. Fish. Com.., vol v. p. 60.
t Ilc2mrt of U.S. Fish. Cum., 1881, p. 13C.
t Report of U.S. Fish. Com., 1881, p. 121.

22 KEPOUT ON Till': PRESENT STATE OF KNOWLEDGE

two montlis. On the soutli-west of Ireland fishing is almost suspended,
and the quantities caught on the south and west coasts of England and
on the west coast of France are very small compared with those taken
during May and June.

In the eastern part of the English Channel and on the east coast,
where the mackerel do not arrive until the end of i\Iay, the returns
indicate that the fish are more numerous in July than earlier in the
year ; but there is a falling off in the number landed in August, which
is, however, more marked in the Xorth Sea than in the English Channel.

In Norway the fishing, which commences towards the end of May,
and is at its height during June, continues to be good until the middle
of July, about which time it practically ceases. Sars * draws attention
to the fact that, according to Lowe (Fauna Orchadcnsis), mackerel are
seen in large schools near the Orkney Islands at the end of July and
the beginning of August, just after the Norwegian fisheries have closed.
These he thinks are probably shoals returning from the Norwegian coast
to the Atlantic.

In the Mediterranean, at Cette, and at the majority of the ports, the
large fishing practically ends in June, and few mackerel are taken during
the remainder of the year. At Marseilles, on the other hand, the fish
seem to be plentiful until September. In 1896, according to the
official returns, the maximum was reached in July, and the quantity
taken in August was still large. Marion | states that the fish are
generally most plentiful in September.

From the above facts, which will be seen in more detail in the tables,
it is obvious that as a general rule a season of scarcity exists during
these two months, July and August, between the great spring and
autumn fisheries. The reason for this scarcity is not very clear. At
Plymouth, at this time of the year, the mackerel seem to be scattered.
There are undoubtedly large numbers present in the Sound and in-shore
waters, where they are taken by whiffing and with tlie seine. Drift-net
fishing, on the other hand, is practically suspended. It is to be noted,
too, that during the hot weather of these two mouths mackerel are with
difficulty kept in good condition, and although the supply is short the
demand for them is not great, and prices are low. It is probable that
this may have something to do with the small quantity landed.

America. — The marked falling off between the spring and autumn
fisheries, which is observed in Europe, does not, from the information
available, appear to be so great on the American coasts, if indeed it
exists at all. In Fundy Bay, and in tlie Gulf of St. Lawrence, at any
rate, the fish seem to be quite plentiful at this time of the year.

* Report for 1875. English Translation, lieport of U.S. Fish. Com., 1877, p. 671.
t .^nn. Mus. Nat. Hist. Marseille Zool. AjypUquie, i. p. 84.

OF THE HABITS AND MIGRATIONS OF THE MACKEREL. 23

September and October. — Europe. During September and October
the great autumn mackerel fisheries are carried on. On the west coast
of France and the south-west of Ireland large numbers of fish are
taken, the amount landed in Ireland being as great in some years as
during the spring fishery. The fish are of good size and in good
condition, but their reproductive organs are not mature. There appears
to be a general idea amongst the fishermen that the autumn fish, both
here and elsewhere, belong to a different race from those taken in the
spring, but no successful attempt has ever been made by naturalists
to prove or disprove this contention.

On the west coast of England an autumn fishery practically does not
exist, and on the south coast, although more fish are in general landed
in September than in August, the number is by no means large, and
October shows a very great falling off. At Plymouth the mackerel
leave the Sound after the beginning of September, and are then taken
a few miles south of the Eddystoue and off Start Point.*

In the eastern portion of the Channel {e.g., St. Varley-sur-Somme),
and in the southern part of the North Sea (east coast of England and
Gravelines), on the other hand, by far the most important fishery of the
year takes place at this time, the number of fish landed being greatest
in October.

In Norway there is an autumn fishery of mackerel, which crowd into
the deep-water fjords. These fish are feeding on the young herring
and other small fish, and are in extremely good condition. As soon as
the food gets scarce they go to sea again. Sars considers that they are
schools which have separated from the chief summer schools, and
instead of going out to sea, have commenced to chase the young herring
and follow them into the fjords. Sars also states that these autumn
fish frequent deeper water than the summer mackerel, probably because
of the fresh water at the surface of the fjords.

On the French Mediterranean coast the only important autumn
fishery is at Marseilles, there being practically none at Cette.

America. — In America, as in Europe, autumn fishing for mackerel is
largely carried on. The vessels at this time of the year work chiefly in
the Gulf of St. Lawrence, but mackerel are also taken along the
New England coast. The information contained in the various reports
of the United States Fish Commission does not, however, indicate
that any marked increase of fish in September and October, over
that taken during the two preceding months, regularly takes place,
as we find to be tlie case in European seas. The autumn fish are in
much better condition than those taken in spring, owing to the more

* CuNNiNOHAM. Nat. Hist. Mark. Mar. Fish., p. 316.

24 lU;i'OliT UN THE PRKSENT STATE UF KNOWLEDGE

plentiful supply of food in the shape of young fish of other species.
The idea, which is so prevalent amongst fishermen on the English coast,
that the mackerel taken in the autumn are a different race of fish from
those taken in spring, does not seem to be suggested by the American
fishermen.

NovEMBEU AND DECEMBER : Europc. — Mackerel fishing is practically
closed in November and December on all the European coasts, though
a few fish are still taken in the North Sea in November, and a still
smaller number in the English Channel. Mackerel landed at Plymouth
are caught 15 to 20 miles south-west of Start Point, and about the
same distance from the Eddystone. On the west coast of France the
fish may be entirely absent, or a small number may be taken in both
November and December. On the south coast of Ireland, in favourable
years, fishing on a small scale may be continued up to Christmas.

America. — In America fishing ceases and the mackerel fleet is laid up
in November. The fish are observed to leave the Gulf of St. Lawrence in
large shoals, passing out by the same routes as they entered, viz., around
the north of Cape Preton Island or through the Straits of Canso,* and
they remain absent until the following summer.

Extent and Causes of the Migration of tbe Mackerel. — Both
the extent of the migrations of the mackerel, and the causes which
bring about those migrations, are very imperfectly understood. For a
long time both have been subjects for speculation amongst naturalists,
but little definite or certain information has been arrived at.

Brown Goode,t who has discussed the general question of the migra-
tions of pelagic fishes with some fulness, regards the temperature of
the sea-water as one of the most important factors influencing their
movements, and this view is shared by most naturalists who have paid
attention to the subject. According to Brown Goode the appearance of
the mackerel off the coast of America is synchronous with an average
weekly temperature of not less than 45° F. in the harbours. At this
time the temperature in the open sea is somewhat lower, and mackerel
will remain active and contented at a temperature of 40°, or even less.
Green:!: has shown that on the south-west coast of Ireland mackerel
are first taken in the spring in large numbers off the land when the
surface temperature of the sea is 50° F. At the same time he mentions
that the smaller boats, shooting their nets close to the shore and in

• CuLLiN.s, J. W. RrpoH of [/..S. Fish Com., 1881, p. 121.

+ "History of the Mcnhadeu." U.S. Fish. Com. Report, 1877, especially iij). 50-70.
" Materials for a History of the Mackerel Fishery." U.S. Fish. Com. Report, 1881.
X "Notes ou the Irish Mackerel Fisheries."- Bull. U.S. Fish. Com., 1893, p. 357.

OF THE HABITS AND MIGRATIONS OF THE MACKEREL. 25

certain bays, get the large spring fish two or three weeks earlier, whilst
the temperature is still low.

In the south of Prance, where the migrations are essentially similar to
those which occur in America and on the Atlantic coasts of Europe, the
temperature of the surface water on the coast is never below 50° F.
(10° C), even in January, the temperature in February and March being
54° to 59° F. (12°-15° C.) [Marion.]

From these facts it would seem that the large shoals first appear
in American waters when the temperature is 40°-45^ F. ; off the coast
of Ireland when it reaches 50° F., and on the Mediterranean coasts
when it approaches 60° F. We must, therefore, suppose either that
we are here dealing with three distinct races, which have become
adapted to different temperature conditions, in which case the species
must be capable of considerable variation in its habits in this respect,
or that the temperature influences the migrations of the fish indirectly
by determining the presence or absence of the particular organisms
which serve for its food in each locality. The latter explanation,
however, cannot be regarded as complete, since in some localities,
e.g., the jSTorth Sea, in autumn we have both herring and mackerel
present at the same time, yet whilst the mackerel retire to the south
the herring return to the north.

The first approach of the mackerel to the coast in spring or early
summer is for the purposes of spawning, and the advantage to the
species of the young fish being hatched out near the shore, where
the smaller forms of pelagic organisms are present in abundance,
and the plankton is increased by the numerous larval forms of those
species which inhabit the coastal waters, is obvious. The presence
of the fish in the in-shore waters during the summer and autumn, on
the other hand, is to be explained by the fact that these waters are
at that time crowded with the young forms of other fishes, which serve
as a bountiful food supply to the mackerel.

It has already been noted that when the fish first approach the coast
for spawning only the males can be captured with bait, the females
having ceased to feed at this time. Hence the first migration towards
the shore must be regarded as to some extent independent of the food
supply, and we may call it, with Sars, the " spawning migration." The
approach to the coast in the summer and autumn is, on the other hand,
a " feeding migration."

What relation exists between the fish which take part in the two
migrations it is impossible to say. The autumn fish are said to be
smaller tlian those which come in the spring, and it has already
been mentioned that the fishermen maintain that they belong to a
different race. They are all uf ihem, however, immature, and cannot

26 KEPOUT ON THE PRESENT STATE OF KNOWLEDGE

therefore be compared to tlie winter and summer herrings, both of
whicli are spawning fish, when they visit the coasts,* Sars regards the
autumn fish, which in Norway are taken in abundance in the fjords, as
fish which have left the main shoals in summer to follow the young
herring upon which they feed.

Where do the mackerel go when they leave the coast ? is perhaps the
most important question connected with their migrations, to which no
certain answer can yet be given. Sars and Brown Goode have both
shown that the theory at one time held by some naturalists, that the
fish hibernate during the winter at the bottom of the sea, in the neigh-
bourhood of their summer haunts, is highly improbable, and it need not
be further discussed here.

There are two alternatives in regard to the matter which are worthy
of consideration.

(1) The mackerel may live near the surface of the ocean at con-
siderable distances from land, in regions where they find a suitable sea
temperature.

(2) They may live in deeper layers of the sea, at a greater or less
distance — possibly never at a very great distance — from their summer
localities, where it is possible that they may find the conditions
favourable.

1. That the mackerel during the winter do not retire to more
southerly latitudes, and continue to live according to their spring and
autumn habits, near the coast and at the surface, is practically certain.
There is no record of the fish being taken either on the coast of
Africa or on the American coast, south of Cape Hatteras, during
the cold months of the year.

Kor do any accounts exist of mackerel having been seen at the
surface in the warmer regions of the open ocean at any time of the
year. If they made these regions their winter home, and preserved
their shoaling habits, it is practically certain that they would have
been recognised, as the appearance of the shoals is well known to
seafaring men, and is quite characteristic. If, on the other hand,
the shoals broke up and the fish wandered independently or a few
only together, it is possible that they might have escaped detection.
This must remain, until the contrary is shown to be the case, one
of the possible solutions of the question, although it is not very
probable, since were it so specimens would almost certainly have
been captured at some time or other.

2. The mackerel may live in deeper layers of the sea, at a greater
or less distance— possibly at no very great distance — from their summer
haunts. The facts on the whole seem to point to this conclusion.

• CUN.NINOJIAM. Nat. Hist. Mark. Mar. Fish., \\. 153.

OF THE HABITS AND MIGRATIONS OF THE MACKEREL. 27

That on the first appearance of the fish a certain amount of migration
in a definite direction, generally from south to north, takes place cannot
be denied. It is most conspicuous on the American coast, where the
fish, as has been explained, first appear at some distance from land off
Cape Hatteras, and gradually move northward until they reach the
coast in the neighbourhood of Long Island, about a month after they
are first seen. Even in this case, however, it is fairly obvious that large
numbers of fish must be moving in towards the land from latitudes
more northerly than that of Cape Hatteras, where the fish first appear.*
The fact tliat the spawning season of the mackerel becomes later the
further north they are captured is sufficient in itself to prove that such
is the case. The fish which spawn in the Gulf of St, Lawrence in July
cannot be the same as those which spawned in May and June on the
New England coast. In the autumn, too, when the fish disappear, the
facts do not point to an extensive southerly migration in the surface
waters along the coasts. That the fish move out of the Gulf of St.
Lawrence seems to have been established, but this does not take place
until November, and the fishing is continued in this region quite as
long as it is further south. There is practically no fishing on the more
southerly coasts of the United States after the fishing in the Gulf has
ceased.

On the Atlantic coasts of Europe the movements of the mackerel,
after their first appearance, are a little more difficult to follow. Un-
fortunately no information has been found in the literature consulted as
to when the fish first arrive off the coast of Portugal, and we only know
that they are plentiful from May onwards. The earliest catches on
this side of the Atlantic of which records exist are those made in the
western part of the English Channel in January and February, and
some also off the west coast of Ireland. In the former case the boats
generally obtain their first fish about 20 miles south-west of Start
Point, and subsequently work more to the westward, taking them 20
miles south-west of the Eddystoue. This seems to suggest that we
have here to do with the last of the autumn fish of the previous year
moving down Channeh

On the west coast of France the spring shoals may appear as early
as February {e.g., 1894), although in other years none may be taken until
late in March or April. It is generally somewhat later that the fish
arrive off the mouth of the Channel and off the Irish coast. In Norway
and the Kattegat the fish do not come to the coast until towards the
end of May, and the fact that the spawning season of these fish is so
much later than that of those in the Channel would, in this case also,

* See especially Spencer Baird, "Sea Fisheries of Eastern North America," and
Appendix. Ileport of U.S. Fish Com., 1886.

28 KtPUKT ON THE PKKSENT iSTATE OF KNOWLEDGE

render it unlikely that they had made any extended migration along the
Irish and Scottish coasts.

There is, however, obviously a migration through the English Channel
into the North Sea. Whilst mackerel are at the mouth of the Channel
in ]\Iarch few fish are taken either in its eastern portion or in the
southern part of the North Sea before the end of May or the beginning
of June. In the autumn, on the other hand, the large fishery in the
southern part of the North Sea seems to be due to the movement of
the fish towards the Straits of Dover, on their passage back to the
English Channel. The mackerel taken on the south coast of England
in December, January, and February are possibly, as suggested above,
the fish which have emigrated from the North Sea. In the present
state of our knowledge of the subject this is, however, a mere specula-
tion. An examination of the Board of Trade statistics from 1886 to
1895 does not show any constant relation between the number of
mackerel landed on the south coast of England in December and
January, and the success or failure of the previous autumn fishery
on the east coast.

There is a certain amount of evidence that mackerel, when not at
the surface near the coasts, may be present in deeper water not far off".
This evidence has already been referred to in previous parts of this
Eeport. In the first place there is the fact mentioned by Green, that
in certain bays on the west coast of Ireland the large spring mackerel
are captured close to the shore two or three weeks before the larger
boats working in the ofting, where the water is 40 to 80 fathoms deep,
are able to obtain any. These early in-shore fish must have travelled in
towards the coast in the deeper layers of water. There is also the
record by Marion, that at the beginning of March, 1891, after a strong
mistral^ large numbers of mackerel were taken by the trawls of the
" bateaux boeufs," fishing six miles from shore off Cape Couronne, in
depths of 100 to 150 metres. It is true that in this case the objection
may be raised that the fish might have been captured in upper layers
whilst the net was being drawn to the surface, but this does not appear
to be a very likely explanation of the catch. Mr. Holt states that he
has taken mackerel in the trawl in the North Sea, after heavy weather,
and the Plymouth trawl fishermen say that they also obtain them under
like circumstances.

Finally, we have the records of mackerel, but little digested, taken
from the stomachs of cod on the American coast some time before
the appearance of the schools at the surface.

If the mackerel, when away from the coast, retire to deeper water,
where the temperature is more suitable to them, it becomes interesting
to inquire where they would find such a temperature. The series of

OF THE HABITS AND MIGRATIONS OF THE MACKEREL. 29

observations taken by the Challenger between Bermuda and Halifax,
and New York and Bermuda, which are shown in two diagrams
in Brown Goode's paper on the "Menhaden Fishery,"* prove that
on the western side of the Atlantic extensive layers of water exist
in April and May below the Gulf Stream having temperatures similar
to those of the waters frequented by the mackerel when on the coast.

For the parts of the Atlantic lying off the European coasts no obser-
vations giving the required information during the winter months
appear to have been made; but from the position of the isothermal for
50° F. for surface temperature in February, when such temperatures
are at a minimum, it is clear that water of the required warmth must
exist at no very great distance from the coasts frequented by the fish,
with the exception of the coasts of Norway and the North Sea. In the
latter case we have already seen that the fish probably retire in the
autumn by way of the English Channel.

* Report of U.S. Fish. Com., 1877.

[ 30 J

APPENDIX

The American Investigations of the Habits and
Migrations of the Mackerel.

Since its first foundation the United States Commission of Fish and
Fisheries has paid great attention to the habits and movements of the
migratory fishes, more especially of those of the mackerel and men-
haden. In the early years of the Commission an endeavour was made
to obtain information by the issue of circulars to fishermen and others,
who were likely to be in a position to observe the movements of the
fish. In this way a large amount of material was got together, and was
embodied in two comprehensive memoirs, published in the IJeport
of the Commissioner : —

(1) "The Natural and Economical History of the American Men-

haden," by G. Brown Goode. Commissioners Report, 1877,
pp. 1-529.

(2) " Materials for a History of the Mackerel Fishery," by G. Brown

Goode, Joseph W. Collins, Pi. E. Earlle, and A. Howard
Clark. Commissioner's Report, 1881, pp. 93-531.

The information, however, so obtained was not of an altogether
satisfactory nature, and it was seen that if the various problems pre-
sented were to be satisfactorily solved, special investigations for that
purpose would have to be made.

It was largely with a view to undertaking researches into these
questions that tlie schooner Grampus was built for the Commission.
This vessel was completed in 188G, and since that year she has been
very largely employed in such work.

The Grampus is a two-masted, schooner-rigged vessel, 90 ft. long over
all, 22 ft. 2 ins. beam, and 10 ft. depth of hold ; her registered tonnage
is 83 '30 tons. She is supplied with all kinds of fishing appliances and
scientific instruments suitable for the work she has to do.

The appended extracts from the Commissioner's Reports, issued since
1887, will show the various steps which have been taken to investigate

APPEISDIX. 31

the subject. It is evident that a large amount of material, consisting
of observations systematically taken for a number of years, must now
be in the hands of the Commission ; but up to the present neither the
detailed observations made during the last few years, nor any general
discussions of the habits and movements of the mackerel, based upon
the recent work, have been published.

Report for 1887, p. 54. — "From the latter part of April until the last
of May, 1887, while in command of Captain D. E. Collins, and with Dr.
T. H. Bean as naturalist, she [the Gramims\ was engaged in cruising on the
early mackerel grounds between Cape Hatteras, North Carolina, and Cape Cod,
Massachusetts, for the purpose of studying the schools of mackerel as they
approach the coast, and their subsequent movements with relation to tem-
perature, the abundance of food, etc. The schooner was well equipped with
the necessary scientific and fishing appliances, and succeeded in obtaining
many valuable observations, which have been published in the Fish Com-
mission Bulletin for this year. A part of the time she kept company with the
fishing fleet, and at others was cruising independently, with the view of
ascertaining whether the mackerel could be found in advance of the fishing
centres or in other directions. During the first part of the season the
mackerel were scarce and small. Sea birds, cetaceans, and various other
marine forms, which generally accompany the schools and indicate their
position and size, were less abundant than usual. Bad weather also prevailed
most of the time, and this undoubtedly interfered with the schooling of the
fish at the surface. Most of the schools sighted, even during the latter part
of the cruise, were too deep in the water to be reached by seining, and it
is probable that a large proportion of the fish passed northward unobserved.
They also appeared to move nearer the land than has generally been recorded.

"During the following summer, beginning the first part of July, the
Grampus extended its researches respecting the distribution and abundance
of mackerel along the coasts of the British Province as far north as Labrador.
She was then in charge of Captain J. W. Collins. The principal object of
the trip was to verify the recent reports concerning the appearance of mackerel
off the north-east coast of Newfoundland. Following the coast of Nova
Scotia as far as Canso, the Grampxis entered the Gulf of St. Lawrence, and
sailed as far north as the Magdalen Islands. Thence she proceeded to St.
John's, Newfoundland, and along the outer side of Newfoundland to the
Straits of Belle Isle. No mackerel were observed at this point ; but many
natural history specimens and physical observations were obtained. Mr. F. A.
Lucas and Mr. William Palmer, of the U.S. National IMuseum, accompanied
the schooner as naturalists, and in addition to the regular work of the cruise
they were allowed to land and make shore collections at the difl'erent
harbours visited.

"The work begun in the spring of 1887 was continued by the Grampus
during April, May, and June, 1888, Captain D. E. Collins being again in
command, and Dr. T. H. Bean acting as naturalist. The cruising ground was

32 APPENDIX.

the same as in the previous year. Only small schools of mackerel were
encountered, and those not until late in ^fay. Low water temperatures
prevailed during the early part of the season, and the mackerel food was
found to bo abundant only in streaks or scattered patches. The experiment
of carrying living mackerel in the schooner's well proved successful, and it
will therefore bo possible to undertake the reproduction of this species at one
of the coast stations of the Commission."

During the winter of 1888-89 the Grampus was chietly at work in
the Gulf of Mexico, making general investigations into the fisheries.

Commissioner'' s Report, 1888, p. 15. — "Being impressed with the import-
ance of a systematic study of the temperature, conditions, and the changes
of conditions in our oflF-shore waters, I have instituted a systematic investi-
gation to this end, and have assigned the Fish Commission schooner Grampus
to this work. Prof. William Libbey, of Princeton College, has been selected
to take charge of the investigation, and the vessel is now being fitted with
the necessary apparatus and appliances for the work, and will enter upon it at
the beginning of the next fiscal year."

Commissioner'' s Report, 1889-91, p. 5. — "The physical inquiries in the
mackerel region off the southern New England coast, under the direction of
Prof. William Libbey, jun., referred to in the last Annual Report, were
conducted during a part of July and August, 1889, and again during the
summer of 1890. The former season the work was performed by means of
the schooner Grampus alone, but during the latter the Coast Survey steamer
Blake was detailed to act in co-operation with the Grampus, and, through the
courtesy of the Lighthouse Board, a party of observers was also stationed on
the Nantucket New South Shoal Light-ship. Parallel lines of observing
stations were carried seaward from the coast for distances of 130 to 150 miles,
the lines being 10 minutes of longitude apart and the stations 10 miles
apart. At each of these stations, which numbered several hundred in the
course of the two seasons, the temperature of the water was taken at regular
intervals between the surface and bottom, or down to depths of 300 to 500
fathoms, where the depth of water exceeded that amount, and at the same
time a full set of meteorological observations was recorded. The result has
been to furnish a large series of vertical temperature sections through the
water, which show very clearly the relations of the Gulf Stream with the
colder waters of the Arctic current; and the surface variations are accompanied
by very complete meteorological data, with which, it is hoped, a correlation
may ultimately be rendered possible. These observations will undoubtedly
throw much light upon the habits of several species of pelagic fishes, of
which the mackerel is most conspicuous, and even the movements of such
bottom fishes as the tile-fish will probably find their explanation in a
knowledge of these physical characteristics."

Ditto, p. 129. — "From May 5 to June 8, 1891, the schooner Grampus was
engaged in making a series of observations over the mackerel grounds, from

APPENDIX. 33

Delaware northward to Massachusetts. This was in continuation of similar
inquiries made in previous years to determine so far as possible the tempera-
ture and other physical phenomena connected directly with the northerly
movement of the advance schools of mackerel along the coast.

"The principal object of the cruise was to locate the early schools of
mackerel ; to follow their movements northward, or in whatever direction
they might take ; and to learn everything possible regarding- the conditions of
the air and water in connection with their habits. As it was somewhat late in
the season before the trip began, it was expected that the schools were already
upon the grounds, and that it would not be necessary to proceed very far south
before meeting them. Such was found to be the case; but the observations
were carried southward from Woods Hole until the fish were encountered, and
thence over a part of the area through which they had passed, in order
to obtain the necessary data for comparing the conditions in advance of
the first schools with those existing in their rear. Subsequently the Grampus
followed the schools as far as Marthas Vineyard, taking ripe males the last of
May and ripe females the first of June ia that vicinity. The physical
observations have not yet been reduced and compared."

Gommissionei^s Rejport, 1892, p. 91. — "The physical inquiries respecting the
waters off the southern I^ew England coast, begun in 1889 by the schooner
Grampus, and conducted the next year by the same vessel in conjunction with
the Coast Survey steamer Blalie, were continued during the summer of 1891
by the Grampus alone. The work was carried on, as in previous years, under
the direction of Professor William Libbey, jun., of Princeton College."

Commissioner's Report, 1893. — "The Act of Congress, passed in 1886,
which virtually prohibited the spring mackerel vessel fishery prior to June 1 of
each year, during a term of five years, ceased to be operative after 1892. In
order to determine, so far as possible, if any immediate benefits had resulted
from this series of close seasons, and also to obtain information for the use of
the Joint Fishery Commission between Great Britain and the United States,
the schooner Grampus, Captain A, C. Adams in command, was detailed to
follow the progress of that fishery throughout its entire course in the spring of
1893. Sailing from Woods Hole at an early date, Captain Adams was directed
to conduct a detailed series of physical observations on the way south until the
body of mackerel had been discovered, after which he was to keep track of the
movements, habits, and abundance of the latter, and to study the conditions of
their environment as far north as ISTova Scotia. The presence of a large fleet
of purse-seiners on the grounds afforded excellent opportunities for learning
of the distribution of the fish at all times, and through their means it was
expected that specimens for examination would be obtainable. The Grampus
also made use of the fishing apparatus she had on board, and an hourly record
of physical determinations was maintained day aud night, besides which the
surface tow-nets were frequently employed to discover the presence of mackerel
food. The natural history observations were conducted by Mr. W^. C.
Kendall. Mr. B. L. Hardin was stationed at Fulton Market, New York City,

NEW SERIES. — VOL. V. NO. 1. C

34 APPENDIX.

to inspect all arrivals of mackerel there from the purse-seine fleet, as well
as from the shore apparatus tributary to that market.

" The Grampus sailed from Woods Hole on April 1 0, and reported at
Lewes, Del., April 21, having experienced heavy weather up to that date.
Very few fish had been observed, and the fishing fleet had accomplished com-
paratively nothing. The latter also sought shelter at the same place. Poor
success, both in the catch of fish and in the opportunities to make observations
upon them, continued thence to the close of the season, and by the middle
of May nearly all the purse-seiners had left the southern grounds for the
coast of Nova Scotia. The small catch made this season was partly due
to stormy weather, but even when all the conditions seemed favourable,
mackerel were either scarce or difficult to capture. More light will probably
be thrown upon this question when the elaborate series of notes obtained have
been worked up ; but the fishermen have failed thus far to recognise any
beneficial results from the restrictions placed upon their spring fishery during
the previous five years.

"On May 23, the southern fishery having ended several days before that
time, the Grampus left "Woods Hole, where she had put in for supplies,
and proceeded to Nova Scotia to continue the inquiries on the same plan as at
the south. The entire fleet had assembled there, but no fish were taken on
this coast, except in trap-nets on the shore, until after June 1. By June 5
some of the fleet had done fairly well, the others poorly. The Grampus
returned to Woods Hole the latter part of June, bringing a large quantity of
specimens bearing upon the breeding habits, food, size, etc., of the mackerel,
together with very complete records of the daily observations.

"Mr. B. L. Hardin remained at New York from April 12 to June 3, and
examined every fare of mackerel landed from the southern fishery, as well as
the smaller catches made in the pound -nets along the shores. Notes were
kept upon the abundance, sizes, and spawning conditions of the fish, and
interviews were held with the masters of the diflerent schooners relative to the
more important incidents connected with their several cruises."

Ditto, p. 57. Division of Statistics. " In May and June, 1893, the field
force was placed in the New England States for the special purpose of making
a detailed investigation of the commercial aspects of the mackerel fishery.
This inquiry was in progress at the close of the fiscal year.

" Owing to the great attention the mackerel has recently been receiving,
on account of the unprecedentedly long period of scarcity, it was important
for the purposes of the Commission, in order to afford the best basis for
determining the cause and extent of the scarcity, to have accurate and
detailed information relating to the various topics which could be legitimately
considered by this division. To facilitate the collection of uniform data
provision was made for having the agents to obtain the statistics on two printed
forms, relating respectively to the fisheries carried on with vessels, and to those
carried on from boats and the shore.

"For the vessel fishery the following information was obtained for each
vessel : Name of vessel, hailing port, rig, net tonnage, present value ; value

APPENDIX. 35

of outfit ; number and value of each kind of fishing apparatus used ; the
number of crew, specified by nativity and nationality ; the kinds, quantities,
and value of bait caught by the vessel or purchased in America or British
provincial ports ; the number of entries of foreign ports, and the expenditures
therein for each purpose ; the lay of the crew ; the quantity and value of each
grade of mackerel taken in each region with each kind of apparatus; the
fishing season in each region; the number of trips from each region and to
each port; and the kinds, quantities, and value of other fish taken with
mackerel.

"In the case of the shore and boat fisheries the information secured for
each proprietor-fisherman included the number and value of each form of
apparatus employed, the number and value of boats, the fishing season ;
the number, nativity, and nationality of the fishermen ; the wages received ;
the kind, quantity, and value of bait utilised ; and the quantity and value
of each grade of mackerel taken with each appliance,

"A special feature of the inquiry was the provision to obtain complete
figures showing, for fresh mackerel, the quantity and value of each standard
size of fish taken, and for salt fish the quality and grade of the mackerel
packed. While satisfactory figures relating to the different grades of salt
mackerel inspected in Massachusetts are available, no attempts to obtain
complete data for the grades of salt mackerel packed in other States, or
for the various sizes of fish sold in a fresh condition, were ever before made.

" Owing to the importance of having statistical data for the mackerel
fishery covering each year of the 'close-time' law, which took eff'ect in
1888, and terminated in 1892, the inquiry was addressed to the years
1890, 1891, and 1892, information for the two earlier years having been
previously obtained.

" Some supplementary inquiries regarding mackerel were also instituted by
the division, by securing the co-operation of fishermen on various parts of the
coast, in recording observations concerning the mackerel during the fishing
season of 1893. For this purpose blank books of convenient size were
prepared and distributed. They provided for a daily record of the number
of extra large, large, medium, small, and tinker mackerel taken each day;
a statement as to the nature of the weather, direction of the wind, etc.

"In the first week in April, 1893, the writer visited New Jersey for
the purpose of engaging for this inquiry the services of the pound-net
fishermen on the northern part of the coast of that State. This section
is the most southern part of the United States coast on which mackerel
are regularly taken in considerable numbers with fixed apparatus. The
fishermen, who during the previous season had operated pound-nets, were
personally visited, and the objects of the inquiry explained to them. They
entered very heartily into the matter, and agreed to record the daily catch
as requested.

" Record books of a similar character were placed among the pound-net
and trap-net fishermen of the Massachusetts coast. The distribution was
accomplished through ]\Ir. F. F. Dimick, local agent at Boston, Mass.

0 2

;^6 APPENDIX.

Fishermen at a number of points on the Elaine and Virginia coasts were
also communicated with by mail, and asked to record their mackerel catch.

" While it is not probable that all the fishermen receiving the blanks
will keep the records requested, there seems no reason to doubt that some
valuable information will thus be obtained.

"In conjunction with his other duties Mr. E. F. Locke carried on an
examination of the spawning condition of the mackerel taken in the vicinity
of Gloucester. His work on this subject continued until the temporary with-
drawal of the mackerel from that part of the coast, and the ending of the
spawning season brought the work to a close."

Commissioner's Report, 1894, p. 91. — "The investigations respecting the
habits and abundance of the mackerel, and the fisheries to which this important
species gives rise, were continued again this year upon the same general plan
as in 1893, but on a more elaborate scale and during a greater part of the
season. The schooner Grampus and the steamer Fish Haick were both
utilised in connection with this inquiry, and several land parties were
employed to study the subject from the standpoint of the in-shore fisheries
along the entire coast covered by the range of the species. The information
sought to be obtained from this series of observations was desired for the use
of the Joint International Commission, as elsewhere explained ; and the
practical importance to the American fishermen of reaching a more complete
and definite understanding of all the circumstances connected with the
natural history of the mackerel, in relation to the several methods employed
for their capture, has long been acknowledged.

" Until this work was started by the Fish Commission a few years ago most
of the facts at hand were such as bad been obtained incidentally, and it is only
within a year or two that the matter has been taken hold of in the systematic
and comprehensive manner which it deserves. The mackerel fishery has long
been the subject of a vigorous controversy, both domestic and international.
Each year the same phases are repeated ; the fish first appear off our coast above
Cape Hatteras, whence they spread rather rapidly toward the north and east as
far as Labrador, giving rise to one of the most active and persistent fisheries
of the world. Their abundance, within the scope of observation of the
fishermen, varies from year to year, and at times the fluctuations are very
great ; periods of plenty, of greater or less duration, being followed by others
of scant supply, bringing consternation to those whose fortunes are mainly
linked with this species.

"The improvement of methods for the capture of mackerel has kept pace
with the steady development in other lines of industry, until it would appear
as though the limit of perfection had practically been reached. One of the
most important questions of the day is whether, as some affirm, the modern
devices are proving too destructive and are causing a depletion, in view of the
lessened catch during several years past. To those who are at all acquainted
.with the history and character of the mackerel fishery, it will be evident
that this question cannot be answered off-hand, and that the published

APPENDIX. 37

observations respecting the natural history of the mackerel do not meet the
requirements of a thorough consideration of the matter. To supply this
desideratum, so far as possible, has been the object of the inquiries now in
progress.

"These inquiries have been directed so as to cover at least the more
essential features in the history of the mackerel during that part of each
season when their presence along the coast becomes apparent through their
surface distribution, the only period when they can be fished for. It has
been attempted to trace their movements and all the principal circumstances
connected therewith, from the time of their first appearance in the spring,
until cold weather causes their return to winter quarters ; to learn the extent
and relations of the schools, the conditions which accelerate or retard their
progress, and the factors which influence their swimming at different depths,
whereby the great body of the fish may travel long distances unobserved ; to
settle definitely their spawning places and seasons, and their habits in that
connection ; to ascertain the effect upon the schools of the different fishing
methods apart from the simple question of the quantity of fish so captured ;
and from the data thus secured, as well as from statistics of the catch, to
determine, so far as possible, if the stock is being decimated, and the causes
which may be directly responsible therefor.

" The schooner Grampus started south from Gloucester, Mass., on April 7,
to repeat the customary examinations on the southern grounds during the early
spring season ; but heavy gales retarded her movements in the beginning,
as well as interfered with the operations of the fishing vessels. Lewes, Del.,
was made the headquarters from April 20 to May 10 ; but the Grampus
remained constantly with or in the neighbourhood of the fleet, as the best
means of keeping track of the schools of fish, making a careful series of
physical observations at hourly intervals, towing for mackerel food, and
recording all facts obtainable from the fishing captains, or by personal observa-
tions, respecting the positions of the schools each day, their extent, movements,
depth, the abundance, size, and condition of the fish, etc. From the extreme
south the Grampus followed the main body of the fish to the region off New
York, and thence proceeded eastward over Georges Bank to Cape Sable and
the iSTova Scotia coast. Here the mackerel were studied during their progress
to the Gulf of St. Lawrence as far as Cape North, stops being made at Shel-
burne, Liverpool, Beaver Harbour, and North Sidney, in search of such
information as could be gained from the local fisheries in the neighbourhood
of those places.

"On June 13, the main part of the down run of mackerel having ended
and the spring season closed on the cape shore, the Grampus left North Sidney
and returned to Gloucester, first passing around the north side of Cape Breton
and through the Gut of Canso in tjuest of further data. Gloucester was
reached on June 25, and the remainder of the month was spent in prepara-
tions for a summer cruise on the mackerel grounds in the Gulf of Maine.
This work was in charge of Mr. E. E. Hahn, master of the Grampus, with Mr.
AV. C. Kendall as naturalibt.

38 APPENDIX.

" iMr. 15. L. Hardin was stationed again this year at Fulton Market, New
York City, from April 21 to the last of May, his observations being mainly
supplemental to those conducted on board the schooner Grampus, and directed
chiefly toward completing the records bearing upon the early off-shore fishery.
Every fare landed by the purse-seiners from the southern grounds, as well as all
specimens received from the shore fisheries tributary to New York, were in-
spected by Mr. Hardin, and everything that could be learned relating to their
capture and conditions was fully noted. Convenient office and laboratory
accommodations were supplied gratuitously by Hon. E. G. Blackford, through
whom, and the other prominent fish-dealers of the city, !Mr. Hardin was
afforded the fullest opportunity for the successful prosecution of his
inquiries.

" Mr. H. F. Moore, of the University of Pennsylvania, was detailed to the
study of the shore fisheries from their southern limit at Virginia Beach, Va.,
to Ehode Island. His work was begun at the south at the commencement
of the season, and was carried northward, all of the principal fishing centres
being visited, the fishermen interrogated, specimens examined wherever
possible, and blanks left to be filled in with daily records of the catch. In
this manner a very complete account was secured of the shore relations of the
mackerel during the period of their early movements, a subject which had not
hitherto been given much attention.

" Dr. W. E. Wolhaupter was given the section of coast from Ehode Island
to the outer side of Cape Cod, including the important spawning and hooking
grounds between Block Island and Nomans Land, and the extensive trap-net
fisheries of Vineyard and the Nantucket Sounds. Tlie steamer Fish Hawk
also assisted in the work here during a part of June. The region between
Cape Cod and the Bay of Fundy, including the coast waters of Massachusetts,
New Hampshire, and Maine, and the Gulf of Maine, was assigned to Captain
A. C. Adams, formerly in command of the schooner Grampus, and having
a long experience in connection with the mackerel fishery. His inquiries were
started at Province Town on Cape Cod, about the middle of May, and were
thence extended along the shores of Massachusetts Bay, Cape Ann, and the
coast farther north to Portland, where he was joined by the steamer Fish Hawk
and Dr. Wolhaupter in the latter part of June. By the close of the year the
examination had been carried as far east as Boothbay Harbour."

Commissioner's Report, 1895, p. 80. — "The observations made in 1893-94,
respecting the natural history of the mackerel and the fisheries to which
it gives rise, were repeated during the past year in accordance with the same
l)lan, and on practically the same basis. The capricious habits of the species,
its fluctuating abundance as indicated by the size of the catch, its wide dis-
tribution and far-reaching movements, make it one of the most difficult of all
the commercial fishes to study or to comprehend. It is thought, however, that
the series of investigations, which has been in progress for several years, and
which is still to be continued, will throw much new light upon the practical
questions connected with its history, and will aid in determining to what

APPENDIX. 39

extent, if any, the supply may bo affected by the several methods employed for
its capture.

"At the beginning of the fiscal year the schooner Grampus, E. E. Hahn,
master, and W. C. Kendall, naturalist, was investigating the off-shore mackerel
fisheries in the Gulf of Maine, with headquarters at Gloucester, Mass. The
latter part of July and the first half of August, 1894, were spent in cruising
in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, the season's work terminating at Gloucester the
last of August. In the spring of 1895 the Grampus was again detailed to the
study of this species, and continued to be so employed until the end of
the fiscal year. The inquiries were of the same character as in previous
seasons, being designed to secure as complete a history as possible of the early
movements of the mackerel as they approach and work up the coast on the
way to their several spawning and summer-schooling grounds. The cruise
began on April the 12th. Lewes, Del., was made the headquarters until
May 10, when, the body of fish having left southern waters, the Grampus
proceeded to the region off New York, and thence eastward over Georges and
Browns Banks to the coast of Nova Scotia. Here the schools of fish were
closely followed to Cape North, Cape Breton Island, and a short cruise made
into the Gulf of St. Lawrence. The schooner returned the last of June to
Gloucester, where preparations were made to continue the inquiries during the
summer in the Gulf of Maine.

" Shore parties were at work at all seasons of the year during which the
mackerel were present on the coast. During July and August, 1894, Captain
A. C. Adams and Dr. AV. E, Wolhaupter, with the assistance of the steamer
Fish HaivJi, were engaged on the coast of Maine, their investigations extending
eastward from Portland as far as Jonesport. All important fishing localities
were visited, the nets and catch inspected, and the fishermen interviewed.
Subsequently, and until late in the fall, Captain Adams was occupied mainly
with the study of the fishery from the ports of Gloucester, Boston, and
Portland, while Dr. Wolhaupter returned to the southern coast of New
England to complete his observations begun there the previous spring. Both
of these assistants again took up the field work in April, 1895. Captain
Adams' inquiries during the spring season were restricted to the coast of
Massachusetts, north of and including the waters about Cape Cod. Dr.
Wolhaupter began at Virginia Beach, Va., which is nearly as far south as
the mackerel strike the shore, and proceeded thence northward along the coast
as far as Cape Cod, visiting in succession nearly all localities where mackerel
are taken in shore nets. For a short period in the course of his trip he
was stationed in New York City, and then continued to the important
spawning region off Ehode Island and south-eastern Massachusetts, where
most of the month of June was spent.

"Mr. B. L. Hardin was detailed as heretofore to conduct the customary
inquiries at Fulton Market, New York City, his observations being mainly
supplemental to those made on board the schooner Grampus, and designed
to complete the records bearing upon the off-shore fishery. Every fare landed
by the purse-seiners, which were then at work exclusively on the southern

40 APPENDIX.

grounds, and also catches marketed there from the shore fisheries, were
carefully inspected, and all information that could be obtained relating to
the capture and condition of the fish, etc., was fully noted. Through the
courtesy of Hon. E. G. Blackford convenient office and laboratory accommo-
dations were provided ; and to him, as well as to the other prominent fish-
dealers of New York, Mr. Hardin was indebted for the means of carrying
on his work successfully. Mr. Hardin reached New York about the middle
of April, and continued there until the end of the first week in May, when he
was replaced by Dr. Wolhaupter, who remained until the close of that month.

" Some of the observations made this year at Fulton Market relative to
the spawning season and habits of the mackerel were especially interesting.
The first fish received were two individuals caught in shad nets on the coast of
North Carolina on April the 6th and 8th. The first fare brought in from the
off-shore grounds consisted of 7700 mackerel taken in a purse-seine on April
17, about 65 miles south-east of Cape Henry. They measured from 10 to
17^- inches long. In some of the larger of these fish the reproductive organs
were found to be spent, indicating that they had already spawned, and giving
an earlier date for the beginning of the spawning season, at least in some
years, than had previously been supposed. The location where the spawning had
taken place could not, of course, be told ; but that it was not situated close to
the shore would seem to be shown by the fact that never more than small
quantities of mackerel are ever taken so far south in the shore apparatus. In
several subsequent purse-seine catches made off the Virginia coast up to the
last of April, and even into May, the same conditions were observed, more or
less, of the fish having apparently spawned, while in others the eggs were
approaching maturity ; but in no case did the fish seem actually to have been
spawning at the time when taken. It should be explained in this connection,
however, that only a relatively small nunaber of the fish from each fare
marketed could be obtained for examination, and are the basis for the facts
above mentioned.

" About May 1st the shore nets on Long Island and along the southern
coast of New England began to take their first mackerel, which appeared
latest and continued longest at the eastern end. The fish whicli reached New
York from this region were either in spawning condition or nearly ripe."

[ ^1 ]

Preliminary Notes on the Reproduction of Teleostean
Fishes in the South-Western District.

By
Ernest W. L. Holt.

During the present year tow-netting has been carried on with such
continuity as the weather permitted, and the fish-ova and larvae thereby
obtained have been studied by Mr. S. L"). Scott during the winter
months, and by myself since the spring. While reserving a general
account of the results until the close of the season, it seems advisable
to deal now, in however preliminary a manner, with a few species,
an addition to the existing knowledge of which may be found of
immediate use by workers in the same field. I take this opportunity
of expressing my indebtedness to Mr. Scott for observing certain eggs
which I was obliged to leave at the Laboratory at a stage too little
advanced for specific determination.

Capros aper. — Linn.

The ova of this fish were artificially fertilized by Cunningham
{Journ. M.B.A., N. S., I., 1889, p. 10) on August 15th, 1897, and lived
until a stage immediately prior to the outgrowth of a free tail, the
embryo exhibiting black chromatophores at the sides, near the dorsal
median line. The dimensions of the ovum at the latest stage studied
are stated to be 1*2 by 1'5 mm., that of the oil-globule "19 mm.

One pelagic egg with a single oil-globule is very like another until
the ennbryo is so far advanced as to exhibit specifically diagnostic
characters, and I was unable to identify tow-net eggs from the above
description. However, on the 25th June, 1897, I was able to fertilize
ova taken from ripe parents trawled on the Eddy stone ground; and some
of these hatched out in due course, and, indeed, survived until of the
yolk there remained nothing but the oil-globule. I am therefore able
to give a sufficiently exact description of the development in ovo and
early larval stages.

42 PUELIMINAUY NOTES ON THE KErUODUCTION OF TELEOSTEAN

Artificially fertilized eggs measured from "915 to '955 mm. ; the siugle
oil-globule 15 to "16 mm. The oil-globule was colourless, but dark and
smoky.

Tow-net eggs, which can be identified with this species without any
risk of error, measure from "97 to '99, the oil-globule from "lo to
•165 mm. ; and it may be noted that the oil-globule is usually, but not
invariably, of a bright yellow colour — a matter of no real specific
importance. Including all tow-net eggs, which seem to me to belong
to this species, the diameter varies from "93 to I'Ol mm.

The zona presents no features of interest, the surface corrugations
observable in the newly-extruded ova disappearing as development
proceeds.

Black pigment, as stated by Cunningham, appears before the out-
growth of a free tail. At the stage when that organ manifests itself
as a short prominence I find that faint black chromatophores are present
along the head and trunk, but chiefly on either side of the middle line.
At the posterior end they extend on to the yolk sac, forming a small
marginal group outlining the end of the trunk. The oil-globule at this
stage is postero-ventral.

Before the tail has attained any considerable length yellow chroma-
tophores appear along the sides of the embryo, and a few of each colour
associate themselves with the oil-globule, which has (usually) become
posterior in position. The chromatophores are very frequently on the
hinder face of the globule. The skin shows a tendency to become
papillate.

By the time the tail is of equal length with the trunk large black and
yellow chromatophores extend along the sides of the latter, upon the
rectal region, and rather irregularly along the tail, showing a tendency
to form a posterior pigment bar. In all specimens which I have seen
the epidermis is by this time more or less distinctly papillate, especially
on the yolk sac. The papillae are ovoidal, and not connected with each
other by apparent ridges or stride. Usually they are extremely con-
spicuous, and as characteristic of the species as such variable structures
ever are in Teleostean embryos.

The newly-hatched larva measures, in one instance, 2'09 mm. The
hind end of the yolk is I'oS mm. from the snout, and '25 in front of the
anus, which is thus considerably posterior to median. The wide inter-
space between yolk and anus is characteristic of all larvic which I have
seen, but there are minor differences of dimension. Thus another
specimen, soon after hatching, is 2*85 mm. long, and there is a space
of •44 mm. between yolk and anus. In some cases the yolk is ovoidal,
and extends in front of the snout, but usually it appears to be more
oblong in profile. The oil-globule is normally posterior, but may be

IRISHES IN THE SOUTH-WESTERN DISTRICT. 43

ventral, in wliich case it is unaccompanied by pigment ; and it may
be remarked that minor differences in the position of oil globules do not
deserve the attention that has sometimes been bestowed on them.

Pigment is rather variable, but is never present on the marginal fins
nor about the yolk, except along its posterior edge and about the
globule. Chroraatophores of both colours (the yellow being golden-
brown by transmitted light) are scattered along the head, trunk, and
tail of the larva. These are of large size, stellate or dendritic, and
arranged for the most part along the dorsal and ventral regions. There
may be an approach towards a postanal bar by discontinuity posterior
to the rectal region, but this is never well marked. Chromatophores
extend some way along the hind wall of the rectum, and, as we have
seen, along the hinder profile of the yolk. The skin is markedly
papillate, but the margins of the fins are devoid of the digitiform cells
noticeable in Arnoglossus or Coris. The notochord is multicolumnar.

In later stages the larva becomes characterised by the development of
a very strongly marked renal band of very large black chromatophores,
exteuding from the otocyst to about the anterior third of the tail. A
dorsal band, corresponding posteriorly to the first, extends forward
about half-way along the abdominal region. A third ventral abdominal
band occupies the greater part of the abdominal length, and the
chromatophores on the dorsum may form a fourth, extending from the
cerebellar region to a little behind the shoulder girdle. Yellow pigment
seems to be everywhere associated with the black, but is almost com-
pletely masked where the latter exists. It is conspicuous, however, on
the sides, especially post-anally, and on the snout, mid-brain, and
otocystic region. More or fewer black chromatophores are present
about the head in the regions named, and also on the lower jaw and
isthmus. The fins are absolutely devoid of pigment, except where
a little extends post-anally from each margin of the tail. There is
no pigment at all about the posterior two-thirds of the tail of the
larva.

At this stage, the most advanced reached by my artificially fertilized
ova, as also by tow-net specimens, the larva measures 2"98 mm., of
which 1"55 is anterior to the anus, and 1'97 is pigmented. The yolk is
only represented by the remains of the oil-globule. The liver and gut
are well developed, the latter still without convolution. The mid-brain
is elevated, and there is a distinct approach to the rostral prominence of
the adult. The trunk is only of moderate depth, but the posterior half
of the tail tapers rather suddenly. The marginal fins are only of
moderate width, the dorsal having its origin behind the mid-brain. The
epidermis remains markedly papillate, but the outline of the fin-ridge is
unbroken, save at the caudal extremity, where it is somewhat pectinate,

44 I'KELIMINAHY NOTKS ON TIIK UEPUODUCTION OF TELEOSTEAN

embryonic rays occurring basally in this part. The pectoral fin is of
the usual fan-like type, and of the ordinary dimensions. The otocyst is
smaller than the eye, which is pigmented and obviously functional.
The gape is of moderate extent, the lower jaw, as usual, slightly
projecting.

Older stages of this larva seem to me to be represented by a number
of examples taken in the bottom tow-net about two miles olf Fowey
river, on the 29th and 30th June. I did not measure, nor very closely
examine, any of these in the fresh condition. None were alive when
the nets came on deck, so that the present dimensions of the smallest
are no doubt less than the original, since young fish-larvse always
shrink unless they are actually killed in a suitable fixing medium.
At present the dimensions, roughly measured, are from 5 to 6*5 mm.

The smallest specimens agree with the oldest of those which I reared
from the egg in the distribution and arrangement of the black pigment,
and in the general conformation, allowing for the difference in age.
Thus the trunk is somewhat deeper, and the flexure of the caudal
extremity (by hypural development) more accentuated. The rostral
prominence is no longer conspicuous.* Yellow pigment, if present, was
not a prominent feature, and its disappearance is in accordance with the
known developmental phases of other species.

From this stage the series passes without a break to the largest
example, which measures 6*0 mm. in total length, of which "90 mm.
is occupied by the caudal fin, and about 1*50 by the head. The greatest
height of the body, without vertical fins, is 1-25 mm. In general
conformation the larva bears some resemblance to a Labrus, save that
the anterior profile is more rounded. The mouth is large, the snout
shorter than the eye, which measures '54 in horizontal diameter. The
body is laterally compressed, but the dorsal and ventral profiles are
still nearly parallel, and not arched, as in the adult: posteriorly the
tail tapers rather rapidly, but the caudal peduncle is, nevertheless, of
considerable vertical width. The caudal fin is almost completely
" homocercal." The dorsal and anal fins are represented by embryonic
rays.

Of yellow pigment I saw none in the fresh condition, but black
chromatophores are abundant, and very strikingly distributed. A
sheet of stellate chromatophores, irregularly arranged in about ten
longitudinal rows, clothes the side of the fish from the shoulder girdle
to the hind end of the (permanent) anal fin. Dorsally the sheet does
not extend quite so far, as its hind margin is oblique. Its dorsal

* In Callionymus an approach to the rostral i)roniineucc of tlie adult lias l)ecn noted in
the early larva, but is shown to become masked in subsequent stages, to reappear willi the
linal assumption of the adult characters (Cf. Trans. A*. Dub. 6'oc., v., ii., pi. iii.).

FISHES IN THE SOUTH-WESTERN DISTRICT. 45

outline does not quite reach the middle of tlie back, and, post-anally,
it is not quite continuous with a row of chromatophores which appears
at the base of the anal fin. In front the outline is also oblique, the
anterior edge passing from the top of the shoulder girdle to a point
on the abdominal margin somewhat posterior to the ventral end of
the clavicle, and, on the abdomen generally and its dorsal parts in
particular, the chromatophores are less closely set than elsewhere.
There are some large chromatophores on the top and otocystic regions
of the head. Beyond these there are only a few quite insignificant
chromatophores at the base of the dorsal and on the caudal peduncle ;
but the eyes are, of course, fully pigmented. The larva thus appears, to
the naked eye, to be clothed in a continuous sheet of grey, except on
the head and caudal peduncle. I do not know at what period the red
colour of the adult is assumed, but have seen Mediterranean specimens
of about H inches, which were dull grey in colour.

Day {Brit. Fish., i. p. 137), writing of the colours, regards the fish
as " remarkable, in that it may be banded or plain, the bands, it having
been suggested, being due to the example having been in a dark
locality." In all examples which I have seen a number of bands
could be detected by careful observation, viz., curved bands about the
dorsal parts, which are never at all conspicuous, and a series of vertical
bands. I found, on examination, that the vertical bands were the most
conspicuous in those examples in which the general red colour was of
a bright scarlet, and that these fish were males in breeding condition.
The females, also in full sexual production, were much duller in general
colouration, with only very faint vertical bauds. Day, previous to the
conclusion noted above, quotes Dunn to the effect that the bands fade
after spawning, but no one seems to have remarked their apparent
sexual significance. I do not know if this colour dimorphism is
accompanied by any structural difference, but mean to examine the
matter.

Phrynorhombus unimaculatus. — Risso.

Our knowledge of the reproduction of this fish rests upon the single
record, by the late George Brook (4th Rep. S.F.B.), of the capture of a
ripe female. The ovarian eggs, which were observed to contain a single
oil-globule, measured '96 mm. after preservation.

On the 1st June of the present year three examples were trawled in
Teignmouth Bay by I\Ir. S. D. Scott and myself, and proved to consist
of a male and two females in breeding condition. An attempt to
artificially fertilize the ova from one of these was only partially
successful, since the male, which was dead, was not quite ripe, and only
a little milt could be obtained by cutting up the testes.

46 rRELI.MIXAIJY NOTES ON THE RErRODUi 'TION OF TELEOSTEAN

However, a certain number of ova were impregnated, but while
several survived up to a late stage of development, only one hatched.

The unfertilized ova immediately after extrusion were found to
measure from "92 to "93 mm. in diameter. After fertilization, ova
measured during the progress of development varied from "90 to "99
mm. The single oil-globule measured from '16 to "18 mm. In the early
condition the globule exhibited a distinct yellow or greenish yellow
colour, a trace of which remained almost up to the time of hatching.

Sixty-six hours after fertilization the embryo had a free tail equal in
length to the head and trunk. Pigment was present in the form of
small black chromatophores rather profusely distributed over the
embryo, except at the extremity of the tail, and more sparsely over
the yolk. Pale yellow pigment was present on the embryo, imparting a
uniform yellow tinge, the individual chromatophores not being visible
under a moderately high power. Tlie epidermis was beset with a not
very conspicuous reticulation of minute papillae.

Ninety hours after fertilization a single larva had hatched ; it
measured 2-38 mm. in total length, the marginal anus 1'07 mm. from
the snout, being slightly anterior to median. The rectum was
distinctly separate from the yolk. Yellow pigment was present on
all parts of the larva (except the end of the tail), but in greatest
abundance, in so far as concerns those parts, along the dorsal and
ventral regions of the head, trunk, and tail. On the marginal fins and
yolk-sac it was present in scattered dendritic chromatophores, rather
more abundantly on the fins of the posterior half of the tail than
anteriorly. Small black chromatophores occurred sparsely over the
entire general surface, more diffusely on the posterior part of the tail
(not fins) than at any other point, but on the dorsal fin were confiued
to the immediate neighbourhood of the margin. A small pectoral fin
was observable, and opposite to this was a slight inflection of the
margin of the dorsal fin, which latter commenced to rise, as is usual
in newly-hatched larvse, near the level of the hind end of the otocyst.
The oil-globule was posterior in position. The epidermis was beset with
minute papillio or tubercles, with some indication of connecting ridges
or stria3.

The larva did not survive to exhibit any more advanced stage of
development, and none of the remaining eggs hatched.

I am in some doubt as to whether this observation of the early stages
of ]\ unimandatus throws any light on previously known but unde-
termined ova and larvre. The form that at once suggests itself in this
connection is the Species F of Mcintosh and Prince, which has also been
described by myself {Trans. R. Diib. Soc, s. ii., v. pt. ii. p. 101), and has
more recently been recognised by Ehrenbaum at Heligoland (Me?- u.

FISHES IN THE SOUTH-WESTERN DISTRICT. 47

Larv. V. Fisch. d. deustch. Buchf, i., 1897, p. 317). The dimensions are
no obstacle to the identity of the two forms, since, if Species F is truly a
single species, its diameter ranges from '75 to 'OOOG mm. The extremes
are rather far apart, though I am not prepared to say that the variation
is too great, since one is constantly encountering fresh evidence of the
elasticity of the dimensions of Teleostean ova. In comparing the larval
P. tinionaculatus with my own notes and drawings of Species F, I find no
discrepancies of pigment and general conformation that are in themselves
of specific importance.

In discussing the affinities of the egg and larva, Mcintosh* and
Ehrenbaum have laid stress on the absence of F. unimaculatus from
the fauna of their respective districts. With all respect, I would submit
that such absence may well be more apparent than real, recalling the
use which Cunningham has shown the Topknots to make of their
marginal fins. A fish which habitually clings to the vertical faces of
rocks is well fitted to elude the ordinary collecting apparatus, and is
taken, if at all, largely by chance.

I do not say that P. unimacidatus is present in the neighbourhood
of Heligoland or St. Andrews, but I think that it might be, without
attracting human attention.

The real objection to the identity of Species F with the Topknot now
under discussion seems to me to lie in the epidermal structure. My
solitary larva certainly did not exhibit the reticulo-papillate arrange-
ment of epidermal cells in a degree nearly as well marked as in the few
specimens of F which have come under my notice; and formerly
I should have considered this difference an absolute bar to the identity
of the species. Eecently, however, I have had the opportunity of
studying the development of two species of Arnoglossus, in the larval
condition of which the reticulo-papillate condition may be even more
strongly marked than in Species F, and I find that the condition is vari-
able, not only in individuals, but in the same individual. Certain circum-
stances, which I cannot clearly associate with the health of the
individual, operate in such a way as to render the degree in which
the epidermal peculiarities are apparent a matter of no value for
specific identification. Thus, while I do not feel in a position to
positively affirm the identity of all examples of Species F with P.
unimacidahis, I am strongly of opinion that some, at least, of them
may have belonged to that species.

I have remarked that the ova of P. unimaculatus, taken from one
female, had yellow oil-globules. Probably all observers of Teleostean
embryology will agree that the presence or absence of colour in the
globules is of no specific moment.

* McInto.sh and Masterman, British Marine Food Fishes, p. 348,

48 rUKLIMINAKY NOTES ON THE KErUODUCTION OF TELEOSTEAN

I have long ago pointed out the resemblance between Species F (my
Species xii., Trains, li. Dul. Soc, loc. cit.) and the series of metamorphosing
larvai which I described and figured (op. cit., p. 104, pi. xi.) under the
title of Species xiii., and, in discussing the probable afiinities of the latter,
I was led to the belief that they were the young of P. unimaculatus.
Whether or no they are identical with all specimens which have been
included in Species F, I do not feel qualified to decide, but a comparison
with the actual larva of P. unimacvlatus inclines me strongly to the
opinion that this species is the parent of the metamorphosing series
comprised in Species xiii. Without the assistance of figures it is idle to
discuss the matter farther, but I hope soon to have an opportunity
of enforcing my own opinion by the illustration of my material.

Arnoglossus laterna. — Gilnther.

It is only quite recently that the developing ova and larva? of the
scaldfish have come under the notice of naturalists. Raffaele certainly
observed the ovarian eggs of several species of Arnoglossus, of which
A. conspersus was presumably one. The latter, if not identical with,
is at least very closely allied to the common Atlantic species ; but in
any case, llaffaele failed to secure the embryo or larva, either by
artificial impregnation or by the use of tow-nets.

During the summer of 1895 I was led to the conclusion that certain
tow-net eggs from the Gulf of Marseilles must belong to A. conspersus,
but the publication of my results has been anticipated by Dr. Ehren-
baum, who has recently {op. cit, p. 298), described the earliest stages
of A. laterna from Heligoland. Petersen {Rep. Dan. Biol. St., 1894,
p. 44) had already obtained the ripe ovarian ova, but was fain to
content himself with a naked eye observation thereof, while Ehren-
baum was obliged to rely on tow-net material. There is, nevertheless,
no doubt as to the correctness of his diagnosis.

In British waters the spawn of this fish has hitherto entirely escaped
attention. During the Irish survey, though I obtained many specimens,
I never saw a ripe female, and on this coast, where the species is even
more abundant, there is no record of any observation of its reproduc-
tion. Moreover, of the many undetermined species of eggs which have
from time to time been described by liritish writers, none can possibly
be assigned to the scaldfish.

So far as concerns the observation of fish in the process of reproduc-
tion, I am now able to supply the deficiency, but have never been able
to hatch artificially fertilized eggs.

On the 1st and 2nd June, in Teigiimouth and Tor Bays, we trawled
a number of ripe examples of both sexes of the undifferentiated form
originally defined by Gilnther as A. laterna.

FISHES IN THE SOUTH-WESTERN DISTRICT. 49

Ova were taken from five females, 5^ to 6| inches long, and im-
pregnated with milt from three males, 5 to 5| inches.

The ova underwent the early phases of segmentation, but died before
the formation of the head. Half an hour after fertilization six
specimens measured from '675 to "690 mm. in diameter, the single oil-
globule measuring •14 to '15 mm. It was dark, with a smoky margin,
but quite devoid of colour. The yolk and zona presented no feature
of importance.

On the 9th July, in the outer part of Falmouth Bay {Echinus and
Peden ground) we trawled a number of scaldtish chiefly of the
differentiated form once known as A. lophotes, Gthr., with a few of the
smaller undifferentiated type. The same experience was repeated on
the 10th July.

On each occasion I found that the larger differentiated forms com-
prised some females from which the eggs could readily be extruded.
They measured from 6|- in. to 6f in., and exhibited a distinct pro-
longation of the anterior dorsal rays. The smaller females of the
A. laterna type were two in number, and measured 5^ in. to 5f in.
These were also full of spawn, but not quite ready for extrusion.

Ova were obtained from two of the large females and impregnated
with milt from a number of large males 6f in. to 7 in. long ; and
although the testes appeared to be ripe, I found, as also with the
small males of the Devon coast, that milt could only be obtained
by removing the organs and squeezing them in water. About seven
hours later I measured six eggs, which appeared to have been success-
fully fertilized. The diameter ranged from "75 to 76 mm. ; that of the
oil-globule from '12 to '13 mm. Apart from dimensions, the ova were
in all respects similar to those of the smaller forms, save that the
zona appeared rather thicker in the latter. A number of the eggs
survived for nearly a day, but were subsequently killed, as I suppose,
by the intense heat of the 10th July. It was noted that they floated
buoyantly in the water of the outer part of the bay, but without
crowding at the surface of the vessel in which they were placed.

It is necessary to remark, in the first place, that my observations
deal only with a few individuals, and that I do not know exactly,
having mixed the ova obtained from the several specimens, to how
many parents those measured should be ascribed. Such as they are,
the results suggest that the smaller females produce smaller eggs
(which is known to be the case, teste Maitland, in individuals of the
Salmonidre). A much more remarkable suggestion is that the eggs
of the A. lophotes type have smaller globules than those of the
undifferentiated A. laterna; but this may prove to be merely a matter
of variety, or may be explained by developmental physiological

NEW SERIES. — vol. V. NO. 1. ^

50 TELEOSTEAN FISHES IN THE SOUTH-WESTERN DISTIUCT.

changes of which I have no knowledge. For the present I have been
prevented by bad weather from obtaining such a series of examples
as would enable us to state the relation of dimension of egg to that
of parent with anything like certainty.

It has already been suggested by Calderwood and myself (Trans.
R. Duh. Soc, V. p. 504) that the absence of the A. lophotes type from
regions, e.g. Scandinavia, where A. laterna is well known, is quite
intelligible in the light of Maitland's researches on *S^, levencnsis ; and
I tliink that the establishment of well-marked differences in tlie
dimensions of the ova from large and small scaldfish parents would
go far to support this view.

The tow-nets have not yielded any scaldfish eggs at the times when
spawning fish have been trawled, and, indeed, I have only found the
egg on two occasions in British waters. Ehrenbaum failed to obtain
the eggs at the surface on any occasion, and, concluding that they
might be confined to the deeper layers of water, secured them finally
by the use of the vertical net between 18 and 40 m. (say 9 to 22
fathoms). I have not been able to keep artificially fertilized eggs long
enough to speak with certainty as to their specific gravity throughout
the developmental period, but I have no hesitation in saying that
the buoyancy of an egg in ordinary off-shore sea-water is subject to
fluctuations which are explicable neither by species, degree of develop-
ment, nor obvious physical and meteorological causes. I have not
actually seen scaldfish eggs at the surface, but on the 6th June I found
newly-hatched larvas of A. laterna amongst ova and larva) taken at
the surface (four miles south of the Plymouth Mewstone) two days
previously. The only other egg obtained was taken in the bottom
tow-net on the 30th June, about two miles off Fowey river. The
larvai hatched from these eggs agree exactly with Ehrenbaum's figure
of A. laterna, as also with the Mediterranean forms, which I myself
associate with A. conspersiis. The ova and larva) of A. GroJimanni
must undoubtedly exist on our coasts, and it may therefore be of use
to point out that the larva (as I hope shortly to show in a communica-
tion to the Annales Mus. Nat. Hist. Marseille) is readily distinguished
from that of A. laterna by the presence of two post-anal pigment
bands. It is, in fact, the larva figured by Eaffaele as hatched from
ova resembling those of various species of Arnoglossus and of Blwm-
hoidichthys and Citharus.

Note added in Press.

Ar7iO(jIossus Grohmanni. — Two eggs, which proved to belorg to this species,
were taken at the surface on the 27tli July between tlie Eddystone and Hand
Deep?.

[ 51 ]

Note on New or Rare British Marine Polyzoa.

By
S. F. Harmer, M.A., B.Sc.

1. Hypophordla cxpansa, Ehlers.

IIypo2)horclla cxpansa, Ehlers, Ahh. Ges. Gbttincj., xxi., 1876, Phys. CI., 1;

Prouho, Arch. Zool. Exp. (2), x., 1892, p. 594.
Dclagia chcetopteri, Joyeux-Lafl'uie, C. E. Ac. Sci., cvi., 1888, p. 620, and Arch.

Zool. Exp. (2), vi., 1888, p. 135.

This species was originally found by Ehlers at Spiekeroog, an island
off the coast of E. Friesland, in the North Sea. It has more recently
been found by Joyeux-Laffuie at Luc-sur-Mer (Normandy), and by
Prouho at Eoscoff and at Banyuls. Its wide distribution, from the
North Sea to the Mediterranean, made it almost certain that it would
be found in British waters when looked for in the right place. Ehlers
discovered it in the substance of the tubes of Terehella (Zanice)
concJiilega, while Joyeux-Laffuie and Prouho found it in the tubes
of Chaioptcrus.

On one of the last days of my stay at Plymouth in April last, a few
Chcctopterus tubes, dredged near the Eddystone in thirty fathoms, were
brought to the Laboratory. Several of these tubes contained Ilypoi^lio-
rclla expansa, which I had no difficulty in finding by following the
directions given by Joyeux-Laffuie. The tube should be slit open, and
a thin lamella of its substance, stripped off from the inner side, should
be examined with the microscope. Even if the delicate zooecia are torn
by the operation, or if the lamella be too thin to include any zocecia,
the presence of the Polyzoon may be recognized by the holes through
which the tentacles can be protruded into the interior of the tube.
Each of these holes appears to the naked eye as a minute, opaque,
white spot. The spotted appearance of the inside of the tube is a
convenient indication of the presence of the Hyipopliordla, which can
at once be recognized by the very long, thread-like connexions between
the zooecia, and by the two curious vesicular cavities whicli occur, one
on either side of the distal end of the zooecium. Excellent figures of

i> 2

52 NOTE ON NEW OR HARE BRITISH MARINE rOLYZOA,

the species are given by Ehlers and by Joyeux-Laffuie in his second
paper.* Prouho's account contains some interesting details with regard
to the mechanism of burrowing in the tube of the host, and with
regard to the character of the larva, which, as Prouho has shown,
belongs to the Cyphonautes type.

Hyi^o'phordla is probably common wherever Chccto])terus occurs. I
have not made any careful examination of the tubes of Terebella
conchilega, but it may be worth while to point out that Ehlers dis-
covered the Polyzoon most commonly in the parts of the tube which do
not project above the surface of the sand.

2. Escharoidcs cptincuncialis, Norman.

The history of this species, which was described from a single
fragment, not more than a (quarter of an inch long, is given on p. 339
of Hincks' British Marine Polyzoa (1880). The original specimen
came from deep water in the Minch.

I obtained a single piece, closely resembling Dr. Norman's specimen,
in April, 1889. The fragment was dredged off Plymouth, but I am
not able to give either the exact locality or the depth from which it
was obtained. The specimen was mounted in glycerine-jelly, which
has unfortunately completely decalcified it, but from ray examination
of it, made in 1889, I can state that its agreement with the original
description was very close.

3. Micropora complanata, Norman.

Lepralia complanata, Norman, Ann. Nat. Hist. (3), xiii., 1861, p 85 ; Hincks,

Ibid. (5), xix., 1887, p. 304.
Micropora complanata, Hincks, Brit. Mar. Polyzoa, 1880, p. 175.
Mevibranipora smittii, Manzoni, SB. Ak. Wien, Ixi , 1 Abth., 1870, p. 333.

Dr. Norman's original specimens were from Mr. Barlee's collection ;
and although they were believed to be British, their locality was
unknown. Hincks (1887) has described specimens from the Adriatic,
and Manzoni (1870) had previously found the same species in the
Pliocene of Calabria. I believe I am correct in saying that no British
localities have yet been recorded.

I found this species on the north-east side of the island of Tresco
(Scilly Isles) in the spring of 1895. It occurred commonly as large
white encrustations on the sheltered surfaces of the granite rocks
exposed between tide - marks. The empty Lamellibranch valves on
which Laminaria picked up on the shore had grown also afforded one
or two specimens. Dr. Norman kindly verified my determination, and
suggested to me that this is a southern species which only just

* Arch, Zool. Exp. (2), vi. pi. viii.

NOTE ON NEW OR RARE BRITISH MARINE POLYZOA. 53

reaches our shores. Although I believe it to be one of the commonest
littoral forms in Scilly, I have not found it at Plymouth.

Mr, Hincks, in his later reference to this species (1887), refers it
to the genus Lcpralia. He there states that the " marginal callosity,"
described by Manzoni (pi. iii. fig. IG), in the specimens from the
Italian Tertiaries, is well developed in the specimens from the
Adriatic, but that " there is scarcely a trace of it in British examples."
This statement is not confirmed by my specimens from Scilly, in which
the marginal callosities are at least as well developed, in many of the
zocecia, as in those figured by Manzoni.

4. Schizojyorella cristata, Hincks. (See Brit. Mar. Polyzoa, 1880,
p. 254.)

This is a species described by Mr. Hincks from a single small colony
found at Hastings. It is of some interest to record the discovery
of two similar small colonies on the inside of an empty valve of
Pecten maximus, from twenty fathoms on the Mewstone Ledge at
Plymouth.

[ 54 ]

On Tubularia crocea in Plymouth Sound.

By

Edward T. Browne,

University College, London.

During my visit to the Plymouth Laboratory in September, 1895,
Mr. lioach brought in, on the 28th, some fine colonies of Tubularia
which he had found attached to the stern of a large three-masted
sailing ship, the Ballachulish, of Ardrossau. This ship had come direct
from Iquique, Peru, and after staying a few days in the Sound left for
London. The Tubularia was kindly given to me for identification
by Mr. E. J. Allen. After making drawings and noting the variation
of the different organs, I came finally to the conclusion that as it
agreed so closely with Parypha crocea, Agassiz, from Boston Harbour,
there was no need to add another species to the genus. I was fortunate
to meet with colonies of both sexes, and to find the ova in various
stages of development. I believe enough material has been preserved
to trace the development of the ovum, which shows a remark-
able similarity to the development of the ova from the medusa of
Hyhocodon 'prolife.r.

Actinulae were being liberated in large quantities when the colonies
were taken from the ship, so it is possible that this hydroid may become
an interesting addition to the fauna of Plymouth Sound.

To distinguish this species it is necessary to examine the female
gonophores, and count the number of apical ridges. Agassiz states that
the number varies between six and ten, but only eight were present
in my specimens. The male gonophore is destitute of ridges, and
usually terminates in a blunt apex. In the European species of
Tubularia the gonophores are either without ridges, or when they are
present their number does not exceed four.

The stolon ramifies and gives off numerous stems which are branched,
twisted, and contorted near the base, so forming a thick, matted mass,
from which the simple stems arise to about two inches in height. The
stems are not often straight, and are always aunulated at the base, and

ON TtJBULARIA CROCEA IN PLYMOUTH SOUND. 55

at intervals higher up. The annulations on the stems are neither
constant in position nor in number. There are usually three to five
sets, and the number of rings in each set varies from two to twelve,
but usually three or four are found together.

The colour of the colonies showed considerable variation. At first
I thought the colours showed a distinction of the sexes, but further
examination upset this view. The colours of the different colonies may
be separated into two well-marked groups, the one extending from a pale
yellow to a dark brown, the other from a brilliant reddish brown to crimson.
The hydranth carries twenty to twenty-four proximal and distal tentacles.
The clusters or racemes of gonophores show variation in number, which
is chiefiy due to their not all developing at the same time. The species
is described with gonophores in ten to twelve pendulous racemes, which
are disposed in two to three rows one over the other, and which surpass
in length the proximal tentacles of the hydranth. To judge from the
specimens which I have examined, the gonophores in each row are
of about the same age. At first there is only one row, then follows
a second between the first row and the proximal tentacles, and lastly,
a third row on the outer side of the second row. There is apparently
a great difference in the age of each row, and usually only one row
is mature at a time. There are usually about eight racemes of gono-
phores, arranged in two rows ; the greatest number counted was twelve,
arranged in three rows. The racemes are not as long as the proximal
tentacles, and do not hang down as figured by Agassiz.

A description of Tuhularia crocca is given by Allman in his mono-
graph on the Gymnoblastic Hydroids.

[ r.6 ]

Hjort's Hydrographic-Biological Studies of the
Norwegian Fisheries : a Review.

By

Walter Garstang, M.A.,

Fellow of Lincoln College, Oxford,
and Naturalist in charge of Fishery Investigation at the Plymouth Laboratory.

Scandinavia lias been for a number of years past the centre of interest
in hydrograpbic inquiries. The waters of the Baltic, Skagerack, and
Cattegat, have been thoroughly investigated by Swedish men of
science ; the complicated currents of those seas and their periodic
alterations have been determined and explained ; and a relation has
been found to exist between the movements of herring and mackerel
and the periodic changes in the character of the water which bathes
the Swedish shores. The brilliant results attained by the Swedish
hydrographers have been fully described by Prof. Otto Pettersson
in the tenth volume of the Scottish Geographical Magazine (1894), and a
critical summary of these results is included in Cunningham's paper on
the "Physical and Biological Conditions of the North Sea," published
in this journal last year. (Vol. iv., 1896, p. 233.)

The fruitfulness of Pettersson's methods has, however, led other
countries to co-operate with the Swedish hydrographers in extending
the area of investigation, and in 1893 a series of investigations was
carried out simultaneously in different parts of the North Sea by
Swedish, German, Danish, British, and Norwegian vessels. The
investigations on the part of our country were undertaken by the
Fishery Board for Scotland, and were carried out by Dickson in H.M.S.
Jackal. His results were published in the Twelfth Report of the
Fishery Board for Scotland, and a further account of their bearings on
the fishery problems appeared in Natural Science for January, 1895.

The Norwegian investigations were entrusted by the Norwegian
Government to Dr. Johan Hjort, Stipendiate of State Fisheries, and his
results are contained in the volume of 150 pages before us,* published

• Hydrographic-Biological Studies of the Norwegian Fisheries, by Dr. Johan Hjort.
{Vidcnskabsselskuhets Skriftcr. I. Math. Naturv. Klasse. 1895. No. 9.) Christiania. 1896.

HJORT's studies of the NORWEGIAN FISHERIES. 57

iu the Norwegian language in 1895, and in English in 1896. In the
present article I propose to give an account of Hjort's investigations,
since the main problems which they were designed to elucidate concern
the fisheries of the British Isles almost as closely as they concern the
fisheries of Norway.

Hjort's enquiries may conveniently be described under three heads :
(1) Hydrography, (2) Plankton (floating fauna and flora), and (3)
Fisheries.

These will be discussed iu the order mentioned.

I. HYDROGRAPHy.

Hjort's investigations were limited to the waters bathing the shores
of Norway from the Christiania fjord to the Lofoten Islands. The bulk
of his work, moreover, was deliberately confined to the region of the
West Coast Spring Herring Fishery, i.e., the immediate neighbourhood
of the mouth of the Hardanger fjord, in order that a complete know-
ledge might be obtained at this one spot of the periodical changes in
the character of the water throughout the year.

His methods consisted in the analysis of a great number of samples
of water obtained in many localities at various depths, the temperature
of the dilferent samples having been registered at the time of collection.
He was successful in enlisting the interest and co-operation of a
number of navigating and fishery officers, and the Norwegian Govern-
ment placed a suitable steamship, H.N.M.S. Hcimdal, at his disposal.

It will be remembered that Pettersson showed that the waters of
the Skagerack and Cattegat consist of two principal layers, having
different salinity and different temperature relations — a layer of light
water {i.e., of little salinity) on the surface, and a layer of dense water
below. These two principal layers are separated by an intermediate
layer of water, whose character, in regard to salinity and temperature,
is intermediate between those of the principal layers.

The surface layer is Baltic water, the bottom layer is North Sea
water, and the intermediate layer, which crops up at the surface over
the shallow banks of Jutland and the west coast of Norway, is termed
by Pettersson "bank water" ("coast water" of Cunningham).

The depth of the surface layer at different seasons depends on the
amount of fresh water liberated from the Baltic Sea, and ultimately
derived from tlie rivers which flow into it. This amount naturally
increases enormously in the spring and summer (April to September),
owing to rainfall and the thawing of ice and snow, and decreases
in autumn and winter (October to March), owing to the locking up
of the rivers by frost.

58 hjort's hydrographic-biological studies

In spring and summer the Baltic water flows out over the surface
of the Cattegat and Skagerack and along the west coast of Norway
like a broad, deep river, at a rate of twenty miles daily. It is then
of a high temperature, being warmed by the sun.

In autumn and winter the volume of outflowing Baltic water is
greatly reduced, and from obvious causes it becomes ice-cold.

The difference in density between the Baltic water and the water
in the North Sea basin inevitably results in perpetual efforts of the
denser water to fill the Baltic basin ; but after it has gained admittance
as a bottom current its density becomes reduced by mixture with the
fresh water of the Baltic, it rises towards the surface, and is swept out
again with the Baltic stream. The varying force of the Baltic current
necessarily induces variations in the amount and strength of the
inflowing bottom current. The character of the inflowing water also
depends on the season and the weather : in summer it is normal North
Sea water which enters the Skagerack ; in autumn and winter " bank
water " of less salinity from the western shores of Jutland and Norway
takes its place.

It only remains to add that the outflowing Baltic current, after
rounding the Naze, flows northwards along the Norwegian coast. Here
it is well known to mariners, and may attain the high velocity of twenty
miles a day. (Mohn, 1887, p. 169.)

It might well be imagined that variations in a current of such
magnitude would exercise a considerable influence upon the state of
the sea water off the west coast of Norway, and Hjort's enquiries
have furnished a striking confirmation of this expectation. This will
be clear from the statements made in the following sections: —

'O

1. Seasonal Contrasts.

The seasonal contrasts in regard to hydrographic conditions off the
west coast of Norway are seen from Hjort's account to be essentially
similar to those recognized by Pettersson in the Skagerack. The great
arbiter of cold and heat, and the principal agent in the reduction of the
salinity of the water, is the same in both cases, viz., the Baltic current,
although the salinity of this current is not so low off the Norwegian
coast as in the east part of the Skagerack. This current, wide, thick,
and hot in summer, is, as a rule, narrow, thin, and cold in winter.

In certain winters, generally accompanied by south-west gales {c.g.^
that of 1893-4), the Baltic current is dammed up in the Cattegat, and
the shore along the whole west coast is then washed with a thick layer
of bank water of high salinity (33 per thousand and over) from the surface
down to a depth of fifty or sixty metres, beneath which is a thick layer

OF THE NORWEGIAN FISHERIES: A REVIEW.

59

of North Sea water. In such winters the sea along the coast is of
uniformly high salinity and temperature.

In other winters, either calm or marked by a predominance of south-
east gales {e.g., that of 1894-5), the cold Baltic current is released from
the Cattegat, and flows along the west coast in a slender stream. This
layer in itself is much less thick (usually ten or twenty metres) in
winter than in summer, but it covers the sea with a cold sheet of water
of very low salinity and temperature, which serves to dilute and cool
the upper layers of bank water to a considerable degree. Thus the
surface temperature was, in February, 1895, 2-9° C, although 6'5° in
February, 1894, while the salinity of the inshore waters down to a
depth of thirty, forty, or even seventy metres, did not exceed 33 per
thousand.

Such variations as these in the character of the inshore waters during
the winter season are of the highest interest and importance, as we
shall see below in the section dealing with the Fisheries.

The deeper water off the coast also undergoes considerable changes
in successive seasons. The summer season, for example, is characterised
by the great height to which the Atlantic water rises off the shore
(within 100 metres of the surface), and also by the thinness of the
layers of bank water and North Sea water; while in winter Atlantic
water is only found at great depths (250 metres), and the layers of
bank water and North Sea water are of great thickness.

These seasonal contrasts will best be comprehended by a comparison
of the statements made in the following parallel columns : —

Wateii-layer(and Salinity),

Baltic current [w]} to 327oo) •
(Salter off Norway than in
E. part of Skagerack).

Bank water (327„„ and 33%J.

North Sea water (34% J .
Atlantic water (357co) •

Summer.

Thick and wide
(50 metres x SO miles).

Thin and inconsiderable
(10 or 20 metres thick).

About 50 metres tiiick

Jluch nearer surface than
in winter (100 metres) .

Winter.

Thin and narrow. .

(10 or 20 metres X 16 or 20
miles) ; sometimes absent.

A broad thick belt along the
whole west coast (50 to 150
metres thick).

100 to 150 metres thick.

Onl}^ at great depths (below
250 metres).

2. Temperature Changes.

The Baltic current is hot in summer, cold in winter. Since the
low salinity of its water ensures its occupying the surface of the
sea at all seasons of the year, the seasonal change in its temperature
causes the maximum temperature to sink below the surface in autumn,
and tlie minimum temperature to ascend to the surface in winter.

60

IJJOKTS IIYDHOGRAPIIIC-BIOLOGICAL STUDIES

The complete cycle of changes is shown in the following tables
compiled from Hjort's data :

Temperature.

Summer.

July-Supt.

Autumn*. Wixter
Oct.-Dec. Jan. -March.

Spring.
April-June.

Maximum

Surface (Baltic
water).

Below surface Bottom (Atlantic
(N. Sea water). , orN. Sea water).

i

Begins at bottom ;
ends at surface.

Minimum

Bottom
(Atlantic water).

Bottom
(Atlantic).

Surface
(Baltic).

Begins at surface ;
gradually siuks
through Bank
water to N. Sea
water.

In the " typical winter period " (February and March) the tempera-
ture of the sea rises as one descends from the surface through the
successive layers of increasing salinity. We have just seen that the
minimum temperature is at the surface in the cold fresh water from
the Baltic, while the maximum temperature is at the bottom in
the salt Atlantic water. The interesting thing to notice is that at
this season of the year increase of temperature and increase of salinity
go together ; and that, within certain limits, the temperature of the
water during this period may be used as an index of salinity. Thus,

as a rule :

6° to 7° C. indicates Atlantic water.

5° ,. North Sea water.

4° to 3°
2° to 1°

Bank water.

the Baltic current.

The establishment of this relation is valuable, since it enables the
temperature data of previous years to be translated — so far as the
winter season is concerned — into terms of salinity, and thus permits
to a considerable extent the study of the winter characters of the
water off the Norwegian coast for many years back. Hjort's results
under this head will be found below in the section on "Fisheries."

3. Origin and Fate of Bank Water.

The facts that bank water lies between Baltic water and North Sea
water, that its characters are for the most part intermediate between
those of these two layers, and that bank water is most abundant in
autumn and winter, when the Baltic current is usually at its lowest,
render it probable that bank water is produced by a mixture of the
summer water of the Baltic current with the subjacent water of the
North Sea.

This view, at any rate, is taken by Hjort (pp. 22, 27), although

OF THE NORWEGIAX FISHERIES: A REVIEW.

61

he is careful to state that his investigations are insufficient to determine
the relative amounts of bank water due to local mixture and to trans-
ference from other parts. He points out, however, that the time when
the bank water thickens (autumn) is coincident with the period of
heavy westerly gales, which may be presumed to assist in forming the
mixture, as well as to drive it onwards towards the coast.

Probable as this explanation may at first appear, it must be pointed
out that the difference in the amount of bank water present off the
west coast during the winter seasons of 1893-4 and 1894-5 lends
no apparent support to the view. The former winter was excessively
stormy, owing to the prevalence of westerly gales, yet the thickness
of the layer of bank water did not attain an average of 60 metres.
On the other hand, the latter winter was calm, without westerly gales,
but with occasional south-east storms, and the thickness of the layer of
bank water exceeded the high average of 90 metres, thus : —

November.

December.

January.

February.

March.

Average.

Winter 1893-4 .
(stormy).

50 m.

?

?

60 m.

60 m.

57 m.

Winter 1894-5 .
(calm).

50 m.

150 m.

90 m.

?

80 m.

92 m.

Hjort further states (p. 24) that the bank water in November, 1894,
was " of far less thickness " than in the same month of 1893. Never-
theless, I do not find in his charts or tables any substantiation of this
statement, for, as will be gathered from the subjoined figures taken from
his data, the average thickness of the bank water was identical in the
two periods under comparison : —

Novembek, 1893.

November, 1894.

Station 28, Nov. 24th.
Plate III. fig. 2.

70 m.

60 m. (probably more,
accortling to tables, p. 26)

Station 92, Nov. 26th.
Plate III. lig. 4.

Station 24, Nov. 15th.
Plate III. fig. 1.

30 m.

50 m.

Station 90, Nov. 26th.
Plate I. fig. 4.

Station 36, Nov. 21st.
Plate III. fig. 3.

50 m.

40 m.

Station 93, Nov. 26th.
Plate I. fig. 12.

Average

50 m.

50 m.

Average.

The thick winter layer of bank water begins to be dissipated in
spring about the month of April, synchronously with the reappearance
of the Baltic current. According to Hjort, tiie disappearance of the

62 hjort's iiydrographic-biological studies

bauk water is effected partly by mixture with and conversion to
North Sea water, and partly by dilution with and conversion to that
of the I>altic. (p. 37.) This explanation is borne out by a comparison
of the soundings and salinities for March and April.

Pettersson's assertions concerning the inflow of Norwegian bank
water into the Skagerack as a bottom current during the winter
period (commencing at the end of December) are not adverted to
by Hjort. Nevertheless, Hjort's tables and charts throw light on a
difficulty in Pettersson's account to which attention has already been
drawn by Cunningham, {loc. cit., p. 236.) Pettersson states that the
autumn herring-fishery with floating-nets in the Cattegat and S. Skage-
rack begins simultaneously with the inflow of Danish bank water of
high temperature in the early autumn (August-September). Now, as
Cunningham points out, " we cannot consider the herring as a southern
fish," and "the association of herrings with southern coast water is
a fact which requires further examination."

I may briefly remark that the only difference recognized by Pettersson
between the Norwegian (or northern) and the Danish (or southern)
bank waters is one of temperature. Danish water having a temperature
up to 15° or 16° C. is stated to enter the Skagerack with westerly gales
in August and September, and to be eventually replaced towards the
end of December by an influx of Norwegian water, having a tempera-
ture varying between the limits of 4° and 6°. The high temperature of
the Danish water and the low temperature of the Norwegian are the
principal characteristics of the two masses of bank water.

Nevertheless, Pettersson admits that the bank water which abounded
in the eastern part of the Skagerack in November, 1893, was of
Norwegian origin, owing to the prevalence in it of a characteristic
assemblage of Arctic and North Atlantic organisms (Scot. Gcog.
Mag. X., 1894, p. 461) ; and it is important to notice that the
temperature of this bank water considerably exceeded the maximum
limit assigned to Norwegian bank water, being as high as 7'7° or S'S" C.

It is clear, therefore, that bank water of Norwegian origin may enter
the Skagerack as early as November, and that under such circumstances
it has a fairly higli temperature (8° C).

The question accordingly arises whether bank water of Norwegian
origin may not enter the Skagerack at a still earlier period {e.g.,
September), when its temperature would no doubt be higher still.
Hjort's surface chart for November, 1893, shows clearly that the
bank water in the Skagerack during that month, in spite of its high
temperature (7*7° and higher), was only part of a continuous mass
of bank water which bathed the west and south coasts of Norway
during the autumn of that year, and that the temperature off the

OF THE NORWEGIAN FISHEIUES : A REVIEW. 63

west coast, in the latitude of Stavanger, attained the height of 9*5°.
In Christiania fjord the bank water lying below the thin surface
layer of Baltic water had a temperature of from ir5° to 12'2° C.
The chart for August in the same year shows, moreover, that the
Norwegian and Danish bank waters were continuous with one another
off the coast of Jutland, and that the temperature of the Norwegian
portion was almost as high as that of the Danish water (15°).

There seems, therefore, to be no reason to doubt that the bank
waters of high temperature which enter the Skagerack in autumn
may consist of Norwegian as well as Danish water. The difficulty
which Cunningham has very pertinently raised in regard to the
association of herrings with purely Danish water would be satis-
factorily met by the explanation which Hjort's charts enable me now
to suggest.

II. Plankton (Floating Fauna and Flora).

Hjort's investigations of the distribution of plankton were confined
to the surface layers of the sea, his only available apparatus being a
simple net of fine silk gauze. Collections were made throughout the
year, principally from the west coast, but to some extent also from the
north coast, and from Christiania fjord. The results of his examination
of these collections are given in a series of tables and in a summary,
from which the author's opinions on his results may be gathered.
Hjort's conclusions, however, are cautiously expressed, and it would
be premature to regard any generalisations from the slender observations
which he records as at all final in character, although the accuracy of
the records themselves will enable them to be utilised for comparison
with future observations.

1. The Baltic Current. — In summer, in Christiania fjord, the plankton
of the thick Baltic surface layer (temperature 17"2° C.) was found
(August, 1894) to consist principally of the Copepods, Halitemora longi-
cornis and Centro^pages hamatus ; the Cladoceran, Evadnc Nordmanni ;
and great numbers of Cilioflagellata, particularly Ccratinm tripos. On
the west coast, in July and August, 1894, the Baltic current (temperature
15°) contained few Cilioflagellata, but large numbers of the following
Copepods, Oalamcs finmarchicus, Centropages hamatus, Pseudocalanus
elongatus, and Faracalanus parvus, together with Evadnc Nordmamii and
Podon, Sagitta, Appendicularians, and a moderate number of Ivadiolaria.

In the autumn, 1894, in Christiania fjord, the Baltic surface water
formed a thick layer, and in December (temperature 5*1°) contained
little except Cilioflagellata {C. tripos), which abounded. The deeper
layers also contained Sagitta. and a certain number of Diatomacefc.
On the other hand, in the autumn of 1893, the Baltic water was dammed

64 UJOKT'S HYDKOGRAPIIIC-BIOLO(rICAL STUDIP^S

up in the Cattegat, and formed but a shallow surface layer in Christiania
fjord. On November 12th the surface temperature was 4*3°. The
tow-nets brought up plankton consisting almost exclusively of vegetable
organisms, viz., a few Cilioflagellata and an abundance of Diatomaceae,
especially Chcctoceros curvisetus and a species of lihizosolenia. The
abundance of Diatomaceie within a short distance from the surface
(0 to 10 metres) was clearly correlated with the shallowness of the
Baltic layer, whereas in 1893, owing to the great thickness of the Baltic
layer, these organisms were only plentiful at a considerable depth.

On the west coast, in the autumn of 1893, Baltic water was only
found inside the fjords. In Hardanger fjord, on November 22nd,
(temperature 7° to 8° C.) the tow-net brought up only a few Copepods
and Evadne, but a mixed collection of numerous Cilioflagellates {G.
tripos) and Diatomacece {Chcetoceros cUdymus and horealis). In November,
1894, on the other hand, the Baltic current was very extensive, and the
surface collections (November 26th, temperature 7'5°) showed accord-
ingly a sparsity of Diatoms and an abundance of Cilioflagellates (C.
tripos), together with numbers of Oithonella pygmcca (Copepod) and
Evadne Nordmanni.

In winter the surface waters were mostly bank or North Sea waters,
and no collection of plankton were taken in Baltic waters.

In spring (April 16th, 1894) on the west coast the Baltic currents,
having a salinity of 30 per thousand and a temperature of 6° C, contained
principally Cilioflagellates (C. tripos), Halosphccra viridis, Evadne
Nordmanni (with young), and young Calanids.

2. The Bank Waters. — Attention has been previously drawn to the
fact that bank water bathed the whole west coast of Norway in the
autumn of 1893. In the Norwegian channel off Ekersund on November
15th the salinity of the surface water was 33*38 per thousand, and the
temperature approximately 9^ C. The plankton was abundant, and con-
consisted principally of the Copepod Pscudocalanus elongatus, Evadne,
Sagitta, Radiolaria, Cilioflagellates (0. tripos), and Diatomacea3 {Chcctoceros
horealis and curvisetus).

Off EspevcXT, on December 15th, 1894, on the other hand, the salinity
of the surface bank water was somewhat lower (32-98 per thousand), and
the temperature 7°. Nevertheless, the plankton was very abundant, and
consisted principally of Cilioflagellata {C. tripos), together with numbers
of the Copepod Oithonella pygmma and a few Pseudocalanus elongatus.
The absence of Diatomacerc will be noticed.

In the winter of 1894, on the west coast, the surface bank water had
a high salinity, and on February 28th was practically North Sea water
(salinity 33'92 per thousand, temperature 5°). It contained an abundant
plankton, consisting principally of the Copepods Cynthilia Clausi,

OF THE NORWEGIAN FISHERIES : A REVIEW. 65

Calanus finmarchicus, and Metridia lucens, together with a large number
of the Diatom Coscinodiscm. On March 20th, 1894, the salinity was
lower (33"51 per thousand, temperature 4-9°), and the plankton consisted
chiefly of Pseudocalanus clongatus, Paraccdanus parvus, Sagitta, and the
Diatoms Cosciniodiscus and Chcctoceros decipiens.

In the winter of 1895, on the west coast, the salinity of the surface
water inshore was lower than in 1894. Thus on February 9th west of
Utsire it was 33'67 per thousand, and the temperature 4°. Further inshore
the salinity was only 32 per thousand, and the temperature 2°. The
plankton was correspondingly sparse, consisting principally of Cilio-
flagellates aud a few Copepods. On the 25th of the same month
west of Utsire the salinity* at the surface was 33*14 per thousand, and
the temperature 4*3°. Except for a number of fish eggs, the plankton
consisted principally of Diatoms (especially Chcetoceros decipiens) and
Halosphcera viridis. Further north, off Vigteu, on February 21st
(salinity 33'34 per thousand, temperature 5"1°), the chief contents of the
tow-net were Calanus finmarchicus and Metridia lucens, the plankton
consisting principally of Crustacea, though not in quantity.

3. North Sea Water. — In the winter of 1894 the surface water on
the 22nd of February eight miles west of Utsire (West Coast Spring
Herring Fishery District) had a salinity of 34*01 per thousand. The
plankton consisted principally of the Copepods Calanus finmarchicus
and Pseudocalanus elongatus, Sagitta, species of Coscinodiscus and
Chcctoceros decipiens (cf. also the plankton obtained on the 28th February
in bank water, having the high salinity of 33'92 per thousand).

The general tendency of Hjort's results, considered by themselves,
appears to be towards the following conclusions : —

(1) Cilioflagellates (especially Ceratium tripos) are particularly

characteristic of Baltic water {i.e., water of very low salinity).

(2) Diatoms of the genus Chcctoceros are particularly characteristic

of bank water of rather high salinity (33 per thousand).

(3) Diatoms of the genus Coscinodiscus, in the absence of Cilioflagel-

lates, are particularly characteristic of bank water of still
higher salinity (33-5 per thousand to 33"9 per thousand) and of
North Sea water (34 per thousand). It will be remembered in
this connection that in the winter of 1894, when Coscinodiscus
was so plentiful, North Sea water was found on the surface a
very short distance from the west coast of Norway, while in 1895
the absence of Coscinodiscus from the plankton was correlated
with the great superficial extent of bank water of low salinity.

* The salinity and temperature are taken from the hydrograpliic tables, p. 61, not from
the tigures given in the plankton tables, p. 48, which are clearly erroneous. The figures
given in the latter table apjiear to have been accidentally transferred from the hydrographic
record for station 297, January 26th.

NEW SERIES. — VOL. V. KO. 1. E

66 hjort's hydkographic-biological studies

(4) The Copepod Calanus finmarchicus ( = Cctochilas scptentrionalis

is rarely found in water of low salinity, but is characteristic of
North Sea water and bank water having a high salinity (above
33"5 per thousand). It occurs in company with the Diatom
Coscinodiscus.

(5) The Copepod Pseudocalanus elongatus {=Clausia elongata)

flourishes in bank water of high salinity (i.e., above 33 per
thousand). In the Salter waters it is found along with Calamis
finmarchicus ; in the fresher waters with Paracalanns iw.'t'vus.

(6) The Copepods Centropcigcs hamatus and Ilcditcmora longicornis

were only found in waters of low salinity (Baltic current).

(7) Radiolaria were only found in Baltic water and in bank

water having a salinity below 33 5 per thousand.
In formulating these generalisations from Hjort's data, I must be
understood to have considerably exceeded Hjort's own cautious and
reticent attitude. Nevertheless, I think it desirable to generalise his
results, not for the purpose of basing any conclusions upon them, but
in order to present them in a form which will at once suggest points
for further examination,

111, Fisheries,

1. The West Coast Spring Herring Fishery. — The spring herring
fishery on the west coast of Norway is due to the annual " spawning
migration," and takes place in the months of January, February, and
March, Formerly the fishery extended over a much more extensive
area than at present, viz., from the Naze to Christiansund ; but now the
fishery is practically limited to the neighbourhood of the mouth of the
Hardanger fjord. The spawning grounds are the shallow banks lying
around the groups of islets and rocks in this district, bounded by the
60-fathom line, and covered with sand and fine shells. In favourable
years the spawning herrings advance up to the very beach in all the
sounds and bays, and the roe is then found covering great stretches of
the bottom.

1894 was such a year. Enormous bodies of herrings abounded close
inshore, and quantities of roe were obtained at a depth of only 3 to 4
fathoms. It will be remembered that in the spring of this year,
owing to a succession of heavy westerly gales. North Sea and Atlantic
water was found close inshore.

It would thus appear that on the Norwegian coast herrings abound
close inshore for spawning purposes when the shore water attains its
maximum salinity for the year (North Sea water, 34 per thousand).

This view was confirmed for the season in question by the fact that
early in February, when the Baltic current had rounded the Naze, and

OK THE NORWEGIAN FISHERIES: A RbVIEW. (3?

had reached the southern portions of the Fishery district, fishing for
herring was only carried on away from the mainland, e.g., at Utsire,
and none between that island and the shore, the explanation being that
the intervening channel was occupied by the fresher and colder waters
of the Baltic current. Similarly at a later period, in the month of
April, the herrings disappeared from the whole district, when the
Baltic current, at last released from the Skagerack, had displaced the
North Sea water to a depth of 60 metres.

Hjort does not stop at this point, but proceeds to examine the records
of the fisheries for previous years in the light of contemporary data as
to the temperature of the sea along the coast. I have already shown
in the section on " Hydrography " that Hjort's investigations have
established a relation between temperature and salinity during the
"typical winter period" {i.e., February and March), so that, within
certain limits, the temperature of the water during this period is an
index of its salinity. Thus, as a rule,

6° to 7° C. indicates Atlantic water.
5° „ North Sea water.

4° to 3° „ Bank water.

2° to 1° „ Baltic current water.

Upon examination of the records in the light of this assumption,
Hjort has discovered the following interesting series of correlations :

In 1881 (Jan., Feb.) herrings occurred in swarms, but did not come
close inshore (except when isolated shoals of them were chased by
whales), thus depriving fishermen of the most profitable and regular
method of capture, viz., " night netting." Eventually, in mid-February
to Alarch, the herrings spawned in deep water (70 and 80 fathoms),
away from shore. The temperature of the water during this season
was very low —

2'3° at surface.

2-7° „ 38 metres.
3-3° „ 75 „
4-8° „ 113 „

thus indicating a very thick layer of Baltic water of low salinity.

In 1883 (Feb.), on the other hand, the temperature was high, being
5° at the surface, thus indicating the presence of North Sea water.
Abundant catches of herrings were made close inshore, even at a depth
of 10, 16, and 20 metres, "reminding one of the rich fisheries of olden
days."

In the winter of 1885-6 the temperature was again low. Again
the herrings were down at extraordinary depths, where spawning took

j: -2,

08 HJOUT'S IIYDllOGRAPHIC-BIOLOGICAL STUDIES

place (110-120 metres). On February 15th, when spawning had taken
place, a temperature of 5° was first found at a depth of 120 metres;
and on March 1st the temperature at the surface was OS" ; at 40
fathoms, I'b" ; at 80 fathoms, 3"9° ; and even at 120 fathoms, only
4'3°, indicating conditions similar to those which prevailed in 1881.

It thus appears to be satisfactorily determined that the influx of
herrings along shore during the spawning season depends on the
temperature of the water, which is an index of the prevailing salinity
and currents.

The fish come right up to land during warm — often stormy —
winters; but in cold winters, when the Baltic current flows along the
coast, and when a thick layer of cold water covers the shallow spawning
places, the shoals of herring stop far out on the outer margins of the
shallows.

The explanation which Hjort adduces is of the following character.
Sars showed that during the greater part of the year the herring and
cod keep out to the open sea, the herring far out in the surface layers,
the cod on the edge* of the coastal banks, and thence possibly far out
in the Northern Ocean at a similar depth.

In both places the water in winter is salt " Atlantic water," and the
temperature is probably from 6° to 7° C. (Jide Mohn's charts.)

Accordingly, when the large shoals approach the shores to spawn,
they may enter salt water of approximately the same temperature
(North Sea water at 5° or more), when they will continue their course
without interruption up to the shallow beaches ; or they may encounter
a deep layer of cold, comparatively fresh water (Baltic and bank
water, under 5°) all along the coast.

In the latter case the conditions are so different from those prevailing
at the places from which the fish have migrated that the fish make
a halt : " The fish mope " — they say in the Lofotens of the cod ; " The
herring want stirring up " — the}^ say on the west coast.

In each region, under the conditions which have been described, the
fishery is a failure.

As to the relative importance to the fish of the two factors
" temperature " and " salinity " Hjort is silent. For the Norwegian
fisheries a knowledge of this point may be superfluous, since the two
factors work together; but for English fisheries further discrimination
may be of considerable importance, since we have no single agency
of the magnitude of the Baltic current that is capable of inducing
such extensive changes — temperature and salinity alike — in the quality
of the water around our coasts.

2. The Fast Coast Autumn Herring Fishery. — The autumn herring
fishery on the East Coast of Norway is due, according to Hjort, to the

OF THE NORWEGIAN FISHERIES : A REVIEW. 69

" feeding migration," and takes place at the mouth of Christiania fjord
iu autumn (November).

The movements of the herrings during this fishery are determined,
according to Hjort, by the movements of the bank waters at this season.

Thus, iu November, 1893, the Baltic current was dammed up in the
Cattegat, and warm bank water (11° to 12° C.) flowed from the Norwegian
channel between all the islands at the mouth of the Christiania fjord.
The herrings then abounded. At the same time the "prey of the
herring," the Diatom Chcctoceros, was abundant.

In November, 1894, on the other hand, Baltic water covered a much
larger area, and bank water was both of less thickness and deeper down.
Along shore the Baltic current was 50 metres deep, though further from
shore (a few miles) it was very thin. Herrings abounded at sea (16 to
20 miles off), but would not venture in between the islands and the laud.
The fishery was largely a failure. The food of the herring {Chcetoceros)
was not met with in the upper layers (0-10 metres), though it was
present at greater depths, and was abundant further out to sea, many
miles from the coast.

It will be remembered that Pettersson has also remarked upon the
coincidence of the autumn herring fishery in the Cattegat with the
arrival of bank water of salinity 32 per thousand to 33 per thousand, but
according to him this arrival may occur as early as August and
September. He discriminates between an autumn fishery (August and
September), due to the arrival of the Danish bank water of high
temperature, and a winter fishery (October or November to February
or March), due to the arrival of Norwegian bank water of low tempera-
ture. The former fishery is carried on by means of floating nets 10 to
20 miles from shore, the latter by means of nets (seines) along the
shore. But I have already shown in this paper (p. 62), when dis-
cussing the nature of bank water, that the sharp distinction drawn by
Pettersson in regard to the bank waters is difficult to understand, since
the temperature of undoubtedly Norwegian bank water in the eastern
part of the Skagerack in November may extend from 8° to 12° G. It
is equally doubtful whether there is any racial diflerence between the
autumn herrings caught in warm bank water and the winter herrings
caught in cold bank water. Pettersson shows that quantities of herring
arrive with the former in August and September, and that the winter
herring fishery ceases as soon as the bank water is swept out by the
Baltic current in the spring. The fact that the first bank water to enter
the Skagerack in the autunm has a high temperature and that subse-
quent inflows of bank water have a lower temperature is explicable
without the necessity of assuming that the former is of southern and
the latter of northern origin. Both may be of northern origin, since the

70 HJOliT's UYDKOGUAI'IIIC-BIOLOGICAL STUDIES

tempeniture of the bank water on the Norwegian coast is high in
summer, and gradually diminishes through the autumn and winter.

If this be admitted, we see that the presence of herrings in the
eastern part of the Cattegat from August to March is associated with
the presence of bank water, and that this bank water, while retaining a
fairly constant salinity, undergoes a considerable reduction of temperature
during the successive autumn and winter months — from 14° or 15° C.
to 4° C. The iluctuations which determine the movements of the herring
are probably, therefore, in this case not so much changes of temperature
as changes of salinity. The herrings arrive with the bank water and
disappear with it.

The relation of these herrings to the spring herrings of the west
coast of Norway is not quite clear. The herrings present in the autumn
(November) are regarded by Hjort as immature herrings undergoing
their " feeding migration." Whether they spawn on the west coast
of Sweden in the following January is not stated, although Pettersson's
statement that the winter herring are, as a rule, inferior in quality to the
autumn herring tends to support such a view.

Eeference to Gerhard von Yhlen's Report of the Sea Fisheries of the
Ldn of Gotehorg and Bohns for 1877 (translated in U. S. Fish. Com. Rep.
for 1877, p. 741), however, shows that in that famous herring year the
fish arrived in November, 1877, and remained until March, 1878. The
herrings were of different sizes and in different conditions, many being
immature, both " year-old " and nearly full-grown, and many being
mature breeding herring (12 inches long) and many spent. From
November to January lOtli the two last classes were most abundant ;
after January 10th the larger class of immature herrings were the most
abundant ; while before, and at the end of the season, the immature
" year-old " fish were alone. The mature fish spawned in November
and December, and in February great quantities of herring-fry, two
inches in length, appeared in the district of Fjellbacka, on the eastern
shore of the Skagerack.

3. Growth of Herring. — Hjort concludes his work with an examina-
tion of the question as to the rate of growth of the herring. During
the spring fishery fish of two sizes are met with simultaneously, one of
250 mm. length, the other of 300 mm. These presumably represent
two " yearly classes," i.e., lish hatched in different years.

In the fjords herring of three different sizes live together.

In summer the three classes are distinguishable by the following sizes :

(1) 50- CO niiij. (2| ins.) = (presumably) ^ year old (Musseii).

(2) 120-140 rniu. (5 ins.) = (presumably) 1| year did (Hladsilden).

(3) 160-185 mm. (6^ to 7 ins.) = (pre3um ibly) 2^ year < kl (Five-p-int

herring).

OK THE NORWEGIAN FISlIEHIES : A KEVIKW, 71

It is consequently to he inferred that the smaller class of spring
herring (250 mm.) represents simply the third class of fjord herring
(five-point herring) after an additional half-year's growth. Some of
the spring herrings, however, only measure 200-220 mm., and it is
therefore possible that these fishes constitute an intermediate " yearly
class," in which case the spring herring measuring 250 mm. would be
four, instead of three, years old. In any event, the smaller class of
S])ring herring is three or four years old, and with the larger class of
spring herring, has moved in from the sea to shore.

Thus the life-history of the ocean herring may be summarised as
follows. In its young condition the herring inhabits the inshore waters
of the fjords until it attains a length of about 8 ins. (2f years old), when it
gradually moves out to sea and into deep water, gradually assuming the
habits of the ocean herring, of which it forms the youngest yearly
class. The young herring are clearly much more independent of
changes in the coastal waters than the full-grown fish, since they live in
the fjords during all seasons of the year.

Readers of Hjort's interesting contribution to fishery literature will be s])arecl
some trouble by noting the following errata, which have clearly escaped the author's
attention :

Te.xt, p. 25, seven lines from bottom — for 3r44: read 3r34 (cf. Hydrographical
tables, p. 25, and Plate I., fig. 4).

Text, p. 47, station 170— for 34-51 read 33-51 (cf. Hydrographical tables, p. 43).

Hydrographical tables, p. 13 — for Plate II. read Plate III.

Chart 1. The meridians on this chart are based on Christiania = 0, instead of
Greenwich. The longitude of particular stations, however, seems to be always based
on the system generally adopted.

Chart II. The parallel of latitude marked 60" shouhl be 59° 30'.

[ 72 1

An Account of the Scientific Work of the Northumber-
land Sea Fisheries Committee.

By

Alexander Meek, M.Sc, F.Z.S.

Tho Durliain College of Sciouce, Newcastle-ou-Tyne.

Just as a small marine laboratory is being fitted up at CuUercoats,
it may be desirable to present to a wider audience a short account
of the bcientific work already done — work which has, in fact, given
origin to the building now almost ready for occupation. As regards
the laboratory, a word may be said. It is small, but it will be pro-
vided with a tank-room and tlie essential requirements for carrying
on, at any rate, biological investigations. The tanks are made of
wood, and will be supplied by gravitation in succession. At the
same time a series of glass cylinders can be added in any number,
and supplied with sea water in a similar manner. The workroom
is very cheery, well lighted and well ventilated, and will accommodate
six or even more workers. We are indebted for this most desirable
adjunct to the biological department of the College to the Yice-
Chairman of the Committee, who has already done so much for local
fishery questions. The laboratory will, we hope, not only help in
the development of our biological work, but form a centre for enquiry,
and thus take a share in the general work of investigation now going
on in this country.

It owes its inception, in fact, to the contributions to this work
already made by the Committee. The trawling excursions conducted
by Mr. Dent were begun in 1892, and have been continued in suc-
cessive years since. Mr. Dent can remember when he could get as
many as ten fine turbot with a harpoon any night on Blyth Beach
(18()0-G5); at which period, also, he could almost fill a boat with
the fish caught in a small drift-net. He witnessed the depletion
of these and other bays which occurred after the steam-trawlers
commenced to fish in the district (1877). He has seen the consequent

WORK OF THE ]S;OUTIIU.MBEKLA.ND SEA. FISlIEKlEd COMMITTEE. 73

great development of North Shields, and the decline of the ordinary
fisheries in the smaller villages and towns.

The three-mile restriction was adopted in 1891, and with the view
of ascertaining how far this was to be valuable in restoring the
fish to the bays along the coast, Mr. Dent kindly placed one of his
steamers at the disposal of the Committee, and personally super-
intended the expeditions. The trawl used is an ordinary one of
twenty-two feet beam, and a day of eight to nine hours is devoted
to each bay.

The results have previously been published in yearly tables for the
information of the Committee, but it will be more valuable for our
present purpose to give the results for each bay. They are interesting
in that these bays lie side by side, or, at any rate, within a district
of forty miles; they are near to the stations of the similar but
naturally more elaborate Scottish experiments, and it seems, from
Dr. Fulton's investigations on currents, that we should get our supplies
from the spawning grounds of the north. There is no necessity, how-
ever, of dwelling upon the results. A glance over each of the following
tables shows only too plainly that the bye-law has made little
improvement in the numbers of the mature fish. It ought to have
been stated that the gurnards were not counted in the first two years.
Blyth Bay does show an increase in all kinds, practically. Cambois
Bay shows an improvement also as regards turbot, soles, dabs, and
gurnards, but the plaice have decreased, though they seem again
to be improving in numbers. It would be hard to point to any
change occurring in regard to the fish of Druridge Bay. The numbers
remain very steady for each year. The increase in the plaice of
Alnmouth Bay is very marked. Soles are also increasing. Dabs
scarcely show any change. In Skate Eoads turbot and soles seem
to give better returns, but plaice have decreased. It will be noted that
flounders are not recorded for 1895, but it is highly probable that a few
occurred and were overlooked, for they are very characteristic of this bay.

The undersized fish were taken particular note of at last year's
excursions. By this term is meant such fish as were caught in the
trawl and too small to be retained.* At Alnmouth Bay, on the 23rd July,
they were roughly counted after the first haul before being returned to
the sea. There were some 20 flounders of 6 in. or less ; some 25 plaice
of 7 in. or less ; and 12 gurnards 8 in. or less. It was calculated that
quite 100 immature fish were returned to the sea at each haul. It
is the custom at these excursions to return the fish which are not

* It may be a rougli classification, tliis, into mature or saleable, and immature or under-
sized ; but in our anxiety to return the small fish as quickly as i)Ossible we do not as a
rule make measurements, or even always count them.

74 AN ACCOUNT OF THE SCIENTIFIC AVORK OF THE

retained as ([uickly as possible, and in every case it is noted that
the flat fish swim away at once, evidently little the worse for being
dragged along with the trawl for often two or even three hours, their
visit to the deck of the steamer, and being swept overboard.

Druridge Bay possesses many young dabs and plaice. Skate Koads
is rich in young flounders and plaice, and small turbot and brill are got
as well. Cambois and Blyth Bays have principally immature dabs, but
soles, flounders, and gurnards occur also in this category.

It is quite evident, then, that the restriction is useful in the
protection it affords to valuable fish in the immature condition. But
there is a curious dissimilarity often in the proportions of young
and mature, or, let us say, saleable fish. The latter give us variable
returns, sometimes slightly increasing, sometimes slightly decreasing, from
year to year. There is no doubt at all that the in-shore trawling of the
first few years did make such severe inroads as to be quite apparent.
Allowing for seasonal variation in the numbers, there has not been
such a return of the mature or large fish as to justify us in saying that
the bye-law in that respect was tending to much good. If we now
compare the rough statistics we have for Alnmouth Bay in regard to
the immature fish with that part of the table referring to 1896, and
assuming that the trawl was down five times at each excursion, the
immature flounders would have been, say, 100. We only got three
saleable. The immature dabs would be, say, 150. We got about half that
number large enough to keep. The immature plaice would be 125,
which is below the number of matured forms retained, and this in a bay
showing an increase in the saleable plaice. I cannot speak as to the
immature fish in previous years ; but these figures, which could be
repeated for the other bays, show only too well that a large destruction
of fish occurs somewhere before they become mature. That this occurs
when they go out to spawn seems from the collateral evidence of other
experiments only too likely. Either this is the case or many of them
depart after their in-shore early life and never return. But this does
not explain the practical non-increase in these and other similar
territorial waters. These facts only add to the evidence in regard to
the destruction of the spawners outside the limits.

The plaice last year varied from 12 to 16 or 17 ins. in total length
(one example measured 19f by 11 J ins., fins included), and were feeding
principally on Donax t'ninculiis,v^\\m\\ is extremely common in these bays.
Tellina tenuis and Venus gallina also occurred in some of the stomachs
examined. The dabs measured 9 to 13 ins. in length, and were feeding
mainly on Portunus holsatus, and sometimes old and fresh shells of
various mollusca were found in the stomach as well. The soles were got
from 12 to 20 ins., and sandeels were found most often in the stomachs.

NORTHUMBERLAND SEA FISIIEKIKS COMMITTEE. 75

Turbots also varied from 12 to 20 ins., and were found to feed on small
whitings, the lesser weever, and the sandeel. Brill of 14^- and 20| ins.
were feeding on whitings. Flounders (12 to 18 ins.) had Donao: trnnculus,
sandeels, Mactra stultorum, Tellina tenuis, Porttcnus holsatus as the
forms found in the stomachs of a few examples. The common gurnard
of 11 to 16 ins. was feeding on sandeels, whitings, Portunus holsatus,
etc. Other forms were investigated, and full details of measurements
and contents of stomachs are given in last year's report. The more
important "other fish," etc., are also referred to.

The surface nets gave us two kind of eggs — those of the Lesser
Weever (Trachinus vipera) and an unknown egg not differing from
Mcintosh and Prince's "F" form.

Mr. Gregg Wilson, of Edinburgh University, while in the district,
made investigations into the condition of the crab, lobster, and mussel
fisheries. He found evidence which led him to suppose that crabs
spawn during November, December, and January ; that females were
not less than 6 in. when mature, that males were mature at 5 in. Along
with a close time, which is, however, commonly naturally given during
these months, he recommended the raising of the size-limit to 5 in. He
recommended also a close time for lobsters during June and July,
on the assumption that in these months most berried hens were found.
The sale of the berried hen, it is expected, will shortly, however, be
prohibited in the district.

A member of the Committee, Mr. William King, who has had much
experience in mussel cultivation, contributed an interesting paper on
that subject. A list of the papers published for the information of the
Committee is appended.

We have to remember also the rich inheritance of local zoological
work we have from such eminent naturalists as Dr. Johnston, Joshua
Alder, Albany Hancock, Dr. G. S. Brady, Dr. H. B. Brady, the llev.
Canon Norman, R Howse, and others.

List of Papers Published by the Committee.

1.

2.

1891.
1893.

3.

1895.

4.
5.

1895.
1895.

6.

1896.

William King — " Mussels and Mussel Culture."

Gref,'g Wilson, M.A., 15.Sc. — "Report on the Oral), Lob.^ter, and Mussel
Fisheries ot Nortluuuberland.''

C. Williams — " Report of a Visit of the Northumberland Sea Fisheries
Committee to the Marine Ilatcliery at Dunbar."

Gregg Wilson, B.Sc, Ph.D.—" Further Report cm the Crab Fishery."

John Dent, J. P. — "Records of Scientific Trawling Operations conducted

off the Northumberland Coast (1892-95).
Alexander Meek, R.Sc, F.Z.S. — "Report on the Scientifi(! Results of the

Trawling Expeditions carried on by the Northumberland Sea Fisheries

Committee during the Summer of 1896."

76

AN ACCOUNT OF THE SCIENTIFIC WOKK OF THE

Tables showing the number of Fish captured in each Bay.

(1) Blyth Bay. 2-5 Fathoms.

03

o

1-4

a

n

e

OQ

o
•a

03

w

^

3

o

t3

.a

02

■a

1892.

..Aug. 1.

„ 15.

Sept. 20.

. 2.

. — .

.. 1 ..
.. 3..

.88.
.20.
.60.

. 40..
. 12 ..
.41 ..

— .

. — ... — .

■^:

e:

. . — . . rough .
.. — ... smooth .
.. — ... rough .

.. N.E.
..W.S.W.
.. E.N.E.

Average.

. -5..

. — .

..1-5..

.56.

.31 ..

— .

. — ... — .

.. — ..

—

.. —

1893.

..Aug. 2.
Sept. 13.

. 3.

. 6.

. — .

..56..

.. 17..

.59.
.37.

.23..
. 19..

— .

. — ... — .

.. — ..

z:

.. 55 ... smooth
.. 56 ... rough .

.W.N.W.

..W.S.W.

Average

4-5..

. — .

..38-5.

48.

.21 ..

— .

. — ... — .

. — ..

— .

..55-5

1894.

..July 27.

. 2.

. — .

..43..

.67.

.23..

2.

. 5... — .

..41 ..

1 .

.. 52 ... smooth .

.. N.E.

1895.

..July 31 .

Aug. 15.

. 1 .

. 4 .

. — .

.. 12 ..
..20..

.64.

.58.

.32..
.95..

— .

. 4... — .
. 7 ... — .

..25 ..
..40..

. — .

.. 53"5. smooth .
..54 . smooth .

.. calm.
.. calm.

Average..

.2-5 ..

. — .

.. 16..

.61 .

.63-5

— .

.5-5... — .

.32-5

— .

..53 75

1896.

..June 18..
Aug. 26.

. 7..
. 2..

,

.. 5..
..36..

.85.
.63

.44..
.78..

2

. — ... — .

.46...
.20...

1 .

. 53 ...smooth .
.. 55 ...smooth .

W.N.W.

.. E.

Average..

.4-5.

. — .

..20-5

.74.

.61..

1 .

. — ... — .

..33..

•5.

..54

(2) Cambois Bay. Depth 3-7 Fathoms.

1892.

..Aug. 11.
Sept.13..
„ 15..

3..
2..

. — .

.. 7 ..
.. 8..

80..

120..

81 .

.44... — .
.80... — .
.47... — .

.. — ... —

.. — ..

— ... — ... smooth .

— ... — ... smooth .

— ... — ... smooth .

. s.w.

.W.S.W.

Average.

1-7.

.. 5..

93-7

.57... — .

.. — ... —

.. — ..

— ... —

•

1893 .

.. July 15 .
Aug. 7..

2..
4..

. — .

. 3..
. 16...

50..
60..

. 12... — .
.51 ... — .

. — ... — .

.. — ..

— ... 54 ... (S'rong..

NEsea..

— ... 55 ... smooth ..

. calm.
. w.

Average .

3..

. — .

..9 5..

55..

.31-5.-.

.. — ... —

.. — ..

-...54-5

1894.

.. Aug.l7..
Sept.13..

1 ..
1 ..

.20...
.59...

18 ,.
30..

. 11 ... 4 .
.18... — .

.20... — .
.22... — .

.. 17...
.. 6...

— ... 53 ... ^strong..

— ... 53 ... * surt ..

. N.
. N.E.

Average .

1 ..

. — .

.. 39-5

24..

.14-5. 2.

.21 ... — .

..11-5

— ...53

1895.

..July 4..
Sept. 5..

3..
3..

. 4 ...
. 4...

37..
71..

. 13... — ..
.33... — .

. 7... — .

.. 7...
..85...

— ... 52 "5 . rough ..
1 ... 54 ... smooth ..

. N.E.
. W.

Average .

3..

. — .

. 4..

54..

23... — .

. 3-5.—

..46..

•5.53-25

1896.

..Aug. 12..

8..

—

.24...

76..

.81 ...—

.100...

— ... 55 ... smooth ..

w.

NORTHUMBEKLAND SEA FISHERIES COMMITTEE.

77

(3) Druridge Bay. 2-3 Fathoms.

o

•3

a

3

o

o

02

1892

.Sept. 16

— .

. 1 ...13..

.140.

.70..

. — .

. — ... —

... —

.. — .

. — ..

. smooth ..

. s w.

1893

. Aug. 31

Sept. 8

9..

7 ..

. — ...24..

. — ...28..

. 87..
. 73..

.67..

.39,.

— .

. — ... —

.. —

.. 4..

.56..
.56 ..

.smooth ..
. smooth ..

. N.E.

. N.N.E.

Average .

8..

. — ... 26..

. 80..

.53 ..

— .

. — ...—

.. —

.. 2 .

.56

1894

. July 4
Aug. 22 .

27..

7 ..

. — ... 5 ..
. — ..36..

146..

. 50..

.54 ..

. 40..

3..
2..

. 7...-
.24 ...—

..120

.. 3..

.54..
.55..

smooth . .
. smooth . .

. W.

. N.K.

Average .

17..

. — ...20-5

. 98..

.47..

2-5..

. 15-5 . —

.. 60

..1-5.

.54-5

1895

. June 20 .
July 11 .
Aug. 22 .

5..
5..
2..

. — ... 6..
. — ...12..
. — ...11 ..

. 120..

116..

.132 .

. 15 ..
.60..
.70..

2 ..

. 2...—

.. 13
.. 35
.. 120

.. 2.
.. 1 ..
.. 1 ..

.52..
.52-5
.55..

. rough ..
. smooth . .
. smooth . .

. N.E.
. W.

. calm.

Average .

4 ..

. — ...10..

.123.

.73 .

•5 .

. -5...-

.. 63

.. 1-5.

.53

1896

.July 9.

„ 29.

Sei)t. 8 .

9..

8..
13..

. — ...35..

. — ... 8 ..
. — ...26..

. 160..
157..

T04 .

. 68..
.68..
123..

1 ..
1 ..

. — ... —

.. 83
..143
.. 124

.. 3..
.. 1 ..

. 54 ..
.55 ..
.56..

. smooth ..

. rough ..

smooth . .

. s.w.

E.
. E.

Average .

10..

— ...23..

. 140-5

.86-5

•5 .

__,

..117

..1-5.

.55

(4) Alnmouth Bay. Depth 2-3 Fathoms.

1S03

. July 25 .
Aug. 22 .

9..
3..

. — ... 8..
. — ... 11 ..

116 ...
75 ...

100...
49 ...

— ... —

— . . . — . . .

4 .
1 ..

54 ..

55 ..

. smooth ..
. smooth . .

N.W.
S.S.W.

Average.

6..

. — ... 9-5

. 95-5

74 5

. — ... — ..

. — ... — ..

2-5

.54-5

1894

.July 11 .

„ 31.

Aug. 29 .

17
8 .
14..

. — ... 5..
. — ...18 ..

. — ... 8..

131 ...
60..
65 ...

63 ..
51 ..
35 ...

14 . 2..
4 ... 12..
7 ... 15..

— ...49...

— ...17...

— ...85...

3..
3 ..
2 ..

52 ..
54..
55-5

. smooth . .
. smooth . .
.smooth ..

N.E.

calm.

Average.

13..

. — ...10-5

. 85-5

50..

8-5.10..

— ...50 5.

3..

.54

1895

. July 25
Aug. 29 .

7.

3.

. — ... 4..
. — ... 7..

118..
101 ..

82..
46...

— ...10..

— ..103 ..

— ...24...

— ...65 ...

1 ..

52..

54..

. smooth ..
.moderate

N.E.
W.

Average.

5..

. — ... 5-5

109-5.

64...

— . . 56-5

— ...44-5.

•5

.63

1896

. July 23

Aug. 19.

13.

9.

. — ...30..

. 1... 9..

202..

154...

117..

44 ...

3... 2..
3......

1 ...29...
— ...46...

1 ..

55..

55..

. smooth ..
smooth ..

w.

N.

Average.

11 ..

. -5. 19-5

178...

80-5.

3... 1..

•5.37-5.

•5

.55

78

WuKK UF TiiK ^OliTaUMBEULAND CJEA FISHEKIES COMMITTEE.

(5) Skate Roads (Budlk Bay). 2^-4 Fathoms.

o

3

«

o

(!(

Q

T3

•a

C3

S B

o

■a
c

1894.

.. June 27..
Aug. 6..

.28... — ...
.18... — ...

1 .371 ..
1 ...90..

22..
.30..

19..

9..

.-:.

. — ...81 ...

4..
3..

. 54 ... smooth ..
. 54 ... smooth ..

. N.E.

.w.s.w.

Average..

.23... — ...

1 . 230-5

.26..

14..

. — .

. — ...40 5

3-5

.54

1895.

.. June 26..
Aug. 5..

. 4... — ...
. 1 ... — ...

— . 120 ..
3. ..75..

42..
13..

. 6 ..
. 4.

. — ...30...
. — ...70...

—

. 53 ... rough ..
. 53"5 .moderate

. calm.

. N.

Average..

. 2-5. — ...

1-5. 97-5

.27-5

, — .

. 5.

. — ...50..

— ..

. 53-25

1896.

.. June 24..
Aug. 3..

. 7.......

.50... 1 ...

5. ..85..
2 .155..

44..
10..

32..

. — ...46...
. — ...29...

— ..

53 . . . smooth . .
55 ... rough ..

.W.N.W.
. N.E.

Average..

. 28-5 . -5 .

3 5 120..

.27..

.16..

. — .

. — ...37-5.

— ..

.54

[ 7l» J

Gadus Esmarkii, Nilsson, the Norway Pout, an addition
to the Fish Fauna of the English South-Western

District.

By
Matthias Dunn, of Mevagissey, and Ernest W. L. Holt.

In the summer months, for some years prior to 1887, very large
quantities of Hake (Mcrluccius vulgaris) had been caught by trawlers
beyond the entrance of the Bristol Channel, and landed at Plymouth.
Knowing that such masses of hungry creatures would not be found
continuously in any given locality without a heavy balance of smaller
fish being in their neighbourhood as food for these hakes, I became
anxious to know what these smaller fish were, and throughout the
summer of 1888 I tried more than once to get at them through
our fishermen, but failed.

In July, 1889, I desired my son Howard to visit the Plymouth
Barbican, and notice the gutting of the hakes there and tell me the result.
His report was that they had been feeding on small whiting {Gadus
merlangus), and that single hakes had as many as ten whiting in their
stomachs. I told him that I doubted if these small fish were whiting,
and asked him to send the specimens at once, as I expected them to be the
poutassou {Cfadus 'poutassou) of Couch. I had recently had specimens of
this fish brought me from thirty miles west of the Scilly Isles.

About a week afterwards my son sent me seven of these little ones
taken from the stomach of a pollack {Gadus iMachius) which had been
caught in a trawl forty miles north-west of St. Ives. On giving them
my attention, I was surprised to find they were not the poutassou nor
any other Gadus I was acquainted with.

Hence I forwarded these two specimens to the Plymouth Biological
Laboratory for further enquiry and research concerning this new species.

M. D.

80 GADUS ESMAKKII, NILSSON, THE NORWAY POUT.

The credit of the discovery of the Norway pout in the south-western
district, and of its recognition as distinct from any Gaclus previously
recorded in the local fauna, is entirely due to Mr. Dunn. My own
share in the matter is confined to the specific identification of the
material, a matter of small difficulty, owing to an extensive previous
acquaintance with the species on the west coast of Ireland and in the
North Sea.

Though the species has been discussed at some length as
recently as 1895,* a short recapitulation of its history appears
convenient.

Originally discovered by Esmark, in 1844, as an inhabitant of the
Norwegian coast, its range was subsequently extended by Lutken to the
Faroe Islands.

In 1888 it made its first appearance in British records, being found in
comparative abundance by Giinther among the fishes collected by
Murray on the west coast of Scotland.

It was next recorded by myself, in 1890 and 1891, from the west
coast of Ireland, where it occurred, during the Royal Dublin Society's
survey, in considerable numbers, a great many of my specimens being
found, as was the case with Mr. Dunn's, in the stomachs of larger fishes ;
and in 1892 I was able to extend its range again, from the examination
of stomach contents, to the Great Fisher Bank in the North Sea. It is
therefore apparent that, in so far as regards the date of capture, Mr.
Dunn's specimens actually represent the second occurrence of the
species within the liritish area.

It is not a shallow -water fish, having hitherto been found, or at
any rate recorded, only between 26 and 144 fathoms, a fact which
may partially account for its having so generally escaped attention
at the hands of naturalists. Fishermen would naturally regard it
with unconcern, since it never grows to a marketable size, and bears,
moreover, a very close resemblance to a common and, from the market
point of view, equally worthless form, Gadus minutus.

Probably it may prove to be common enough at suitable depths
around our coasts, though it may perhaps not extend into the English
Channel or further south, since our continental neighbours, who take
a gastronomic interest in even smaller fish, would in such case be likely
to have noticed it.

The specimens forwarded by Mr. Dunn to the Laboratory are two
in number, and, taken as they were from the stomach of a pollack,
are naturally not in the most perfect condition, though quite sufficiently
so for identification. One, which is complete, measures 1\ inches in
total length, while the original length of the other, which has lost

• Holt and Calderwood, Sci. Trans. B, Duh, Soc, v. 1895, ix. p. 431.

GADUS ESMARKII, NILSSON, THE NORWAY POUT. 81

the caudal peduncle, may safely be estimated as over eight inches.
They are thus rather large examples.

Dr. Giinther has called attention to the existence of two varieties
of the species, of which the typical Norwegian forms were found to
differ from the Scottish chiefly in the greater attenuation of the body
and the greater size of the eye. The same difference was found to
exist between the solitary specimen from below the 100 fathoms line
and the smaller ones from lesser depths among the Irish survey
collections. Without entering into details, it may suffice for the
moment to remark that Mr. Dunn's specimens agree with the larger
Norwegian and deep-sea Irish type, and not with the smaller Scottish
and Irish variety. ^ -^Y j jj

NEW SERIES.— VOL. V. NO. 1.

[ S2 ]

Remarks on Dr. Petersen's Report of the Danish
Biological Station for 1895.

By
Ernest W. L. Holt.

It may be predicted of a Eeport by Dr. Petersen that it is sure to
contain matter of great interest, both to the ichthyologist and to
the student of fishery questions ; and the volume for 1895 is assuredly
no exception to the rule.

The subject dealt with is the plaice fishery of the Lim fjord, an
arm of the sea which pierces the Danish peninsula from Tliyboron,
on the west coast, to Hals, on the Cattegat. Such a geographical
feature is quite without parallel in our comparatively mountainous
countries, and may even be said to present difficulties of comprehension
to those who have not had an opportunity of visiting Denmark. Indeed,
the physical conditions are so different from our own, that it must
be at once acknowledged that the mass of information so carefully
collated by Petersen cannot be made of direct use in connection with
any of our own fisheries. Indirectly, however, the Danish work
will be found to be of the highest importance, and well worth the
attention of those concerned with British fisheries.

A glance at Petersen's map shows that the Lim fjord consists of
"brednungs," or broads, connected with each other by somewhat
narrow channels of various lengths. The westernmost (Nissuni)
broad communicates with the sea (since the beginning of the present
century) by means of an inconsiderable opening in the barrier ridge
of Hasboore, while the Liv broad, the easternmost, and by far the
largest of the series, is separated from the Cattegat by a long and,
for the most part, narrow sound. Previous to the breakdown of the
Hasboore barrier we learn that plaice were only found in the sound
last mentioned, viz., that between Hals and Logstor, and only then,
as now, in quite inconsiderable numbers, even in that part. Con-
sequently the fish, which now form the object of a most important

DR. PETERSEN'S REPORT OF THE DANISH BIOLOGICAL STATION. 83

industry, are comparatively new-comers, and belong, not to one of
tlie stunted Baltic races, but, as Petersen incidentally shows, to the
largest of the North Sea races, viz., the one familiar to Grimsby
fishermen. It is, moreover, most important to note that the plaice
of the Lira fjord does not as yet appear to have become a true native,
the stock of fish annually taken being merely those which have entered
the fjord in the early stages of their career. Petersen evidently holds
the conviction that the fish does not breed there at all ; but rightly
guards himself against an absolute statement to that effect until his
evidence shall be more complete. It is equally evident that the
contrary opinion is not unknown in the locality ; but certainly all
that we know in this country about the breeding of the plaice
must be taken as evidence of the correctness of Petersen's views
on this matter.

To what extent the reproductive activity may be affected by con-
ditions of mere salinity is a question to the solution of which we
are not helped by the recorded observations of any writer ; and, as
it happens, no details of specific gravity, etc., are given in the present
Eeport, though we learn, incidentally, that the salinity, if that be really
a desideratum, must be sufficient for the reproduction of the rockling,
sprat, and flounder. That these fish will spawn in narrow waters
we know from our own experience at home, but except where, as
on the west coast of Ireland, the rapid declivity limits the habitable
area to a comparatively narrow strip, I cannot call to mind any record
of plaice spawning close inshore. In the Lim fjord the fish is limited
to an area of 614 square miles, of which only 283 square miles contain
three or more fathoms of water ; and, as Petersen shows, the Liv and
Thisted broads, which comprise about one-half of the whole area, are
seldom, if ever, reached at all by plaice under natural conditions.

That a few fish are occasionally found with ripe ovaries is, I think,
rightly held by Petersen to be no proof that actual breeding takes place
there, since we know, from our experience of aquaria, tliat fish will
yearly develop spawn, but will not shed it until thoroughly acclimatised.
Even in the feral condition one occasionally meets with fish in which
the ripe ova have remained to decompose within the ovaries, and I can
recall at least one instance in which such a condition appeared to be
directly due to the creatures having returned too soon, or having never
left the estuarine waters.

That the fish are not actually land-locked in the fjord is evident from
the fact that they got in there, but very few seem to get out again, for
the sufficient reason that the fishermen catch practically all that are
marketable ; and it is worth while to note that it only takes about
twelve days' fishing in each broad to exhaust the annual supply.

F 2

84 DR. Petersen's report of the Danish biological station.

Fishing appears to be carried on entirely by means of seines, of
a fixed pattern of mesh, and during a season which opens on the
1st September, while a law has for some time been in force whereby
the sale of plaice less than 9| inches long is prohibited, though
there is no means of preventing the use of undersized fish for agricul-
tural purposes. However, it does not appear from anything in the
Eeport that there is any depreciation in the annual take, though
the annual drain on the stocking power of the outside fish is so
considerable, and to all intents and purposes wholly uncompensated by
the return of mature fish to the open sea. *

Human intervention is therefore here required, not to arrest a
decrease of the general supply, but to effect an increase in the number
of large fish, for of the small there seem to be enough and to spare.
The problem is really, as appears from the Report, how to get enough
fish into the inner broads, i.e., Liv broad and its subsidiary lagoons,
which, forming about one-half of the total area of the fjord, are
practically never reached by plaice under natural conditions.
Petersen's observations lead him to the knowledge that the young fish
move very slowly up the fjord, and reach the inner expanses, if at all,
only in very inconsiderable numbers.

The reason is not far to seek, for, in the first place, nearly all the fair-
sized individuals find their way into the hands of the fishermen ; while
if any escape they must, to reach the inner waters, traverse dense grass-
fields (zostera), whither the plaice " come but rarely, and where it has
no reason at all to go, as it does not know there is plenty of food for it
further up." A somewhat extensive experience of fishery literature
supplies me with no more striking instance of common-sense expressed
in simple language.

But if the fish does not know where he would be well off, the fjord
fish merchants seem to have perceived that it is to their interest to help
him on, for we learn that since 1892 there has been carried on a system
of State-aided transplantation, whereby in 1895 alone more than 80,000
fish were transferred from the North Sea to the inner broads. A propor-
tion of these fish were marked by means of holes in the fins, and it is
by ascertaining the proportion of marked fish captured later on that
Petersen is able to prove, not less to the satisfaction of his readers
than of himself, that the inner waters are populated almost, if not
entirely, by transplanted fish ; while even the unmarked fish support
the same conclusion by bearing traces of confinement in a boat's
well.

• There is an exactly parallel condition in the Mediterranean, where Professor Marion
has shown that the bands of young sardines, which every year enter some of the shallow
lagoons near the mouths of the Rhone, neither return to the sea nor survive to reproduce
their species wilhin the inland waters.

DR. Petersen's report of the Danish biological station. 85

It was found by the fishermen, and is proved by Petersen's observa-
tions, that plaice grow much more quickly in these inner waters than in
the western expansions of the fjord, and, moreover, reach a larger ultimate
size, which increases their value, apart from mere question of weight,
since very large fish command, from their rarity and excellent condition,
an unusual price. It appears, in fact, from the examination of the few
sexually mature females available, that the transported fish are similar, in
their relations of size and maturity, to the larger of the North Sea races,
from which, of course, they are annually bred.*

On the other hand, the plaice in the outer broads show a tendency to
become mature at a somewhat smaller size. There is, perhaps, to
the biologist nothing in the whole Eeport of greater interest than this
last observation, since we seem to have before us the possibility of the
establishment of two aipimrcnt size-races, derived from common
parentage, operating under comparatively slight differences of environ-
ment. There is, of course, nothing to show that the differences would
be transmitted, even if (1) the fishermen spared any fish to reproduce
their race within the fjord, and (2) if reproduction, as seems to be
doubted, is possible there at all.

In any case, the study of biological problems is pretty generally
known to bring no grist to the mill, and as Petersen's duties are to the
fishermen and not to the ichthyologist, he clearly regards the annual
fishing-out of the possible breeders with absolute complacency. In his
opinion, undoubtedly a sound one, the preservation of breeders might
yield unexpected results ; and I would venture to go further and predict
that, if any result in the way of reproduction were achieved, it would
inevitably be in the ultimate peopling of the fjord with one or
more stunted races of little commercial value.

Granted that the fish grow more quickly and larger in the inner
broads, the question arises, Why is this the case ? The fisherman's
answer, that the bottom is more suitable than in the outer part, does not
appear to be based on a profound study of the benthos, since Petersen
is unable to detect any particular difference in this respect. On the
other hand, he produces figures to show that there is a very marked
difference in the number of fish which are found per acre in the
different parts ; and as the number is infinitely the greater in the outer
broads, he concludes that in the latter the fish are stunted in their
growth by "over-population." I have quoted the word used, which
is not qualified by any explanation, but is surely intended to be under-
stood as over-competition for a limited available food-supply. Otherwise,

• Since Dr. Peteiscu is good enough to refer to me in this connection, I must reniiml
him that I proposed 17 inches as tiie biological linut between mature and immature lish,
and not as a size-limit for legislative purposes.

86 DI{. PEIEUSEN's KEPOllt OF THE DANISH BIOLOGICAL STATION,

since oxygen may be presumed to be in ample abundance, I do not
see that mere crowding need unfavourably react on the growth of
the fish. In any case, one may venture to suggest that an attempt
to tabulate the stomach contents of fish, and the proportionate quantity
of food organisms per acre, would greatly enhance the interest of
the statistics given.

Granted that overcrowding means in great part underfeeding, theie
seems no reason to quarrel with the conclusions which Petersen bases
on his statistics ; and if I am constrained to criticise the figures
themselves, it is chiefly in regard to the manner in which they are
set forth.

The statistical work was undertaken, as we have seen, with a view
to ascertaining the local population in the different broads, and the
fishing was done entirely with seines.

Tlie word seine is capable of rather a wide interpretation in this
country, and probably in Denmark also ; but as no details are given,
one must assume that the nets used, if not of uniform pattern, were
at least of approximate efficiency in proportion to their sizes. It
appears that the plaice-seines are hauled into boats in about three
fathoms of water, and may be supposed to be similar in general make
to the " tuck-net " of the Plymouth district, since an ordinary bottom-
seine without a central bunt could not easily be raised in so much
water without risk of losing the fish. In calculating the results,
Petersen shows that a seine shot from a boat covers, theoretically, a
triangular area of ground, marked out by the net as base and the
two lines as sides. Thus, if twenty fathoms of line are used, and
the net is twenty fathoms long, it covers, theoretically, an equilateral
triangle, the sides of which are each twenty fathoms. On this basis
the area covered by a number of hauls is computed in Danish " Tender
Laud," and the population per " T. L." ascertained by proportional assign-
ment of the total catch of fish.

While my own experience leads me to the belief that the seine is
the most efficient engine that could be used for the statistical enumer-
ation of bottom fish in shallow waters, it is perliaps my ignorance of
the local conditions which leads me to suspect that Petersen, although
he acknowledges that his figures are only approximate, hardly lays
sufficient stress on the possibilities of error.

In this country the state of the tide has the greatest possible effect
on the efficacy of a seine, not only in determining, by its rise and fall,
(1) the amount of ground that can be covered, and (2) the movements
of the fish, but also in influencing the action of the net. So far as
the first question is concerned, we learn that the rise and fall in the
fjord is only about a foot in extent, so that it need not be considered ;

DR. PETERSEN'S REPORT OF THE DANISH BIOLOGICAL STATION. 87

but nothing is said as to the force of the tide, except that tlie tides
are strong at the Thyboron end. I do not know how far we may be
justified in inferring, from the insignificance of the rise and fall, that
there are no violent tide currents in the inner broads and channels ;
but if such really exist, the efficacy of the net must be largely
dependent, as here, on the tide period.

It is also recognized that the weather exercises an important
influence on seining. Even in waters far narrower than those of the
Lim fjord broads, the wind, when not strong enough to stop it
altogether, may seriously interfere with its success; while, though
fishing operations may not be liampered, it is very generally believed,
if not actually known, that conditions of wind and temperature react
most powerfully on the distribution of the fish. No detailed information
being forthcoming,* we are left to assume that the hauls on which the
comparative statistics are based were all made under practically
identical conditions of tide, weather, temperature, etc., which is a
very large assumption.

I have perhaps laid too much stress on this matter, for there is no
reason to doubt the general accuracy of Petersen's conclusions as to
the relative numbers of fish in the different areas ; and if he thinks
that, by converting his actual figures into more or less approximate
enumerations of population per acre, the result is more easy of general
comprehension, he is more than probably right.

We have now to deal with the recommendations which are suggested
by the conditions already ascertained ; and it is obvious that only
two courses are open, i.e., either (1) to preserve the fish with a view
to their reproduction, and to the consequent population of the now
comparatively uninhabited inner broads, or (2) to annually stock these
broads with the largest number of young fish that can thrive (i.e., grow
rapidly) therein.

We have already seen that Petersen is no friend to preservation. He
is not sure that it would result in reproduction, while he sees that if
reproduction occurred it would have the effect of encumbering the
broads with a number of small, hungry fish that would be of no value
for some years, besides entailing some hardship by the imposition of a
very high size-limit. I cannot controvert his arguments, the more so
since, as T have already said, I believe that reproduction would ultimately
result in a stunted race.

The Lim fjord men have, as one may say, at their very doors a vast
natural and practically inexhaustible hatchery — or rather nursery — to
which they may resort in all weathers with the certainty of finding as

* lu Appendi,x III., tlio diary of piofessioiial fishing operutioas, tho weather ia noticed,
but only when had enough to entirely suspend iishing operations.

88 DR. PETEHSEN's report of the DANISH BIOLOGICAL STATION.

many fish as they have time to transport. Small wonder, therefore, that
Petersen inclines to the restocking method, and is only troubled as
to the maximum number of fish which may be safely dumped down on
the inner broads.

We learn from his previous writings that he is no admirer of the
suggestions put forward by myself, in common with some other British
naturalists, as to the necessity of preserving small fish ; and truly, if we
had the same opportunities of replenishing our depleted grounds as
present themselves in the fjord, it is little we should reck of the doings
of our inshore fishermen or of our trawlers on the eastern grounds. The
cases, however, are exactly opposite. Petersen has to deal with too
many young fish and not enough accessible ground for them to thrive
on ; while we are confronted with an unlimited extent of suitable ground
and an enormous destruction of the very fish which, if unmolested,
would come to populate these grounds. I do not see that there is any
necessary want of harmony in these apparently opposite views. Apart
from our own coasts, the destruction of which I have seen cause to
complain affects the outer fringe of the continental small fish, which
would ultimately set offshore ; and I think that if the fish were spared to
populate the offshore waters in their large condition, our trawlers might
be relied on to prevent their having the chance of sending back too
many little ones to choke Dr. Petersen's fjords.

With the exception of appendixes giving the figures on which the
conclusions are based, the Report ends with the formulation of proposi-
tions having in view the regulation and improvement of the fjord plaice
fishery. The general object of these propositions we have already seen,
viz., the extended transplantation of fish into the inner waters ; but there
is a rider to the effect that none but the local fishermen should be
allowed to participate in the benefits which are expected to accrue. It
must be presumed that this is in accordance with the Danish conception
of the principles of political economy. In any case, it is the Danish
taxpayer's affair, and none of ours.

Incidentally it is proposed that more material and money should be
placed at the disposal of the Biological Station, and with all sincerity we
may hope that Dr. Petersen will get it, for it is certain to be well used.

[ 89 ]

Notes and Memoranda.

Aphia pellucida. Nardo. This species has been hitherto known
iu the Plymouth district from a single example taken at the surface,
south of the Mewstone {cf. Cunningham, vol. iii. p. 166). During the
present year it has proved to be rather abundant in the estuarine
waters, and has also been taken at sea. The following records may
be cited :

LynJier River. 14th April. "Deep water" above Waterlake to
Anthony passage. More than twenty specimens altogether ; most
abundant towards the upper part of the area named, where they
occurred in company with young herring of similar size and trans-
lucency. No large and fully differentiated males were taken on
this occasion.

Tamar Riccr. 18th May. Kiln Bay. Two specimens, large male
and half grown.

Cawsand Bay. 9th June. Zostera beds. A large male. — E. W. L. H.

Cantharus lineatus. Mont. An example, 6^ inches long, was
taken in the seine on the 2nd July, 1897, at the junction of the
Tamar and Lynher rivers, i.e., at the upper end of the Hamoaze.
Couch remarks that this fish sometimes enters harbours, but I believe
it has not been previously observed to ascend estuaries on our coasts.
Small examples, such as the present, seem to be of rare occurrence.

E. W. L. H.

Gobius Jeffreysii. GUnthcr. {G. quadrimaculatvs. Day, ncc aucL).
This goby has been recorded from Norway, the Faroe channel, the
Hebrides, the Clyde estuary, and the south-west of Ireland. Its range
may now be extended to the English Channel, owing to the capture
of six specimens, of adult size, in about nineteen fathoms, south of
the Plymouth Mewstone, on 30th March, 1897. It is probably common
enough in this district, and may have escaped attention partly by
its deep-water habitat, and ]iartly from a certain resemblance which
it bears to G. minutus. — E. W. L. H.

Arnoglossus Grohmanni. Bonaparte. A fine male of this species
was trawled south of the Plymouth Mewstone on the 30tli IMarch,

90 NOTES AND MEMORANDA.

1897. Two females were trawled in the "Silver Pit" in Gerrans
Bay, Falmoutli, on the 8th July, 1897. The latter were both full
of spawn, but the ova which were exuded on pressure from one of
them proved to be not quite ripe. At least three examples have
previously been taken by the Laboratory boats in the neighbourhood
of Plymouth, and there can be no doubt that the species is a regular, if
somewhat rare, member of the local fauna. One of the specimens, a
female, came on board in an unusually perfect condition, and I was
able to note that the dark markings on the ocular side exhibited
the purplish metallic tinge best described (as by Valenciennes in
Pomatomus) as gorge de 2^igeoji. Another feature of interest is the
excessive development of the membrane of the elongated second
dorsal ray in one of the females. This feature is not without im-
portance in a due appreciation of the secondary sexual character,
and I hope soon to have an opportunity of discussing it at greater
length.— E. W. L. H.

Callionymus maculatus. Bonaparte. This dragonet must in future
be included in the English fish-fauna, since a fully differentiated
male was trawled in Falmouth Bay on the 10th July, 1897, at a
depth of 30 to 35 fathoms. In British waters it is already known
from the Hebrides and Clyde Estuary (Giaither) and from the west
coast of Ireland (Holt and Calderwood). Other North Atlantic
records are from Scandinavia (Fries and Ekstrom, Lilljeborg, Smitt)
and Denmark (Kroyer). Moreau knew of no instance of its occur-
rence on the Atlantic coasts of France, but it has long been known
as common in the Mediterranean.

It is quite possible that the spotted dragonet is fairly common
in our seas. It is a small species, and in the North Atlantic does
not come into very shallow water. In consequence it is seldom
within the reach of the fishing apparatus at a naturalist's disposal.
Professional trawlers may probably see it often enough, but cannot
be expected to distinguish it from the common dragonet, and in any
case would shovel it overboard as soon as possible, since dragonets
are credited with toxic properties, which, as a matter of fact, they
do not possess. ||

In the Mediterranean all fish, however small, appear to be saleable.
Hence the fishermen use nets of the finest mesh, and the ichthyologist
can acquaint himself with the smallest species by simply overhauling
the fishmonger's stores. It is therefore no matter for surprise that
species which have only recently been added to our list have long
been well known to Mediterranean naturalists. — E. W. L. H.

NOTES AND MEMORANDA. 91

Muraena helena. Linn. A fine specimen was brought to the
Laboratory on March ord, 1897, with the information that it was
trawled off the Eddystone, and was just alive when brought on deck.
It measured ■44-6 inches, or 113'4 cm., and proved to be a male with
ripe testes, the milt readily exuding on pressure. The spermatozoa are
rather large, but were not measured.

In view of the known existence of sexual dimorphism in the family,
the following measurements may be of interest : —

Total length . . . .113-4 cm.

Snout to anus . ... 54*2 „

„ gill opening . . . 14 „

„ angle of jaw . . . 6 „

„ eye . ... 3 „

Length of „ . . . . "8 ,,

Interorbital space (horizontal) . . . 1'9 „

Greatest girth (at gill opening) . . . 26'8 „

Girth in front of anus . . . 23'6 ,,

In colour the specimen resembled such Mediterranean forms as I
have seen, the orange of the anterior ventral region being much less
vivid and less extensive than in Couch's figure. The whole body was
very soft and flabby, and appeared distended, as though the tissues were
undergoing mucoid or colloid degeneration, but such proved to be
not the case. The marginal fins were almost entirely masked by the
skin and body tissues, the anal, in particular, so much so as not
to reach the general ventral surface level. The skin of the abdomen
was exceedingly tough, and about '5 cm. thick. It consisted of an
outer white layer, hard and consistent, and a much thicker inner portion,
somewhat gelatinous in character. The testis was long and baud-like,
somewhat crenulate behind. It terminated a little behind the vent
posteriorly, extending forward at least half-way along the abdominal
cavity. A round wound, about two inches in diameter, and probably
caused by a dog-fish, was present on the left side of the tail, involving
the loss of the skin and underlying muscles.

Only two records of the occurrence of this fish in British waters
have come under my notice, viz., from Polperro and Fowey (Couch).
The only specimen measured was just two inches shorter than the
Plymouth example. — E. W. L. H.

[ 92 ]

Director's Report.

As announced in the Report of the Council for 1896-97 (p. 100),
important changes have taken place in the staff of naturalists working
for the Association. Mr. Garstang, who now has charge of the fishery
investigations, commenced his new duties in June ; and Mr. E. W. L.
Holt, who has placed his services, for the time being, at the disposal
of the Association, has been occupied with researches on food fishes
since March last. It is much to be desired that the staff should be
maintained at at least its present strength, but unfortunately the
conditions of Mr. Holt's appointment, which is purely honorary,
preclude the possibility of our hoping that this may be the case, unless
funds can be provided to give him a position of a more permanent
character. It will be remembered that it was only through private
generosity that the Association was able for a number of years to
retain the services of two naturalists for fishery investigations, and
although we have the good fortune for the present to maintain this
condition of things, the possibility of the reduction of the number
is a prospect which cannot but be regarded as most serious for the
future welfare of the Association. It would be exceedingly un-
fortunate if from the want of funds to remunerate his services the
really valuable work which Mr. Holt is now doing for the Association
were to be stopped.

In connection with the investigation into the natural history of
the mackerel visiting the Irish coasts, which has been undertaken
by the Association at the instance of H.M. Treasury, a report has been
prepared on the present state of our knowledge with regard to the
habits and migrations of this fish. This report has been forwarded
to H.M. Inspectors of Irish Fisheries, and is published in full in
the present number of this Journal. In order to further elucidate
the subject, Mr. Garstang has been devoting his attention to the
general question of the movements of the migratory fishes, in con-
nection both with the periodic movements of the floating organisms
upon which these fishes, directly or indirectly, depend for their food
supply, and also with the changes in the physical conditions of the
sea, especially with regard to density and temperature. Much striking

director's report. 93

and valuable work in this direction has been done in recent years
by Swedish, Norwegian, and Scottish investigators, an account of some
of which Mr. Garstang gives in the present Journal (pp. 56-70).
Mr. Garstang is also paying special attention to the mackerel which
are being taken in the neighbourhood of Plymouth, with a view to
determining whether different races of this fish can be recognized ; and
at the same time arrangements have been made, through the Inspectors
of Irish Fisheries, for samples of mackerel taken off the south-west
coast of Ireland to be sent from time to time to Plymoutli for
examination.

Mr. Holt has been chiefly devoting his attention to the distribution
in this neighbourhood of young fishes, more especially of young flat-
fishes, and to the study of the eggs and larval stages captured in the
tow-net.

The trawling experiments in Teignmouth, Start, and Tor Bays have
been continued by Mr. Scott and Mr. Holt. In March the work
was done with the hired sailing trawler which had been used in all the
previous experiments. In May and June our own steamboat, Busy Bee,
was used, and with the aid of the steam winch with which she
has been fitted, she proved herself satisfactory for the work. A
fortnight was spent at Exmouth and Dartmouth, and successful hauls
of the trawl were made in each bay.

We have been able to extend our work this year to the Cornish
Coast, Fowey and Falmouth being used as centres. At the latter port
a fortnight was spent, and with the assistance of Mr, Vallentin the
trawling and dredging grounds, both of the harbour and of the
neighbouring bays, were examined.

The results of the experiments with floating bottles, described in
my last Report, for the purpose of determining the direction of
the surface drift, have so far proved interesting. A considerable
number of bottles put into the sea in the neighbourhood of the
Eddystone in January and February last have now been recovered.
These have been found to the eastward of Plymouth, having been
carried up Channel. At first we received the post cards from the
south coast of England, between the Isle of Wight and Dover, with
a few from the north coast of France, in the neighbourhood of Calais.
Later cards, from bottles put out about the same time, have been
returned in numbers from places in the southern part of the North Sea,
the bottles having been washed ashore chiefly on the islands off
the Dutch and German coasts (Terschelling, Amiland, Borkum,
Langeoog, etc.).

In addition to the members of the Association's staff who have been
engaged in these investigations, a number of naturalists have, as

94 director's report.

heretofore, occupied tables at the Laboratory, in order to carry out
their own independent researches. The following is a list of these
workers, and of the subjects which have engaged their attention : —

Beaumont, W. I., 15.a., June 1st to August oth [Faunistic Researches).

Bedford, Z. P., B.a,, August 2nd (Ili/drozoa).

I)ushnell, F., M.D., March 22nd to April 22ad {Marine Bacteria).

Church, A. H., b.a., March 29th, April 30th, July 29th {Marine Algoi).

Duncker, G., Ph.D., August 8th {Variation of Fishes).

Harmer, S. F., m.a., March 19th to April 13th {Polyzoa).

Hodgson, T. Y., June 1st {Polychcctes).

Parkinson, J., April 21st to May 5tli {Compound Ascidians).

Scott, S. D., B.A., July 1st to August 7th {Ascidians).

Shelford, R, b.a., April 29th to May 11th {General Zoology).

Weldon, Professor, f.r.s., July 9th to August 5th ( Variation of Crabs).

During the Easter vacation Mr. Garstang again conducted at the
Laboratory a class in Marine Biology for advanced University students,
which was well attended, and for which applications were received from
more students than we were able to accommodate.

A collection of specimens of fishes and of marine invertebrates,
which serve as food for fishes, or are used as bait, has been arranged
and exhibited by the Association at the Yachting and Fisheries
Exhibition, held during the present summer at the Imperial Institute.
The specimens include a number of fish eggs, larv?e, and young fish,
together with examples of the smaller floating organisms which are
found in the sea.

It has been found necessary to provide a number of additional shelves

for the Library, the present accommodation having grown insufficient for

the increasing number of books which is being accumulated. Although

every year becoming more useful, owing to the number of periodicals

regularly subscribed for, the Library, however, still shows serious

deficiencies, from the want of many of the classical monographs dealing

with marine biology, and also of the back numbers of Journals. A list

of some of the more important publications, which are badly needed, is

printed at the end of this Eeport. The addition to the Library of any

of these periodicals and works, or even of reprints of papers which

have appeared in the former, would be a boon, not only to those

who are regularly working at the Laboratory, but also to the naturalists

who visit it from time to time. Plymouth being so far from any of

the larger libraries, it is most important that our own should be as

complete as possible, and we shall be grateful to anyone who can help

us to fill up deficiencies.

E. J. ALLKN.

Aitgust, 1897,

[ 95 ]

LIST OF PEEIODICALS AND MONOGEAPHS UEGENTLY
EEQUIEED EOE THE LIBEAEY.

Anatomischer Anzeiger.

Annals and Magazine of Natural History.

Annales des Sciences Naturelles. Zoologie et Paluontologie.

Arbeiten aus dem zoologisch-zootomischen Institute zu Wiirzburg.

Archiv fiir Anatomie und Entwicklungsgeschichte (His u. Brauue).
„ „ Mikroskop. Anatomie — previous to Vol. xlv. 1895.
„ „ Zoologie, niederland. Selenka u. Hoffmann.

Archives italiennes de Biologie. Emery et Mosso.

Bibliotheca Zoologica. Leuckart u. Chun.

British Association Eeports, previous to 1893.

Comptes Eendus Acad. d. Sciences. Paris.

Jenaische Zeitschrift fiir Medicin u. Naturwissenschaft.

Journal of the Linnean Society.

Journal of Anatomy and Physiology.

La Cellule. Carnoy, Gilson et Denys.

Morphologisches Jahrbuch. Zeitschr. f. Anat. u. Eotwickelungsgesch.
Gegenbaur.

Proceedings of the Eoyal Society of London, previous to Vol. xlv.
1888.

Eoyal Society of Edinburgh. Transactions previous to 1888. Pro-
ceedings previous to 1889.

Zeitschr. f. wissensch. Mikroskopie. Behrens.

„ „ „ Zoologie. Kolliker and Ehlers. Previous to

Vol. XXV. 1875.
Zoologische Jahrbiicher. Spengel. Abth. f. Systematik, etc. Abth.

f. Anat, u. Ontogenie.
Zoologischer Jahresbericht. Zool. Stat. Neapel.
Zoological Society of London. Transactions and Proceedings, previous

to 1891.

Beneden, P. J. van. Les Poissons des Cotes de Belgique, leurs

Parasites et leurs Commensaux. Bruxelles, 1870.
Brooks, W. K. The genus Salpa. 4to. Baltimore, 1893.

96 LIST OF PERIODICALS AND MONOGRAPHS URGENTLY REQUIRED.

Clapavede. Les Aunolides Chetopodes du Oolfe de Naples.

Supplement. Geneve et Bale, 1870.
Claparede. Beobact. liber Anat. und Entwicklungsgesch wirbelloser

Thiers an der Kliste von Normandie angestellt. Leipzig,

1863.
Glaus, G. Studien iiber Polypen und Quallen der Adria. 4to.

Wien, 1877.
Glaus, G. Untersuchungen iiber die Organisation und Entwicklung

der Medusen. 4to. Prag u. Leipzig, 1883.
Glaus, G. Grundziige der Zoologie. Marburg.
Guvier, G. Le Ecgne Animal.
Darwin, G. Works of: (excepting monograph of Girripedia and

Voyage Round the World).
Forbes, E. Natural History of European Seas.
Graaf, L. von. Das Genus Myzostoma. 4to. Leipzig, 1877.
Grenacher, H. Untersuchungen iiber das Sehorgan der Arthropoden.

4to. Gottingen, 1879.
Haeckel, E. Die Radiolarien. Berlin, 1862.

„ Zur Entwickelungsgeschichte der Siphonophoren.

Utrecht, 1869.
Haeckel, E. Die Kalkschvs^amme. 3 vols. Berlin, 1872.
Heller, G. Die Zoophyten und Echinodermen des Adriatischen

Meeres. Wien, 1868.
Hertwig, 0. and R Der Organismns der Medusen.

„ „ Das Nervensystem und die Sinnesorgane der

Medusen.
Hertwig, 0. and R. Studien zur Blattertheorie.
Hertwig, R. Der Organismus der Radiolarien.
Hudson and Gosse. The Rotifera.
Huxley, T. H. Works of

Jeffreys (John Gwyn). British Gonchology. 5 vols.
Kent, W. Saville. Manual of the Infusoria.
Kleinenberg, N. Hydra. Eine Anatomisch- Entwicklungsgesch-

ichtliche Untersuchung.
Leidy, J. Fresh-water Rhizopods of North America.
Lilljeborg. Sverig o Norg Fiske. 3 vols.
Linnaeus. Systema Naturae.
Middendorff, A. T. Reise in den iiussersten Norden und Osten

Siberiens wiihrend der Jahre 1843-44,
Mobius, K. Fauna der Kieler Bucht.

LIST OF PERIODICALS AND MONOGRAPHS URGENTLY REQUIRED. 97

" Novara." Reise der osterreichischen Fregatte Novarrt um die Erde

in den Jahren 1857, 1858, and 1859.
Fische. R. Kner. (1865-67.)
Mollusken. G. von Frauenfeld.
Anneliden. E. Grube.
Sars, G. 0. On some remarkable forms of Animal Life from the

great deeps off the Norwegian coast. 2 parts. Christiania,

1872-75.
Selenka, E. Zoologische Studien. Leipzig, 1878-81.

„ Studien liber Entwickelungsgeschichte der Thiere.

Hefte I.-IV. Wiesbaden, 1883-86.
Semper, C. Reisen im Archipel der Philippinen. Wissensch.

Resultate. 4to. Leipzig, 1868-86. Bande. I.-V.
Sladen and Duncan. Echinodermata of the Arctic Sea to the W.

of Greenland.
Smitt. Edition of Fries and Ekstrom's Skandinavian Fishes.
Thomson, C. Wyville. The Depths of the Sea.
Tizard and Murray. Exploration of the Faroe Channel during the

Summer of 1880.
Vogt, C. CrustacGs Parasites des Poissons. Geneve, 1879.
Webb and Berthelott. Histoire Naturelle des lies Canaries. Vol. ii.

Zoology. Paris, 1836-44.

NEW SEllIES. — VOI„

NO. 1. Q

[ ^8 ]

Inspection of the Laboratory.

The Laboratory was visited and inspected on June 26th and 27th
by a Committee appointed by the Council for that purpose, and the
following report was submitted to the Council at the meeting held on
June 29th:—

"The Committee, consisting of the President and Mr. Beddard,
arrived in Plymouth on Saturday, June 26th. They visited the
laboratories, engine-rooms, tank-room, library, and museum on both
Saturday and Sunday. By the President's invitation, they were joined
at Plymouth by Mr. John Enys, of Enys, near Falmouth, a member
of the Association.

" The Committee report in the first place that the satisfactory
standard of general efficiency noted last year has been fully maintained.
The place is in excellent condition, clean and orderly, and the servants
are well in hand.

" The large laboratory has been provided with a new flat tank, eight
feet by five feet and eight inches deep, by aid of which Mr. Garstang
has been carrying on some observations on the habits of Brachyurous
Crustacea. The sea-water supplied to the laboratory is still kept
distinct from the general circulation in the show tanks, and is never
returned to the laboratory tanks after it has passed through them.
We are of opinion that this is the only satisfactory system for main-
taining marine organisms in a really healthy condition in confinement,
the whole theory of ' circulation ' being illusory and in practice
disastrous.

" The lecture-room is in good order, and has proved to be very useful
and well fitted for its purpose.

" The collection of local types in the museum has progressed.
Mr. Holt has named and rearranged the collection of fishes, and the
Echinoderms and Polyzoa have been completed.

" Smith continues, under Mr. Allen's direction, to carry out the
preservation and storage of specimens for sale according to the best
methods. There is a marked improvement in this matter as compared
with the period preceding 1896.

"The library is in good order. A number of books have been bound,

INSPECTION OF THE LABORATORY. 99

but it would be a great advantage were it possible to spend more
money on this department. All the chief zoological periodicals and
both British and foreign reports on fishery investigations are on our
shelves, besides most of the valuable and costly monographs on marine
organisms. The total number of volumes is about 1500, We
recommend that the series of Nature be bound at once.

" The engines and machinery appear to be in excellent order.

"Since last year a considerable improvement has been obtained in
the appearance of the water circulating in the show tanks. This
appears to be chiefly due to an ingeniously devised filter fitted by
Mr. Allen so as to pass all the water on its return from the tanks to
the reservoir. The Committee had an opportunity of observing how
large an amount of floating organic matter is thus removed in the
space of five hours. No chemical analyses of the water have been
made during the past year, and the Committee have directed Mr. Allen
to procure such analyses with a view to determining the amount of
organic and inorganic nitrogen now present.

" The Committee were pleased to note this year that the tanks
were very abundantly stocked with a variety of interesting animals,
invertebrates as well as fishes. There is no doubt that there is at
Plymouth an abundant supply of forms, which become every year
more easily obtained owing to the increased experience of the Director
and his fishermen. For instance, the interesting Chaetopod, Chaetopterus,
is now in the tanks, and is not unfrequently fished. Owing to the use
of the large trawl with the steam winch, a larger and more varied
supply of animals is obtained.

" Mr. Allen has removed the glass front from one of the tanks in
the show-room and converted it into a shallow tank, with the advantage
that the animals in it are much more easily observed than when seen
through the glass side. This alteration might perhaps be extended
with advantage to other tanks.

" The Committee inspected the steam launch Busy Bee on the
afternoon of the 27th, and especially examined the steam winch.
Everything was in excellent order.

(Signed) "E. Kay Lankestek, President.
"F. K. Bkddaud."

O 2

[ 100 ]

Report of the Council, 1896-97.

The Council and Officers.

Four ordinary meetings of the Council have been held, at which
the average attendance has been eight. The Plymouth Laboratory
was visited and inspected by a committee appointed by the Council
on June 26th.

The Council has heard with great regret from Mr. E. L. Beckwith
that he feels compelled, owing to declining health, to resign the office of
Honorary Treasurer, the duties of which he has carried out with such
advantage to the Association during the last eight years. The Council
is glad to know that it will still have Mr. Beckwith's advice and
assistance as a Governor of the Association, representing the Fish-
mongers' Company.

The Council proposes Mr. John Amory Travers, a Warden of the
Fishmongers' Company, for election as Honorary Treasurer in succession
to Mr. Beckwith.

The thanks of the Council are again due to the Royal Society for
allowing the meetings of the Association to be held in their rooms.

The Plymouth Laboratory.

The buildings, iittings, and machinery of the Laboratory have been
maintained in good condition. The only repairs of importance which
have been necessary have been in connection with the renewal of a
considerable portion of the sea-water supply pipe, which was destroyed
by the stranding of the s s. Ariel on the rocks below the Laboratory in
December. The expenses of these repairs have been met by the owners
of the vessel.

REPORT OF THE COUNCIL. 101

The Boats.

The Busij Bee has been working continuously and successfully during
the year, and has proved a valuable addition to the equipment of the
Laboratory. She has recently been fitted with a strong steam winch,
which has greatly added to her efficiency for trawling work.

The sailing boat Anton Dohrn has also been used from time to time
for collecting-work in Plymouth Sound.

The Staff.

Mr. J. T. Cunningham has left the service of the Association during
the year, and has been appointed Lecturer to the Technical Education
Committee of the Cornwall County Council.

Mr. R B. Stead, who had been working at fishery problems at
Plymouth, having resigned his position as Assistant Naturalist, Mr. W.
Garstang has been appointed Naturalist in charge of the fishery
investigations of the Association. Owing to the increased expenditure
in connection with our fishery work which is involved in this change,
the Council has found it impossible to renew Mr. T. V. Hodgson's
appointment as Director's Assistant for the coming year.

Mr. E. W. L. Holt, having offered his services to the Association,
has been appointed an Honorary Naturalist on the staff, and will be
engaged in investigations connected with the life histories and distribu-
tion of fishes.

The Library.

The list of periodicals regularly purchased for the Library has been
increased by the addition of the Journal of Morphology, the Arehiv fiXr
Mikroskoinschc Anatomie, and the Arehiv filr Entwickelungsmechanik.

Prof. Gustav Ketzius has presented the Association with copies of his
valuable publications, Bioloyische Untersitchungcn, Neue-Folge, which deal
chiefiy with the histological structure of the nervous system. The
thanks of the Council are also due to the lioyal Society, the Zoological
Society, the Royal Microscopical Society, the United States Com-
missioner of Fish and Fisheries, and many other societies and individuals,
for copies of their publications.

General Report.

Mr. Cunningham's book on the Natural History of the Marketable
Marine Fishes of the British Islands was published in the autumn
by Messrs. Macmillan and Co, The work has met with a most
favourable reception from the press, and appears to meet a popular
want.

102 KEPOKT OF THE COUNCIL.

During the summer and autumn of 1896 Mr. Cunningham con-
tinued his researches on the distribution of flat-fishes in the Nortli
Sea, paying particular attention to the relations which exist between
the physical and biological conditions in that area, and also to the
peculiarities of the fish which live upon the different fishing grounds.
The results of these observations are contained in two memoirs
published in the Journal of the Association. A memoir by Mr.
Cunningham dealing with the minute structure and the develop-
ment of the ovaries of fishes has appeared in the Quarterly Journal
of Microscopical Science.

The trawling experiments in the bays on the south coast of Devon,
which were commenced last year, have been continued and extended by
the special request of the Devon Sea Fisheries Committee, who
have contributed towards the expenses of this undertaking. At the
same time a general study of the distribution of young fish in the
neighbourhood has been undertaken, and Mr. Holt has recently been
paying particular attention to this enquiry.

Experiments with floating bottles, similar to those carried out by
Prof. Herdman in the Irish Sea and by the Scottish Fishery Board
in the North Sea, for the purpose of determining the general direction
of the surface drift of the water in the English Channel at different
times of the year, have been commenced. Bottles put into the sea
near the Eddy stone during January and February were carried for
the most part up Channel, some having passed through the Straits
of Dover and been found at Terschelling and Borkum, off the Dutch
and German coasts respectively.

The detailed investigation of the grounds between the Eddystone
and Start Point, mentioned in last year's Ileport, was continued during
the summer of 1896, and the results are for the most part worked
out. It is intended, however, to go over the ground carefully again
this year before these results are published.

In promising to place on the estimates for the year 1897-98 the
usual grant of £1000 to the Association, the Lords Commissioners
of H.M. Treasury have made it a condition that the Association
will give all the assistance in its power to the Inspectors of Irish
Fisheries in investigations which they desire to be made on the habits
and migrations of the mackerel visiting the Irish coast. In con-
nection with this subject a report has been prepared and transmitted
to the Inspectors of Irish Fisheries on the present state of knowledge
with regard to the natural history of the mackerel, and arrangements
are being made for samples of the mackerel taken on the west
coast of Ireland to be sent to the Plymouth Laboratory for exami-
nation.

REPORT OF THE COUNCIL. 103

Occupation of Tables.

The following naturalists have been engaifed in research work at the
Plymouth Laboratory during the year :-

D O^

J. E. Barnard, British Institute of Preventive Medicine (Phosphorescent
Bacteria).
T. Beer, Ph.D., Vienna (Sense Organs of Crustacea).
G. Brebner, University College, Bristol (Marine Algte).
E. Brumpt, Paris (General Zoology).
A. H. Church, B.A , Oxford (Marine Algoe).
Prof. P. T. Cleve, Ph.D., Upsala (Diatoniacete).
Miss M. C. Colcutt, University College, London (Hydrozoa).
W. Garstaxg, M.A., Oxford (IMarinc Bionomics).
E. S. Goodrich, B.A., Oxford (Holutlmrians).
S. F. Harmer, M.A., Cambridge (Polyzoa).
E. AV. L. Holt (Distribution of Fishes).
C. A. ^IacMuxx, M.D. (Blood of Fishes and Invertebrates).
K. R. Menon, B.A., Camliridge (Nervous System of Mollusca).
J. Parkinson, B.Sc, University College, London (Ascidians).
T. H. Riches, B.A., Camln-idge (Nemertines).
S. D. Scott, B.A., Cambridge (Ascidians).

R, Shelford, B.A., Yorkshire College, Leeds (General Zoology).
S. Watase, Ph.D., Chicago (Phosphorescence).
Prof. Weldon, F.R.S., University College, London (Variation of Crabs).

Vacation classes in Marine Biology for advanced University students
have again been conducted by Mr. Garstang, and have been very
successful. These classes have been attended by sixteen students.

Published Memoirs.

Amongst the papers, either wlioUy or in part the outcome of work
done at the Laboratory, which have appeared elsewhere than in the
Journal of the Association, are the following : —

Allen, E. J. — Studies on the Nervous System of Crustacea, IV. Further Observations
on the Nerve Elements of the Emhryonic Lobster. Quart. Journ, Micr. Sci. vol. xxxix.
p. 33.

Bassett-Smith, p. W. — Notes on the Parasitic Copepoda of Fish obtained at
Plymouth, with descriptions of Neiv Species. Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. (6) \o\.
xviii. pp. 8-16.

Bethe, a. — Ein Carcinus maenas {Taschenkrebs) mit einem rechteii Schreitbein an
der linlien Seite des Abdomens. Ein JJeitray zur Vcrerbunystheorie. Arch. Eutwick.
niech. iii. p. 301.

Browne, E. T. — On Ihitish Hydroids and Medusa;. Proceed. Zool. Soc. London,
1890, Pt. ii. p. 459.

Cunningham, J. T. — 0» the Histolofm of the Ovary and of the Ovarian Ova in
certain Marine Fishes. Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci. N.S. vol. xl. pp. 101-163.

104

REPORT OF THE COUNCIL.

Garstang, W. — On the Ajjlacophorous AmpJiinetcra of British Seas. Proc.
Malacol. Soc. ii. Oct. 1896.

Garstang, W. — On the Function of certain Diagnostic Characters of Decapod
Crustacea. British Association Report, Liveriiool, 1896.

Nutting, C. C. — Notes on Plymouth Hydroids. Bull. Lab. Nat. Hist. Iowa,
vol. iv. No. 1.

Donations and Receipts,

The Eeceipts for the year include the Annual Grants from H.M.
Treasury (£1000) and the Worshipful Company of Fishmongers (£400),
Annual Subscriptions (£122), Rent of Tables in the Laboratory (£08),
Sale of Specimens (£287), and admission to the Aquarium (£G7).
Towards the fund for the payment of the purchase money of the
Bnsi/ Bee donations amounting to £213 19s. Od. have been received
during the year, the fund now amounting in all to £537 14s. Od.
In order to meet the deficit due to the purchase and fitting out of the
Busy Bee, and to the fact that the work in the North Sea was continued
for six months after the special donation for that purpose had ceased,
£170 Forth Bridge stock held by the Association has been sold, and
has realised £251 15s. 3d, The total receipts for the year (exclusive
of sale of stock) amount to £2203 6s, 4d,

Vice-Presidents, Officers, and Council,

The following is the list of gentlemen proposed by the Council for
election for the year 1896-97 : —

President.
Prof, E. Ray Lankester, LL.D., F.R.S.

Vice-Presidents.

The Duke of Argyll, K.G., K.T.,
F,R.S.

The Duke of Abercorn, K.G., C.B.

The Earl of St. Germans.

The Earl of Morley.

The Earl of Ducie, F.R.S.

The Right Hon. Lord Tweedmouth.

Lord Walsingham, F.R.S.

The Right Hon. A. J. Balfour, M.P.,
F.R.S.

The Right Hon. Joseph Chamber-
lain, M.P.

The Right Hon. Sir John Lubbock,

Bart., M.P., F.R.S.
Prof. G. J. Allman, F.R.S.
Sir Edward Birkbeck, Bart.
Sir Wm. Flower, K.C.B., F.R.S.
A. G. L. Gunther, E-sq., F.R.S.
Prof. Alfred Newton, F.R.S.
Rev. Canon Norman, D.C.L., F.R.S.
Sir Henry Thompson.
Rear -Admiral Sir W. J. L. Wharton,

K.C.B., F.R.S.

REPORT OF THE COUNCIL.

105

Elected Members.

F. E. Beddard, Esq., F.K.S.
Prof. F. Jeffrey Bell, F.Z.S.

G. C. Bourne, Esq., F.L.S.

Sir John Evans, K.C.B., Trea.s. R.S.

G. Herbert Fowler, Esq.

S. F. Harmer, Esq.

Prof. W. A. Herdman, F.R.S.

Prof. S. J. HiCKSON, F.R.S.

J. J. Llster, Esq.

John Murray, Esq., F.R.S.

P. L. Sclater, Esq., F.R.S., Sec. Z.S.

D. H. Scott, Esq., F.R.S.

Prof. Charles Stewart, F.R.S.

Prof. W. F R. AVeldon, F.R.S.

Hon. Treasurer.
J. A. Travers, Esq.

Hon. Secretary.
E. J. Allen, Esq., The Laboratory, Citadel Hill, Plymouth.

The followincr Governors are also members of the Council :-

Robert Bayly, Esq.

J. P. Thomasson, Esq.

The Prime Warden of the Fish-
mongers' Company.

E. L. Beckwith, Esq. (Fishmongers'
Company).

Prof. BuRDON Sanderson, F.R.S. (Ox-
ford University).

Prof. Michael Foster, F.R.S. (Cam-
bridge University).

Sir William Flower, K.C.B., F.R.S.
(Brit. Assoc, for Advmnt, of Science).

[ 100 ]

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PUBLICATIONS OF THE ASSOCIATION,

Cloth 4to, 150 2)p-> 18 plates (12 coloured).

A TREATISE ON THE COMMON SOLE.

BY

J. T. CUNNINGHAM, M.A.,
Late Fellow of University College, Oxford ; Naturalist to the Associatiou.

Price to Members,* 20s. ; to Non-Members, 25s.
From the Director, The Laboratory, Plymouth, and through all Booksellers.

JOURNAL OF THE MARINE BIOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION.

Old Series.

No. 1, August, 1887 (only a few copies left, reserved for Libraries).
No. 2, August, 1888. Price Is.

NEW SERIES.— VOLUME I.

1889-90.

Boyal 8vo, xx. and 472 2)p., 28 plates.

NEW SERIES— VOLUME II.

1891-92.

Boyal 8vo, x. and 404 jip., 14 plates, 12 woodcuts, aiid 10 charts.

NEW SERIES.— VOLUME IIL

1893-95.

Royal 8vo, xxxviii. and 458 pp., 5 plates, ami 25 woodcuts.

NEW SERIES.— VOLUME IV. Parts 1, 2, 3, 4.

Separate numbers, in wrappers, 3s. 6(/. ; to Members,* 2s. 8d.

Members who desire to obtain the publications at the reduced rate must apply to the Director,

ami not to the London Agents.

Prom the Director, The Laboratory, Plymouth.
And from the London Agents: Messrs, Dulau & Co., 37, Soho Square, W.

Medium 8vo, 3Q8 pages. 159 Illustrations and two Maps. Price Is, 6d. net.

THE NATURAL HISTORY

OF THE

Marketable Marine Fishes of the British Islands.

Prepared expressly for the use of those interested in the Sea-fishing Industries,

BY

J. T. CUNNINGHAM, M.A.,

FORMERLY FELLOW OF UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, OXFORD ;
NATURALIST ON THE STAFF OF THE MARINE BIOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION.

SlSaitl) Preface Jjp
E. RAY LANKESTER, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.,

PROFESSOR OF COMPARATIVE ANATOMY IN THE UNIVERSITY OF OXFORD.
— ♦ ♦-» »

CONTENTS.

PART I.— GENERAL.

CHAPTER

I. — History of Modern Investigations of the Subject.

II. — The Characteristics of vakiable Marine Fishes and the Regions in
which they live.

III. — The Generation of Fishes and their Fecundity.

IV. — The Eggs and Larvse and their Development.

V. — Growth, Migrations, Food, and Habits.

VI. — Practical Methods of Increasing the supply of Fish.

PART II.— HISTORY OF PARTICULAR FISHES.

The Herring Family : — The Herring. The Sprat. Tlie Pilcliard or Sardine.
The Shads. The Ancliovy.

The SaLiMon Family : — The Smelt.

The Eel Family : — The Ed. The Conger

Part II.— History of Particular Fishes— continued

The Garfish or Guard-Fish Familt,

The Flat-Fish Family : — The Plaice. The Common Dab. The Flounder.
The Witch. The Lemon Dab, or Lemon Sole. The Halibut. The
Long Rough Dab. The Sole. The Sand Sole, or French Sole. The
Solenette, or Little Sole. The Thickback. The Turbot. The Brill.
The Megrim. The Scaldfish, or Scaldback. The Top-knots.

The Cod Family :— The Cod. The Haddock. The Whiting. The Coal-
Fish. The Pollack. The Ling. The Hake. The Rocklings. The
Tusk, or Torsk. The Sand-Eels.

The Red Mullet Family.

The Sea Breams.

The Mackerel, or Tunny Family : — The Mackerel.

The Family of the Scads, or Horse-Mackerels.

The John Dory Family : — The Boar-Fish, or Cuckoo. The John Dory.

The Gurnard Family : — The Bullheads. The Gurnards.

Grey Mullets : — The Thick-Lipped Grey Mullet.

The Angler Family : — The Angler, or Frog-Fish.

The Blennies : — The Cat-Fish, or Sea-Cat.

The Sucker Family : — The Lump-Sucker. The Diminutive Suckers.

Appendix I. Appendix II. Index.

MACMILLAN & CO., Ltd.,
BEDFORD STREET, STRAND, LONDON,

OBJECTS

OF THE

XHarint fiiolontcal Sssocialion of tljc ^InrfA iUnqbom.

THE ASSOCIATION was founded at a Meeting called for the purpose in March, 1884,
and held in the Rooms of the Royal Society of London.

The late Professor Huxley, at that time President of the Royal Society, took the chair,
and amongst the speakers in support of the project were the Duke of Aiigyll, Sir Lyon
Playfaik, Sir John Lubbock, Sir Joseph Hookei;, the late Dr. Cabpenteii, Dr. Guntheu,
the late Lord Dalhou.sie, the late Professor Moseley, the late Sir. Ro.manes, and
Professor Lank ester.

The Association owes its existence .and its present satisfactory condition to a combina-
tion of scientific naturalists, and of gentlemen who, from philanthropic or practical reasons,
are specially interested in the great sea fisheries of the United Kingdom. It is universally
admitted that our knowledge of the habits and conditions of life of sea fishes is very small,
and insufficient to enable either the practical fisherman or the Legislature to take measures
calculated to ensure to the country the greatest return from the "harvest of the sea."
Naturalists are, on the other hand, anxious to push farther our knowledge of marine life
and its conditions. Hence, the Association has erected at Plymouth a thoroughly efficient
Laboratory, where naturalists may study the history of marine animals and plants in general,
and where, in particular, researches on food fishes and molluscs may be carried out with the
best appliances.

The Laboratory and its fittings were completed in June, 1S8S, at a cost of some £12,000.
Since that time investigations, practical and scientific, have been constantly pursued at
Plymouth. Practical investigations upon matters connected with sea-fishing are carried on
under the direction of the Council ; in addition, naturalists from England and from abroad
have come to the Laboratory, to carry on their own independent researches, and have made
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use of a working table in the Laboratory, and other appliances. The number of naturalists
who can be employed by the Association in special investigations on fishery questions, and
definitely retained for the purpose of carrying on those researches throughout the year,
must depend on the funds subscribed by private individuals and public bodies for the
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water circulation in the tanks, stocking the tanks with fish and feeding the latter, the
payment of servants and fishermen, the hire and maintenance of fishing boats, and the
salary of the Resident Director and Stalf. At the commencement of this number will be
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The Association has received some £29,000, of which £13,000 has been granted by
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The admirable Marine Biological Laboratory at Naples, founded and directed by Dr.
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The purpose of the Association is to aid at the same time both science and industry. It
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absolutely to the support of the Laboratory and the prosecution of researches by aid of
its appliances. The reader is referred to page 4 of the Cover for information as to
membership of the Association.

CONTENTS OF NEW SERIES, Vol. V., No. 1.

PAGE

1. Kei'ort ox the Prksent State of Knowledge with Regard to

THE Habits and Miukations of the Mackerel {Scomhei- scomber).
By E. J. Allen, B.Sc. . . . ... 1

2. Pi{eliminary Notes on the Reproduction of Teleostean Fishes

IN THE South-Western DISTRICT. By E. W. L. Holt . . 41

3. Notes on New or Rare British Marine Polyzoa. By S. F.

Harmer, M.A., B.Sc. . . . ... 51

4. On Tiihularia crocea IN Plymouth Sound. By Edward T. Browne. . 54

5. Hjort's Hydrographic-Biological Studies of the Norwegian

Fisheries : A Review. By AValter Garstang, M.A. . . 56

6. An Account of the Scientific Work of the Northumberland

Sea Fisheries Committee. By Alexander Meek, M.Sc. . . 72

7. (jadus EsmarMi, Nilsson, the Norway Pout, an Addition to the
Fish Fauna of the English South -Western District. By
Matthias Dunn and E, W. L. Holt

8. Remarks on Dr. Petersen's Report of the

Station for 1895, By E. ^y. L. Holt

9. Notes and Memoranda

10. Director's Report .

11. Inspection of the Laboratory

12. Report of the Council, 1896-97

Danish Biological

79

82
89
92
98
100

NOTICE.

The Council of tlie Marine Biological Association Avisli it to be nnderstood that
they do not accept resi>onsibility for statements publi.slied in this Journal,
excepting when those statements are contained in an official report of the Council.

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New Series. — Vol. V., No. 2— issued April, 1898.]

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MAY 14 1898

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MAY 14 1898 j- ^q^ j

Notes on the Reproduction of Teleostean Fishes
in the South- Western District.

By
Ernest W. L. Holt.

These notes are intended to be explanatory of the record of tow-net
stages of Teleosteans kept by Mr. S. D. Scott and myself. Although my
own name appears alone under the title, it must be understood that the
observations were in the sole charge of Mr. Scott until the beginning of
March. The record of the 5th April is also Mr. Scott's. The rest
were kept by myself. The credit of any scientific result that may
accrue from the observations previous to the 30th March belongs
therefore solely to Mr. Scott, since his notes and figures are so complete
as to render my own share of this part of the work a very simple one.

This journal is not designed for the publication of such profusely
illustrated papers as are best suited for the explanation of the earliest
stages of Teleosteans. It so happens that in the present instance I am
able in most cases to refer either to figures already published, or to
others now in the press. A series of notes made at Professor Marion's
laboratory at Endoume, Marseilles, was prepared for the press during
1897. Observations made at Plymouth during the same period were
found to have an obvious bearing on the subject-matter of my
researches at Marseilles, and by the generous permission of Professor
Marion I have been allowed to include in a paper shortly to be
published in the Anncdes du Musee dc Marseille* a number of drawings
made from Plymouth specimens. I am therefore able in many
instances to eke out somewhat inadequate descriptions by references
to figures in the Annales.

The subjoined notes on the reproduction of different species call for
no introductory remarks ; but one feature which has not, as I believe,
been hitherto noticed, appears to require a little attention. That the
largest fish are the earliest spawners is, as I imagine, the general

* "Sur La Reproduction des Poissons osseux, surtout dans lo Golfo de Marseille," loc,
cit., v., Fasc. II., 1898.

NEW SEllIES.— VOL. V. NO. 2. H

108 NOTES ON THE REPRODUCTION OF TELEOSTEAN FISHES

experience of those who have had occasion to examine spawning fish ;
but that the larger fish of a species lay the larger eggs is a proposition
which I have not seen in print, at least as regards marine forms. I am
led to believe that this is the case from measurements of the ova
of several species during successive months, both at Plymouth and
Marseilles. IMy observations are at present of a sporadic nature, and
suggestive rather than conclusive, I hope to continue them during the
present year in a more methodical manner. I have previously alluded
to the experience of the late Sir J. Gibson-Maitland, to the effect that
among the Salmonidie the larger parents of a species give rise to the
larger eggs, from which alone, speaking generally, offspring of large
potential size can be procured. If, as my experience leads me to
expect, the same relation of size of egg to size of parent holds good for
marine fishes or for some of them, it is not unreasonable to suspect
that the young derived from the smaller and later spawned eggs are,
like their representatives among the Salmonidte, of little account in the
up-keep of specimens of large size. The question has obviously a
most important bearing on measures that may be adopted for the
preservation of our marine fisheries. I have been myself an enthu-
siastic advocate of the protection of immature fishes ; but if the
contention which I now advance holds good, it must be recognised that
this measure will not alone secure an abundance of large specimens.
It cannot, by itself, go further than to protect fish until the period at
which they become capable of producing offspring incapable for the
most part of attaining a respectable size. Tliat over-fishing results,
whether in a river or at sea, not so much in the reduction of the
numbers of a species as in a diminution of fine specimens, if not
entirely a matter of common knowledge, has, at any rate, been pointed
out by Herdman some years ago {Trans. Liv. Biol. Assoc, vii., 1892,
p. 121). Its explanation seems to be that though many fish survive to
the first breeding season, comparatively few reach a size at which they
are capable of producing vigorous and potentially large offspring.
The proposition, if applied to domestic stock, would be by no means
startling to breeders. In the case of fish I suspect that there may
be found a certain correspondence between the size of the adolescent
fish at spawning and the average potential size of its offspring. It
may, perhaps, be reasonably suspected that the rate of grov^th of the
offspring of small parents differs considerably from that of the young
of large specimens ; a condition which, however difficult to tabulate,
furnishes some clue to the extraordinary variation in this respect,
which must be familiar to everyone who has endeavoured to under-
stand the apparent anomalies of the sizes of young fish taken in
company.

IN THE SOUTH-WESTERN DISTRICT. 109

I do not propose to discuss, except incidentally, the developmental
habitat of the species dealt with, these notes being only designed to
assist in the determination of the young stages. A word is necessary
with regard to the references given under various species to M'Intosh
and ]\Iasterman's Life Histories of British Fishes. This book con-
veniently summarises the numerous and important observations of
Professor M'Intosh, which appeared originally in a great number of
papers in the Scottish Fishery Board reports and elsewhere ; it may also
be taken as setting forth his most recent opinion on matters of doubt.
I have therefore referred to it in preference to the original papers.

Trigla lineata. Gm. Linn. Polperro bull-dog, Parrot gurnard.

The Polperro bull-dog, as it is generally called at Plymouth, is one of
the commonest gurnards of the district. It frequents the rather deep
water from a few miles beyond the Breakwater outwards, though I
have known it to be taken on one occasion in Cawsand Bay. The
young stages have not been found in the estuary or inshore waters, and
I do not think that we have ever taken the ova in tow-nets. It
therefore spawns in all probability on off-shore grounds, and apparently
towards the end of the summer. A female taken on the 31st July,
1897, proved to be nearly ready to spawn, since the ovaries contained a
few translucent eggs. Artificial fertilisation was attempted. After the
lapse of an hour and thirty-five minutes three eggs were still floating.
One had reached the two-cell stage, the others may or may not have
been impregnated.

These eggs measure from 1"29 to 1"33 mm. in diameter. The single
dark, but not conspicuously coloured oil-globule measures, in all threa
cases, "24 mm. The zona is strongly ridged, but this is probably an
ovarian character. The ova were all dead on the following day.

Trigia hirundo. Bloch. Tub (Plymouth), Latchett (North Sea).

■? Marion, A. F., Annates Mus. Mars., iv., 1891, I., p. 120, PI. II., Fig. 19.
Early larva.

Holt, E. W. L., Ann. Mus. Mars., v., Fasc. II., 1898. Tow-net egg, larva, young
l)elagic form.

The Tub is the most economically important gurnard of the
Plymouth district; but, although young specimens are common
throughout the year, the adults appear to leave the grounds near
Plymouth before the breeding season. I have never had an
opportunity of submitting ova, obtained directly from the parent, to
exact observation. Speaking rather generally, I can say that spawning
takes place in the summer or early autumn.

II 2

110 NOTES ON THE REPRODUCTION OF TELEOSTEAN FISHES

Trii,'loicl ova obtained at Marseilles by Marion, and subsequently
by myself, appear, from local considerations, to be referable to this
species. The only two which I observed measured 1"25 and 136 mm.
in diameter, with a single oil-globule of '26 and "28 mm. The
characters of the larva, according to my notes, cannot be stated
in such a way as to clearly distinguish the species from either ■
T. gurnardus or T. pini, and I suspect that all gurnards are prac-
tically identical in conformation and pigment in the vitelligerous
condition.

Since the tub attains a large size in the Mediterranean I suppose
that the dimensions of ova taken in that district may be of some service
in the determination of Plymouth tow-net material. I have therefore
assigned with due reserve to this species a Trigioid egg taken between
the Eddystone and Hand deeps on the 27th July. It measures
1'35 mm. in diameter, with an oil-globule of '28 mm. It is chiefly the
large size of the globule that inclines me to refer it to the tub rather
than to the Polperro bull-dog.

Only two species of gurnard, viz., the tub and the grey gurnard,
T. gurnardus, appear to make their way into the Plymouth estuary.
Neither of them would appear to breed to any great extent in the
neighbourhood, yet the young of the season appear in some numbers in
the river in the autumn and winter. I do not propose to discuss the
matter here, but will merely remark that the Trigla nigriiKs of Malm
is certainly the young of T. hirundo. Smitt, who gives (Hist. Scand^
Fish., Ed. ii., 1895, I) a figure of one of Malm's specimens, seems to
incline to the same view; but makes a reservation to the effect that
(1) the fin -rays of T. nigri2Jes may increase in number in the further
development of the individual, so as to bring it in harmony with
some species other than T. hirundo; (2) the ossicles of the lateral
line of T. nigripes are not present in the adult.

Malm's specimen is about 20 mm. long. Plymouth examples of about
30 mm. agree equally well in fin-ray formula with T. hirundo, so that
it seems probable no increase of fin-rays takes place. The double row
of lateral-line ossicles is quite distinct from the single row of much
stouter bony structures in a T. gurnardus which is only a little larger
than the young 2\ hirundo.

It appears from Smitt's remarks that the Scandinavian naturalists
have found a dilliculty in associating T. nigripes with 7\ hirundo on
account of the rarity of the latter. But the Tub or Latchett is not
rare on the Danish coast in summer, and the drift of the surface water
has been shown by Fulton to pass, under certain conditions of wind,
from the Danish to the Scandinavian coast. The young 2\ hirundo seems
to have a longer pelagic existence than other gurnards, since a specimen

IN THE SOUTH-WESTERN DISTRICT. Ill

of about 30 mm, has been taken during 1897 at the surface,* while
there is no record, that I know of, of the occurrence of any other
species at the surface at such an advanced stage of development.! The
Bohlislan examples of T. nigripcs may therefore be derived, in all
probability, from North Sea parents rather than from the few adults
of the Norwegian coast.

Callionymus lyra. Linn. Dragonet, Skulpin, Sting-fish.

M'Intosh, W. C, Ann. Nut. Hist., 18S5, p. 480. Ovarian egg.

Holt, E. W. L., Sci. Trans. R. Diib. Soc, S. II., ir., 1891, p. 442, PI. LI. Egg

and larva of C. lyra or C. maculatus.
Cunningham, J. T., Journ. M. B. Assoc, N.S., ii., 1891, p. 89, V\. V. Egg

and larva.
Prince, E. E., Ninth Ann. Rep. S.F.B., 1891, p. 349, PI. XIII. Egg and larva.
Holt, E. W. L., Sci. Tram. R. Dub. Soc, S. II., 1893, p. 36, PI. III. Egg,

larva, metaino7'phosing stages.

Mr. Scott's observations show that the dragonet begins to spawn
in January. It is one of the commonest fishes in the Plymouth
district, and I think that our records show that the eggs are deposited,
in some instances, in or near the Sound, as well as out towards the
Eddystone, which seems to be one of the chief haunts of the larger
members of the species.

The other British member of the genus, C. maculatus, has only
recently been found on the south-west coast, one specimen having
been trawled in Falmouth Bay and another off the Plymouth Mewstone.
It is probable that the two species lay eggs which closely resemble
each other, but as 0. lyra is a far larger form than C. maculatus, I
imagine that a corresponding difference holds good with regard to the
ovarian products. I have been able to assign a Mediterranean tow-net
egg, with a reasonable degree of probability, to C. maculatus. It is
•73 mm. in diameter, and the early larva is quite destitute of black
pigment. The zona radiata resembles that of C. lyra, but the latter
species is extremely rare at Marseilles.

In the first description which I gave of the larva of C. lyra, from
the Irish coast, I omitted all mention of black chromatophores, having
failed to observe any. The correctness of my description in this
respect was challenged independently by Cunningham and Prince,
while I myself had noticed black pigment in embryos of C. lyra
before the papers referred to appeared. A re-examination of the only
preserved specimen of those on which I had based my first description,

• In July, exact date not recorded : another was seen about the same time.

t I am not speaking of large specimens. I have been credibly informed of instances
of a large gurnard pursuing smaller fish at the surface. As a matter of fact the only
species identified was T. hiricndo.

112 NOTES ON THE REPrvODUCTION OF TELEOSTEAN FISHES

substantially bore out its correctness, and, on making acquaintance
with the Mediterranean egg which probably belongs to C. maculatus,
I concluded that I must really have been dealing with that species.
C. maculatus is apparently not very rare on the Irish coast, and I
had not measured the eggs from which my first Irish larvie were
hatched.

However, it is a fact that black pigment is not invariably present
in the early larva of C. lyra. In examining a drawing made by Mr.
Scott in January from a larva a few hours old, I noticed that no
black chromatophores were shown. The specimen was again examined
by Mr. Scott and by myself, and the drawing proved to be correct.
The egg from which the larva was hatched measured "90 mm. in
diameter, and belonged without any doubt to G. lyra. The absence
of black pigment must, nevertheless, be regarded as exceptional, since
I was careful to examine all subsequent ova of Callionymus, and in
all cases the embryo or larva exhibited some black chromatophores.

I think that without much doubt all the ova we obtained are those
of C. lyra, since the difference in size observed seems to be roughly
in accord with the date, though by no means all the eggs obtained
were measured. The sizes run as follows : — January, '90 ; February,
•83; March, '91 and '92; April, no observations; May, "78 to "84.
I hope that it may be possible during 1898 to pay more continuous
attention to the subject.

Scomber scomber. Linn. Mackerel.

? Agassiz and Wliitmau, Mem. Mus. Com]}. Zool. Harv., xiv., 1885, p. 3G,

PI. XVII. Unidentified Sp. 10, in part.
Cunningham, J. T., Joum. M.B. Assoc., N.S., i., 1889, p. 25, Tls. Ill,, IV.

Egg.
Cunningham, J. T., ibid., N.S. , ii., 1891, p. 71, PI. IV. Vitclligerous larva.
Holt, E. W. L., Set. Trans. R. Bub. Soc., S. II., v., 1893, p. 10, PI. I. Egg,

vitelligerous stages of larva.
Holt, E. W. L., Joiirn. M.B. Assoc., N.S., ii., 1892, p. 396. Late larval stages.
Holt, E. W. L., Ann. Mus. Marseille, 1898, Sp. I., egg and larva referred to

Mediterranean mackerel.

Young stages of the maclcerel are conspicuously absent from our
tow-net records for 1897, although the fish was common enough in the
neighbourhood in June. The spawning period is protracted at least as
late as that month, and the eggs and larvie are quite familiar to me. I
must therefore conclude that little if any spawning took place on the
grounds over which the tow-nets were worked, or at any point close to
them. It will be observed that our expeditions did not extend beyond
four or five miles off the Mewstone in the early part of the month,
while during the latter part of May the Btcsy Bee was occupied in the
bays east of the Start.

IN THE SODTH-WESTERN DISTrJCT. 113

It is a matter of common knowledge that Mediterranean mackerel
are much smaller than their Atlantic brethren. I believe that certain
pelagic ova which I found at Marseilles in 1895 belong to the local
variety of the species. They are smaller than those of mackerel from
the British coasts, which is not remarkable. The larva, however, while
closely resembling that of an Atlantic mackerel (vide Cunningham,
Holt, 02^. cit.), differs from it in having an additional patch of yellow
pigment in the middle of the tail. So far as my experience goes this
patch is always present in the larva, so that, if it is really a mackerel,
the Mediterranean race of the species shows a distinctive character
at the very earliest stage. I have already noted that the unknown egg,
Sp. 10, of Agassiz and Whitman, strongly resembles that of the
mackerel. If this egg is rightly associated with the tow-net larvae
figured on the same plate, it would appear that the American race
also differs in larval pigment from the British. The authors, however,
do not insist upon the identity of the egg and larvce, and the younger
larva figured appears to be distinct. The older larva bears a much
closer resemblance to the British form.

Some years ago I gave a brief description of some young mackerel
taken in the eastern part of the North Sea {vide Journal, N.S., ii.,
1892, p. 396). So far as I know they are the only specimens which
have come under the notice of a naturalist, and it appears advisable to
give a somewhat fuller account of them.

Including all my material, the details of locality and date are as

folio v/s : —

9th July, 1892, 20 to 22 mi. N.N.E. of Horn Beef, Denmark.

12 specimens, 6 to 9*5 mm.

23rd July, 1892, 250 mi. K, i N. of Spurn Head.

2 specimens, 14 and 19 mm. ca.

27th and 28th July, 1892, " Clay Deep," 150 mi. E. by N. of Spurn

Head.

3 specimens, 13'5 to 19"25 mm.

The bearings are magnetic, and it will be seen from the map at
the end of vol. iii. of this journal that all the specimens were taken
between the Dogger Bank and the Danish and German coasts, and
at considerable distances from land. The capture was effected by
means of a ring tow-net of mosquito mesh, towed at the surface by
a steam-trawler while trawling. As the strain was often suflicient to
burst the net, it may be imagined that the smaller specimens suffered
considerably.

Indeed, with regard to the smallest specimens, it can only be said
that they agree in pigmentation with mackerel larva? reared from the

114 NOTES ON THE REPRODUCTION OF TELEOSTEAN FISHES

egg. A specimen of 7 mm. is fairly well preserved, at least on one
side, and while agreeing in pigment and conformation with the smallest
it can clearly be associated with the older forms, which, though
incompletely metamorphosed, are quite recognisable by the characters
of the adult.

The specimen of 7 mm. (Fig. 1) is in its present state of preserva-
tion somewhat laterally compressed; the abdomen projects boldly below
the plane of the ventral contour of the caudal part of the trunk. The
pre-anal region, exclusive of the lower jaw, occupies two-fifths of the
total length. The snout is pointed, the lower jaw the longer, and both
jaws bear a single series of large recurved and rather widely set teeth.
The eye measures rather more than one-third of the length of the head.
The post-anal region is still elongate and rather slender, though
markedly deeper than in the vitelligerous stages ; its extremity is
slightly upturned by a trilobate hypural mass, beset with developing
rays, and similar rays are also present dorsally. The marginal fins are
mostly frayed away; the pectorals, also in bad condition, seem to have
been of moderate size. The eye, noted at the time of capture to be
blue, is now a dense black ; a patch of black chromatophores is present
on the top of the head, probably in the pia mater, and the roof of the
peritoneum (and in part its sides) is beset with black chromatophores.
From a short distance behind the anal region dorsal and ventral rows
of black chromatophores run back as far as the caudal peduncle, and a
few small black specks are present hypurally. Yellow pigment was
not observed at the time of capture ; it would not in any case be
visible in the preserved condition, unless very profuse or in large
corpuscles.

Allowing for the difference in age, the specimen of 7 mm. agrees in
all respects with the late vitelligerous stage shown in PI. I., Fig. 7,
of my Irish paper. This figure was drawn from a larva of nine days,
4*88 mm. in length. With regard to the pigment the two specimens
are practically identical.

Another specimen (Fig. 2) in fairly good preservation is 9'5 mm.
long. The pre-anal region is still shorter than the post-anal part, but
the distance between the anus and the tip of the urochord only
exceeds the pre-anal length by less than one-eighth of the latter. The
ventral contour of the abdomen is much less abrupt, though its hinder
part still projects somewhat from the caudal part of the trunk. The
pointed snout is nearly as long as the eye ; both jaws have teeth as in
the preceding stage, but relatively smaller. The tail of a larval fish of
some sort protrudes from the mouth, while the head can be detected far
back in the abdomen.

The metamorphosis of the tail (of the mackerel larva) is advanced,

G. 1. Young Mackekel. Specimen 7 mm. long x 8.

Fui. 2. Vor.\"(J Mackeim'.i,. S|iocinu'ii 9 5 mm. long x 8.

Fio. 3. ViUNc; Mackekel. Specimen 1 1 mm. long x 6.

Vu:. 4. VoUxNu iMACKEitEi,. Speciinrii is mm. long x 6.

' Tei.kohtean KisiiKs." ii'iiee })(';/(' 114.

IN THE SOUTH-WESTEKN DISTRICT. 115

the urochord with its embryonic rays being boldly thrust upwards by
the hypural mass, the margin of which is still oblique. The caudal
part of the trunk is most elevated at about half-way from the anal
region to the caudal peduncle ; on the slightly salient dorsal and
ventral edges appear the interspiuous ridges of the future second
dorsal and anal fins. Each ridge (dorsal and anal) is continuous, but
while the basal lobes of the anterior part are closely crowded together
the most posterior of the series appear as rather widely separate
nodules, or elevations of the crest of the ridge. Five of these isolated
crests, the bases of the future Unlets, can be counted on the dorsum.
The anal fin region is not so well preserved. The ridges terminate at a
point considerably anterior to the caudal fin. The embryonic marginal
fin is continuous, but much collapsed in the present state of the
specimen. A slight dorsal ridge about half-way from the shoulder
to the level of the anus perhaps represents the first dorsal, but is by no
means distinct. The black pigment is very similar in distribution to
the last stage ; but the dorsal post-anal chromatophores are larger and
more numerous, forming a practically continuous line on either side of
the ridge of the second dorsal and its finlets.

A badly -preserved specimen of about 13 mm. differs from the last
chiefly in the greater length and more pointed contour of the snout, and
in the elonG;ation of the abdominal region. It forms a transitional
stage to the more advanced condition shown in Figures 3 and 4. Fig. 3
is drawn from an example about 14 mm. in length, viewed as an
opaque object ; it is somewhat shorter and deeper than the specimen of
about 18 mm. shown in Fig. 4, but the stage of development seems to
be about the same. The bones of the head are well defined. There
are no cephalic spines, but a strong longitudinal ridge at the upper
extremity of the gill-cover may represent a part of the spinous
armature of the young Naucratcs. The outline of the head in Fig. 3
is probably unnatural, since three out of four specimens at about the
same stage have the convex antero-superior profile of Fig. 4. The jaws
are sub-equal, but the upper projects slightly, and is furnished with
a pair of hooked teeth quite outside the gape. The general conforma-
tion can be gathered from the figures, the body being laterally
compressed, but not more so than usual in young fish of similar stages.
So far as I can gather from the examination of my material, tlie natural
condition of the dorsal and anal fins is shown in Fig. 4. In frayed
examples the finlets appear separated, but I am satisfied that the
marginal fin really extends without any serious break in its outline
from the first dorsal to the end of the dorsal series of finlets, and
ventrally from the anus to the end of the anal finlets. It does not
appear to be continuous, either dorsally or ventrally, with the caudal

110 NOTES ON THE REPRODUCTION OF TELEOSTEAN FISHES

lin. I caunot count the rays of the dorsal and anal in any of my
specimens ; they are not fully developed, but seem in general agreement
with the adult formula. As regards the fiulets, judging from my best
specimens, each isolated basal lobe bears at its apex a single stout
somewhat fan-shaped ray, divided distally into numerous fibres. The
caudal is injured in most of my specimens. It appears to be slightly
forked, as in Fig. 3. Small dark chromatophores are present on nearly
all parts of the head and trunk. Larger chromatophores occur on the
top of the head and along the dorsum, especially along the base of
the second dorsal and dorsal finlets, while there is a corresponding
ventral band at the base of the anal fm and finlets. The sides and
under-surface of the abdomen are somewhat silvery. On the sides of
the trunk the chromatophores are set more thickly at the lines of
division of the myomeres than elsewhere. I never saw these large
specimens in the fresh condition. As I received them, a few days after
they were placed in alcohol, they appeared to have been of a general
bluish-grey colour, with silvery eye, gill-cover and abdomen.

Caranx trachurus. Linn. Scad, Horse-mackerel.

Holt, E. W. L., Journ. M. B. Assoc, N.S., iii., 1894, p. 190. Ripe ovarian egg.
(I) M'Intosh, W. C, Eleventh Ann. liep. S. F. B., 1893, p. 245, PI. IX., fij,'. 8.

Unidentified egg, 1"2954 mm. in diameter.
Holt, E. W. L., Annales du Musee de Marseille, 1898. Egg, larvce, various stages

of metamorphosis.

My previous communication on the reproduction of this species
dealt with ova obtained from dead North Sea specimens. Though
milt was added to the water into which the female fish were stripped,
I do not think that the eggs were fertilised, since the expansion of
the zona and the development of the protoplasmic mound, which I
then described, is often if not always achieved by ripe ovarian eggs
without any aid from the male product. The observation served to
demonstrate the pelagic nature and extreme buoyancy of the egg,
and the complete segmentation of the yolk.

At the time of writing I had not access to Agassiz and Whitman's
memoir on the " Pelagic stages " {Mem. Mus. Comp. Zool. Harv., xiv.,
1885, p. 12, ris. IV., v.), and erroneously asserted that the scad
furnished the only instance of an Acanthopterygian egg with completely
segmented yolk. As a matter of fact these authors have given a
beautifully illustrated account of the egg of Tcmnodon saltator, a
Carangoid allied to Caranx, and their figures sliowing the gradual
phases in the segmentation of the yolk are probably ecjually applicable
to the scad, in which I was able to note that the formation of the
yolk spherules is accomplished, at least in part, after the deposition

IN THE SOUTH- WESTERN DISTRICT. 117

of the egg. The unidentified form doubtfully assigned by Raffaele to
Coryphaina furnishes probably another instance of a completely
segmented yolk in the Acanthopterygian group.

I have failed to secure any further scad in spawning condition, but
have no hesitation in assigning to this species certain tow-net ova
obtained first at Marseilles in 1895 and again at Plymouth in 1897.
I have described and figured these eggs, with the larviL^ hatched from
them, and some later stages, in the Annales du Musde dc Marseille,
and must refer to that publication for the illustration of my present
remarks.

It will be remembered that the ripe ovarian eggs obtained at Grimsby
exhibited an oil -globule, indifferently cupreous, yellow or colourless,
and usually divided into several small globules at the time of spawning.
The Plymouth eggs are smaller than the Grimsby specimens, but
larger than those met with at Marseilles.

Diameter of egg. Diameter of oil-globule.

*Grimsby . . 1-03-1 -09 mm. ... •2G--27 mm.

Plymouth . . -81- -93 „ ... •22--23 „

Marseilles . . -76- -78 „ ... •19--20 „

I believe that this difference corresponds to the size of the parent
fish in the several localities. As between the North Sea and the
south-west coast I am not sure that the difference is considerable,
but as spawning seems to be at its height in the North Sea in May,
and my Plymouth ova were not taken before July, I suppose that
the latter were derived from the smallest parents, which seem to spawn
as a rule later than the large ones. As to the Mediterranean scad, all
that I saw at Marseilles were very much smaller than the large
Atlantic variety or race, and I. imagine that in comparative size the
scad differs, in the two seas, as the mackerel and pilchard are well
known to differ.

Apart from the difference of dimensions the Plymouth and Marseilles
ova are identical, and agree in character with the ovarian egg of the
scad. The yolk appears to me to be absorbed rather more quickly
than in the majority of pelagic eggs, having regard to the degree of
development of the embryo, a circumstance which seems to be possibly
explained by the greater extent of the protoplasmic element, limited
in most ova to the periblast, but here extending inwards as the walls

• An uuiJcntifictl egg, 1'29 mm. in diameter with an oil-globule of 'lO mm., is described
and ligured by M'lutosb (loc. cit.) from the east coast of Scotland. It may jiossibly be
that of C. trachurus, but the nature of the markings shown on the yolk, which rather
resemble yolk segments, was not ascertained. As the author observes, they may be
simply superficial.

118 NOTES ON THE REPKODUCTION OF TELEOSTEAN TISIIES

of the yolk segments. Be this as it may, wliile the egg has but an
inconsiderable perivitelline space in its early stages, towards the time
of hatching the embryo has ample room within the confines of the
zona. A characteristic feature is the transverse elongation of the yolk
at this stage. Yellow and black pigment is present when the embryo
has acquired a short tail. A few pairs of large yellow patches occur
along the head and trunk, accompanied by irregular black chromato-
phores. Yellow and black pigment is present about the oil-globule.

The early vitelligerous larva bears a close resemblance to that of
Tcmnodon saltator, but the oil-globule is always anterior instead of
posterior, a feature which also serves, inter alia, to distinguish the
scad larva from that attributed by Eaffaele to Corypha^na. At the
stage at which the larva seems to be usually liberated, the anus is
about median in position and therefore somewhat widely separated
from the hind end of the yolk. The marginal fins are rather wide,
but the dorsal does not extend in front of the head. Yellow pigment
occurs in variable quantity along the dorsal and ventral region, except
on the posterior half of the tail. Submarginal yellow patches, often
of conspicuous size, are or may be present on the dorsal and ventral
marginal tins, except on the posterior half of the tail. Yellow pigment
occurs also about the rectum, the oil-globule, and to a variable extent
over the general surface of the yolk. Black chromatophores, nowhere
numerous, and variable in number, coexist with the yellow, and extend
far back along the tail. The notochord is multicolumnar, the vacuoles
being arranged in about two series. Except for the rather reduced
condition of the yolk the larva cannot be said to be unusually far
advanced at the time of hatching.

A larva, hatched at Marseilles from an egg which I did not measure,
was much less advanced than any other which I have seen. The yolk
was very large, the larva had only a very short tail, and the gut ended
indefinitely a little behind the yolk. A day later the larva had
acquired much the same size and conformation as those which hatched
at what appears to be the normal stage, but the marginal fins were
still devoid of pigment. This, however, judging from the analogy of
Temnodon, appears unimportant.

A riymoutli larva, about fifteen hours after hatching, measures
3"03 mm. A Mediterranean specimen, at about the same stage, is
2'47 mm. long. The Mediterranean larva last referred to as
exceptional was only 171 mm. long when first observed, but had
reached a length of 2'63 mm. a day later. I have not succeeded in
keeping these larvaj alive for more than a few days. They are
exceedingly active, and rapidly injure themselves if confined in
small vessels.

IN THE SOUTH-WESTERN DISTRICT. 119

I do not imagine that there is any doubt as to the identity of these
forms. The characters of the ova correspond to those observed in the
ovarian egg of the scad, and that fish is common both at jMarseilles
and at Plymouth. Its ally, Capros aper, is known to possess quite
a different egg. The egg of the John dory, Zeus faber, is certainly
unknown. It is perhaps permissible to suppose that it will be found to
resemble that of Capros rather than the form now under discussion.

An advanced larva taken at the surface of Plymouth Sound on the
6th August, 1897, is undoubtedly a scad, as is sufficiently indicated by
the fin-ray formula, though the spines of the dorsal are as yet short,
and those of the anal are not separated by a notch from the succeeding
soft rays. The conformation is of interest.

The head is very large, its length contained about 21- times in the
total length without the caudal fin. The height of the body is a little
less than the length of the head. Both head and trunk are laterally
compressed, and the general contour bears a resemblance to that of the
adult Capros. The total length is 11 "5 mm. The colour is olive-green,
clouded almost uniformly with large black stellate chromatophores, but
the median fins and the caudal peduncle are unpigmented.

The next stages known to me are represented by a number of
examples taken by Mr. F. W, Gamble in August, 1896, from under the
umbrella of a large PJiizostoma in the Irish Sea. There are seventy-
nine little scad altogether, ranging in size, as preserved, from 16 to
about 45 mm. The smallest have lost the somewhat abruptly elevated
contour of the specimen of 11"5 mm., and the whole series are
fusiform in shape, the elevation of the body being naturally greatest in
the smaller examples. Of the British Carangoids they may be most
readily compared to Lichia. At a length of 31 mm. the transverse
keels of the lateral line scales are present on the posterior part of that
structure. At 44 mm. the line is keeled throughout its length, but the
scales do not appear to acquire the full development of the adult
condition until the fish is about 54 mm. in length. Shoals of little
scad from about 50 mm. upwards appeared in the estuaries of the
Taraar and Plym during the autumn, so that, with the forms already
referred to, we have most of the stages in the life-history of the
species. Cephalic spines are not represented in any stage which I have
examined.

An important gap is left between the vitelligerous larva and the
specimen of 11 '5 mm. At the latter size we may say that the scad is
Capros-like in conformation, passing thence into an intermediate Lichia
stage, from which the true Caranx conformation is finally evolved. So
far as fishery matters are concerned the scad is important only as a
nuisance, but the metamorphosis which we have been able to follow

120 NOTES ON TFIE REPRODUCTION OF TELEOSTEA.N FISHES

seems to throw an important light on the phylogeny of the whole
Scombroid tribe. It appears almost certain that Caranx has been
evolved from a somewhat elevated laterally compressed ancestor,
bearing in this respect a resemblance to the Capros of the present day.
An elevated compressed form may therefore have been a primitive
feature in the evolution of a part of the tribe, intensified in the
evolution of various genera, such as Zeus and Platax, reduced in others,
as certainly in Caranx, and perhaps in Lichia. Scomber has lost in its
ontogeny all trace of an elevated ancestry, if it ever possessed one. The
importance of a primitive elevated and compressed form may extend
far beyond the limits of those fish which are usually associated in the
broadest sense as Scombroids. As a matter of pure conjecture it may
even be suspected to throw light on the systematic position of the
Pleuronectida?. I have already suggested {Proc. Zool. Soc, 1894,
p. 438) that these fish are derived from vertically swimming but
elevated and laterally compressed ancestors, and the absence of stout
spines in the fin-rays, considering the requirements of the habit
evolution, requires no explanation at all.

Capros aper. Linn. Cuckoo, Boarfish.

Cunningham, J. T., Journ. M. B. Assoc, N.S., i., 1889, p. 10. Early stages of

egg derived from parent.
Holt, E. W. L., ibid., v., 1897, p. 41. JEV/j and larvcc derived from imrent ;

toiv-nct egg and larva ; late larvcc referred to C. ajicr.
Holt, E. W. L., Ann. Mus. Mars., v., 1898, Fasc. II. As above, illustrated by

numerous figures.

With regard to the ova, I have little to add to the observations
published in the last number of the journal. It will be seen from
our records that the species must have been spawning in the neigh-
bourhood of Plymouth from the beginning of June to the end of
August. Trawlers regard it as a vagabond, here one day and gone
the next, but never moving very far as long as it favours the coastal
waters with its unwelcome presence. It was noted on the 3rd August
that no cuckoos were caught in the trawl, though their ova, in an
early stage of development, were fairly numerous on the surface above
the ground trawled. So closely do these fish seem to congregate that
a large shoal may have been quite near us at the time.

It appears worth while to recapitulate from our records the sizes
of the eggs measured on different dates, in order to set forth what
evidence we have of the diminution in size towards the end of the
season. The notes of interrogation signify a doubt as to the correct
determination of the species.

IN THE SOUTH-WESTERN DISTRICT.

121

April

27

June

4

}j

4

»

12

>>

25

j>

29

July

6

>>

23

)j

27

>)

29

August

25

•98 mm. ?

•96-1-01 ,

1-04

, ?

•90

•97- ^99 .

•99

, ?

•93- ^99 .

•96

•93- -97 r

•93

•91

•93

In describing some late larva? taken off the Fowey river on the 29th
and oOth June, I omitted to point out the close resemblance 'vvhich
they bear, in pigmentation, to young Lepadogaster of about the same size.
The arrangement of the black chromatophores is practically identical.
The supposed Capros are, however, deeper in the body. I cannot find,
examining them either as opaque objects or clarified in xylol, that they
have any trace of a sucker, while at 5"5 mm. the development of the
tail is much more advanced than in a Lepadogaster himaculatus (with
well-developed sucker) of 7'5 mm. The condition of the dorsal and
anal fins would refer the supposed Capros larv?e to that species of
Lepadogaster, if to any. The differences noted above dispose of such
a suggestion, but the resemblance in pigmentation is interesting.

Lophius piscatorius. Linn. Monk, &c.

The ripe ovaries of a monk were brought to the Laboratory on
the 20th January, 1898. I saw, but did not closely examine, the
ovaries of another specimen on the same day ; they appeared also to
be ripe. Thompson, according to Day, observed a female with advanced
ovaries in December, so that the spawning season would appear to
commence very early in the year.

The ovaries were placed in sea-water, and as much as possible of
the delicate ovarian wall stripped off. The mucous sheet soon swelled
to a considerable width, and the spawn-mass floated for an hour or
more. The oil-globules imparted to the whole a brilliant orange or
salmon-colour. They were found to be divided, in a number of eggs
examined, into numerous particles of various sizes. The mucous
matter was only slightly adherent externally.

As is well known, the spawn, although a very conspicuous object,
is rarely encountered at the surface. Is it possible tliat the parent
manages to hitch it in some way to a submarine object ?

122 NOTES ON THE REPRODUCTION OF TELEOSTEAN FISHES

Blennius ocellaris. Linn. Butterfly blenny.

Cunningham, .1. T., Journ. M. B. Assoc, N.S., i., 1891, p. 36, Fig. XXV. Egg.
Holt, E. W. L., Ajin. Mas. Marseille, v., 1898, Fasc. II. Xcidy hatched aiul
late pelagic larva.

This blenny must probably be regarded as difficult to catch rather
than as actually rare in the Plymouth district. Two adults, both
males, were taken in 1897. Cunningham has already described the
ova, which were found in an ox-bone, and identified by the presence
of the male parent.

On the 20th June, 1896, Mr. Beaumont dredged a large whelk-shell
off the Plymouth Mewstone. In the mouth of the shell was a male
Butterfly blenny, guarding a great number of eggs. Higher up in
the shell a Lcpadogastcr himaculatus was similarly occupied. I did
not specially examine the eggs of the blenny, but Guitel's researches
{Arch. Zool. ExiHv., S. iii., I., 1893, p. 325) render it very probable that
in this species, as in others, the egg adheres by means of a series of
long attachment filaments situate around the micropyle. The eggs
were in various advanced stages of development, and many had hatched
before the Busy Bee arrived at the Laboratory, but some had not
hatched on the following day. Very probably they had not all been
spawned at the same time. All unhatched eggs appeared bright red,
the colour being that of the yolk.

A larva, from twelve to twenty-four hours old, measures 6-30 mm.,
of which the greater part is occupied by the tail. The distance
between the snout and the hind end of the yolk is only 1-85 mm., and
of this •95 mm. pertains to the head. The rectum occurs immediately
behind the yolk. The head is bluntly rounded in contour, and the
edses of the marginal tins show a bold inflection towards the end
of the tail, the caudal part being spatulate. The pectoral fin is large,
with well-developed rays, the longest of which, when laid parallel to
the body, extend •12 mm. beyond the anus. This fin is yellow, with
black chromatophores along the rays. The brain and anterior tissues
generally are buff by transmitted light. Black chromatophores occur
on the top of the head and about the posterior end of the trunk.
The marginal fins are devoid of pigment. The notochord is multi-
columnar.

I was unable to study any later stages as an accident to the escape
pipe caused the loss of all my material. The larvce appeared delicate,
since many died soon after hatching; but as they were exceedingly
active it is quite possible that they injured themselves against the sides
of the bell-jar in which they were confined.

A much more advanced larva, taken in the little bay under Professor
Marion's laboratory, at Endourae, appears to belong to the species now

IN THE SOUTH-WESTERN DISTEICT. 123

under consideration. The total length is 18 mm. The conformation
approaches that of tlie adult, and the fin-ray formula agrees with
that of B. occllaris ; while local considerations seem to eliminate
from the list of probable parents such other blennies as exhibit a
practically identical formula. The pectorals, 5 mm. in length, are
olive-green, finely dotted with black — a character of B. occllaris.
The head and anterior part of the body are pale yellow ; several
olive -green bands radiate from the large blue eye. There is a
patch of olive -green on the top of the head, a band along the middle
of the side, and another along the base of the anterior part of the
anal. Anteriorly a series of short bars descend from the dorsum.
The dorsal and anal fins are colourless, and there is no pigment
whatever on the hinder half of the post-anal region. There are
no well-developed cephalic tentacles, and the dorsal, though deeply
notched, is not conspicuously elevated in front. The little fish,
when first observed, was swimming at the surface, the pigmented
parts being alone visible. The resemblance to a butterfly was very
much more apparent than in the adult condition.

The relatively enormous pectorals of the larva, though vigorously
employed, cannot be regarded as very effective organs of locomotion,
since the result achieved is by no means remarkable either for pace
or staying power. Their significance is, perhaps, ancestral rather than
adaptive. The resemblance, not only in the pectoral development but
also in the contour of the head, to- Dactylopterus, may be, so to speak,
accidental. The young blenny is entirely devoid of cephalic armature.
Both of the larval stages described above are figured in the Annalcs
du Mus^e de Marseille.

Blennius pholis. Linn. Shanny.

M'Intosh and Masterman, Life-Histories Brit. Food-Fish., 1897, p. 206. Late

larval stages.
Holt, E. W. L., A7in. Mus. Mars., 1898, v., Fasc. II. Pelagic larval stage, with

figure.

The early development of the shanny seems never to have been
the object of exact observation. The later larval stages have been
dealt with by M'Intosh and Masterman.

On the 15th July, 1897, a larva of 15-5 mm. was found by Mr.
Beaumont and myself in a dahlia flower which was floating under
St. Anthony lighthouse, Falmouth. The fin-ray formula is that of
the adult ; in other respects the specimen is very similar to the young
B. occllaris of 18 mm., but the colours are different. The dorsal
and anal fins and the hinder half of the post-anal region are entirely
devoid of pigment. The ground colour of the anterior parts is canary-

NEW SEKIES. — VOL V. NO. 2. 1

124 NOTFS ON THE REPRODUCTION' OF TF.LEOSTKAN FiSllES

yellow, with a deeper patch near the middle of the post-anal region.
Several bands of black chroraatophores radiate from the eye ; there
is a black patch on the top of the head and a row of black cliromato-
phores on the cheeks. A band of black, notched at intervals, occurs
on the dorsum, a row of black along the base of the anterior part
of the anal, and there are some small black chromatophores along
the lateral line. The pectorals are reddish brown, with very large
transversely elongated black chromatophores, or groups of chromato-
phores, arranged on the interradial membrane so as to form rows
transverse to the long axis of the fin. The pigment differs thus
in colour rather than in general distribution from that of B. ocdlaris.
The pigmentation of the pectoral is practically that of the adult
Dadylopterus volitans. The specimen is figured in the Marseilles
paper.

On the same day I saw, but failed to catch, what were probably
similar larva3. They were among the Laminaria at the sides of a
tidal pool near the place of capture of the specimen described. A
day later we found another — a little larger — in the Helford river
zostera bed, at low water. Older specimens, 19-5 and 20 mm. long,
were taken at the surface in Plymouth Sound on the 7th September,
but I omitted to note the presence or absence of any lloating body
to which they might have been clinging. A feature of note is the
extraordinary activity of the larva when out of its native element.
Its leaping powers are most respectable, and no injury seems to ensue
from contact with terrestrial matters. I suppose that its locomotion
on land is accomplished in the same way as that of Periophthalmus ;
but my specimens were a great deal too lively to make sure of this.
I imagine that the young shanny is not infrequently stranded by
the falling tide, in which case its jumping powers may serve it in
good stead.

Ctenolabrus rupestris. Linn.

Holt, E. W. L., Sci. Trans. E. Dab. Soc, S. II., iv., 1891, p. 465, Pis.
XLVIII., XLIX. Tow-net egg and larva, Sj). iv.

Pelagic ova taken on the west coast of Ireland were referred to
this species on account of the close resemblance they bore to those of
the American connor, C. adspersus. This identification has never been
confirmed by the evidence of ovarian eggs, and perhaps hardly requires
such confirmation. A glance at our records will show the frequency
with which the egg has been taken in the Plymouth district during
1897. This is by no means surprising, as the parent species is exceed-
ingly abundant on rocky ground both in the Sound and outside the
Breakwater. It occurs also, if one may judge from the evidence of

IN THE SOUTH-WESTERN DISTRICT. 125

tow-net eggs, on the outlying Eddystone rocks. Young examples are
common in the zostera beds of Cawsand Bay and the Yealm estuary,
but adults are rarely taken, at least by the Laboratory boats, on any-
ground fit for trawling. It would appear from our records that there is
no special migration in connection with the spawning instinct, but that
the ova are liberated on the grounds ordinarily inhabited by the species.
The breeding season appears to be prolonged from April to August, and
such measurements as were made afford evidence of a diminution in
the size of the ova as the season advances. The actual numbers will
be found in the records, while the subjoined list m.ay be taken as a
summary : —

April .

. -90 to 1-01 mm.

May .

. . -87 „ -91 „

June

. -84 „ -87 „

July .

. -78 „ -82 „

August .

. -72

An egg of "67 mm., taken on the 28th June, can probably be assigned
to this species ; as it presents certain indications of immaturity, it
cannot fairly be utilised as evidence of size variation. Excluding this
specimen, the variation is "29 mm., or more than one-fourth of the size
of the largest specimen.

It may be urged that the ova which we have assigned to C. nqjcstris
may really have been contributed by more than one species of wrasse,
but I do not think that this is the case. The common wrasses of
Plymouth are L. maculatus, L. mixtus, Cr. mclops, Ce. cxoletus, and Ct.
ruiKstris. The first three may be discarded, since their ova are
demersal. Of the ova of Centrolahrus cxoletus I know nothinf^, but I
found at Marseilles, where C. cxoletus is not known to exist, a similar
variation and seasonal diminution in the size of tow-net ova referable
to Ct. rupestris.

April .... -80, -83 mm.

May . . . . no observations.

June . . . . -75, -76 mm.

July . . , . -70 mm.

Moreover the occurrence of young specimens in the Plymouth
zostera beds affords evidence that the spawning season is really as
prolonged as would appear from the tow-net gatherings. Preliminary
experiments indicate that the species can easily be reared from a very
small size, and it may be possible to study its development con-
tinuously.

I 2

126 NOTES ON THE REPRODrCTION OF TELEOSTEAN FISHES

Unidentified Labroid, resembling Coris.

Holt, E. W. L., Sci. Trans. E. Dub. Soc, S. II., iv., 1891, p. 467, Pis.

XLVIII., LI., Sj). v., Coris-like.
Holt, E. W. L., Avn. Mus. Marseille, v., 1898, Fasc. II. Egg and larva, with

figure.

An egg which appears to have unquestionable Labroid affinities
was taken in the Plymouth district in July and August, 1897. Our
records show that it occurred on more or less off-shore grounds. I
have no doubt but that it is identical with ova already described from
tlie west coast of Ireland, but the parentage remains in doubt.

The Irish specimens measured from -80 to '83 mm. in diameter, the
oil-globule measuring '15 mm. Those taken at Plymouth measure from
•78 to "81, the oil-globule from 13 to 15 mm. The yolk is homo-
geneous, the oil-globule colourless, but, in the Plymouth examples at all
events, very dark. A larva, measured very soon after hatching, is
2"21 mm. long. A somewhat more advanced specimen from Ireland
measured 2*44 mm. The conformation of the larva bears a striking
resemblance to Coris julis (vide liaffaele, Mittheil. Zool. Stat. Neap.,
viii., 1888, Tav. II., Figs. 18, 19). The yolk is pyriform, its narrow
end, having the globule at the apex, projecting boldly in front of the
head. The rectum is separated by a considerable interval from the hind
end of the yolk. The marginal fins are of moderate width, the dorsal
arising behind the head. My notes distinctly state that the edges
of the marginal fins are not serrated as in Coris. The notochord,
in Irish specimens, is of a peculiar type. For the most part arranged
in a double series, the vacuoles are occasionally unicolumnar. This
appears to me a strong indication of Labroid affinity, since both Coris
and Ctenolabrus exhibit a notochord intermediate in character between
the unicolumnar and multicolumnar conditions, though the approach to
the former condition is much more marked than in the form before us.
I must add that I did not find any unicolumnar cells in a I'lymouth
example which I examined ; it is probably a variable feature, but, on
account of its rarity, in so far as my knowledge extends, in other groups
of fishes, not the less useful.

The pigment is all black, and has the same distribution as in
Coris, but resembles perhaps even more closely that of Mullus.
Indeed, save for the presence of cortical yolk segments in Mullus
and for the separation of the yolk and rectum in our unidentified
larva, the two forms are extremely alike.

I believe that the Labroid affinities of the parent are fairly well
demonstrated by the characters of the embryo and larva. The diiliculty
is to find a Labroid parent. Labrus, Crenilabrus, and Ctenolabrus are
naturally eliminated. Centrolahrus exoktus spawns, at least in great

IN THE SOUTH-WESTERN DISTRICT. 127

part, at a season earlier than the date of capture of the ova, as is
demonstrated by the presence of the young in the zostera beds. It
seems also to be a rather littoral fish, and it is quite possible that its
ova are demersal. Acantholalrus Falloni may exist in the Plymouth
district, but is only known to British zoology by a few examples
recorded by Couch from the Cornish coast. Coris julis has been taken
at Plymouth, but not to my knowledge in recent years, while the eggs
of Mediterranean specimens, according to Raffaele's observations and
my own, measure from '58 to "70 mm, in diameter, with an oil-globule
of '12 to "14 ("18) mm., and, as already noted, the fin-edges of the larva
are serrated. The difference is thus not only one of dimensions, though
it is possible that I overrate the importance of the fin serration as a
constant character.

The j\Iediterranean Coris spcciosa of Eisso is regarded by Marion
(Annales Mas. liars., i., 1882, Mem. 2, p. 20, foot-note 3) as a deep-
water variety of the common littoral C. julis. So far as my knowledge
of the forms allows me to hold an opinion, it is in agreement with that
of Marion. C. spcciosa is known only from large specimens and ma.y be,
as I suppose, simply the ultimate phase of the development of C. Julis ;
but, on the other hand, since its anterior dorsal rays are proportionately
shorter than those of the fully developed C. julis of coastal waters,
it may be a true variety. I have not had an opportunity of examining
the British Museum specimens of Coris from the S.W. coast, but Day's
remarks appear to indicate that at least one specimen is of the C.
spcciosa type.

Since Coris is little liable to capture by ordinary British fishing
apparatus, it is quite possible that it really exists in some numbers
in our district, and our undetermined ova may be thus accounted for,
assuming that the British variety is larger and lays larger eggs than the
Mediterranean coastal form, and that the serration of the larval fin is
either variable or only present in the offspring of the smaller form
or stage.

It is quite possible that our undetermined form is not a Labroid at
all, but referable to one of the too numerous common fishes of which
the early stages are still unknown to us. I do not think that this
is the case, imperfect as is our present knowledge of Teleostean
development.

128 NOTES ON TUE REPRODUCTION OF TELEOSTEAN FISHES

The Topknots. Zeugoptcrus and Phrynorhombus.

Brook, G., ilh Ann. Rep. S.F.B., 1886, p. 226. Ovarian egg of P. unimaculatus.
^rintosh, AV. C, Jl'Intosli and Prince. See M'In(os?i and MKstcrman.
Cunningham, J. T., Journ. M. B. Assoc, N.S., ii., 1892, p. 325. Ovarian egg of

lih. norrcgicus.
Holt, E. AV. L., Sci. Trans. R Dub. Soc., S. II., iv., 1893, pp. 96 to 103. Pis.

II., VII., VIII. S]). X., xi., and xii., undetermined tow-net eggs, now

referred indiscriminately to the topknots.
Holt, E. W. L., p. 101, PI. XI., Sp. xiii., Jllelamorphosing larvce, now referred

to P. unimuculutus.
Holt, E. W. L., p. Ill, PI. XII, Sp. xiv., .Vctamorjthosing larva; with periotic

spines, noiu referred to Eh. ptmctatus.
Cunningham, J. T., Journ. M. B. Assoc., N.S., iii. , 1894, p. 202. Ph. 2}unctatus,

advanced metamorphosing larvce with periotic spines.
Petersen, C. G. J., Jtep. Dan. Biol. Stat., 1893 (1894), p. 135, PI. II., Fig. IG.

Late metamorphosing larva of Rh. norvegicus.
Ehreubaum, E., JFiss. Meeresuntersuch, Komm. deatsch. Meer. Biol. Anst.

Helgoland, Ncue Folgc, ii., 1897, i., p. 317. Tow-net egg referred to Sp.

F. of M'Intosh and Prince.
M'Intosh and Masterman, Zi/c-i7/s<. Brit. Mar. Fuod-Fish., 1897. Summary of

previous observations by M'Intosh and iPIntosh and Prince. Ovarian egg of

Rh. imnctatus ; tow-net eggs referred by authors to same. Metamorphosing

larvce ^vith 2>eriotic spines, provisionally referred by authors to Rh. norvegicus.

Metamorphosing larvce without periotic spines, referred by authors to

Rh. punctatus.
Holt, E. W. L., Journ. M. B. Assoc., N.S., v., 1897, p. 45. Egg and larva of P.

unimaculatus.
Holt, E. W. L., Annates Mus. Nat. Hist. Marseille, v., 1898, Fasc. II. Larva of

P. iC7iimaculatuSy early larva of Rh. punctatus with periotic spines, figures.

Under the designation of Topknot, our record includes a number of
eggs taken between the 24th February and the 5th April, with, perhaps,
another which occurred on the 4th June. It is impossible to decide to
how many species these eggs really belong. The three British topknots
all occur in the neighbourhood of Plymouth, and one, at least, of them
must be very common there, namely lihombus norvegicus. Another, Rh.
punctatus, is certainly not rare. The third, riirynorhoinljus unwiaculaius,
is less often met with, but as these fish by no means lend themselves to
capture by the ordinary methods of fishing, it is impossible to make any
exact statement as to their comparative abundance.

With regard to the spawning period in this district, Cunningham has
recorded a ripe female of Hh. norvegicus taken on the 21st March, and I
have trawled two Phr. unimaculcUus in similar condition on the 1st
June. I do not know of any record of the spawning of Eh. punctatus
from the S.W. coast, but M'Intosh and Prince give the IGth May as the
date of the capture of a ripe female at St. Andrews. Judging by the
analogy of otiier species, tbis topknot should spawn on the S.W. coast
at least as early as on the N.E. of Great Britain.

lilt norvegicus and Ilk. punctatus may therefore be safely regarded as
early spawners. F. uniniaculatus may or may not spawn, as a species,

IN THE SOUTH-WESTERN DISTKICr. 129

a little later than the others. So far as the few recorded observations
go, there seems to be no possibility of distinguishing their eggs by
dimensions alone. Thus, from a single example of each species, the
various authors who have dealt with them give the followinfj sizes : —

Bh. pundatas, unfertilised . . d. 1-05 ca. e.g. 0*20 mm. ca.

Rh. norvegicus, „ . . „ '90 „ 'lo „

P. unimaculatus, „ . . •92-93 ,, (•1G-"18) mm.

Fertilised ova from the last specimen measured from "90 to "99 mm.
in diameter, the oil-globule from '16 to "18 mm.

If the fertilised eggs of a single parent show a variation inter se of
"09 mm., it is more than probable that the variation of the eggs of the
species as a whole is really much greater. For F. unimaculatus, Brooks'
measurement of the ripe ovarian egg, after preservation, is '96 mm.
Without further words, I think it will be plain that the eggs of the
three species overlap each other in so far as dimensions are concerned,
although in all probability the egg of Rh. inmctatus is on an average the
largest, that of Rh. norvcgicus the smallest of the three. Such compara-
tive sizes of the eggs conform to those of the parent species, so far as
they are known to me.

The eggs taken in our tow-nets may be recapitulated as follows, the
dimensions of each individual egg being given : —

Diara. of egg.

Diaiu. of oi

February 2-i

1-05

26

1-02

•19

March 1

1-04

•21

•99

•18

105

•17

1-08

•19

March 30 .

•90

•13

•91

•13

1-04

•19

1-07

•21

1-07

•21

April b

103

•17

June 4

1-04

•20

The egg of June 4th, only observed in its early condition, belongs
perhaps more probably to Capros aper than to a Topknot.

With regard to the rest it appears at first sight possible to select two,
measuring ^90 and ^91 mm. in diameter, as dillering markedly from the
rest; but it is necessary to remember that the dillereuce of •IS mm.
which separates the smallest of these two from the largest of the whole
series is no more than is met with in a single species having ova of

130 NOTES ON THE REPRODUCTION OF TELEOSTEAN FISHES

about the same size. For instance, tow-net ova, which can be re-
ferred with reasonable certainty to Oallionymus lyra and Ctcnolabrus
riqycstris, show variations of "12 and '29 mm. respectively {vide pp. 112
and 125). The discrepancy in size cannot therefore be regarded as of
specific moment.

Appeal to the characters of the embryo and larva does not afford
much positive assistance, since of the three Topknots but one is
certainly known in its early stages, and that only from a few
artificially- fertilised eggs and a single newly-hatched larva. This larva
has been described in the last number of the journal, and will be
figured in the Annales du Mus4e de Marseille. The Plymouth tow-net eggs
yield larvte which do not appear to offer important differences, though
in certain characters they are certainly variable. Taking those which
have come under my own observation, apparently similar to those
studied by Mr. Scott during the earlier part of the season, the larvae
may be said to be identical with some Irish examples which I have
described and figured under the title of Sp. xi. Moreover, it now
appears to me that my Species x. and xii. were separated from the last
on insufficient grounds. I do not wish to assert that all the eggs which
I have described under those titles were spawned by one and the same
species ; but that, in the light of the Plymouth specimens, I now
hesitate to rely on the characters which I formerly considered as
specific,

Sp. X. is a St. Andrews form, and is no doubt identical with an egg
and larva subsequently attributed by M'Intosh {Twelfth Ami. Rep. S. F. B.,
1894-, p. 222, PI. IV.), who appears to have overlooked my previous
description in this journal of the ova and larvie of the turbot, to that
important food-fish. According to my observations the egg, which
occurred at St. Andrews in April, May, and July, and in Clew Bay,
Ireland, in April, has a diameter of 1-00 to 1-05, and an oil-globule
of -18 to -20 mm.

Sp. xi. is from Ireland, ]\Iarch and April ; the diameter is from
1-01 to 1-07, that of the oil-globule 18 mm.

Sp. xii. is a title applied for the sake of continuity to a form already
described by M'Intosh and Prince as Sp. F. According to my own
measurements in Scotland and Ireland the diameter of the egg is from
•75 to -85 mm., that of the oil-globule from -14 to '15 mm. According
to M'Intosh it may reach a diameter of -9900 mm. The same egg has
been found by Ehrenbaum at Heligoland.

Sp. F. or xii. differs from the rest in that the epidermis is beset with
small papilhe or tubercles, connected with each other by a network of
fine raised lines. I have already explained in the last number of this
journal that I can no longer regard this epidermal feature as of specific

IN THE SOUTH- WESTERN DISTRICT. 181

importance. It is a common, perhaps a normal feature of the embryo
of Arnoglossus, but it is not constant, even in the species of that genus.
In typical specimens of Sp. F or xii. it is extremely well marked, but the
Topknot eggs which I have seen at Plymouth do not lend themselves to
discrimination by this character. Two of them, and it is necessary
to remark that these two ('OO, "Ol, 0'9, -13) are the smallest of the
series, have the reticulo-papillate epidermal character most strongly
marked, but the rest are variable. Some have the skin practically
smooth. In others it is more or less papillate, with an approach in
some instances to reticulation. Moreover, the typically reticulo-
papillate condition was observed as an exceptional, perhaps a
pathological feature in a species which does not appear from the
characters of the larva to be a Pleuronectid {vide the egg and larva
temporarily assigned to a Gadoid, p. 145).

Apart from the papillation of the skin, I now believe that the
various early Topknot larvie, which have been described from tow-
net ova, cannot be distinguished by characters of pigment and
conformation. Those which have come under my notice at Plymouth
seemed to be referable to my Species x., xi., and xii., but, on the other
hand, they appeared capable of bridging over the differences which
I had supposed sufficient to separate those species. Species x. was
originally supposed by myself to have a Trigloid affinity, on account
of the rather precocious development of the pectoral fin and a certain
Trigloid character of the pigment of the marginal fins. I am now
convinced of error in this respect, and it appears reasonably certain
that all our British Trighe have much larger eggs.

An inevitable want of continuity in our tow-netting operations
during the period when these eggs occurred, seems to me to greatly
prejudice any discussion based on the comparative sizes of the eggs
taken. As to the general question of the determination, by the
characters of the vitelligerous larva, of the eggs of the several species
of Topknot, I do not think it is possible, as yet, to pronounce a
definite opinion. The single larva which I was able to rear from
artificially fertilised ova of P. unimaculatus seems to me to suggest
that some of the ova which have been described under Sp. F belong
to that form. Further, it would appear that the reticulo-papillate
larva is perhaps more commonly hatched from the smaller of the
eggs which may safely be assigned to Topknots. M'Intosh and
Master man deal with the egg and larva F under lih. pmidatus, but
it does not appear that they wish to definitely identify them with
that species. It seems at least possible that the reticulo-papillate
condition may be more or less pathological ; and if, as I suppose to
be the case, the smaller spawning members of a species give rise to

132 NOTES ON THE KEFRODUCTION OF TELEOSTEAN FISHES

small and often weakly offspring, it is quite possible that the occur-
rence of the character rather in small eggs than large may be
explained in this way. On such a supposition one must class the
smaller ova with reticulo-papillate larvie merely as the offspring of
small individuals, of one or more species, and not as a distinct
species. I put forward the suggestion for what it may be worth. A
papillate condition of the skin is certainly a pathological condition
in the larva3 of many species, but is certainly present in some cases
in individuals which appear to be quite healthy.

There is, I imagine, no means of deciding how many Topknots
have contributed to the ova taken in our tow-nets this spring,
although the apparent lateness of the spawning period and certain
characters of my solitary larva of P. unimaculatus seem to indicate
that the share of that species is, at any rate, unimportant. Failing
any observation of larvte derived from the artificially fertilised eggs of
Bh. punctatus and Ilh. noroegicus, it is impossible to say whether
one or both of these species are represented.

Some help may perhaps be derived from a consideration of the
few metamorphosing larvte of Topknots which were obtained during
the year.

I have described from Ireland, as Sp. xiv., a very conspicuously
characterised pleuronectid larva, which can now be referred, without
any doubt, to a Topknot. It is most readily recognised by the pre-
sence of a pair of relatively enormous spines on each otocyst, and is
further characterised by a very distinctly banded black pigmentation.
In discussing the affinities of this larva, I at first considered that it
must belong either to the Brill {lih. Ice vis) or to INi. norvecjicus.
Confirmation of Eaffaele's earlier observation of the young stages of
the Brill has shown that it is certainly not the parent of the larva
with periotic spines. On the other hand, Cunningham seems to me
to have proved, by the examination of older stages, that Eh. punctatus
has a spined larva similar to my Sp. xiv. A specimen examined by
this author has D. 90, A. 69, and he rightly contends that, of the
possible parents, Ilh, 2'>unctatus is by far the most probable. J\ly
largest specimen had D. 80 ca., A. 66 ca. It was not possible to
count all the rays. Cunningham makes the reservation that there
may be more than one species with a spined larval condition.

A larva with periotic spines was formerly considered by MTntosh to
be possibly a young Ilh. punctatus, representing an older stage of another
larval form apparently similar to that which I doubtfully assigned, under
Sp. xiii., to F. unimaculatus. His latest discussion of tlie matter
(M'Intosh and Masterman) refers the last-named larva, which has no
periotic spines, to lih. punctatus, while the former, including my Sp. xiv.,

IN THE SOUTII-WESTEKN DISTRICT. ~ 133

is assigned witli some reserve to Bh. norvcgicus. No St. Andrews larva
is assigned to P. unimaculatus, because that species has never been
recorded in the district, but the capture of a single specimen of Bh.
norvcgicus seems to be considered to have atlbrded sufficient warrant for
changing the determination of the spined larva.

The Irish larva without periotic spines, Sp. xiii., is, if one takes into
account the stages of the metamorphosis which the two forms exhibit,
much smaller than the spined Sp. xiv. Thus at a length of 1062 mm.
the latter is still nearly symmetrical, with a heterocercal tail, while at
9'37 mm. the former has the eye at the ridge, and the tail quite
homocercal. I should imagine that the larva which, at any given size,
has the metamorphosis most advanced, would be universally held to
belong to the smaller species. Yet IM'Intosh and jMasterman put
forward the same comparison as an argument in favour of an exactly
converse conclusion.

Cunningham's observation of the later stages of the spined larva
seems to me too positive to permit of any doubt as to the spinigerous
nature of the larva of Bh. punctatus, unless, as is most unlikely, he was
dealing with a specimen with an exceptionally large number of fin-rays.
The St. Andrews authors, however, refer the larva without spines to that
species, with the simple remark that they are uuable to concur with
Cunningham's opinion.

During the present season we have twice taken a larva with
periotic spines, corresponding exactly in this respect, and in the
disposition of the pigment, with my Irish series, but less advanced
in metamorphosis. They measure respectively 5'il and 4'5 ca. mm.,
the latter specimen being bent and difficult to measure with accuracy.
The body is still elongated, and shows no signs of elevation. The
contour of the head is still rounded, although the jaws protrude
somewhat, and the general appearance is that of a larva not long after
the final absorption of the yolk. Yet the periotic spines are conspicu-
ously developed, the upper one being somewhat the larger, and rather
backwardly deflected. Tiie larvie, which will be figured in the Annales cle
Mnsde de Marseille, are certainly identical with the Irish forms, and I
refer them without hesitation to BJi. punctatus.

They occurred on the 8th and 24th of April {vide record), that is to
say at the end of the period of occurrence of the Topknot ova,
while Cunningham's advanced larva3 were taken on the 4th May.
Taking into consideration dates and localities, one is led to suppose that
these larvie must be derived from ova similar to those which have been
referred to the Topknot generally. In other words the said eggs are in
part, at least, those of Bh. 2'>unctatus.

From the date, locality, and dimensions uf the ova, it is obviously

134 NOTES ON THE REPRODUCTION OF TELEOSTEAN FISHES

probable enough that some of the latter may belong to Rh. norvegicus, but
I do not think that there is any satisfactory evidence of the nature of
the metamorphosing larva of that species. It may, as M'lutosh and
Masterman suppose, be characterised by the possession of periotic
spines, but I should say that the conformation of the St. Andrews
specimen of 11 mm. (if correctly represented by M'Intosh and Master-
man), referred to Eh. norvegicus, bears certainly a greater resemblance to
that of Bh. piinctati'.s.

Apart from the spinigerous forms there is another larva or group of
larvre which can be definitely associated with the Topknots.

Under Sp. xiii. a typical series of this form, from the symmetrical
condition to an advanced stage of metamorphosis, has been figured and
described by myself. It has no spines at all, and at parallel stages of
the metamorphosis is very much smaller than the spined form, and shows
moreover no trace of the bold pigmentation of the latter. From the
conformation at the most advanced stages, and from the fin-ray formula,
I considered that this form belonged to P. unimaculatus, and so far as is
possible, the appearance of the early vitelligerous larva of that species
confirms my opinion.

Metamorphosing larvre, either identical with or at least very similar
to the Irish specimens, have been met witli at St. Andrews, and are
referred, as we have seen, by M'Intosh and Masterman to Rh. pundaius.
As that species has certainly a spined larva, it appears to me that the
spineless forms from St. Andrews must belong either to P. unimaciUatus
or to Rh. norvegicus. It is simply a question of whether the larva of the
last-named has periotic spines or has none.

The few spineless sinistral larvto which have been taken at Plymouth
in 1897 leave the matter in doubt. One, 8 mm. in length, presents the
stage of metamorphosis of an Irish specimen of 8'87 mm. (op. cif.,
PI. XL, Fig. 92). The two are very much alike, but the Plymouth
example is somewhat more profusely and generally pigmented. Does
the difference in size justify us in supposing that the Plymouth larva
belongs to a smaller species than P. unimaculahis ? I should say that
it is possible, but not certain, since individual larvae vary in the size at
which they assume the different phases of metamorphosis. jVnother
larva, about 3 mm. long after preservation, connects itself more readily
with the younger stages of the St. Andrews spineless larva3 than with
any of the Irish series. The head is large, but the trunk is narrow and
elongate, without any trace of Pleuronectid metamorphosis, but the
abdomen is relatively enormous, a condition apparently due to the
viscera being distended with food. Whether naturally or by accident,
the abdomen is laterallly compressed. Pigment is present in the form
of minute black chromatophores scattered over the general surface, but

IN THE SOUTH-WESTERN DISTRICT. 135

scarce about the middle of the tail ; larger black chromatophores occur
along the edges of the dorsal and of the posterior part of the ventral
marginal fins.

Seeing that they were taken on the inner Eddystone ground, a haunt
of Hk. norvcgicus, it is not improbable that these larva? belong to that
species, but in view of the resemblance of the larger specimen to the
Irish larvre, which appear to belong to P. unimaculatus, I am not
inclined to make any positive assertion without further material.

A larger sinistral larva, taken from the stomach of a gurnard
{T. lineata) on the 10th June, is so macerated that it is only possible to
say that it has no spines and bears, in conformation, a fair resemblance
to Rh. norvegicus. The total length is about 9"5 mm. ; the eye is on the
ridge.

Arnoglossus laterna. Gilnther. Scald fish, Scaldback.

Since the last number of this journal was published I have had no
further opportunity of measuring ova taken from the parent, but, as
may be seen from the records, tow-net specimens, certainly referable to
this species, were taken up to the 29th July. They cannot be regarded
either as particularly rare or as specially confined to the lower strata of
the water. The last egg belonging to the genus was observed on the
3rd August.

The difference already noted as existing between ova taken from the
small undifferentiated females and those from large specimens with
elongated dorsal rays seems to be accidental. Large females yielded
ova of "75 to '76 mm., with a globule of 12 to '13 mm., while small
females gave ova of '67 to '69 mm., with a globule of '14 to 15 mm.
The difference in the size of the egg might be regarded as correlated to
the size of the parent, but it was not apparent why the smaller egg
should have the larger globule, if the two forms belong to the same
species.

Tow-net eggs have since been found measuring 'Go and "06 mm.,
in both cases with an oil-globule of 13 mm. They can be identified
from the characters of the larva with A. laterna. It follows that the
full variation in the dimensions of the ova of this species, and of the
proportionate size of the oil-globule, are not represented by the
measurements which I took from the spawn of a few specimens.

Regarding A. conspersus of the Mediterranean as not entitled to
specific distinction from A. laterna, my observations suggest that
the northern representatives have larger eggs than the southern. Ova
measured at Marseilles range from -Gl to -GS mm., with an oil-globule
of 11 to 13 mm. The larva is also smaller, but, allowing for variation
observed in both localities, identical in pigment and other characters

136 NOTES OxV THE REPRODUCTION OF TELKOSTEAN FIStlES

with the northern form. Both British and Mediterranean examples are
ilhistrated in my paper in the Annalcs. So far as I know, large
difl'ercntiated Scaldfish have never been observed at Marseilles, though
they are known from other parts of the Mediterranean.

Arnoglossus Grohmanni. Bo7iap.

Raffaele, F., Mitthcil. Zool. Stat. Neap., viii., 1888, p. 49, Tav. iv. Larva hntchcd
from tow-net eggs resembling those of various species of Arnoglossns, Rhoin-
loiclicMhys, and Citharus.

Holt, E. W. L., Annales Mus. Mars., v., 1897, Fasc. I., Note 4., p. 33. Pre-
liminary notice of egg and larva provisionally referred to A. Grohmanni.

Holt, E. W. L., ibid., v., 1898, Fasc. II. Ova and larvce, Mediterranean and
British, referred to A. Grohmanni ; ivith figures.

In all, eight specimens of A. Grohmanni were trawled by the Busy
Bee in 1897 and in January, 1898, viz., six at Plymouth and two in
Falmouth Bay. The latter, taken on the 8th July, were females, very
nearly ready to spawn. The species can no longer be regarded as
extremely rare on our south-western coast. I have never noticed it
among the large numbers of large A. latcrna which have been brought to
me from the off-shore trawling grounds ; it seems rather to prefer the
neighbourhood of rocks or rough ground nearer the shore, and may
perhaps be common in actually rocky places inaccessible to trawling.

I associate with this species ova measuring '67 to "68 mm., oil-globule
•12 to "13 mm., at Marseilles, and "72 and '74 mm., oil-globule "12 mm.,
at Plymouth. The Plymouth specimens, with another not measured,
occurred in July.

The larva, which is certainly that figured by Raffaele {loc. cit.), is
readily distinguished from A. latcrna by the presence of two post-anal
pigment bars or patches, of which the last is near the caudal extremity.
A. laterna, apart from some pigment sometimes present about the origin
of the tail, has only one, approximately median, post-anal band or patch
of pigment.

The pigment is perhaps more vividly red or orange in A. Grohmanni.
In creneral conformation, in the unicolumnar character of the notochord,
in the presence of digitiform cells along the edge of the marginal fin,
and in the frequently reticulo-papillate condition of the skin, the two
larvfc are identical. A newly-hatched larva of A. Grohmanni (Ply-
mouth) measures 2-32 mm. Allowing for individual variation in the
decree of development at v/hich hatching takes place, Mediterranean
examples appear to be of about the same size, or a little smaller.

By those who may still regard A. laterna and A. lophotes (the large
form with elongated dorsal rays) as distinct species, it may be suggested
that the larva which I refer to A. Grohmanni may be really that of

IN THE SOUTH-WESTERN DISTRICT. 137

A. lophotcs. The latter, however, as has already been noted, seems to
be unknown at IMarseilles, where A. Grohmanni is common. It is not
likely that so well-marked a form as A. lophotcs would have escaped
the keen attention of Professor Marion and his subordinates, if it ever
ventured into a region whence the very rapidly developing ova could
have found their way into our hand-net, never employed far out at
sea. The economic value even of such a comparatively small fish as
the scaldback in its " Lophotes " form, would certainly ensure its
prompt recognition in the Marseilles market; although, as we know,
its worthlessness from the point of view of the British consumer long
concealed the very same fish from the knowledge of naturalists in this
country, I think it is almost certain that the scaldback is only present
in the Marseilles grounds in its small undifierentiated form.

On our own coast, when I have trawled large differentiated and small
undifferentiated A. laterna in company, I have found the ovaries of the
first the more advanced, whereas the tow-net eggs of A. laterna began
to occur before those referred to A. Grohmanni. This argument, it
must be confessed, would have more weight if the numbers were
larger.

Solea variegata. Donov. Thick-back.

Cunniugbam, J. T., Journ. M. B. Assoc, N.S., i., 1889, p. 23, Figs. 1-1, 15.

Ovarian egg and tow-net egg referred to S. variegaia.
Cunninghain, J. T., Treatise on the Common Sole, 1890, p. 90, Pis. XVI., XVII.

Egg, vitelligerous larva.

Only one egg of this species was taken during 1897. It occurred
on the 27th July between the Eddystone and Hand deeps. The adult
seems to be oftener found outside the Eddystone than on the grounds
nearer shore. The egg was first examined by Mr. Beaumont, and had
died before I looked at it on the following day ; there was, however,
but little evidence of decomposition. The embryo, devoid of a caudal
rudiment, showed only yellow pigment. The cortical vesicles of the
yolk were quite apparent. I counted in all thirty-seven yellow oil-
globules ranging in diameter from '03 to '11 mm., but for the most part
exceeding '05 mm. Mr. Beaumont observed no material change in
this respect since the egg was examined on the previous day. The
diameter of the whole egg was I'll mm.

I have made no effort to ascertain the duration of the spawning
season, but as Cunningham records the occurrence of a ripe female
on the 30th May, it is evident that our specimen belongs to a late
clutch. The diameter is '20 less than that of the tow-net egg recorded
by Cunningham as having occurred on the 17th July.

138 KOTES ON THE RErRODUCTION OF TELEOSTEAN FISHES

Solea lascaris. Risso. Sand sole.

(?)Holt, K. W. L., Sci. Trans. 11. Duh. Soc, S. II., iv., 1891, p. 457, Pis.

XLIX., L., Solea, Sp. i. Advanced cyg and larva.
(?)Holt, E. W. L., Ann. Mus. Mars., v., 1898, Fasc. II. Early and advanced
eijg referred, with above, to S. lascaris.

S. lascaris was common enough in the Plymouth market in the
early part of 1897, but could not be found during the spawning season,
which, as I computed, would occur a little later than that of S. vulgaris.
The ovarian egg remains unknown, and I have no reason to think that
S. lascaris is represented among the few eggs of Solea entered in our
records.

I have described and figured in the Annales two stages of a sole
egg taken at Marseilles. At an early stage of development the egg
does not essentially differ in the character and arrangement of its
globules from that of S. vulgaris, but as development proceeds the
originally minute globules tend to coalesce so as to form larger ones.
In this condition the egg appears identical with the Irish Solea Sp. i.
The dimensions agree closely. I have set forth in my Marseilles
paper the considerations which suggest that >S'. lascaris is probably
the parent of both forms. Other tow-net ova are provisionally
referred, in the same paper, to iS'. Kkinii and aS'. hispida.

Gadus.

The most abundant Gadus in the inshore waters of this district is the
pollack, G. jMllachiiis. The bib or blind and the pout (the names have
no constancy of specific application), G. luscus and G. minutus, are
commonest outside the Sound — the former about outlying rocks, the
latter on the Eddystone trawling grounds. The whiting, G. merlangus,
is at times abundant, but erratic in its distribution. The cod, G.
morrhua, is not very plentiful, while the haddock, G. wglefinus, and
the coal-fish or " roamer," G. virens, are decidedly exceptional.

In spite of much that has been written about them, the young stages,
especially of those with which we are here concerned, are very ditficult to
distinguish one from the other. The ova approach each other closely in
dimensions, and the variations in this respect have not hitherto been
studied in a methodic manner. It is only possible, therefore, to identify
the ova mentioned in our records in a provisional manner.

Gadus luscus. Will. Bib, Blind, Pout, Brassie.

Cunniiighani, J. T., Journal M. B.Assoc., N.S., i., p. 46, Fig. 35: Tow-net egg and
larva. P. 375: Dimensions of ripe egg.

Cunningham provisionally identified with this fish tow-net ova,
ri3 mm. in diameter, taken on January 20th, 1888. Pipe ova taken

IN THE SOUTH-WESTERN DISTRICT. 139

from a female in the Aquarium in IMarch, were found by the same
author to measure 1"05 to 1"15 mm. The larva, hatched from a tow-net
egg, is figured. It has an irregular series of dorsal and ventral black
chromatophores from the head to near the extremity of the tail.

Observations in January, 1898, show that large examples of G. Inscvs
contained ripe ova, of which the largest measured 1"13 mm. one hour
after extrusion into sea- water, on the 10th of the month. This dimen-
sion would be subject to further increase, but the eggs were not fertilised
and died. Ova of corresponding dimensions, giving rise to larvse re-
sembling Cunningham's figure, first appeared on the 4th January, 1898,
from grounds known to be frequented by G. luscus. It is therefore
reasonably certain that Cunningham's identification is correct, and we
have therefore associated with G. luscus those forms which in date,
dimensions, and larval characters appear to sufficiently fulfil the
required conditions. It will be seen that these ova, observed by
Mr. Scott, occurred from the 28th January to the 6th February. The
diameter ranges from "90 to 1"10 mm., so that the eggs are rather small
as compared with those obtained from parents in January of the
present year. The smallest ova I have as yet found are derived from a
female twelve inches long (20th Jan., 1898), and measure "98 mm. after
twenty-two hours' immersion in sea- water. If I am right in supposing
that the smaller members of the species spawn later and have smaller
eggs than their larger sisters, the small size of some of the 1897 tow-net
ova is accounted for. The dimensions do not serve to distinguish them
from eggs of G. minutus, but such evidence as I have points to a rather
later spawning season for that species. Ten females, examined on the
12th January, 1898, were still far from ripe.

In every case when the development of the embryo was followed, the
ova entered as G. litscus can be associated with the larva that appears
to belong to this form. It is characterised by a rather regular double
series of dorsal and ventral black chromatoplwres, extending from the
head to the neighbourhood of the caudal extremity. In larvte of a
few days old the supra-cephalic ampullation, common to several if
not to all Gadus larvae, is well developed, Onhj black pigment is usually
visible, but I am able to affirm the presence of yellow chromatophores
also, an observation which explains existing discrepancies in the de-
scriptions of various authors of other Gadus larvae.

In the larvae (of G. luscus) which I have observed no coloured chroma-
tophores can be made out as long as the specimen is in full health and
vigour ; but a greenish or yellowish refraction is noticeable, often very
faintly, on the salient parts, such as the front end of the yolk or the
head. I have not succeeded by any manipulation of the light in
detecting the presence of coloured chromatophores, and as a similar

NEW SERIES.— VOL. V. NO. 2. K

140 NOTKS ON THE REPRODUCTION OF TELEOSTEA.N FISHES

tinge is often visible in the blastodermic mound of a fish-egg, and
certainly is not due in that case to pigment, I concluded that only black
pigment was present. However, it so happened that a larva injured
itself on the stage of my microscope, and during the development of
the usual morbid symptoms I became aware of the presence of minute
yellow chromatophores, rather closely set over the greater part of the
skin.

It appears therefore that yellow chromatophores, though present in
large numbers, cannot (in all cases, if at all) be detected in healthy
larvse. So far as my experience goes, a larva of G. luscus with con-
spicuous (i.e. contracted) yellow chromatophores would be exceptional.

In the case of G. minuhis, I have seen and described Irish tow-net
specimens, almost certainly belonging to the species, in which no yellow
chromatophores were visible. The larva of this form was first de-
scribed from the Mediterranean by Eafiaele, its correct identification
being beyond doubt. Only black pigment was observed ; and larvoe
observed by myself at Marseilles agree in this respect with Eaffaele's
description and figure ; while, though only tow-net material was studied,
the identification was, from the known fauna of the district, beyond
doubt. I have seen similar larvre at St. Andrews, yet M'Intosh's, the
only British specimens hatched from artificially fertilised ova, are very
conspicuously decorated with yellow chromatophores. (M'Intosh and
Masterman. PI. X., Figs. 1-3.) The absence of yellow pigment from
Mediterranean larvae may be actual as well as apparent, since a regional
variation may very well exist in this particular. As to British
forms, the figures (1 and 2) of M'Intosh's youngest larv?e appear to
have been drawn from unhealthy specimens, and the yellow chroma-
tophores appear to be contracted. It is possible, though I do not
insist on the suggestion, that in perfectly normal British larvfe of
G. minntus the yellow chromatophores may be too diffusely expanded
to be conspicuous.

The larvae of the cod and haddock have been so extensively studied
that I do not think that yellow chromatophores, if present, could have
failed to attract observation, for the other characters of these two species
are sufiicient to ensure their distinction (if occasionally coloured). Larvae
of the whiting have been described by M'Intosh and Prince, from
artificially fertilised eggs, and by myself, from tow-net material, as
profusely adorned with yellow. On the other hand Cunningham {Journal,
N.S., i., p. 46, Fig. 34) makes no mention of yellow pigment in a larva
which he refers to the whiting. It is possible that the yellow pigment,
which seems to be usually conspicuous in this species, may be occasion-
ally invisible as in G. luscus. Cunningham's ova, from which the
supposed whiting larva was derived, measured 1-23 mm. in diameter, and

IN THE SOUTH-WESTERN DISTRICT. 141

were taken on the Gth February, 1888. I should myself regard this
date as rather early for the species, but as my observations are far
from complete, I am not inclined to set my own opinion against
Cunningham's.

To return to Gadus liiscus, the smallest Gadoid fish whicli can with
certainty be referred to this species is 18 mm. long. The depth of the
body is quite characteristic. Eows of dark chromatophores extend at
the bases of the dorsal and anal fins to the first third of the posterior
fin : each series is connected by a more or less continuous sheet of
chromatophores which extends forwards, supra-abdominally to the top
of the head. Dark patches are present on the distal part of the first
and second dorsal and first anal fin. As this and a few other specimens
of only a slightly larger size occurred at the end of May and beginning
of June, it would appear that the rate of growth is slow, unless, as is
probable enough, these examples were derived from late-spawned ova
of small parents.

Gadus pollachius. Limi. Pollack, lythe.

M'lntosl), W. C. nth Ann. Re})., S. F. B., 1893, p. 246: Dimensiotis of egg.

\i.th Ann. Rep., 1896, p. 171, PI. V. : Egg, larva.
Holt, E. W. L. Sci. Trans. B. Bub. Soc, S. II., v., 1893, p. 55. Egg.

So far as they have been observed from material directly derived
from the parent the egg measures, after fertilisation, from 110 to 1'14
mm., but as there is a large range of size among female pollack which
have attained to sexual maturity, it is probable that the eggs show
a more extensive variation than has been noted. The larva is only
known from a prematurely hatched and obviously abnormal specimen
figured by M'Intosh. It is impossible to say how far the pigmentation
is characteristic of the normal condition, but Mr. Scott's notes deal with
a larva which closely corresponds in this respect to M'Intosh's figure,
and which appears to be perfectly healthy. It was hatched from ova of
1"40 to 1'45 mm. in diameter, taken a mile outside the Breakwater, on
the 5th February. The larva measures 42 mm. in length, and has
a single lateral row of stellate black chromatophores extending from
the head to about midway along the tail. No other pigment was
observed. The conformation, being that common to the genus, calls for
no special remark. Mr. Scott has noted the resemblance, in character
of egg and larva, to the haddock, G. cvglefinus. The pigment, however,
is more regular than in the haddock, which, in any case, is on account
of its rarity practically eliminated from consideration. I believe that
we have to do with the offspring of a large pollack, and that Mr. Scott
has been the first to observe a normal larva of that species. I have no

ic 2

142 NOTES ON THE llEPRODUCTION OF TELEOSTEAN FISHES

exact knowledge of the spawning season of the pollack on this coast,
but the first young Gadus to appear in the tow-nets seem to connect
themselves with older forms, having the specific characters of G.
pollachius, so that this fish would appear to be one of the earliest
spawners of the genus.

A smaller larva, 3 mm. in length, hatched from ova taken on the
15th February, is described by Mr. Scott as having no pigment at
all. The eggs were not measured. I have seen a similar larva,
hatched in transmission from the west coast of Ireland, but a yellowish
tinge in this specimen may have been due to the presence of yellow
chromatophores. It is possible that both these forms may be somewhat
abnormal pollack, since the species seems to have but little black pigment
as compared with others, although G. minutus has certainly not very
much.

With regard to other ova of Gadus entered in our records I have
only to say that they have been provisionally named in accordance
with their apparent relationships. The dimensions, where noted, are
given ; the same remarks apply to the later stages, with which it is
proposed to deal more fully when sufiicient material has been
accumulated.

Motella. — The Eocklings.

Our records comprise a great number of eggs which can be referred
with certainty to the genus Motella. I do not think it is at present
possible to identify them, in all cases, with any particular species. Ova
directly derived from M. mustela and M. tricirrata have been described
by Brook and M'Intosh and Prince (ilf. mustela) and by Eaffaele {M.
tricirrata). The descriptions do not, however, materially assist us to
distinguish tow-net specimens, since the observed differences of dimen-
sions might easily be obscured by variation in this respect. It is well-
known that the newly extruded egg has usually a number of oil-globules
which subsequently fuse into one. In the case of both the species
mentioned the ova hitherto described as directly derived from the
parent showed no colouration of the oil-globule. Eaffaele, nevertheless,
identifies with M. tricirrata a tow-net egg, having an oil-globule the
colour of olive-oil. It is quite possible that this identification is correct,
since the oil-globules of Solea (and Trachinus?) do not acquire their
characteristic colouration until some time after extrusion. Other forms,
which need not be recapitulated, give rise to ova in which the globules
are coloured even before the egg is ripe, but this is not necessarily a
constant feature. Thus from different females of Trujla cuculus and
Caran): trachurus I have pressed ova of which the globules showed

IN THE SOUTH-WESTERN DISTRICT. 143

various phases of colouration, from a well-marked cupreous tint through
paler shades to a practical absence of any distinct colour at all. The
variation, in so far as I have observed it, usually affects individual
parents and not individual ova from the same parent, but, while pre-
paring these notes for press, I find among the ova just liberated by a
large Motclla imistcla some few with distinctly cupreous globules, while
those of the majority are colourless or only very faintly tinted. Its
explanation probably involves a physiological and chemical discussion,
which I am not qualified to enter upon. For my present purpose it
suffices to point out that the known existence of such a variation
renders it very unsafe to rely on resemblances or differences in coloura-
tion of the oil-globule for purposes of specific determination. I must
plead guilty to having done so myself, since the Motella Sp. iii. of my
Irish series {Trans. R Duh. Soe., S. II., iv., 1891, p. 464, PI. XLVII.; and
v., 1893, p. 95, PI. VI.) is chiefly based on the greenish colour of the oil-
globule. I must add that I have since found that this greenish colour is
identical with the olive-oil yellow of Piaffaele, the former being converted
into the latter by the use of a condenser. I am therefore of opinion
that my Species iii. can no longer be regarded as sufficiently
characterised.

M'lutosh and Masterman {Life-Hist. Brit. Fish., 1897, p. 284) consider
that they can distinguish three species of rockling eggs in the tow-net
material of their district. I am in a less fortunate position here, for I
cannot find among the large number collected any distinctive character
which I consider absolutely reliable. Two rocklings, M. mustela and
M. tricirrata, are certainly common here, and no doubt the eggs of both
species have frequently come under the observation of Mr. Scott and
myself, but it has not so far been possible to check the tow-net material
by observation of the spawning of both species. I know that M, mustela
was spawning in March, 1897, while it has been taken full of roe in
January, 1898.*

Of the spawning of M. tricirrata in this district I know nothing
definite; and the question is further complicated by the undoubted
existence in the district of M. clmhria and M. maculafa, and possibly of
other forms which may require specific distinction. I do not suppose
that the ova of M. maculata are small enough to be readily mistaken for

* During the months mentioned females full of roe were seined in the estuary, at the
mouth of the Lynher in Jlarch, at the same place and also a little higher up the river in
January. A specimen transferred to the Laboratory, ou the 12th January, si>a\vued at least
as early as the 19th, since great numbers of eggs were found in the tank on that
date. On the same day rockling eggs were found in Plymouth Sound in water which Jlr.
Garstang pronounced to be estuarine in character, so that it is practically certain that
M. mustela spawns to some extent in the estuary. Rockling are known from Petersen's
observations to spawn in the Limfjord.

144 NOTES ON THE RErRODUCTION OF TELEOSTEAN FISHES

those of other British species, but M. cimhria does not seem to be a very-
large form. The pelagic larval rockling, commonly known as " Mackerel
midges," would afford more assistance to a knowledge of the spawning
season if it were possible to identify them with absolute certainty, but
it seems quite possible that those usually associated with 31. tricirrata
may not all belong to that species.

On the whole I do not think it would be profitable to enter at present
upon a detailed discussion of the probable parentage to the tow-net ova.
It may be noted that the eggs with colourless globules correspond in
character with the descriptions of M. m.usida, and in date with the
known spawning period of that species at Plymouth. The cupreous
colour of the globule, noted in several ova by Mr. Scott in January, is
the same as has been referred to above as observed in newly extruded
ova of the same species. The yellow, which under different conditions
of illumination is either the " olive-oil " of Raffaele or the green of my
Irish notes, has not been noted in ova directly derived from the female
of any species. The ova with yellow globules, first observed in January,
continued to occur until the middle of September, and after April were
much commoner than those with colourless globules, of which the last
was observed in June. If the yellow colour is really a constant character
and occurs only in one species, then that species must have a spawning
season of nine months. I have failed to recognise any differences in the
pigmentation of larvae with colourless and yellow globules respectively.
In our records the colour of the oil-globule is stated whenever it was
noted. The record of dimensions was very insufficiently kept by myself
during the later months of the year, and it is partly on this account
that I defer a discussion of this part of the question. It appears,
however, sufficiently plain that there is considerable variation, not only
in the diameter of the egg, but in that of the oil-globule, proportionally
as well as actual, in ova which are similar in colouration of the globule
and in embryonic and larval characters. .

Mr. Scott's notes contain references to, and a drawing of, an egg with
very numerous oil-globules. It is identical with a form described by
M'Intosh and Masterman (p. 396, PI. IV., Fig. 13) as closely allied to
Solca lutea, and is in reality the egg of a rockling, probably liberated
before it was perfectly ripe. I have seen very similar ova at St.
Andrews, which ultimately, by coalescence of the oil-globules, assumed
the ordinary appearance, and have also obtained them at Plymouth
directly from a female of M. mustela. I do not think that any of the
tow-net specimens were fertilised.

A " definite pale area, slightly refractive and apparently differentiated
from the yolk," noticed by M'Intosh and Masterman (p. 296) in the egg
of a rockliug, is a common feature in unfertilised eggs of G. luscus. It

IN THK SOUTH-WESTERN DISTRICT. 145

is there associated evidently with imperfect maturation of the vitellus,
and has probably no taxonomic value. If my recollection serves me, it
occurs not infrequently in eggs other than those of the Gadidaj.

Unidentifisd egg, with apparently Gadoid characters.

Holt, E. W. L., Sci. Trans. E. Dub. Soc, S. II., iv., 1891, p. 471, Vh. XLIX.,

L. Unidentified egg and larva, Sp. viii.
Holt, E. W. L., Ann. Mas. Mars., v., 1898, Fasc. II. Egg and larva.

This species, the " unidentified Gadoid (?) " of our record, is certainly
identical with the species of my Irish paper. I am able to add some
details omitted in my former description, and have given more detailed
figures in my paper in the Annales du Musde de Marseille.

The Irish specimens, taken in June, measured '775 mm. with an oil-
globule of "l-i mm. Examples taken at Plymouth in June and July are
from '84 to -91 mm., the oil-globule from '16 to •17 mm. ; in August
from -78 to -84 mm,, the oil-globule 'lo to "17 mm. Two out of eleven
eggs examined had two oil-globules in the early stages of development.

The yolk is homogeneous, the oil-globule dark but colourless, the
perivitelline space small. The zona is devoid of any distinctive
characteristics.

At about the epoch of the appearance of the caudal rudiment numer-
ous minute black chromatophores appear on the trunk of the embryo and
about the posterior hemisphere of the yolk. Very soon afterwards small
yellow chromatophores are seen in company with the black. They are
of a canary-yellow by reflected, golden-brown by transmitted light.
Usually they rapidly assume a dendritic form, imparting to the region
affected a diffuse yellow colouration, and practically masking the black
chromatophores. In some cases, however, they remain simple, and
the appearance of the embryo is greatly affected by their condition.
Individuals showing the extremes of expansion and contraction of
the chromatophores might readily be referred to separate species.

As is shown in my figures in the Sci. Trans. R. Dub. Soc, PI. X., Pig.
54, the larva appears to be Gadoid in character, that is to say the
intestine terminates below the trunk, and does not extend to the edge
of the ventral marginal fin-fold. This condition is well known to occur,
exceptionally, in larva) in no way related to the Gadoids, but its
occurrence as a constant feature has only been observed within the
limits of that group. Our knowledge of the Teleosteau larva' generally
is not such as to justify us in saying that a larva of this character is
necessarily Gadoid, although the presumption, whatever it may be
worth, points in that direction.

1 have examined at Plymouth five larvte. All are recently hatched.

140 NOTES ON THE IJEI'IIODUCTION OF TELEOSTEAN FISHES

anil all have dendritic yellow pigment, so that it is probable that the
chromatophores always assume this form before hatching takes place.
The pigment has much the distribution shown in the figure of the Irish
larva, but in the most recently hatched specimens there is none on the
dorsal fin, which has no elevation anteriorly. Black chromatophores are
present, but are almost entirely masked by the yellow. I suspect that
they occurred also in the Irish specimen, but escaped my observation
owing to the cabin of the S. s. Fhujal being very badly lighted. In one
Plymouth specimen there is no post-anal pigment except a single patch
near the middle of the tail. The larvtc were exceedingly delicate, and
only one survived even to the early stage of the Irish figure. It had
acquired the same elevation of the anterior part of the dorsal marginal
fin, accompanied, as in the Irish larva, by pigment. A Plymouth larva,
apparently newly hatched, measures 2*02 mm. The Irish specimen,
about twelve hours old, measured 2 "6 8 mm.

I imagine that the normal larva exhibits no epidermal peculiarity.
None was present in the Irish specimen, nor in one of the Plymouth
examples. In others the skin was tuberculated, while in one I observed
a reticulo-papillate condition exactly similar to that met with in Arno-
glossus and in Sp. F of M'Intosh and Prince. The absence of sub-
marginal pigment patches from the dorsal fin, coupled with the anterior
elevation of that fin, sufficiently distinguishes the form before us from
Sp. F, but otherwise a papillate specimen in which the connecting
ridges are also developed comes very near to that supposed species ;
a fact which illustrates the danger of relying on the reticulo-papillate
epidermal character for purposes of specific determination. The
Laboratory was often very hot during the months in which these
larvte were obtained. My specimens, necessarily confined in small
vessels for periodic observation, suffered great mortality, and I have no
doubt that the tuberculation of the skin was simply pathological.

The question of the parent species must remain for the present quite
uncertain. I am not at all satisfied that we are dealing with a Gadoid,
but as the characters appear to connect the larva with that group rather
than any other, it may be as well to consider whether any local Gadoid
species can be reasonably regarded as the parent. It is unnecessary to
recapitulate the forms of which the young stages are known, since their
larvic cannot possibly be confused with the one before us. There
remain but a few species worthy of serious consideration. These
include some of the rarer rocklings, Motella. M. mustela and M.
tricirrata need not be considered. Their ova and larva?, however
difficult to distinguish from each other, are well known, M. cimlria
exists, and may be common in the district, though rarely observed.
M. maculata is known to me from a single specimen taken in Start

IN THE SOUTH-WESTEHN DISTRICT. 147

Bay. As it is not a shore species, it is quite impossible to say whether
it is common or rare, since rockling can keep out of the way of ordinary
fishing gear. I do not know to what extent we are justified in sup-
posing that the ova and larvie of the rocklings resemble each other. I
certainly imagine that M. cwibria in its young stages resembles M.
mustela and M. tricirrata , but M. macvlata is a much larger and
more brilliantly coloured fish. It is possibly, though not, as I think,
very probably, the parent of the larva before us.

Phycis Ucnnioidcs is regarded by the local fishermen as rare. I do
not know any reason why it should not be often caught, if common. It
is a deep-water fish on our coasts, but I have known one taken in
Kenmare Bay in Ireland, and another was trawled here in Cawsand
Bay some years ago, so that the species cannot be exclusively confined
to deep water. Nothing is known of its ova and larvffi. The larva
with which we are dealing shows an elevation of the dorsal fin, accom-
panied by pigment ; a condition sometimes associated with the
development of a filamentous ray, such as Phycis possesses in front
of the first dorsal. Most of our ova were taken some way outside
the Breakwater, though one occurred, on the ebb, in Cawsand Bay.
I do not think that the balance of the evidence points very strongly
to Phycis as the parent.

It must, in any case, be borne in mind that our records cover only a
single year, and that, in certain features, an exceptional one. Mackerel
were present in the inshore waters of Plymouth in the summer and
autumn in very unusual quantity. " Mackerel Britt," that is to say
young sprats and probably other young Clupeoids also, and scad old
and young were also exceedingly abundant. Whether the young
sprats were more abundant than usual I have no means of knowing,
but whatever cause induced the influx of mackerel may have influenced
other fish as well, while predaceous forms may have followed the
mackerel. It is therefore quite possible that our ova and larvie may
belong to some species which does not usually occur, at any rate in the
spawning season, in the neighbourhood of Plymouth. Their occurrence
or absence in succeeding years may throw some light on this point.

148 NOTES ON THE KErKODUCTlON OF TELEOSTEAN FISHES

Atherina presbyter. Linn. Sand smelt.

1 believe tbat tbe young stages of the sand smelt are for the first
time described and figured by myself in the Annalcs du Music de
Marseille, 1898. Agassiz, however, long ago figured the larvaj of the
American Athcrinichthys notata (Proc. Amcr. Acad., xvii., 1882, p.
277, Pis. X., XI.), which are very similar. The ova and larvre of the
^Mediterranean A. hepsetus have been described by Piaffaele {Mitlheil.
Zool. Stat. Neap., ix., 1889, p. 306), and of this species a description,
with figures, of the egg and early larva has been given by Marion
{Ann. Mus. Mars., iv., 1891, Fasc. L, VIII., p. 93, PI. I.). Various
larval stages of A. Boyeri, which is said to have occurred in British
waters, are figured and described by myself in the paper alluded to.

It is rather remarkable that the presumably conspicuous eggs of the
sand smelt have never come under the notice of naturalists. Such
Atherine ova as are known are of large size, and furnished with long
attachment filaments arising from all parts of the zona. In this
character they are indistinguishable from the ova of the Scombresocida'.
In both families, as far as one can judge from limited material, the
yolk appears to be translucent and practically homogeneous. One or
more species of Atherina exhibit a number of small oil-globules, while
in one species of Pelone there are none. It is impossible to say to
what extent the members of the respective families adhere to this dis-
tinction, which is, after all, of little importance. The fact remains that
in the general characters of the egg the Atherinidie and Scombresocida),
though not apparently very closely related, are practically identical.

The larv£e of all Atherines seem to be very much alike. I found no
difliculty in identifying those of A. presbyter from their resemblance to
Agassiz's figures of A. notata. My specimens were found swimming
at the surface in rock pools at Penzance on the 22nd June, 1891,
They were in two shoals, each occupying about the space of the palm
of a hand, the individuals very closely packed and hardly visible but
for the large blue eyes and the black patch on the pia mater of the
mid-brain. Each shoal consisted, as I suppose, of the hatch of a
single clutch of eggs ; in any case, the individuals were all of about
the same size. A specimen from the younger shoal measured 9 mm.,
one from the older shoal ITS mm. The figures of Agassiz, llaffaele,
Marion, and my own illustrate equally well the general conformation.
The main features are the rounded head, large eye, very short abdomen,
and very long tail. In the specimens of 9 mm. the pre-anal length
is only 2*09 mm. In those of ITS mm. the same region measures
3-15 mm.

The smaller specimens, judging by Marion's figures of A. hepsetus,

IN THE SOUni-WESTERN DISTRICT. 149

are probably, at most, a few clays old, but the organs of the head are
well developed, although the large otocyst shows but little internal
complication. The yolk appears to have been entirely absorbed ; an
air-bladder is present, though not clearly visible on account of the
dense black pigmentation of the abdominal roof. In serial transverse
sections I failed to find any connection between the bladder and the
alimentary canal. The large fan-shaped pectorals extend some way
beyond the anus ; they are entirely devoid of pigment. In this
respect, therefore, the young iVtherinc offers a marked contrast to the
young Bleuny, which it otherwise resembles rather closely. The end
of the multicolumnar notochord is not yet upturned, but there is a
slight opacity of the sub-uotochordal region, marked by a black
chromatophore and by a number of embryonic caudal rays. The
marginal fins are of moderate width. The dorsal arises a little behind
the level of the anus: both dorsal and anal are constricted in the
peduncular region, expanding again to form the spatulate caudal.
The notochord is multicolumnar. The brain-tissues are of a bright
yellow colour, not apparently due to pigment. Very large black
chromatophores occur in the pia mater of the mid-brain in variable
number. The roof of the peritoneal cavity is densely coated with
black, intermingled with yellow pigment. Elongated black chromato-
phores occur at intervals along the lateral line. Black chromatophores
occur variably along the dorsal and ventral margin of the post-anal
region. The marginal fins are devoid of pigment.

In the specimens of 11"5 mm. the trunk is deeper, the snout longer
and more pointed. The abdomen is, proportionally as well as actually,
somewhat elongated. The gills have become pectinate. The noto-
chord shows signs of segmentation, and its extremity is upturned
by the development of a tri-lobed hypural mass. Embryonic fin-rays
mark the sites of the second dorsal and anal fins. The axis of the
pectoral is obliquely rotated. Pigment changes are chielly confined
to a backward extension of the dorsal cephalic chromatophores.

I did not again meet with the young sand smelt until the 14th July,
1897, when I caught several at low water in Ealmouth Harbour, above
St. Mawes. They were swimming in a small shoal near the surface
at the point of a projecting rock, a habit I have noticed in similar
stages of the Mediterranean A. Boycri. The specimens caught were
of various sizes. Apart from the fact that A. 'presbyter is practically
the only British Atherine, the larger specimens can readily be identified
with that species by the fin-ray formula.

A specimen of 12 mm. has the abdomen relatively short, the anus
still remote from the anal fin. The pelvics are in the form of small
tlaps on either side of, and a little above, the anus. A conspicuous fold

150 NOTES ON THE REPrvODUCTION OF TELEOSTEAN FISHES

of embryonic fin is present in front of the true anal, and, in fact,
the embryonic marginal liu is still continuous. The tail is in the
heterocercal condition, the urochord projecting freely. At 18 mm. the
pelvics, with well-developed rays, have united on the ventral surface,
the anus having migrated in a posterior direction. The caudal fin
is honiocercal. An isolated fragment of the embryonic marginal fin
persists between the anus and the anal fin.

At 22 mm. the fragment of embryonic fin is still present. The
anus has nearly, but not quite, reached the limit of its posterior
mifrration. Even in the adult condition there is between the anus
and the anal fin a greater interval than in most Teleosteans, and I
imagine that this may be due to the rather recent suppression of
an anterior part of the anal, now represented only by the vestige
of the embryonic fin fold. The second dorsal and the anal fins have
the adult formula, viz., 1/14, 1/16. The first dorsal is still but little
developed. No scales are as yet visible.

Compared with similar stages of A. Boycri the larva of A. 2')Tesbyter
can be distinguished by the smaller eye, and by the greater length
in relation to the degree of development. A young A. Boyeri of
32*5 mm. exhibits a stumpy fin-ray midway between the first and
second dorsal fins, and in front of and behind this ray are a series
of tubercles which are evidently of a similar nature.* These structures
represent, I imagine, the vestiges of a continuous dorsal fin, and
afford support to the supposition that the restriction of the dorsal and
anal fins is of comparatively recent date.

The larval A. presbyter of 22 mm., though presenting the broad
features of adult Atherine conformation, is still far from exhibiting
the adult pigmentation. The lateral " stole " in particular is very
imperfectly represented. Young A. Boyeri of the same size are much
more advanced in this respect as in others.

I suppose that sand smelts, on account of the robust character of
the larva, and its capability of assimilating comparatively large
organisms, could be artificially reared with much less trouble than
most other marine food-fishes, but their economical value is hardly
sufficient to encourage the attempt. The larval stages appear to me
to be chiefly interesting from the taxonomic point of view. It is
generally conceded that the Atherines and the Grey Mullets are closely
allied, yet in their ontogeny they differ most widely. The eggs of
the former are, as we have seen, large, demersal, and furnished with
long attachment processes. Some, at least, of the Grey Mullets have

* Vestigial fin-rays have been observed in the larvoe of another fish ; but I cannot
recall either the species or the name of the observer.

IN THE SOUTH-WESTERN DISTRICT. 151

small pelagic eggs, and none, I believe, are known to have eggs
furnislied with attachment processes. It is true that liyder at one
time supposed that the ova of Mugil albula resembled those, of the
Atherines ;* but as no observations have been brought forward in proof
it may be supposed that this view was subsequently abandoned. M.
albula, a species of which Giinther could find no description (Cat. iii.,
p. 410), has been subsequently identified by naturalists of the U.S.
Fish Commission with M. cep/ialus.

It has recently been stated by Sir James Hector {Protection of
Mullet, Parliamentary paper, New Zealand, Sess. II., 1897, H.-17)
that the eggs of the New Zealand M. Perusii are demersal, the proof
being that ova described as ripe sank in sea-water. Further
observations, especially with material the ripeness of which can be
demonstrated by its impregnation, are certainly desirable, since the
controversy as to the pelagic or demersal nature of the pilchard's egg
furnishes ample proof that naturalists of considerable experience may
sometimes be mistaken on this point. The matter is, however, of no
great importance in connection with my present remarks, for the
marked difference which exists between the ova of Atherines and
Grey Mullets is not materially lessened by some of the latter being
demersal.

The difference in the larvre of the two families is at least as
striking. One naturally expects that the larva newly hatched from
a large demersal egg will be larger and more advanced in development
than a larva from a small pelagic egg, and this holds good in most
respects in the case before us. But in one particular, viz., the
elongation of the abdominal region, the larva of the Grey Mullet
is, at hatching, very far in advance of the young Atherine. In fact
a glance at Eaffaele's figure {op. cit., PI. II., Fig. 17) shows that an
extensive elongation of the abdominal region has no part in the
metamorphosis of the larva. The much more advanced larva referred
by Cunningham {Joiorn. M. B. Assoc, N.S., ii., 1891, p. 73, PI. IV.)
to M. chelo confirms this, while the larvre entered in our records
illustrate a further point. These larv?e are similar in size and
conformation to Cunningham's, and require no separate description
beyond the remark that the positions of the second dorsal and of
the anal fin are clearly indicated by the developing fin-rays. The anus
is just in front of the anal fin, a position never attained in the back-
ward migration of the anus in the Atherine larva.

In comparing the Atherine with the Grey Mullet larva it therefore

Bull. U.S. Fish Comvu, i., 1881, p. 283.

152 NOTES ON THE REPRODUCTION OF TELEOSTEAN FISHES

appears that the former passes through a long-tailed phase, which is
not at all represented in the latter. The question is, Has this phase
been suppressed in the ontogeny of the Grey Mullet, or has it been
evolved as a specialised feature in the phylogeny of the Atherine? since
the adult resemblances probably justify us in regarding both as derived
from a common stock. I do not think that the knowledge which we
at present possess of the systematic relations of individual groups of
Teleostean fishes furnishes us with any answer. I believe it is
generally held that the forms with elongated abdominal cavities are
the more primitive, or it may rather be said that an elongated abdomen
is most commonly met with in what appear to be the more primitive
members of the Teleostomi. So far as concerns the families with which
we are now dealing, the elongated abdomen appears less primitive, since
the arrest in this elongation in Atherina would seem, from the evidence
of the persistent ventral embryonic fin and of the vestigial dorsal rays,
to result from the more recent restriction of the permanent dorsal and
anal fins in that genus to the proportions which are now common to
the adults of both families. The force of this evidence depends of
course on the assumption that a continuously rayed fin-fold is a
primitive condition, and is never achieved by a reversion from an
intermediate detached-finned condition,

I am not acquainted with any British larvre of Mugil except those
already alluded to ; but a Mediterranean specimen of 14 mm. (figured
in my paper in A7in. Mus. Mars., and referred from local considerations
to M. auratus), appears to afford some evidence of the relative antiquity
of the Atherines and the Grey Mullets. In essential features of
conformation it is a true Mugil, but it exhibits a most distinct black
"stole" or lateral pigment band. This is a feature of the adult
Atherine, but not of the adult of any Grey Mullet with which the
specimen can be associated ; nor, as far as I know, of any Mugil at all.
The appearance of this "stole" as a transitional larval pigment-phase
of Mugil and its retention in Atherina mast be regarded, if of any
value as evidence of phylogeny, as indicating that the latter is the
more primitive form. The resemblance, however, may be merely
superficial, since I cannot say that the pigment stripe of the young
Mugil is ever associated with the peculiar characters of the " stole " of
the adult Atherine.

Coming to the characters of the ova, the large demersal type appears,
imtna facie, to be that most suitable to the requirements of the
presumably fluviatile ancestors of modern Teleostei, which is perhaps
the most conclusive argument forthcoming. The attachment process
of the zona of the Atherine egg certainly indicates a high degree of
specialisation ; but, as such would presumably be lost in the evolution

IN THE SOUTH-WESTERN DISTRICT. 153

of the pelagic from the demersal type, they are not necessarily important
in this connection. It may be noted, however, that the ova of all the
Blennies studied by Guitel have precisely similar filaments for attach-
ment, only they are confined to the neighbourhood of the micropyle.
It has already been remarked that the early Atherine larva closely
resembles that of the Blenny, a form in which the ontogeny is marked
by no material change of conformation and by hardly any reduction
of the embryonic fin area. It is chiefly by the absence of marked
Acanthopterygian characters that the Mugiliformes and Blenniiformcs
are placed close together in modern classifications, and the larval
resemblances are perhaps evidence of the correctness of their proximity.

So far as I can see, the points noted above certainly appear to suggest
that the Mugilidaj have been evolved from an Atherine-like type, the
long-tailed larval phase being suppressed in the ontogeny, while there
is a further suggestion that both Atherines and Blennies are derived
from a common ancestor resembling the latter in general characters.

I am, however, far from seeking to imply that all Teleosteans with
elongated abdomen are similarly derived. In fact it can hardly be
doubted that the Blenny-like form is, in respect to the abbreviation
of the abdomen, already far from primitive. This is the conclusion
arrived at by Eaffaele, who has discussed in beautifully illustrated
detail the migration of the anus in A. hepsetus. He regards as
primitive the condition in such fish as the Clupeoids and Salmonoids.
The secondary condition is retained throughout life in the Blennies,
while a tertiary condition is attained by such an ontogenetic migration
as takes place in Atherina. INIy own contention is that Mugil, which
Raffaele does not seem to have had an opportunity of studying, belongs
also to this tertiary group, an ancestral secondary phase being suppressed
in its ontogeny.

•

Unidentified larva.

I am unable to identify a vitelligerous larva found by ]\Ir. E. T.
Browne in tow-net material from near the merchant moorings in
Plymouth Sound on the 22nd September. I did not see it until after it
had been preserved in formol.

The total length is 2*09 mm., of which the pre-anal part occupies
•90 mm. The rectum is separated from the yolk by an interval of
'21 mm. The yolk is still fairly large, there is no oil-globule ; and
I cannot make out any cortical segments, though such may have been
present at an earlier stage. Tlie marginal fins are broad, the dorsal
commencing in front of the head. Black chromatophores are present
on the head, along the dorsum in a continuous row as far as the middle

154 NOTES ON THE REPRODUCTION OF TELEOSTEAN FISHES

of the tail. A few occur on the ventral part of the trunk and on
the rectum. There are several large dendritic black chroraatophores on
the dorsal near its margin, while two are seen on the post-anal part of
the ventral. A patch of pigment occurs above and below the caudal
extremity. In all cases the black pigment of the marginal fins is
accompanied by paler chromatophores, the colour of which has been
destroyed by the reagent. I cannot speak definitely as to the nature of
the notochord. The stage of development suggests most strongly that
the larva is derived from a pelagic egg. It may possibly be a belated
specimen of Callionymus lyra, but it does not closely agree with any
examj)le of that species which I have seen.

Clupea harengus. — Linn. Herring.

The young stages of the herring may be most conveniently reserved
for consideration in connection with the distribution of young fishes in
the Plymouth district. T only purpose at present to call attention
to the occasional occurrence of an abnormal feature in the egg. It
is well known that the ova of the pilchard and sardine and of the
shads are characterised by the formation, after immersion in sea water,
of a very large perivitelline space. The sprat ovum has only a very
small perivitelline space, while that of the herring ovum is normally of
moderate proportions. It is difficult to take accurate measurements if
the spawn is allowed to adhere together, since the zona is then apt to
assume a polyhedral form, but this can be obviated by the use of starch
as recommended in the United States Manual of Fiah Culture. I find
among the spawn of three fish treated in this way, that the largest normal
eggs measure TTG mm. in total diameter, the yolk mass measuring
1*25 mm., 24 hours after fertilisation. There are, however, several eggs
of a much larger size. One slightly elliptical, but not at all flattened,
has the greatest diameter 2'42 mm., the least 2-34 mm. ; it appears to be
as large as any. It must be remarked that these specimens are all
dead, as in all previous instances of abnormally large herring eggs
which have come under my notice. So far as I can judge, the excess in
size is confined to the perivitelline space, but it is not the case that
dead herring ova have usually a larger space, that is to say a more
inflated zona, than living specimens. The latter are usually the
larger, at least when death takes place at an early stage.

I do not suppose that this observation is new to those who have had
to deal with herring spawn, but I do not remember to have seen it
recorded. It shows that the perivitelline space may exhibit excep-
tionally an approach to the dimensions normal in the shads and

IN THE SOUTH-WESTERN DISTRICT. 155

pilchard. It may also help us to an appreciation of the due value
of the perivitelline space as a character in the determination of un-
described ova. Cunningham has made known the occurrence in the
egg of the pilchard of an exactly converse variation {Journal, N.S.,
iii., p. 150).

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159

a

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73

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161

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163

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L 172 ]

Preliminary Report on the Results of Statistical and

Ichthyological Investigations made at the

Plymouth Laboratory.

By
Georg Duncker, Ph.D.

During my stay, from August to October, 1897, at the Laboratory of
the ]\Iarine Biological Association of the United Kingdom, I was
especially engaged in investigating the variability of Phuroncdes jlesus,
Linn., and Siphonostoma typhle, Linn. Of the results so obtained, some
of more local faunistic importance are briefly reported here.

I take this opportunity of expressing my hearty thanks to the
officers of the Laboratory, especially to the Director, Mr. E. J. Allen,
for their help and kind interest in my researches. A paper containing
a full statement of the statistical results has been prepared, and will
be published shortly.

1. Pleuronectes flesus, Linn.

The ilounders of Plymouth, when compared with those of the Baltic
and the south-eastern parts of the North Sea, form a distinct race.
The characteristics of this race are :

1. A high number of fin-rays in the dorsal and anal fin (average,
dorsal Gl-62, anal 43-44).

2. Almost entirely smooth squamation on the blind side. In both
respects it is similar to the variety Pleuronectes italicus, Giinther, of the
Mediterranean.

The variation in the number of fin-rays has been studied in 1120
individuals, of which 602 (=53-75 per cent.) were males, and 518
( = 40-25 per cent.) were females. Of the males 40 ( = 0-6 per cent.)
had the eyes on the left side of the head, of the females only 20
( = 3'8 per cent.). On drawing the curves representing the observed
total lengths for each sex separately, a distinct size group, similar to

STATISTICAL AND ICHTHYOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS.

173

those suggested by Petersen,* was found only for the small individuals
from 7 to 14 cm. In other portions of the curve no distinct humps
were observed.

The males proved more variable than the females in the number of
fin-rays. Table I. gives the indices of variability (Airy's error of mean
square a/^^) for each fin in both male and female.

Table I., showing the Indices of variability of the number

of fin-rays.

MALE3.

Index.

Females.

Index.

Number of
Individuals.

Number of
Individuals.

Dorsal fin *

2-4445

602

2-3118

518

Anal fin *

1-6521

602

1-5397

518

Left Pectoral fin t

0-7454

562

0-6978

498

Right Pectoral fin 1

0-7152

562

0-6993

498

Left Ventral fin t

0-3318

562

0-3483

498

Right Ventral fin t

0-3147

* Right-
t Riglit-

562

and left-eyed individi
eyed individuals only.

0-2-225

als.

498

Differences of age or sex corresponding to differences in the number
of fin-rays were not distinctly shown in the dorsal, anal, and ventral
fins. In both pectoral fins a slight increase of the numbers of rays
seems to occur with age {i.e. with increase of total length).

Table II. gives the arithmetical mean values of the number of fin-
rays in six size groups of both sexes. Group I. contains individuals
below 10 cm. in total length ; group IL, from 10 to 14-9 cm., etc. ;
group VI., above 30 cm. (See page 174.)

The variation is normal in three cases; in three (dorsal and both ventral
fins) it is skew, according to Pearson's Type IV. {Fhil. Trans. Roy. Soc.,
Vol. 186 A.); in the dorsal, however, this skewness is only slight. The
correlation (according to Pearson's t formula) between the numbers of
fin-rays of the dorsal and anal fin is very high, r = 0*672. | This is
higher even than that of the pectoral fins, r = 0-588. The latter I find
to be less than in the symmetrical species mentioned below, in which
1 = 0-700 and 0720 respectively. The correlation of the ventral fins
is only 0-2085.

* Report of the Danish Biol. Station, IV., 1893, "The Biology of our Flatfishes."
t Fhil. Trans. Roy. Soc, Vol. 187 A, p. 265.

t Compare this with the corresponding values of the Acanthoptcrygians Acerina
ccrnua, Linn., r = 0-238, and Cotlus gobio, Linn., r = 0-300.

M 2

174

PRLLIMINAUY KEPOUT ON THE RESULTS OF

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STATISTICAL AND ICHTHYOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS.

175

2. Syngnathus rostellatus, Nilss.

The reasons for separating this common and widely -distributed
species from S. acus, Linn., are the following : —

J . The differences between the two forms are so distinct and of such
a degree that they are not likely to be due to differences of age.

A comparison between twenty-two individuals of the former species
and forty-seven of the latter, gives the following ranges of variation : —

Ann. corp.
Ann. caud.
Siimma ann.
Ann. p. dors.
Rad. p. dors.
Ann. Ijurs. gen.

Observed Total Length

S, rostellatus,

Nilss.

S. acus.

. 13-15

19-20

. 39-41

43-46

. 52-56

62-66

. 10-12

8-11

. 36-44

36-45

. 20-25

25-28

. 7-7-16-4

cm. . .

16-0-44-8 cm

2. The individual variation in the number of body rings in the
Syiujnathidac (corresponding to the individual variation of abdominal
vertebras in other fishes) is a very low one. {Si2Jho7Wstoma ti/pJile, Linn.
Syngnathus ■pelagicus)

3. The fully-developed young in the brood-pouches of the males of
both forms differ by the same number of rings as the adult, as well as
differing in their total lengths. (They are about 1"5 cm. and 2o cm.
respectively.)

4. Sexual maturity has been observed in individuals of aS^. rostellatus,
Nilss., above 11 cm. long, in S. acus not below 30 cm.

5. Cross-breeding between the two forms seems unlikely, in conse-
quence of the difference of the sizes of the eggs and brood-pouches in
the two cases.

At Plymouth I obtained S. rostellatus, Nilss., from Cawsand Bay and
from the Yealm Eiver; ;S'. acus from the same places and from the
Hamoaze. I also possess specimens of S. rostellatus, Nilss., from the
western Baltic, tlie North Sea, and the Mediterranean. Through the
kindness of Mr. E. W. L. Holt 1 was also able to compare some
specimens from the lliver Humber.

L 17G J

On Keeping Medusae Alive in an Aquarium.

By

Edward T. Browne,
University College, London.

I HATE made several attempts to keep medusae alive in an aquarium,
but have only recently been successful. A medusa when first placed
in an aquarium swims actively about, but in a few hours it sinks to the
bottom apparently tired out. After an interval of rest it takes another
swim and again sinks to the bottom. This is repeated until the medusa
becomes completely exhausted ; then it stays at the bottom and slowly
dies. In spite of every attention, plenty of clean sea-water, plenty of
copepods, and a suitable temperature, I found that my medusae often
used to die within a day of their capture.

When I have been watching medusae at the surface of the sea, I
have noticed that they simply float along with the tide without
often pulsating the umbrella. In my bell-jars the water was perfectly
motionless, so that a medusa had to pulsate its umbrella in order to
keep afloat, and as soon as the pulsations stopped it began to sink.
There are some species, like those belonging to the Bougainvillidae,
which live longer in confinement, as they are able to poise themselves
in the water by the extension of their tentacles and remain motionless
for long periods, but even these finally reach the bottom of the bell-jar,
and a long period at the bottom ends in death.

It appeared to me that to keep medusae alive in an aquarium it was
necessary to have the water in motion so that a medusa could float
about just as it does in the sea, without having constantly to pulsate
its umbrella. The intervals of floating are periods of rest.

I pass over the early experiments and describe a simple method for
keeping water in motion in a bell-jar, which has given excellent results
and has enabled me to keep medusae alive for many weeks in perfect
condition. The current in the water is obtained by simply moving up
and down, fairly slowly, a glass plate inside a bell-jar. Owing to the

ON KEEPING MEDUSAE ALIVE IN AN AQUAIIIUM.

177

downward plunge the plate made in the early experiments it was called
a " plunger," and this name I have retained for the want of a simpler
one. (Fig. 1.)

The plunger consists of a flat glass plate with a small hole in the centre;
through the hole passes a glass rod which is suspended to one end
of a long wooden rod, the " beam." The glass rod has a knob at the
bottom upon which the plate rests, and it is slightly bent so as to give
a slope to the plate. The sloping of the plate prevents the medusae

Fig. 1. Bell-jak with Glass Plunger.

being caught between the plate and the surface-film when the plunger
moves up.

The beam rests near its centre on a pivot, like the beam of a balance,
and at one end is suspended the plunger, and at the other end a small
bucket made of tin, fitted with a large siphon. A rubber-tube conveys
a constant ilow of water (from the fresh-water supply) into the bucket
which, when full, quickly empties itself through the siphon. When
the bucket has been emptied by the siphon, the plunger is at the
bottom of the bell-jar, as the plunger end of the beam is heavier than
the bucket end. The plunger need only be a little heavier than the
bucket; and the weight can be easily regulated by means of a bottle
containing shot, attached to the beam.

178 ON KEEPING MEDUSAE ALIVE IN AN AQUARIUM.

The siphon to empty the bucket must be of large bore, so as to
carry away the water faster than it comes in. As soon as the siphon
has stopped running the bucket begins to fill, and when the weight of
the bucket exceeds that of the plunger, the bucket slowly goes down,
and the plunger comes up to the surface. The length of the stroke is
regulated by two stops, which prevent the beam moving too far up or
down. The plunger remains at the surface until the water has reached
the top of the siphon, and directly the siphon begins to act the bucket
is quickly emptied, and the plunger goes down nearly to the bottom. I
found that one down-stroke in eighty seconds was sufficient, and
regulated the apparatus so that the down-stroke was a little faster than
the up-stroke.

The top of the bell-jar has a wooden cover with a narrow slit cut in
the centre to act as a guide to the plunger-rod, and to prevent the plate
knocking against the bell-jar on the downward plunge.

The movement of the plunger produces numerous eddies in the
water, which are rendered visible by the movements of the copepods
and the medusae. The medusae are carried from one side of the bell-
jar to the other, or from the bottom to the top. This movement the
medusae appear thoroughly to enjoy, and during the intervals in which
the plunger is at rest they may be seen either taking a swim or floating
with their tentacles expanded, or else playing an active copepod, caught
on the end of a tentacle, as skilfully as an expert angler plays a large
fish.

The first plunger bell-jar was started in the Plymouth Laboratory on
4th of September. (Fig. 1.) The bell-jar contained about ten gallons of
water, which had been in it about three months, and the glass was well
coated with algae. In this bell-jar were placed at intervals different
species of medusae, and a good food-supply consisting of copepods,
crustacean larvae, &c. I kept this bell-jar under close observation until
the 9th of October, when my visit to Plymouth terminated. The
temperature of the water was often taken, especially on hot days, and
occasionally the specific gravity. The temperature varied from 14-75° C.
to 17'5''C., and it was kept down on hot days by placing round the
outside of the bell-jar a strip of flannel, upon which played a jet of
fresh water. This acted very well, for when the temperature of the
room was about 21° C, the water in the bell-jar remained about 1G° C.

All the species of medusae placed in this bell-jar not only lived
longer, but were in a better condition than if kept in still water. Some
species lived longer than others, which tends to show that much has yet
to be learnt on keeping medusae. Perhaps for some species a slow
revolving current would be better ; it could easily be obtained by turn-
ing a screw-propeller in the water.

I

ON KEEPING MEDUSAE ALIVE IN AN AQUARIUM. 179

The following notes on the inhabitants of the bell-jar may be of
interest: About eighty specimens of Obelia lived very well for about
ten days, and then began to die off. For the first week they kept in
splendid condition, and were very active, but were not seen catching
copepods. Obelia in an aquarium with still water usually lives about
twenty-four hours.

Phialidium generally lives about three days in still water, but in the
" plunger " bell-jar one specimen (P. husJcianum) lived six weeks,
increased in size, and developed more tentacles. Its umbrella was as
transparent as the clearest glass, and its tentacles were often seen
stretched out, when fishing for copepods, to the fineness of a spider's web.

Another old inhabitant of the bell-jar was Phialidium cymbaloideum.
In twenty-five days it added five new tentacles and five marginal bulbs.

The medusa of Lar sahcllarum ( Willsia stdlata, Forbes) died suddenly
after five weeks' captivity. It also added new tentacles, and increased
the size of its umbrella. A specimen of Margdis lived seventeen days,
and during this period added two new tentacles in each of the four
marginal groups, and the oral tentacles twice dichotomously divided.

A single specimen of Sarsia gcmmifcra was placed in on the 16th of
September. It started with six medusa-buds upon the manubrium ;
three of these developed into medusae which were liberated, and the
others had nearly completed their development by the 9th of October.

These experiments I think show that it is possible to keep medusae
alive in confinement for several weeks without any change of water,
and that they increase in size and develop more tentacles.

In this bell-jar I placed copepods and crustacean and worm larvae
as a food supply for the medusae. Whatever I placed in the bell-jar
I examined with a microscope, to see that the specimens were in
good condition. This applies not only to the medusae (it is useless
to place them in if at all damaged or about half dead), but also to
the copepods, &c.

Fresh copepods were added when the stock became low ; some died
a natural death, and many others were captured by the medusae. I
did not try to keep alive the various pelagic larvae that were placed
in the bell-jar, but I noticed that they throve wonderfully well. The
larval form of Magelona was alive when I left Plymouth. It had
been several weeks in the bell-jar, and was often seen floating with
its two long tentacles stretched out to a considerable length. One
worm safely passed through its larval stages, and built a tube on
the bottom of the bell-jar. Mr. Gars tang identified the adult form
as Cajntella capitata. Several of the crustacean larvae passed through
their larval stages. I saw an adult form of a shrimp, and Mr. Hodgson
identified another crustacean for me as the adult of Nika edulis.

180 ON KEEPING MEDUSAE ALIVE IN AN AQUARIUM.

Ill another plunger bell -jar I placed a colony of Syncoryne. It
soon sent out long stolons attached to the glass. I measured and
made drawings, at intervals, of the new growth of the colony. In
thirteen days the total length of the new stolons and branches
amounted to 773 mm., and ninety-nine new hydianths appeared. In
this bell-jar I also kept some medusae liberated from hydroid colonies
of Pcrigonimus. When the medusa leaves the colony it has two long
perradial tentacles. In twelve days one specimen possessed four long
perradial tentacles, four interradial bulbs, and one adradial bulb.
The other specimens were not quite so far advanced.

I tried the experiment of starting with a perfectly clean bell-jar and
using filtered sea-water, in which a plunger worked. Into this bell-
jar, holding about two gallons, I placed about three dozen medusae
and a good supply of copepods. The medusae were not specially
selected, but taken as a sample of a day's tow -netting. I did not
interfere with them for ten days, but only added copepods when the
supply became low, when I found thirty -one specimens alive, and
more than half of them were in excellent condition.

I must express my sincere thanks to my friend Mr. E. J. Allen
for the great amount of trouble and the many useful suggestions
which he made when we fitted up the apparatus for working the
first plunger bell -jar. It was his suggestions which led to the
plunger being worked by such a simple method.

[ 181 J

The "Bottle-nose Ray" {? R. alba, Lacep.)
and its Egg-purse.

By
Ernest W. L. Holt.

For a number of years our tanks have from time to time contained a
very large and easily-recognised Skate-purse, but its specific identity
has remained a matter of uncertainty. Fishermen attributed it to the
" Bottle-nose ray," a species not to be found, so far as I am aware, in
ichthyological works.

In the spring of 1897 I happened to be on the Plymouth fish-
quay, when a large ray was landed from the Bay of Biscay. It was
pronounced by the universal consensus of piscatorial opinion to be the
" Bottle-nose." I have since seen several other specimens, and, by
extracting the purses, have ascertained that the opinion of fishermen
respecting their origin was perfectly correct.

With regard to the fish itself, it is a well-marked species, but its
correct nomenclature is involved in considerable confusion. It is the
"Burton Skate" of Couch, the Ii. alha of Day, though I am far from
certain that all the records compiled by the last-named author really
refer to the fish with which we are dealing. Smitt concludes that it is
identical with the ray known to him as E. lintca, but this seems also
uncertain.

Possibly B. marginata, which almost certainly applies to the young of
the " Bottle-nose," may prove to be the name which has given rise to
least confusion, but as I have not at present access to the older literature
of the subject, I do not propose to deal seriously with the synonymy.

Calderwood has given in this Journal (N.S., ii., 1892, p. 283) a
description of a female specimen, which is probably sufficient to ensure
its recognition. To define it very roughly, the "Bottle-nose" may be
said to be a very large, thick ray, with a moderately long and very
sharply-pointed snout. Apart from the male sexual spines, which

182 THE "BOTTLE-NOSE RAY " AND ITS EGG-PURSE.

include not only the alar series but also a group at the margin opposite
the eyes, the dorsal surface is generally destitute of large spines.
Some are present on the snout and on the supra-orbital ridges. On the
tail is a single median series, extending some way on to the back, and a
lateral sub-marginal series, which, if sometimes single, may frequently
be complex. The ventral surface is gcneralhj smooth, except along the
anterior margin of the disk, tohich is occupied hj a very distinct border of
asperities and spines. There are no UaeJc or grey markings of any sort on
the ventral surface, uihich in large examples is dead ivhite, without any
pigment whatever. Young examples have a border of dark pigment on
the ventral surface of the wings ; the under side of the tail is also dark.
The teeth are pointed in both sexes.

The egg-purse does not greatly differ, in so far as concerns the shape
of its body, from that of the common grey skate, E. hatis. Using the
topographical terms which are applicable while the purse remains in
the ovary, the body is roughly oblong, but slightly constricted
posteriorly. The anterior margin is truncate, the posterior margin
broadly concave. Its greatest length in the middle line is 17'-4 cm.
(6} inches), and its greatest width 13-8 cm. (oyV inches); but the actual
cavity is only about IS'o by 10-5 cm. (5]- by 4i inches).

The purse is thus of a very large size, apart from the attachment
processes. Dorsally and veutrally the surface of the egg-cavity is
somewhat inflated, but the convexity is greatest dorsally, and the
lateral edges of the purse are rolled up in a ventral direction.

The attachment processes are characteristic. The posterior processes,
about 87 cm. (3xV inches) in length, as measured from the level of the
anterior edge of the body, are stout, but flattened, tapering to a
width of -9 cm. (| in.) at the roughly truncate extremity. They are
strongly bent in a ventral direction, and incline somewhat towards each
other. The anterior processes are long and ribbon-like. Tapering from
a width of 2-2 cm. (J in.) at their origin to one of about -6 cm. (| in.) at
the extremity,-'' they measure about 24-5 cm. (9f inches) in total length.
They are very thin, but supported by a thickened longitudinal ridge.
Each process is inwardly curved so as to meet and cross its fellow
at about two-thirds of its length, the curve being thereafter continued
in a backward direction. The axis is gradually rotated so that the
outer edge of the distal part of each filament is ventral in position.

In texture the purse is opaque, and, after exposure to sea water,
of a dark olive-brown colour, as is the case with the purses of most
rays. The fine longitudinal ridges are most distinctly beaded : each

* The process terminates, in some specimens, in an indefinite gelatinous tissue, which
is probably produced in others as a filament.

THE "BOTTLE-NOSE RA.Y " AND ITS EGG-PURSE. 183

is, in fact, beset by minute transverse crests. So far as I know this
beaded appearance is quite characteristic. At all events, in com-
bination with the peculiar character of the processes, it should ensure
the recognition of the purse.

Mr. Allen has drawn my attention to Couch's description of a purse
attributed by that author to the Eagle-ray, Myliobatis aquila (British
Fishes, i., p. 137). A similar purse is mentioned by Day {Fish. Gt.
Brit., ii., p. 353) on the authority of Buckland ; but reference is also
made to Morcau's assertion of the viviparous condition of the Eagle-ray.
The descriptions given by the authors named leave no doubt as to the
identity of the purses, which are certainly those of the " Bottle-nose ray."

L 184 ]

On the Occurrence of large Numbers of Larval
Herring at the Surface.

A Letter from
Mr. Matthias Dunn,

"Mevagissey, 2Qth January, 1898.

" It may interest you to know that on Friday, 14th January, the
weather being very fine, and the wind from the S.E., as the fishing-boat
Sea Belle (Mr. Blamey, master), was proceeding to the pilchard ground
some four or five miles south of the Deadman headland, when about
two miles from land they fell in with masses of muddy brown matter
in strings, some of which were three or four hundred yards long and
from two to seven feet wide, floating quite on the surface. They had not
proceeded far along these lanes or path-like forms on the sea before
they observed that pilchards were feeding on them ravenously ; so they
tacked their boat among them for a mile or more, and the further they
went the more abundant were the pilchards. About four miles from
land and in thirty fathoms of water the anxious gulls indicated the
outmost limit of these strangely coloured bands, and here the pilchards
were the most plentiful, almost rabid in their mad rush on the lessen-
ing streaks, causing the water to boil and whirl violently. Certainly
some of the shoals of pilchards could not have had less than thirty to
sixty thousand fish in them, for they coloured the water a dark red
when concentrated on the brown matter.

" Of course our fishermen expected a more than ordinary catch
of pilchards when setting their nets; but, strange to tell, with the
decline of the light, having fed to repletion, they sank down below the
nets, and the catch was a small one, amounting to some two or three
thousand fish.

" Mr. Blamey, being anxious to know what the pilchards had been so
fond of, brought me in a quantity of this floating matter, wliicTi proved
to be young herrings in their first stage, with the yolk still large. In
the bucket they were quite transparent, although, as already stated, of a
decided brown colour when packed together in millions, and crowding
in long lanes. Several other of our fishermen, although some miles
from the Sea Belle, saw these young herrings with pilchards feeding on
them under like conditions.

"Matthias Dunn."

OCCURRENCE OF LARVAL HERRING AT THE SURFACE. 185

Mr. Dunn's letter requires no introduction ; I have merely to say that
some well-preserved material forwarded to me proves the correctness
of his identification. The larval herring are at most a few days old, some
appearing to be quite recently hatched. Mr. Dunn also sent, at my
request, some pilchards taken about the same place a few days later.
This fish decomposes very rapidly, and in any case larval herring would
be hardly recognisable after being subjected a few hours to the action of
the gastric secretions. Though I found no larvte, the stomach of one
pilchard contained unmistakable herring ova, some of which contained
far advanced embryos. The fish must therefore have been feeding on
the herring spawn at the bottom, a habit of the pilchard previously
unknown, at any rate to myself. I do not know of any previous record
of the presence of such enormous numbers of very early herring larvae
at the surface, nor of their serving as food to the pilchard. Considering
the importance of both species, Mr. Dunn's evidence is most valuable.

E. W. L. H.

[ 180 ]

On the Pelagic Fauna of Plymouth for September, 1897.

By

Edward T. Browne,

University College, London.

IxN the Journal of this Association for 1896 (Vol. IV., No. 2, p. 168) I
published a few notes on the Pelagic Fauna of Plymouth for September,
1893 and 1895. This year (1897) I again occupied a table in the
Laboratory during September for the study of medusae, and also made
a few entries in my notebook on the occurrence of certain animals
belonging to other groups, and kept a special look-out for the animals
which I noted in previous years. Unfortunately I was not able to visit
Plymouth during September in 1894 and 1896, consequently the record
is broken by two blank years, and spoilt for an accurate comparison of
one year with another, but it shows that more Atlantic forms were
present in 1895 than in 1893 or 1897.

The pelagic animals of the Plymouth district may be conveniently
divided into two sets : —

1. Local forms, to which belong the larval stages of animals living
on the bottom, and the medusae liberated from Hydroids.

2. Atlantic forms, which come up the Channel.

It is the latter set which produces the great yearly changes in the
fauna, and which gives the greatest interest to pelagic work.

The Atlantic forms often arrive suddenly, occasionally in great
shoals, like Thalia in June, 1893, and Doliolum in 1895, but usually
they are rather scarce in numbers.

It is in the neighbourhood of the Eddystone, where the main Channel
tide runs, that the richest tow-nettings are taken, and I have noticed
that there is a difference between the fauna off the Eddystone and in
the Sound. On certain days I was able to obtain tow-nettings from the
Sound in the morning and from the Eddystone in the afternoon ; the
results were in favour of the Eddystone tow-nettings, both in quality
and quantity.

ON THE PELAGIC FAUNA OF PLYMOUTH FOR SEPTEMBER, 1897. 187

As a rule three nets were used, attached to a single rope and placed
at different depths, the coarsest mesh near the bottom and the finest
close to the surface.

I have drawn up two lists of medusae for September, one to show
simply the presence or absence of a species for the three different
years, the other to convey an idea of the abundance of medusae
during September, 1897. In the latter table I have given in some
cases the actual number of specimens taken, and in other cases have
conveyed a general idea of the abundance of a species by using Eoman
numerals as symbols.

Most of the species given in the lists have been described and
figured in the Proc. Zool. Soc, 1895, and another contribution to that
journal is in preparation.

The table for September, 1897, shows clearly that medusae were by
no means plentiful, except two species — Obelia lucifera and Phialidium
huskianum — and on certain days were very scarce. ]\Iost of the
species taken are liberated from hydroids, so that their appearance
and their quantity in September depend upon the breeding-time and
breeding-capacity of the hydroids, which are usually conspicuous by
their absence or scarcity.

During my stay at Plymouth a considerable amount of dredging
was done in various localities, extending from the Sound to the
Eddystone. I examined the material carefully for hydroids, especially
for the minute forms, and preserved a large number of specimens for
further examination. The great bulk of the hydroids taken belonged
to genera which do not liberate medusae, such as Hcdccium, Sertularella,
Plumularia, etc., and the hydroids which do liberate medusae were,
with a few exceptions, Clyiia, Obelia, and Pcrir/onimus, scarce or absent.
I have noticed this scarcity of the hydroids with medusae in other
localities, and am not able at present to account for it. The medusae
of Lav sabcllarum are by no means uncommon at Plymouth and other
places, yet the hydroid has only been taken once at Ilfracombe, over
twenty years ago. The medusae of Hyhocodon frolifer have been
recorded from many parts of the British seas, including Plymouth.
They sometimes occur in vast numbers, yet the hydroid has never
been recorded on this side of the Atlantic, and I believe has only been
taken in Massachusetts Bay. The hydroid form must be somewhere
in the neighbourhood, as the medusa carries the ova upon the
manubrium until the actinula stage is reached, and this stage I have
taken in the tow-net.

It is quite possible that the hydroids with medusae are really scarce.
A single colony is capable of liberating a vast number of medusae. A
colony of BougainviUia ramosa was dredged off the Eddystone in

NEW SEKIES. — VOL. V. NO. 2. N

188 ON THE PELAGIC FAUNA OF PLYMOUTH FOR SEPTEMBER, 1897.

October and placed in an aquarium. In three days it liberated not
less than 4450 medusae, and when the colony was preserved there was
still left a good stock of young medusa buds upon the branches. (See
page 189.)

NOTES ON MEDUSAE. (September, 1897.)

Olclia lucifera. — This was by far the most abundant medusa during
September. On some days thousands were taken in the tow-nets.

Phialidium luslciamtm. — Specimens of this species were nearly always
present, from the earliest to the adult stage.

Phialidium cyiiibaloideum. — Most of the specimens belonged to the
earliest stage, with four tentacles ; a few belonged to the second
stage, with eight tentacles. The adult was not taken.

Lar sahellarum. — The earlier and intermediate stages were usually
taken. The adult form was very scarce.

Amphinema dinema. — Nearly all belonged to early stages.

Cyiccandra areolata. — Only the intermediate stages present. (For
description and figures of this species see Proc. Zool. Soc, part iv.,
1897.)

Lizzia hlondina. — This medusa begins its free-swimming existence with
four single perradial tentacles and four single interradial tentacles,
and as it grows the perradial tentacles only increase in number
until there are three tentacles in each of the perradial groups.
The early stages have been described as distinct species, and are
recorded in Haeckel's System der Medusen under the following
names : —

First stage : Eight single tentacles = Dysmorphosa minima.
Second stage : Four perradial groups with two tentacles and four

single interradial tentacles = Lizzia clajparedei.
Third stage : Four perradial groups with three tentacles and four
single interradial tentacles = Lizzia hlondina.

In the first and second stages the medusa usually buds off medusae
from the wall of the stomach, and in the third stage the generative cells
make their appearance. The first and second stages have also been
described with ripe generative cells, and consequently regarded as adult
medusae and distinct species.

During my visit to Plymouth in 1895, and also at Port Erin and
Valencia Island, I have always taken the first and second stages with
medusa-buds and the third stage with generative cells. This year
at Plymouth I obtained specimens of the first and second stages in
the same tow-netting, some with medusa-buds and others with genera-

ON THE PELAGIC FAUNA OF TLYMOUTH FOR SEPTEMBER, 1897. 189

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190 ON THE PELAGIC FAUNA OF PLYMOUTH FOR SEPTEMBEK, 1897.

tive cells. The third stage was not seen this year. I have noticed in
other species of medusae that the gonads may become mature in a
medusa which has not reached its maximum growth. The generative
cells sometimes develop and ripen faster than the medusa grows, and
consequently the ova or spermatozoa are shed earlier. It is possible
that a medusa may sometimes begin to shed ova at an intermediate
stat'e of growth and continue to shed them at intervals, until it reaches
its maximum growth. All the ova are not usually ripe at one time.

The early ripening of the generative cells has led to many medusae
being described as distinct species. It has given me considerable
trouble in tracing the life-history of a species, as it is difficult without
a large number of specimens to trace and connect the different stages.

Margellium odopuoictatuni has often ripe gonads in the later stages,
and the specimens which show the maximum growth are scarce. I
have only taken them in Valencia Harbour. The maximum growth
of a medusa is apparently only reached under very favourable con-
ditions. Hylococlon jprolifer when fully grown has three tentacles, but
ripe generative cells are often present in forms with two tentacles.
Medusae belonging to the genus Phialidium show often the early
ripening of the generative cells in the intermediate stages, which has
led to the description of a large number of spurious species. I believe
that Saphenia mircibilis will ultimately be shown to be a stage in the
development of Eutima insignis, yet both forms are frequently taken
with ripe generative cells. In the present list of species both names
are given, as my observations require further proof.

Gytceis sp. (?). — This medusa is not described in Haeckel's Monogra'ph.
I have only found it in Plymouth Sound — a few specimens in
1893 and many in 1897. A description of the medusa, with
figures, is now in preparation.

Tiara pileata. — Only young stages seen.

Euphysa aurata. — A single specimen taken. This species is new to
the fauna of Plymouth.

Irene pellucida. — Only young stages seen.

Mitrocomium sp. (?). — This medusa is not described in Haeckel's
Ilonograjyh. A description of the species is in preparation, as
enough specimens have now been collected to connect the dif-
ferent stages. I obtained few specimens in 1893 and 1895.

Liriantha appendiculata. — All the specimens belonged to early stages.

Sarsia gemmifcra. — A young stage with medusa-buds.

Gemmaria implcxa. — An early stage. The hydroid form has not been
recorded for Plymouth.

ON THE PELAGIC FAUNA OF PLYMOUTH FOR SEPTEMBER, 1897. 191

Ectopleura dumorticri. — An early stage. This is an addition to the
fauna of Plymouth. The hydroid form has not yet been re-
corded for Plymouth.

Agastra mira, Hartlaub. — A single specimen taken in the Sound on
31st of August. It is an addition to the Plymouth fauna. (For
a description of the medusa see Proc. Zool. Soc, pt. iv., 1897.)

A List of Medu&ae for September only.

1893.

1895.

1897

Obelia lucifera . . . P.

P.

P.

Phialidiuni buskiauum

P.

P.

P.

Lar saLellarum

P.

P.

P.

Aniphiuema dinema

P.

P.

P.

Eutima iusi<^nis

P.

P.

P.

Saphenia niirabilis

P.

P.

P.

Irene pellucida

P.

P.

P.

Mitrocomium sp ?

P.

P.

P.

Liriautha appendiculata

P.

P.

P.

Phialidiuni cynibaloideuui

P.

A.

P.

Cytffiaudra areolata

P.

A.

P.

Cyticis sp ?

P.

A.

P.

Dipurena lialterata

P.

A.

A.

Lizzia blondiua

A.

P.

P.

Geunuaria implexa

A.

P.

P.

Solmaris sp ?

A.

P.

A.

Octorcliis gegenbauri

A.

P.

A.

Tiara pileata

A.

A.

P.

Euphysa aurata

A.

A.

P.

Sarsia gemmifera

A.

A.

P.

Ectopleura dumortieri

A.

A.

P.

P. =

Present

A. = Absent.

An Incomplete List of Animals found in the Tow-nets during

Septemher onh/.

1893.

1895.

1897

Muggisea atlautica . . . P.

P.

P.

Terebella larvae

P.

P.

P.

Mageloua larvae

P.

P.

P.

Doliolum tritonis

P.

P.

A.

Noctiluca miliaris

P.

A.

P.

Chsetopterus larvae

P.

A.

P.

Actinotrocha

A.

P.

P.

Tornaria

A.

P.

P.

Beroe

A.

P.

A.

Pilidium

A.

P.

A.

Mitraria

A.

P.

A.

Bipinnaria

A.

P.

A.

Thalia democratica

A.

P.

A.

Amphioxus (larva)

A.

P.

A.

P. =

Present.

A. = Absent.

192 ON THE PELA.GIC FAUNA OF TLYMOUTH FOR SEPTEMBER, 1897.

Noctiluca miliaris. — Specimens were first taken on 7th of September,
about four miles outside the Breakwater. It was abundant on the
8th, three miles S.W. of the Mewstone, and on the 10th, five miles
East of the Eddystone. Tow-nettings taken close to the Mew-
stone on the 13th did not contain any specimens. On the 15th,
specimens were first taken inside the Breakwater. From the
15th to the end of the month, Noctiluca was usually present in the
tow-nets. The quantity varied considerably, but it was more
abundant outside than inside the Breakwater.

Cydippc. — One or two specimens were usually found in the tow-nets.
They all belonged to very early stages, about 2 to 3 mm. in
diameter.

Magelona. — The larval stages of this worm were fairly common through-
out the month.

Chcctopterus. — Five larval stages were taken on the 7th of September,
four miles south of the Breakwater, and single specimens on the
13th, 21st, and 30th. Only once taken inside the Breakwater.

Tcrcbella. — The larval stage, living in a little tube, was fairly common
until the 8th September, but very scarce during the latter half of
the month. Only four specimens taken after the 19th.

Tovioptcris onisciformis. — Only four specimens seen. Three taken
outside and one inside the Breakwater. About 3 mm. in
length.

Actinotrocha. — Single specimens taken on the 10th, 15th, 18th, 28th,
and 30th of September. Only once taken inside the Break-
water.

Tornaria. — Single specimens taken on the 10th and 15th of September,
off the Eddvstone.

C 193 ]

Notes and Memoranda.

An Observation of the Colour-changes of a Wrasse.
Labrus macu/atus. Donovan.

The common wrasse of our coasts is well known to exhibit, as a species,
an almost endless variation of colour. To what extent the different
colour-patterns are individual or congenital, and to what extent they
may be produced in the same individual by different stimuli, appears
to be a question worthy of careful examination. We propose at
present to deal chiefly with the observation of a single specimen.

On the 4th October, 1897, trawling among the red-weed and zostera
beds at the mouth of the Yealm, we took a wrasse 16 inches in total
length. Captured most probably in the zostera, it exhibited a uniform
green colour, without any markings except the inevitable indistinct
dark spot at the base of the last dorsal rays.

Confined for a few hours in a tub on board the launch, it underwent
no colour- change. It was then placed in a shallow, open tank, with
black walls, under an iron shed at the back (N.) of the Laboratory.
The next morning, while retaining the general green colour, it showed
also some faint grey transverse patches on the sides. The fish
remained in this tank until the 2nd December, when it was found
to have undergone a further change. The ground colour was pale
olive-grey, diversified with dark grey transverse bars and patches
on the back and sides, and with whitish blotches on the fore part of
the abdomen. This pattern is very common in the Plymouth district.
It may be described with sufficient exactness as follows: A number
(often four) of dark transverse bars pass from the dorsum to the region
of the lateral line. The first originates below the first rays of the
dorsal fin, the last below the extremity of that organ. These bars
have no regularity of outline and are often split into two by the
intervention of a pale transverse stripe. Another bar occurs on the
caudal peduncle. About the lateral line the dorsal transverse bars
are irregularly continued backwards by short longitudinal patches ;
below these originate a series of ventral transverse bars which

194 NOTES AND iMEMOKANDA.

alternate more or less in position with their dorsal fellows, and are
connected one with another by an irregular network of dark lines.
The pale autero-ventral blotches are of more variable occurrence, and
the ground colour and the colour of the dark markings are in no way
constant.

On the south side of the Aquarium is a large tank devoted to bream
and wrasse. It is lined at the back and sides with rock-work of red
granite, now become brownish by the accumulation of foreign matter.
A large projecting boulder forms a cavern at the back of the tank,
much fre([uented by the prominent members of the wrasse community.
The bottom is gravel of a light colour.

The wrasse with which we are dealing was pitched into this tank as
soon as its colours had been noted. It immediately bolted into the
cavern already mentioned, and, in the course of the initiation cere-
monies inevitable on the admission of a new member, was summarily
ejected a few minutes later. But, whereas it went in grey with dark
bars, &c., it came out green with only very faint grey marblings. The
sun being still in the east and the atmosphere dull, the illumination of
the tank was decidedly dim, but as the fish rested on the botton near
the glass its colours could easily be seen. After retaining the colour
phase just noted for perhaps a few minutes, the dark bars were
suddenly resumed within an interval of a few seconds, but the green
ground colour remained. The fish has since remained in this tank, but
varies constantly in colour, retaining, however, the general scheme of
grey markings on a green or olive-green ground. On the 2nd January,
1898, it was observed to be for a short time almost uniformly green, but
on the posterior part of the side, from the level of the soft dorsal back-
wards, it was noted that a number of the scales exhibited a pale
roundish spot. Such a marking could not have escaped notice at an
earlier date. It is, in fact, an approach to what we may call the typical
colouration of the species, in which every scale shows a pale spot and
the fins are similarly spotted, though the darker ground colour is
extremely variable.

Our observation, such as it is, demonstrates clearly enough that the
uniform green, and the barred and patched liveries, can be achieved
by the manipulation of the chromatophores of a single individual,
according to the stimulus. It suggests, as we suppose, that the typical
spotted livery may not be distinct from the others, but does not go far
enough to show whether it is a question of the manipulation of chroma-
tophores capable of presenting the other liveries, or a gradual alteration
of the chromatophores themselves. As to the nature of the stimuli
which effect the colour-changes we have no evidence, except that the
colour environment is certainly not constant in its effect. For in the

NOTES AND MEMORANDA. 195

same tank, under the same circumstances of illumination and environ-
ment, may be seen wrasse of several different liveries.

The uncertainty of the nature of the stimulus is further borne
out by the observation of five small L. maculatus taken in the Yealm
zostera beds on the same date as the large one.

These specimens measured from 2^ to 3 inches in length. During a
period of 48 hours they were transferred to different vessels in the
following order : —

1. White porcelain pots sheltered from bright sunlight.

2. Glass bell-jars similarly sheltered.

3. A table-tank with black sides and bottom.

(a) 3 inches long, uniform bright green on reaching the Laboratory,
unchanged in 1 and 2 ; escaped from 2 and died.

(b) 3 inches long, uniform dark olive in 1, uniform but brighter and
greener in 2, duller with very faint bars in 3.

(c) 3 inches long, uniform pale olive in 1, uniform buff in 2.

(d) 2f inches long, uniform pale olive in 1, uniform darker olive
in 2.

(e) 21 inches long, uniform pale olive in 1, slightly darker olive with
faint bars in 2.

c, d, and e all assumed in 3 the ordinary olive ground colour with
faint bars. E. W. L. H. and L. W. B.

The Incubation of the Skate-leech.

Pontobdella muricata. Linn.

The ova of the skate-leech are probably familiar to most marine
zoologists, and, apart from any literature on the subject, can
almost always be recognised by the presence of the parent. The
shell is hard and chitinous, of an olive-brown colour. It is almost
spherical, about 4 to 5 mm. in diameter, and attached by tlie flattened
base of a short peduncle to the object selected by the parent. On
either side of the spherical part of the shell is a rounded fenestra, of
which one at least is simply closed by dark membranous matter. The
chitinous matter of the other appears to be, at all events occasionally,
imperforate. The ova are deposited separately, but for the most part
close to each other, either on an old shell or on some other convenient
object.

On the 31st July, 1897, about four miles W.S.W. of the Plymouth
Mewstone, the trawl brought up a large and fairly recent scallop shell,
Peden maximus, the valves still united by the hinge. Inside was a
skate-leech mounting guard over a group of eggs attached to the flat

19G NOTES AND MEMORANDA.

valve, ratlier near the hinge. A few eggs were also attached to the
outer side of the same valve.

Parent and progeny were placed in a small bell-jar under a siphon.
The circulation was occasionally stopped by accident, and a large
quantity of dirt accumulated from time to time at the bottom of the
jar around the eggs and parent. In spite of these drawbacks the latter
survived, and the eggs began to hatch out on the 1st December of the
same year. Most of them had hatched by the 10th December. The
newly-hatched young, about 22 mm. in length, more or less according
to the state of contraction, are reddish yellow in colour, and have,
essentially, the external features of the parent.

The eggs, when trawled, were velvety in appearance, subsequently
becoming smooth and shiny, and finally, by the accumulation of dirt,
rather rough. No examination of the embryo was made at the time
of capture, but the appearance of the shell may probably indicate
that the eggs had not long been deposited. In any case it is evident
that the incubation of this particular clutch occupied at least 123 days,
and may reasonably be supposed to have been somewhat accelerated
by the warmer temperature of the Laboratory. After 136 days the
parent was still alive, though by no means vigorous. It was not
observed to make any attempt to leave the bell-jar, although there
was nothing to prevent it doing so, nor was it noticed to occupy any
constant position in relation to its eggs. No food whatever was
supplied.

For what purpose the skate-leech remains with its eggs during
incubation appears uncertain. One may presume that their protection
is the chief object: whether from active enemies or from the mere
accumulation of sand, &c., is doubtful. The Uocculent diatomaceous
dirt which accumulated in the vessel in wliich our specimen was
confined was too light to be removed, and appears to have been
quite innocuous. No experiments were made with sand or other
matters.

Hatching is accomplished by the perforation of the membrane of
one of the fenestrie. The chitinous part of the shell is not ruptured
in any way.

Larval Lobsters at the Surface. Although young lobsters must
be plentiful, they are but rarely encountered in our tow-nets. During
1897 we have only taken them on three occasions. On the 10th July,
while the Busy Bcc was trawling in the outer part of Falmouth Bay,
Mr. Vallentin caught one in a hand-net. The sea was absolutely calm,
and we saw a great many " mackerel-midges " {pelagic MotcUcc) and
caught a quantity of brachyurous zoiiie, apparently Portunus, These

NOTES AND MEMORANDA. 197

were either swimming freely, or, more frequently, resting on drift blades
of zostera. Many fragments of this were literally crowded by them, but
we saw no more young lobsters on this occasion. On the 23rd of the
same month the surface otter-net, which has a mouth about 15 or 20 feet
wide and about 6 feet deep, caught one larval lobster two or three
miles outside the breakwater of Plymouth Sound. The sea was calm,
with a long swell, and mackerel were schooling all round us. On
the following day, as we lay to taking temperatures, &c., about a mile
and a half outside the Breakwater, I noticed a lobster at the surface,
and in a short space of time we dipped up over two dozen as they
drifted alongside. They occurred singly, not in a shoal. The sea
was quiet, but not calm, as a fair breeze was blowing from the east.
On all occasions the larvpe were either newly hatched or had only
passed their first moult.

Cepola rubescens. Li7i'}i. Two red ribbon-fish, 30"8 cm. (12| in.)
and 27"4 cm. (lOf in.) in length, were caught in shrimp-trawls in
Plymouth Sound on the 17th and 22nd December, 1897, and brought
to the Laboratory alive. Both proved to be females, the larger one
having the ovaries swollen but far from ripe.

The red ribbon-fish can hardly be considered rare on the S.W. coast
of England and S. and W. coasts of Ireland, but it is not very often
caught. I have known or heard of several instances in which a
number of specimens have been caught at about the same date, none
having previously occurred. Day concludes that it occurs most
frequently on our own coasts after heavy weather, but its sporadic
appearances may really be due to some normal phase of its habits
about which little is known.

Trachinus draco. Zinn. The greater Weever is said by Day to
reach a length of at least 17 inches. A specimen landed at Plymouth
on 20th November, 1897, measures 17^ inches, 4o'8 cm. ca. It is a
female, with ovaries rather enlarged.

Trigla obscura. Linn. On the 2nd March, 1897, I saw a number
of specimens mixed up with young 2\ inni and 2\ gurnardus in the
Plymouth market. I was told that they came from the rough ground
oft" the Start, are locally known as " Offing Gurnard," and are not
uncommon in the district. None of these items of information were
derived from the actual captors, and may all be erroneous, though the
accompanying species suggest a British origin. I have never been able
to find any more specimens among the small gurnards brought in by

198 NOTES AND MEMORANDA.

trawlers. In view of the confused synonymy of the gurnards, recently
assisted by Smitt's revival of forgotten names, it is, perhaps, necessary
to state that the species now under discussion is characterised by the
attenuated form of the body and by the great elongation of the second
dorsal spine.

Trygon pastinaca. Linn. Sting-ray. Two small examples were
trawled 20 miles off Plymouth on the 19th January, 1898. Several
were taken on the trawling ground off Salcombe a few days previously.
The fish is well known to local fishermen, and perhaps hardly deserves
especial mention as a rare form. — E. W. L. H.

Myliobatis aquila. Linn. Eagle-ray. A female, taken in company
with the sting-rays previously mentioned, was brought to the Laboratory
on the 19th January, 1898. It measures 34 inches across the disk, and
shows what we suppose to be an interesting phase of the renewal of the
caudal spine. A large spine occupies the normal position, and is back-
wardly directed ; a shorter and slightly curved spine, originating a little
in front of the other, passes forward on the right side of the dorsal fin.
We suppose that, as the larger spine becomes obsolete, the smaller is
rotated backwards, but the condition may possibly be abnormal. We
have not dissected the basal parts. A large Trygon has one spine
directly overlying the other.

In another place one of us has shown that the egg-purse attributed
by Couch to the Eagle-ray belongs in reality to a Eaia. Myliobatis is
known to be viviparous ; in our specimen the oviducts lead directly into
a pair of "uteri," apposed together in the middle line. The strong
muscular walls are continuous externally. Internally each uterine
chamber is thickly clothed with long vascular villi. The shell-gland,
if represented at all, was not found. So far only a hasty examination
has been possible. — E. W. L. H. and W. G.

[ 199 ]

Report on the Surface Drift of the English Channel
and neighbouring Seas during 1897.

By

Walter Garstang, M.A.,

Naturalist in charge of Fishery Investigations, M.B.A.

I.

II.
III.

PAGE

Introduction .....

. 199

The Drift-bottles .....

. 202

Results of Experiments ....

. 203

i. The English Channel and North Sea.

§ 1. The Direction of Drift

204

§ 2. The Direction of the Local Winds

. 206

§ 3. Other Causes of Surface Currents in the Channel .

. 208

§ 4. The Law of Drift ....

212

§ 5. Empirical Datum ....

213

§ 6. Application of Factor to cases of Drift .

. 217

§ 7. Conclusions ....

. 224

ii. St. George's Channel and Irish Sea

. 225

I. Introduction.

Some eighteen months ago the Director of the Plymouth Laboratory
of the Marine Biological Association decided to carry out a series of
investigations concerning the surface currents of the English Channel
at different seasons of the year, and for a series of years, by means of
properly devised floating bodies which would attract attention when
stranded on the shore, and the recovery of which could without diffi-
culty be recorded. At the commencement of the investigation
Mr. Allen communicated his scheme to the editors of the west-country
Press, and these gentlemen kindly gave publicity to the plan, the success
of which depended very largely upon the co-operation of residents and
visitors frequenting the sea-shore. Mr. Allen's letter expresses so
clearly the object and method of the investigation, that I cannot do
better than reproduce it here : —

200 REPOUT ON THE SURFACE DRIFT OF THE ENGLISH CHANNEL

"THE DIIIFT OF FLOATING FISH-EGGS IN THE CHANNEL.

''January 27th, 1897.

"8in, — I should be obliged if through the medium of your paper you
would be good enough to give publicity to a series of experiments which
have just been commenced by the Marine liiological Association, with a view
to determine the direction of the drift of floating bodies in the western part
of the English Channel. The experiments are of such a nature that any
of your readers, who either from business or pleasure frequent the sea-shore,
may be able to assist materially in their successful completion.

" We are preparing a large number of ordinary egg-shaped soda-water
bottles, weighted with shot in such a way that they float vertically in sea-
water, with only a very small portion of the neck exposed. In each bottle
a stamped and numbered post card is placed, and the bottle is corked and
sealed. Each post card has the following notice upon it : —

(( (

For Scientific Enquiry into the Currents of the Sea.

" ' Whoever finds this is earnestly requested to write distinctly the Date
and Locality, with full particulars, in the space below, and to put the card in
the nearest post office. [No. ]

" ' Locality where found

" ' Date when found

" ' Name and address of sender '

" We are placing the bottles in the sea at various points, the exact locality
where each starts upon its journey being recorded. It is hoped that several
gross of bottles will be put out during the next few months.

" JMight I ask, therefore, that anyone who may find such a bottle washed
up on the shore will break it, take out the post card, fill in the required
information, and put the card in the nearest post office 1

" Teachers in the schools of the various towns and villages along the south
coast could do us a great service by asking their boys to look out for the
bottles, and in case of any being found, seeing that the post cards were
correctly filled in.

" It might interest your readers if I explain shortly the reason for making
these experiments. It is now a Avell-known fact that the majority of the
food-fishes spawn in the sea at some distance from the coast, and that the eggs
float in the water. Tliese floating eggs are carried about by the currents for
some considerable time before they are liatched, and the little fish (larva),
when it leaves tlie egg, is still so small and light that it is at the mercy of the
wind and waves. Now it is a fact that although the fish generally spawn at
some distance from the coast, the young fish are usually found close inshore.
This is particularly the case with flat-fishes. For instance, there are im-
portant spawning grounds for plaice south-east of the Eddystone, Avhilst
young plaice, under one inch long, are found only in shallow water in sandy
bays or estuaries, such as Whitsand Bay or the mouth of the river Exe.
These very young lish have i>robably been brought ashore by currents, when

AND NEIGHBOURING SEAS DURING 1897. 201

they were floating eggs or larvae carried about by the sea. It is very important,
therefore, to know the direction of these currents, in order tliat we may be
able to tell ^vhere the eggs from the fish spawning upon any particular ground
will be carried. At present we do not know whether the eggs from the plaice
spawning on the Eddystone grounds are carried towards Plymouth and Whit-
sand Bay, or whether they are carried eastward towards some point on the
Devonshire coast, or westward to the coast of Cornwall. Upon questions of
this kind our experiments should throw light.

" Investigations of a similar kind have been made in the Irish Sea by
Professor Herdman, and in the North Sea by the Scottish Fishery Board. In
the case of the experiments in the Irish Sea, about 35 per cent, of the
bottles put out were found and the post cards properly filled up and returned,
whilst in the case of the North Sea experiments from 20 to 30 per cent,
were recovered. The latter experiments showed that the inshore waters
of the Firth of Forth and St. Andrews Bay derive their main supplies of
young fish, not from the waters lying contiguous to them to the eastward, but
from areas further north, such as the spawning grounds off the Bell Rock and
those of the Forfarshire coast. It was also shown that a southerly current
runs doAvn the eastern side of Scotland and England to the coast of Norfolk,
where it turns to the eastward and crosses the North Sea. Of the bottles set
free off the east coast of Scotland many were picked up on the east coast of
England as far south as Norfolk, but none further south than this. Many
were, however, carried across the North Sea and found on the coasts of
Schleswig and Jutland. Tliis will explain the immense nurseries of young
fish which are found in the eastern portions of the North Sea — the so-called
'Eastern Grounds,' so well known from the large number of immature flat-
fish which are trawled there. E. J. Allen.

"Marine Biological Association, Plymouth."

It will be seen in the sequel that Mr. Allen's experiments to deter-
mine the currents in the neighbourhood of the Eddystone grounds
have provided data not only for the settlement of these local problems
of importance to the west-country fisheries, but for determining many
matters connected with the surface currents of all the three seas which
wash the shores of England. The majority of the bottles put overboard
near the Eddystone have been recovered on the south coast, along the
whole length of the English Channel; but a very large number have
made a safe passage through the Straits of Dover, stranding eventually
on the shores of Holland, Germany, Denmark, Sweden, and Norway ; a
few have rounded the Land's End and travelled as far as Barnstaple
Bay ; and others put out in the Irish Sea and St. George's Channel
have stranded on the west coasts of England, Wales, and Scotland,
even so far to the northward as the Isle of Colonsay in the Firth of
Lome.

202 REPORT ON THE SURFACE DRIFT OF THE ENGLISH CHANNEL

Most of the drift-bottles have been put overboard in the neighbour-
hood of the Eddystone by different members of the scientific staff of
the Marine Biological Association in the ordinary course of their
trawling and dredging excursions ; but, as the Busy Bee is incapable
of making long journeys far from land, we have always been glad to
accept the services of others who have kindly come to our assistance in
this part of the work. We are under a particular debt of gratitude to
Admiral the Hon. Sir E. E. Fremantle, k.c.b., c.m.g., in this connection.
He very kindly permitted the distribution of a number of the bottles
among the torpedo-boat destroyers cruising from Devonport, and to
him, to Commander Shirley, of H.M.S. Decoy, and to the command-
ing officers of H.M.S. Lynx, H.M.S. Skate, H.M.S. Simfish, H.M.S.
Opossum, and H.M.S. Ferret, we desire to express our warm thanks
for the material assistance they rendered us in this part of the work.

We are also indebted to H. E. M. Studdy, Esq., and other yachtsmen,
for similar assistance kindly given us.

It gives us particular pleasure to thank the officers and boatmen of
H.M. Coastguard at innumerable points along the coast for the prompti-
tude with which they have returned the post cards to us upon the
recovery of any bottles. We owe a very considerable number of our
records to the vigilance of the members of this efficient branch of the
service.

We desire also to thank the numerous private individuals and fisher-
men, both home and foreign, who have increased the value of these
experiments by properly inscribing and returning the post cards con-
tained in bottles they have found, and for the information they have
always been willing to convey in reply to our inquiries.

For the meteorological work of this report I have received valuable
data from Edward Kitto, Esq., Superintendent of the Falmouth
Observatory ; C. E. Peek, Esq., Superintendent of the Eousdon Observa-
tory, Lyme Regis; Alfred Chandler, Esq., Borough Meteorologist,
Torquay; and H. Victor Prigg, Esq., Meteorologist to the Borough
of Plymouth. To these gentlemen I beg to convey my warm thanks
for their assistance, which has been generously given.

II. The Drift-bottles.

Various objects have been employed by different investigators in
their experiments upon surface currents. The Prince of INIonaco
employed small floating vessels of copper, specially prepared, but their
fitness to indicate accurately the course of surface currents has been
criticised owing to the ease with which they could be propelled at the
surface of the water by the direct action of the winds. Any small

AND NEIGHBOURING SEAS DURING 1897. 203

buoyant object of spherical and, still more so, of cylindrical form, float-
ing at the sea-surface and bobbing up and down under the action of the
waves, inevitably exposes a considerable part of its bulk to the direct
action of the winds, and experiments founded upon the journeys of
such objects are vitiated in proportion to the relative bulk of the
part exposed to wind-action. Mr. Allen selected common "egg-
shaped " soda-water bottles (used by Schweppe and other manufacturers
of aerated waters) for our experiments, and their admirable adapta-
bility to the purpose will be generally conceded. These bottles are
9 inches long (varying between 9 inches and 9^ inches), and their
maximum diameter is a little below the middle of the bottle, at
5| inches from the mouth. From this zone the bottle tapers towards
each extremity, being conical at the closed end, but produced into
a cylindrical neck at the open end. This neck is 2h inches long,
and its diameter is 1 inch. The mouth is surrounded by a slight
rim f-inch deep, which increases the outside diameter of the neck
in this region to a maximum diameter varying between 1^ and
1^ inches.

The preparation of these common objects for their scientific mission
is as follows : — The bottles are washed and thoroughly dried. A
piece of wire, the counterpoise of the post card to be eventually
enclosed, is inserted, a piece of hard paraf&n is dropped inside, and
small quantities of leaden shot are added until the bottle floats
upright in sea-water, with its mouth all but submerged. The wire
is then removed and the bottle placed upright in a pail of hot
water until the paraffin is melted, when it is placed aside — still
in a vertical position — until the paraffin has thoroughly liardened
again. The object attained by this means is to prevent the shot
from rolling about inside the bottle, and so displacing the centre
of gravity. The post card and a conspicuous notice marked " Break
the Bottle " are then introduced, and the bottle is thoroughly corked,
the cork being pushed in flush with the mouth of the bottle and
sealed with paraffin wax. The whole of the neck and upper half
of the bottle is then painted with red enamel paint, so as to render
the bottle conspicuous.

III. Results of Experiments.

The actual localities where our bottles have been sent adrift and
where they have been subsequently recovered are given in tabular
form at the end of this report. The experiments fall into two
categories dealing with distinct areas, viz. : (1) the English Channel and
North Sea, and (2) St. George's Channel and the Irish Sea. Only

NEW SEIUES. — VOL. V. NO. 2. 0

204 REPORT ON THE SURFACE DRIFT OF THE ENGLISH CHANNEL

the former group of experiments approaches completeness, and in
the subsequent discussion of the results I shall deal more particularly
with this area.

In the course of the year 430 bottles were sent adrift in 53 batches
in the English Channel, and 117 bottles belonging to 40 batches have
been recovered up to the present time (Feb. 28, 1898). Thus 27 % of
the bottles, or rather less than one-third, have been recovered from the
Channel lots.

In the Irish Sea and St. George's Channel 36 bottles were sent adrift
in 6 batches, all on the 30th of March, and 20 bottles, representing all
six batches, have been recovered. This gives the high percentage of.
55, or rather more than half of the total number put out.

The total percentage of recoveries from both areas combined is
29-4 %.

1. The English Channel and North Sea.

§ 1. The Direction of Drift. — The general direction and rate of the
surface drift in this area are well seen by reference to Table I., batch
no. III. Out of 27 bottles sent adrift near the Eddy stone in the latter
part of January, 10 have been recovered, and these were picked up at
places successively further away to the E. and N.E., the only break
in the sequence being the recovery of a bottle at Tersclielling on August
15th, twelve days after a bottle had been found at Schiermonnikoog,
40 miles to the eastward. The general rate of drift is seen from the
table to be about 3 miles a day, which yields about 90 miles a month.
Ejellbacka, on the west coast of Sweden, was reached in October — a
distance of over 900 miles — in little more than nine months.

The regularity of this drift to the north-eastward is, however,
frequently departed from ; for example, out of six bottles sent adrift
off the Lizard on March 31st (batch no. XXX.) two bottles were picked
up at Sennen Cove, situated round the corner of Land's End, on April
6th — a journey of 35 miles to the westward in six days, at an average
rate of nearly six miles a day.

Again, a drift may begin in one direction and end in another, as
is shown very clearly by batch no. XL. In this case bottles put out
near the Eddy stone on May 11th went westwards to Mounts Bay,
arriving at Penzance on June 2nd ; they then rounded the Land's End
and arrived at Croyde, on the north coast of Devon, three weeks later.
Here their progress appears to have been arrested, and apparently a
retrograde movement set in, for on August 20th a bottle was picked up
at Bude, in North Cornwall, and — still more remarkable — another was
recovered at Eastbourne three months later.

AND NEIGHBOURING SEAS DURING 1897.

205

The general features of the direction of drift throughout the year
may conveniently be summarised by plotting out for each successive
month the number of batches recovered to eastward or westward of
their position in the preceding month. The following table contains
the results of an analysis of this kind for the English Channel, the
North Sea records being for the present omitted : —

Monthly Sinnmary showiny the direction taken by drift-bottles
in the English Channel, 1897.

Coinmence-
inent of Drift.

No. of
batches
put out.

Month of
Recovery.

Direction
of Drift.

No. of

batches

recovered.

Remarks.

January.
February.

March.

April.

I

May.

June.

July.

September.
October.

20

4
1

January.
February.

[E.]

March.

E.

February.
March.

W.
E.

April.

May.

June.

E.
E.

E.

August.

E.

March.

w.

April.

W.

April.
April.
May.
June.

N.
W.

w.

w.

August.

E.

December.

E.

May.
June.

W.
W.

October.

E.

Nov.

E.

July.

August.

E.
E.

Sept.
October.

E.
E.

July.

August.

E.

E.

August.

N.

Sept.
October.

E.

W.

October.

E.

December.

W.

October.

W.

0

0 (but cf.

III. 1).

2

*1 (X.)
6
1
4
2
1

*1 (xxv.)

1 (XXX.)

"I January batches were in
t the North Sea after the
I end of March.

February batches were
mostly near Calais in
May, and in the North
Sea subsequently.

Batch no. xxx. was put out
on March 3 1st, and pro-
perly speaking, illustrates
April and not March con-
ditions

Tlie westward drifts here
recorded for the summer
months were subsequently
overpowered by the pre-
ponderating eastward
movement.

Temporary westward drifts
subsequently overpowered
by eastward movement.

These cases show that even
in summer the prepon-

derating
wards.

drift was east-

Marked westward drift in
October.

* These drifts were of very short duration (only one day each).

If now we condense this summary into a statement of the aggregate
number of westward and eastward drifts for each month in the year

0 2

206 REPORT ON THE SURFACE DRIFT OF THE ENGLISH CHANNEL

(neglecting, however, the three cases of drifts not exceeding twenty-
four hours' duration) we obtain the following results : —

Direction. Jan. Feb. JIar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Total.
Westward. — 0 0 3 2 3 0 0 0 5 0 1 ... 14
Eastward. — [all] 8 1 4 2 2 7 2 2 1 1... 30

This table shows that the surface drift was markedly to the eastward
in March and August, and also to the eastward, although not so con-
spicuously so, in July and September. The drift was variable in
direction in April, May, June, and October, with a marked westward
preponderance in April and October. The evidence in regard to Novem-
ber and December is equivocal, oNving to the small number of recoveries
in these months, and to the long lapse of time between the recovery
of the bottles and the time when they were sent adrift. The drift in
February was clearly to the eastward, although no recoveries are
recorded for this month ; but the stranding near St. Alban's Head on
March 1st of a bottle which was put overboard near the Eddy stone on
January 29th leaves no doubt about the matter.

There was, accordingly, for the whole year 1897, a preponderating
drift to the eastward in the English Channel, the proportion of east-
ward to westward drifts being as 30 : 14 This eastward movement of
the surface water attained its maximum in March and August, but was
strong in February, and not inconsiderable in July and September. In
October, on the other hand, a westward movement predominated, and
this was also distinct during parts of April. In May and June the
drift, as already remarked, was variable in direction.

§ 2. The Direction of the Local Winds. — It is desirable at once to
compare these data with the direction and force of the wind during the
successive months of the year. On the upper line of the following
table I give the resultant wind for each month at Plymouth (which
may be taken roughly as representative of the general state of the
wind in the Channel) ; on the second line, the force of the resultant
wind ; and in the third and fourth lines I give an abstract of the monthly
summary concerning the winds of the British Islands as a whole from
the publications of the Meteorological Office.

The great gale in November, which I specially mention, will be
remembered as that which, springing from the West, and veering to
N.W., caused immense damage on our east and south-east coasts, owing
to the exceptional height of the tide forced up. Cases of this kind are
important from our point of view, since the enormous volume of water
banked up along the coast has eventually to settle down to a uniform
level, and this process entails the formation of currents along the path
of least resistance which may be completely different from the direction

AND NEIGHBOURING SEAS DURING 1897.

207

of the wind at the time. The currents produced on this occasion must
have profoundly modified the course taken by those of our bottles which
were in the southern part of the North Sea at the end of November and

befrinning of December.

o o

January.

February. March.

April.

May.

June.

Plymouth
British Isles .

N.E.,
moderate.

N.E.,
variable.

W.S.W.,
strong.

S. to W.,
light gales.

S.W.byW.,
very strong.

S.W. to W.,
stormy.

S.,
weak.

E. strongest,
variable.

N.W.,

weak.

Very
variable.

W.S.W.,

weak.

Very
variable.

July.

August.

September.

October.

November.

December.

Plymouth .
British Isles .

w.,

weak.

S.W.toN.W.
variable.

S.W. byS.,
very strong.

S. to W.,

gales in

west, none

in east.

W.,

moderate.

S.W.toN.W.
variable in
south-west.

E.S.E.,
stilf.

S.E.,
variable in
south-east.

E. by S.,
moderate.

Variable,

great gale

froniN.W.,

2Sthto29th.

S.W.,
strong.

S. to W.,

some cast

on south

coast.

It will at once be seen that there was a close correspondence in 1897
between the direction of the surface drift in the Channel at different
times of the year and that of the winds for the same periods. It is
unnecessary to go into details, but I may point out that, in view of this
general correspondence, the non-recovery of drift-bottles in January and
February is probably to be explained by the marked northerly element
in the winds of January, liottles sent adrift off the Eddystone in this
month must have drifted out towards mid-Channel, requiring the strong
south-westerly winds which prevailed during the whole of February to
bring them ashore at the beginning of March. By a method to be de-
scribed below, moreover, I have calculated that by the end of February
the bottles sent adrift between the 15th and 18th of that month had
in all probability been carried north-eastwards into the great bight
formed by Lyme Bay, where the conditions as regards wind and tide
differ considerably from those prevailing in the fairway of the Channel.

An equally complete analysis of the northward and southward drifts
is unnecessary, since the recovery of almost all the bottles on the
northern coasts of the Channel speaks for itself. Almost all the drifts,
whether to eastward or to westward — but especially in the former case
— had a northward element, which carried the bottles to some part or
other of the English coast. Two cases of due northward drift are
included in the preceding table, one for April, the other for August. In
the former case the drift was short and rapid (ten miles in 27 hours, no.
XXXII.); in the latter the resultant distance was equally short, but the

208 REPORT ON THE SURFACE DRIFT OF THE ENGLISH CHANNEL

duratiou was prolonged to 22 days (assuming here, as elsewhere, that the
bottle was picked up soon after getting ashore), thus depriving the case
of any special significance.

The only period of marked southward drift which is actually indicated
by the bottles was in the month of May, when — between the loth and
the 19th of the month — as many as five bottles, belonging to four
February batches, were stranded on the French coast in the neighbour-
hood of Calais. It is clear also, from evidence supplied by batches
XXXVIII. and XL, that similar conditions prevailed at the opposite
extremity of the Channel during the same period, which was char-
acterised, as already remarked, by a preponderance of north-westerly
winds in the Channel.

The only other month during which northerly winds prevailed was
January, and I have already mentioned that the negative evidence sup-
plied by the non-recovery of bottles in February, in spite of strong
southerly winds during that month, points clearly to the conclusion that
a strong southward drift occurred in January as well.

A temporary southward drift probably occurred also about the middle
of June, at any rate in the eastern portion of the Channel, since two
bottles, belonging to different batches, stranded at Calais and Boulogne
on the 18th and 19th of that month. It is, moreover, difficult to account
for the curious data supplied by batch no. XL, except by the assumption
that there was a surface current to the southward on the north coast
of Cornwall between the middle of June and the middle of August, and
again during September. These were periods of variable winds.

§ 3. Other Causes of Surface Currents in the Channel. — By the use
of the word " drift " in connection with the movements of the surface
water which have been described above, I have already indicated that
these movements are principally due to the driving power of the wind
exerted upon the surface of the water, M}' employment of the word
is amply justified by the close correspondence between the movements
of wind and water in the Channel revealed in the preceding section of
this report. But it is desirable, before' we assume that the local winds
have been the only factors concerned in the production of these surface
currents, that we should consider for a moment the other causes which
may be expected to affect the circulation of the water in the regions
under discussion.

In the first place we have to entertain the possibility of a current
setting normally through the Channel, independently of the local
winds, in connection with the general circulation of Atlantic water.
As the Channel is open to the eastward through the Straits of Dover,
we might, a iiriori, expect a continuance through it of the great east-
ward drift of the North Atlantic. Into the Bay of Biscay this drift

AND NEIGUBOUKING SEAS DURING 1897. 209

sets with a velocity varying between 8 and 30 miles a day, while to the
north of Scotland, over the Wyville-Thomson ridge, it sets towards the
Norwegian coast with a velocity of 5 miles a day. But it has to be
borne in mind that the orifice of the Dover Straits is very small and
the depth exceedingly shallow, scarcely exceeding 20 fathoms along
a line drawn from Diiugeness to Boulogne, while the depth of water
over the Wyville-Thomson ridge, with which comparison is invited,
is 300 fathoms. Moreover, the whole bed of the English Channel
scarcely exceeds a depth of 50 fathoms in any part. Friction with the
bed of the Channel, combined with the obstacles to further progress
presented by the narrowness and shallowness of the Straits of Dover,
would appear to be sufficient to prevent the ingress into the English
Channel of any serious portion of the general Atlantic drift already
retarded by the shallowness of the sea between France and Ireland.
That this is actually the case appears from the Admiralty chart of
Atlantic surface currents (1875). The bifurcation of the Atlantic drift
(the time-honoured Gulf Stream) takes place opposite the entrance
to the English Channel, outside a line connecting Ushant with the
west of Ireland, thus indicating the serious nature of the obstacle
presented by the shallow bed of the Channel ; and in this part of the
chart the currents are marked as " variable and uncertain."

The improbability of any serious current setting through the Channel
as an offset from the general Atlantic drift is in agreement with the
results of our experiments. The surface currents in the Channel have
been shown to be in general agreement with the direction of the local
winds from time to time ; and in July, at any rate, there is some direct
evidence from our bottles that the water in windless weather is
stationary, except for the regular swing imparted to it by the tides.
Out of a number of bottles put overboard on the 17th July, during
a voyage of the Busy Bee from Falmouth, two, at any rate, were recovered
three days later afloat in practically the same spot as that in which
they were sent adrift. The weather during this period was almost dead
calm, none but the lightest of southerly airs being perceptible. Had
any appreciable current, say, of 4 miles a day, been setting up-Channel
at the time, the position of the bottles would have been deflected a
corresponding amount to the eastwards — 12 miles in the example taken.
The velocity of the tidal stream at springs in this region is small, from
\ to 2 knot.

At the same time, as the velocity of the Atlantic drift is admittedly
dependent on the force of the winds blowing over that ocean, these
considerations do not preclude the possible occurrence of eastward
currents in the Channel, independently of local winds, after unusually
heavy gales to the west of our islands. We shall, 1 think, be able to

210 IlEPORT ON THE SURFACE DRIFT OF THE ENGLISH CHANNEL

determine the existence of such occasional currents by applying to the
data provided by drift-bottles a method of analysis to be described
below.

The possibility of a permanent westward current through the
Channel from the North Sea is precluded by the results of Fulton's
experiments, which were briefly suunuarised in Mr. Allen's letter at the
commencement of this report.

A second cause of surface currents independent of local winds is to
be found in the tides. The tidal stream in the Channel runs with a
velocity which in different parts varies from about half a mile to about
three miles an hour. There is no need to sum up here the peculiarities
of the Channel tides, but as the courses of the flood and ebb streams
are approximately parallel over the greater part of the Channel, it does
not appear that the course of drift-bottles would be materially affected
by them in the long run, except in certain well-defined regions of the
Channel. These are principally the two orifices of the Channel, to-
gether with Lyme Bay, the neighbourhood of the Solent and Spit Head,
and the Gulf of St. Malo.

At the western entrance to the Channel the West Channel tidal
stream runs in opposite directions to the oceanic tidal stream, and where
the two streams meet the tides are rotary, with scarcely any interval
of slack water. Off Mounts Bay the ebb, or west-going stream, runs
longer and stronger than the flood, or east-going stream, so that a vessel
leaving Mounts Bay at half ebb counts upon a nine hours' tide to carry
her up the Bristol Chanuel. This preponderance of the westward
current is due partly to the meeting of the two tidal streams referred
to, and partly to the indraught into the Bristol Channel during flood
tide. The effect of the tidal currents in this neighbourhood is clearly
seen in the case of two of our batches of drift-bottles, nos. XXX. and
XL., as will be shown below.

The conditions in the Straits of Dover are similar in principle, though
more complicated in detail. Here the West and East Channel streams
meet at high water and separate at low water, and there is the phenom-
enon of an "intermediate tide," which is found running along the
shore at high and low water when the main streams are at rest. The
Strait of Dover thus never has slack water throughout its extent at
any one time, and, as stated in the Channel Pilot, " if a vessel having
come up Channel with the last of the West Channel stream running
E. enters the intermediate tide running E. off Hastings, she will have
a continuation of it for four hours longer, and, if sailing eight knots,
will carry it to the N. Foreland."

On the other hand, at the commencement of flood in the southern
portion of the Straits, owing to a simultaneous set of the intermediate

AND NEIGHBOURING SEAS DUEING 1897. 211

tide to the south-westward and of the West Channel stream to the
south-eastward, there is a strong convergence towards the French
coast between Dieppe and Boulogne. I have not, however, examined
minutely the effects of the Dover tides upon any of our drift-bottles
on the present occasion. The general occurrence of a southerly com-
ponent in the Channel winds renders it probable that most of our
bottles entered the Straits on the English side, where the net resultant
of the tidal influences appears to be in the same direction as the
prevalent winds, whose drift they would merely reinforce. In the case
of Mounts Bay, as already pointed out, the stronger currents are in the
opposite direction.

The influence of the tidal indraught towards Boulogne possibly
accounts for the fact tliat the only bottles recovered on the French
coast west of Calais were found at Le Portel, near Boulogne — one on
June 19th, the other on August 5th (batches XX. and XXII.).

The strong tidal currents at the entrances to the Gulf of St. Alalo
may have to be considered in future reports; but as only one batch of
our bottles approached this region last year, it does not appear to be
profitable to discuss their course on the present occasion.

In Lyme Bay, however, partly owing to the conformation of the coast
line, and partly to the indraught of the great tides in the Gulf of St.
Malo, the tidal currents are very weak, and, instead of a parallel ebb
and flow in the northern part of the bay, the tidal stream in this
position is rotary in direction, changing, with the hands of a clock,
"round the compass, with little or no velocity." The slight velocity
of this vortex, compared with that due to wind-action, enables us to
neglect its effects upon the surface drift under ordinary circumstances.
But on the eastern side of the bay a stream runs to the south-eastwards
for nine hours out of the twelve, after apparently making the circuit of
the bay from the Start to Portland. Off Portland Bill the well-known
" Pace " is due to a combination of this outset from the bay, which has
gradually increased in velocity along its course, and a counter-stream
from East Portland Bay which sets for 9^ hours. In N. winds the race
extends nearly two miles from the Bill, with great overfalls beyond
that distance ; but with S. winds it scarcely exceeds half a mile. The
velocity of the race at springs is six or seven knots.

It is clear that drift-bottles in the eastern part of Lyme Bay will tend
to the southward, independently of the winds, as a direct result of the
tidal currents here. In the western part of the bay they are not only
protected from the direct action of westerly and south-westerly winds,
but as a result of the slow tidal vortex tend to be carried north-
wards and then eastwards with the stream which sets to Portland.
It is a remarkable fact that only two of our bottles were recovered

212 UEl'OKT ON THE SURFACE DRIFT OF THE ENGLISH CHANNEL

on the shores of Lyme Bay: one on August 22nd on Chisel Beach,
the other on August 30th at Charmouth, near Lyme liegis. Yet
there is every reason to believe, as will be shown below, that most
of the February bottles were in the western part of Lyme Bay at
the end of that month. We are conductiug a special series of
experiments in this region during the current year.

It appears accordingly, as a result of the above considerations, that
the general eastward drift of the Atlantic is probably not continued
through the English Channel as a current independently of the local
winds ; and that the deflecting influence of the tides upon the surface
drift is inmiaterial in the fairway of the Channel, but may be consider-
able in certain well-defined regions of the Channel in proximity to the
shore.

The motion of the surface currents in the Channel will therefore
depend principally on the force and direction of the local winds, but will
be subject to modification by tidal currents in the regions enumerated.

§ 4. The Law of Drift. — When discussing the influence of the local
winds upon the course of our bottles in § 1 the matter of direction was
alone considered, questions of velocity being entirely neglected.

But as the exact route taken by the bottles is of considerable import-
ance, it is desirable that some attempt should be made to determine
the ratio between the velocity (or force) of the winds and the velocity
of the surface currents set up by their action, even though we can
only hope to attain a limited degree of accuracy.

The only investigation upon this point with which I am acquainted is
contained in Mohn's classical memoir on the circulation of the North
Ocean, published in the Reports of the Norwegian North Atlantic Expedi-
tion (1887, pp. 117-123). According to Mohn, a wind of force 3-9 on the
Beaufort scale produces a drift having a velocity of 15 nautical miles
per diem. Converting the force of the wind to its velocity according to
Scott's table, he gets :

Wind force 3*9 = wind velocity 22*5 miles per hour = drift
velocity 15 miles per diem.

This result was gained by computing the mean velocities of the equa-
torial current and of the trade winds from a large number of cases in
which the mean directions of the current and wind approximately
coincided. The resultants of the two sets of calculations were then
regarded as respectively equivalent.

The velocity of the drift in this and subsequent cases considered by
Mohn was taken to be directly proportional to the velocity of the wind.

It seems to me to be clear from this account that Mohn's drift equiva-
lent is only applicable to cases of permanent currents. In his datum

AND NEIGHBOURING SEAS DUKIKG 1897. 213

case a wind of force 3*9 was not shown to be capable of producing
a current of velocity 15 miles per diem from rest; it is merely the
force of wind sufficient to maintain such a current when already in
motion with that velocity. It provides a datum for estimating the
mean velocity of a permanent drift when the velocities of the \vinds in
the same region are known, or conversely. But it does not establish a
means of determining the effect of the wind upon the sea in a region not
subject to a regular circulation, such as the English Channel, if I am
right in my attitude upon this point. The currents in the Channel have
to be raised practically from rest, since the great variability of the
winds prevents the formation of currents with any such momentum as
that of the permanent currents.

As, however, the wind frequently blows from the same quarter
for several days in succession, its effect upon the water will be relatively
greater under these circumstances than when blowing intermittently.
The momentum of the drift produced by high winds will be con-
siderably greater than for low winds, and the waves raised by strong
winds will enable these winds to exert a propelling force upon the
water, in addition to the normal dragging force. All these circum-
stances seem to me to show that the velocity of a current raised in
a given time will be relatively very much greater when raised by a high
wind than by a low wind. Without therefore attempting to treat
the matter from the difficult point of view of hydrodynamics, it never-
theless seems justifiable to regard the velocity of the current as
approximately proportional to the pressure rather than to the velocity
of the wind, the pressure being a constant fraction of the square of the
velocity.

§ 5. Empirical Datum. — On examining the results of the year's
experiments one case of drift stood out clearly from the remainder
as supplying a datum, comparatively free from sources of error, in
regard to the measurable efl'ect of the wind in producing a surface
drift, viz., batch no. XXXIX. Out of five bottles put out near the Eddy-
stone on April 22ud one was recovered exactly three days later (73
hours) at Portscatho, situated 25 miles to the westward. The wind
during this period was remarkably uniform in force and direction from
the eastward, owing to an area of high pressure lying to the N.E. of our
islands; and the duration of drift was sufficiently long to allow the
oscillating effect of the tides to be discounted. The winds duiing April,
moreover, were very variable, so that we may assume this particular
drift to have been raised from rest, especially as on the day preceding
that on which the batch was put out a calm prevailed in this portion of
the Channel. This assumption is confirmed by the fact that a bottle of
batch XXXVII., put out in the same place on the preceding day (April

214 REPORT ON THE SURFACE DRIFT OF THE ENGLISH CHANNEL

21st), was recovered at Portscatho also on the 25th. The two bottles
were recovered by diil'ereut individuals at different times of the day.
We may assume, therefore, that they had not lain long on the shore
before being picked up.

The force of the wind was taken to be the mean of the forces recorded
at Prawle I'oint, Plymouth, and Falmouth. The records for Prawle
Point and Plymouth are expressed in terms of the Beaufort scale, the
former being extracted from the Daily Weather lieports of the Meteoro-
logical Ollice, and the latter being supplied to me by the Borough
Meteorologist at Plymouth, The Falmouth records are the readings of
the automatic anemograph at the Falmouth Observatory, and are
expressed in units of velocity (miles per hour). To compare these
records I have employed Scott's table of the velocity-equivalents of the
various figures of the Beaufort scale. The recorded direction of the
wind during the period was approximately the same at all three stations,
i.e., about E.N.E., but the records of the force of the wind showed more
discrepancy than might have been expected. At Prawle Point the force
varied between 5 and 7 throughout the period, the average being 6 ; at
Plymouth it was more variable, and the average was 4; while at
Falmouth the resultant average velocity compiled from the 73 hourly
records during the period only amounted to 13'9 miles per hour, which
is equivalent to a force intermediate between 2 and 3 on the Beaufort
scale, but much nearer 2 than 3. It is reasonable to expect that the
force of an E.N.E. wind blowing over the southern part of our islands
should be weaker at Plymouth than at Prawle Point, owing to the
retarding effects of greater friction, for such a wind at Prawle Point
would come to an observer there direct from the sea (Lyme Bay), while
at Plymouth it would be distinctly a land breeze. But it is ditUcult to
understand the low readings of the anemograph at Falmouth during this
period, especially as there was no corresponding reduction in the force
of the wind further westward, the force at Scilly being recorded in the
Daily Weather Pieports as varying between 4 and 6, the average being
5. The error introduced by the employment of a table of velocity-
equivalents of the Beaufort forces no doubt partly accounts for the lack
of correspondence between the data, and the records at Prawle Point
were possibly in this case slightly in excess of the actual velocities ; but
there is still a residuum of error which must apparently be attributed to
the effects of local environment upon the velocity of the wind recorded
at the Falmouth Observatory.

However, by taking the mean of the observations at Prawle, Plymouth,
and Falmouth we shall probably eliminate the errors of observation and
measurement, and obtain a fairly true measure of the force of the winds
over the sea in this district for the period in question. The resultant

AND NEIGHBOURING SEAS DURING 1897. 215

winds were calculated independently in each case in terms of pressure,
by constructing a polygon of forces from each set of data, the length of
each line being made proportional to the sum of the wind pressures
from the corresponding quarter. The records on the Beaufort scale and
those in terras of velocity were reduced to terms of pressure by means
of the following table* of equivalents : —

Force, Beaufort scale . .01234567 8 9 10 11 12
Velocity, miles per hour . 3 8 13 18 23 28 34 40 48 56 65 75 90
Prcssjtrc, pounds per foot . 0-05 0-3 0-8 15 2-5 4 6 8 11-5 15 21 28 40

This method is founded on that employed by Dr. Fulton f in his report
on the drift-bottle experiments of the Scottish Fishery Board, but differs,
for reasons already stated, in the employment of terms of pressure in-
stead of terms of " force " for the construction of the polygon. The
practical result of this change is easily seen from the following examples:
— On Fulton's method a wind of force 9 is regarded as only 3 times as
effective (in the production of currents) as a wind of force 3 ; by using
terms of pressure, however, the same wind is regarded as 10 times as

effective ^— = loV Similarly on Fulton's method a wind of force 8 is
only twice as effective as one of force 4; on mine it is regarded as
between 4 and 5 times as effective (t^ = 4"6).

In the case of the Prawle winds the observations taken daily at 8
a.m. and 6 p.m. were used, for Plymouth those at 9 a.m. and 9 p.m.,
while at Falmouth the hourly records were used, amounting to 73 in all
for this period of drift. As the bottle was put overboard at 3 p.m. on
April 22nd, and recovered at 4 p.m. on the 25th, half the wind-pressure
on the evening of the 22nd was combined with half the pressure on the
morning of the 25th in the Prawle and Plymouth cases. The results,
as determined by the length of the resultant line in the polygons, was
as follows : —

Prawle Point — Resultant sum of Pressures = 38 -j

Plymouth ... Ditto ditto = 15-5 / ^^^^^ °" ^ observations daily.

Falmouth ... Ditto ditto =767 „ 24 „ „

Dividing the Falmouth resultant by 12, in order to put it on a par

* This is the table authorised by the Meteorological Office in 1875 after the publication of
Scott's paper, with the addition of a tabic of pressure-equivalents. The latter are com-
puted from the velocities by multiplying the squares of the velocities by the factor O'OOS,
and expressing the results as far as possible in whole numbers. A more recent table of
velocity-equivalents by Jlr. Curtis {Quart. Join: Met. Sue, XXIII., 1897), has been kindly
forwarded to me by Mr. Scott, but reached me too late for use in tlie present report. It
differs from Mr. Scott's table in assigning somewhat lower velocities to all the figures of
the Beaufort scale.

t Fifteenth Annual llqwrt of the S.F.B., Fart III., 1897, p. 357.

21G REPORT ON THE SURFACE DRIFT OF THE ENGLISH CHANNEL

with the other figures based only upon two observations daily, we get
the mean of these three resultants as follows : —

,, 38 + 15-5 + G-3 59-8 .^n r n on

Mean = = — — - = 19-9, or, practically 20,

6 6

which is the measure in pounds per foot of the resultant of the wind-
pressures, taken twice daily, during the period of drift.

The mean average pressure is, of course, this sum divided by the num-

ber of days and the number of observations per diem, or -^ — - = 3"3,

O X ^

which is equivalent to a velocity of 26 miles per hour, or a " force "
intermediate between 4 and 5 (4"6) on the Beaufort scale.

The resultant or minimum distance traversed by the drift-bottle from
the Eddystone to Portscatho = 25 geographical miles.

We conclude therefore that a wind exerting a horizontal pressure of
3'3 pounds per foot ( = a velocity of 26 miles per hour, or a force inter-
mediate between 4 and 5), and blowing steadily for three days, will
cause a surface drift in the same direction of 25 miles in that time, i.e.,
a current having a surface velocity of 8*3 miles per diem.

This result is considerably lower than that attained by Mohn, and
bears out my remarks concerning the inapplicability of Mohn's current-
equivalent to cases of currents produced by the wind from rest.

Having thus determined the drift-equivalent, it is easy to construct a
factor from it by which the resultant wind pressure for any period may
be quickly converted into the number of miles travelled by the surface
drift for the same period.

If D be the Distance travelled in miles, and Po the resultant Wind-
Pressure in pounds per foot computed from 2 observations daily,

then D : Po : : 25 : 20,
orD = ^-

2
and since Po may be taken as merely - (P„), where P,i is the Eesultant

Pressure determined from n observations daily, we have the general
formula

^•)

^ ^ 5_P2 ^ Vn'V ^ 5 X 2 P„ _ 5 P,

4 4: X n 2n

In most cases it is, of course, sufficient to determine the resultant wind
and wind pressure for any period from the observations recorded twice

AND NEIGHBOURING SEAS DURING 1897. 217

5
daily at differeut stations, and the factor then becomes simply - ; or

-rx 5 X Eesultant Pressure , • , - ,, , r ■^ j -n. j

D = , which gives us the number oi miles drifted.

The accuracy of tliis equivalent can only be determined by the
frequency with which its results accord with those of direct experiment.
It depends On an assumption which may invite criticism, viz., that the
velocity of the drift varies as the pressure of the wind, and not directly
as its velocity. This pressure-ratio is confessedly only an approximation
to the true law of drift, but I consider it to be nearer the truth than the
velocity-ratio adopted by Mohn, which assumes the existence of a level
sea for winds of all velocities.

§ 6. Application of Factor to cases of Drift. — The use of drift-bottles
for estimating the velocity of drift is attended by a possible source of
serious error, viz., the difficulty of determining the length of time
between the actual stranding of a bottle and its subsequent recovery.
In some cases this source of error is removed by the statements made
by the finders of the bottles, but in most cases it must always remain
as a condition to be taken into account. On the whole, however,
I believe that the maximum error due to this cause is inconsiderable
except when the bottles have been recovered in unfrequented parts
of the coast. Most bottles are picked up in the neighbourhood of
towns and fishing ports where the shore is much frequented, and in
other regions the coastguardsmen are always on the look-out. The
conspicuousness of our bottles must also tend to reduce the error due
to this cause. Altogether I should estimate the average error as amount-
ing to not more than 12 hours in summer and 24 hours in winter,
which is inconsiderable except for short journeys. I would particularly
point to the records of batches LII. and LIII. in support of these
remarks. The simultaneity with which so many of these bottles were
recovered by different individuals after drifting for more than a fort-
night is well worthy of note, and we have had still more striking
examples of the same thing this year.

The following table shows the results of an application of the drift-
factor to certain cases of drift recorded in Table I. Open water and an
absence of deflecting currents are assumed. The actual direction and
distance of drift are compared side by side with the estimated direction
and distance of drift, and these have been calculated from the winds
prevailing at the time by the employment of the factor and the method
already described. The wind records, except those of Kousdon and
Falmouth, were extracted from the Daily Weather Eeports of the
Meteorological Office.

218 REPORT ON THE SURFACE DRIFT OF THE ENGLISH CHANNEL

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AND NEIGHBOURING SEAS DURING 1897. 219

It is seen from the preceding table that in only one out of ten cases of
drift does my calculated drift exactly coincide with the records of the
bottles (IX. 1) ; but in several other cases the results correspond in a
sufliciently close manner for all practical purposes. Some further
examination, however, is necessary before the reliability of my method
can be depended upon, because the estimated results depend upon the
assumption of open water, and this cannot always be conceded.

In the case of II. 1 there is an angular error of 7" in a course of 180
miles, the estimated and actual distance of drift being practically
identical. In this instance there can be no question of any deflection
of the drift by the proximity of the shore. My calculations from the
winds at Prawle Point, from January 22nd to January 28th, give an
estimated drift of 34 miles in a S. by E. direction, which would thus
convey the bottles well into mid-Channel. The Prawle winds for the
ensuing period, January 29th to February 28th, give an estimated drift
of 99 miles in an E.N.E. direction, bringing the bottles to a position
about 26 miles S. by W. of the Needles, The direction of the drift
during March 1st to 16th was estimated as N.E. i E. in this part of the
Channel. The direction of the strong winds immediately before the
recovery of the bottle was as follows : — March 16th, S. to S.S.W. ;
March 15th, S.S.W. ; March 14th, S. to S.S.E. Clearly the bottle was not
driven to Eastbourne from the westward side of Peachy Head by a
current parallel with the shore, but must have been almost due S.,
or even S.S.E., of Eastbourne when overtaken by the gale, as the
recovery of another bottle to the eastward a few days later also shows-.
The error iu my estimate is not due therefore to shore-deflection, but to
an excess in the southerly component of the wind records employed
This is just what one would expect under the circumstances, since the
records employed were those of Prawle Point, Hurst Castle, and Dunge-
ness. All of these stations are situated on the northern coast of the
Channel, and are consequently more exposed to the full force of southerly
than of northerly breezes. The course of the bottles, however, was in
mid-Channel for a considerable distance, and thus equally subject to the
influence of winds from north and south. That this is the true explana-
tion is seen from the fact that while the resultant wind for March 1st
to 16th was S.W. f S. at Hurst Castle, and S.W. ^W. at Dungeness, it
was nearly W.S.W. at Jersey (S.W. by W. h W.), the force at the three
stations being approximately the same. The error could have been
avoided by taking the mean between these three winds for the period ;
but I have preserved my estimate in its original form in order to show
by an example the precautions in this respect which must be taken when
very accurate results are desired.

In the second case (III. 1) we have again an angular error to the

KEW SKinES. — VOL. V. NO. 2. P

220 REPORT ON THE SURFACE DRIFT OF THE ENGLISH CHANNEL

northward, but of small value (3'). The disturbing effects of Portland
Race perhaps account for this slight discrepancy ; but a closer estimate
would probably have been obtained by taking the mean between the
Prawle Point and Ptousdon winds. During March, when the state of the
wind was very similar to that in February, I found that the records at
Rousdon indicated a stronger component from the northward than did
those at Prawle Point.

The six succeeding cases deal with batches all of which were repre-
sented in the neighbourhood of Calais by bottles recovered between
the 13th and 19th May. They are, therefore, of particular interest as
throwing light on the whole course of drift. There is a glaring dis-
crepancy between the estimated and actual drift of the Seaford bottle
(VII. 1); but the remainder conform moderately well, especially when
the length of the journeys involved is taken into account. From the
close correspondence between estimated and actual drift in cases IX. 1
and 2 we may, I think, conclude that the inferences to be drawn from
the use of the drift-factor in all these cases are reliable. In the Seaford
case there is an angular error of 8°, a distance error of 41 miles, and a
serious geographical discrepancy of position. Had there been open
water in the estimated direction of drift, the Seaford bottle should have
been on the east coast of Sheppey on April 17th. We see, however,
from IX. 1 that these bottles, which from their eventual destination we
may shortly term the Calais bottles, were off the south coast of the Isle
of AVight about March 16th, and so violent were the westerly gales of
the latter half of March that the estimated drift during that period was
120 miles in a N.E. by E. direction, which would bring the bottles to a
position 5 or 6 miles E.N.E. of the Nore Lightship off the mouth of the
Thames. The Sussex coast, however, would interpose an impassable
barrier to such a course, and two alternatives would present themselves:
(1) the bottles must drive at once ashore, or (2) the bottles must be
deflected from their estimated course by a current racing eastwards along
the shore towards the Straits of. Dover. The latter course appears
to have been taken in most cases, and the bottles were probably in the
lower part of the North Sea, between the Essex and Belgian coasts, at
the end of the month. That the passage of the Straits was made at
this time in spite of the southerly component in the winds is rendered
all the more probable because a bottle of batch II., which was off the
coast of Eastbourne on March 16th, was recovered at Terschelling on
March 30th. This is equivalent to a distance of 250 miles in 14 days,
or almost 18 miles a day. Now the estimated drift, directly dependent
on the pressure of the wind during this period, was 120, or at most 140
miles. This velocity was therefore nearly doubled, no doubt partly
owing to the head of water accumulated in the eastern part of the Channel

AND NEIGHBOURING SEAS DURING 1897. 221

during the gales, and partly to the narrowing of the Channel in this
region. This result accords with the experience of navigators, for,
according to the Pilot's Handbook (12th ed., 1893, p. 142), "strong W.
gales prolong the intermediate stream running E., and retard the stream
running S.W. At such times the streams at the Eidge shoal have been
found to run 8 hours to the N.E., and only 4 hours to the S.W."

But there is no reason to assign to any of the Calais bottles the
remarkable velocity attained by this Eastbourne-Terschelling bottle
(XL 3) during the latter half of March. The latter bottle would begin
to experience the acceleration caused by the narrowing of the English
Channel almost immediately after the commencement of the westerly
gales in mid-March, as Beachy Head marks the %vestern boundary
of the funnel-shaped extremity of the Channel ; but the Calais bottles
at this time (March 16th) were 50 miles to the westward, off the east
coast of the Isle of Wight, in one of the widest parts of the Channel.
During the third week of March, therefore, although the direction
of drift of the Calais bottles would be deflected to a course parallel with
the coast, their velocity would scarcely differ from that directly due to
the pressure of the wind, which we have already seen was calculated to
be 120 miles for the fortnight, or 60 miles for the week, which would
bring them slightly to the eastward of Beachy Head. From this point
they would begin to experience an accelerated velocity ; and, if we
assume that they travelled at the same average rate as the Eastbourne-
Terschelling bottle (18 miles a day), their position at the end of March
would be 125 miles to the north-eastward of Eastbourne, or somewhere
in a line between Harwich and the Hook of Holland, and probably
on the westward side of the middle of this line. Such a position would
be about 60 miles N.i^.E. or N. by E. of Calais. Now the estimated
direction of drift in this region from April 1st to 30th, based on tlie
North Foreland winds, was W. i S., 29 miles, which would bring the
bottles to a position slightly south of Harwich, off the Naze, by
the end of that month. The Naze is rather under 60 miles N.N.W.
of Calais. The estimated drift from May 1st to 13th, based on N.
Foreland winds, was approximately E.S.E. (actually S.E. by E. |^ E.), 56
miles ; or, based on the winds of Cape Gris Nez, S.E. | S., 59 miles ; so
that, obeying this drift, the bottles on May 13th would be within a mile
or two of the French coast between Calais and Dunkerc^ue, a result
which coincides remarkably with the actual position of the bottles
about that time, and demonstrates the general accuracy of the method
employed in this report for deducing the course of drift from the
direction and pressure of the winds.

Apart from the employment of this quantitative method, a mere
survey of the records contained in the table showing the recovery

V 2

222 REPORT ON THE SURFACE DRIFT OF THE ENGLISH CHANNEL

of drift-bottles would have led one to the conclusion that the eastward
drift of these bottles was a more or less steady and continuous one from
March 16th, when they were off the Isle of Wight, until the middle of
May, when they were stranded on the French coast. The recovery of a
bottle at Seaford in April points clearly to such a conclusion, and
the direction of the resultant winds at Dungeness during the latter half
of April (E.N.E., light) and the first half of May (W. by N., moderately
strong) appeared to me at first sight to accord with the view that all the
Calais bottles were in the neighbourhood of Seaford in mid-April. It
was not until I made the extensive calculations required for the above
analysis that I finally convinced myself of the serious error of this
view, and of the certainty that the Calais bottles had already made the
passage of the Dover Straits in the last week of March, owing to
the production of a current along the coast of Sussex at an angle with
the direction of the wind during the last fortnight of March.

In order to explain the case of the Seaford bottle we must go back
to the position of the Calais bottles prior to the southerly gale of
March 16th, which drove so many ashore. On March 16th and 17th
several bottles were stranded on the S.E. coast of the Isle of Wight by
this gale, but one, at least (XI. 1), was stranded about the same time on
the S.W. coast of the same island, and another was recovered in the
Solent on March 31st (XIII. 1.). Now this latter batch did not arrive
at Calais until June 18th. It is probable, therefore, that the cause of
retardation in this case was that these bottles had not easted sufficiently
by the 15th March to be able to round St. Catherine's Point when the
southerly gale of the 16th overtook them. Those which were to the
eastward of the Point, and escaped stranding, were driven rapidly along
the Sussex shore to the Straits of Dover; but those which were to
the westward of the Point were either driven ashore on the west coast
of the island or into the Solent. Their course through the Solent and
Spithead to the eastward would be distinctly slow, as they would lose a
considerable portion of the direct effect of the westerly gales ; and I
imagine that the Seaford bottle may have been retarded in this way,
while others of the same batch succeeded in clearing St. Catherine's
Point, and pursuing an unobstructed course. A difference of a few
miles between the positions of bottles on the 15th of March would
be sufficient to determine whether they would be carried to the east-
ward or westward of St. Catherine's Point. If the Seaford bottle
actually took the course here suggested it must have slowly drifted
eastwards through the Solent and Spithead, and emerged off Selsea Bill
during the last few days of March, pursuing a course along the Sussex
coast under the influence of the westerly winds. The resultant westerly
wind of April 1st to 17th was estimated from the winds at Dungeness

AND NEIGHBOURING SEAS DURING 1897. 223

to produce a drift of 24 miles in an E.N.E. direction (actually N.E. by
E, h K). The distance of Seaford from Selsea Bill is 34 miles. This
suggestion as to the course of the Seaford bottle, therefore, is sufQciently
consistent with the conditions prevailing at the time, and with the
remainder of our records, to render it the probable explanation of
the conspicuous lack of correspondence between actual and estimated
drift in this case. Another alternative is that the bottle may have been
driven ashore between the 16th and 19th March on the east coast of the
Isle of Wight, or on the Sussex shore west of Selsea Bill, as occurred in
the case of III. 4, and that it remained ashore until the latter end of
March, when it resumed its eastward drift ; but I consider this theory
much less probable. What I hold to have established is that the course
of the Seaford bottle was quite exceptional, and that its position on the
17th April does not indicate the position of the remaining bottles of the
same batch on that date ; for there was a general tendency for bottles
put out near the Eddystone between the 16th and 18th of February to
arrive on the French coast between Calais and Dunkerque between the
loth and 19th May, and I have shown that this could be achieved, pro-
vided the bottles passed through the Straits of Dover in the last week of
March. It was, on the other hand, impossible, if the bottles were in the
neighbourhood of Seaford in mid-April. The distance from Seaford
to Calais is 70 miles, the direction E. 12° N.; but the estimated drift for
the period April 17th to May loth (based on the winds at Dungeness)
is only 35 miles, and the direction E. 30" S., an error both of direction
and distance which is too serious to be due to the method of computa-
tion, and which admits of no explanation from the nature of the winds
prevailing at the time.

The two last cases in the table now require consideration. The first
of these (XXX. 1) is the drift of two bottles from the Manacles to
Sennen Cove, a distance of 35 miles, during the first week of April.
The fact that two bottles pursued the same course shows that the causes
of the drift were very constant. The case is the more remarkable as two
headlands — the Lizard and the Land's End — had to be rounded during
the drift. Now my estimated drift for this period, though in the right
direction, is remarkably deficient in distance. Indeed, so variable were
the winds in this part of the Channel during this period that it is quite
impossible to attribute the drift in this case to the action of the wind.
As a check upon my estimate based on the Scilly records, I have also
made a calculation as to the direction and distance of drift based on the
winds at Falmouth, using the complete set of hourly records of the
anemograph for the period. The result is ecj^ually inadequate. I have
also estimated the drift on the assumption that the rate of drift is
proportional to the velocity of the wind, which only made matters worse,

224 REPORT ON THE SURFACE DRIFT OF THE ENGLISH CHANNEL

since it yielded an estimated drift of only 3 miles in a direction W. 24°
N. It is obvious that in this case the rapidity of the drift round the
Cornish headlands was due to some cause other than the winds, and, as
already described in an earlier section of this report, the known peculiar-
ities of the tidal streams in this region provide an adequate explanation.
The indraught into the Bristol Channel during the flood-tide here causes
a marked set to the northward round the Land's End, and this brings
about a predominance of the westward tide over the eastward tide in
this part of the English Channel. In fact, the English Channel supplies
more water to the Bristol Channel during flood-tide than returns to it on
the ebb from the same region.

The last case of all (XL. 1) appears to illustrate the same point.
There is an angular error of 45° in my calculated drift, but the estimated
distance is approximately correct. The deflecting cause may be regarded
as equivalent to a current in a N.N.W. direction having an average
velocity of 36 miles in 16 days, i.e., rather over 2 miles per diem.
There seems to be no reason for doubting that this deflection was due to
the influence of the resultant northward tendency of the tides in the
western region of the Channel, which is determined by the indraught
into the Bristol Channel during flood-tide in that region. We have seen
in the ])receding case (XXX. 1) that the force of this indraught deter-
mines a current round the Lizard and Land's End of some 30 miles in 6
days, i.e., 5 miles a day ; so that, although this deflecting influence was
not fully felt during the whole period of drift in the present case, we
are probably correct in attributing the observed deviation to the same
cause, since the south-westward drift caused by the winds would bring
the bottles nearer to the influence of the indraught on each successive
day; and, in order to complete the distance between the eventual
estimated and actual positions, it would suffice if the full influence of
the indraught (5 miles per diem) were only felt during the last seven
days of drift.

§ 7. Conclusions. — Enough has been said, I think, to show that the
method employed here for tracing the actual influence of the winds
on the water is sufliciently accurate for practical purposes, and
that by its employment, with proper precautions, the influence of
the winds may be separated from that of other factors which
operate in the production of surface currents. From this point
of view the method may be of considerable use in the future for
determining the existence of currents not produced by local wind-
action. At the same time the method requires to be tested extensively
before it can be used as a basis for conclusions. The present report
pretends only to show that the relation between wind -action and
surface currents is capable of quantitative study, and that the results

AND NEIGUBOUEING SEAS DDEING 1897. 225

obtained by the use of the methods here described are sulliciently
accurate to encourage the further use of them. This we are doing
during the present year on a larger scale, and the results will be set
out in next year's report. It is very desirable that experiments
should be made to determine the depth of the currents induced by
wind-action, and we propose to attempt this work during the present
year. A comparison of results obtained by bottles floating at the
surface, and by other objects designed to come under the influence of
lower strata of water, should yield results of considerable value. Until
such experiments are made, however, it does not appear to be desirable
to say too much upon the practical aspects of the experiments described
in this report. We have obtained a general view of the movements of
the uppermost layer of water, and we may be certain that similar,
though slower, movements also affect the layers immediately sub-
jacent ; but the actual depth to which this movement would be
communicated under different conditions of wind and tide is a matter
of too much practical importance to be left to mere guesswork. As
Molm has well said: "Neither argument nor estimate, but carefully
worked-out computations alone, can lead to a lasting result."

II. St. George's Channel and Irish Sea.

Owing to the fact that our experiments in this area only cover the
summer and autumn months, it does not appear to be advisable to make
any attempt to generalise the results obtained, the data given in Table II.
being self-explanatory. I may remark, however, that in all the cases
which I have specially analysed, the actual drift differs from the
estimated drift in taking a more northward direction. This result
appears to agree with that obtained by Professor Ilerdman in his
experiments in the Irish Sea. {Proc. Liverpool Biol. Soc, vol. x.).

Note. — lu the tables which follow, as well as in the preceding portion of
this report, the positions of places and directions of currents aro invariably
indicated by their true geographical bearings, and not by their compass
(magnetic) bearings. As the directions of winds are uniformly indicated
in true geographical terms, and as compass bearings diller with latitude and
longitude, it seemed desirable to use true geographical bearings throughout
this report, in order to avoid the possibility of confusion.

226

KEPORT ON THE SURFACE DRIFT OF THE ENGLISH CHANNEL

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[ 2.S2 ]

Director's Report.

The various researches detailed in my last Report, which are being
conducted by the Association's Naturalists, have been continued during
the winter. Mr. Garstang has been chiefly occupied in investigations
relating to the migratory pelagic fishes, giving special attention to the
characteristics of mackerel from different localities, some 1500 of these
fish having been subjected to detailed examination in the course of this
enquiry. The samples of mackerel have been obtained from the south-
west of Ireland (through H.M. Inspectors of Irish Fisheries), from the
North Sea and from America, in addition to those captured near
Plymouth. As the results so far obtained refer only to the autumn
fish, it has been thought better to defer their publication until after the
coming spring fishery, when further samples from the same localities, as
well as from the Mediterranean and from Norway, will be examined.

Mr. Garstang has also given much time to working out the results
of the drift-bottle experiments, a report of which for the year 1897 will
be found at p. 199. These experiments have proved more interesting
and successful than we had anticipated when they were undertaken,
and we purpose continuing and extending them during the coming
year.

Mr. Holt's papers in the present number of the Journal represent but
a portion of the many observations which he has been able to make
during the year on the eggs and larvae of fishes. He has also given
much attention to the question of the distribution of fish at different
ages in this neighbourhood.

The following is the list of workers at the Laboratory since my last
Report : —

Brebner, G., August 17th to August 31st (Marine Algce).

Browne, E. T., b.a., August 2il:th to October 9 th {Mcduscc).

Church, A. H., b.a., December 20th to January 20th (Marine Algcc).

Cunningham, J. T., m.a. (Crabs).

Jenkinson, J. W., b.a., September 9th to September 30th (Crustacean
Larvce).

Lanchester, W. R, August 24th to September 29th (Phoronis).

Lubbock, M., m.d., August 9th to September 9th (Fishes).

Minchin, E. A., M.A., January 8th to January 19th (Protozoa).

Taylor, T. H., m a., August 25th to September 12th (Polijzoa).

director's report. 233

Weldon, Prof., F.R.S., December 20tli to January 10th (Variation of
Crabs).

Wylde, N., October 11th to November 11th {Variation of Galathea).

In another part of this number of the Journal ]\Ir. E. T. Browne
describes the use of an apparatus for keeping medusae and other pelagic
organisms alive in confinement, which has given very satisfactory
results. With a view to using the method upon a more extended scale,
and of applying it to the hatching and rearing of pelagic fish-eggs and
larvse, I have fitted up in the Laboratory an arrangement of a similar
kind upon a larger scale, so that many of the glass plungers can now
be worked without difficulty. In some cases a glass funnel, with a
small hole in the top, has been used in place of the glass plate
described in Mr. Browne's apparatus. By this arrangement a funnel-
full of air is carried down each time the plunger descends, and the
escape of this air through the hole in the top assists in the aeration
of the water. We have found the glass plungers to give very good
results when used for hatching purposes, and the method is in many
ways much simpler to work than those previously employed, in which
the eggs were kept in motion by means of a constant current of sea-
water.

The specimens of different stages in the development of food-fishes
and of invertebrate animals which serve as food for fishes, exhibited
during the summer at the Yachting and Fisheries Exhibition held at
the Imperial Institute, have been returned to Plymouth, and have,
during the winter, been arranged in a room adjoining the Aquarium,
where they could be seen by visitors.

I am glad to be able to report that the appeal made in the last
number of the Journal on behalf of our Library has not been without
success. Our thanks are due to the Council of the Zoological Society
for an almost complete set of their Proceedings from the year 1832,
and all the Transactions from 18G2. Mr. J. P. Thomasson, who has on
so many former occasions generously supported the Association, has
sent a donation of £20 for the purchase of books and for binding.
With the help of this donation we have been able to obtain for the
library a copy of Smitt's costly work on Scandinavian Fishes, and also
to bind the complete set of the publications of the Zoological Society.

We have also to thank Mr. W. F. Sinclair for a donation of ten
guineas, and Mr. W. li. Adams for one of three guineas towards the
Steamboat Fund, and Messrs. J. Straker and W. F. Lanchester for
subscriptions of £15 each as life-members of the Association.

E. J. Allen.
March, 1898.

PUBLICATIONS OF THE ASSOCIATION.

Cloth 4/0, 150 P2X, 18 plates (12 coloured).

A TREATISE ON THE COMMON SOLE.

BY

J. T. CUNNINGHAM, M.A.,
Late Fellow of University College, Oxford ; Naturalist to the Association.

Price to Members,* 20s. ; to Non-Members, 25s.
From the Director, The Laboratory, Plymouth, and through all Booksellers.

JOURNAL OF THE MARINE BIOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION.

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No. 2, August, 1888. Price Is.

NEW SERIES.— VOLUME I.

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Medium 8vo, 3G8 pages, 159 Illustrations and two Maps. Price Is. 6d. net.

THE NATURAL HISTORY

OF THE

Marketable Marine Fishes of tlie British Islands.

Prepared expressly for the use of those interested in the Sea-fishing Industries,

BY

J. T. CUNNIXGHAM, M.A,

FOKMERLY FELLOW OF UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, OXFORD ;
NATUHALIST ON THE STAFF OF THE MAKINE BIOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION.

tSEirl) Preface bp
E. RAY LANKESTER, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.,

PROFESSOR OF COMPARATIVE ANATOMY IN THE UNIVERSITY OF OXFORD.

^ ♦♦-

CONTENTS.

PART L— GENERAL.

CHAPTER

I. — History of Modern Investigations of the Subject.

II. — The Characteristics of vahiable Marine Fishes and tlic Regions in
which they live.

I IF. — The Generation of Fishes and their Fecundit3\

IV. — The Eggs and Larvte and tlieir Development.

V,-^Growth, Migrations, Food, and Habits.

VI. — Practical Methods of Increasing the supply of Fi.sli.

PART II.— HISTORY OF PARTICULAR FISHES.

The Herring Family : — The Herring. The Sprat. The Pilchard or Sardine.
The Shads. Tlic Anchovy.

The Salmon Family : — Tlic Smelt.

The Eel Family :— The Eol. The Conger.

Q

Part II. History of Particular Fishes— Continued.

The Garfish or Guard-Fish Family.

The Flat-Fisii Family : — The Plaice. Tlie Common Dab. The Flounder,
The Witch. The Lemon Dab, or Lemon Sole. The Halibut. The
Long Rough Dab. The Sole. The Sand Sole, or French Sole. The
Solenette, or Little Sole. The Thickback. The Turbot. The Brill.
The Megrim. The Scaldtish, or Scaldback. The Top-knots.

The Cod Family :— The Cod. The Haddock. The Whiting. The Coal-
Fish. The Pollack. The Ling. The Hake. The Rocklings. The
Tusk, or Torsk. The Sand-Eels.

The Red Mullet Family.

The Sea Breams.

The Mackerel, or Tunny Family : — The IMackerel.

The Family of the Scads, or Horse-Mackerels.

The John Dory Family : — The Boar-Fish, or Cuckoo. The John Dory.

The Gurnard Family : — The Bullheads. The Gurnards.

Grey Mullets : — The Thick-Lipped Grey Mullet.

The Angler Family : — The Angler, or Frog-Fish.

The Blennies : — The Cat-Fish, or Sea-Cat.

The Sucker Family : — The Lump-Sucker. The Diminutive Sucker.s.

Appendix L Appendix II. Index.

MACMILLAN & CO., Ltd.,
ST. MARTIN'S STREET, LONDON.

OBJECTS

OF THE

Purine ^liological dissociation of % tUWtJa liingbom.

THE ASSOCIATION was founded at a ileeting called for the purpose in March, 1884,
and held in the Rooms of the Royal Society of London.
The late Professor Huxley, at that time President of the Royal Society, took the chair,
and amongst the speakers in support of the project were the Duke of Argyll, Sir Lyon
Playfaik, Sir John Lubbock, Sir Joseph Hooker, the late Dr. Cakpentek, Dr. Gijnther,
the late Lord Dalhousie, the late Professor Moseley, the late Mr. Romanes, and
Professor Lankester.

The Association owes its existence and its present satisfactory condition to a combina-
tion of scientific naturalists, and of gentlemen who, from philanthropic or practical reasons,
are specially interested in the great sea fisheries of the United Kingdom. It is universally
admitted that our knowledge of the habits and conditions of life of sea fishes is very small,
and insufficient to enable either the practical fisherman or the Legislature to take measures
calculated to ensure to the country the greatest return from the "harvest of the sea."
Naturalists are, on the other hand, anxious to push further our knowledge of marine life
and its conditions. Hence, the Association has erected at Plymouth a thoroughly efficient
Laboratory, where naturalists may study the history of marine animals and plants in general,
and where, in particular, researches on food fishes and molluscs may be carried out with the
best appliances.

The Laboratory and its fittings were completed in June, 1888, at a cost of some £12,000.
Since that time investigations, practical and scientific, have been constantly pursued at
Plymouth. Practical investigations upon matters connected with sea-fishing are carried on
under the direction of the Council ; in addition, naturalists from England and from abroad
have come to the Laboratory, to carry on their own independent researches, and have made
valuable additions to zoological and botanical science, at the expense of a small rent, for the
use of a working table in the Laboratory, and other appliances. The number of naturalists
who can be employed by the Association in special investigations on fishery questions, and
definitely retained for the purpose of carrying on those researches throughout the year,
must depend on the funds subscribed by private individuals and public bodies for the
purpose. The first charges on the revenue of the Association are the working of the sea-
water circulation in the tanks, stocking the tanks with fish and feeding the latter, the
payment of servants and fishermen, the hire and maintenance of fishing boats, and the
salary of the Resident Director and Statf. At the commencement of this number will be
found the names of the gentlemen on the staff. In no case does any one salary exceed
£250.

The Association has received some £29,000, of which £13,000 has been granted by
the Treasury. The annual revenue which can be at present counted on is about £1,820, of
which £1,000 a year is granted by the Treasury, the remainder being principally made up
in Subscriptions.

Th'j admirable Marine Biological Laboratory at Naples, founded and directed by Dr.
Dohm, has cost about £20,000, including steam launches, &c., whilst it has an annual
budget of £7,000.

The purpose of the Association is to aid at the same time both science and industry. It
is national in character and constitution, and its affairs are conducted by a representative
Council, by an Honorary Secretary and an Honorary Treasurer, without any charge upon
its funds, so that the whole of the subscriptions and donations received are devoted
absolutely to the support of the Laboratory and the prosecution of researches by aid of
its appliances. The reader is referred to page 4 of the Cover for information as to
membership of the Association.

CONTENTS OF NEW SERIES Vol. V., No. 2.

PAGE

1. Notes on the Reproduction of Teleostean Fishes in the Sooth-

Western District. By E. W. L. Holt . . . . 107

2. A Record of the Teleostean Eggs and LARViE observed at Plymouth

IN 1897. By E. W. L. Holt and S. D. Scott, B.A. . . . 156

3. Preliminary Report on the Results of Statistical and Ichthy-

OLOGICAL InVESTIGATION.S MADE AT THE PLYMOUTH LABORATORY. By

Georg Duncker, Ph.D. . . . ... 172

4. On Keeping Medusa Alive in an Aquarium. By E. T. Browne . 176

5. The "Bottle-nose Ray" {] R. alba. Lacep.) and its Egg-Purse. By

E. W. L. Holt . . . . ... 181

6. On the Occurrence of Large Numbers of Larval Herring at the

Surface. A Letter from Mr. Matthias Dunn . . . 184

7. On the Pelagic Fauna of Plymouth for September, 1897. By E.

T. Browne . . . . ... 186

8. Notes and Memoranda —

An Observation on the Colour-changes of a Wrasse . .193

The Incubation of the Skate-leech . ... 195

Larval Lobsters at the Surface . ... 196

Cepola rubescens. LiNN. . . . . . . 197

Trachinus draco. LiNN. , . . ... 197

Trigla obscura. LiNN. . . . ... 197

Trygon pastinaca. Linn. . . . . . 198

Myliobatis aquila. Linn. . . . . . 198

9. Report on the Surface Drift of the English Channel and

Neighbouring Seas during 1897. By W. Garstang, M.A. . . 199

10. Director's Report . . . ... 232

NOTICE.

The Council of the Marine Biological Association wish it to be understood that
they do not accept responsibility for statements published in this Journal,
excepting when those statements are contained in an official report of the Council.

£ s.

d.

. per annum.

1 1

0

Composition Fee.

15 15

0

.

100 0

0

500 0

0

TERMS OF MEMBERSHIP.

Annual Members
Life Members
Founders
Governors

Members of the Association have the following rights and privileges ; they elect
annually the Officers and Council ; they receive the Journal of the As.sociation free
by post ; they are admitted to view the Laboratory at Plymouth, and may introduce
friends with them ; they have the first claim to rent a place in the Laboratory for
research, with use of tanks, boats, &ic. ; and have access to the books in the Library
at Plymouth.

All correspondence should be addressed to the Director, The Laboratory,
Plymouth.

J^/f,

New Series. — Vol. V., No. 3— issued November, 1898.]

[Price 3s. 6d.

//,?7V

3Journal

OP THE

MARINE BIOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION

OF

THE UNITED KINGDOM.

'M^

THE PLYMOUTH LABORATORY.

^'PLYMOUTH:

PRINTED FOR THE MARINE BIOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION BY W. BRENDON & SON,

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PUBLISHED BY THE ASSOCIATION AT ITS OFFICES ON THE CITADEL HILL.

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Agents in London :— Messrs. Dulau & Co., 37, Soho Square, W.

PATRON

H.R.H. THE PRINCE OF WALES, K.G., F.R.S

OFFICERS AND COUNCIL.

President.
Prof. E. Ray Lankester, LL.D., F.R.S.

Vice-Presidents.

Th.» Duke of Argyll, K.G., K.T., F.R.S.
The Duke of Abercorn, K.G., C.B.
The Earl of St. Germans.
The Earl of Morley.
Tlie Earl of Ducie, F.R.S.

Lord TWEEDMOUTH.

Lord Walsingham, F.R.S.
Tlie Right Hon. A. J. BalfouH, M.P.,
F.R.S.

The Right Hon. Joseph Chamber-
lain, M.P.

The Right Hon. Sir John Lubbock,
Bart., M.P., F.R.S.

Prof. G. J. Allman, F.R.S.

Sir Edward Birkbeck, Bart.

Sir Wm. Flower, K.C.B., F.R.S.

A. C. L. GuNTHER, Esq., F.R.S.

Prof. Alfred Newton, F.R.S.

Rev. Canon Norman, D.C.L., F.R.S.

Sir Henry Thompson.

Rear- Admiral Sir W. J. L. Wharton,
K.C.B., F.R.S.

COUNCIL.

F. E. Beddard, Esq., F.R.S.
Prof. F. Jeffrey Bell, F.Z.S.

G. C. Bourne, Esq., F.L.S.
Sir John Evans, K.C.B. (Treas. R.S.).
G. Herbert* Fowler, Esq.
S. F. Harmer, Esq., F.R.S.
Prof. W. A. Herdman, F.R.S.

Elected Members.

Prof. S. J. HicKSON, F.R.S.

J. J. Lister, Esq.

Sir John Murray, K.C.B., F.R.S.

P. L. Sclater, Esq., F.R.S. (Sec. Zool.

Soc).
D. H. Scott, Esq., F.R.S.
Prof. Charles Stewart, F.R.S.
Prof. W. F. R. Weldon, F.R.S.

Robert Bayly, Esq.
J. P. Thomasson, Esq.
The Prime Warden of the Fish-
mongers' Company.
E. L. Beckwith, Esq. (Fishmongers'

Governors.

Prof

BuRDON Sanderson, F.R.S.
(Oxford University).

Prof. Michael Foster, F.R.S. (Cam-
bridge University).

Sir William Flower, K.C.B., F.R.S.
(British Association).

Company).

Hon. Treasurer.
J. A. Travers, Esq., Dorney House, Weybridge.

Hon. Secretary.
E. J. Allen, Esq., The Laboratory, Citadel Hill, Plymouth.

PERMANENT STAFF.
Director — E. J. Allen, Esq., B.Sc,

Naturalist in rhargc of Fisher;/ InveMiyations.
W. Garstang, Esq., M.A.

Hon. Naturalist — E. W. L. Holt, Esq.

Diri'rtnr'x Assistant — R. A. Todd, Esq., B.Sc.

APR 10 1899

[ 235 ]

On the Variation, Races and Migrations of the
Mackerel {Scomber scomber).

By

Walter Garstang, M.A., F.Z.S.,

Naturalist in charge of Fishery Investigations under the Marine Biological Association ;

late Fellow of Lincoln College, Oxford.

INDEX OF CONTENTS.

Introduction ......

I. The Method of Investigation ....

II. The Characters Investigated ....

III. Particulars concerning the Consignments of Mackerel Investigated

IV. Size of the Mackerel Investigated ....
V. Sex (Numerical proportions, Secondary Sexual Characters)

VI. Number of Transverse Bars ....

VII. Shape of Transverse Bars ....

VIII. Dorso-lateral Intermediate Spots ....

IX. Number of Finrays in First Dorsal Fin

X. Correlation between Spottiness and Number of First Dorsal Finrays

XI. Number of Finrays in Second Dorsal Fin

XII. Number of Dorsal Finlets ....

XIII. Correlation between Second Dorsal Fin and Dorsal Finlets

XIV. Summary of Evidence concerning the Races of the Mackerel
XV. The Migrations of the Mackerel ....

PAGE

235
238
240
242
245
249
253
261
263
267
276
278
280
281
284
286

Pmir Men savoir les choscs il en faut savoir le detail.

De La Rochefoucauld.

Introduction.

The present investigation was undertaken at the invitation of H.M.
Treasury, in consequence of an application to the government from
H.M. Inspectors of Irish Fisheries for a scientific investigation into the
life-history of the mackerel. The problem to the solution of which
the inspectors attached particular importance was the relation to one
another of the spring and autumn schools of mackerel which regularly
visit the Irish coasts. In the spring a multitude of large fish approach
the south and west coasts of Ireland to breed. In the autumn schools

NEW SERIES. — VOL. V, NO. 3. Q

23G THE vai;tation, eaces and :\riGRATiONS of the mackerel.

of immature, but usually well-growu, mackerel come around the island.
According to one of the inspectors, the liev. W. S. Green, there is
a sharply defined interval between the two visitations of fish.

The first result of the Treasury's communication was the preparation
by Mr. Allen of a report on the " Present State of Knowledge with
regard to the Habits and Migrations of the Mackerel," which was
published in this Journal in the autumn of last year. (vol. v., No. 1,
August, 1897, pp. 1-40.) This report contains a compendious and
suggestive summary of all the reliable information we possess up to the
present concerning the geographical and seasonal distribution of the
mackerel, its rate of growth and breeding habits, and the extent and
causes of its migrations.

It will readily be understood that the investigation of the relations
between the spring and autumn fish of the Irish coasts could not
profitably be undertaken except as part of a general scheme which
should embrace the study of the mutual relations of the mackerel
of neighbouring seas as well ; for hitherto it has not been ascertained
whether the Irish fish as a whole are peculiar to Irish waters, or whether
there is any intermingling with the mackerel of the English Channel
and North Sea. The general impression appears to be that the mackerel
round all the British coasts form a single race or family, which becomes
dispersed during the summer in order to occupy the various seas and
channels round our islands, but becomes largely reunited in the winter
after the autumn migrations. Upon this theory the separation of the
mackerel family is determined principally by size, the larger fish
remaining near the shores of the ocean, from the Irish coast to the
Lizard, the smaller fish pushing their way northwards and eastwards
into the shallower waters of the Irish Sea, the English Channel, and
the North Sea. This view is expressed, for example, by Day in his
British Fishes, and by Mr. Matthias Dunn {Report Royal Cornwall
Polytechnic Soc, 1893). But the separation of the large Atlantic class
from the small class found in the more enclosed waters is not regarded
by these writers as in any way permanent. Every year, according
to Mr. Dunn, the Atlantic (or Irish) class receives a reinforcement
from the larger fish of the second (or shallow water) class ; while the
younger fish which have been bred off the Atlantic coast tend, in the
spring of the year, to make common cause with the fish which
frequent the English Channel. There is thus a complete mixture
between the two classes, which cannot consequently be regarded as
constituting local races in the sense in which we speak of Baltic
and North Sea herring as forming separate races.

A still more decided view of the unity of the mackerel family has
been entertained by Mr. W. S. Green, the energetic Inspector of Irish

THE VARIATIOX, RACES AND MIGRATIONS OF THE MACKEREL. 237

Fisheries, who points to the similarity of the mackerel on both sides
of the Atlantic as evidence of probable intercommunication between
the American and European representatives of the species (Bull. U.S.
Fish. Com., xiii., 1893, p. 357), and the same view appears to have
been held, though reservedly, by Mr. Dunn Qoc. cit., p. 3 of reprint).

Clearly the first thing to be settled at the outset of the investigation
was the relationship between the mackerel of different seas. In addition,
therefore, to consignments of fish from Irish and English ports, I have
endeavoured at different times to secure representative samples of
foreign fish. Of American fish I examined a number during my visit
to Canada and the United States in the autumn of 1897, both at
Toronto and in the Fulton Market at Xew York, and the Association is
indebted to the United States Fish Commission for the transmission, in
October, 1897, of an excellent sample of one hundred fish from Newport,
Ehode Island. To Mr. W. de C. Ravenel, Acting Commissioner at that
time, I desire to express my thanks, on behalf of the Association, for
his kind and courteous assistance in the matter. To the Directors of the
Hamburg-American Line we are also under a debt of gratitude for their
gratuitous conveyance of this box of fish in a refrigerator of one of
their express steamers direct from New York to Plymouth, an arrange-
ment which contributed largely to the excellent condition of the fish
on arrival after their long journey. From Brest I received a consignment
of one hundred fish, for which, as for many other services, I have to
thank Mr. W. S. Hoare, the British Consul at that port. Capt. W.
Arthur, of the s.s. Gipsy, who had rendered me much assistance on
an earlier occasion, by placing his boat at my disposal for securing some
temperature and other observations, kindly conveyed the box of fish
direct to Plymouth. I have also much pleasure in thanking Prof.
Marion, of Marseilles, for a sample of Mediterranean fish, though they
arrived too late to enable me to incorporate the results of their examina-
tion in the present report. Unfortunately, a consignment of fish which
I expected from Norway has not arrived, and I must postpone until
next spring any comparison between the British fish and those which
annually visit the Scandinavian coast.

The sources of the English and Irish fish examined are given in
the tables, and in the list of particulars concerning the consignments.
It will suffice to say that I have received samples of several hundred
fish from each of the following regions : the West and South coasts of
Ireland, the English Channel, and the North Sea. Altogether I have
examined in detail some 1800 fish, and the total number included in
the tables of variation appended to this report amounts to 1649. The
omission of about 150 fish from the tables is due to the fact that about
100 Plymouth fish were used in a preliminary enquiry before the general

238 THE VARIATION, RACES AND MIGRATIONS OF THE MACKEREL.

plan of investigation was decided upon, and that a number of fisli
caught at Plymouth during the summer of 1897 were so much smaller
than any from other localities (from 4 to 9 inches in length), that I
have thought it better to reserve most of the results of their examination
until a sufticient number of young forms has been also obtained from
other parts. These small fish are frequently taken in sprat seines, weirs,
and in other ways on various parts of the British coast, and I should be
much obliged to any who read these lines, and have the opportunity of
assisting, if they would kindly forward to me any specimens of the
common mackerel they may come across below 8 inches in length.
They should be forwarded fresh (but damp) by post, if in small quantity;
or in seaweed or ice by train, if in quantity ; and the locality, date, and
method of capture should be recorded. The cost of carriage, &c., will
be willingly paid by the Association.

As regards the condition of the fish in the different consignments
under examination, I should say that the Plymouth fish have been
examined in a perfectly fresh condition, but that all other fish, except
those in two Irish consignments, have been iced before examination, in
order to enable them to withstand the effects of a more or less lengthy
journey by rail or sea. The two Irish consignments referred to were
those dated Kinsale, July 30th and September 3rd, 1897. These fish
arrived during my absence in Canada, and after measurement were placed
in tanks of formaline to await my return. With this exception, the
condition of the different consignments at the time of examination may
be regarded as practically uniform, so far as external characters are
concerned. The viscera of the fish from Brest, and of some of the
earlier Irish samples were, however, so rotten, owing to delays in transit,
that no attempt was made to record the sexual condition of all the fish
in these particular samples.

After this introduction I may proceed at once to describe the methods
and results of the investigation up to the present time.

I. The Method of Investigation.

As all attempts to discover constant individual peculiarities in the
mackerel of any one locality, as compared with those from any other,
have completely failed, it is clear that, in order to determine whether
local races exist or not, recourse must be had to the detailed study
of the variation of certain chosen characters in the fish of different
localities. The range of variation in these different local groups of
fish can then be compared, and the frequency with which particular
variations, or combinations of variations, occur in any one group can be
compared with its frequency in all the others. Thus, if we suppose

THE VARIATION, RACES AND MIGRATIONS OF THE MACKEREL. 239

the number of finrays in the first dorsal fin to vary between 10 and
14, the value 12 will 'prolahly occur with greatest frequency. But
other possibilities occur; and while 12 might be constantly the
most frequent value in samples of one local group of fish, it is quite
conceivable that 13 might be constantly the most frequent value
in samples of another group ; in which case, if the two groups were
examined under similar conditions of sex, size, preservation, and so
forth, we should be prepared to regard the two groups as racially
distinct, the one indispensable condition being that the frequency of
the particular variation shall have been determined in all instances
upon a sufficient number of specimens.

It is, however, impossible to assign any one number beforehand as
universally sufficient. The minimum sufficient number may be re-
garded as that which yields results approximately coinciding with those
derived from an infinitely large number, i.e., the percentages of
frequency derived from it must bear some close degree of correspon-
dence with the percentages derived from a much larger number. I
have taken 100 as the minimum number of mackerel from which it is
possible to derive a fairly reliable statement concerning the relative
frequency of the variations exhibited by any one of the chosen
characters. But the number of specimens requisite to yield a reliable
statement of the frequency of variations of any organ bears a relation
to the variability of the organ. If an organ varies slightly, the number
of specimens must be increased. It is certain, for example, that 100
is an inadequate number for determining the normal frequency of the
variations in the number of the dorsal finlets in the mackerel of British
seas (see table H, p. 295); for, among 100 fish from Ramsgate, not a
single specimen possessed less than 5 finlets, and 5 specimens possessed
more than that number ; whereas, of 300 fish from Lowestoft, 1 %
possessed only 4 finlets, and only 3 % possessed 6; and of 300 Plymouth
fish, the percentage (3) of specimens with the lower number was almost
as great as the percentage (4) of those with the higher. On the other
hand, the number (100) is quite sufficient to show a marked difference
between the American and the British fish in regard to the same
character, since nearly 207, of the American fish possessed G finlets — a
percentage almost four times as great as that observed in any other
sample of 100 fish.

In order to check the adequacy of this number as a unit-sample for
determining the frequency of the variations of more variable characters,
we may turn to table B (p. 290), which deals with the variation in
number of the black stripes or bars across the sides of the fish. We see
there that in each sample of 100 fish from Lowestoft, Ramsgate, and
Plymouth , the frequency of the values above 27 is constantly less than

L>-40 THK VARIATION, RACES AND MIGRATIONS OF THE MACKEREL.

that of values below 27 ; whereas for each sample of about* 100 fish
from Ireland, the values above 27 are, with only one exception, in
excess of the values below that number. The constancy of this
relation for each of the geographical areas mentioned appears to me to
show that 100 is very nearly a sufficient sample, in the sense already
defined, so far as this character is concerned.

As a matter of fact, the four important regions for mackerel fisheries
round our coasts, viz., the North Sea, the Channel, the South and West
coasts of Ireland, are each represented by a totality of fish of not less
than 300 ; but I have entered at some length into this question, because
I think that the division of the local groups into unit-samples provides
a valuable means of checking the significance which may be attributed
to the differences as determined for the local groups en masse.

II. The Characters Investigated.

After a preliminary study of the question, it seemed desirable to
select numerical rather than dimensional characters for investigation,
their variations being less dependent than those of the latter upon
variable factors, such as disproportionate growth, food -supply, and
enlargement of the reproductive organs. The characters eventually
selected were the following : —

1. The Number of black Transverse Bars or Stripes across the sides
of the fish, beginning at the point where the lateral line meets the
posterior border of the scapular arch, and ending just behind the last
dorsal finlet.

2. The Number of the same Transverse Bars which meet or cross the
lateral line.

3. The Number of round black Dorso -lateral Intermediate Spots
situated between the Transverse Bars.

4 The Number of Finrays in the First Dorsal Fin.

5. The Number of Finrays in the Second Dorsal Fin.

6. The Number of Dorsal Finlets.

The condition of each fish in regard to these six characters was
recorded from the commencement of the investigation, in addition to
the length of the fish, and, in the majority of cases, its sex. But
I soon began to take note of other characters, in the hope of finding
them useful in the end, and among these were the following : —

7. The general Shape and Regularity of Arrangement of the Trans-

* The irregularity in the numl>er of fisli in the samples from Ireland was due, I under-
stand, to a curious system of depredation during transit which prevails in those parts, and
is sanctioned by custom or, at least, endurance.

THE VARIATION, EACES AND MIGRATIONS OF THE MACKEREL. 241

verse Bars, i.e., whether straight, > shaped, or wavy; and whether
regular, fairly regular, rather regular, or irregular.

8. The Continuity or Degree of Discontinuity of the black longitu-
dinal Streak which is present in most mature fishes below the lateral
line. I call this character the " Lateral Streak."

9. The extent and character of the Dusky Markings which are
frequently found in mature fishes below the Lateral Streak, especially
in the anterior half or third of the body length. These markings, when
well developed, have the form of a fine zigzag tracery, but they are often
diffuse and blurred. I call this character the " Sublateral Tracery."

10. The Abundance and Distribution of small irregular dusky Spots,
frequently found on the posterior part of the abdominal region, and
scattered over and among the Transverse Bars of the Dorsolateral Area.
They are to be sharply distinguished from the round black Spots which
I have termed "Dorsolateral Intermediate Spots." The pigment of
these latter is a deep black, and it is situated at a lower level in the
tissues than the pigment of the irregular "Dusky Spots." Moreover,
the Dorsolateral Spots are invariably situated hetween two adjacent
Transverse Bars, of which, in a morphological sense, they are undoubt-
edly discontinuous modifications. The Dorsolateral Spots are independent
of the growth of the fish, being as frequent in small fish as in large,
but the " Dusky Spots " appear to make their first appearance about
the time of maturity.

11. The Extent of a black longitudinal Connecting Streak which
connects the ventral ends of the Transverse Bars. The Connecting
Streak is usually confined to the posterior quarter or third of the
body-length, but occasionally extends further forwards, and in rare
instances traverses the whole length of the body, intersecting the
lateral line at an acute angle. In such cases the "Lateral Streak" is
frequently ill-developed.

Of these accessory characters, only the first (No. 7 — the Shape of
the Transverse Bars) has been considered in the present report,
owing to its suggested bearings on the question of secondary sexual
peculiarities.

The data acquired in regard to the variation of the remaining
accessory characters are not discussed in the present report, although I
hope to make use of them on a future occasion. My reasons for
omitting them are chiefly that some of the characters (Xos. 8, 9, and
apparently 10) were found to arise rather late in life, about the time of
maturity ; and as the exact size at which they make their appearance is
itself subject to variations, it was considered inadvisable to introduce
such characters into a discussion of racial peculiarities until the causes
which determine their appearance have been more definitely ascertained.

242 THE VARIATION, RACES AND MIGRATIONS OF THE MACKEREL.

These three characters, in fact, depend upon a formation of pigment
in the superficial layers of the skin, apparently different in kind from
that which brings about the transverse bars and intermediate spots.
Some further study of the pigmentation of the mackerel will be
necessary before their value for racial determinations can be assured.
This objection does not apply, it is true, to the last character enumer-
ated (No. 11) ; but my records of the variation of this character were
commenced much later than those of all the others, and are not yet
sufficient to yield any general results.

The investigation in hand accordingly rests upon an examination of
the variation of seven characters, of which six are numerical and one
morphographical. Four of these characters deal with the characteristic
markings of the fish, and three with the structure of the dorsal fins.

It will be noticed that the number of transverse bars has been
recorded twice for each fish; firstly, as an entire series, and secondly,
between certain arbitrary limits. This has been done with a view
to expose any errors which might arise from the fact that the bars
are not always distinct and parallel, but are frequently branched and
anastomosed with one another, broken, or otherwise irregular, rendering
the task of enumeration not aUvays easy, and so introducing a certain
subjective element into the records. Now the number of bars, or
portions of bars, which cross or meet the lateral line admits of fairly
exact enumeration, and seemed to me to offer an excellent method
of checking the estimate formed of the number of bars in the entire
series. In this expectation I have not been disappointed, as the
discussion of tables B and C will reveal, although the fact that the
course of the lateral line itself is also subject to slight variations has
naturally prevented an absolute correspondence in all details between
the two modes of enumeration.

It only remains to add that the number of transverse bars and of
intermediate spots, together with the data concerning the shape of
the bars, have all been determined upon the same side of the fish,
viz., the left. I frequently took note of the condition of the right side
of the fish also, but these notes are nowhere referred to in the present
report, and are not incorporated in any of the tables.

III. Particulars Concerning the Consignments of Mackerel

Investigated.

In this section are given the place, date, and method of capture, the
name of the consignor, and such other information as may bear upon
the authenticity and representative character of the samples. All the
samples were forwarded to Plymouth in ice, except those which were

THE VARIATION, RACES AND MIGRATIONS OF THE MACKEREL. 243

caught in the neighbourhood of that port. The samples are enumerated
in the order in which they appear in the tables at the end of this
report. The order is geographical, except that the American sample,
the characters of which are shown to be quite peculiar, is placed at the
head of the list.

Newport, U.S.A., October 18th, 1897. 100 fish. "The mackerel are
just as they were taken from the water, without selecting as to sizes,
but being a perfect sample of a catch of 400 fish taken in a trap
or pound net in the waters near Newport, R.I." — Messrs. Blackford, of
Fulton Market, New York. (See Introduction.)

Lowestoft (1.) October 7th, 1897. 100 fish. Caught in nets 4 miles
S.E. from Lowestoft. " These are the finest sample of fish to-day for
the season. They have been much smaller hitherto. They are not
selected." — Mr. Alfred T. Turner, Trawl Market, Lowestoft.

(2.) October 12th, 1897. 50 fish. Caught in nets 14 miles S. by E.
from Lowestoft — Mr. Turner. These are the half of an average 100
of fish taken direct from the boat ; but they are not representative
of the whole catch, as, owing to a misunderstanding, the 50 smaller
fish out of the hundred were alone forwarded. " The difference in
size between the two half-hundreds was, however, not great." — A. T. T.

(3.) June 28th, 1898. 50 fish. Nets. A representative sample from
Mr. Turner.

(4.) July 12th, 1898. 100 fish. Caught in nets 10 or 12 miles E. of
Lowestoft, " quite abreast of the town." — Mr. Turner. A representative
sample, except that the four smallest fish (measuring 11^ and llf
inches in length), out of a total of 104 examined, have been eliminated.

Ramsgate, October 27th, 1897. 100 fish. Caught in nets off the
Kentish Knock, about 20 to 24 miles from Eamsgate Harbour. A
representative sample. Messrs. W. Ferridge & Co., Central Fish Market,
Ramsgate.

•^o^

Plymouth (1.) July to October, 1897. 76 fish. Caught in a variety
of ways. Not representative. The following are the dates, places, and
methods of capture.

July 21st. In the Sound near the Laboratory. Seine. 12 fish.
„ 22nd. 1 mile S. of Breakwater. Hook and line. 13 fish.
Sept. 21st. ProhaUy off Penlee Point. Hook. 10 fish.
„ „ River Tamar, 5 miles above Saltash. 1 fish.
Oct. 7th. River Tamar, Saltash to Cargreen. Small-meshed drift
net. 3 fish.
„ 20th. Between Eddystone and Mewstone. Pilchard nets. 19.
„ 27th. Probably off Eddystone. Pilchard nets. 18 fish.

244 THE VARIATIOX, KACES AND MIGRATIONS OF THE MACKEREL.

(lb.) September to November, 1897. This modification of the pre-
ceding sample occurs in table D. It consists in the substitution
of 25 small November fish, caught principally in herring nets, for the
25 fish caught in July. It was required owing to the fact that the
character to which table I) refers was not examined in any British
fish before my visit to America in August.

(2.) Nov. 16th to 20th, 1897. 100 fish. Caught on the 16th, 17th,
18th, 19th, and 20th November, in drift nets worked a few miles S.E.
from the EdJystone (14-18 miles S. of Plymouth Breakwater). Supplied
by Mr. J. Turner, Plymouth. The sample is not quite representative. The
total number examined was 109, but the nine smallest (from 10^ to
11 1 inches in length) were eliminated.

At this time enormous numbers of drift mackerel were being taken
in this locality, especially on the nights of the 16th and 17th November.
Smaller fish, from 7f to 11 inches in length, were commonly taken at
the same time in herring nets worked nearer shore.

(3.) July 6th, 1898. 100 fish. Caught in nets 30 miles south of the
harbour. Supplied by Mr. Turner. Not quite representative. The total
number examined was 118, but the 18 smallest (from 10 to 11 inches
in length) have been eliminated.

(4.) July nth, 1898. 24 fish. Caught at mid-day in the Sound,
immediately below the Laboratory, in a seine. The sample is fairly
representative of the total catch of 600 fish.

SciLLY (1.) May 8th, 1898. 12 fish. Caught off Bishop Lighthouse,
May 7th and 8th. Landed at Plymouth, May 9th.

(2.) June 2nd, 1898. 12 fish. Caught "in light green water" 80 to
90 miles S.W. by W. (magnetic) from Newlyn, i.r., about 65 miles
S.S.W. (true) from St. Mary's, Scilly. Total catch, 600. Forwarded by
Mr. B. J. Kidge of Newlyn, Penzance. ["Fish caught oft' the Bishop
Lighthouse about this time were mostly shotten." — B. J. R]

(3.) June 9th, 1898. 50 fish. Caught 20 miles S.W. from the Wolf
Lighthouse. Forwarded by Mr. B. J. Ridge.

Brest, June 20th, 1898. lOU fish. Caught by hook and line off
Camaret, south of Brest, France, and forwarded in ice by steamer direct
from Brest to Plymouth. (See Introduction.) The length of one fish
was not recorded, but is assumed to have been 14 inches, the most
frequent size.

KiNSALE (1.) July 30th, 1897. 119 fish. Caught with nets off the
Old Head of Kiusale. Forwarded by Mr. James Carroll, Fish
Merchant, Kinsale, per Cork steamer to Plymouth. Note from
sender : — " They are a fair average specimen of the fish now being
taken. All mackerel now captured are of small size and poor quality —

THE VARIATION, RACES AND MIGRATIONS OF THE MACKEREL. 245

will much improve about September." Placed in formaline on arrival
at the Laboratory, and examined Sept. 19th, 24tb, and 25th.

(2.) Sept. 3rd, 1897. 99 fish. Caught with nets off the Old Head of
Kinsale. "A fair average specimen of the fish now being taken."
Forwarded by Mr. Carroll. Placed in formaline on arrival at the
Laboratory, and examined Sept. 16th to 19th.

(3.) Sept. 17th, 1897. 92 fish. Caught with nets off the Old Head of
Kinsale. "A fair average specimen of the fish now being taken."
Mr. Carroll.

(4.) July 1st, 1898. 100 fish. Mr. Carroll.

Smerwick, March 12th, 1898. 99 fish from Smerwick Harbour,
County Kerry; forwarded by Mr. John McKenna, Butter Merchant,
Dingle.

Brandon (1), April 16th, 1898. 45 fish. Caught at Brandon Creek,
County Kerry ; forwarded by Mr. McKenna. 46 fish actually arrived,
but the smallest (length, 12| inches) has been eliminated, owing to its
marked divergence in size from the rest of the sample.

(2.) April 23rd, 1898. 101 fish. Caught at Brandon Creek; for-
warded by Mr. McKenna.

IV. Size of the Mackerel Investigated.

The length of the body has been taken as the basis for comparing
the relative sizes of the fish investigated, and this has been measured
in all cases from the tip of the closed jaws to the median extremity of
the fork of the tail. The longer rays of the tail-fin are subject to
accidents in capture and transit, and cannot therefore be included in an
accurate comparative table of measurements ; but it should be remem-
bered that these rays are generally included in ordinary measurements
of body-length, which would consequently be somewhat in excess of
my determinations. The fish have always been measured in the same
way, by placing them with their left sides uppermost upon a measuring-
board, with the tip of the jaws touching a vertical plate immoveably
fixed at the zero of the scale, which is accurately ruled to quarters
of an inch. The length of the fish has been read off to the nearest
quarter.

The observed number of specimens of the different sizes represented
in each consignment of fish is recorded in table A. The general size of
the fish representing each locality can, however, be more readily
gathered from the more condensed statements given below, which are
in percentages of the total number from each locality. In Table I. the
size is indicated in inches, the fractional differences recorded in table A

246 THE VARIATION, RACES AND MIGRATIONS OF THE MACKEREL.

being neglected. In Tcable II., which is still further condensed, the
range of size included in each vertical column is 2 inches.

Table I., slioiuing Distribution of Size in One-inch Groups.

(Percentages.)

Place of Capture.

No. of
Fish.

10+

11 +

Lengtl
12+

I of Fish (inches).
13+ 14+ 15+

16+

17+

Newport, U.S.A. .
Lowestoft

100
300

2%
3

53%
28

33%
48

10%
20

1%
1

1%

Ramsgate

100

4

23

40

25

5

3

Plymouth
Scilly .
Brest

300

74

100

5

29
5
1

38
33

2

21
27
36

5
22
42

2

8

14

4
4

1

1

Kinsale .

410

i

23

55

15

5

1

Kerry .
Irish : Autumn

245
310

1

30

7
63

20

7

33

29

11

1

4

Irish : Spring

345

1*

14

25

30

21

8

\

Table II., showing Distrihition of Size in Ttvo-inch Groups.

(Percentages.)

Place of Capture.

No. of
Fish.

10+11

Length of Fish
12+13

(Inches).
14+15

16+17

Newport

Lowestoft

100
300

2
3

86
76

11

21

I

Eamsgate

100

4

63

30

3

Plymouth
Scilly .
Brest

300

74

100

34
5

1

59
60

38

7
30
56

5
5

Kinsale .

410

24

70

6

Kerry .

Irish : Autumn

245
310

30

27
70

62

11

Irish: Spring

345

2

39

51

8

These tables show that the great majority of fish investigated were
from 12 to 13 f inches in length.

The Lowestoft and Ilamsgate samples closely resemble one another in
size, the latter having a slight preponderance of the larger fish.

The samples of smallest-sized fish were those from Plymouth and
Kinsale, and these may be regarded as practically similar to one another
in this respect. They show a considerable percentage (24% to 34%) of
fish below 12 inches in length, a percentage much higher than that in
any other of the local samples. The percentage of fish above 13f
inches in length is also excessively small in these two samples, being

THE VARIATION, RACES AND MIGRATIONS OF THE MACKEREL. 247

only 67o or 77o, whereas it is 217o for Lowestoft, 307o for Eamsgate, and
about 607o for Brest and County Kerry.

The samples of largest-sized fish are those from Brest and County
Kerry, in which there are practically no fish below 13 inches in length.

The American fish are intermediate in character between the Lowes-
toft and Plymouth samples, but are unique in regard to their great
uniformity in size, 867o being between 12 and 13f inches in length.

The fish in the Scilly sample are a mixed lot, obtained over a wide
area at the western entrance to the English Channel. As the total
number of these fish does not amount to the number already assigned
as the minimum for a unit sample, their variations are not much
discussed on the present occasion ; but it is interesting to notice the
curious distribution of sizes among these 74 fish which were all captured
within a single month. The sample shows three distinct maxima of
frequency, one at 12 inches, another at 13 inches, and another at 14
inches (see table A). This phenomenon is not due solely to the mixture
of samples from different localities, for it is shown also in the single
consignment of 50 fish captured on June 9th.

From what has been said, it will be seen to be possible to divide the
local samples into groups characterised by the preponderance of large,
moderate, or small sized fish. This grouping takes the following form : —

Large : Kerry.

Brest.
Moderate : Lowestoft.

Eamsgate.

Scilly.

Newport, U.S.A.
Small : Plymouth.

Kinsale.

This grouping is by no means to be understood as implying that the
mackerel found in these localities constantly bear the size relations
assigned to them here. It is no doubt true that the largest fish are
always most abundant on the Atlantic coast, but the correspondence
between the samples and the natural distribution of the fish in this
instance must be regarded as an exceptional coincidence. The samples
are only representative of the fish caught at the dates mentioned in the
tables (subject to certain reservations already given in the particulars
concerning the consignments). To draw general conclusions upon the
natural distribution of size among the fish all round our coasts, it would
be necessary to secure the regular delivery of representative samples
from fixed stations throughout the year, as was done, for example, by
the Scottish Fishery Board in the case of the herring (4th Report S.F.B.,

248 THE VARIATION, RACES AND MIGRATIONS OF THE MACKEREL.

1886, pp. 65-72). Such an arrangement would be decisive, but expensive,
and could not, I believe, be undertaken by the Association under present
conditions. An attempt which I made in the Autumn of 1897 to
secure the periodic consignment of a small sample from Kinsale fell
through owing to the refusal of the fish merchant to undertake the
supply of small quantities, the price of which would not repay him for
his trouble.

Nevertheless, in spite of their incompleteness, the following general
features of the samples may be advantageously summarised, if only as
a means of inviting furtlier attention to the subject : —

1. Large fish, measuring 14 inches and upwards, preponderate only
on the Atlantic coasts of Ireland and Brittany. The sample from
Brest is particularly valuable as an index of distribution, because the
fish composing it were all caught with hook and line, the sizes in most
of the other samples being partially determined by the mesh of the nets
with which the fish were captured. The late date (June 20th) at which
these large Brest fish were taken close to shore is also worthy of notice.
The sample caught at Kinsale some ten days later (July 1st) consisted
of distinctly smaller fish.

2. On the Irish coast the spring fish are much larger than the
autumn fish ; but in the Channel and North Sea no such difference
is to be recognised. Indeed, in the latter areas the autumn fish appear
on the whole to be slightly larger than the early breeding fish, and
seem to be the same fish at a later stage of growth.

3. The sequence of events on the Irish coast, as indicated by
table A, appears to be as follows : In March * moderately large fish
(13 and 14 inches) arrive; in April the size of the fish attains its
maximum (a preponderance of 14 and 15 inch fish); at the end of
June (Kinsale, July 1st) the proportion of large fish is greatly reduced,
and there is a considerable accession of small fish (11 and 12 inches),
the total range of size being now at its maximum ; by the end of July
the large fish have all disappeared, and there is a preponderance of
1 1 inch fish ; and from now onwards the size gradually but slightly
increases, as though by growth rather than by new immigrations of
larger fish. In this summary I have assumed that samples of fish
caught off the South and West coasts of Ireland {i.e., Kinsale and
Kerry) are equally representative of the general size prevailing at the
periods of capture, though I have no doubt that the examination of
simultaneous samples from the two coasts will reveal slight differences,
at any rate, in this respect. This point I hope to elucidate during the
present autumn and the next spring seasons.

* Two large mackerel, one of each sex, were forwarded to me by Mr. Green in Februar}'.
They measured IG ins. in length, and were caught off Gariness, Co. Cork, on Feb. 23rd, 1898.

THE VARIATION, RACES AXn MIGRATIOyS OF THE MACKEREL. 249

V. Skx.

§ 1. Proportion of the Sexes. Out of a total of 918 mackerel caught
in British waters 423 were males and 495 females, forming a percentage
of 46 males to 54 females, or a proportion of 117 females to every
100 males.

This excess of females over males is slight compared with the
preponderance of this sex which Fulton has shown to exist in the case
of most sea-fishes with pelagic eggs. (8th Eeport Scottish Fishery
Board, 1890, p. 849; 9th Eeport, 1891, p. 247. Partially quoted in
Cunningham's " ^Marketable Fishes," 1896, p. 76.) In this respect the
mackerel comes nearest to the cod, in which the proportion of females
to 100 males is 133.

The explanation which Fulton suggests of the general preponderance
of females in species of sea-fishes is founded on the great difference in
bulk between the ripe ovary and testis, which often leads to obvious
differences in the degree of distension of the abdominal cavity in the
two sexes during the breeding season. The necessity for the annual
production of a certain minimum number of eggs, coupled with the
difficulty experienced by the females of many species in carrying their
proper quantity of ova, has accordingly led in some cases to a relative
increase in the size of the females, in others to an increase in their
relative number, or even, as indeed is generally the case, to an increase
of the females under both these heads. The duration of the spawning
season is also affected by the same factors.

As the general size of the female mackerel is shown in a subsequent
section to be only slightly in excess of that of the male, we are
probably correct in attributing the relatively slight preponderance of
females in the mackerel to the relatively large body-cavity which this
species possesses, as compared with the body-cavity of a gadoid or
fiatfish. The small size of the mackerel's egg also obviates the necessity
for a large preponderance of females.

The large size of the body-cavity in the mackerel is probably, in its
turn, connected with the active pelagic habits of this fish, as it would
be a manifest impediment to vigorous movements if the abdominal
region should become so distended in the spawning season as it is
in the more lethargic cod and llatfi.sh tribes. As the same feature
is also found in the herring and pilchard, it would appear to be a
general phenomenon among pelagic and so-called " migratory " species.

§ 2. Segregation of the Sexes. It has been maintained by Couch
{British Fishes, vol. ii., p. 68) that the sexes of the mackerel become
much divided during the early migration. Out of 20 specimens taken
indiscriminately on one occasion during jNIarch he counted 16 males

250 THE VARIATION, RACES AND MIGRATIONS OF THE MACKEREL.

and only 4 females. During another season he counted 17 males to
8 females. Tt is true that on a third occa.sion Couch found the sexes
to be equally represented in a sample of the earliest spring fish ; but he
explains this exception by adopting the opinion of the fishermen that
the fish of this particular school belonged to a different class from the
ordinary spring fish — that they were old fish of the preceding season
which had not moved out into deep water, and that they did not
represent the usual spring immigrants from the Atlantic.

The evidence of American observers on this point is conflicting
(Commissioner's Eeport for 1881, U.S. Fish Com., 1884, p. 114).

My own observations on the proportion of the sexes in various
samples of mackerel at different seasons are recorded in table E (p. 293).
The only sample examined during March was one from Smerwick,
County Kerry, and it certainly supports Couch's statements that in
this particular sample the males were nearly twice as numerous as the
females, 63 out of a total of 99 fish being of the former sex.

But it must be pointed out at the same time that an actual excess of
males over females in particular samples is also found at other seasons
of the year. Thus, out of 25 Lowestoft fish, captured October 12th,
1897, there were 15 males to 10 females; and out of 100 Eamsgate
fish caught a fortnight later 55 were males. In the American sample,
also caught during October, 55% were males. The preponderance of
males in these cases is certainly not so great as in the Smerwick
sample, but it is sufhcient to show the necessity of caution in accepting
conclusions of this kind based upon relatively small samples. Until
observations on the subject shall have been considerably multiplied,
I think it will be best to suspend judgment upon a matter which
may be, biologically, of considerable importance.

In this connexion I would draw attention to the evidence submitted
in the succeeding section, which shows that the numerical proportion of
the sexes differs, as a whole, according to the size of fish under con-
sideration, owing to a difference in the rate and limits of growth of the
two sexes. Now it is an open question whether the so-called "schools"
of mackerel are formed by the chance association of fish which happen
to be near one another, independently of sex and size, or whether they
are not due to the selective association of fish having some common
characteristic. The evidence derived from samples of fish caught in
drift-nets is of little value, owing to the selective action of the mesh of
the nets. The evidence from samples caught in small-meshed seines
would be fairly conclusive, but the existing data are too few to be
of any use. Nevertheless, such evidence as we possess in the case
of other fishes tends to show that selective association plays a consider-
able part in the formation of shoals, and that similarity of size is one

THE VARIATION, RACES AND MIGRATIONS OF THE MACKEREL. 251

of the points selected. Bateson, for example, speaking of the grey-
mullet, says, "Similarity in size seems to be usual in these shoals."
(Journal M.B.A., I., p. 250.) If, therefore, we assume this principle in
the case of mackerel shoals, it is clear, from the facts to be adduced
shortly, that the normal preponderance of females will tend to be
reduced in the case of shoals of fish below 14 inches in length, and
increased in the case of shoals of fish measuring 15 inches or more,
quite independently of any selective segregation of the sexes.

It is then possibly not without significance that, so far as my own
samples go, a preponderance of males was only observed in samples
of relatively small fish, more than half the fishes in each sample being
below 14 inches in length, and a very small number (from 0% to 11 %)
attaining a length of 15 inches.

§ 3. Seo: and Size. The following table shows the observed frequency
of male and female fish of the various sizes mentioned, in a total
population of 918 mackerel, and also the same facts as percentages
of this latter sum. This population consists of all the samples of
British fish in which the sex has been determined, as shown in Table
E. The American sample has been excluded, since the present in-
vestigation clearly shows the American fish to constitute a distinct race,
much more remotely allied to the European fish than are the British
races inter sc. The last horizontal row of figures shows the relative
number of females of each size compared with the number of males
of the same size taken as 100.

Table III., shoiving relation between Sex and Size.

Length (Inches).

2

10+

11+ 12+ 13+ 14+ 15+ 16+ 17+

Total.

Frec^uency observed.

1
2

37 114 140 86 36 8 1
37 141 133 100 56 23 3

423
495

Frequency in percentages
of the total number
= 918.

0-1
0-2

4 12 15 9 4 10-1
4 15 14 11 6 2-5 0-3

46%
54%

Number of J compared
with g taken as 100.

—

100 124 95 116 156 288 300

117
(mean.)

The table shows that the females in my samples exceed the males in
number at almost every size, the exceptions being at 11 inches where
the frequency of males and females is the same, and at 13 inches where
the males exceed the females by 1 7o of the total number. It is to

NEW SERIES.

-VOL. v. NO. 3.

£

252 THE VARIATIOX, RACES AND MEGRATIONS OF THE MACKEREL.

be noticed that the males are relatively more numerous among the
small lish than among the large ; or, in other words, that the numerical
ratio of males to females becomes more and more reduced as the size
of the fish under consideration increases. This fact is expressed by
the figures on the last horizontal line, which gives the number of
females of each size corresponding to a constant number of males,
taken as 100. It will be seen that, except for a slight irregularity
in the columns representing 12 and lo inches, the relative number
of females becomes considerably increased as the size enlarges.

As, however, the extreme sizes, both small and large, are represented
by relatively small numbers of fish, whether male or female, a more
reliable result will be obtained by dividing the fish into a smaller
number of size-groups. Thus, in two-inch groups, the proportion of
females to every 100 males becomes —

10-11 inches . . .103

12-13 „ . . . . 108

14-15 ., . . . . 128

16-17 „ . . . . 289

thus revealing an increase in the preponderance of females at every
successive grade. The increase is not quite regular, being slight from
10 to 13 inches, then rapid at 14 and 15 inches, and very highly
marked above 15 inches.

Two explanations of this increasing preponderance of females with
increasing size suggest themselves : —

1. The males may be subject to a more rapid death-rate than
the females ; or

2. The growth of the males may be arrested at an earlier stage
than that of the females.

As the true proportion of the sexes of the mackerel at the time
of hatching or in ovo cannot be ascertained with our present know-
ledge, it is difficult to test the former alternative, which is a priori
improbable, owing to the absence of any known differences between
male and female mackerel as regards habits of life or structure of
the body. So far as the physiological wear and tear of reproduction
goes, this probably affects the female more severely than the male.

The second alternative is the more probable one, since sexual
dimorphism in regard to size is a very common phenomenon, and in
fishes the female frequently exceeds the male in length. Still the
cessation of growth in the males does not take place uniformly at any
one stage, since the extreme limit (17 inches) attained by the females
in my samples is also attained by the males. The exact stage of
cessation is clearly subject to considerable variation, and is probably

THE VARIATION, RACES AND MIGRATIONS OF THE MACKEREL. 253

preceded by a retardation in the relative rate of growth, as compared
with that of females of the same size. It is improbable that any
considerable percentage of males actually stop growing at 11, 12, or 13
inches, so that, taking the normal number of females for every 100 males
to be 117, as explained in the preceding section, we must explain
the relative excess of males below 14 inches as due to retarded growth
of the males in excess ; but the increasing relative deficiency of
males above 14 inches in length must be due to a large extent to
actual arrest of growth, since the normal proportion of males to
females is never realized in groups of fish measuring more than
14 inches in length.

The minute economy which prevails among species under natural
conditions of existence is clearly revealed by the facts established
in the preceding paragraphs ; for it is obvious that, ceteris paribus,
the equivalent growth of males and females would lead to an
increasing superfluity of the male reproductive elements, owing to
the great difference in size between an ovum and a spermatozoon.

It remains to add that the average size of 423 males recorded in
the tables is 12-988 inches; that of the 495 females, 13145 inches.
Consequently, if the average size of the males be taken as 100, that
of the females becomes 101. The difference between the size of
mahcre males and females is probably a little greater than this, but
the subject of maturity in the mackerel is reserved for a later report.

§ 4, Secondary Sexual Characters. Apart from size, I have been
unable to discover any evidence whatever of the existence of secondary
sexual peculiarities in the mackerel. My investigations of this point
will be found under the special sections dealing with the shape of the
Transverse Bars (p. 261), the Dorso-lateral Intermediate Spots (p. 263),
and the First Dorsal Fin (p. 267). With the exception already
mentioned, I can therefore repeat the remark of Smitt that " all the
statements as to an external difference of sex in the mackerel which
have been made up to the present have proved untrustworthy on closer
examination" {Scandinavian Fishes, I. 1892, p. 112).

VI. Number of Transverse Bars.

§ 1. The Entire Series. The frequency of the variations in the entire
number of transverse bars in the various local samples and in certain
chosen combinations of these is set out in Table B. (p. 290).

The extreme range of variation is from 23 to 33, i.e., 11 bars.

The modal (i.e., most frequent) number is almost invariably 27, there
being only three exceptions to this rule among 21 samples, viz., Scilly,
June 9th, (50 fish), Kinsale, July 1st (100 fish), and Brandon, April

K 2

25-4 THE VARIATION, RACES AND MIGRATIONS OF THE MACKEREL.

IGth, (45 fish). Two of these samples, it will be noticed, are small: in
one the modal number is 26, in the other 28.

The first impression made upon a survey of the figures in the table is
undoubtedly the slight nature of the differences in the range and
frequencies of variation in the different samples. But the next
impression is the remarkable constancy with which mean-values of less
than 27 are associated with samples from localities in the North Sea
and English Channel, while the means for the Irish and American
samples exceed that figure with only one exception. This indicates, as
can easily be seen by comparison, that in North Sea and Channel
samples the values below 27 always occur more frequently than those
above 27 ; while in the Irish and American samples, with only one
exception, the reverse is the case.

For North Sea and Channel samples, the means vary from 26"50 to
26'94, and, for Irish samples, from 26'90 to 27"56. The American mean
is 27-38.

If we exclude all samples of less than 90 fish, the means, taken in
the same order, vary from 26-62 to 26-91, and from 26-90 to 27-32.

Analysing this contrast still further, by means of the table of
percentages for the local groups (neglecting groups of less than 200
fish), we see that the frequency of the value 26 varies from 30 7o to
31 7o in the case of Lowestoft and Plymouth, but from 21 7o to 23% in
the case of Kerry and Kinsale. Similarly the frequency of the value
28 varies from 14% to 15% for Plymouth and Lowestoft, but from
23% to 25% for Kinsale and Kerry. The frequency of the modal
value 27 is constant at 38 7o for the two Irish groups, but varies from
38 7„ to 42 7o for Lowestoft and Plymouth.

The conclusion is irresistible that the Lowestoft and Plymouth fish
resemble one another very closely, and that the Kerry and Kinsale
fish do so likewise, but that there is a comparatively serious difference
between the Irish fish and those from the North Sea or Channel.

Hitherto, however, we have not taken into consideration the actual
frequencies of the extreme values {i.e., those below 26 and above 28).
These values occur very rarely, and their separate frequencies cannot
consequently be compared with exactitude in samples of ordinary
magnitude. To bring their frequencies into consideration, it will be
necessary to merge all the extreme values into two groups, one of low,
and the other of high value, and to compare the frequencies of the
combined values. This has been done in the following condensed
table, in which, also, the Eamsgate data have been combined with the
Lowestoft records to form a single group representative of the North
Sea, and Brest has been combined with Scilly. No one, I imagine, will
be prepared, on the evidences provided in this report, or on any other

THE Variation, races and migrations of the mackerel. 255

grounds, to regard the Eamsgate autumn fish as anything but the
southern extension of the Lowestoft shoals. The Scilly data closely
resemble those from Brest in many respects, and the combined data
may be regarded as representing the mackerel off the mouth of the
Channel during June.

Table IV., showing frequencies of values of Transverse Bars.

(Percentages.)

Number of

23 to

26

27

28

29 to

Fish.

25

33

Newport, U.S.A.

100

6

13

37

28

16

j North Sea

400

9

29

42

15

5

{ Plymouth

300

8

30

42

14

6

^ Brest and Scilly

174

5

32

41

17

5

/ Kinsale .
I Kerry

410

5

23

38

23

11

245

3

21

38

25

13

This table strikingly confirms the conclusions already drawn. The
resemblance between the percentage frequency of the different values
in the case of Plymouth and North Sea fish amounts practically to
identity, and the resemblance between the same data for Kinsale and
Kerry fish is almost equally exact. The combined Brest and Scilly
data also closely resemble the North Sea and Plymouth records.

On the other hand, the American and the two Irish groups diverge
considerably from the others in the low percentage of the low values
and in the high percentage of the high values, and the American
sample shows this contrast still more markedly than the Irish groups.

From the variation of this character, therefore, I conclude that the
mackerel examined fall into three groups, characterised by differences
in the frequency of high and low values of the transverse bars. These
groups, arranged in order of frequency of the high values, are : —

1. American, in which 44% of the fish have 28 or more bars each.

2. Irish, in which the number of fish having the same high

number of bars varies between 34 % and 38 Vo-

3. English Channel and North Sea (including Brest and Scilly), in

which the number of fish having the high number of bars
varies between 20 % and 22 7o-

I also conclude that these differences indicate a racial separation
between the three groups. The American fish are shown in the
sequel to be distinguishable from European fish in regard to every
character, .lO that I do not anticipate that my conclusion as to the

256 THE VAUIATION, RACES AND MIGRATIONS OF THE MACKEREL.

existence of a peculiar American race of mackerel will be disputed.
But the differences between the Irish and the Channel fish are not
so sharply defined in all respects as those between the American and
European, so that the same degree of certainty cannot be attached
to my conclusion as to the existence of a separate Irish race. Never-
theless, I would point out that, if the racial distinctness of the
American fish be admitted, it is impossible to avoid a similar conclusion
in regard to the Irish fish also, if we confine our attention to the
evidence of the variation of the transverse bars, for the difference
between the Irish and Channel samples is greater than the differ-
ence between the Irish and American, and is almost as great as the
difference between the American and the European as a whole.

IMoreover, the general difference between the Irish and English
fish is not confined to the gross samples from these localities as a
whole — in which case it might be attributed to errors of observation
or calculation — but it has been shown to be also characteristic of the
numerous individual samples of fish from these localities, almost
without exception. This fact, in my opinion, is one of very great
importance.

It must also be stated that the differences between the samples
are not due to any increase in the number of bars with the growth
of the fish. This can be inferred merely by comparing the sizes of
the fish in the different samples. Thus the highest mean number of
bars occurs in the American sample, which consisted almost entirely
of relatively small fish, while the lowest mean number occurs in the
Lowestoft sample, dated June 28th, in which the distribution of sizes
was practically identical with that in the American. (See Table A.)
Again the values are almost equally high for the Kinsale samples
as for the Kerry samples, although the former consist exclusively of
small fish, and the latter exclusively of large fish.

The following facts which I have ascertained point unequivocally
to the same conclusion.

The transverse bars are formed at an early period, and the basis
of their formation is a deposit of pigment along the free surface of
the myotomes. It is this relation to the myotomes which gives the
bars in the majority of cases a marked > shaped curvature. Now
the number of myotomes corresponds to the number of vertebne, which
is almost invariable in most species of bony fishes, and particularly so
in the mackerel. From the relation of the bars to the myotomes it
may, accordingly, be assumed that no change in their number takes
place after formation.

If the correspondence between transverse bars and myotomes were
perfect, tlie number of the bars would be the same as the number

THE VARIATION, RACES AND MIGRATIONS OF THE MACKEREL. 257

of vertebrse, and equally invariable. This is obviously not the case.
But it is important to notice that the average, or rather modal, nuniber
of bars is exactly the same as the number of vertebrae. The modal
number of bars between shoulder girdle and last dorsal fin let is shown
in my tables to be 27. The total number of vertebras in the mackerel
is 31. But the vertebral column extends a little in front and a little
behind the limits mentioned, and by dissection I have found that this
excess coincides with the extent of the two anterior and the two
posterior vertebrae. Consequently the number of vertebne in the
region corresponding to the bars enumerated is four less than the
total number, viz., 27, which is also the modal, or most frequent
number of bars. This correspondence furnishes a conclusive con-
firmation of the general accuracy of my data in regard to the present
character, as well as of my statement that the bars are formed in
relation to the myotomes. The variation in the number of bars is
due to the fact that the pigment is not deposited in a regular manner
along the free surface of the myotomes, except in very rare cases. In
most fishes the pigment streak can be seen to correspond with a
particular myotome for part of its extent, and then to become
broken or discontinuous, either remaining as an isolated fragment, or
more frequently effecting an abrupt anastomosis with the pigment
of a neighbouring myotome. These two facts, the discontinuous
deposition of pigment along the myotomes, and the irregular
anastomosis of the pigment streaks of neighbouring myotomes, account
not only for the variable shape of the transverse bars, but also for
their variable numbers. The variation in the number of the bars,
in spite of the fundamental relation between the bars and the
myotomes, does not involve any variation in the number of the
myotomes or vertebne. But, just as the number of myotomes is
fixed for each fish, so the number of pigment-bars which are formed
in connection with them is not subject to alteration after the period
of formation. This period falls between the metamorphosis of the
larva and the acquisition of a length of some 4 or 5 inches.*

To remove all doubt concerning this important point, I have calcu-
lated the mean number of bars in all the very small fish taken at
Plymouth during the autumn of 1897. The total number of fish
was 67, ranging in length from 5^ to 10 inches. The mean number

* It is curious to notice that the transverse bars of the adult mackerel occupy a position
in relation to the myotomes which is quite diderent from that occupied by the vertical
lines of chromatophores in young mackerel from 14 to 18 mm. in leugth, according
to Holt's description and figures (this Jourual, V., 1898, p. 110, figures 3 and 4). In
preserved specimens at this early stage Holt states that, ' ' on the sides of the trunk, the
chromatophores are set more thickly at the lines of division of the myomeres than
elsewhere," i.e., along, instead of between, the septa which separate the myotomes.

258 THE VARIATION, RACES AND MIGRATIONS OF THE MACKEREL.

of the bars was 26'66, a number well within the range of the means
for North Sea and Channel samples, viz., from 26"50 to 26'94.

§ 2. The Bars which cross or meet the Lateral Line. The frequency of
the variations in the number of these bars is given in Table C (p. 291).

It will be noticed that, in spite of the greater exactitude with which
the number of these bars can be determined, the range of variation is
distinctly greater. In the case of the entire series the range covered only
11 bars ; in the present case the range is from 12 to 25, and covers conse-
quently 14 bars. When it is remembered that in the former case the
whole side, and in the present case only a part of the side of the fish,
was under examination, the observed difference in the range of variation
must be regarded as significant. I attribute the difference to the fact
that the field occupied by the bars in the first case is invariable, being
the whole side of the fish, while that which provides the material for
variation in the present case is in itself variable. The anterior boundary
is fixed by the shoulder-girdle, as in the entire series ; but the posterior
boundary of the field depends on the curvature of the lateral line in
that part of the body. The place where the bars cease to meet the
lateral line generally coincides with an abrupt downward bend in the
course of the line ; but, as the bend is sometimes absent, or takes place
in front of, or behind, its usual position, the number of bars which
meet the line is correspondingly increased or reduced.

The number of bars affected by this irregularity in the curvature
of the lateral line is not great, and the error which is introduced by
it into the records of the variability of the number of bars consequently
tends to become smaller and smaller as the number of observations is
increased. But, as the mean values in Table C show, it is sufficient
to break down the high uniformity of results between the unit-
samples of any one region which was exhibited in Table B.

Excluding the two small samples of 12 fish from Scilly, the modal
number is seen to be usually 18 ; but the exceptions to this rule are
more frequent in the present case than for the entire series, being 6
instead of 3.

The means for the samples from Lowestoft, Eamsgate, and Plymouth
vary from 18-03 to 18-58 ; for Scilly and Brest from 18-64 to 18-65, and
for the Irish samples from 18-15 to 18-62. The American mean
is 18-88.

If we exclude all samples of less than 90 fish, the means for the
North Sea and Channel vary from 1804 to 18-43, those for the other
localities being unaffected.

Thus the American mean, as before, is the highest, and the lowest
means are found among the North Sea and Channel samples, as was
also the case for the entire series of bars; but the contrast between

THE VARIATION, RACES AND MIGRATIONS OF THE MACKEREL. 259

the Irish and the Channel means is much less emphatic for the partial
series than for che entire series of bars, owing to the more extended
range of the mean values for both localities.

The explanation is, I believe, the same as for the greater range of
variation of the partial series as compared with the entire series,
viz., the irregularity introduced by the variability of the lateral line,
which renders the number 100 insufficient as a unit-sample. If this
is so, a closer approach to the former result ought to be revealed by
comparing the means of the local groups of fish as a whole, neglect-
ing groups of less than 200 fish. These means in fact for the
Lowestoft and Plymouth groups vary from 18'21 to 1823, and for
the Kinsale and Kerry groups from 18'37 to 18-45, thus displaying a
close agreement between the Lowestoft and Plymouth fish, and also
between the Kinsale and Kerry fish, but a considerable difference
between the Irish fish and those from the North Sea or Channel.

This relation is precisely the same as that revealed by the variation
of the entire series of bars, the means for the North Sea and Channel
being lower than those for the Irish groups in each case.

It is interesting to notice also that the close approximation between
the Brest and Scilly means in regard to the entire series of bars is
again shown in regard to those which meet the lateral line ; but
whereas the combined mean for Brest and Scilly only slightly exceeded
that for the North Sea and Plymouth in the former case, here it is
actually higher than the Irish mean. The significance of this differ-
ence it is impossible to decide at present, as the total number of fish
from Brest and Scilly only amounts to 174, a number which cannot be
regarded as sufficient to neutralise the error due to the curvature of
the lateral line. If the mean, however, be provisionally accepted as
approximately correct, it points to the conclusion that in some respects
the mackerel which are found ofi' the mouth of the English Channel
and the neighbourhood of Ushant in June may form a connecting link
between the Irish fish and those of the North Sea and Channel. From
the geographical relations of the areas under discussion such a result
would certainly accord with a priori expectations.

The percentages of frequency of high and low values of the bars
may best be understood from the following condensed table : —

260 THE VARIATION, RACES AND MIGRATIONS OF THE MACKEREL.

Table V., showing frequencies of values of jjartial Series of Bars.

(Percentages.)

Number of
Fish.

12-16

17-18

19-20

21-25

Newport, U.S.A. .

100

7

35

42

16

C North Sea

400

9

49

37

5

\ Plymouth

300

12

4G

38

4

Brest and Scilly

174

6

39

48

7

( Kinsale .

410

8

43

41

8

i Kerry

245

10

45

37

8

We see from this table that the combined percentages in the two
right-hand columns exceed those in the two left-hand columns in only-
two cases, viz., Newport, and Brest and Scilly. This preponderance of
high values over low values corresponds to an excess of the mean
values above 18'5.

In all other cases the figures in the two left-hand columns exceed
those in the two right-hand columns. This preponderance of low
values corresponds to mean-values less than 18*5.

The figures for the North Sea and Plymouth again correspond with
remarkable exactitude, as also do those for Kinsale and Kerry. The
difference between the Irish values and those for the groups from the
North Sea and Channel is not great, but it is distinctly greater than
the difference between the North Sea and Plyoiouth groups i7iter se, or
between the groups from Kinsale and Kerry. The column which
contains the highest percentages for each of these four localities is
that recording the frequency of the numbers 17-18; and it will be
seen that while the frequency of these values varies from 46 °/o to
49 7o for the North Sea and Plymouth, it does not exceed 45 % for
Kinsale and Kerry.

In this connexion it should be noticed that both the minimum and
maximum frequencies of the lowest values (12-16) are lower for the
Irish groups than for the North Sea and Plymouth. On the other
hand, the highest values of all (21-25) occur twice as often among
Kinsale and Kerry fish as among North Sea and Channel fish, viz., 8 7o.
as compared with 4% or 5%. This contrast in regard to the dis-
tribution of high and low values can be looked at in another way, viz.,
by comparing the relative frequency of the highest and lowest values
in each group of fish. Thus in the American fish the frequency of the
highest values is more than twice as great as that of the lowest values
(16:7); for Brest and Scilly it is barely in e.xcess (7; 6); for Kinsale

THE VARIATION, RACES AND MIGRATIONS OF THE MACKEREL. 261

and Kerry the frequencies of the highest and lowest values are
approximately the same (8 °/o) ; while for the Xorth Sea and Channel
the lowest values are twice or thrice as frequent as the highest values
(9:5 and 12:4).

So far, therefore, as concerns the main conclusions drawn from the
variation of the entire series of bars, the variation of the partial series
•furnishes a fairly satisfactory confirmation. These conclusions were
the existence of three main races of mackerel in American and British
waters, viz. (1) an American, (2) an Irish, and (3) a race common
to the North Sea and the Channel.

The only respect in which the results are at variance concerns the
affinities of the fish from Brest and Scilly, which were clearly with
the Channel and North Sea fish for the entire series of bars, and
with the Irish fish for the partial series. Nothing but the examination
of a larger number of fish from this region will solve the difficulty.
Additional facts, however, are adduced in the sequel which tend to
show that the Brest and Scilly fish are intimately related to those of
the Channel and North Sea, but show, under each character examined,
a slight approximation towards the Irish race.

VII. Shape of Transverse Bars,

The cause which determines the general shape of the transverse bars
has already (p. 256) been discussed, and has been found to be the
deposit of pigment along the external surface of the myotomes. As
the myotomes in the dorsal half of the body have a marked > shaped,
or geniculate, curvature, the bars consequently show a marked tendency
to assume a corresponding shape. The breaks and anastomoses, to
which the bars are subject at the time of their formation, show, however,
such diversity and complexity of form that they defied all my earlier
efforts to discover a suitable system of classification by which the
vagaries in the shape of the bars might be recorded for subsequent
comparison.

I began by noting whether the general arrangement of the bars was
regular or irregular, adopting several grades of regularity and irregularity
to cover the intermediate conditions ; but, although I have a complete
set of data in these terms, and have tabulated the results for comparison,
the examination which I have made of them shows them to be
practically worthless for exact conclusions. • This is largely due, as
I now know, to the fact that regularity "in the bars, i.e., parallelism,
with an absence of breaks and bifurcations, may be of two • very
distinct kinds, which may be termed, for comparison, primary and
secondary. Primary regularity is due to the bars having retained their

262 THE VARIATION, RACES AND MIGRATIONS OF THE MACKEREL.

fundamental relations to the myotomes ; they are not only parallel and
unbroken, but also geniculate in shape. Secondary regularity is caused
by the anastomosis of portions of the pigment streaks of neighbouring
myotomes in such a regularly repeated manner as to produce an equally
marked parallelism of arrangement, coupled with a partial or complete
loss of the typical geniculate curvature and relation to the myotomes.
Thus a parallel series of vertical, or oblique, bars is frequently exhibited;
and in such a case each bar upon dissection has been found to cross
several adjacent myotomes, instead of following any individual myotome
along its course. By grouping those two types of arrangement under
the same head "regular," I was unwittingly uniting things which
should have been poles asunder.

On discovering this error, I proceeded to record the general shape
of the bars in addition to their degree of regularity ; but it would
be unprofitable on the present occasion to give a general account of
these later observations, owing to the fact that the majority of the
fish examined during the autumn of 1897, including the bulk of
the fish from Kinsale, would have to be omitted from consideration.

It has, however, been asserted by Donovan {fide Day, British Fishes,
Vol. I. p. 84) that the sexes can be distinguished by the shape of the
bars, these being " straight " in the male and " undulated " in the
female. As my observations are amply sufificient to test the accuracy
of this statement, I give some figures bearing on the question. As
the term "undulated" is somewhat ambiguous, and may be held to
apply to the angular > shaped, or geniculate, bars, as well as to
those of a more truly wavy, or convoluted type, I have determined
the proportion of the sexes exhibiting each of these characters, in
addition to the proportion exhibiting straight or vertical bars. To
avoid all doubt, I have eliminated all cases except those in which
the bulk of the bars could be definitely described as either geniculate,
wavy, or straight.

The results are shown in the following table : —

Table VI., shoiving Shape of Bars in relation to Sex.

Shape of bars.

Number of
Fish.

(7

?

Geniculate
Wavy
Straight .

75

78
72

34
36
26

41

42
46

Total

225

96

129

THE VAEIATIOX, RACES AND MIGRATIONS OF THE MACKEREL. 263

The figures in the table completely disprove the accuracy of
Donovan's statement, and show, once for all, that the shape of the
bars is entirely independent of the sex of the fish.

The percentages of the total numbers of males and females examined
are 43 ^ and 57 $ ; and for the first two types of bar this proportion
is almost exactly reproduced, being 45:55 for the geniculate bars,
and 46:54 for the wavy bars. So far from the straight bars being
distinctive of male fish, there is a slight preponderance of females
showing this character, the proportion being 36 (? to 64 $ . For a total
of 72 fish, however, this proportion is sutticiently close to the total
proportion of males to females to show the entire absence of sexual
peculiarities in the matter.

VIII. Dorso-Lat£iial Intermediate Spots.

The general character of these spots has already been given in the
description of the characters investigated (p. 241). They are, strictly
speaking, discontinuous portions of the pigment streaks of the
myotonies, but they assume so definite a shape, and possess such
clearly-defined relations to the transverse bars, that it is possible to
discuss the variations in their frequency independently of the bars of
which, theoretically, they form a part.

No fragments of the bars are here considered as " intermediate
spots " unless they possess a sharply-defined round or elliptical shape,
and unless they are situated between two neighbouring transverse bars,
or are entirely or partly enclosed in a ring-like modification of two
neighbouring bars.

It sometimes happens that the extremities of the bars are separated
off as small " end-pieces," which may even assume a rounded form.
Such end-pieces are undoubtedly connecting links, from a theoretical
point of view, between perfectly linear and continuous bars and the
pigment-spots which I distinguish as " intermediate " ; but if these
end-pieces plainly continue the lines of the bars, and do not occupy
an isolated intermediate position between two adjacent bars, they have
been excluded from consideration.

The importance which I attach to the extreme type of " intermediate
spots," as defined, rests on the following grounds. The shape and
course of the bars is fundamentally determined, as already shown, by
the shape and course of the myotomes or muscle-segments. Bars,
therefore, which follow the course of the myotomes may be regarded as
primitive in character. In such cases, since the surface of every
myotome is occupied by a pigment-streak, it is clear that spots, having
an intermediate position between two adjacent bars, can have no

264 THE VARIATION, RACES AND MIGRATIONS OF THE MACKEREL.

existence. Spots of this kind can only be found in fish whose
transverse bars have departed from their primitive relation to the
myotomes, and in which the primitive symmetry has been replaced
by a new symmetry, due to the breaking up of the primary bars and
the anastomosis of the fragments of one bar with those of its neigh-
bours. Some of these fragments remain permanently isolated, and
constitute the intermediate spots under discussion ; while to right
and left of them are seen the new or " secondary " bars which have
resulted from the union of the other fragments of the primary bars.

Thus the presence of intermediate spots is in itself evidence of the
transformation of the primary bars, and the frequency of these spots
in races of fish may be expected to vary according as the process
of transformation has proceeded to a greater or less extent.

A comparison of the markings of the different species of the genus
Scomher shows, indeed, that they are subject to extraordinary modifica-
tions. Thus, according to Giinther's catalogue (vol. ii,, pp. 357-362),
the stripes are transverse in IS. scomher, 2Jncumatophorus, Janesaha, and
iapcinoccphahis, irregularly reticulated in S. colias, longitudinal in
>S'. chrysozomis, replaced by longitudinal rows of spots in S. moluccensis,
and of indistinct dots in S. microlcpidotus. Why the transverse stripes
should be retained in one species and replaced by longitudinal stripes in
another, I am unable at present to say ; but it is evident that the
markings of the mackerel tribe are, so to speak, in a state of very
unstable equilibrium, and susceptible of considerable modification, a
fact which should render them of much service in the investigation of
racial differences in the more primitive species. To this group the
common mackerel belongs, owing to its retention of the transverse
stripes, modified though these are in a variety of ways.

The variations in the frequency and numbers of the intermediate
spots are given in Table D (p. 292).

The number of fish exhibiting one or more spots (which for brevity
will be termed "spotty fish") is seen, as a rule, to be but a small
proportion of the whole ; but in this respect there is a striking contrast
between the European and the American mackerel. In European
samples the number of spotty fish is usually about 25 % of the whole,
varying from T^/o to 29%; but in the American sample the spotty
fish predominate, and amount to 66 % of the total number.

Similarly the total number of spots for every hundred fish is usually
about 30 in European samples, varying from 8 to 57, but attains the
extraordinary total of 215 in the American sample. The table giving
the frequency of the different numbers of spots shows that the high
American total is not due to the accidental inclusion of some one
or two very spotty fisli, but is due to a regular and extensive variation

THE VARIATION, RACES AND MIGRATIONS OF THE MACKEREL. 265

in regard to the nuraber of spots, the numbers from 1 to 11 occurring
with a frequency which decreases fairly regularly as the number of
spots increases. In one fish actually 17 spots were enumerated.

It is not to be expected that a character which is altogether absent in
75% of the fish would show any great uniformity of variation in
samples of only 100 fish.

The range of variation in the samples, excluding those of less
than 70 fish,* is, however, as follows : —

Locality. Percentage of Spotty Fish. No. of Spots per 100 fish.

Lowestoft and Ilamsgate . . 17% to 28% ... 24 to 57

Plymouth .... 12% to 25% ... 25 to 57

Brest and Scilly . 18% to 26% .. 32 (each)

Kinsale 16% to 23% ... 22 to 40

Kerry . . . . . 7% to 12% ... 8 to 20

As we have already seen for previous characters, so here in regard to
spottiness, the table brings out the close relationship between the Xorth
Sea and Plymouth fish with a fidelity which is really astonishing ; and
the close affinity of the Brest and Scilly fish with those of the former
regions is also clearly shown. The novel feature of the table is the
remarkable difference between Kinsale and Kerry fish in regard to this
character, those of the West coast of Ireland having a very low degree
of spottiness, while those of the South coast occupy an intermediate
position between the Kerry fish and those of the Channel, approximating,
however, more closely to the latter. The maximum percentage of spotty
fish in the Kerry samples scarcely attains to the minimum percentage
in the samples from every other region, and the maximum number of
spots per hundred fish is actually less than the minimum number for
other localities.

The reliability of the data as a test of racial peculiarities is established
in my opinion by the close conformity of the results in regard to the
North Sea and Plymouth fish, since these are groups the racial identity
of which is rendered antecedently probable by the sequence of events
in the fishing seasons, and by geographical and physical considerations.
This antecedent probability has already been confirmed by the results
described in the section on the number of transverse bars.

The sensitiveness of the character as a test of racial differences is also
confirmed by the great contrast which has been shown to exist between
American and European fish in regard to this character, a contrast which
is borne out by the variation of almost every other character, but which
is more striking for this character than for the remainder.

* The small lirandou sample, dated April IGtli, has been combined with that dated
April 22iul, in order to obtain a representative percentage for this locality.

266 THE VARIATION, RACES AND MIGRATIONS OF THE MACKEREL.

The conclusion, therefore, seems to me to be inevitable that the
mackerel which frequent the south and west coasts of Ireland are
not a single stock of fish which visit both coasts indifferently, but
are separable into two stocks, one of which inhabits the waters off
the west coast, the other those off the south coast.

I find some support for this conclusion in Mr. Green's statement
that he has met with no evidence to show that mackerel in approaching
the Irish coast " travel along it, either to north or south. From Cork
to Donegal, which are the extreme limits of the fishery on the Irish
coast, they appear at the same time." (Bull. U.S. Fish Com., xiii.
1893, p. 358.)

There is, of course, no impassable barrier between the two stocks
of fish. Mixture must undoubtedly take place at the imaginary border-
line between the southern and western areas, and in the spawning
season a variable number of the floating eggs from one stock must
be carried by currents into the area of the other ; but it must be
remembered that my samples are derived from localities relatively far
apart, viz., Kinsale and off the mouth of the Shannon, and that while
the west coast fish are only subject to mixture with the closely related
south coast fish, those which are found in the eastern waters of the
south coast are also liable to mixture with the mackerel of the English
Channel. It is probably significant, therefore, that the differences
between the Kinsale and Kerry fish consist in an approximation of
the former fish, and not of the latter, towards those of the Channel in
regard to the present character.

I may draw attention to the fact that this intermediate condition
of the Kinsale fish is not confined to the present character. If
reference is made again to Table B, it will be seen that the mean
number of transverse bars is distinctly lower for Kinsale (27"15) than
for Kerry (27'27), and consequently approximates towards the mean
value for the Channel, which is the lowest of all (26'79). In this
character, however, the Kinsale fish maintain a closer resemblance to
the Kerry fish than to those of the Channel. Similar results have
also been yielded by the first dorsal fin, as will be described later
on (p. 275).

From a comparison of all three tables (B, C, and D) it would appear
to be probable that the mixture which actually accounts for the inter-
mediate condition of the Kinsale fish is rather with the Brest and
Scilly fish than with those of the Channel in its narrower sense. Such
a conclusion would harmonise well with the known range in the
position of the fishing quarters during the spring season.

To conclude this chapter, I give a more condensed statement of the
results for the four principal regions.

THE VARIATION, RACES AND MIGRATIONS OF THE MACKEREL. 267

Table YII., showing variation in Spottiness.

Number
of Fish.

Percentage of Spotty Fish.

Total

Locality.

Total.

Fish with
1 spot.

Fish with

2 or more

spots.

number of
spots per
100 Fish.

America . . ...
North Sea and English Channel .
Brest and Scilly . ...
Ireland, W. and S. ...

100
700
174
556

66
21
22
15

23
13
15
11

43

8
7
4

215
37
32
23

This table brings out clearly (1) the decisive racial distinctness of
the American fisli, (2) the affinity between the fish from Brest and
Scilly with those of the Channel and North Sea, and (3) the racial
difference between the Irish fish and those of the preceding area.

In general terms it may be said that the American fish are very
spotty, and the Irish fish, particularly off the west coast, are very
free from spots, while the fish which frequent the English Channel,
from its mouth to the coast of Norfolk, have a somewhat higher
percentage, both of spots and spotty fish, than those of the Irish
coast.

That spottiness has no connexion with the size of fish examined
is clear from a comparison of the results with the table of sizes.

The following figures prove the absence of any sexual peculiarities

in the matter. They are based on the entire set of samples in which

the sex of the fish was recorded, i.e., 100 American and 918 British

fish.

American fish. — Proportion of males to females . . .55:45)

„ „ male to female spotty fish . . 59:41/

Deviation = 4 %
British fish. — Proportion of males to females . . .46:54)

„ „ male to female spotty fish . , 44:56 J

Deviation = 2 %

IX. Number of Finrays in First Dorsal Fin.

According to Giinther's Catalogue of Fishes (vol. ii., p. 357), the
number of finrays in the first dorsal fin of the common mackerel is
higher than in any other species of the genus Scomber, and varies from
11 to 14. The lowest number is presented by the Spanish mackerel
(S. colias), which is stated both by Giinther and Day {British Fishes,
i,, p. 91) to possess only 7 rays. An intermediate condition is shown
by S. pneumatophoriLS, which possesses 10 rays, according to the same
authorities. Steindachner, on the other hand, regards the two latter
forms as varieties of one and the same species, in which the number of
finrays would vary accordingly from 7 to 10. From an examination
of several specimens from the Mediterranean, which I owe to Professor

NEW SERIES.— VOL. V. NO. 3. S

268 THE VARIATION, llACES AND MIGRATIONS OF THE MACKEREL.

Mariou's kindness, I am inclined to agree with Steindachner in the
matter. In any case, there is a marked difference in the number of
finrays characteristic of the common and the Spanish mackerel, the
two best known species of the genus Scomber. If there are any
separate races of the common mackerel, there exists, accordingly, an
a 2^^'iori probability that the distinction between these races will
include differences in regard to the number of rays in the first dorsal
fin, especially as the variability of this character in S. scomler is
already known to be considerable.

Before proceeding to an examination of my results, I should state
that the determination of the exact number of rays present in the
first dorsal fin of any mackerel is a matter requiring considerable care,
owing to the minuteness of the posterior rays. The second or third
ray is usually the longest, and the length of the remaining rays
decreases gradually to zero. If one wished to omit the minute hinder
rays from consideration, it would be as difficult to determine a just
arbitrary limit as to endeavour to count the entire series. I have
therefore adopted the latter course, and my figures represent the
maximum number of finrays recognisable in each fish without actual
maceration.

Upon a first inspection of the figures representing the average
number of rays in the fish from each locality, I feared, from their
apparent irregularity, that the difficulties of exact determination had
proved too great for the acquisition of definite results, and this remark
was made in the preliminary account of my researches communicated
to the British Association at Bristol. From the" more complete analysis
of the figures, however, which I now provide, it will be seen that my
fears were groundless, for the data have proved to be of sufficient
exactitude to establish an unexpected but convincing relation between
number of finrays and size of fish.

§ 1. General variation. The distribution of finray values among the
various consignments of mackerel examined is given in Table E.

The range of variation is shown to be from a minimum of 9 rays to
a maximum of 16 rays, but in a total number of more than 1600 fish
the former value was only found twice and the latter value only once.
The most frequent value was 12, which was found in about half the
fish examined ; 13 rays were found in about one quarter of the fish,
and the remaining quarter consisted principally of fish ppssessing 11
and 14 rays, the former value being much more frequent than the
latter. The fish with 9, 10, 15, and 16 rays formed a very small
percentage of the whole (about 3 % altogether).

§ 2. Local differences. In a sample of 100 fish from the French coast
near Jirest, the variation of finray values was absolutely symmetrical

THE VARIATION, RACES AND MIGRATIONS OF THE MACKEREL. 2G9

(see Table E, p. 293), and exactly 50% of the fish exhibited the modal
or most frequent value.

In all other samples the distribution of values was asymmetrical.
The percentages for the various localities show that the modal value is
12 for all localities except Scilly, for which it is 13. This exception
is no doubt partially due to the smallness of the consignments from
that locality (only 74 fish in all), and is paralleled by a similar
phenomenon in the case of a small consignment from Brandon, April
16th, in which the most frequent value was 11, although 12 in a
subsequent and larger sample.

For most localities the number of fish having 13 rays preponderates
over the number having 11. This is true for Lowestoft, Eamsgate,
Plymouth, Scilly, and County Kerry. But the American fish show
a slight preponderance of the lower value, and the preponderance of
this value is considerable in the case of the fish from Kinsale. In this
respect the Kinsale fish differ from those from all other British localities,
and the matter requires special consideration.

On examining the data for the various samples received from Kinsale
(Table E), it is seen that the preponderance of low values was not
exhibited by all the consignments, those taken on September 17th, 1897,
and July 1st, 1898, being normal in this respect. The preponderance
of low values was entirely due to the samples dated July 30th and
September 3rd, 1897. Now these were the only samples in the whole
series of fish which were not examined in a fresh condition. They
arrived during my absence in Canada, and after measurement were
placed in tanks of formaline to await my return. The excess of low
values is so unique in these two cases that I consider myself justified
in attributing the difference to the effects of this re-agent, the tendency
of which to develop free formic acid is well known. The amount
of calcareous matter in the minute posterior rays is so small, that
its solution by the acid would be merely a matter of time. As the fish
remained six weeks in the formaline before examination, there can
be little doubt that the calcareous matter in the smallest rays was
dissolved in a certain number of cases to an extent sufficient, at any
rate, to invalidate the records. The omission of the posterior ray from
20% of the fishes in these samples would be more than sufficient
to account for the observed differences between the fresh and preserved
samples of Kinsale fish.

If this correction be permitted, the variation of the first dorsal fin
becomes very uniform for all British localities, with the exception of
Scilly, an exception which is readily explicable by the inadequacy
of the sample from that region. The numbers of finrays vary round
12 as a mode, and the percentage of values above the mode tends

s 2

270 THE VARIATION, RACES AND MIGRATIONS OF THE MACKEREL.

everywhere to exceed the percentage of values below it ; but neither by
a comparison of the percentages themselves, nor by the study of the
average values for each locality, is it possible to trace any marked
evidences of racial distinction among the British fish. The American
fish alone seem to possess any distinguishing peculiarity as regards the
variation of this organ.

The question, however, is complicated by the factors of growth and
sex. ]\Iatthews has shown that in the herring there is a slight increase
in the number of dorsal finrays with the growth of the fish, an increase
which is not so much due to the appearance of new rays as to the
enlargement of the minute anterior ray, which renders it less liable
to escape notice in large fish than in small (4th Eeport Scottish Fishery
Board, 1886, p. 92). It is therefore necessary to enquire whether there
exists any similar relation in the mackerel between size of fish and
number of recognisable rays.

Moreover, the first dorsal fin is frequently modified as a secondary
sexual character in bony fislies, and although no such modification
has ever been recognised in the mackerel, it is important to ascertain
whetlier or not the number of rays is correlated with sexual distinctions.
The proportion of the sexes in the various consignments of fish
examined was not always uniform, and, if any correlation exists, the
preponderance of opposite sexes in two different samples would occasion
a difference in the results which m.ight be readily mistaken for evidence
of racial peculiarities.

§ 3. Number of Finrays according to Sex and Size. The sex of the
fishes examined during the autumn of 1897 was not always determined,
so that in the present enquiry we shall be restricted to the following
samples of fish : —

Irela^ul.

(1) Kinsale, July 1st, 1898

(2) Smerwick, March 12th, 1898

(3) Brandon, April 16th, 1898 .

(4) „ „ 23rd „ .

Total

44 males and 56 females
63 „ „ 36 „
20 2.5

43 „ „ 58 „

170

175

English Channel and North Sea.

(1) Plymouth, Nov. 16th to 20th, 1897 41 males and 59 females

(2) „ July 6tli, 1898 . . 42 „ „ 58 „

(3) „ „ 11th „ . .10 „ „ 14 „

(4) Ramsgate, Oct. 27th, 1897 . . 55 „ „ 45 „

(5) Lowestoft, Oct. 12th „ . . 15 „ „ 10 „

(6) „ June 28th, 1898 . 21 „ „ 29 „

(7) „ July 12th „ .39 „ „ 61

Total . . 223 „ „ 276

THE VAKIATIOX, llACES AND MIGRATIONS OF THE MACKEREL. 271

The size of the fish in these samples, irrespective of sex, is given in
inches and quarters in Table A. lu the enquiry before us, however, it
is inadvisable to have too many size-groups, as that would reduce the
number of fish in each group to a very small number. I have there-
fore subdivided the Irish males and females into groups according to
the integral number which expresses the length of each fish in inches,
the fractional differences being neglected. The fishes in each group
have then been sorted according to the number of the rays in their dorsal
fins. The same has been done with the males and females of the
Channel and North Sea fish, and the resulting distribution of values is
shown in Table F (p. 294). The upper half of the table represents the
observed frequency of the various finray values, the lower half embodies
the same facts reduced to percentages. The mean number of finrays
for each inch-group of fishes has also been calculated, and is to be
found in the column to the right hand of the frequency data for males
and females alike.

The results contained in this table are particularly interesting. If
we neglect the values ascribed to the extreme inch-groups, viz., those
containing 11- and 17-inch fish, which are naturally erratic on account
of the small number of observations, we see that on the whole ther'e is
a distinct tendency for the percentage of high values to diminish with
increased size of fish. The Irish results are clearer than those for the
Channel in this respect, owing to the greater number of large Irish fish.
I will, therefore, direct attention to them in the first place. We see, for
example, that for Irish fish of 12 and 13 inches length, whether males
or females, at least 40^0 possess more than 12 finrays; whereas for
fishes above that size the percentage of high values {i.e., above 12 rays)
never exceeds 33 % and in most cases does not exceed 30 %• On the
other hand, the percentage of low values {i.e., below 12 rays) does not
exceed 22% for fishes of 12 and 13 inches, but is increased to 30%
or more in the case of fishes of 15 and 16 inches in length. This
general tendency is expressed fairly accurately by the mean values,
which vary between 12-24 and 1235 for the smaller fish (12 and
13 inches), and between 11-90 and 12-05 for the larger fish (15 and
16 inches).

We reach, accordingly, this general result, that, among Irish fish,
whether males or females, the average number of finrays decreases as the
length of the fish increases.

Of course, this generalisation only applies to fish within the size-
limits of the present investigation, i.e., to mackerel of marketable size,
between 11 and 17 inches in length. I have not hitherto received any
small first-year fish from Irish waters, and cannot, therefore, say at what
stage the maximum number of finrays is present. Some remarks on

272 THE VAKIATION, llACES AND MIGKATIONS OF THE MACKEREL.

this point in connection with yearling Plymouth fish will be found
below.

A second conclusion is also forced upon us by a comparison of the
figures on the left and right sides of the same Table (F), which deal
with the frequency of the various values for males and females
respectively. Subject to the same reservation in regard to the extreme
size-groups, we may say that, for each size of fish, the table shows a
perfect agreement between males and females in regard to the relative
frcfiuency of high and loiv values. When high values predominate
among the males, they predominate also among the females of the same
size ; when the percentage of low values rises in one sex, it rises also
in the other. There is accordingly a close agreement between the
mean number of finrays in males and females of the same size.

In the series of size-groups of Irish fish, whether male or female,
the first distinct fall in the mean number of finrays occurs in the group
of 14-inch fish, in which there is a decrease of 0'25 for the males,
and 0'29 for the females, as compared with the mean values for the
corresponding groups of 13-inch fish.

Unfortunately the group of 12-inch Irish fish is inadequately repre-
sented, and when we pass to the Channel and North Sea fish, we see
that the group of 14-inch fish is there represented in the case of the
males by only 26 fish, which is also insufficient to yield a reliable
result. This is seen, for example, in the lack of correspondence
between the means for the Channel males and females of this size,
a feature which is still more noticeable for the 15-inch fish, which are
represented by only 6 specimens of each sex.

In order, therefore, to compare the Irish with the Channel results, it
is necessary to enlarge the size-groups, and this I have done by dividing
the whole set of fish into three, instead of eight, compartments
according to the size of the fish.

These compartments are as follows : —

(1) 10, 11, and 12-inch fish.

(2) 13 and 14-iucli fish.

(3) 15, 16, and 17-iucli iish.

As we have already seen that the mean values indicate pretty closely
the changes which take place in the percentage distribution of high
and low values, it will be unnecessary to recombine the percentage
values in a separate table, although anyone desirous of checking these
results can readily do so from the data given in Table Y. I will give
here merely the mean values for the three compartments already
defined.

THE VARIATION, RACES AND MIGRATIONS OF THE MACKEREL. 273

Table VIII., sliowing mean nuniber of first dorsal finrays for males

and females of different sizes.

Size of Fish
(inches).

Ireland.

Channel and North Sea.

No.

6^

No.

?

No.

<?

No.

2

10, 11, and 12 .

13 and 14

15, 16, and 17 .

27

107

36

12-33
1216
11-92

26
83
66

12-31
12-14
11-94

Ill

105

7

12-21
1213
12-00

140

128

8

12-31
12-02
12-00

This table shows two things : —

1. That a reduction in the number of recognisable finraj^s with in-
creasing size is a general phenomenon, common to mackerel from
Irish and English seas alike : and

2. That there are no sexual peculiarities at any size in regard to the
number of finrays in the first dorsal fin.

The first of these conclusions is obvious enough. The second con-
clusion is founded on the practical identity of the mean values for
Irish males and females at corresponding sizes, and on the inconsistency
in kind of the differences which exist between the males and females
of the Channel and North Sea. The mean for the females in the first
compartment exceeds that for the males by 0"10, while in the second
compartment the mean for the males exceeds that for the females by
01 1. Whatever may be the explanation of these deviations between
the male and female values, it is clearly not due to the existence of any
secondary sexual peculiarities in the number of finrays.

The questions naturally arise, at what period in the life of a mackerel
does the process of reduction begin, and what is the cause of the
reduction ?

The first question can only be answered after the examination of
large numbers of young mackerel. The material at my disposal is
at present too limited for me to go minutely into the matter, but is
sufficient to show that the reduction in the number of rays begins
before the attainment of a length of 10 inches. The mean number of
finrays in 127 Plymouth mackerel above 12i inches in length is 12*02;
the mean in 129 small mackerel from the same locality, all of which
were below ]0| inches in length, i.s 12"49. The frequency of the
different values is shown in the following table : —

274 THE VARIATION, llACES AND MIGRATIONS OF THE MACKEREL.

Table IX., showing freqiiency of finray numhers in small and large
Plymouth fish, irrespective of sex.

Small fish = below 10^ inches; minimum size 5;V inches.
Large fish = above 12| inches; maximum size 15| inches.

Size.

Number of
Fish.

10

Num
11

ber of
12

Finrays.
13 14

IS

Mean.

Small.
Tiarge.

129

127

8

21
24

48
62

41 14
25 7

5

1

12-49
12-02

Small.
Large.

%
%

6

16
19

37

49

32 11

20 5

4

1

12-49
1202

As regards the cause of the reduction in the number of recognisable
finrays, there are two possibilities, (1) the gradual absorption, and (2)
the gradual concealment of the minute posterior rays.

I have been unable as yet to determine the extent to which actual
absorption of the rays takes place, but I believe that some part of the
reduction, if not the whole of it, is due to changes in the relation
of the fin to the neighbouring tissues during growth of the fish. In
an adult mackerel the first dorsal fin is lodged in a deep groove, within
which it can be entirely depressed — an adaptation, without doubt, to
habits of rapid locomotion, as this fin is never used for swimming, and
would only be a hindrance if incapable of being bent back and tucked
away within its socket ; but in young fish up to 7 or 8 inches in
length the groove is not yet formed. Consequently, in old mackerel
the basal part of the fin is sunk beneath the general surface of the
skin, while in young mackerel every part of the fin is freely exposed.
The minute posterior rays do not protrude outside the groove in old
fish, but are clearly visible in young fish. In these they require no
preparation or dissection to be displayed ; but in old fish the groove
has to be carefully explored with a seeker, and often the lateral flaps of
skin have to be cut away for the purpose, before the number of
projecting rays can be accurately ascertained. This, of course, is a
mere matter of care, which it is needless to say was invariably
bestowed in the course of the investigation, the number of rays in
this fin having been counted in each fish at least twice, and often four
or five times, before being recorded. But a real difference between
the two conditions consists in the fact that the posterior rays in large
fish generally project less above the floor of the groove than do
the corresponding rays of small fish, thus indicating in large fish a

THE VAKIATIOX, RACES AND MIGRATIONS OF THE MACKEREL. 275

process of encroachment upon the lower part of the fin by the
surrounding tissues. I fancy, therefore, that as the fish grows, this
encroachment leads to the gradual covering up of the smallest rays
altogether, which would sufficiently account for the observed reduction
in the number of finrays as growth of the fish increases. As already
remarked, I cannot yet say whether the spines are ever actually
absorbed. From the nature of the case such a conclusion could only
be derived from an extensive study of macerated specimens of different
sizes, since mackerel will not live more than a few days in captivity,
and it has not been possible to devote the necessary time to such
an enquiry.

§ 4. Racial differences. Owing to the reduction of the number of
finrays with growth of the fish, it is clearly impossible to use the
data given in Table E as a basis for conclusions as to racial peculiarities,
since no account has been taken in that table of growth-changes. If
any racial peculiarities exist, they can only be determined by comparing
fish of the same size from the different localities. Accordingly, as the
various localities are most uniformly represented by 13-inch fish (see
Table I, p. 246), I have compared the mean numbers of finrays in local
groups of fish of this size.

The results are as follows : —

American .

. 33 fish. .

. Mean number =

= 11-88

North Sea .

. 166 „

12-14

Plymouth .

64 „ .

12-00

Brest and Scilly .

56 „

12-16

Kinsale

49 „ .

12-14

Kerry

49 „ .

12-33

The number of fish representing most of the localities is unfortunately
too small to yield very accurate results, but the general trend of the
differences is probably reliable. The Amewcan sample, as in other
cases, yields one of the extreme values, in this case the lowest; and
among European samples the Kerry and Channel values are widest
apart, as was also the case in regard to the transverse bars (Table B)
and intermediate spots (p. 266). The difference between the values for
Plymouth and the North Sea is certainly rather large, as also is that
between Kinsale and Kerry ; but, in view of the small available
numbers of fish of the proper size, I doubt whether any importance
can be attached to these differences. A more reliable conclusion can
probably be derived from the fact that the maximum value for the
Channel and North Sea is no higher than the minimum vahie for the
Irish coasts, and that Brest and Scilly yield a value which is inter-
mediate between the two.

276 THE VARIATION, RACES AND MIGRATIONS OF THE MACKEREL.

This result is iu complete agreement with the results already obtained
in regard to the number of bars and the degree of spottiness.

That this result is not accidental, but is founded on real differences
in the degree of evolution of the different races of fish will be made
clear in the next section.

X. Correlation between Spottiness and Number of Finrays.

We have already seen that the presence of intermediate spots among
the transverse bars indicates a departure from the primitive arrangement
of the bars, which coincided with the lines of the myotomes or muscle-
segments. Increased spottiness accordingly indicates an increased
departure from the primitive condition. We have also seen that the
common mackerel belongs to the most primitive group of species of the
genus Scomher so far as its markings are concerned. I have, moreover,
briefly referred to the fact that the number of finrays in the first dorsal
fin is higher in the common mackerel than in any other species of the
genus Scomher, As the number of finrays has also been shown to be
higher in young than in old mackerel, it is certain that, for the race
as for the individual, a high number of (inrays is the primitive condition
for Scombroid fishes.

Accordingly, as increase in spottiness and reduction of finrays are
equally departures from the primitive condition, we might expect to
find a correlation between these two characters in well-defined races
of mackerel ; and if this correlation occurs in representative samples
of fishes from different localities, it furnishes the strongest possible
argument for their racial distinctness.

Such a correlation undoubtedly exists, as is shown in the following
table, which gives for each group of fishes the indices of spottiness
already ascertained (p. 267) side by side with the mean number of
finrays in the first dorsal fin, as determined in fish of 13 inches length.
Although an extensive examination of the variation of the Spanish
mackerel, Scomher colias, has not yet been made, its spottiness is so
marked, and the number of its finrays is so decidedly reduced, that
I have no hesitation in placing it here as a type of extreme departure
from the primitive Scombroid condition.

Percentage

No. of Spots

Mean No. of

Race

of Mackerel.

of Spotty

per 100

Finraj-s

Fish,

Fish.

(13 inches).

Scomber colias

.

. 100 7,(?).

500(?) .

.. 7-10

Sc. scomher

American

• •

. 667, .,

215

.. 11-88

{ Nortli Sea and English Channel
( Brest and Scilly .

. 21 7„ ..

37

.. 12-10

. 227, ..

32

.. 12-16

Ireland, S. and W.

. 15 7, ■•

23

.. 12-23

Spotty Fish %

Spots %

Mean No. Finrays,

. 19%

29

12-U

. 10% .

15

12-33

THE VARIATION, RACES AND MIGRATIONS OF THE MACKEREL. 277

It would be difticult to find a more convincing demonstration than
this table affords as to the existence of local races of the common
mackerel; and when it is remembered that the variation in the number
of transverse bars led to a precisely similar grouping of the local
consignments (p. 255), there can remain, I think, no doubt as to the
general accuracy of the conclusions which are drawn in this report
concerning the races of the mackerel.

The contrast between the Irish and Enolish races of mackerel is
sufficiently clear from the figures in the table, but it becomes still more
distinct if we contrast the English race with the West coast stock
of the Irish race, since the Kinsale fish occupy an intermediate position
between the Kerry fish and the English race in respect of both
characters. The following are the distinctive characters of the two
stocks of the Irish race : —

Kinsale
Kerry .

In respect both of spottiness and number of finrays, the Kinsale
stock approaches the Channel race more closely than it does the Kerry
stock, although intermediate between the two. In respect of the
number of transverse bars it also holds an intermediate position, as
already shown, but comes nearer the Kerry stock than the Channel
race. The facts, therefore, demand the subdivision of the Irish race
into West coast and South coast stocks.

On the other hand, it can be seen from the data already provided
that no similar differences separate the North Sea from the Plymouth
fish, the racial identity of which must accordingly be regarded as
absolute.

The combined Brest and Scilly data approximate throughout to those
for the North Sea and Channel, although they show a slight approach
under each character towards tlie Irish, and particularly the Kinsale,
values. In regard to the number of transverse bars, the high average
of the Brest and Scilly fish shown in Table C would also appear to
indicate an incipient racial divergence between the fish of the
Channel proper and those which in summer haunt the mouth of the
Channel west of a line from Mounts Bay to Brittany.

If this is so, it is a matter of the greatest importance, since it would
necessitate the conclusion that the winter quarters of the North Sea
and Channel fish are to be found in the Channel itself, and not to the
west of it. This conclusion is by no means improbable, and would
harmonize well with the peculiarities of the Plymouth winter fishery ;
but I cannot regard the evidence of the relatively small samples of

278 THE VAKIATION, llACES AND MIGRATIONS OF THE MACKEKEL.

Brest and Scilly fish, or that of the partial series of transverse bars
(Table C), as by any means decisive. I hope to re-examine these details
by means of larger samples during the coming year.

XI. Second Dorsal Fin.

The variation in the number of finrays in the second dorsal fin is
much slighter than in the case of the first dorsal. The extreme range
of variation is from 9 to 15, i.e., 7 rays; but the two extreme values
on each side of the mode {i.e., 9, 10, 14, and 15) occur very rarely,
so that the range of variation scarcely covers more than 3 rays, viz.,
from 11 to 13.

Owing to the limited variability of the organ, no useful purpose
would be served by publishing the separate data for the various con-
signments of fish, and I have therefore confined myself to a statement
of the observed results for each locality as a whole. These are set
out in Table G (p. 295).

There is a marked difference in the variability of this organ in the
American fish as compared with the samples of European fish ; for,
whereas 12 rays occur in from 82 to 85 % of the European fish, they
are found in only 63 °/o of the American, and the frequency of each
of the remaining values is from twice to three times as great for the
American fish as for the European. The mean value for the American
sample is also considerably lower than for any European sample
examined. The highest mean is that for the Xorth Sea (11-950), and
the lowest that for Kinsale (11-927), the difference between the two
being 0023. But the difference between the American mean and the
nearest European mean is much greater than this, being 0"077.

The differences between the European samples are exceedingly slight,
but attention may be drawn to the fact that the localities which provide
the highest and lowest mean-values are geographically remote, viz.,
the North Sea and Kinsale.

The only satisfactory way of comparing values which present such
slight local differences in the frequency of their occurrence, will be to
combine the values above and below the mode (12) into two com-
partments of high and low value respectively, as below.

THE VARIATION, RACES AND MIGRATIONS OF THE MACKEREL. 279

Table X., sh&iving frequency of High and Low Values of the

Second Dorsal Fin.
(Percentages.)

Locality.

9-11

Fiurays.
12

13-15

Newport, U.S.A.

23%

63%

14%

North Sea . . .

10

84-3

5-7

Plymouth .

12-3

81-3

6-3

Brest and Scilly

10-3

82-2

7-5

r Kinsale
I Kerry

10-7

85-4

3-9

9-8

85-3

4-9

' North Sea and Plymouth
. Brest and Scilly

11

83

6

10-3

82-2

7-5

Ireland, S. and W. .

10-4

85-3

4-3

Undoubtedly the two groups which agree most closely according to
the above table are those from Kinsale and Kerry. For these groups
the frequency of the mode is the highest recorded, and is practically
identical in the two cases (85"3 and 85*4 7o). The two lowest frequencies
of the high values (39 and 4*9 7o) are also found in the same groups.

The figures do not appear to justify any further amalgamation of
the groups ; but it is worth noticing that the North Sea group
approximates closer in its values to the Irish samples than does either
of the others — a feature which is again exhibited with respect to the
dorsal finlets.

We have already seen that, in respect to spottiness and the number
of finrays in the first dorsal fin, the Irish fish approach most nearly
to the theoretically primitive condition. Now the primitive number
of rays in the second dorsal fin would appear almost certainly to have
been 12, partly on account of the high frequency of this number
throughout the samples, and partly on account of the fact, which is
established below, that when this number is exceeded, the number of
finlets tends to be reduced, and when the number of rays is reduced
below 12, the number of finlets tends to be increased. This correlation
implies a primitive constancy in the number of rays in the posterior
dorsal fin of the ancestral mackerel prior to its subdivision into second
dorsal and finlets. The total number of rays in the ancestral continuous
fin was probably 17, which became subdivided into 12 rays for the
primitive second dorsal fin and 5 rays for the finlets. If this view
is correct, it is to be remarked that in the high frequency of the modal
number of rays in the second dorsal fin, the Irish fish again display

280 THE VARIATION, RACES AND MIGRATIONS OF THE MACKEREL.

their primitive cliaracter. On this account, in spite of the slender
basis for drawing racial distinctions from the variation of the present
character, I think it will be conceded that, so far as any conclusions at
all are permissible, they confirm the inferences which have already been
drawn from the evidence of the more variable characters. It will
be noticed, moreover, that the North Sea and Plymouth data are
amalgamated, the percentages for Brest and Scilly approximate to the
percentages for the combined groups in a remarkably close manner, —
much more nearly than they do to the combined Irish percentages.
This result is in complete agreement with the results already described
for the characters previously discussed.

XII. The Number of Dorsal Finlets.

The number of dorsal finlets in my samples was never less than 4
nor more than 6 ; but there is a certain difficulty in enumerating them,
owing to the fact that the last ray of the second dorsal fin is sometimes
imperfectly separated off as an accessory, or incipient, finlet. As the
finlets and second dorsal fin are both modifications of a primitively
continuous fin (such as that which exists in Caranx trachurus, the
horse-mackerel, and its allies), it is desirable to include these incipient
finlets in an account of the variability of the number of finlets. They
have been included in the account of the second dorsal fin as a matter
of course, each incipient finlet counting as one dorsal ray ; but in the
present case, in order to reduce their value as compared with the fully
constituted and independent finlets, I have regarded them as half-
finlets. Thus, a fish which has 4 true finlets and one incipient finlet
has been recorded as having 4J finlets.

The observed frequency of the different possibilities is recorded in
Table H (p. 295).

The normal or modal number is, of course, 5. In the European
samples this number occurs in from 92 to 94% of the fish, but the
American race of mackerel is again distinguished from the European
samples by its greater variability in regard to this character, the modal
number being found in only 79% of the observed cases. In only
2% of the cases was the number reduced below 5, viz., 4^, but no
specimen was seen with only 4 finlets. On the other hand, 19% had
more than 5 finlets, viz., 12% with 5| finlets, and 7% with 6.

The slight variability of the European fish in regard to this character
renders necessary the same treatment as was applied in the case of
the second dorsal fin, and I have therefore merged into a single
compartment the cases showing less than 5 typical finlets, and into
another compartment the cases with more than 5 typical finlets.

THE VARIATION, RACES AND MIGRATIONS OF THE MACKEREL. 281

Table XL, sliovnng frequency of High and Low Numhers

of Dorsal Finlets.

(Percentages.)

Locality.

*-4i

Dorsal Finlets.
5

5h-B

Newport, U.S.A.

2%

79%

19%

North Sea .

2

94-5

3-5

/Plymouth .
1 Brest and Scilly

3-3

92-3

4-3

4

93

3

( Kiusale
\ Kerry

. 2-4

94-4

3-2

2

94-3

3-7

North Sea and Plymouth

2-6

93-6

3-8

Brest and Scilly

4

93

3

Ireland, S. and W. .

2-3

94-4

3-3

This table is, on the whole, similar in its general features to Table X.,
showing the variation of the second dorsal finrays. A very close
affinity is revealed between Kinsale and Kerry, and again between
Plymouth and the combined samples from Brest and Scilly, but the
North Sea values, which merely approximated to the Irish values in
the case of the dorsal iin, now entirely agree with them.

We again see that the Irish group is characterised by the high
frequency of the normal number of finlets, or, as we may say, by its
high normality.

In revealing the close affinity between the Kinsale and Kerry groups,
and between the Plymouth group and the combined Brest and Scilly
samples, this table furnishes a confirmation of what has previously
been urged with regard to these points. The difference between the
North Sea and Channel groups, although foreshadowed in the case
of the second dorsal fin, is novel, and possibly significant ; but in the
next section it is shown that the variability of these organs is too
slight to admit of any inferences being safely drawn as to the affinity
between the various local groups of fish. The maximum number
representing any one locality is only 410, while the deviations from
the normal condition do not exceed 8 % for any of the British localities
in the case of the dorsal finlets.

XIII. Correlation between Variations of Second Dorsal Fin
AND Number of Dorsal Finlets.

During the examination of the mackerel received, I frequently had
occasion to notice that a marked degree of correlation exists between
the number of finrays in the second dorsal fin and the number of finlets.
I am not qualified at present to discuss the facts from a mathematical

282 THE VAIJIATIOX, IJACES AND MIGRATIONS OF THE MACKEREL.

Standpoint, but the existence of the correlation can readily be demon-
strated.

As the variation of both characters is most marked in the American
sample, I have analysed the data provided by it in the following
manner : —

In 2 fisli liaving 9 rays . . . both had 6 finlets.

had 6

n

f 3

10

) '■

AJ.CIU

L \J

v_^

X C

))

1 \J

■\ 2

5

J>

18

))

11

■M

6
5

)>

63

))

12

. all

5

)J

13

))

13

v\

5

4

In 1

>)

14

. 1

5

These figures show (1st) that the normal or modal number of finrays
(12) is constantly associated with the normal or modal number of
finlets (5) ; (2nd) that when the number of finrays is below 12, the
variation in the number of finlets is confined to deviations above the
mode ; and (3rd) that when the number of finrays is above 12, the devia-
tions from the modal number of finlets are exclusively below the mode.

This relation can be shown still more clearly as follows : —

2 had 9 rays.
Of 7 fish with G finlets

91

1

10

4

11

2

10

14

11

63

12

11

13

1

14

2

13

These figures show (1st) that the normal number of finlets (5) is
associated with a wide range of variation in regard to the number
of rays in the second dorsal fin (from 10 to 14), (2nd) that when the
number of finlets is above 5, the number of rays is constantly below
12; and (3rd) that when the number of finlets is below 5, the number
of rays is constantly above 12.

This correlation is also exhibited by the mean values of each character
for the American sample, the mean number of finrays (11'850) being
the lowest observed, and the mean number of finlets (5'120) being the
highest observed.

If the mean values for the various British localities are correct, they
ought to exhibit a similar correlation in regard to these characters ; but,
as will be seen from the following table, such a correlation between the
local means does not exist. The localities are grouped in order of

THE VARIATION, RACES AND MIGRATIONS OF THE MACKEREL. 283

magnitude of the mean numbers of dorsal finlets ; the inverse order
of magnitude for the second dorsal values is given in brackets.

Fiulets.

2nd Dorsal.

1. Xewport, U.S.A.

5-120

11-850(1)

2. Kerry

5-016

11.947(4)

3. :N'orth Sea

5-014

11-950(6)

4. Kinsale

5-009

11-927(2)

5. Plymouth ,

5-003

11-940(3)

6. Scilly and Brest

4-994

11-948(5)

It will be seen that there is a conspicuous lack of correlation between
the mean values for the various local groups of European fish. Kerry
and the North Sea, which have the highest average number of finlets,
ought to have the lowest number of dorsal rays, instead of which these
values are among the highest observed. On the other hand, the
combined Brest and Scilly values occupy approximately their correct
positions in the sequence.

It is clear, therefore, that the means cannot be regarded as correctly
representative of the local groups of fish, and that no racial affinities or
differences can be based on the figures as they stand. In view of the
indubitable correlation between the two characters under discussion, I
am inclined to attribute the inaccuracy of the means to the slight
amount of variation in these characters among European fish, which
renders necessary a much larger number of data than tliose at my
disposal. A sufficient increase in the number of observations for each
region would render the means more truly representative, and ought
to reveal the correlation that must be exhibited before the values can be
regarded as reliable.

Indirectly this explanation indeed can be shown to be correct by
amalgamating those groups which we have already seen upon other
grounds to be closely related. The order is the same as in the preceding
list.

Finlets.

2nd Dorsal.

1.

Newport, U.S.A.

5-120

11-850(1)

2.

Ireland, S. and W.

5-011

11-934 (2)

3.

North Sea and Plymouth .

5-009

11-946(3)

4.

Brest and Scilly

4-994

11-948 (4)

This table shows that when the local groups of fish are amalgamated
in the manner described, the means for finlets and second dorsal fin
are distributed in the order demanded by the correlation of the two
characters.

This result is not obtainable by any other mode of amalgamation.
Thus, if the Kerry and North Sea groups are merged together, on the

NEW SERIES. — VOL. V. NO. 3. T

284 THE VARIATION, RACES AND MIGRATIONS OF THE MACKEREL.

ground of the close resemblance they exhibit in regard to the high
mean number of linlets, the resulting mean for the finlets becomes
5-015, and that for the fiurays 11-948. Each of these values would he
the hii/hest in its series, and therefore hopelessly wrong from the point
of view of correlation.

Similarly, if the Plymouth and Kinsale groups are amalgamated, the
resulting means would both be among the lowest in their respective
series, instead of displaying the inverse relation of high and low values
which is demanded for accuracy.

I conclude from these facts that the grouping which fulfils the
correlation test is the correct one; and, as this grouping is identical
with that demanded by the variation of all the other characters
examined, it would appear to rest upon the firm basis of real genetic
affinity and racial differences.

XIV. Summary of Evidence concerning the Eaces of the

Mackerel,

§ 1. American Mackerel,

The American mackerel have been shown in this report to differ very
considerably from all samples of European mackerel examined.

The difference is exhibited in regard to every character the variation
of which has been determined, and in every respect the American fish
hold an extreme position among my samples. Thus the highest average
is yielded by the American sample in regard to the following characters:
(1) the number of transverse bars, (2) the number of spotty fish, (3)
the number of spots per hundred fish, and (4) the number of dorsal
finlets; whilst the lowest average is yielded by it in regard to the
number of finrays in (1) the first dorsal, and (2) the second dorsal fin.

There can be no doubt as to the significance of these facts. The
American mackerel constitute a distinct variety or race, whose most
obvious characteristic is its high degree of spottiness.

It must remain for American or Canadian naturalists to determine
the question as to the existence of minor local differences among the
American fish. During the meeting of the British Association at
Toronto last year, I examined a dozen mackerel which had been caught
in the Gulf of St. Lawrence; and, although this number is insufficient
to determine the existence of minute racial differences, I may state that
it was the examination of these fish which first revealed to me the
marked spottiness of the mackerel of the western shores of the Atlantic.
In this respect, therefore, I have no doubt of the close agreement
between the mackerel of Canadian and American waters.

THE VARIATION, RACES AND MIGRATIONS OF THE MACKEREL. 285

§ 2. European Mackerel.

A subdivision of the mackerel which frequent the British coasts into
two principal races, an Irish race and a race frequenting the English
Channel and North Sea, appears to be demanded by the following facts
which have been elucidated by my researches : —

(1) The identity of the Plymouth and North Sea fish, and the close
agreement between the Kinsale and Kerry fish in regard to the variation
in number of the transverse bars, and the emphatic difference between
the two former and the two latter groups in regard to the same
character ;

(2) The close agreement between the Plymouth and North Sea fish in
regard to the frequency of intermediate spots among the bars, and the
emphatic difference between either of these groups and the Kerry fish
in regard to the same character ;

(3) The correlation of a relatively low average number of first
dorsal Hnrays with a relatively high degree of spottiness in North Sea
and Channel fish, and the correlation of the highest observed average
number of finrays with the lowest observed degree of spottiness in the
Irish fish. These correlated differences could not be expected to occur
except in races of fish which had diverged to a different degree from
the primitive condition;

(4) The correlated nature of the differences between the same two
groups in regard to the number of second dorsal finrays and dorsal
finlets.

The discrimination of these races has been made exclusively on the
"round of structural differences and resemblances between the fish
coming from a number of chosen localities. If the differences revealed
by the present investigation should appear to some to be too small
to be significant, it should be remembered that large differences could
not in any case be expected to occur between the mackerel of any
two regions in British seas, partly because of the relative smallness
of the total area and the possibility of free intercourse between
its different waters, and partly because of the known activity and
wandering tendencies of the adult mackerel, in addition to its pro-
duction of freely fioating eggs. If, on the other hand, the differences
should be regarded by others as accidental, this idea may be negatived
at once by the general conformity of the results obtained for different
characters, and by the important fact that those local groups which are
shown to resemble one another most closely are exactly those which
might have been expected to do so from geographical considerations.
If there are no valid differences between any of the British groups
of mackerel, it is in the highest degree improbable, when the number of

T 2

286 THE YAIUATION, RACES AND MIGRATIONS OF THE MACKEREL.

observations is taken into account, that the data accumulated for North
Sea and Plymouth fish should coincide so closely as they do, and differ
to so considerable an extent from the data determined for the fish from
Kerry.

Nevertheless, although certain differences between the Irish fish
and those from the Channel and North Sea must, I think, be conceded,
it would be a serious error to conclude that the division between these
two races of mackerel is hard and fast. I have shown that the Kinsale
fish are distinctly intermediate in character between the fish from
the west coast of Ireland and those of the Channel in regard to the
following features: — (1) number of transverse bars, (2) spottiness, and
(3) number of first dorsal finrays. I have also shown that the
mackerel caught off Brest and Scilly, though closely related to the
Channel fish as a whole, also betray a certain approximation towards
the Irish, especially the Kinsale, values in regard to the same characters ;
and, although the number of fish representing this region is relatively
small, I see no reason for doubting that the consensus of evidence
on this point is of some significance. These two intermediate cases,
therefore, prevent the establishment of any rigid line of separation
between the Irish and the Channel races ; but they at the same time
confirm in a most emphatic manner the one paramount conclusion
of the whole inquiry, viz., that the mackerel which frequent British
waters are not exactly alike in all localities, hut possess certain average
peculiarities which distinguish one local race from another. These
2}eculiarities are greatest between the races of localities ivhich are
geographicallg remote, and least between those which occupy areas that
are geographically contiguous. Bctiveen the mackerel of the North Sea
and English Channel there are no differences at all; but the Irish race
is distinctly divisible into tivo stocks, one of which is restricted to the
west coast, the other to the south. A considerable amount of mixture
takes place between the southern Irish stock and the fish lohich frequent
the mouth of the English Channel. The western Irish stock represents
more closely than any other race the primitive type of mackerel, from which
all, whether British or American, have been derived.

XV. The Migrations of the Mackerel.

The establishment of geographical or local races of the mackerel
settles a number of disputed points concerning the migrations of this
fish. The theory of long migrations must be altogether given up. The
mackerel certainly does not cross the Atlantic ; the marked difference
between American and European samples shows that at the present
period of the earth's history there is no mixture between the two races.

THE VARIATION, llACES AND MIGRATIONS OF THE MACKEREL. 287

Moreover, in view of the difference between Irish and Channel fish, it
can no longer be maintained that the mackerel of these regions wander
far in winter from their summer haunts. Each race of fish must
possess its own winter habitat, and this must be situated close to the
region where the fish make tlieir first appearance in the spring. Indeed,
the only migrations which can, for the most part, be conceded, are
migrations from shallow to deeper water off the same coasts. The one
exception to this rule concerns the North Sea fish. The racial identity
of these fish with those of the Channel proper furnishes a conclusive
proof of the accuracy of the view that the North Sea fish are derived
from the English Channel in the spring, and return to it in the
autumn, thus ensuring a complete mixture between the two groups
during the winter period. By North Sea fish, however, are meant merely
the fish which are taken off the east coast of England from Yarmouth
southwards. How far to the northwards the spring migration extends
must be settled by further investigation.

The relation between the autumn and spring fish of any locality is
also elucidated by the same results. No racial differences between
autumn and spring fish have been revealed by my inquiries for any
locality which has been represented by samples taken at both periods ;
and the existence of differences between the fish of different localities
renders it practically certain that each locality is frequented by one
race only, viz., the race peculiar to the locality. So far as the Irish fish
are concerned, the minor racial differences established between the fish
of Kinsale and Kerry prevent a special pronouncement upon this
matter on the present occasion, since the Kerry fish were exclusively
spring fish, and the Kinsale fish almost entirely autumn fish. The
evidence, so far as it goes, points to the conclusion that on the Irish
coast the small autumn mackerel are young fish which will to a large
extent form part of the breeding shoals in the following spring.

This matter, however, is being further investigated, and the same
material will furnish a means of testing the accuracy of the conclusions
which have here been submitted concerning the characters of the local
races.

In conclusion, I may draw attention to the relation of the local races
to the conformation of the sea-bed, which appears to me to be of con-
siderable importance in any attempt to delimit the area normally
frequented by each race. If reference is made to a properly contoured
chart — e.g., the charts of the fishing grounds in Cunningham's Market-
able Fishes of the British Islands (Macmillan, 1896) — it will be seen
that the mouth of the English Channel coincides with the 50-fathom
line, that the same line bounds a large plateau of ground off the south
coast of Ireland, but that off the west coast of Ireland it runs close

288 THE VAUIATIUN, ItACES AND MIGRATIONS OF THE MACKEREL.

to the coast-Hue. A moderately deep gully of more than 50 fathoms
depth separates Euglish from Irish territory.

Accordiugly our division of British mackerel into an Irish and a
Channel race coincides with the geographical division of the sea-bed
by the 50-fathom gully which runs up St. George's Channel.

On the other hand, the 100-fatliom line approaches the coast only off
the south-west coast of Ireland and separates a considerable plateau of
ground off the west coast of Ireland from the great quadrangular
plateau which lies to the south of Ireland, and the southern boundary
of which coincides with the latitude of Ushant.

Deeper contour lines, up to 1000 fathoms, leave the boundary of the
southern plateau practically unaffected, but considerably increase the
area of that off the west coast of Ireland, which at 200 fathoms includes
the Porcupine Bank, a distance of 250 miles from the mainland. On
the other hand, the study of deeper contour lines renders still more
evident the geographical distinctness of the two plateaux, which are
connected merely by a narrow shelf off the south-west coast of Kerry,
50 miles wide at 100 fathoms, and only 120 miles wide at 1000
fathoms. Thus the separation of the Irish race into a west coast and
south coast stock coincides with the division of the Irish submarine
plateau into a western and a soutliern portion by the deep 1000-fathom
rift which has been described. As these banks probably form the
winter quarters of the mackerel of the adjoining coasts, we can under-
stand how the segregation of the Irish stocks has been induced, and
how a certain amount of mixture between the Kinsale stock and the
Channel race has taken place. The southern Irish stock is more closely
related to the western Irish stock than to the Channel race on account
of its proximity to the former during the breeding season. But it
approaches the Channel race in character because it shares the same
submarine plateau for its winter quarters ; and, although this area is too
large to bring about complete mixture of the two races, it is not large
enough to prevent a certain amount of mixture from taking place. The
annual amount probably depends upon the severity of the winter season,
which determines the extent and depth to which the fish retire from
the shore.

THE VARIATION, RACES AND MIGRATIONS OF THE MACKEREL. 289

CO

m

« 2 fi

J-, N

CO

r-i-*
CO

o
o

5**
H5>

to

o
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CO 00
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o

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: : : r~ :

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00

i— -

s

OS
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_ -OS
- -00

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a

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'^>,g ^^>.^ -^-S^ ^-s^^
l>-s 1-5 '-: X 1-5 <i <: »~ »<

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5:5

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en

■ o

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CO to

ccui

:i5 3

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-XM

290

THE VARIATION, RACES AND MIGRATIONS OF THE MACKEREL.

Table B. Transverse Bar's — Entire series.

Place.

NcM-port, U.S.A.
Lowestoft

Ranisgate
Plymouth

))

>>

»>

Scilly ...

Date.

>>
Brest
Kinsale

I Smerwick
\ Brandon

))
Co. Kerry ...

Oct. 18, 1897

j> • })
„ 12 „
June 28, 1898
July 12 „

[sum.)
Oct. 27, 1897
July to Oct., '97
Nov. 16-20 ,,
July 6, 1898

„ U „
{sum.)
May 8, 1898
June 2 , ,

)> 9 >i

{sum.)
June 20, 1898
July 30, 1897
Sept. 3 „

„ 17 „
July 1, 1898

(sinn.)

March 12, 1898

April 16 „

)) 23 ,,

{sum.)

Most

Number

frequent

of

size(ins.).

Fish.

12

100

13

100

13

50

12

50

13

100

13

300

13

100

11

76

12

100

12

100

11

24

12

300

12

12

15

12

12-13

50

12-13

74

14

100

11

119

12

99

12

92

13

100

12

UO

13

99

15

45

14

101

u

246

Number of Bars.
23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33

— 24

— 25

— 14
7

1 2 7
1 5 23

10

4

1 2 4

1 0 2

2 2 20
1 0 0

— 1 2
112

5

6

— 1 5
1 1 2

5

1 2 IS
1 1 1

1

3

115

13 37

30 36

11 21

17 20
36 37
94 114
22 52
20 28

35 47
28 42

7 10

90 127

2 6

3 7
19 18

24 31
32 40

18 52
22 30
17 40

36 34
93 156

19 36
6 14

25 44
50 94

28 11 5

20 5 2

8 4 1

6

12 5 —
46 14 3
15 3 1
4 —

3 —

4 1
0 1

14

11

16

3

44 11
2 1

1 0
1 0

Mean.

1

7
10
19
34

1 —
1 2

3 2

4 —
6 3

24 13 3
21 7 2

16 7 2
95 33 10
26 11 4

17 5 2
20 6 3
63 22 9

1

0 1 —

11 —

27-38
26-90
26-94
26-50
26-62
26-75
26-88
26-76
26-74
26-91

26-79

26-78
26 -S2
26-85
27-21
27-28
27-19
26-90
27-15
27-32
27 56
27-10
27 27

Percentages

23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33

Newport, U.S.A.

Lowestoft

Ranisgate

Plymouth ,

Scilly

Brest

Irish : Kinsale ..

Kerry ..
,, Autumn..

Spring ..

North Sea and

Eng. Channel..
Brest and Scilly .
Irish, S. and W

Total, except

Newport...

Oct., 1897
1897 and 1898
Oct., 1897
1897 and 1898
1898

June, 1898
1897 and 1898
Spring, 1898
1897
1898

1897 and 1898

1898

1897 and 1898

1897 and 1898.

12

100

13

300

13

100

12 *

300

12-13

74

14

100

12

410

14

245

12

310

14

345

13

700

13-14

174

12-13

6.55

13

1529

— 2 4 13 37 28 11

h If 8 31 38 15

7 22 52 15

^ 1 7 30 42 14

1 1 3 32 42 14

5 32 40 19

i A 4 23 38 23 8

i i 2 21 38 25 9

i i 4 18 39 26 8

^ i 3 25 37 23 8 3

1^0^
3

4

Q X 1
"33

■} 1 7 29 42 15 4
A i 4 32 41 17 4
i i 4 22 38 24 8

3 i i -

^ i 5 27 41 19 5 2 J A- iV

27-38
26-75
26-88
26-79
26-82
26-85
27-15
27-27
27-23
27-17

26-79
26-84
27-20

26-97

THE VARIATION, EACES AND MIGRATIONS OF THE MACKEREL.

291

Table C. Transverse Bars ichich cross or touch the Lateral Line.

Place.

Date.

Newport, U.S.A.
Lowestoft

Kanisgatc .
Plymouth .

Scilly

Brest ,
Kiiisale

( Smerwick.
( Brandon .

Co. Kerry . . . .

Oct. 18, 1897

J ) ' J >
12

June 28, 1898

July 12 „

{sum.)

Oct. 27, 1897

July to Oct., '97

Nov. 16-20 „

Julv 6, 1898

,/ll .,

{num. )
May 8, 1898.,
June 2 , ,

)! 9 )J

{sum.)
June 20, 1S98
July 30, 1897
Sept. 3 ,,
,j 17 ,,
July 1,1898

{suvi.)
Mar. 12, 1898
Apl. 16 ,,
)) -^3 ,,

{sum. )

Most

Number

frequent

of

size (ins.).

Fish.

12

100

13

100

13

50

12

50

13

100

13

300

13

100

11

76

12

100

12

100

11

24

12

300

12

12

15

12

12-13

50

12-13

74

14

100

11

119

12

99

12

92

13

100

12

410

13

99

15

45

14

101

U

245

Number of Bars.
121314 15 16 17 18 19 20 2122 23 24 25

1 6 10

- - 1 2 7 18

2 19

1 10

10 0 6 8 17
1 0 1 10 17 54
1 6 16

- - 1 3 7 17
11 18

- - - 3 7 13
13 4

- - 1 7 2S 52
10 0

2 8

1 2 12

- - 1 0 6 9
1 7 16

- - 1 3 7 15
9 15

111 1 3 16

112 5 26 62

- - 1 2 4 15
3 2 7

- - 1 4 8 14
- 2 9 14 36

25 28
36 20
12 11

18 12
28 25
94 68
31 27

19 15
33 21

26 36
7 6

78
4

85

5

0 5

12 16

17 25

29 30

31 36

32 28

23 19
26 31

112 114

24 29
14 9
35 21
73 59

14 9 5 2 - -
11 4 1

10 5

7 2

11 2 2

39 13 3

13 4 1 1 - -

12 11

13 3 1

10 2 2 0 1-
1 11

36 7 5 0 1-

1 11

8 4

11 5 1

18 5 1 I - -

17 9 10 1-

7 5 1

17 6 111-

15 3 10 0 1
56 23 4121

13 9 1 1 - -
5 3 1 1 - -

14 4

32 16 2 2 - -

Mean.

18

18
18
18
18
IS
18
18
18
18

•88
•16
•58
■40
■04
•23
•43
•03
•20
•40

18-21

18-64
18-63
18^65
18^62
18-19
18^58
18^41
18-45
1858
18-38
18-15
18-37

Percentages

12 13 1415 16 17 18 19 20 2122 23 24 25

Newport, U.S.A.

Lowestoft

Rani.sgate

Plymouth

Scilly

Brest

Irish: Kinsale...

,, Kerry ...

,, Autumn..

,, Spring ...

North Sea and

Eng. Channel..
Brest and Scilly.
Irish, S. and W.

Total, except

Newport...

Oct., 1897
1897 and 1898
Oct., 1897
1897 and 1898
1898

June, 1898
1897 and 1898
Spring, 1898
1897
1898

1897 and 1898

1898

1897 and 1898

1897 and 1898

12

100

13

300

13

100

12

300

12-13

74

14

100

12

410

14

245

12

310

14

345

13

700

13-14

174

12-13

655

13

1529

1 6 10 25 28 14 9 5 2

0

n

I \ i

- 1
h 3

- 1
1 0
h 1

ii 4

A-

f 3
i 2

6 IS 31
6 16 31
9 17 28
3 16 23
6 9 29
6 15 27

6 15 30

7 15 28
5 15 29

7 17 30
4 12 -26
6 15 28

23
27
26
34
30
28
24
27
26

25
32
26

13 4 1 -
13 4 1 1
12 2h 2 0
15 7 1 -

18

11

14 6 1 i 4
13 6 § s -

13 6
13 5

13 31? J
17 6 1 §

14 6 1 4

I'-o i 2 7 16 29 26 14 5 1

I I A-

18^88
18-23
18-43
18^21
18-63
18-65
18-45
18-37
18-47
18-38

18-25
18-64
18-42

18^37

292

THE VAKIATION, UACES AND MIGIUTIONS OF THE MACKEREL.

Table D. Dorso-lateml Intermediate Spots.

Place.

Newport, U.S.A.
Lowestoft

Date.

Rainsgate
Plymouth

Scilly

Brest .
Kinsale .

( Smerwick
\ Brandon

Co. Kerry .

Oct. 18, 1897

)i ' >>

12
June 28, 1898
July 12 „

[sum.)
Oct. 27, 1897
Sept. to Nov., '97
Nov. 16-20, 1897
July 6, 1898

„ 11 „

{sum.)
May 8, 1898
June 2 ,,
>i 9 ,,

{sum.)
June 20, 1898
July 30, 1897
Sept. 17 „
July 1, 1898

{sum. )
Mar. 12, 1898
Apl. 16 ,,
)> 23 ,,

{sum. )

No. of
Fish.

100

100

50

50

100

SOO

100

76

100

100

24

SOO

12

12

50

74

100

119

92

100

311

99

45

101

245

X umber of Spots per Fish.

1 23456789 10 11 17

Observed

34 23 13 9 5 6 1 5 0 0 2 1 1

81 12 4111

37 11 02

44 4 2

83 12 32

245 39 9 5 11

72 17 332 2 01

94 12 721

75 11 7 2 2 2 0 0 1

88 9 001101

22 1 1

239 33 15 4 4 3 0 1 1

10 0 101

10 2

41 5 3001

61 7 4011

74 20 6

98 17 31

71 14 42000001

84 10 3201

253 41 10 5 0 1 0 0 0 1

'92 6 1

35 7 10101

93 6 2----------

220 19 40101

No. OF
Spotty Fish.

66
19
13

6
17
55
28
22
25
12

2
61

2

2

9
13
26
21
21
16
58

7
10

8
25

%

Observed %

66
19
26
12
17
18
28
29
25
12

20

18
18
26
18
23
16
19

7
22

8
10

Total
No. OF Spots.

215
32
17

8
24
81
57
36
57
25

3
121

6

2
16
24
32
26
37
27
90

8
19
10
37

Percentages

0 1 23456789 10 11 17

215
32
34
16
24
27
57
47
57
25

40

32
32
32
22
40
27
29
8
42
10
15

Newjiort, U.S.A.

Lowestoft

Ramsgate

Plynioutli

Scilly

Brest

Irish : Kinsale...

„ Kerry ...

,, Autumn .

,, Spring ...

Oct., 1897
1897 and 1898
Oct., 1897
1897 and 1898
1898

June, 1898
1897 and 1898
Spring, 1898
1897
1898

100
300
100
300
74
100
311
245
211
345

34 23 13 9561500211

82 13 31^-3--^— — — — — — —

72 17 33 2 201

80 11 5 1?, 1 1 0 3 3

82 10 5i d li 1

74 20 6

81 13 3 2 0 J 0 0 0 ^-

90 8 no h 0 i

80 15 3 1^0 0 0 0 0 J.

88 8 21iii--:

_

66

_

—

18

—

—

28

—

—

20

—

18

—

—

26

—

19

—

—

10.

—

—

20

—

12

215
27
57
40
32
32
29
15
30
19

THE VARIATION, RACES AND MIGRATIONS OF THE MACKEREL.

293

Table E, First Dorsal Fin and Proportion of Sexes.

Place.

Newport, U.S.A.
Lowestoft

Date.

Ramsgate
Plymouth

Scilly

Brest ...
Kinsale

»i

( Smerwiek
I Brandon

)»
Co. Kerry ...

Oct. 18, 1897
7

M 12 „
Juue28, 1898
July 12 ,,
(sum.)
I Oct. 27, 1897
' July to Oct., '97
I Nov. 16-20 ,,
July 6, 1898

., 11 „
' (sum.)

I May 8, 1898
I June 2 ,,

! „ 9 „
{sum. )
June 20, 1898
July 30, 1897
Sept. 3 ,,
„ 17 „
July 1, 1898

(sum. )
Mar. 12, 1898
Apl. 16 „
>) 23 ,,
(sum.)

Most

Number

frequent

of

size (ins.).

Fish.

12

100

13

100

13

50

12

50

13

100

13

300

13

100

11

76

12

100

1 12

100

11

24

12

300

12

12

15

12

12-13

50

12-13

74

14

100

11

119

12

99

12

92

.13

100

12

410

13

99

15

45

14

101

14

245

Sex.

55 45

15

21
39

63
20
43

10(?)

29

61

75 : 100(1)
55 45

41 59

42 58
10 14
93 : 131(1)

6 6

3 9

21 29

30 44

44 56

36
25

58

126 119

Number of Fin-rays.
910 11 12 13 141516

Mean.

- 1 24

- 2 24

- 2 13

- - 11

- 1 15

- 5 63

- 4 22

- 1 15

- 4

- 3

14

18

- - 2

- s 49

- - 1

- - 1

- 1 8

- 1 10

- 3 22

- 3 28
1 5 34
1 0 18

- 1 20
:? 9 lUO

- 4 18

- 1 19

- 2 18

- 7 55

51 20

47 21
23 12
20 16
49 30
139 79
44 26
40 17
51 26

4 - -
6 - -

3 - -

5 - -
14- -

4 - -

3 - -

4 1 -

45 21 12 1

14
150

5

5 3
15 20
25 39

50 22
67 19
43 14

51 22
50 23

211 7S
37 33
14 9
48 31
99 73

6 11-

70 20 3 -
6

3 - -

4 2-
7 2-
3 - -
2 - -
2 - -

6 - -
10 - -

7 - -
1 1 -
1 0 1
9 11

12-02
12-05
11-90
12-22
1223
12-11
12 04
12-08
12-15
12-24

12-18

12-48
12-50
12 00
11-91
11-65
12-01
12-13
11-94
12-21
11-84
12-15
12-12

Percentages

910 11 12 13 141516

Newport, U.S. A

Lowestoft

Ramsgate

Plymouth

Scilly

Brest

Kinsale

Kerry

Irish : Autumn .
„ Spring

Oct. 18, 1897 ..

. 12

100

1897 and 1898..

13

300

Oct., 1897

. 13

100

1897 and 1898..

12

300

1898

12-13

74

June, 1898

14

100

1897 and 1898..

. 12

410

Spring, 1898 ..

14

245

1897

12

310

1898

14

345

55

45

43 :

57(?)

55

45

42 :

58(?)

41 :

59

44 :

56(?)

51 :

49

49 \

51

1

2
4
3
1
3
2

3
2
2

24

21

22

16

14

22

24

223^

26

22

51 20
46 26
44 26
50 23
34 39
50 22

52 19
40 30
52 18
43 28

4
5
4
7
9
3

2i
4

I 1
1 - -

4ii

12
12
12
12
12
12
11
12
11
12

-02
-11
•04
•18
•50
•00
•94
•12
•87
•12

294

THE VARIATION, llACES ANU MIGRATIONS OF THE MACKEREL.

Table F. First Dorsal Fin.
Distribution of Finray Numbers according to Sex and Size.

Size
(ins.).

MALES.

^

FEMALES

2

Place.

N'uiiiber
of fish.

Number of Fi
10 11 12 13

nrays.
14 IS

Mean.

Number
of fish.

Number of Finrays.
10 11 12 13 14 15 16

Mean.

Ireland, S. and W.

viz., Kinsale, 100
Smerwick, 99
Biaudou, 146

Total 345

11 +

12 +

13 +

14 +

15 +

16 +

17 +
Total

2

25
52
55
30

0

170

- - - 1

- 5 9 8

- 8 23 19
1 13 25 15
1 10 10 9

- 2 2 2

1 -
3 -

2 -
1 -

13-50
12-24
12-29
12-04
11-90
12-00 i

12-15

3

23
36

47

1 44 ■

175

- - 3 -

2 3 6 9

- 7 14 12

1 9 29 6

2 12 18 12
1 5 10 3

- 1 - -
6 37 80 42

3
3

1

1
8

0 1

1 -

1 1

12-00
12-35
12-31
12 02
11-91
12-05
1 1 -00

2 38 69 54

7 -

12-09

English Channel
and Xorth Sea.

viz., Plymouth, 224
Rainsgate, 100
Lowestoft, 175

Total 499

10 +

11 +

12 +

13 +

14 +

15 +

16 +

17 +
Total

1

31
79
79
26

6

1
223

_ _ _ 1
2 7 17 4

- 14 31 28
2 15 37 21
1 2 16 6

- 2 3 1

1 -
5 1
4 -
1 -

13-00
11-84
12-34
12-13
12-15
11-83

13-00
12-17

2

34
104
86
42

6

]

1
276

- - - 2

1 6 15 7

- 18 50 24

2 18 42 22

3 8 19 11
10 2 3
1 - - -

- - - 1
8 50 128 70

4

11
2
1

18

1 -

1 -

2 -

13-00
12-29
12-30
12-05
11-98
12-17
10 00

- - - 1
5 40104 62

11 1

13-00
12 17

Percentages.

...

^

10 11 12 13

14 15

?

10 11 12 13

14

15 16

...

Ireland, S. and W.

11 +

12 +

13 +

14 +

15 +

16 +

17 +
Total

10 +

11 +

12 +

13 +

14 +

15 +

16 +

17 +
Total

2

25
52
55
30
6

170

- - - 50

- 20 36 32

- 15 44 37

2 24 45 27

3 33 34 30

- 33 34 33

50 -
12 -
4 -

2 -

13-50
12 24
12-29
12-04
11-90
12 00

12-15

3
23

36
47
44
21
1
175

- - 100 -
9 13 26 39

- 20 39 33

2 19 62 13
5 27 41 27
5 24 48 14

- 100 - -

3 21 46 24

13

8
2

5
5

0 2
4 -

12-00
12-35
12-31
12 02
11-91
12-05

iroo

1 22 41 32

4 -

1209

English Channel
and North Sea.

1

31
79
79
26

6

1
223

- -. - 100
6 23 55 13

- 18 39 36
2 19 47 27
4 8 61 23

- 33 50 17

3 -
6 1
5 -

4 -

13-00
11-84
12 34
12-13
12-15
11-83

13-00
12-17

2
34
104
86
42

6

1

1
276

- - - 100
3 18 44 21

- 17 48 23

2 21 49 26
7 19 45 26
17 0 33 50

100 - - -

- - - 100

3 18 46 25

12
11
2
3

7

2 -
1 -

1 -

13-00
12-29
12-30
12 05
11-98
12-17
10 00

- - - 100

2 18 47 28

5 ih)

13-00
12-17

THE VARIATION, RACKS AND MIGRATIONS OF THE MACKEREL.

295

Table G. Second Dorsal Fin.

No. of
Fish.

NUMBER OF FINRAYS.

Place.

Ficiinency observed.

Frequency per cent.

Mean.

9 10 11

12 13 14

15

9 10 11 12 13

11

15

Newj.ort, U.S.A.

100

2 3 18

63 13 1

_

2 3 18 63 13

1

11-850

North Soa ....

400

- 3 37

337 23 -

-

- 1 9 84 6

—

—

11-950

Plj'nioutli ....

300

- - 37

244 19 -

-

- - 12 82 6

-

—

11-940

Brest and Scilly

174

1 2 15

143 13 -

-

i 1 9 82 n

-

—

11-948

Kinsale

410

- 3 41

350 15 1

-

- f 10 85^ 3f

\

_

11-927

Kerry

245

*1 3 20

209 10 1

1

4 U 8 85i 4

i

h

11-943

North Sea aiul English Channel

700

- 3 74

581 42 -

_

- h lOi 83 6

_

11-946

Brest and Scilly

174

1 2 15

143 13 -

-

^ 1 9 82 7i

—

-

11-948

Ireland, S. and W. .

655

*1 6 61

559 25 2

1

h 1 93^ 85 4

i

I

11-933

Doubtful, owing to mutilation of fin. The number of rays raaij have been 10.

Table H. Dorsal Finlets.

No. of
Fish.

NUMBER OF FINLETS; Incipient Finlets as J.

Place.

Frequency observed.

Frequency per cent.

Mean.

4 4i 6 5^ 6

4 4^ 5 Si 6

Newport, U.S.A.

100

- 2 79 12 7

- 2 79 12 7

5-190

North Sea ....

400^

3 5 378 6 8

2 n 94i H 2

5-014

Plymouth ....

300

7 3*277 7 6

2\ 1 92^ 2^- 2

5-003

Brest and Scilly

174

3 4 162 2 3

2 2 93 1 2

4-994

Kinsale

410

1 9 387 8 5

i 2 94i 2 \\

5-009

Kerry

245

2 3 231 3 6

1 li 94 li 2i

5016

North Sea and English Channel

700

10 8 655 13 14

n 1 93it 2 2

5-009

Brest and Scilly

174

3 4 162 2 3

2 2 93 1 2

4-994

Ireland, S. and W. .

655

3 12 618 11 11

h 2 94i H li

5-011

* One of these specimens actually possessed only 4 finlets, but the position of the 5th
was so clearly indicated, that it was almost certainly lost by accident.

[ 2'.)6 ]

Report on
Trawling in Bays on the South Coast of Devon.

SUBMITTED FOR THE INFORMATION OF THE
DEVON SEA FISHERIES COMMITTEE.

By
Ernest W. L. Holt.

The investigations dealt with in this memorandum were commenced
in the autumn of 1895, and have been carried on, as opportunity-
permitted, until July of the present year. The observations were made
in 1895 and 1896 by Mr. F. B. Stead, in 1897 by Mr. S. D. Scott and
myself, and in 1898 by myself. A preliminary memorandum, dealing
with the observations made in 1895, has already been submitted to the
Committee by Mr. Stead. As a matter of general convenience it is
reprinted as an appendix to this Eeport.

The area included in our enquiry consists of Start Bay, Torbay, and
Teignmouth Bay. By a bye-law of the Fisheries Committee, confirmed
June 27th, 1893, it was made illegal to use a fish-trawl in these bays,
and I presume that the assistance of the Marine Biological Association
was invited in order that the Committee might learn to what extent
their prohibition of trawling may be justified by the biological con-
ditions of the grounds concerned.

Before proceeding to review our results I must advert to the inade-
quacy of our records, which is due to the insufficiency of the means at
our disposal. The grounds lie at a considerable distance from Plymouth,
and in order to carry out our work we have been obliged either to hire
a Brixham sailing trawler, or to take round the Laboratory steam-launch,
which cannot often be spared from her regular duties. If we hired a
trawler, we had to take our chance of the weather, with the probability
of finding the wind either too strong or too light for satisfactory working.
Moreover, although it was possible at a good deal of personal incon-
venience to accurately record the catch, subsidiary observations of great

TRAWLING IN BAYS ON THE SOUTH COAST OF DEVON. 297

practical importance, such as the examination of the reproductive organs
and food of fish taken, of the pelagic ova present in the water, and of the
nature of the general fauna inhabiting the grounds, were only carried out
with the greatest difliculty on account of the lack of accommodation and
apparatus. The Laboratory steam-launch is well equipped, but she is
only a 57 ft. boat, and cannot venture round the Start except in fine
weather. Once on the ground, a change of wind is very apt to imprison
her in Dartmouth or some other harbour. I trust that the above
considerations may be held to explain the delay in furnishing the
present Report, and its incomplete condition.

In considering the records before me, I do not see that it is possible
to proceed except upon the assumption that the various hauls made at
the same season, though in some cases in different years, were made
under practically identical conditions. I do not suppose that this is really
the case, since absolute seasonal regularity is not a characteristic of any
fishery with which I am acquainted ; but I do not see any possibility
of tabulating the possible effects of weather with anything like accuracy,
whether from the particulars furnished in the records or from the
publications of the Meteorological Office. In so far as the work of the
Busy Bee is concerned, it is fair to assume that the weather was
reasonably fine before and during her operations, as otherwise they
would have been prevented ; but this takes no account of the general
weather of the season, nor can I claim to possess the local knowledge
indispensable to a just appreciation of the probable effect on the fishery.

On the whole, while I should be very loath to deduce from our
records any positive opinion as to the abundance of fish at particular
seasons, I believe that they furnish a fairly exact idea of the proportions
of large and small fish likely to be met with ; and, as I apprehend,
it is chiefly with the question of possible destruction of undersized
fish that the Committee is concerned.

It is proposed, whenever sufficient material shall be available, to
discuss the general question of the distribution of fish and their
migrations in the whole south-western district. It is a question which
cannot fail to have an important bearing on practical fishery matters,
but I do not think it can be conveniently dealt with in isolated parts.
I shall therefore omit from consideration in this memorandum all
details of life, history, food, migration, &c., and confine myself to a
brief recapitulation of such facts as appear to be of immediate im-
portance.

All food-fishes taken were measured by Mr. Stead to the nearest
quarter of an incli, with the exception of skates and rays. The latter
were considered by Mr. Scott and myself to be of economic importance,
and are therefore included in our records, together with all fish whatso-

298 TRAWLING IX BAYS OS THE SOUTH COAST OF DEVON.

ever, and, in fact, all organisms brought up by the trawl, while efforts
were made by us to ascertain what other forms, too small to be retained
in the meshes, were present on the grounds over which we worked. In
the subjoined lists I have, for the sake of brevity, grouped all food-
fishes recorded under inches. It will be understood that a fish of, say,
8 inches may have been either 8, 8|, 8i, or 8f inches in actual
length, measured from the tip of the snout to the end of the tail. Eays
are treated exceptionally, the dimension given being the width of the
disc, since some part of the comparatively unimportant tail is often
missing. Except in the case of plaice, fish of less than 8 inches are
grouped together, since I believe that no one will contend that such
small creatures can be the object of a legitimate fishery.

In considering the proportional numbers of fish of different sizes, I
have grouped together as " unsaleable " all plaice and dabs of less than
8 inches, a proceeding which appears to be in accordance with local
market custom. The Sea Fisheries Bill of 1898 sought to prevent the
sale, &c., of plaice, dabs, and soles not exceeding 8 inches, which is a
slightly higher standard.

For convenience I have placed the standard of sexual maturity for
plaice at 12 inches, though my colleague, Mr, J. T. Cunningham, who
investigated the matter in this district, found that the average size at
which female plaice, the larger and more numerous sex, begin to breed
is slightly above 12 inches. Dabs are small fish, which may be mature
even before they are saleable, so that the economic and biological limits
sufficiently correspond. Soles are mature at about 12 inches, and until
they reach such a length are only " slips " in the eyes of the fish-buyer,
and as such do not command a very exalted price. The other species
which figure in our records are so far fro% numerous that it is hardly
necessary to discuss the question of their maturity. When taken in
any number it will be found that the majority were so small as to be
economically worthless, whether mature or not.

In the case of plaice I have introduced a standard of a purely
arbitrary nature. Considering that fish reaches, even on the southern
and south-western coasts, a length of 25 inches, I do not think that my
standard of 15 inches for "large" fish will be held to be ridiculously
high.

In reviewing the evidence afforded by our records, it has been
unnecessary for me to deal, except very briefly, with the biological
conditions affecting the question of the protection of small fish. The
matter has already been discussed at some length by Mr. Stead, whose
conclusions are in essential agreement with those which I have
repeatedly put forward on previous occasions.

TRAWLING IN BAYS ON THE SOUTH COAST OF DEVON. 299

STAKT BAY.

LIST OF HAULS.

In the subjoined list the details of locality, &c., entered in the records
of the various naturalists who have had charge of the observations have
been greatly condensed. For practical purposes the bay appears to be
divisible into two parts, the line of demarcation being from the Start to
the southern edge of the Skerries bank, along the bank, and from its
northern end, marked by the bell buoy, to Combe Point. The area
within this line is for the most part a smooth stretch of fine sand, from
6 to 10 fathoms. South of Torcross are a number of outlying rocks,
and towards the Skerries the sand gets coarse. Extending the area
a little to the north-west, we include all that part of the bay which
appears to be of much interest to trawlers. The usual professional
haul was made, according to my information, either parallel to the
sands or along the inner edge of the Skerries and to some distance
along the south edge. The coarse sand and shelly ground alongside
of the bank is presumably rich in crabs, since numbers of crab-pots
are set there ; and it may be well understood that the prosecution of
trawling and crabbing on the same ground did not tend to peace and
harmony.

Such of our hauls as are described as " off the sands " were made
parallel to the shore, usually between Torcross and Eockvale, at
distances sufficiently indicated by the soundings. The initials " T."
and " B.B." indicate that the hauls so marked were made by the smack
Tliistle, of Brixham, and the Association's steam - yacht Busy Bee
respectively. The former carries a trawl of 40 ft. beam, the latter one
of 27 ft. beam. The difference in the size of the mesh of the two nets is
insufficient to require special attention. Sailing trawlers are generally
held to catch more soles than steam vessels. Otherwise, given equal
speed and equal skill, I suppose there is not much difference in catching
power. Everyone knows that trawling is usually more successful by
night than by day, but night-work offers great inconvenience when the
catch has to be examined and measured. I do not know to what
extent the difference of light affects the size as apart from the number
of fish caught. With one exception all our hauls were made in the
day-time.

I.

T. Off the Sands

7 fath.

3 h. 30 m.

20 X.

'95

II.

T. Inside the Skerries

15 to 5 fath.

3h. 55 m.

29 X.

'95

III.

T

14 to 8 fath.

3 h. 50 m.
(night)

31 X.

'95

IV.

T. Off the Sands

10 fath.

3 h. 50 m.

4xii.

'95

V.

T

9 fath.

12 xii.

'95

NEW

SERIES.— VOL. V. NO. 3.

U

300 TKAWLING IN BAYS ON THE SOUTH COAST OF DEVON.

VI. T. Off the Sauds

8^ fath. 2 h. 20 m. 27
(bad weather)

'96

VII.

T.

)>

)>

9 fatb.

6h.

28 i.

'96

VIII.

B.B.

>>

M

7 to 9 fath.

3 h. 55 m.

11 iii.

'96

IX.

T.

)t

)»

9 fath.

21 X.

'96

X.

T.

» J

)f

8 fath.

55 m.

23 iii.

'97

XI.

T.

))

>>

8 fath.

2 h. 50 m.

24 iii.

'97

XII.

T.

j>

>I

8 fatb.

Ih. 15 m.

24 iii.

'97

XIIL

B.B.

) 1

)»

7 to 6 fath.

2 h. 15 m.

26 V.

'97

XIV.

B.B.

yy

)>

9 to 6 fath.

2 h. 20 m.

26 V.

'97

XV.

B.B.

)i

)•

8 to 10 fath.

3h. 5 m.

27 V.

'97

XVI.

B.B.

Outer
off

part of bay,
Dartmouth

14 to 17 fath.

Ih. 20 m.

27 V.

'97

XVII.

B.B.

Outer
off

part of bay,
Dartmouth

18 to 24 fath.

2 h. 25 m.

28 V.

'97

XVIII.

B.B.

Off the Sands .

9f fath.

1 h. 10 m.

3 vi.

'97

XIX.

B.B.

)>

»

•

7| fath.

1 h. 45 m.

25 vii.

'98

XX.

B.B.

))

»

,

10 fath.

2 b.

26 vii.

'98

XXI.

B.B.

Outei
off

part of bay,
Dartmouth

20 to 22 fath.

1 h. 35 m.

28 vii.

'98

Table I.

No. of
Haul-

4 in.

5 „

6 „

7 „

8 „

9 „

10 „

11 „

12 „

13 „

14 „

15 „

16 „

17 „

18 „

19 „

20 „

21 „

22 „

23 „

24 „
Total

111. IV.

List of Fish caught in Start Bay.

PLAICE.
V. vi. vii. viii. ix. x. xi. xii. xiii xiv.xv. xvi.xvii.xviii.xix. xx. xxi.

9

22

9

14
26
21

1
4

4
2
3
2

10
4
4
3
2

1 —

119 2 1

6 1 18 3 10

11 10 31 9 20

36 13 42 28 26

14 14 48 37 29

7 40 36 29

9 21 27 15

4 13 11 11

29 27 1

23 52 3

17 92 —

8 67 —

1 10

- 4

- 2

- 3

- 2

5 4 — —

1 4 — —

5
5
2
1
1
1
1

30 1

15 1

6 —

2 —

1 —
1 —

7 — 251

13 4 3 6 4

11 12 10 7 3

21 10 6 12 2

25 10 3 8 1

2 3 2 —

5 4 1 —

3 2 2 1
2 — 2 —

6 11 —

1 —

7

22
12
11
10
3
4

2
o

2 —

3 —
2 1

2
13
10
4
6
1
5
2

2 1 —

- 1

- 1

— 2

6
3
2
2

4

2

2

3 —

5 —

5 —

5 —

5 —

6 —
— 1

2 —

2 —

3 —
1 —

1 —
- 1

91 60 246 163 150 0 13 1&5 301 22 151 55 35 48 13 14 5 48 21 37 1

TRAWLING IN BAYS ON THE SOUTH COAST OF DEVON.

301

DAB.

No. of

Haul— i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. vii. viii. ix. x. xi. xii. xiii.xiv.xv. xvi.xvii.xviii.xix. xx. xxi.
(Under

8iu.)92 24 271 14 10 — 7 72 7 41 160 70 16 22 28 6 4 36 33 48 —

8 ,, 52 8 198 10 15 — 2 18 18 18 34 19 1 9 4 2—5 59 —

9 ,, 21 1 132 48 13 — 1 6 32 4 14 8 13 2 12 5 2 10 —

10 ,, 12 12 47 31 7 — — 4 15 1 3 3 4 1 — 3—3 1

11,, 7 10 14 28 6— 3— 6— 3 1223 1—3

12 „ 4 9 6 13 4— 1— 3— l_l— i_21

13 „— 3— 8 1 — — 1 1— —

14,, — 2— 3 — — — 1 — 1

15 „ 1

Totl. 188 69 668 155 57 — 14 102 82 64 215 102 25 37 38 13 8 53 41 67 —

FLOUNDER.
(Under
Sill.)— — — — — — — 1 1 3

8 „— 1

9,, ------- 1 1

10 „

11 „ 1

12 „ 1

13 „

14 „

15 „ 1

Total _______ 2 2 5—1— 1

LEMON SOLE OR MERRY SOLE.

12 in. — — _ — _ — __ — 2— — 1—

13,. 1

SOLE.
(Under
8 in.)— — ___ — _ — — 1—9- _2_

9,, — 1 3 1 — _ — — 11__12— 24 —

10,, 2 110 — — — 2— 9— — 33 —

11,, 3 2 12 — — — 1 — 11— — 3— 11 —

12 „— 1 7__ — _— 3— — — 1 1

13 „ 1 1 l_ — — _— i_ — — 1 2

14 „ --_- 1 2--

Total 6 7 33 2 — — 4 128 1— 13 17— 9 13 —

SAND SOLE.
(Under
8in.)— 2 — — —— — ~ —

8„- 2------

9„- 4------

10 „ - 1_^

Total — 9 — — — — — — —

IT 2

302

TRAWLING IN BAYS ON THE SOUTH COAST OF DEVON.

TURBO T.

No. of

Haul— i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. vii. viii, ix. x. xi. xu. xin.xiv.xv. xvi.xvii.xviii.xix. xx. xxi.

lOin. — — — — — — — — — 1—

11 „

12 „ 1---

13 „- 1

14 „

15 „ 1

Total 1 — — 1 — — — 1 — 1—

BRILL.

11 in. — 1 — — 1 — — — —

12., 1

13 ^_ - 1------

Total — 2— 1 1 — — — —

COD.

19 in. __ — — — — — — 1— —

20 „ 1

Total — — — 1 — — _— 1— —

iVEITING.
(Under

8„— _— 3 8 — — — — —

9_^___ 4 6 — — — 1— — 1

10,, — — — 25 18 — — — 7— —

11,, ___26 14 — — — 4— —

12 „— — — 13 4 — — — 1— —

15 ,',' 1-

Total — — — 78 63 — — — 17 1 1 1

LORY.
(Under

8in.)— — 2— 1 — — — — 1 21— 1

8,,--- 1 l___ _

9„ ____ _

10 „ 2------- 1

11„4 3- 1

12 „ 4 1 2 1____ _

13 „ 2 ____ _

14,, 2-------

Total 14 1 4 5 2 — — — _ l 41— 1

tRAWLING IN BAYS ON THE SOUTH COAST OF DEVON.

303

No. of
Haul— i. ii. iii.
(Under
8in.)— — —

8 „

9

10 „

11 „

12 „ - _

13 „

14 „

15 „ - -

V. VI.

2 —

TUB OR LATCHET.

vii. viii. ix. x. xi. xii. xiii.xiv.xv. xvi.xvii.xviii.xix. xx.xxi

— — — 6

14
2
1

8253 5 12 —

1 16 —

1

1

1

Total — — 6 —

— 6 17 9 2 5 3

3 8 —

(Under
8in.) —

8 ,, 24

9 „ -
10,

11 .

12 ,

13 ,

14 ,
15,

GREY GURNARD.

40 —
— 15

— — 3

— — 3

— — 2

2
1
2
1
1

2 — 1

— — 1

1 —

8 —

2 —

9

9
1
3

3 6 55 2 1 15 17 12 —

Total 24 40 27 20

8 —

3 13 1 13 2 3 6 55 2 1 16 18 13 —

(Under
8in,) —

8 „ -

RED GURNARD.

— 29

— 21

^), — — — — — — — — —

10 „--------

11 „

6 10 —

9 in.

Total

PARROT GURNARD.

1

(Under
8in.)-

8

THORNBACK (Raia clavata).

— — — — 1- — 86
___ _ 1

8 1

1

10,

11 ,

12 ,

13 ,

14 ,
15,

16 „ -

17 „ =
Total ?

2 1

1

? ? ? ?

3 10 10 13

5

304 TRAWLING IN BAYS ON THE SOUTH COAST OF DEVON.

PAINTED RAY (R. microcellata).
No of
Haul— i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. vii viii. ix x. xi. xii. xiii.xiv.xv. xvi.xvii.xviii.xix. xx.xxi.

lliu. _ — — _ — — — — — 1

12 „ 1

13,.

14 „_ _ _

15,,--- 1

16 „- - -

17 „_ 1 1

18 „

19 „ 1

20 „-------- 1

21,.

22,.

23 „ 1

Total ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ?— 2 21—1 2

(Under BLONDE RA Y (R. blanda). Large smooth spotted ray.

8 „--------

9„

10 „- 11

11 „ 1

Total ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ?— 1 311

(Under HOMELYN (R. maculata). Small smooth spotted raij,

8 in.)— — — — — — — — — 1 — — 87 13 51— 11 —

8,, — — — — — — — _ __i 1 2?

9 „ 1 1

Total ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ?1__97 14 71—112?

Table II.

Numbers and Peixentages of Fish at given sizes at different

seasons in Start Bay,

PLAICE.

Season — March. May, June. July. Oct. Dec.

Hauls — viii., x.-xii. xiii.-xv., xviii. xix., xx. i.-iii., ix. iv., v.
Hours— 9 hrs. 8 his. 50mins. 3 hrs. 45 niius. 15 hi's. ca. 8 hrs. ca.

Unsaleable . . 112 66 17 2 2

Under 8 inches . 26% 46% 29% 0% 0%

Immature . . 322 124 46 276 101

Under 12 inches . 76% 86% 79% 39% 32%

Large ... 26 8 4 76 31

15 inches and over 6% 6% 7% 11% 10%

Gross number . . 423 144 58 698 313

DABS.

Unsaleable . . 343 102 81 394 24

i.e., under 8 inches 71% 67% 75% 39% 11%

Gross number . . 483 153 108 1007 212

TRAWLING IN BAYS ON THE SOUTH COAST OF DEVON 305

Besides the species entered in Table I. our record includes, of market-
able kinds, only a few small pout and an occasional herring.

In the later records, kept by Mr. Scott and myself, appear spur-dogS,
rough-dogs, angels or bufibous {PJiina squatina), dragonets, locally
known as miller's thumbs or sting- fish, scald-fish {Arnocjlossus laterna),
and solenettes. The dog-fish and angels, rapacious creatures all, would
be of some importance if very numerous, which they were not. The
soleuette deserves a little attention, since this small fish, which hardly
exceeds a length of five inches, is quite commonly regarded, even by
fishermen, as the young of the marketable sole. Keaders who, having
experience of the bay, may not be familiar with the distinctive character
of the several species of sole, will understand that the scanty number
of small soles is accounted for by the elimination of solenettes.

Plaice are no doubt the most important fish found in the bay, since,
although their individual value is far less than that of soles, turbot,
or even brill, they are infinitely more abundant than those species.
Glancing at Table II., we see that the proportion of unsaleable fish
in October and December is less than 1 per cent. No reliable con-
clusions can be drawn from the two hauls made in January. The
first haul (vi.) in bad weather was utterly blank, while the second
(vii.) in six hours produced only lo plaice. It is impossible to judge
to what extent they may be normally present on the ground at this
season. It is evident that they are difficult to catch in foul weather,
and this, I believe, is the common experience of trawlers on similar
shallow grounds. The explanation usually offered is to the effect that
the fish bury themselves in the sand, and the little evidence which
I have been able to collect on the subject does not contradict this
view.

In March the percentage of unsaleable plaice rises to 26 ; in May
and June to 46 ; while the general supply appears to be less in summer
than in spring. In July, if two hauls give any reliable data, the
supply remains about the same, but the percentage of unsaleable falls
to 29.

Turning to the proportion of immature fish, this from March to
July is never less than 76 per cent. In October it falls to 39, in
December to 32 per cent.

Large fish, i.e., those of 15 inches and above, appear to be never
numerous. In October they stand at 11 per cent; in the spring and
summer at 6 to 7 per cent. only.

Dabs appear to be numerically more abundant than plaice at all
seasons except during the month of December. From IMarch to July
the proportion of unsaleable is from 66 to 75 per cent., falling in
October to 39, and in December to 10 per cent.

306 TKAWLING IN BAYS ON THE SOUTH COAST OF DEVON.

The number of soles entered in our records is too small to be reduced
to percentages, but it is apparent that no " unsaleable " fish were taken
except in May and July. A sole, as we have seen, ceases to be a " slip "
at about the size at which it becomes capable of reproducing its species;
and out of the total of 103 fish taken in all hauls we find only 23
mature. None of them exceed the very modest length of 14 inches.
The best sole ground, according to my information, is along the inner
edge of the Skerries. Hence our operations, mostly conducted over
different ground, cannot be said to be fully representative. I shall
have occasion to allude to this matter later on.

Sand soles {Soka lascaris) are of little importance unless taken
in large numbers and of the full size of about 10 or 12 inches. The
so-called lemon sole or merry sole (Phuroneetes microcephalus) is
apparently too scarce in the bay to demand attention. The few turbot
and brill taken were all immature, and too small to be very valuable.
If cod ever form an important item of a trawler's catch in the bay our
records furnish no evidence of the fact. Whiting, when encountered,
were mostly immature, and nearly all so small as to be hardly worth
catching. Dories were few and mostly immature and unsaleable, but
the destruction of the young of this species appears to be much less
here than on offshore grounds generally. Tub gurnards were hardly
plentiful at any season, and, while the majority were unsaleable, the
total does not comprise a single full-grown fish. Grey gurnards,
abundant at times, were mostly unsaleable, except in December, when
only a few were large enough to command the full price. These fish
are addicted to rather sudden rovings, so that there is always some
risk of error in results deducted from a small number of observations
of their capture. Such as it is, our evidence suggests that large
numbers of immature forms are liable to be destroyed by trawling
in the bay in summer and autumn, without any adequate compensation
in the capture of marketable material. Red gurnards, as might be
supposed, are not found in the shallow part of the bay ; Parrot
gurnards, or " Polperro bull-dogs," only as occasional immigrants from
the deeper water which they habitually affect.

With regard to rays, we have no evidence of the supply in October
and December. Painted rays do not appear to be common in the
spring and summer. Homelyns are only represented by small ex-
amples. Blondes are rarer, and, relative to the adult size, very small.
Thornbacks are the most numerous, and some are of good size ; but it
may be said of all rays that while the supply in spring and summer
appears hardly sufficient to be remunerative, the proportion of unsaleable
specimens is very considerable.

TRAWLING IN BAYS ON THE SOUTH COAST OF DEVON.

307

TOEBAY.

LIST OF HAULS.

According to my informatiori, the best trawling ground in the bay is
supposed to lie along the inner side of the Kidge, thence on towards
Paignton, and round outside the Ridge towards Brixham. Hauls
entered as " round the Eidge " will be understood to have been made
as far as possible on these lines.

I. T. Across the bay from near
Berry Head to | m. off

Torquay

pier

.

3 hrs.

20 min.

1 xi.'95

II.

T.

Inside the

Eidge

and OD

to Paignton .

.

2 hrs.

1 xi.'95

III.

T.

Same as II.

, ,

1 hr.

50 min.

15 i.'97

IV.

T.

Eound the

Eidge

,

1 hr.

20 min.

26 iii.'97

V.

T.

»

»

a

1 hr.

40 min.

26 iii. '97

VI.

B.B.

>)

>>

,

1 hr.

25 min.

2 vi.'97

VII.

B.B.

»

»

,

Ihr.

35 min.

2 vi.'97

VIII.

B.B.

>>

»

,

. 1 hr.

40 min.

27 vii. '98

IX.

B.B.

Central pai

t of ba

y •

45 min.

27 vii. '98

Table III.

List of Fish caught in Torhay.

PLAICE.

No. of Haul — i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. vii. viii. ix.

1 inch — — — — — — — 1 —

2 inches — — — — — — — — —

3„ — — — — 1 — — — _

4 „ — — 11 8 16 8 19 — —

5 „ — — 5 7 21 18 108 — 2

6 „ — — 5 5 16 10 81 1 12

7 „ 3 1 4 3 7 1 16 — 12

8 „ 5 2 6 5 15 2 7 2 9

9 „ 9 5 6 10 19 6 16 2 15

10 „ 7 1 8 13 25 9 14 2 20

11 „ 17 4 5 24 34 5 20 3 16

12 „ 21 7 5 26 30 6 21 5 3

13 „ 7 3 2 19 31 3 18 2 —

14 „ 3 1 1 1 10 2 7 — —

15 „— 2— 2 7 2 4 1 —

16 „— 1— 4— 6— 2 —

17 „ 1 _ _ 1 1 _ _ _ _
18,,-- — — — -— 1_
19,, — - — -— 1___
20 „ - - - - 1 - - - —

Total 73 27 58 128 234 79 331 22 89

308 TKAWLING IN BAYS ON TlIK SOUTH COAST OF DEVON.

DAB.

No. of Haul— i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. vii. viii. ix.

(Under 8 inches) 40 6 83 2 10 22 88 4 155

8 inclies 2 — — 3 6 123— 6

9 „ 10 1 1 — 3 2 4 — 1

10 „ 2 3 2 — — 2 2 — —

11 „ 4 2 — — - 1 — — 1

12 „ 1 — 1 — — 1 _ _ 1

13 „ 1 - - - - - 2 - -
Total 60 12 87 5 19 29 119 4 164

FLOUNDERS.

(Under 8 inches) — • — — — 1 2 2 — —

8 inches — — 1— 2— 5 — —

9 „ - - 1 - 2 - 1 - -

10 „ — - 1 - 1 1 4 - —

11 „ - - 2 - 3 - 5 - -

12 „ - — 2 1 4 — 3 — 1

13 „ - - - 1 3 - 2 - -

U „ - - — - ----- -

15 ^^ — - 1 — — — — — -

Total — — 8 2 16 3 22* — 1
* Noted as in bad condition.

SOLE.

(Under 8 inches) — — — — — — 1 — —

8 inches — — — — — 1 4 — —

Total — — — — — 1 5 — —

BRILL.

(Under 10 inches) — — — — 1 — 1 — —

Total — — — — i — i ^^^^ —

WHITING.

(Under 8 inches) 33— 6 — — — — — —

8 inches 7— 8 — ___ — _
9„ 5- i______

10 „ 4 — — — — — — — —

Total 49 — 15 — — — — — —

TUB.

(Under 8 inches) __ — — 8 4 10 — —

8 inches — — — — — — 1 — —

9„------2--

10,,- — — — — — — — —

11 „------ 1 - -

12 „ ------ 1- —

Total _ — — 6* 8 4 15 — —

* Small libh ; actual si/us not recorded.

TRAWLING IN BAYS ON THE SOUTH COAST OF DEVON.

GREY GURNARD.

No. of Haul — i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. vii. viii. ix.

(Under 8 inches) — — — — — — — — 7

Total — — — — — — — ^^^ 7

THORN BACK.
(Under 8 inches) — — — — — 1 6 — 2

8 inches — — — — — 1 1 1 —

9 „_______ 1_

10„ ---------

11,,------- 1-

12 „------ 1_-

13,,----- 1___

16 „-------- 1

25 „ -------- 1

Total ] ? — — _ 3 8 3 4

309

Table IV.

Numbers and Percentages of Fish at given sizes at different

seasons in Torhay.

Season — January.

Hauls — iii.

Hours — 1 hr. 50 nius.

Unsaleable . . 25
Under 8 inches . 43%

Immature . . 50
Under 12 inches 86%

Large ... 0
15 ins. and over

Gross number . 58

PLAICE.

March. June. July. November,

iv., V. vi., vii. viii., ix. i., ii.

3 lirs. 2 hrs. 55 nins. 2 hrs. 25nius. 3hrs. 20mn3.

84

23%

229

63%

16

4%

362

261

64%

340

83%

13

3%

410

27
25%

96

87%

4

4%

110

4

4%

54

54%

4

4%

100

Unsaleable . . 83
Under 8 inches . 95%

Gross number

87

DAB.
12

50%
24

110

74%

148

159

95%

168

46

64%

72

310 TUAWLING IN BAYS ON THE SOUTH COAST OF DEVON.

Our list contains a few kinds of fish not entered in Table III. As in
the case of Start Bay, the deleterious kinds are not sufficiently numerous
to demand attention, and the others need not here concern us.

It will be noticed that the proportions of plaice fluctuate throughout
the seasons in a rather irregular manner. This may in part be due to
the paucity of our material in January, only 58 fish being recorded.
Another explanation, however, is forthcoming, viz., that January is the
spawning season, when the bulk of the big fish are out on the spawning
grounds, about 15 miles off Berry Head (if I am rightly informed on
this point). If plaice spawn at all in Torbay it is contrary to anything
that I know of the general habit of the species, so that during the
spawning season one would expect to find there only immature fish and
a few of the smaller mature ones, which, speaking broadly, ripen later
in the season than their larger brethren. This, in effect, is the condition
actually indicated by our record. To correspond with the numerical
abundance in March, the January figures should be much higher, but
the weather in the earlier month was not propitious. The fish taken
were in good condition, but 43 per cent, were unsaleable.

In ]\Iarch the proportion of both unsaleable and immature fish falls
considerably, though both remain high. The fall may be presumed to
be in part accounted for by the return of spent fish from the spawning
grounds. The mature fish were noted to be in very poor condition,
" running away to water," as the skipper of the Thistle expressed it.
In June the proportion of "unsaleable" rises very perceptibly, but it
must be admitted that in haul vii. we gave the Ridge rather a wider
berth, and so hauled closer to the shore than is usual with professional
trawlers. The percentage of immature fish shows a corresponding rise
in this month.

In July we found the Eidge unfit for trawling owing to the great
quantity of drift weed, so made our second haul, a very short one, in
the central part of the bay. Here plaice were numerous, but small and
nearly all immature. The few that we got round the Eidge comprised
a reasonable proportion of good fish, but the two hauls, taken together,
put the proportion of immature rather higher than in. June of the
previous year. In November (1895) fish seem to have been scarce.
More than half were immature, but few were unsaleable. I believe,
from experience elsewhere, that it is not unusual for the big fish to
draw away from the shore in this month to re-assemble later on in
the spawning grounds.

Around the Eidge, as may be gathered from Table III., dabs are cer-
tainly less numerous than plaice, except (always ?) in January. In the
central part of the bay this condition is reversed, but the proportion of
unsaleable fish is very high throughout the year. It reaches its lowest

TRAWLING IX BAYS ON THE SOUTH COAST OF DEVON.

311

point, 50 per cent, in March. Dabs are known to spawn, to some
extent, in inshore waters, though I have little experience of their doing
so in Devonshire bays.

Other marketable flat-fish require, unfortunately, but little con-
sideration. Soles are represented by only two small specimens. Merry
soles were never taken, though I believe that they sometimes, if not
often, enter the bay. Flounders appear to be permanent inhabitants,
or at any rate are to be taken in small numbers throughout the year.
Xo turbot were taken, and only one brill, of unsaleable size, was
observed. Whiting, tub gurnard and grey gurnard appear to be not
only scarce, but too small to be worth catching. The same remark
applies almost equally to thornbacks, during the months when the rays
were recorded. No other kinds of ray were observed.

TEIGNMOUTH BAY.

LIST OF HAULS.

The trawling ground in this bay lies roughly parallel to the shore at
depths ranging from 5 to 10 fathoms. Our experiments were made on
courses which do not appear to differ from each other to such an extent
as to require separate definition. The ground appears to be very liable
to become covered with drift weed in the summer.

I.

T. .

•

• •

30 X.

'95

II.

T. .

'•

• •

»

III.

T. .

4 his.

30 min.

2xii.

'95

IV.

T. .

.

• •

»

V.

T. .

,

^

12 X.

'96

VI.

T. .

.

» •

}f

VII.

T. .

.

• •

>)

VIII.

T. .

•

^ ^

))

IX.

T. .

2 hrs.

25 min.

12 i.

'97

X.

T. .

2 „

30 „

»>

XI.

B.B. .

2 „

50 „

25 iii.

'97

XII.

B.B. .

1 „

5 „

1 vi.

'97

XIII.

B.B. .

0 „

50 „

)»

XIV.

B.B. .

1 ,.

40 „

)>

XV.

B.B. .

2 ,.

20 „

»

12

TRAWLING IN BAYS ON THE SOUTH COAST OF DEVON.

Table Y.

List of Fish caught in Teignmouth Bay.

PLAICE.

Haul— i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. vii. viii. ix. x. xi, xii. xiii. xiv. xf.*
Inches.

3__________ 2 —

4_ — — — — — — — — — 45 3 5— 8

5 — — — — 11 3 — — 2 6 102 12 10 5 46

6 1 7 2 — 26 11 1 2 29 26 152 21 7 4 17

7 10 46 14 2 38 29 8 5 35 11 91 2 10 6 15

8 14 72 12 6 24 31 12 8 17 12 38 1 1 4 6

9 55 80 18 24 26 64 19 16 6 25 18 — — 4 1

10 90 124 31 70 27 101 30 25 9 22 15 — 4 6 3

11 47 78 13 81 11 76 29 12 6 21 11 3 3 2 3

12 25 34 8 58 11 52 24 17 2 15 11 1 4 3 —

13 10 9 3 18 7 12 9 10 — 3 3 2 4 2 1

14 133652231 111—12

15 3_. _ 6 3 2 3 2— 2122— 2

16— — 1 2 2 — — — — — — 3 — — 2

17— — — — — — — — — — — — — — —

18— — — — l__ — — 1— 1 —

19 1— — — — — — 2— 1— 1— — —

20— — — — — — — — — — — — — — —

21 — — — — — — — — — — — — — — —

Total 257 453 105 273 192 383 137 102 107 145 490 53 50 38 106

* The net came up loaded with weed, which had to be removed by cutting the meshes.
In this process many small flat-fish escaped.

-

DAB.

(Under 8)

53

45 118

94

112

4 16

47 101

56

6

4

9

20

8

29

34 28

26

26

5 16

3

2

5

2

9

14

24 11

19

29

23 13

— 2

1

3

10

16 4

12

16

9 4

1

2

11
12
13

4 4
1

1
4

1

4
3

— 1
o

—

2

1

4

—

Total

97

124 165

156

%

184

48 49

47 107

61

6

6

17

25

FLOUNDER.

(Under 8)

—

— —

—

1

2

1

8

—

— —

— —

— —

2

—

9

—

1

—

Total — — _— ? ___ i_

TKAWLIXG IN BAYS ON THE SOUTH COAST OF DEVON,

313

LEMON SOLE OR MERRY SOLE.

Haul — i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. vii. viii. ix. x. xi. xii. xiii. xiv. xv.
Inches.

11 ______ !________

13_____ !___ i___ i_

14 1— 1 ____________

Total 1—12? 4 11 — — 2 — — — 1 —

SOLE.
{Under 8)— — — — — — — — — !____ l

8— — — — — — — — — 1— _ — __

10 __ l__ 4— 2 — — — — — — 1

11 __ i__ i_ i_______

12 _ !_____________

13 1_ 1 i__________ 1

14_____ i________ 1

15 _______ _________

16— — _ — — _ — — _— _____

17 __ 1 ____________

Total 1151? 7— 7^2 — — — 14

TURBOT.
12— — i____________

13___ 1 ___________

14 __________ i____

Total — — 1 1?_ — ___1____

BRILL.
(Under 10)— _ — — ____ 1— 2 2 3 2 1
10— — — i__ i___ !____
11 _ i___ i_ ________

12— — _ — — i___ i_____

13— — — — — — — — — — — l___

14— — — — — _ — __-—_ — ___

15 ___________ i___

19 _________ i_____

Total —1—1] 21—1234321

314 TRAWLING IN BAYS ON THE SOUTH COAST OF DEVON.

COD.

Haul — i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. vii. viii. ix. x. xi. xii. xiii. xiv. xv.
Inches.

13 ______ !________

16 ______ ________ _

Total — — — — 1 4 3__2 — — — — —

WHITING.
(Under 8)— 16 30 — — — — — l______

8— ________ i_____

9— — 1 1— 1 1______— _

10— — 5 2 — — 5 1_______

11— — 2 — — 3 2 — — — — — — — —

14 ______ !________

15___ 1 ___________

Total — 16 40 4 — 5 12 2 1 1 _ _ _ _ _

DORY.
Under 8— — — — — — — — — — — — 1 3 —

Total ____ ? _______ 1 3_

GREY GURNARD.
(Under 8)— 1________ 9 1 3 1 1

8_ — ______ 1 ______

9— — — — '— 2— 9*— — 1 — ___

10 1— — __10 4 — — — — — — — 1

11— ____ 3___ !_____

12— __ — _____ ______

13 _______________

Total 1 1 — — ? 15 4 9 1 1 10 1 3 1 2

* Between 9 and 11 inches,

TUB GURNARD.
(Under 8)— _ ______ 1— 33 46 3 3

8— — — — _______ 1 1 1 1

9— ____________ 1_

10— — — — — — — — 1 ______

11 _____________ 2 —

Total — — — —]— — — 2— 33577 4

TRAWLING IX BAYS ON THE SOUTH COAST OF DEVON.

315

THORN BACK.
vi. vii. \iii. ix.

XI. xn. XIII. XIV. XV.

Haul — i. ii. iii. iv. \
Inches.

(Under 8)— ____ — — _ — _ 2 3 9

8— _________ 1_ 2

9 — —

10 — —

11 — —

12 — —

13 — —

14 — —

15 — —

16 — —

17 — —

18 — —

19 — —

20 — —

21 — —

22 — —

23 — —

24 — —

3
4
2
6
6
3
1
4
2

1
3

1
4
3
2

4
1
2

3
1

1
1
2

1
3
1

2

9

8
6
2
3
1
1

9

Total % %

1 1

1 1

'I 41 24 19 19 23

HOMELYN.

8________ — _ 3— 1— 2

10 ________ _ _— i___

13 ___ — _ — — — — —— l__ —

Total 1. 1 % 1 1 1. 1. 1 '^. 1 Z 2 \ — 2

BLONDE.

(Under 8)— _ — — __ — — — —— 3 — — —

8___________ 1___

13 ___________ 1 _

15 _________ 1 _

Total '!????'?1?'?? — 6— — —

Pout (Gadus luseus or G. minutus) are the only other marketable
fish which appear in our records. Their numbers are quite unimportant.
Of unmarketable species, solenettes, scald-fish, topknots {Rh. unimacu-
latus), dragonets, angels or buffoons, and various dog-fish appear in
hauls subsequent to x. In Haul x. Mr. Scott has noted that dog-fish
were abundant, but in subsequent hauls both dog-fish and angels, which
may be regarded as deleterious forms, were not taken in any consider-
able number.

NEW 8ERIE.S.— VOL. V. NO. 3,

316 TRAWLING IX BAYS ON THE SOUTH COAST OF DEVON.

Table VI.

Numbers and Percentages of Fish at given sizes at different
seasons in Teignmouth Bay.

PLAICE.

Season — January. March. May, June. Oct. Dec.

Hauls — ix., X. xi. xii.-xv. i., ii., v.-viii. iii., iv.

Hours — 4 hrs. 55 nms. 2 hrs. 50 mns. 5 lirs. 55 mns. ? ?

Unsaleable

105

392

171

198

18

Under 8 inches

42%

80%

69%

14%

5%

Immature

227

474

212

1269

273

Under 12 inches .

90%

97%

86%

89%

72%

Large

3

1

14

19

9

15 inches and over

1%

0%

6%

1%

2%

Gross number .

252

490

247

1424

378

DAB.

Unsaleable . . 148 56 39 230 212

Under 8 inches . 96% 92% 72% 46% 66%

Gross number . . 154 61 54 503* 321

* The record of dabs in Haul 5 has been mislaid.

Fish of species not entered in Table V. were in no way important.
Throughout the year it would appear that the plaice are for the most
part immature, while the percentage of unsaleable is very high in spring
and summer, and considerable even in January. In October and in
December it is comparatively low. Dabs are evidently less abundant
than plaice, and, except in October, most of them appear to be unsale-
able. Merry soles, though not taken in large numbers, were saleable,
and probably for the most part mature. Soles do not appear to be
numerous, though a fair catch might perhaps be made at night, but
would consist, as I infer, largely of immature " slips." The few turbot
recorded are small, and probably all immature. Two mature brill were
taken, but the rest were mostly unsaleable as well as immature. Cod
are only represented by a few codling. Whiting may, perhaps, be
taken in remunerative numbers by night, and appear to be mostly sale-
able (if rather small), except in October and December. Large grey
gurnard appear to be scarce, while tub gurnard are much too small to
be legitimately fished. Thornbacks seem to be an important item of
the catch. Many are so small as to be comparatively worthless, while
a fair number are quite unsaleable, but I cannot say that the proportion
of the latter, having regard to the usual distribution of vounjj and old
in this species, is unusually high.

tkawlixg in bays on the south coast of devon. 317

General Considerations.

I think it will be conceded that the preceding records indicate, in so
far as they can be considered representative, that the three bays do
not form a homogeneous area, characterised by similar conditions of
fish supply throughout. Start Bay and Torbay show a certain similarity,
if we restrict our attention to plaice, but there is a marked difference
in the proportion of immature fish in the later months of the year.
Thus in Start Bay these fish are 39 per cent, of the whole in October
and 32 per cent, in December, while in Torbay they are 54 per cent,
in November. Teignmouth Bay differs from either, in that the pro-
portion of immature plaice never falls below 72 per cent. I imagine
that the facts are of more interest to the Committee than their ex-
planation, which may probably lie in the close proximity of the
estuary of the Exe, apparently the chief nursery of young plaice in
the district, to Teignmouth Bay.

Without undertaking the responsibility of suggesting legislative
action, I think I may endeavour to indicate, in so far as my
acquaintance with the local conditions permits, the probable effects
of any modification of the existing bye-laws.

Any interference with the unrestricted prosecution by fishermen of
their calling may be presumed to have for its object either the increase
of the fish supply or the protection of one class of fishermen at the
expense of another. The last case involves social considerations which
I am not concerned to discuss, as they lie within the province of the
political economist rather than that of the naturalist.

For the protection or increase of the supply a number of methods
have been advocated, such as the prevention of the destruction of small
fish (different standards of size being suggested), whether by prohibition
of capture or prohibition of sale, the institution of a close season, etc.
On the Mhole the imposition of a size limit, however enforced, seems
to have found most favour, but opinions differ as to the size. The Sea
Fisheries Bill of 1898 sought to make illegal the sale, &c., of plaice
and soles not exceeding 8 inches in length. It must be supposed that
the Parliamentary Committee, on the recommendations of which the
Bill was based, held that the protection of fish of less size would in
itself benefit the supply, A Fisheries Committee cannot deal with
sales, but the Devon Committee has taken effectual means to prevent
the destruction, at least by trawlers, of either large or small fish in the
bays. If it be held that the limit proposed by the Parliamentary
Committee is adequate, our tables show that the existing bye-law is
superfluous in Start Bay, and probably in Torbay during the months
of October, November, and December, while it is hardly necessary

X 2

318 TRAWLING IN BAYS ON THE SOUTH COAST OF PEYON.

in Teignmoutli Bay in December, since there are hardly any plaice
under 8 inches to be caught. It is possible, however, that the Fisheries
Committee may consider that the prohibition of sale of fish Avhich
are so small as to be practically unsaleable will not greatly alter
existing conditions, and that an effort should be made to extend pro-
tection until the fish have reached a somewhat larger size. If this
be the case the limit advocated will probably coincide with the size
at which the fish becomes capable of reproducing its species, and so
contributing to the up-keep of the stock. Plaice, the species with
which we are almost entirely concerned, mature, as has been shown, at
about 12 inches, and if this principle of protection be accepted it
is obvious that no modification of the existing bye-law is advisable at
any period of the year either in Teignmoutli Bay or Torbay. In Start
Bay it does not appear that the proportion of immature fish is higher in
December than on offshore grounds. What may be the conditions in
this bay in January and February the weather has never permitted us
to ascertain.

Assuming that the protection of immature fish suffices, and that
a proportion of 30 per cent, of such fish is that normally met witli
in company with large plaice on offshore grounds, it would appear
that the bye-law might be relaxed in Start Bay in winter without
much injurious effect in so far as the fish supply is concerned. It
is not my business to recommend such a relaxation, and the Committee
is probably aware that the southern edge of the Skerries, which appears
to be a favourite trawling ground, is equally appreciated by the crabbers.
Crabbing and trawling are industries little calculated to flourish on the
same ground, especially by night. Supposing it to be possible to
prevent interference with crabbing by restricting trawling to the north-
ward of a line drawn from the Bell Buoy to Tinsey Head, and if this
limit were respected (it is for the Committee to judge by what means
respect could be enforced), the bay would remain in part a sanctuary
for soles throughout the year. I take it that no one will be inclined
to refuse to soles any sort of protection which can be afforded them,
whether large or small.

I do not think that the proposal to establish a close time for sea fish
has ever been seriously entertained, but I am by no means sure that
beneficial results would not be achieved by diverting the attention of
trawlers from fish of a given species at the time when the larger
members of that species are engaged in spawning. It is well known
that in any species the larger mature females yield more eggs than
their smaller sisters, and that as a rule they are the earliest spawners.
I myself believe that the larger fish produce not only more numerous
but more vigorous offspring, capable, speaking generally, of attaining

TEAWLING IN BAYS ON THE SOUTH COAST OF DEVON. 319

a larger size than the offspring of fish which have only just reached
the mature condition. Large plaice are spawning, if I am correctly
informed, in January. Means might be taken to tabulate the spawning
period with greater exactitude, and I believe that the Committee might
profitably consider to what extent the opening of Start Bay during this
month (or during the earlier part of the spawning period) would have
the effect of diverting the attention of trawlers from the large plaice
when the latter are spawning. In this connection the weather is of
great importance, since a gale of wind off the land is in itself a most
efficient protector of spawning fish on distant grounds, while the
opening of the bay would, under such meteorological conditions, submit
the species to a persecution which they at present escape. In any
modification of existing arrangements intended to protect large fish
while spawning it would be essential to avoid any risk, by too early
opening of inshore grounds, of molesting the breeders before they have
hauled off the land, and I am certain that the date of the outward
migration varies somewhat in different years.

A Fisheries Committee appears to have the power of dealing with
trawling in inshore waters by various methods besides those already
referred to, viz., by regulation of the hour and duration of hauls, and
of the size of mesh, and by the prohibiting of the removal of fish from
a fishery. It is a well-established fact that small fish, especially the
hardier kinds of flat-fish, are not necessarily killed by being caught
in the trawl, if the latter is only hauled for a short time and the
ground is fairly clean. It is, of course, essential that the small fish,
if they are to be saved, should be promptly returned to the sea. With
regard to mesh, I doubt whether any alteration of size and pattern
is practicable, since to restrict trawling in the bays to the use of
a certain kind of net might be equivalent to closing them altogether,
on account of the expense entailed by equipping the boats with two
sets of gear. There can be no doubt as to the beneficial action of
regulations dealing with duration of hauls and removal of small
fish, if such can be effectually enforced ; but I suppose that a man
of affairs, before recommending any legislation on these lines, would
consider how far the means at his disposal would be likely to render it
effective.

In the above remarks I have directed my attention almost entirely
to plaice, and only a few words appear to be necessary in respect of the
other fish met with in the bays. Soles require no further notice.
Merry soles and fluundeis appear to be unimportant. Turbot and brill
are few and small, and, as such, may very well continue to enjoy the
protection ol' the bye-law ; nor can i find any reasun tu ihiuk that the
closure of the bays is otherwise than beneficial to whiting and gurnards,

320 TKAWLING IN BAYS ON THE SOUTH COAST OF DEVON.

which appear to be represented almost entirely by immature and
unsaleable individuals.

Dabs require separate consideration. They are very abundant in the
bays, and, except in Start Day in December, a very large proportion of
them is immature and unsaleable. But the dab is a small fish, which
at no time enjoys a very exalted commercial value, while its flesh
deteriorates very rapidly. Furthermore, it is commonly regarded by
naturalists as a serious competitor in the matter of food with the more
valuable kinds of flat-fish, in the company of which it is usually
taken. Unlike the plaice, it is not by any means confined in its
immature condition to any particular ground, and shows hardly any
discrimination in the locality in which it spawns ; while in addition to
consuming large quantities of organisms, which might be more profitably
employed in the architecture of young plaice and soles, it is practically
omnivorous. Probably in virtue of this adaptability of feeding and
habitat the dab continues to abound. At least, I have never heard it
seriously contended by any responsible observer that the species has
been greatly reduced in number by over-fishing. That it may have
decreased in average size is quite possible, since although, as our records
show, the length may occasionally reach 15 inches even in this district,
13 inches is much more frequently the size of the largest individuals
met with. It is not unlikely that protection might result in slightly
increasing the average size, and so in slightly raising the market value
of the fish, but it is more than doubtful whether any useful end would
be served by any sort of means specially directed to the preservation of
this species. In giving evidence at an enquiry held during the present
year with regard to a bye-law prohibiting the use of " tuck-nets " in
Start Bay, I had occasion to speak of dabs in the same sense as appears
above. Mr. Fryer, in his report to the Board of Trade, considered that
my remarks with regard to dabs went a long way towards condemning
the bye-law. The lesponsibility is his, not mine, for it is one thing to
say that a dab needs and deserves no protection^ and another to hold
that small plaice ought not to be preserved for fear that the dabs should
benefit by the same protection. The question of " tuck-nets " is outside
the scope of our present enquiry. In the case of trawling in the bays
our records sufficiently prove that all other considerations must be
subordinated to the conditions affecting plaice. I should hesitate to
advise that dabs are so deleterious that their extermination in the bays
would justify the great destruction of small plaice that must ensue if the
process were carried out in the course of ordinary professional fishing.
In the good old days of which we hear, when valuable fish are said to
have abounded, plaice must be supposed to have been able to maintain a
successful competition with dabs, and food-fish generally with worthless

TRAWLING IN BAYS ON THE SOUTH COAST OF DEVON. 321

or predatory forms. The balance appears to have been upset by the
interference of man, but it is very difficult to advise how it may be
satisfactorily adjusted again.

There is some risk even in the assertion that such worthless and
predatory forms as sharks and dog-fish are wholly noxious, since their
depredations among valuable fish may be partly compensated by the
destruction which they inflict on each other and on small competitive
forms. I am nevertheless inclined to think that the dog-fish commonly
met with by trawlers, spur- dogs, nurse, rough -dogs, and angels or
buffoons, do more harm than good, and may safely be killed when
encountered. From the results of enquiries which I have made I doubt
whether trawlers take any trouble in this matter. Spur-dogs, perhaps
the most destructive of all, are likely enough to succumb to exposure
on deck before they are shovelled overboard, but nurse, rough-dogs and
buffoons are very tenacious of life, though easily disposed of by the
judicious use of the heel of a sea-boot.

I have endeavoured to set forth above all the more important points
raised by our enquiry, in so far as they can be limited to the single
industry of trawling. I see no reason to change the opinion which I
have long held, that the practical treatment of questions dealing with
the supply of flat-fish cannot be limited to trawling alone, but must
embrace all fisheries which are prosecuted on any part of the area
tenanted, at different phases of their life history, by these fish.

[ 322 ]

APPENDIX.

Memorandiun on the Results of Investigations into the Contents of
Certain Bays on the South Coast of Devon.

Submitted for the Information of the Sub-Committee of Enquiry Appointed
BY the Devon Sea Fisheries Committee (September, 1896).

By

F. B. Stead, B.A.,

Assistant Naturalist on the Staff of the Marine Biological Association.

In the following Memorandum I propose to lay before the Sub-Committee
of Enquiry, appointed by the Devon Sea Fisheries Committee, certain facts
with regard to the contents of two of the bays on the South Coast of Devon,
in which I have conducted trawling experiments, and then to point out the
bearing of these facts on the practical questions before the Committee.

I. The experiments, to which reference will be made, were conducted at
different times during the months of October to December of last year (1895);
and the bays investigated were Start and Teignmouth Bays. The trawling
smack Thistle, of Brixham, was engaged by the Association for the purposes of
the investigation. All the food-fish which came on board were measured to
the nearest quarter of an inch. The results of the several hauls were tabulated
and compared with one another, and though these were not as many as I
should have desired, the results obtained are such as to lead me to suppose
that a fairly correct idea was gained of the relative numbers of fish of
different sizes, belonging to the different species, which any similarly
equipped vessel, fishing on the same grounds at that time of year, might be
expected to catch. It is, of course, quite possible that there is a certain
amount of variation in the numbers of fish of different sizes inhabiting these
bays from year to year; and in considering the results which will be given
below, this fact must be borne in mind.

The first fact which comes out clearly as the result of these experiments is,
that plaice and dabs are far more numerously represented than any other
species. Compared to the destruction of plaice and dabs effected by trawling,

INVESTIGATIONS ON THE SOUTH COAST OF DEVON.

323

the destruction of other species is insignificant, and may, I think, for practical
purposes, be left out of account.

The following table gives the actual numbers of fish of different species
caught in four hauls in Teignmouth Bay (taken on October 30th and
December 2nd and 3rd), and in three hauls in Start Bay (taken on October
31st and December 4th).

Table I.
Actual numbers of fish of different species caught in the Bays.

Start Bay (3 Hau
Plaice

s).
. 559

Teignmouth Bay (4 Hauls)
1088

Dabs

. 890

511

Common Sole

. 35

8

Merry Sole
Turbot .

1

4
2

Brill

2

2

Whiting .

. 144

61

Pouting .

4

40

Cod

1

Grey Gurnard
Tub

. 57
8

2

John Dory

11

—

While plaice and dabs appeared in every haul in considerable numbers, the
other species captured were obtained in relatively small numbers, and in most
cases not in every haul.

In considering, then, the populations of the two bays in detail, we may
confine our attention to the plaice and the dabs.

We may now proceed to set forth the results arrived at, by adding together
the numbers of plaice of all the different sizes obtained in all tlie hauls taken
in October and December in the two bays. The results are expressed in
percentage of the total number of these fish caught in these hauls.

824

INVESTIGATIONS INTO THE CONTENTS OF

Table II.

Showitig the relative numbers of plaice of different sizes taken in StaH and
TeitjnmoutJi Bays in columns I. Columns II. express the percentage number
of plaice up to the corresponding size, e.g., " 43"1 per cent, of all the plaice
caught in Start Bay were 12 inches and under in size."

Start Bat.

Teignmodth

Bat.

Inches.

I.

IT.

Inches.

I.

II.

7

... 0-35 .

—

7

... 3-9

... 2-9

8

... 1-4 .

10

8

8-3

... 9-9

9

... 39 .

. 4-1

9

... 12-1

... 20-5

10

... 6-6 .

.. 10-5

10

... 22-9

... 40-6

11

... 13-6 .

. 22-1

11

... 27-4

... 69-1

12

... 20-75 .

.. 43-1

12

... 15-2

... 87-6

13

... 20-9

62-0

13

6-3

... 95-4

14

... 13-7 .

.. 77-8

14

... 2-4

... 98-25

15

... 9-3 .

.. 88-5

15

... 0-4

... 99-1

16

... 4-1 .

.. 94-3

16

... 0-7

... 99-6

17

... 2-7 .

.. 97-4

17

... 0-2

... 100-0

18

... 0-9 .

.. 98-2

18

19

... 0-35 .

.. 98-9

19

20

... 0-5 .

.. 99-4

20

24

... 0-35 .

.. 100-0

"We may now point out certain results which may be deduced from an
inspection of this table. It will be seen that the plaice in Teignmouth are,
on the whole, smaller than those in Start Bay ; and that, whereas half the
plaice in the former were 10| inches or under, in the latter, the length on
either side of which half the fish are found to lie is 12| inches. It now
remains to consider what percentage of the plaice in either bay fall below the
limit of maturity.

Mr. Cunningham's investigations on the limit of maturity of plaice on the
South Coast showed that the higher limit for plaice was 15 in. ; that is to say,
that if it was desired to impose such a size limit as to wholly prevent the
capture of immature plaice, the limit we should impose would be as high,
but no higher, than 15 in. On the other hand, it has been .shoAvn that — with
only very occasional exceptions — no plaice under 9 in. is mature. A plaice
between 9 and 15 in. in length may or may not be mature.

By imposing a size limit of 15 in. for plaice, we should, as I have just
pointed out, wholly prevent the capture of immature plaice ; but in so doing
we should also prevent the capture of a certain number of plaice which have
already arrived at maturity; and on the theory that the sole object to be
kept in view is to permit the fish to spawn, it might be reasonably urged
that the 15-iu. limit is too high — since a considerable number of plaice under

CERTAIN BAYS ON THE SOUTH COAST OF DEVON.

325

this length are mature. Acquiescing in this objection, we may accept 12 in.
as a reasonably effective limit, and may now consider what proportion of the
plaice in the bays examined fall below this limit of maturity. An inspection
of Table II. will show that while 43"1 per cent, of the plaice in Start Bay
were 12 in. or under, the percentage of plaice in Teignmouth Bay 12 in.
or less in length was no less than 87*6. Or, in round numbers, two-fifths
of the fish captured in Start Bay, and more than four-fifths of those captured
in Teignmouth, were under the length which I have agreed to call a reasonably
effective limit of maturity.

We may now turn to consider the facts ascertained for dabs. These may
be best understood from an examination of the table given below : —

Table III.

Showing the relative numhers of dabs at the different sizes in all the
hauls taken (October and December ).

Inches.

n

8

Start B.^y.
(and under)

No. per cent.
. 28-7
. 17-2

Teignmouth
Inches.

Q\ (and under)
7 .

N

^0. per cent
260
17-6

9

. 29-0

8 .

23-7

10

. 11-7

9 .

17-3

11

. 7-5

10 .

10-4

12

. 3-2

11 .

2-8

13

. 1-9

12 .

M

14

. 0-4

13 .

0-5

15

. 01

13 .

0-5

The limit of maturity for the common dab has been placed at 7 in. by
one observer, and at 6 in. by another. It has not yet, so far as I am aware,
been definitely ascertained for the South-west Coast ; and it is known that
in the case of the plaice, at least, the limit of maturity varies with the
locality. I should hesitate, therefore, to deduce from the figures above
what proportion of the dabs captured were "immature," nor is there the
same necessity for doing so as in the other case. For if a case is to be
made out for prohibiting fishing in the inshore, while permitting it in the
offshore waters, it cannot be made to rest on facts connected with the
distribution of the common dab. Investigations made in the North Sea
have seemed to indicate that the dab " is found everywhere, and at all
stages, in every part of the North Sea, both inshore and offshore, and that,
except in estuaries, it seems to spawn anywhere, without regard to depth
of water or proximity to land." It is far otherwise with the plaice; in
the case of which fish it may be said with certainty that they remain for
the most part in inshore waters during the period of their immaturity, under-
going a migration seawards when they are ready to spawn.

326 INVESTIGATIONS INTO THE CONTENTS OF

It follows that tlie practical question of whether these inshore waters
which I have investigated should be closed or not, must depend on whether
restrictive measures are necessary for the protection of the plaice.

In bringing this part of the memorandum to a conclusion, I can but express
my regret that I have been unable to properly investigate the catches of the
deep-sea trawlers in the areas adjacent to the two bays, Avith a view to making
an exact comparison of the percentage of immature plaice among the plaice
of the offshore waters Avith the percentage of imuiaturo plaice among those
which are captured in the bays.

I have purposely omitted to deal with the relative merits of the pleas
offered on behalf of the Start Bay longshoremen on the one hand and the
trawlers on the other — partly because the case for the former admittedly rests,
in part at least, on grounds which it does not come within my province to
consider. I shall be willing to explain myself further on this point, in giving
evidence before the Committee, should they desire it.

II. An examination of the figures given above will show that fishing in the
two bays considered involves a considerable destruction of immature plaice
and dabs. It will be seen also that the destruction of fish of all other species
is insignificant. It now remains to consider the bearing of these facts on the
practical question before the Committee.

The destruction of immature flat-fish has been held to be injurious to the
fisheries for two different reasons by those who regard the question from two
distinct points of view. The reason most commonly given for objecting to
this destruction is that, by destroying an immature fish, yon eliminate not
the fish only, but its possible offspring. It is maintained on the other hand
(and this view is held by some biologists) that the supply of larvee is more
than sufficient to maintain an adequate stock of large fish, and that the
destruction of a certain number of immature fish is not to be deprecated on
the ground that the number of eggs and larvae produced at the next spawning
season will be proportionately diminished. Those, however, who hold this
view are no less anxious to put a stop to this destruction for quite a different
reason.

It has been pointed out that a plaice 14 in. in length weighs twice as much
as a plaice of 10 in., and that it would be more profitable to the fisheries
if a 10 in. plaice was allowed to grow to 14 in. before being caught, doubling
its weight in the process, than if it were destroyed at 10 in. And this state-
ment certainly holds good, unless the mortality of plaice from natural causes
is such as to reduce the number of 10 in. plaice by a half in the time they
would take to grow to 14 in. And that this is the case is extremely im-
probable.

It will be seen, then, that the destruction of immature fish is objected to
by some because these fish have not yet had a chance of reproducing their
species, and by others because they have not yet grown to the size at which
it would be most profitable to capture them ; and it will be noticed that
these two grounds of objection are not in themselves inconsistent with one
another.

CERTAIN BAYS ON THE SOUTH COAST OF DEVON. 327

I have drawn attention to both these grounds of objection, because the
criticism mentioned above — to the effect that the supply of larvae is more
than adequate, and that there is no reason for anxiety as to the consequences
that may follow the destruction of a certain number of immature flat-fish —
is not infrequently urged by those who have no special knowledge of the
subject ; and I am anxious to point out that whether this criticism be accepted
or not, the position generally adopted still holds good — that the destruction
of small flat-fish is to be deprecated.

It follows that, looking at the matter from a purely biological standpoint,
we cannot regard with favour any proposal to effect a change in the bye-law
which will permit the destruction of a greater number of under-sized flat-fish ;
and if such a change is to be advocated at all, it must be on grounds which
it does not come within our province to consider.

It may, however, be reasonably asked whether, and if so to what extent,
the fisheries in which the Committee is especially interested are likely to be
benefited from a continuance of the restrictions now in force. Granting that
an abolition of the restrictions against trawling within the areas under con-
sideration would be detrimental to the fisheries as a whole by decreasing the
number of flat-fish, have we any right to expect a material improvement,
supposing that these restrictions remain in force 1 This question does not
admit of a simple answer. Looking at the fisheries as a whole, it maj'',
of course, be rightly said that the preservation of young flat-fish will be
beneficial for reasons mentioned above ; but if I am asked by the Committee
to say whether restrictions enforced by them in a particular area will lead to
an increase in the number and size of the flat-fishes in that area, I shall be
unable to answer the question. I may be allowed to refer in this connection
to certain experiments and observations made by the Naturalists under the
Scotch Fishery Board.

The experiment of closing certain bays (part of the Firth of Forth and
St. Andrew's Bay) to trawlers has been tried since 1886 : and hauls have
been regularly made in the closed areas, at intervals since that date, to test
the effect of the closure. The results show that there have been fluctuations
in the number of flat and round fishes in these closed areas, but no steady
increase since the dates when the areas were first closed. This statement
holds good, not only for the closed areas, but for the open areas adjacent to
them.

It might, of course, be urged that this is enough to show that it is useless
to close a particular area to trawlers, inasmuch as no increase in the number
of fishes results from such a proceeding. But, granting that, as time goes on,
the condition of the bays remains what it is — and no increase in the number
of flat-fishes they contain is seen to result from the closure — the above con-
clusion would still, in my opinion, be unjustifiable. It would, in fact, only
be justifiable if the flat-fishes inhabitatiug such a bay at any time were
confined to that bay during the whole of their lives. But this is not what
happens in Nature. Plaice, for instance, which, as a rule, are confined to
inshore waters during the period of their immaturity, go out into deep waters

328 INVESTIGATIONS INTO THE CONTENTS OF

to spawn. lUit it by no means follows that their offspring will return to the
areas whence their parents came. I may quote Dr. Fulton (of the Scotch
Fishery Board) on this point : —

*' The floating eggs and larvae derived from a particular sjiawning area may be
carried considerable distances in a definite direction in a comparatively short space
of time, and may hence form the source of sujjply, not to adjacent parts of the
coast " (whence, presumably, the spawners came), " but to parts situated a consider-
able distance from it."

It will be seen, then, that before Ave can know what will be the effect of
closing particular inshore waters, it is necessary to discover the spawning
ground to which the fish from these waters resort, and then to determine
the direction of the prevailing surface currents, Not till this has been done
is it possible to say where the beneficial effect of closing any particular inshore
waters is likely to be felt.

In the case of the areas in which I have conducted experimental trawlings,
no information at present exists, so far as I am aware, on these points. It is
not, therefore, possible to say whether the preservation of immature plaice
and dabs in Start and Teignmouth Bays will lead to an increase in the number
of these fish in the bays in question, or even in their immediate neighbour-
hood; but the general proposition still holds true, that the destruction of
immature flat-fish is detrimental to the fisheries at large.

Further, it is impossible to give any answer to the question io Iwxo great an
extent are the fisheries likely to benefit from the continuance of the present
restrictions, or ichat amount of damage is likely to result from their abolition.
It is impossible to make any quantitative estimate of the effect of closing a
particular bay, unless we know among other things the proportion which the
number of immature fish in the bay bears to the total number of fish of that
species in the neighbouring district. And further, though of course it is true
that the preservation of the immature fish in such a bay will result directly —
and perhaps also indirectly — in an increase in the numbers of the species, the
admission has to be made that we cannot be certain that the catches of any
individual fishermen will be materially improved in consequence.

Before bringing this memorandum to a close, it is, I feel, necessary to point
out that the considerations offered above are an attempt to set forth the view
which I think must be taken by those who are interested in the welfare of
the fisheries as a whole, of any proposal to remove restrictions which were
designed for the preservation of the immature flat-fish. But I am aware that
the question before the Committee may be complicated by considerations with
which I have not attempted to deal.

The question which the Committee has immediately to consider — whether
a particular change in the law should or should not be enacted — is not one
which ought, in my opinion, to be directly put to any scientific authority.
The immediate effect of such a change — the sudden imposition, for instance,
of a size-limit, or the closure of certain inshore waters — may entail great
hardship on particular "local communities." The Committee will be

CERTAIN BAYS ON THE SOUTH COAST OF DEVON. 329

cognisant of the fact that a proposal in favour of a restrictive bye-law has
been definitely opposed on the ground that particular local interests would be
thereby endangered. An argunaent of this kind can only be dealt with by
those who are acquainted with the nature and extent of the local interests
involved ; and it is possible that the disturbance caused to particular com-
munities by a restrictive measure may be such as to render its enactment
undesirable. Whether it is so or not, in any case before the Committee, I
am not qualified to judge ; and I am here only concerned to point out that,
inasmuch as considerations of this kind lie outside the province of a biologist,
but may properly be brought to the notice of the Committee, the responsibility
of definitely advising the retention or abolition of a bye-law is one which I
should do wrong to accept.

[ 330 ]

Notes on Pontobde/la muricata.

By
The Hon. Henry Gibbs.

A PontoMella lived in my tanks for about six months of the present
year. I first placed it in a wide shallow tank with a variety of Actinice
and a few Hermit Crabs, but no fish of any sort. When first intro-
duced the leech was very restless, and wandered all over the tank.
After a day or so, however, he took up his abode on the glass, close
to the surface. He remained in this spot about three months, and if
disturbed would always go back to it. He never noticed any of the
other animals, and did not appear in the least sensitive to the stinging
power of the tentacles of the Actiniai. I have frequently seen him
plunge his head and neck in amongst the tentacles of a large Anthea
cereals who lived near him, and he treated T. crassicornis with a like
disrespect.

So soon as the weather grew warm, the leech displayed signs of
uneasiness, and finally left his place on the glass, and retired to a cool
corner formed by the slate back and side of the tank, close to the
syphons of the aerating apparatus, where he remained two months and
a half

He never appeared to notice sticks or nets moving near him in the
water, but would remain in his usual position, viz., the base fixed to the
wall of the tank, the body sticking out horizontally for about half its
length, and the fore part doubled under, so that the mouth was pressed
against the under side.

If, however, I placed my hand near him in the water he always
displayed excitement; he would raise his head and most of his body
completely out of the water and wave himself in the air, or more
frequently he would feel about with his head in the water, going over
the rocks and sand at the bottom of the tank, as if searching for food.
He never detached his base on these occasions, and always drew sharply
back if he touched my hand, so that he did not intend to bite me, as I
at first suspected.

NOTES ON I'ONTOBDELLA MUBICATA. 331

In The Aquarium Naturalist Professor Eymer Jones writes that the
skate-leech becomes more active at the approach of evening, and that
it rejects all subsistence when in confinement, though extremely
voracious in the natural state. My Pontohddla, however, was neither
more nor less active in the evening than at other times in the twenty-
four hours. He certainly abstained from food during the first four
months of his residence with me, not decreasing in size or appearing
at all out of health during the whole of that time, so that I began
to think he must have some miraculous power of fasting. I tried him
with all sorts of food, such as raw meat, live shell-fish, live earthworms,
live and dead wrasse, etc., but he would have none of them. At last,
one day a flounder and a skate (both young) died within a day of each
other in another tank, so I placed the flounder, who was only just dead,
in the leech's tank, just under the latter's head. As usual, when the
leech became aware of my hand being in the tank he began moving
his head about, and in doing so touched the flounder several times ;
however, he took no more notice of it than if it had been a piece of
rock, so I gently detached him from his place, and put him on the back
of the flounder ; the leech, however, instantly got off it and returned
to his corner. I therefore concluded that live flat-fish were essential to
him if he would feed at all in captiviy, for I did not think that one
species of flat-fish would be less acceptable to him than another.

However, the skate died the next day, and I dropped him into the
leech's tank, without expecting the latter to take any notice, any more
than he had of the dead flounder. To my surprise, the skate had
hardly touched the bottom of the tank when the leech detached his
base and cast himself upon the skate's body, where he immediately
fixed his base and sat upright with his head doubled down in the usual
way ; after a few minutes, he bit the skate's back in several places,
evidently making vigorous but unsuccessful efforts to extract blood.
His labours lasted about half an hour, and he then returned to his
old corner, and took no further notice of the skate.

I observed that when about to attack his prey he did not move in
his usual way, which is that of a fresh-water leech, viz., by first fixing
his head and then drawing up his base after it. He simply detached
his base, fell to the bottom of the tank, and extended himself till he
was over the skate's body, then drew up the rest of his body till it
lay sideways in a loose coil on the skate, and then fixed his base, not
his head, on the lower part of the skate's wing.

Probably this method of attack is less alarming to a live fish than
if the leech first seized with his head.

After this episode with the dead skate, I moved the leech into a
much larger and deeper tank, wherein were many blennies, gobies,

NEW SERIES. — VOL. V. NO. 3. Y

332 NOTES ON POSTOIiDELLA MUIilCATA.

wrasse, etc., thinking that he might secure a wrasse when lying half
on its side asleep at nights, as is the frequent custom of these fish.

The fish displayed no fear of the leech ; on the contrary, several of
them bit at him when he was first put in.

The leech, however, seemed extremely alarmed at the fish, and at
once secreted himself between two large stones at the bottom of the
tank, where he remained hidden for about a week without moving.
I then introduced three young live skate into the tank, and extracting
the leech from his hiding-place, put him on the back of one of them ;
he took no notice of it however, but immediately escaped to a rock
fixed to the side of the tank. I left him there for the night, but in
the morning the leech was fixed, as to his base, on the lower part of
the wing of one of the live skate, in exactly the same place where
he had settled on the dead skate.

There were traces of blood on the skate's back, and about an hour
later the leech had fixed his mouth on the wing, and immediately in
front of the leech's mouth there was a semi-circular mark of blood.

The two other skate died in the course of the day, but the third
skate lived on for about twenty-four hours with the leech on his
back. The latter must have extracted a quantity of blood, but he
did not swell as does a fresh-water leech when gorged.

When Pontohdella had had enough he would raise himself upright
in his usual position, and with his base still fixed to the skate, until
he felt ready for another attack.

Finally he got off the skate, and hid himself completely under
a stone, and a quarter of an hour after the leech had disappeared
the skate died. The latter would probably have borne the leech's attack
longer, had it not been enfeebled by a recent journey from Plymouth
to London.

The leech remained in hiding for about a month after his meal,
and I then removed him and the other animals from London to the
country.

He had always appeared to dislike heat, and unfortunately, on
arriving in the country, he was placed in a shallow vessel, the water
in which had been greatly heated by the sun. He at once lost
the power of attaching his base, and lay for three or four days on
his side, coiled like a watch-spring, and then died. Given a live
skate or so a year and cool water, I believe Pontohdella could be
kept alive for an indefinite period.

[ 33 '"^ ]

Notes on the Reproduction of Teleostean Fishes
in the South-Western District.

By
Ernest W. L. Holt and L. W. Byrne.

Morone labrax. Linn. Bass.

Towards the end of May a large female bass in one of the Aquarium
tanks appeared to be approaching ripeness, and constantly swam round
the tank followed by one or more of its companions, probably of the
opposite sex. A fine-meshed net was accordingly placed over the over-
flow from the tank in question, and on the morning of the 29th May
was found to contain a very large number of eggs, undoubtedly
attributable to this species, the only other Teleostean inmates being
turbot, congers, pollack, rocklings, and two species of wrasse.

All the eggs proved to be unfertilised, or, at most, showed only an
approach to segmentation, which may have been due to the spermatozoa
of a rockling. Circumstances seemed strongly to point to the fact
that the eggs are not all shed at once, but owing to an unfortunate
series of accidents with the net it is impossible to speak on this point
with absolute certainty.

Although the bass is a common British fish, its ova find no place in
the records of British naturalists, and are only known from the de-
scriptions of Kaffaele,* who obtained them both from parents living
in the tanks of the Naples Laboratory and from the neighbouring sea.

The eggs observed by us at Plymouth are spherical, and, while living
but unfertilised, measure from 125 to I'o-i mm. in diameter. Eaftaele
gives 1-155 to 12 mm. as the diameter of Naples examples. The latter
have an oil-globule of -332 to -366 mm. The Plymouth eggs have
often two or more oil-globules, which soon coalesce to form a single
globule of -39 or 40 mm., pale yellowish to the naked eye, but perfectly
colourless by transmitted light under the microscope.

* Mittheil. Zool. Stat. Neap., viii., 1888.

Y 2

334 THE REPRODUCTION OF TELEOSTEAN FISHES

Raffaele's ova are thus smaller than those which we have seen at
Plymouth, and have a smaller oil-globule. This difTerence may perhaps
be correlated to the size of the parent fish (as noted by one of us in the
case of another species*), but llalfaele does not mention the dimensions
of the Naples spawuers. The Plymouth female measures about 28
inches, 70*2 cm., so far as we can judge. It is impossible to catch her
without emptying the tank, a proceeding at present inconvenient.
Bass, according to Eissof and Faber;]:, grow, or used to grow, to a larger
size than this in the Mediterranean and Adriatic, but Kaffaele's examples
may have been smaller.

The ova of the bass being easily recognisable, whether from the
dimensions and proportionate size of the oil-globule, or from the
pigmentation of the embryo, as described by Eaffaele, it is somewhat
remarkable that they should never have been found in British waters.
Eaffaele suggests that spawning may take place indifferently in either
fresh or salt water, the ova in the former case developing at the
bottom. In this district and at Newquay, young bass, from about
two inches upwards, are found in the estuaries, and not, so far as
we know, in the open sea, and we have taken a large female, with
advanced ovaries, in the Tamar estuary. If spawning takes place in
the estuary it is not remarkable that the ova should have escaped
notice. Those deposited in the Plymouth tanks floated buoyantly in
the Aquarium water, which is of somewhat lower specific gravity than
that of the open sea, while Eaffaele seems to have obtained all
his specimens, other than those from the Naples tanks, at the surface.
Experiments which he describes suggest that perfectly fresh water
is deleterious to the ova (of parents that have been living in sea-
water ?), while brackish water is rather beneficial than otherwise to
the larvse, and does not injure the ova. As has been indicated by
one of us,§ Motella mustela, a fish with typically pelagic eggs, almost
certainly spawns to some extent in the Plymouth estuary. The local
fishermen strenuously assert that the same is true in the case of the
flounder, and may be quite correct in their opinion. It is, therefore,
by no means impossible that the spawning of the bass takes place,
in so far as concerns this district, rather in the estuaries than in
the open sea.

Observations of spawning in an Aquarium give no reliable evidence
as to the spawning season under natural conditions, since when both
periods have been noted they have not been found to coincide. Our

* Joimu M. B. Assoc., N.S., v., 1897, pp. 113 and 117.

t Ichth. Nice, p. 300.

:J: Fisheries of the Adriatic, p. 71.

§ Joura. M. B, Assoc, N.S., v., No. 2.

IX THE SOUTH-WESTERN DISTRICT. 335

large bass are very old members of the Laboratory staff, and, since
no reproductive activity has been observed in previous years, it is
quite probable that they may have lost count of the seasons.

Gobius niger. Linn.

In so far as concerns the neighbourhood of Plymouth, this species
appears to be chieily estuarine in distriliution, being common throughout
the year in the Hamoaze and in the lower reach of the Lynher river.
We have little doubt but that spawning takes place to a large extent
in the estuary, though, as a matter of fact, we have only found the
ova, identified from Petersen's description and figures,* on an old tin
trawled in Cawsand Bay on the 14th July.

Gobius paganellus. Gm. Linn.

In Plymouth Sound this Goby is common enough, between tide-
marks and elsewhere, on rather rough ground, but has not been taken,
to our knowledge, in any part of the estuaries. During the present
spring a number of specimens were kept in a large table-tank in the
Laboratory, In April two males assumed the breeding livery, which
may, for the present, be sufficiently described as a deep purplish madder
all over the head and body, and nearly black on the anterior parts,
while the border of the anterior dorsal fin is cream-colour or orange.
Nests were chosen under a flat stone leaning against the side of the
tank, and under the convex valve of a scallop, Pccten maximus. Ova
were deposited, in all probability by several females, but it is not
possible to give the size of the parent of the specimens measured.
The latter are from 1"84 to 1'90 mm. in length. The shape is rather
regularly fusiform, the greatest width, rather less than half the length,
occurring about the middle. The base is about one-tenth to one-twelfth
of the length; the apex is in all cases somewhat pointed, in most
examples most distinctly so, and never broadly rounded as in G. niger.
The fixing apparatus differs in no important particular from that of
0. nigcr. The yolk is opaque, and yellowish in colour.

Petersen (oj). cit., p. 7) has criticised a drawing given by one of us,
which purports to represent the ova of G. nigcr. As appears from the
text, the drawin" and identification are those of l*rofessor M'lutosh.
In the light of our present observation it becomes evident that the
parent species was G. paganellus, and not G. niger. In future, Avhere
the matter is not complicated by the occurrence of other large Gobies,
such as G. Friesii, it should be easy to distinguish the ova of G, nigcr

• " Ou tho eggs and breeding of our Gobiidte." From the Danish biological Station.
1891 (1S92), p. 2, Tav. i. b.

336 THE KErUODUCTlON OF TELEOSTEAN FISHES

and G. pagancllus by the apex, which is bluntly rounded in the former
and more or less acutely pointed in the latter. Spawn, evidently that
of G. 2Jaga7icllus, has been found on several occasions, at Easter and in
the early summer of 1897, attached to various objects between tide-
marks on Drake's Island.

Gobius pictus. Malm.

The ova of G. minutus and G. Ruthcnsparri have been frequently
observed at Plymouth, but require no further description than is
afforded by the admirable memoirs of Guitel* and Petersen. t It is,
perhaps, worthy of remark that males and females of the former
species have been taken by one of us in full breeding condition during
the first week of September of this year at Newquay, Cornwall. At
Plymouth G. minutus begins to spawn at least as early as April.

So far as we are aware Mr. A. 0. Walker is the only observer who
has noticed (in Colwyn Bay) the occurrence of Gohius pictus in British
waters (cf. Day, Fish. Gt. Brit., i., p. 108), although it is quite possible
that the species may have been recorded under other names. It is
by no means rare on sandy and muddy ground, and among algse
and zostera in Plymouth Sound (Cattewater, Jennycliff Bay, N.E. of
Drake's Island), and in Cawsand Bay. A single specimen has been
taken in Bigbury Bay, and probably a little attention would show
that the species occurs on many parts of our coasts.

We have not observed ova taken directly from the parent, but
consider that this species is probably responsible for some spawn
attached to a Pecten shell trawled near the Batten Breakwater on
the 12th May, 1898. In dimensions and shape the ova approach
the condition of G. microps {cf. Petersen, op. cit., p. o, tav. i. b.. Fig. 11),
a form closely allied to G. pictus, but unrepresented, so far as we can
determine, in our district. The egg measures '81 mm. in height.
As in G. microps, it is swollen near the base, the greatest breadth being
*63 mm. Distaliy the lateral outline is somewhat cumpressed, while
the apex, sometimes rounded, is usually very slightly acuminate.
The shape is, therefore, intermediate between that of G. Ruthcnsjwrri
and that of G. microps, but nearest to the latter. A newly-hatched
larva measured 2"68 mm. in total length. The pigment differs from
that of G. minutus in that yellow and black chromatophores extend
in almost unbroken series along the dorsum and ventrum, to a point
near the caudal extremity. Petersen gives no detailed description

♦ Arch. Zool. Krpcr., S. II., x., 1892 ; S. III., iii., 1895.

t Op. cit. The ova iiiid l^iva of G. minutus have also been described by one of us in
Ann. Ma'j. Nut. Hid., S. VI., ItJiiO, p. 30.

IN THE SOUTIl-WESTEliN DISTRICT. oo7

of the larva of G. niicrops ; but his drawing of the embryo indicates
that the pigmentation of the two forms must be rather similar at
the time of hatching.

Gobius Jeflfreysii. Gilnthcr.

An old oyster shell, presumably dumped down with other rubbish
by a harbour mud-hopper, was dredged on the 3rd July, 1898, about
two miles S. by E. of the Plymouth Mewstone in about twenty-
three fathoms of water. It was found to be coated on one side by
the eggs of a Goby. The shell did not appear to be a recent contribu-
tion to the Mewstone ground, while the spawn was in an early stage of
development, and may be supposed to have been deposited where
found. No Goby was found in the net, but 0. Jeffreysii is commonly
taken on the same ground, where it is the only representative of its
genus. In shape the ova differ from those attributed to G. pictus,
chiefly in that the apex is always rounded and never acuminate. The
height varies from -72 to 'TS mm., the greatest breadth from '55 to '58
mm. The yolk is practically colourless. We have no observations of
more advanced stages.

*o^

Gobius scorpioides. Collett.

According to Smitt (Hist. Scand. Fish., Ed. II., i., p. 260) this Goby
has hitherto been known from three specimens, of which two, 28 and
37 mm. long, were taken by G. 0. Sars at twenty to sixty fathoms outside
Stavanger and Hardanger fjords, while the third, 18'5 mm. long, was
found by Winther at six fathoms in the S.W. of the Cattegat.

We are able to extend the range of the species to the British area,
having taken a specimen on the 13th July, 1897, in the mouth of
Falmouth Harbour at about eighteen fathoms, N. by W. of Anthony
point, in a dredge full of dead shells, etc. It is a female measuring
21 mm. in total length. The ovaries are much distended, and contain
apparently ripe ova loose in the lumen, with the outer layer of the
zona everted.

The ova are mostly ovul or ovoid in shape, but some show an
approach to the shouldered condition common to other small species
of the genus. Two measure '52 and '60 mm. in height by -42 and 09
mm. in greatest breadth, but these measurements do not allow for the
expansion which probably takes place when the spawn is deposited in
the ordinary way in sea-water, the specimen having been preserved in
weak formol before its viscera were examined. The everted outer layer
of the zona is similar to that of other Gobies, except that it shows

338 THE REPRODUCTION OF TELEOSTEAN FISHES

hardly any perforations near the micropylar region, the numerous
recticulo-radiate ridges being mostly united by a thin membrane.

G. scorpioidcs is certainly the smallest British Goby so far recorded.
If common it is not likely to be often retained in the meshes of an
ordinary net.

Aphia pellucida. Nardo.

We cannot find a description of the ova of this fish, though in other
respects, thanks to Collett,* the cycle of its life-history is fairly well
known. In the early part of July of the present year, adults of both
sexes were rather numerous on the zostera and weed beds of the inner
part of Cawsand Bay, the females being full of roe. They became
scarce towards the end of the month, and none have been since taken.
The abundance of this species in the estuary of the Lynher in April
has already been noticed by one of us. {Jonrn. M. B. A., vol. i., p. 89.)

None could be found there on the 21st July of the present year.
If the fish is a permanent inhabitant of the estuary this would seem
to indicate that the brood of last year, ofi'spring of the half-grown
examples met with in April, had already died off, having fulfilled
the life-span of a single year allotted to tliem by Collett. | It is,
however, possible that individuals move seawards from the estuary
at the approach of maturity, while the larvae in turn migrate to the
estuary.

Though breeding adults were numerous, we failed to find the spawn
attached to any object trawled or dredged in Cawsand Bay. Examination
of the ovary of a female, 1| inches long, taken in the Bay on the 14th
July, indicates that the ova are certainly demersal. The yolk, probably
not quite mature, was transparent, colourless, and almost free from
granulations. It consisted at this stage of an outer layer, enclosing
an inner and more refractive part. After 15 hours in sea- water the
ovum was evidently dead. It had become opaque and yellowish, the
refractive part having been apparently broken up into a number of
globules, bearing a general resemblance to those of Gobius. Under
natural conditions it is probable that the yolk is not essentially dif-
ferent from that of Gobius, but leys opaque and without conspicuous
colouration. The zona is thin and without special markings. As in
Gobius, it is enveloped in the ovarian condition by an outer membrane,
which is everted when the follicle is ruptured, and forms the fixing
apparatus. This outer membrane is, however, divided into a number of

• Proc. Zool. Soc, 1878, i., p. 318.

t The brood of 1898, if present, would he loo small to lie letaiueil in the net enipkiyed.
It is iiossible that some larvie, taken at the mouth ol' the Lyiiher in 1897, may have
belouged to these species ; tluy \\eic not preserved.

IN THE SOUTH-WESTERN DISTRICT. 839

fine threads which may spring directly in a single series from around
the micropyle, or may be united for a very shoit distance proximally.
In this respect the condition of Blennius is approached rather than
that of Gobius, but the divergence from the latter type is only one
of degree.

When freshly removed from the ovary the zona was spherical, and
about ^-i mm. in diameter, the perivitelline space being small, but soon
expanding in sea-water. About 15 hours after extension, such ova
as were at all regular in outline had acquired a broadly oval shape,
the yolk mass remaining round. One example measured 1'06 mm, by
"78 mm. ; another, 1"25 mm. by "95 mm. We cannot say how far
either dimensions or shape conformed to the natural condition, as we
were unable to effect fertilisation.

Crystallog-obius Nilssonii. Dub and Kor.

This fish is exceediugly abundant on the Eddystone grounds and in
the deeper part of Falmouth Bay, forming in these localities, as
probably on all offshore grounds in the district, the chief food of half-
grown dories {Zeus fabcr) and large scald-fish {Arnoglossus laterna).
The latter is essentially a bottom fish, and all records with which we
are acquainted tend to confirm Collett's opinion that Crystallogobius
is an inhabitant of the lower strata of the water, if not actually a
bottom fish to the same extent as the Gobies. However, on the 8th of
May of last year a female was taken in a surface net near the Eddystone.
It measures 22 mm. in total length. The ovaries contain eggs (trans-
parent, like the rest of the animal, in the fresh condition) of which the
largest measure about 12 mm. in diameter. They are spherical, and
not sufficiently mature to justify any conclusion as to their appearance
in the ripe condition.

CORRIGENDA.

Capros aper (vol. v., pp. 44, 121). Advanced larvae of about 5 to
6'5 mm., taken off Fowey, have been referred in my previous papers
to Capros, chielly on account of the pigmentation, since the specimens
were not in the best state of preservation. This year I have had
several opportunities of observing in the living condition a larva
which certainly belongs to the same species, and is without doubt
a young Ctenolahrus riipestris. It would be ditficult to find a better
illustration of the diliiculty of determining a Teleostean larva at a
stage when the skeletal characters are insufficiently developed for
exact diagnosis, and especially when the conformation has been more

340 THE KEPUOUUCTION OF TELEOSTEAN FISHES.

or less obscured by post-mortem distortion, since it would appear that
the larv* of Capros, Creuilabrus, and several species of Lepadogaster
all pass through phases characterised by one and the same pigmen-
tation pattern. The identity of the pattern seems to be explicable
neither by the taxonomic propinquity of the genera nor by protective
adaptation.

Caranx trachurus. My attention has been drawn to several errors
in my notes on this species (vol. v., p. 116). The yolk in Tcmnodon
saltator is actually described by Agassi z and Whitman as having only
cortical segments, instead of becoming segmented throughout as in the
ova which I attribute to Caranx. The difference is one of degree,
since yolk segments when present in ripe eggs seem to be the survivors
of the yolk spherules of ovarian stages (c/. Eaffaele, Mitth. Zool. Stat.
Neap., viii., 1888, p. 21), although it is only in the supposed Caranx
eggs that these segments have been seen to divide and to encroach
upon, and finally occupy all parts of the yolk after deposition. I
have also spoken of Eaffaele's species, No. 3 {loc. cit., p. 64) as doubt-
fully assigned by its discoverer to Coryphsena, whereas liaffaele really
says that, while recognising the resemblance to Coryphtena, he con-
siders that No. 3 probably belongs to a family nearly related to the
Clupeidte. If this view were correct one would expect to see at the
larval stage, depicted in Tav. iv., Fig. 9, some trace of transverse folds in
the lining membrane of the intestine.

The young Caranx, mentioned in vol. v., p. 119, were taken between
Pufiin Island and Bray Head, Co. Kerry. In recording them from the
Irish Sea I was misled by a similarity of names in the two localities.

E. W. L. H.

[ -41 1

The Great Silver Smelt, Argentina si/ us, Nilss. An
Addition to the List of British Fishes.

By
Ernest W. L. Holt.

By the kindness of Mr. J. Jacobs, to whom the Laboratory is aheady
indebted for many specimens of interesr, I received on the 15th June
a fine example of the species mentioned above, which had been trawled
off the south coast of Ireland. The fish weighed 1 lb. 5 oz., and
measured 42 cm., or 16| inches. Though taken at least a day
previously, it was in excellently fresh and firm condition. I have
already recorded its capture in a letter to the Field and at a meeting
of the Zoological Society, but the locality was inexactly given in each
of these communications. I have since learned that the correct locality
is 50° 20' N., 8° 25' W., or about seventy-five miles true S. of the Old
Head of Kinsale, depth seventy-four fathoms. A number of the same
species were trawled, and some were found to be excellent eating.
I have no means of deciding whether the occurrence of A. silus on
the ground indicated is normal or exceptional. If it can be taken
in any quantity it should prove a valuable addition to our list of
food-fishes.

I can find no previous record of A. sihis in British waters, since
Edward, according to Day, acknowledged that his specimen was iden-
tical with the species figured and described by Day, which is the
lesser silver smelt, A. sphyra^na, Linn. Other European records are
from the Scandinavian and Jutland coasts, always in water of con-
siderable depth. The species is also known from the Atlantic coasts
of North America. A good figure is given by Smitt (Hist. Scand.
Fish., Ed. 2, II.), who states that all the examples of which he has
acquaintance had the stomach everted by the expansion of the air-
bladder, and so yielded no evidence as to the nature of the food.
In my specimen the air-bladder was not abnormally dilated, and
the oesophagus and stomach were filled with a mass of finely triturated
animal matter, which appeared, judging from experience in similar

342 THE GREAT SILVER SMELT, "ARGENTINA SILUS."

cases, to be the muscular tissue of shrimps or prawns. A much
macerated telson, the only hard part found, appeared to belong, most
probably, to a shrimp, certainly to that section of the Crustacea
macrura which embraces the shrimps and prawns. I also found a
sin»le copepod, identified by Mr. T. V. Hodgson as Calanus finmarchichus.
The latter is often met with at the bottom, and has been found by
myself in the stomachs of pleuronectids, while all available evidence
seems to indicate that A. silus is a bottom-haunting fish.

Ichthyologists will observe that this record sensibly extends the
range of A. silus in a southerly direction. Comment on the matter
may well be withheld until we possess even an elementary knowledge
of the fauna of the deeper parts of our own region. It is hardly
necessary to add that the specimen has been handed over to the
custody of the British Museum.

[ 343 ]

Notes and Memoranda.

Callionymus maculatus. Bonap. Since the species was added to
the English fauna in the hist number of this journal, three specimens
have been taken in the neiylibourhood of Plymouth. One of these
lived for two months in the Aquarium, remaining for the most part
half buried in fine gravel. It was only once observed to take a Nereis
diversicolor, the favourite food, in our tanks, or C. lyra, but showed
considerable liking for Gammarids.

'O

Phrynorhombus unimaculatus. Rlsso. A male, measuring 4^ inches,
was taken four miles south of the I'lymouth Alewstone on the 9th May,
1898. It appears to be the only specimen that has been taken near
Plymouth since the Laboratory has been in existence.

Motella cimbria. Linn. A specimen taken from the stomach of
a hake trawled in or off the Bristol Channel, was sent to the Laboratory
on the 16th September, 1898. It measures 21-7 cm. (8i in.) in total
length, and differs from described members of the species in the great
length of the first dorsal ray. The length of this structure is 52 cm.,
that of the head being 3 65 cm. I have since seen an Irish specimen
with the first ray similarly prolonged. E. W. L. H.

Sepia elegans. d' Orb. (Jatta, " Eauna u. Flora d. Golfes v.
Neapel, Cefalopodi " = ^. hiserialis, Verany ; Gwyu Jeffreys, Brit.
Conch.). During the summer of last year (1897) this species was
taken not infrequently on the trawling grounds inside the Eddystone.
This year three examples have been brought to the Laboratory. The
largest of these, measuring in length 7'5 cm., including the sessile
arms, was obtained on the trawling ground off Plymouth, while the
others were taken off Bolt Head (3| m. S., 33 fms.).

Since there appears to be some confusion with regard to the species
of this genus, especially in the use of the name Sepia elegans, it is
necessary to state that our specimens agree with the figures and
description of S. elegans given by Jatta in the Naples monograph
(the shell in particular is characteristic). They also agree with Gwyu

844 NOTRS AND MEMORANDA.

Jeffreys' description of S. hiserialis, Verany, which is considered by
Jatta to be synonymous with S. elegans, d'Orb., as is also S. rwpellaria,
d'Orb., these two latter having no sufficiently important characters to
entitle them to separate specific rank. On the other hand, the Sepia
elegans, de Blainville, of Gwyn Jeffreys' Brit. Conch., is a distinct
species equivalent to the *S^. orbignyana, Ferussac. This, according to
Jatta, is the S. elegans of Norman's Revision of the Brit. Moll, {Ann.
and Mag., 1890) also. Previous British records for our species are
Polperro and Mawgan Forth in Cornwall, Swansea, North Coast of
Ireland, and Northumberland. Apparently in some, if not most, cases
dead shells only were obtained. E. W. L H. and W. I. B.

Mysis longicornis. Milne Edivards. This species, which we believe
to be an addition to the known fauna of the Atlantic area, was found
to be somewhat abundant in Start Bay, S. Devon, at the end of
July last (1898). It was taken on fine gravel and sandy ground off
Blackpool and Slapton Sands in from 5 to 8 fathoms, in company with
Mysidopsis gihhosa and M. Angusta, these in comparatively small numbers,
and single specimens of Siriella armata, and of a form approaching,
though not agreeing exactly with, S. Glausii.

So far as we have been able to ascertain, M. longicornis has not
previously been obtained outside the Mediterranean, and therein only
at Naples (M. Edwards, G. 0. Sars, &c.), and according to Cams (Prod.
Faunce Mediterr.), at Algiers (Lucas).

This species can hardly be assigned to any of the genera of Mysinte,
as defined by Norman ("British Mysidtie," Ann. and Mag., 1892). It
would appear to come near to Neomysis, with which it agrees in having
the third pair of pleopods in the male unmodified, and like the first,
second, and fifth pairs differing in no material respect from those of
the female.* Were Norman's definition of the sub-family strictly
enforced, both would, as a matter of fact, be excluded from the Mysinre
by this character.

Mysidopsis angusta. G. 0. Sars. This species was found in Start
Bay on the same ground as 3fysis longicortiis in July, 1898, as noted
above. It was taken in the same locality in the early part of the
summer of the previous year.

Tlie finding of Mysidopsis angusta on the South Devon coast adds
considerably to the known range of the species in North- Western
European waters, where it had not previously been taken further south
than the Dogger Bank (Scott, "Crustacea from the Dogger Bank,

* Compare the fijjures of Sars: Middelhavets Mysider, PI. X., Fig. 13, and Monograph
over Mysider, V\. XXXI V., Fig. 17.

NOTES AND MEMORANDA. 345

collected by Ernest W. L. Holt," Ann. and Mag., 1894). Tt was,
however, known to occur at Naples (G. 0. Sars, Middelhavets
Mysidcr).

We hope to prepare a further publication on the Schizopoda of the
Plymouth district shortly.

Note. — Since the above was written we have found that Mysidopsia
angusta is recorded from Valencia Harbour, on the west coast of Ireland,
by A. 0. Walker. {Trans. Liverpool Biol. Sac. xii. 1898, p. 164.)

E. W. L. H. and W. I. B.

Malformation of the Mouth in the Common Sea-Bream. —

Yarrell has published in his work on British Fishes (vol. i., p. 110)
a sketch of Couch's, which represents an abnormal condition of the
mouth in the Common Sea-Bream {S'jparus centrodontus), caused,
according to Yarrell, by the " want of intermaxillary bones." The
effect is to give the fish a characteristic " short-nosed " appearance,
and to cause the lower jaw to protrude considerably in front of the
head. At the same time the mouth is reduced to a small tubular
orifice, which leaves the anterior half of the lower jaws permanently
exposed. Mr. Dunn, of Mevagissey, recently forwarded to the Labora-
tory a Bream which exhibited this same abnormality. It was caught
in a seine at Mevagissey on September 30th, and in all other respects
was in good condition. Its length, from the tip of the lower jaw to
the fork of the tail, is 9| inches ; its maximum depth, 3| inches. The
puzzle propounded by Mr. Dunn was how a fish with such a mouth
could manage to eat anything, especially as in his specimen the
aperture of the mouth is reduced to an even greater extent than in
Couch's, the fleshy cheek and nasal membranes having grown forwards
and downwards, so as to leave only the teeth on the anterior extremity
of the lower jaw exposed, the lateral teeth being completely covered.
The aperture of the mouth is spoon-shaped, and measures I inch in
long diameter, and slightly more than ^ inch across. It is quite
incapable of closure or of expansion. As I had seen a similar " short-
nosed" Bream at Plymouth earlier in the summer, it would appear
that this extraordinary abnormality is curiously common in this species
and in this locality — a matter which seemed to merit enquiry. I have,
therefore, carefully compared Mr. Dunn's specimen with a normal
Bream, and, with Mr. Dunn's assistance, am able, I think, to oli'er
a complete explanation.

The stomach of the abnormal fish was greatly distended with food,
which consisted principally of pieces of green algfip, both Ulva and
Enteromorpha, among which were to be found a small number of

346 NOTES AND MEMORANDA.

Amphipocl Crustaceans and the late larva of a shrimp or prawn,
which was too much digested to admit of closer identification. The
stomach also contained, remarkably enough, the cleanly excised stomach
of another fish, which contained Copepods and other small plankton
organisms in a sufficiently fresh state to admit of easy identification.
The stomach was clearly that of a Clupeoid, with a characteristic
tough, gizzard-like pyloric portion, and it is, in fact, the stomach of
a pilchard, as I have found by comparison. Mr. Dunn tells me that,
along with the abnormal Bream, there were taken in the seine about
a dozen other Bream, about 30 Red Mullets, a few flat-fishes, and about
3000 pilchards. He says that the fishermen were very anxious to see
if the pilchards were fat or not, and that, in order to see their condition,
the men may have unmeshed and opened one before tucking the seine,
and thrown its stomach in the sea. There can be no doubt that this
explanation is correct, but it is curious that this bit of jetsam should
have fallen to the lot of the fish which was worst provided with
organs of prehension. Although, however, the abnormality described
undoubtedly deprives the fish of all power of using its teeth, it does
not affect its powers of suction ; and, as observations in the Aquarium
have shown that this means of catching small prey is very commonly
employed by fishes, it is no doubt by this means that the abnormal
Bream succeeded in securing its supply of Amphipods and other
booty.

As regards the structure of the abnormal mouth, Yarrell is right in
attributing its main peculiarity to the absence of the intermaxillary
(or premaxillary) bone. But in the specimen examined by me this is
not the only defect, for one of the maxillary bones, viz., the right, is
also wanting, while the left persists. This asymmetry in the abnor-
mality suggests the result of injury rather than a congenital mal-
formation, and confirms a view as to the origin of the abnormality
which has been communicated to me in a letter from Mr. Dunn.
I will quote his remarks verbatim : —

" It is known to our people, when they anchor on certain high rocks,
that the Sea Bream, in all its stages, is the most pertinaceous, persistent,
and obdurate enemy that our Pollack fishers have, never leaving the
bait rest one moment, if the Pollack is not in the immediate neighbour-
hood of the end of the line. This vexes the fisherman very much, and
when he feels them tearing and mangling his bait, and making it unfit
for Pollack food, in his excitement he often jerks the line with all the
might of his arm. Sometimes one of the batch (for there are generally
several there) will be hooked on the outside, but if hooked on the top
of the mouth his top jaw is sure to be pulled away. This I have seen
done more than once."

NOTES AND MEMORANDA. 347

Mr. Dunn adds that the specimen forwarded to us was by no means
unique, as similar ones occur at Mevagissey from time to time, one of
which, caught in 1896, he still preserves. He concludes that the
deformity is caused by the fishermen in the above-mentioned way, the
injury to the mouth being gradually repaired, although its structure is
permanently modified, by the forward growth of the soft cheek tissues,
as already described. My observations entirely support this view of
the origin of the abnormality.

There is one point to which I will draw attention in conclusion.
Hitherto, to the best of my knowledge, this deformity has not been
recorded as occurring elsewhere than on the Cornish coast. I should
be glad, therefore, if fishermen and sea-anglers generally would be good
enough to forward to the Director of this Laboratory any similarly
abnormal specimens of the Sea Bream which they may come across, in
order that the distribution of the abnormality may be recorded. It
would appear to be possible to make use of the facts as evidence in
connection with the winter movements of the fish, especially if such
specimens should be captured in the early part of the season. In such
a case the injury must have been produced in the preceding season,
before the winter migration. Walter Garstang.

NEW SEUIK&. — Sou. V. NO. 3.

[ 348 ]

glarinc biological ^association of tijc limits |iiiigboiiL

Report of the Council, 1897-98.

The Council and Officers.

Four ordinary meetings of the Council have been held during the
year, at which the average attendance has been 9.

The Council records with regret the death of Lord Revelstoke, who
for the past eight years has been one of the Vice-Presidents of the
Association, and rendered it much valuable assistance in connection
with dredging and oyster culture in the river Yealm, near Plymouth.

The Council has again to acknowledge the courtesy of the Royal
Society in granting the use of its rooms for the meetings of the
Association.

The Plymouth Laboratory.

The buildings, fittings, and machinery have been maintained in good
condition.

An apparatus designed for the purpose of keeping pelagic animals
alive in small aquaria, by maintaining a constant movement in the
water, has been fitted up in the Laboratory, and has given satisfactory
results. This apparatus was originally designed by Mr. E. T. Browne,
in conjunction with the Director of the Laboratory, for keeping
medusa? in a healthy condition, and amongst the animals which have
been successi'ully reared through their larval stages to the adult !brin
are ChcetopUrus, Cladonema radiatiim (hydioid reared from the
medusa), Syncoryne sjh (from the medusa), Nika cdulis, and Capitella
capitaia.

The Boats.

The Busy Bee has been constantly at work, and a great deal of
dredging and trawling has been satisfactorily done in the immediate
neighbourhood of Plymouth, especially around the Eddystone. In
addition to this, expeditions have been made to the eastward to

KEPORT OF THE COUNCIL. 349

Dartmouth and Exmoutli, and to the westward to Fowey and Falmouth.
The sailing boat Anton Dohrn has also been used for collecting in
Plymouth Sound.

The Staff.

No change has taken place in the staff during the year.

The Council would again draw attention to the fact that the equip-
ment of the Laboratory and boats is now sufficiently complete to allow
of a very much larger amount of scientific work being done, if the
services of more naturalists could be retained for lengthened periods.
It is in this direction that the Council looks forward to the develop-
ment of its work, although any such development is impossible without
an adequate increase in the income of the Association.

The Library.

The thanks of the Association are due to Mr. J. P. Thomasson for
a donation of £20 for the purchase of books for the Library and for
binding, and- to the Zoological Society of London for an almost
complete set of their publications from the year 1832. With the
help of Mr. Thomasson's donation Smitt's valuable work on Scandi-
navian fishes has been purchased, and the publications of the Zoological
Society have been bound.

It has been necessary to fix a number of new shelves in the Library
in order to accommodate the increasing number of books.

The Council has again to thank the Eoyal Society, the Zoological
Society, the United States Commissioner of Fish and Fisheries, the
Eoyal Microscopical and many other societies, for copies of their
current publications, as well as those authors who have presented
separate copies of their works.

General Report.

In compliance with the requirements of H.M. Treasury, mentioned
in last year's Ileport of Council, special attention has been given to
investi'^ations relatinj^ to the habits and miiirations of the mackerel.
In addition to the preparation of the report on the subject forwarded
to n.M. Inspectors of Irish Fisheries, which has since been published
in the Journal of the Association, Mr. Garstang has been specially
engaged in studying the characteristics of mackerel captured in various
localities and at different seasons of the year, in order to determine
whether distinct races of this fish can be recognised. Samples have
been obtained from the western portion of tiie English Channel, the
west coast of Ireland (through H.M. Inspectors of Irish Fisheries),

z 2

350 RKPORT OF THE COUNCIL.

the North Sea, from America, and from other localities, and a report
on the subject is iu preparation. At the same time systematic investi-
gations are in progress with reference to the general question of the
movements of the migratory fishes, more especially of the mackerel,
in connection with the periodic movements of the floating organisms
upon which these fishes, directly or indirectly, depend for their food
supply, and also with the changes in the physical conditions of the
sea, especially with regard to density and temperature.

Mr. Holt has paid much attention to questions connected with the
reproduction and development of the fishes living in the neighbourhood
of Plymouth, and their distribution at different ages. A memoir dealing
with these questions has been published in the Journal of the
Association, and Mr. Holt has also given evidence on the subject at
an enquiry, held by the Board of Trade, having reference to a bye-law
proposed by the Devon Sea Fisheries Committee.

The experiments with floating bottles for determining the surface-
drift in the English Channel have been continued, and a report upon the
results of the first year's work in this direction has been published.

The systematic dredging and trawling of the grounds between the
Eddystone and Start Point have been proceeded with, and the results
are now being prepared for publication.

A collection of specimens of fishes, and other marine animals which
serve as food for fishes or are used as bait, was arranged and exhibited
by the Association at the Yachting and Fisheries Exhibition, held
during the summer of 1897 at the Imperial Institute. This collection
has since been on view at the Laboratory at Plymouth.

Occupation of Tables.

The following naturalists have been engaged in research work at the
Plymouth Laboratory during the year : —

AV. I. Beaumont, B.A., Cambridge (Nudibranchiata).

F. P. Bedford, B.A., Cambridge (Myriothela).

G. Brebner, University College, Bristol (Algoe).

E. T. Browne, B.A., University College, London (IMedusie).
L. W. Byrne, B.A., Cambridge (Teleosteans).

A. H. Church, BA., Oxford (Algoe).

J. T. Cunningham, M.A., Penzance (Crabs).

G. Duncker, Ph.D., Kiel (Variation of Fishes).

F. W. Gamble, M.Sc, Owens College, Manchester (Nervous System of Polychsetes).
E. S. Goodrich, BA., Oxford (Polycha3tes).

N. B. Harman, M.B., Cambridge (Eyes of Fishes).
T. V. Hodgson, Plymouth (Crustacea).
J. W. Jenkinson, B.A., Oxford (Larvoe of Crustacea).
VV. F. Lanchester, B.A., Camlnidge (I'horonis}.

REPORT OF THE COUNCIL. 351

M. Lubbock, M.D., London (Fishes).

E. W. MacBride, M.A., Montreal (Development of Ecliinodermata).

E. A. MiNCHiN, M.A., Oxford (Protozoa).

S. D. Scott, B.A., Cambridge (Ascidians).

T. H. Taylor, M.A., Yorkshire College, Leeds (Polyzoa).

W. F. R. Weldon, F.E.S., University College, London (Variation of Crabs),

N. Wylde, London (Variation of Galathea).

Prof. Hickson, F.K.S., of Owens College, Manchester, sent his
assistant to the Laboratory, to collect material for his researches on the
development of Alcyonium.

Mr. Garstang again conducted a vacation class in Marine Biology,
which was attended by eight students from Oxford, Cambridge, and
the Yorkshire College.

Published Memoirs.

Amongst the papers, either wholly or in part the outcome of work
done at the Laboratory, which have appeared elsewhere than in the
Journal of the Association, are the following : —

Bethe, a. — Das Nerveiisystem von Carcinus Mcenas, i., ii., and iii. Archiv fiir
Mikroskopische Anatomie, 1., 1897, pp. 460-546, 589-639 ; and li., 1898, pp. 383-452.

Browne, E. T.— On British Medusce. Proceed. Zool. Soc. London, Nov. 16, 1897,
pp. 816-835.

Brumpt, E. — Siir un Cop^pode nouveau pamsite de Polycirrus aurantiacus, Grube.
Comjites rendus, June 21, 1897.

Church, A. H. — Tlie Pohjmorphy of Gutleria multifida. Annals of Botany, xii.,
No. 45, pp. 75-109.

Cunningham, J. T. — On the Early Post-Larval Stages of the Crab (Cancer pagnrus),
and on the Affinity of that Species with Atelecyclus heterodon. Zoological Society,
March 15, 1898.

Garstang, W. — On some Modifications of Structure subservient to Respiration in
Decapod Crustacea which burrow in Sand. Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci., vol. 40, pp. 21 1-232.

Harmer, S. F. — On the Development of Tubulipora, and on some British and
Northern Species of this Genus. Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci., vol, 41, pp. 73-157.

Holt, E. W. L. — On the breeding of Callionymus lyra in the Marine Biological
Association's Aquarium at Plymouth. Zoological Society, April, 1898,

Donations and Receipts,

The Receipts for the year include the Annual Grants from H.M.
Treasury (£1000), and the Worshipful Company of Fishmongers (£400),
Composition Fees (£30), Annual Subscriptions (£144), Rent of Tables
in the Laboratory (£84), Sale of Specimens (£232), Admission to the
Aquarium (i:76). Special Donations (£35), The total receipts for the
year amount to £2039,

352

REPORT OF THE COUNCIL.

Vice-Presidents, Officers, and Council.

The following is the list of gentlemen proposed by the Council for
election for the year 1898-99 : —

President.
Prof. E. Ray Lankester, LL.D., F.R.S.

Vice-Preside7its.

The Duke of Argyll, K.G , K.T., F.R.S.
The Duke of Abercorn, K G., C.B.
The Earl of St. Germans.
The Earl of Morley.
The Earl of DuciE, F.R.S.

Lord TWEEDMOUTH.

Lord Walsixgham, F.R S.

The Right Hon. A. J. Balfour, M.P.,
F.K.S.

The Right Hon. Joseph Chamber-
lain, M.P.

The Right Hon. Sir John Lubbock,
Bart., M.P., F.R.S.

Prof. G. J. Allman, F.R.S.

Sir Edward Birkbeck, Bart.

Sir Wm. Flower, K.C.B., F.R.S.

A. C. L. GuNTHER, Esq., F.R.S.

Prof. Alfred Newton, F.R.S.

Rev. Canon Norman, D.C.L., F.R.S.

Sir Henry Thompson.

Rear-Admiral Sir W. H. L. Wharton,
K.C.B., F.R.S.

Elected Members.

F. E. Beddard, Esq., F.R.S.
Prof. F. Jeffrey Bell, F.Z.S.

G. C. Bourne, Esq., F.L.S.

Sir John Evans, K.C.B., Treas. R.S.
G. Herbert Fowler, Esq.
S. F. Harmer, Esq., F.R.S.
Prof. W. A. Herdman, F.R.S.

Prof. S. J. Hickson, F.R.S.

J. J. Lister, Esq.

Sir John Murray, F.R.S.

P. L. Sclater, Esq., F.R.S., Sec. Z.S.

D. H. Scott, Esq., F.R.S.

Prof. Charles Stewart, F.R.S. '

Prof. W. F R. Weldon, F.R.S.

Hon. Treasurer.
J. A. Travbrs, Esq.

Hon. Secretary.
E. J. Allen, Esq., The Laboratory, Citadel Hill, Plymouth.

The following Governors are also members of tlie Council : —

Robert Bayly, Esq.

J. P. Thomasson, Esq.

The Prime Warden of the Fish-

monger.s' Company.
E. L. Beckwith, E.sq. (Fi.-shmongers'

Company),

Prof. BuRDON Sanderson, F.R.S. (Ox-
ford University).

Prof. Michael Foster, F.R.S. (Cam-
bridge University).

Sir William Flower, K.C.B., F.R.S.
(Brit. Assoc, for Advmnt. of Science).

llEPOltT OF TIIK COUNCIL.

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[ 354 ]

Director's Report.

The paper by Mr. Garstang in the present number of the Journal
contains a full account of his researches, so far as they have at present
proceeded, on the question of the different races of the mackerel. In
addition to this work Mr, Garstang has been investigating the food
of the mackerel, for which purpose a large number of the stomachs
of the fish have been preserved and their contents examined. At
the same time the distribution in the sea of the various floating and
free-swimming organisms, which constitute the greater part of the
food of the mackerel and other migratory pelagic fishes is being
investigated, and an attempt is being made to correlate the movements
of these organisms with changes in the physical conditions of the
sea-water, as indicated by observations of its temperature and density.
The experiments with floating bottles for determining the direction
and rate of the surface drift are also being continued.

At the beginning of September, Mr. Garstang attended the
International Fisheries Congress at Dieppe, and there submitted a
proposal for a joint Anglo-French investigation of the physical and
biological conditions of the English Channel during the year 1899.
This proposal met with the support of the French naturalists, and a
resolution was passed expressing the desirability of forming an
Anglo-French committee to co-operate with the Marine Biological
Association in the matter. At the meeting of the British Association
in Bristol, a grant of £100 was made towards carrying out the
suggested scheme of investigation, and Mr, H. N. Dickson promised
his assistance in carrying out the physical parts of the work,

Mr. Holt, who during the summer continued his observations on
the distribution of young stages of fishes in this neighbourhood, has
now proceeded to the west coast of Ireland, where he is taking
charge of the fishery investigations, which are being resumed by
the Eoyal Dublin Society in that district.

On p. 296 will be found the report on the trawling experiments in
the Bays on the South Coast of Devon, which were carried out at the
instance of the Devon Sea Fisheries Committee. These experiments
were commenced by Mr. Stead in 1895, and have since been continued

director's report. 355

by Mr. Scott and Mr. Holt. The present report, drawn up by Mr.
Holt, deals with the experiments in their more immediately practical
aspect, as affecting those problems which the Sea Fisheries Committee
has had under consideration. The investigations have at the same
time furnished valuable material for the discussion of general questions
relating to the distribution of fishes at different ages, and of the food
upon which they live in the various localities. It has been thought
better however not to include this material in the present report, but
to reserve it, together with much similar material collected in the
neighbourhood of Plymouth, until sufficient observations have been
brought together to form the basis for a comprehensive discussion of
these subjects.

The following is a list of the naturalists who have occupied tables
at the Laboratory since the publication of my last Eeport, and of
the subjects which have specially engaged their attention : —

Beaumont, W. I., B.A., May 2ud to October 5th {Mollusca and

Nanertina).
Brebner, G., April 2nd to April 19th, and July 26th to August 6th

{Marine Algcc).
Browne, E. T., B.A., April 4th to June 4th (Hydrozoa).
Byrne, L. W., B.A., May 27th to June 3rd (Pisces).
Church, A. H., M.A., D.Sc, March 30th to April 16th {Marine Algw).
Gamble, F. W., M.Sc, March 28th to April 29th {Mrvous system of

Folychceta).
Gemmill, J. F., Ph.D., August 30th to September 6th {Pohjchctta).
Gilson, Prof., August 29th to September 6th {General).
Goodrich, E. S., B.A., April 2nd to April 19th {Polycha:ta).
Gurney, E., July 1st to July 2oth {Echinodermata).
Harman, E. B., M.B., March 19th to April 2nd {Pieces).
MacBride, Prof., M.A., May 17th to June 30th {Echinodermata).
MacMunu, C. A., M.D., June 7th to June 18th {Aplysia).
Moore, J. E. S., September 6th to September 14th (Collecting).
Pethybridge, G. H., B.Sc, Sept. 5th to October 8th {Marine Alg(€).
Scott, S. D., B.A., April 18th to April 26th {Tunicata).
Taylor, T. H., M.A., March 26th to April 9th, and August 3rd to

September 30th {Polyzoa).
Todd, Pt. A., B.Sc, September 19th to October 8th {Mollusca).
Weldon, Prof., F.Pt.S., July 12th to August 22nd {Variation of Grabs).
Woodward, M. F., August 2nd to September 14th {Mollusca).

In addition to the above, eight students from Oxford, Cambridge, and
Yorkshire College, Leeds, attended Mr. Garstang's class during the
Easter vacation.

356 dihector's report.

A party of members of the International Congress of Zoology, which
met this year in Cambridge, visited the Laboratory, and took part in
two dredging excursions in the Busy Bee on August 31st.

During the Bristol meeting of the British Association a number of
marine tanks were exhibited by the Marine Biological Association at
the Zoological Gardens, Clifton.

Some alterations have been made in the arrangement of the
Aquarium, which have proved advantageous in rendering the tanks
more attractive, and in effectively exhibiting some of the smaller fishes
and invertebrates. Additional storage room, which has long been
badly needed, has been added to the Laboratory by the erection of
a galvanized-iron shed at the back of the building.

E. J. Allen.

October, 1898.

[ -357 ]

LIST

OF

6obcrn0rs, Jfounticrs, anb IBcmbcrs.

1st OCTOBER, 1898.

I.— Governors.

The British Association for the Advancement of Science, Burlimjton

House, W. £500

The University of Cambridge £500

The Worshipful Company' of Chithworkers, 41, Mincing Lane, h'.C. £500

The Worshipful Company of Fishmongers, London Bridge £4705

The University of Oxford £500

Bayly, Robert, Torr Ghvve, Plymouth £1000

Bayly, John (the late) £600

Thomasson, J. P., TFoodside, near Bolton £970

II. — Founders,

* Member of Council. f Vice-President. X President.

1884 The Corporation of the City of London £210

1888 The Worshipful Company of Drapers, Dra])ers' Hall, E.G. £315

1884 The Worshipful Company of Mercers, Mercers' Hall,, Checqmde £341 5s.

1884 The Worshipful Company of Goldsmith.?, Goldsmiths' Hall, E.G. £100

1889 The Worshipful Company of Grocers, Poultry, E.G. £120

1884 The Royal Microscopical Society, 20, Hanover Square, JF. £100

1 884 The Royal Society, Burlington House, Piccadilly, W. £350

1884 The Zoological Society, 3, Hanover Square, IV £100

1884 Bulteel, Tho.s., Radford, Plymouth £100

1884 Burdett-Coutts, W. L. A. Bartlett, 1, Stratton Street, Piccadilly, W.... £100

1888 Bury, Henry, M.A., Trinity Gollege, Gambridge £100

1884 Crisp, Frank, LL.B., B.A., Treas. Linn. Soc, 17, Throgmorton

Avenue, E.G. £100

1884 Daubeny, Captain Giles A., 30, Gormcallis Grescent, Glifton, Bristol ... £100

1884 Eddy, J. Ray, The Grange, Garleton, Shipton, Yorkshire £100

1884 Gassiott, John P., The Gulvers, Garshalton, Stirrey £100

t*1884 Lankester, Prof. E. Ray, F.R.S., British Museum {i\atiiral History),

South Kensington, S.W £100

1885 Derby, the Rt. lion, the late Earl of £100

1884 Lister, S. Cunlifte, Swinton Park, Masham, Yorkshire £100

358 LIST OF GOVERNORS, FOUNDERS, AND MEMBERS.

tl884 Lubbock, The Rt. Hon. Sir John, Bart., M.P., F.R.S., High Elms,

Bromley, Kent £100

188-4 Poulton, Prof. Edward B., M.A., F.R.S., T^Fykeham House, Oxford ... £100

1889 Revelstoke, The late Lord £100

1890 Riches, T. H., B. A., Kitwelh, Shcnley, Herts £130

1884 Romanes, G. J., LL.D., F.R.S. (the late) £100

tl889 Thompson, Sir Henry, 35, JFimpole Street, W. £110

*1887 Weldon, Prof. W. F. R., F.R.S., 30a, Wimpole Street, W. £100

1884 Worthington, James (the late) £100

III.— Members.

ann. signifies that the Member is liable to an Annual Suliscription of One Guinea.

C. signifies that he has paid a Composition Fee of Fifteen Guineas in lieu of Annual
Subscription.

1897 A.dia,ms,\N.'R.,bQ, Fleet Street, E.G. ann.

1884 Alger, W. H., Manor House, StoTce, Devonport G.

tl884 Allman, Prof. G. J., F.R.S., Ardmore, Parkstone, Dorset £20

*1895 Allen, E. J., B.Sc, The Laboratory, Plymouth an7i.

1889 Anderson, Dr. John, 71, Harrington Gardens, SJF. £20

tl884 Argyll, The Duke of, K.G., Argyll Lodge, Kensington, JF. G.

1885 Armstrong, Lord, Q.B.jF.'R.Q., Grag Side, Rothbury G.

1893 Ascroft, R. L., 11, Park Street, Lytham, Lanes anji.

1892 Assheton, R., Birnam, Gambridge , £ 20

1884 Bailey, Charles, F.L.S., Ash field, Gollege Road, TFhalley Range, Manchester ann.

1 893 Bailey, W. E. , Porth Enys Muse um, Penzance C.

1884 Balfour, Prof. Bay ley, F.R.S., Royal Botanic Gardens, Edinburgh G.

1893 Bassett-Smith, P. W., Staff-Surgeon, R.N., 118, North Side, Glapham

Gommon, London, S.JF. ann.

1884 Bateson, Wm., F.R S., St. John's Gollege, Gambridge ann.

1897 Baxter, G. H., Hutton Road, Brentwood, Essex ann.

1884 Bayliss, W. Maddock, B.Sc, St. Guthberts, West Heath Road, Hampstead. ann.

1884 Bayly, Miss, ySa'CH Trees, Plymouth £50

1884 Bayly, Miss Anna, Seven Trees, Plymouth £50

1897 Baynes, R. W., 4, Saltram Place, PlymoiUh a7in.

1884 Beaumont, W. I., B.A., Tlie Laboratory, Plymouth ann.

1885 Beck, Conrad, 68, Gornhill, E.G. G.

*1889 Beckwith, E. L., The Knoll, Eastbourne aiin.

*1887 Beddard, F. E., F.R.S., Zoological Society's Gardens, Regent's Park, N.JF. ann.

1884 Beddington, Alfred H., 8, Gornwall Terrace, Regent's Park, N.W. G.

1897 Bedford, F. P., B.A., 326, Gamden Road, London, N. aim.

*1884 Bell, Prof. F. Jeffrey, 35, Gambridge Street, Hyde Park, JF. ann.

1887 Berrington, A. D., Pant-y-Goitre, Abergavenny ann.

1890 Bidder, George, B.A., Rctvensbury Park, Mitcham, Surrey G.

1885 Bignell, Geo. Carter, F.E.S., The Ferns, Home Park Road, Saltash,

Gornvxill ann.

tl885 Birkbeck, Sir Edward, Bart., 10, Gharles Street, Berkeley Square, JF. ... ann.

1 893 Bles, A. J. S., Palm House, Higher Broughton, Manchester ann.

1889 Bolitho, T. B., M.P., Ghyandour, Penzance ann.

1884 Bompas, G. C, 121, JFestbourne Terrace, Hyde Park, London, JF. ann.

LIST OF GOVERNORS, FOUNDERS, AND MEMBERS. 359

1884 Bossey, Francis, M.D., Mayfichl, Redhill, Surrey ann.

1884 Bostock, E., Stone, Staffordshire ann.

1890 Bourne, Prof. A. G., F.R.S., The Presidency College, Madras ann.

*1884 Bourne, Gilbert C., M.A., Savile House, Mansfield Road, Oxford anii.

1898 Bowles, Henry, U.V., Forty Hall, Enfidd ann.

1895 Bridge, Prof. T. W., D.Sc, Mason College, Birmingham ann.

1890 Brindley, H. H., M.A., 9, Richmond Rocul, Cambridge ann.

1886 Brooksbank, Mrs. M., Leigh Place, Godstone, Surrey C.

1884 Brown, Arthur W. W., 37, Evelyn Mansions, Carlisle Place, Victoria

Street, S.JF. C.

1893 Browne, Edward T., B.A., 141, Uxhridge Road, TV. ann.

1893 Buchanan, Miss Florence, B.Sc, TJie Mtiseum, Oxford ann.

1884 Buckton, G. B., TVeycombe, Haslemere ann.

1886 Bullar, Miss Anna K., Westhourne Hill, Southampton ann.

1896 Bulstrode, H. P., M.D., 4, The Mansions, Earls Court, S.JV. ann.

1887 Burd, J. S., Cressivell, Higher Compton, Plymouth ami.

1889 Barnard, Robert, 3, Hillsborough, Plymouth ann.

1897 Byrne, L. W., B.A., 33, Lancaster Gate, London ann.

1884 Caine, H. T., 5, Upper Wimpole Street, London, W. C.

1884 Caine, W. 8., The Terrace, Clapham Common, S.W. £ 21

1887 Caldwell, W. H., Birnam, Cambridge C.

1884 Canterbury, His Grace the Archbishop of, Lambeth Palace, S.W ann.

tl884 Chamberlain, Rt. Hon. J., M.P., 40, Princes Gardens, S.W. ann.

1884 Christy, Thomas Howard, Malvern House, Sydenham ann.

1887 Clarke, Rt. Hon. Sir E., Q.C., M.P., 5, Essex Court, Temple, E.C. £25

1884 Clay, Dr. R. H., Windsor Villas, Plymouth , ann.

1885 Clerk, Major-Gen. H., F.R.S., 40, St. Ermin's Mansions, Caxton Street,

S.W. £21

1 886 Coates and Co., So uthside Street, Ply mo uth C.

1885 Collier Bros., Old Toicn Street, Plymouth G.

1890 Cook, C. H., M.A., Elmlea, South Stoke, Reading ann.

1889 Grossman, JMajor-General Sir William, K.C.M.G., Gosvnck House, Scale,

R.S.O., Northumberland ann.

1885 Darwin, Francis, F.R.S., Botanical Laboratory, Cambridge C.

1885 Darwin, W. E., iZif?(/e?/ioimi, Bassett, Southampton £20

1889 Davies, H. R., Treborth, Bangor ann.

1884 Dewick, Rev. E. S., M.A., F.G.S., 26, Oxford Square, Hyde Park, W. ... C.

1885 Dixey, F. A., M.A., Oxon., Wadham College, Oxford £26 5s. and ann.

1890 Driesch, Hans. Ph.D., Stazione Zoologica, Napoli C.

+1889 Ducie,TheRt. Hon. the Earl of,F.R.S., TortworthCourt,Falfidd,R.S.O. £50 15s.

1884 Dunning, J. W., 4, Talbot Square, W. £26 5s.

1884 Dyer, W. T. Thiselton, M.A., C.M.G., F.R.S., Director of the Royal

Gardens, Keio G-

1893 Edward, S. Stanley, F.Z.S., Kidbrook Lodge, Blackheath, S.E ann.

1898 Eliot, C. N. E., The British Embassy, Washington, U.S. A ann.

1891 ElYi!^, Hon. Evelyn, Rosenais, Datchet, Windsor C.

1893 Enys, Jolin Davies, Enys, Pmryn, Corn ivall «««•

*1884 Evans, Sir John, D.C.L., Treas. Roy. iiw.,Nash Mills, Hcmel Hempstead £20

1885 Ewart, Prof. J. Cos.sar, M.D., University, Edinburgh £25

360 LIST OF GOVERNORS, FOUNDERS, AND MKMBERS.

1894 FerriiT, David, .M.A., M D , F.R.S., 34, Cavendish Square, W ann.

1884 Fison, Frederick W., Greenholme, Bmie\i-in-Wharfedale, Leeds C.

*+1884 Flower, Sir W. H„ K.C.B., F.R.S., 26, Stanhope Gardens, London, S.JV. C.

1897 Foster, Richard, TVindsivorth, Looe, R.S.O ann.

*1885 Fowler, G. Herbert, B.A., Ph.D.', 12, South Square, Gray's Lin, W.G.... ann.

1884 Fox, George H., Wodehonsc Place, Falmouth ann.

1886 Freeman, F. F., Abbotsfield, Tavistock, S. Devon G.

1884 Fry, George, F.L.S., Garlin Brae, Benvick-on-Ttveed £21

1884 Fryer. Charles E., i>'o«r(i 0/ Trade, S.JV. ann.

1898 Gauz, C, 5, Kildare Terrace, Bayswater, London ann.

1892 Gallon, F.,F.KS., 42, RiUland Gate, S.W. ann.

188") Gaskell, W. H., F.R.S., The Uplands, Shdford, Cambridge G.

1885 Gaskell, E. H., North Hill, Hitjhyate, N. G.

1893 Gatty, Charles Henry, LL.D., F.L.S., Felbridge Phce, East Grinstead... G.
1897 Gibbs, Hon. Henrj^ 10, Lennox Gardens, S.JF. ann.

1884 GiUson, Ernest, F.Z.S., c/o Eraser, Stoddart, and Ballingall, 16, Castle

Street, Edinburgh ann.

1885 Gordon, Rev. J. M., St. John's Vicarage, h'edhill, Surrei/ ann.

1885 Gotch, Prof. F., F.R.S., University Museum, Oxford ann.

1888 Goulding, F. H., George Street, Plymouth C.

1884 Grove, E., Norlington, Preston, Brighton ann.

1884 Groves, J. W., Wargrave Lodge, JVargrave-on-Tliames ann.

tl884 Giinther, Dr. Albert, F.E.S., 2, Lichfield Road, Kew Gardens ann.

1884 Haddon, Prof. Alfred C, M.A., Innisfail, Hills Road, Cambridge ann.

1884 Halliburton, Prof. W. D., M.D., B.Sc, 9, tiidgmont Gardens, Gower Street,

W.G. cmn.

1884 Hannah, Robert, 82, Addison Road, Kensington, W. G.

1897 Hargreaves, P., The Fishery, Xorth Hayling, Hants ann.

*1885 Harmer, S. F., D.Sc, F.R.S., King's College, Cambridge G.

1889 Harvey, T. H., Cattedown, Plymouth ann.

1888 Haselwood, J. E., 3, Lennox Place, Brighton G.

1884 Haslam, Miss E. Rosa, jfr'awnstraof?, i>'oZto?i £20

1884 Hayne, C. Seale, M.P., 6, U2)per Belgrave Street, S.JV. ann.

1884 Head, J. Merrick, F.R.G.S., J.P, Ardverness, ReigcUe . ann.

1 884 Heape, Walter, Heijro U7i, Chaucer Road, Cambridge C.

*1884 Herdman, Prof. W. A., F.R S., University College, Liverpool ;.. ann.

1884 Herschel, J., Col., R.E., F.R.S., Observatory House, Slough, Berks G.

1884 Heywood, James, F.R.a., 2Q, Palace Gardens, JJ''. G.

1889 Hey wood, Mr.s. E. S., Light Oaks, Manchester G.

*1884 Hickson, Prof. Sydney J., M.A., DSc, F.R.S., Ellesmere House,

JVilensloio Road, JVithington, Manchester ann.

1897 Hodgson, T. V., 7, Addison Road, Phjmouth ann.

1884 Holdsworth, E. W. H., F.L.S., F.Z.S., Lxicerne House, Dartmouth ann.

1893 Holt, Mrs. Vesey W., 104, Elm Park Gardens, S.JJ^. ann.

1887 Howes, Prof. G. Bond, F.R.S., F.L.S., Science and Art Department,

SoutJt, Kensington ann.

1884 Hudleston, W. H., M.A., F.R.S., 8, Stanhope Gardens, South Kensing-
ton, S.JV. ann.

1891 Indian Museum, Calcutta ann.

1888 Inskip, Capt. G. H., R.N., 22, Torrington Place, Plymouth ann.

LIST OF GOVERNORS, FOUNDERS, AND MEMBERS. 361

1885 Jackson, W. Hatchett, M.A., F.L.S., Pen JVaiiha, Weston-super-Mare ami.

1893 Jago, Edward, Menheniot, Cornioall ann.

1887 Jago-Trelawny, Major-Gen., F.R.G S., Coldrenick, Liskeard C.

1890 Johnson, Prof. T., D.Sc, F.L.S., Royal College of Science, Dublin aim.

1892 Joshua, Mrs., 57, Cadogan Square, S. IV ann.

1894 Justen, F. W., F.Z.S., c/o Dulau and Co., 37, SoJio Square, W ann.

1884 Kellock, W. B., F.L.S., F.R.C.S, 94, Stamford Hill, N. aim.

1897 Lanchester, W. F. , B. A., King's College, Cambridge C.

1885 Langley, J. N., F.R.S., Trinitg College, Cambridge C.

1885 Lea, A. S., M. A., Cuius College, Cambridge ann.

*1895 Lister, J. J., M.A., St. John's College, Cambridge ann.

1888 Lojjes, The Rt. Hon. Sir Massey, Bart., Maristow, Iloborough, South

Devon ann.

1885 Macalister, Prof. A., F.R.S., St. John's College, Cambridge ann.

1884 Mackrell, John, High Trees, Clapliam Common, S.W. C.

1886 MacMunn, Charles A., OrtA; Zt'7"f/A, WolverhamiAon ann.

1889 Makovski, Stauislans, FrtirZair?;, i?ef? iit'W ann.

1885 Marr, J. E., M.A. , St. John's College, Cambridge C.

1884 Mason, Philip Brookes, Burton-on- Trent ann.

1884 McAndreAV, James J., Liikesland, Ivybridge, South Devon ann.

1884 McInto.sh, Prof. W. C, F.R.S., 2, Abbotsford Crescent, St. Andrews, N.B. C.

1884 Michael, Albert D., Cadogan Mandons, Shane Square, S.W. C.

1885 Mocatta, F. H., 9, CW/irtM(//i« PZrtce, rr. C.

1886 Mond, Ludwig, F.R.S., 20, Avenue Road, Regent's Park, N.W. C.

1884 Morgan, Prof. C. Lloyd, University College, Bristol ann.

1891 Morgans, Thonia.?, 60, Queen Square, Bristol ann.

tl889 Morley, The Rt. Hon. the Earl of, 31, Prince's Garden.^, S.JJ^ ann.

1885 Morrison, Alfred, 1 6, Carlton House Terrace £52 10s.

.*1896 Murray, Sir John, K.C.B., F.R.S., Challenger Lodge, Wardie, Edinburgh ann.

tl884 Xewton, Prof. Alfred, M.A.,-F.R.S., Magdalen College, Cambridge £20

tl884 Norman, Rev. Canon, M.A., D.C.L., F.R.S., The Red House, Berkhamsted,

Herts ann.

1884 Ommanney, Admiral Sir Erasmus, K.C.B., F.R.S., 29, Connaught

Square, W ann.

1885 Paget, Sir James, Bart., F.R.S., 5, Park Place, W C.

1898 Parkinson, J., 251, Camden Road, London, N ann.

1884 Parson.s, Chas. T., Norfolk Road, Edgbaston, Birmingham ann.

1888 Penn.'^ylvania, LTniversity of, PJiiladeljihiit, U.S.A ann.

1885 Phillips, Cha.s. D. F., M.D., 10, Henrietta Street, Cavendish Square, JV. G.

1887 Phipson, Mrs., Cumballa Hill, Bombay ann.

1886 Power, Henry, F.R.C.S., 37a, Great Cumberland Place, Jf. :.... ann.

1885 Pritchard, Prof. Urban, 26, Wim pole Street, 11" ann.

1884 Pye-Smith, P. H., M. D., 48, Brook Street, W. C.

362 LIST OF GOVERNORS, FOUNDERS, AND MEMBERS.

1 897 Quent in, C, Milland, Lijihook, Hants ann.

1893 Quiutiu, St. W. R., Scampstoie Hall, Rillmgton, Yorlcs ann.

1884 Radford, Daniel, Mount Tavy, Tavistock ann.

1884 Ralli, Mrs. Stephen, 32, Pari i«?ie, W. £30

1 885 Ransom, W. B., The Pavement, Nottingham C.

1893 Raslileigh, E. W., Kilmarth, Par Station, Cornicall ann.

1888 Kiiwlings, Edward, Pichmond House, Wimbledon Common ann.

1892 Robinson, Miss M., University College, London, W.C. ann.

1 898 Row, J. H., 26, Strand Road, Calcutta ((nn.

1892 Riift'er, M.A., M.D., Bacteriological Institute, Cairo ann.

1897 Sandeman, H. D., 4, Elliot Terrace, Plymo^ith ann.

1888 Scliarff, Robert F., Ph.D., Science and Art Museum, Dublin ann.

*1884 Sclater, P. L., F.R.S., Sec. Zool. Soc, 3, Hanover Square, W. ann.

1884 Sclater, W. L., The Museum, Cape Toxon ann.

*1885 Scott, D. H., M.A., Ph.D., F.R.S., Old Palace, Richmond, Surrey 0.

1884 Sedgwick, A., M.A., F.R.S., Trinity College, Cambridge C.

1888 Serpen, E. W., 19, Hill Park Crescent, Plymouth £50

1898 Seyd, Ernest, 87, Edith Road, West Kensington, London, S.W. ann.

1885 Sheldon, Miss Lilian, The Murmurs, Exmouth aiin.

1884 Shijjley, Arthur E., M.A., Christ's College, Cambridge C.

1886 Shore, T. W., M.D., The Warden's House, St. Bartholometo's Hospital,

E.G. ann.

1894 Simpson, F. C, J. P., Maypool, Churston Ferrers, R.S.O ann.

1885 Sinclair, F. G., New Museums, Cambridge C.

1891 Sinclair, William F., 102, Cheyne Walk, Chelsea, S.W. C.

1884 Skinners, the Worshipful Company of, Skinners' Hall, E.C. £42

1889 Slade, Commander, E. J. Warre, Milton Heath, Dorking C.

1884 Sladen, W. Percy, 13, Hyde Park Gate, S.W ann.

1893 Sorby, H. C, LL.D., F.R.S., Broomfield, Sheffield ann.

1888 Spencer, Prof. W. Baldwin, M.A., University of Victoria, Melbourne ... ann.
1884 Spring-Rice, S. E., C.B., 1, Bryanston Place, Bryanston Square, W. ... C.

*1884 Stewart, Prof. Chas., F.R.S., Royal College of Surgeons, Lincoln's Inn

Fields, W.C. ann.

1897 Straker, J., L.L.M., F.Z.S., Oxford and Cambridge Club, S.W. C.

1884 Sutherland, The Duke of, Stafford House, St. Jamas', S.W. C.

1894 Thomas, W. F., Bishopshalt, Hillingdon, Middlesex ann.

1890 Thompson, H. F., B.A., 35, Wimpole Street, W. ann.

1884 Thornycroft, John I., Eyot Villa, Chiswick Mall ann.

1888 Thurston, Edgar, Government Central Museum, Egmore, Madras ann.

1 897 Travers, J. A., Dorney House, Weybridge a7in.

1888 Tripe, Major-General, 3, 06'?)o™e Villas, Stoke, Devonport ann.

1888 'V&\\&nim,'R\x^(ixi,\, Melville Road, Falmouth ann.

1891 Vaughan, Henry, 28, Cumberland Terrace, N.W. ann.

1884 Venning, Mr.s., 3, Wingfield Villas, Stoke, Devonport £50

1884 Vines, Professor Sydney H., M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S. , Botanical Gardens,

Oxford a)i7i.

LIST OF GOVERNORS, FOUNDERS, AND MEMBERS. 363

1884 Walker, Alfred 0., Nant-y-ghjn, Colwyn Bay, N. Wales ann.

1884 Walker, P. F., 36, Princes Gardens, S.IF. ann.

tl884 V^SLhingham, Lord, F.n.S, Merton Eall, TJietford £20

1 890 Waterhouse, Edwin, Feldmore, near Dorking ann.

1891 Wildy, A. G., 14, Fyuckingham Street, Adelphi, London, W.G ann.

1884 Wilson, Scott B., Heather Bank, IVeyhridge Heath C.

1884 Woodall, John W., M.A., F.G.S., 5, Queen^s Mansions, Victoria Street,

London, S.JV ann.

1898 Worth, R. H., 42, Gewge Street, Plymouth ann.

IV. — Associate Members.

1889 Alward, George, 11, Hainton Street, Great Grimsby.

1889 Caux, J. W. de. Great Yarmouth.

1889 Dannevig, Capt. G. M., Arendal, Norway.

1889 Dunn, Matthias, Mevagissey.

1889 Olsen, 0. T., F.L.S., F.R.G.S., Fish Dock Road, Great Grimsby.

1889 Ridge, B. J., Neidyn, Penzance.

1890 Roach, W., 4, Gascoyne Place, Plymouth.

1889 Shrubsole, W. H., 62, High Street, Sheerness-on-Sea.

1889 Sinel, Joseph, 2, Peel Villas, Cleveland Road, Jersey.

1890 Spencer, R. L., L. and N.W. Depot, Ouernsey.
1890 Wells, W., Tlie Aquarium, Brighton.

1890 Wiseman, Fred., Buckland House, Pagles/iam, Rochford, Essex.

NKW SERIES.— VOL. V. NO. 3. 2 A

PUBLICATIONS OF THE ASSOCIATION.

Cloth 4/0, 150 2ip., 18 ^jZffies (12 coloured).

A TREATISE ON THE COMMON SOLE.

BY

J. T. CUNNINGHAM, M.A.,
Late Fellow of University College, Oxford : Naturalist to the Association.

Price to Members,* 20s. ; to Non-Members, 25s.
From the Director, The Laboratory, Plymouth, and through all Booksellers.

JOURNAL OF THE MARINE BIOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION.

Old Series.

No. 1, August, 1887 (only a few copies left, reserved for Libraries).
No. 2, August, 1888. Price Is.

KEW SEEIES.— VOLUME L

1889-90.

Royal 8vo, xx. and 472 })p., 28 j^Zaies.

NEW SERIES— VOLUME II.
1891-92.

Roijal 8vo, X. and 404 j)})., 14 plates, 12 woodctUs, atid 10 charts.

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Medium Svo, 368^a^es. 159 Illustrations and two Maps. Price 7s. 6d. net.

THE NATURAL HISTORY

OF THE

Marketable Marine Fishes of tlie Britisli Islands.

Prepared expressly for the use of those interested in the Sea-fishing Industries,

BY

J. T. CUNNINGHAM, M.A.,

FORMERLY FELLOW OF UXIVERSITY COLLEGE, OXFORD ;
NATURALIST ON THE STAFF OF THE MARINE BIOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION.

5l511tt[) Preface ftp
• E. EAY LANKESTER, M.A., LL.D., F.E.S.,

PROFESSOR OF COMPARATIVE ANATOMY IN THE UNIVERSITY OF OXFORD.

^ *-»"♦»

CONTENTS.

PART I.— GENERAL.

CHAPTER

I. — History of Modern Investigations of the Subject.

II. — The Characteristics of vahiable Marine Fishes and the Regions in
which they live.

III. — The Generation of Fishes and their Fecundity.

IV. — The Eggs and Larvae and their Development.

V. — Growth, Migrations, Food, and Habits.

VI. — Practical Methods of Increasing the supply of Fish.

PART II.— HISTORY OF PARTICULAR FISHES.

The Herring Family : — The Herring. The Sprat. The Pilchard or Sardine.
The Shads. The Anchovy.

The Salmon Family : — The Smelt.

The Eel Family :— The Eel. The Conger,

Part II.— History of Particular Fishes-continued.

The Garfish or Guard-Fish Family.

The Flat-Fish Family : — The Plaice. Tlie Common Dab. The Flounder.
The Witch. The Lemon Dab, or Lemon Sole. The Halibut. The
Long Rough Dab. The Sole. The Sand Sole, or French Sole. The
Solenette, or Little Sole. The Thickback. The Turbot. The Brill.
The Megrim. The Scaldfish, or Scaldback. The Top-knots.

The Cod Family :— The Cod. The Haddock. The Whiting. The Coal
Fish. The Pollack. The Ling. The Hake. The Rocklings. The
Tusk, or Torsk. The Sand-Eels.

The Red Mullet Family.

The Sea Breams.

The Mackerel, or Tunny Family : — The Mackerel.

The Family of the Scads, or Horse-Mackerels.

The John Dory Family : — The Boar-Fish, or Cuckoo. The John Dory.

The Gurnard Family : — The Bullheads. The Gurnards.

Grey Mullets : — The Thick-Lipped Grey Mullet.

The Angler Family : — The Angler, or Frog-Fish.

The Blennies : — The Cat-Fish, or Sea-Cat.

The Sucker Family : — The Lump-Sucker. The Diminutive Suckers.

Appendix I. Appendix II. Index.

MACMILLAN & CO., Ltd.,
ST. MARTIN'S STREET, LONDON.

OBJECTS

OF THE

Hlariiif Bioloqical dissociation of tijf ^tnitrb l\inqbom,

nmE ASSOCIATION was founded at a Meeting called for the purpose in March, 1884,
■*- and held in the Rooms of the Royal Society of London.

The late Professor Huxley, at that time President of the Royal Society, took the chair,
and amongst the speakers in support of the project were the Duke of Argyll, the late
Sir Lyon Platfair, Sir John Lubbock, Sir Joseph Hooker, the late Dr. Carpenter, Dr.
GuNTHER, the late Lord Dalhousie, the late Professor Moseley, the late Mr. Romanes,
and Professor Lankester.

The Association owes its existence and its present satisfactory condition to a combina-
tion of scientific naturalists, and of gentlemen who, from philanthropic or practical reasons,
are specially interested in the great sea fisheries of the United Kingdom. It is universally
admitted that our knowledge of the habits and conditions of life of sea fishes is very small,
and insufficient to enable either the practical fisherman or the Legislature to take measures
calculated to ensure to the country the greatest return from the "harvest of the sea."
Naturalists are, on the other hand, anxious to push further our knowledge of marine life
and its conditions. Hence, the Association has erected at Plymouth a thoroughly efficient
Laboratory, where naturalists may study the history of marine animals and plants in general,
and where, in particular, researches on food fishes and molluscs may be carried out with the
best appliances.

The Laboratory and its fittings were completed in June, 1888, at a cost of some £12,000.
Since that time investigations, practical and scientific, have been constantly pursued at
Plymouth. Practical investigations upon matters connected with sea-fishing are carried on
under the direction of the Council ; in addition, naturalists from England and from abroad
have come to the Laboratory, to carry on their own independent researches, and have made
valuable additions to zoological and botanical science, at the expense of a small rent, for the
use of a working table in the Laboratory, and other appliances. The number of naturalists
who can be employed by the Association in special investigations on fishery questions, and
definitely retained for the purpose of carrying on those researches throughout the year,
must depend on the funds subscribed by private individuals and public bodies for the
purpose. The first charges on the revenue of the Association are the working of the sea-
water circulation in the tanks, stocking the tanks with fish and feeding the latter, the
payment of servants and fishermen, the hire and maintenance of fishing boats, and the
salary of the Resident Director and Statf. At the commencement of this number will be
found the names of the gentlemen on the staff. In no case does any one salary exceed
£250.

The Association has received some £30,000, of which £14,000 has been granted by
the Treasury. The annual revenue which can be at present counted on is about £1,820, of
which £1,000 a year is granted by the Treasury, the remainder being principally made up
in subscriptions.

The admirable ilarine Biological Laboratory at Naples, founded and directed by Dr.
Dohrn, has cost about £20,000, including steam launches, &c., whilst it has an annual
budget of £7,000.

The purpose of the Association is to aid at the same time both science and industry. It
is national in character and constitution, and its affairs are conducted by a representative
Council, by an Honorary Secretary and an Honorary Treasurer, without any charge upon
its funds, so that the whole of the subscriptions and donations received are devoted
absolutely to the support of the Laboratory and the prosecution of researches by aid of
its appliances. The reader is referred to page 4 of the Cover for information as to
membership of the Association.

CONTENTS OF NEW SERIES Vol. V., No. 3.

PAGE

1. The Variation, Races and Migrations of the Mackerel. By

Walter Garstang, M.A. . . ... 235

2. Report on Trawling in Bays on the South Coast of Devon. By

E. W. L. Holt . . . . ... 296

3. Notes on Pontobdella muricata. By tlic Hon. Henry Gibbb . . 330

4. Notes on the Reproduction of Teleostean Fishes in the South-

western District. By E.-W. L. Holt and L. W. Byrne . . 333

5. The Great Silver Smelt, Argentina silus, Nilss., an Addition to

THE List of British Fishes. By E. W. L. Holt . . .341

6. Notes and Memoranda —

Callionymus maculatus Bona?. . . ... 343

Phrijnorhombus unimaculatus. Eisso.

Mortella cimbrin. LiNN.

/Sepia elegans. d'Orb.

Mysis lowjicornis. Milne Edwards

Mysidopsis angnsta. G. O. Sars ,

. 343
. 343
. 343
. 344
. 344
Malformation of the Mouth in the Common Sea-Bream . 345

7. Report of the Council, 1897-98 . . ... 348

8. Director's Report . . . . . . 354

9. List of Governors, Founders, and Members, October, 1898 . . 357

NOTICE.

The Council of the Marine Biological Association wish it to be understood that
they do not accept responsibility for statements published in this Journal,
excepting when those statements are contained in an official report of the Council.

. per annum.
Composition Fee.

£ s.
1 1

15 15

100 0

d.
0

0

0

.

500 0

0

TERMS OF MEMBERSHIP.

Annual Members
Life Members
Founders
Governors

Members of the Association have the following rights and privileges : they elect
annually the Officers and Council ; they receive the Journal of the Association free
by post ; they are admitted to view the Laboratory at Plymouth, and may introduce
friend.^ with tliem ; they have the first claim to rent a place in the Laboratory for
research, with use of tanks, boats, &c. ; and have access to the books in the Library
at Plymouth.

All correspondence should be addressed to the Director, The Laboratory,
Plymouth.

o<L/ I'

u<juy^

New Series. — Vol. V., No. 4— issued June, 1899.]

[Price 5s.

.Jl^ Vj isno

M^yf

3(ournal

OF THE

MARINE BIOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION

OF

THE UNITED KINGDOM.

m.^

-S£s?

THE PLYMOUTH LABORATORY.

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PLYMOUTH:

PRINTED FOR THE MARINE BIOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION BY W. BRENDON & SON,

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SENT FREE BY POST TO ALL MEMHERS OF THE MARINE BIOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION :
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PATRON.

H.R.H. THE PRINCE OF WALES, K.G., F.R.S.

OFFICERS AND COUNCIL.

President.
Prof. E. Ray Lankester, LL.D., F.R.S.

Vice-

The Duke of Argyll, K.G., K.T., F.R.S.
The Duke of Abercorn, K.G., C.B.
The Earl of St. Germans.
Tlie Earl of Morley.
The Earl of Ducie, F.R.S.

Lord TWEEDMOUTH.

Lord Walsingham, F.R.S.
The Right Hon. A. J. Balfour, M.P.,
F.R.S.

The Right Hon. Joseph Chamber-
lain, M.P.

Presidents.

The Right Hon, Sir John Lubbock,
Bart., M.P., F.R.S.

Sir Edward Birkbeck, Bart.

Sir Wm. Flower, K.C.B., F.R.S.

A. C. L. GiJNTHER, Esq., F.R.S.

Prof. Alfred Newton, F.R.S.

Rev. Canon Norman, D.C.L., F.R.S.

Sir Henry Thompson, Bart.

Rear-Adniiral Sir \V. J. L. Wharton,
K.C.B., F.R.S.

COUNCIL.
Elected Members.

Prof. S. J. HiCKSON, F.R.S.

J. J. Lister, Ei^q.

Sir John Murray, K.C.B., F.R.S.

P. L. Sclater, Esq., F.R.S. (Sec. Zool.

Soc).
D. H. Scott, Esq., F.R.S.
Prof. Charles Stewart, F.R.S.
Prof. W. F. R. Weldon, F.R.S.

Governors.

Prof. BuRDON Sanderson, F.R.S.
(Oxford University).

Prof. Michael Foster, F.R.S. (Cam-
bridge Univer.sitv).

Sir William Flower, K.C.B., F.R.S.
(British Association).

Hon. Treasurer.
J. A. Travers, E.sq., Dorney House, Weybridge.

F. E. Beddard, E.sq., F.R.S.
Prof. F. Jeffrey Bell.

G. C. Bourne, Esq.
Sir John Evans, K.C.B., F.R.S.
G. Herbert Fowler, Esq.
S. F. Harmer, Esq., F.R.S.
Prof. W. A. Herdman, F.R.S.

Robert Bayly, Esq.
J. P. Thomasson, Esq.

The Prime Warden of the Fish-

MON(iERs' Company.
E. L. Beckwith, Esq. (Fishmongers'

Company).

Hon. Secretary.
E. J. Allen, E.sq., The Laboratory, Citadel Hill, Plymouth.

PERMANENT STAFF.
Director— E. J. Allen, Esq., B.Sc.

Naturalist in chtrge of Fishery Investiyations.
W. Garstanq, Esq., M.A.

Hon. Naturalist — E. W. L. Holt, Esq.

Director'' s Assistant — R. A. Todd, Es(£., B.Sc.

JUN 14 1899 [ 36- J

On the Fauna and Bottom-Deposits near the Thirty-
Fathom Line from the Eddystone Grounds
to Start Point.

By

E. J. Allen, B.Sc.

Director of the Plymouth Laboratory.

With Charts I. to XVL

INDEX OF CONTENTS.

SECTION PAGE

I. Introduction . . . . . ... 365

II. The Causes which Influence the Distribution of Life on the Sea-bottom . . 368

III. The Physical Conditions prevailing on tlie Grounds investigated . . 374

IV. The Bottom -deposits . . . . ... 377

Determination of the Amount of Carbonate of Lime in the samples of
Bottom-deposit, and Description of their Geological Features. By

R. H. Worth . . . . ... 381

V. Description of the Grounds investigated . . ... 387

VI. The Distribution of Particular Species on the Grounds under investigation . 440
VII. General Considerations —

1. The Association of Species with one another . ... 514

2. Geographical Distribution . . . . . . 519

Tables . . . . . . ... 521

Literature . . . . . . ... 537

Section I.

INTRODUCTION.

The investigation described in the present paper was commenced in
1895, with the aid of a grant of £100 from the Government Grant
Committee of the Eoyal Society to meet the expenses of boat-hire,
and a further grant of £25 has been made by the Society to assist in
the production of the charts by which the paper is illustrated. The
object of the investigation has been to gain an accurate knowledge of
the distribution of the fauna on the sea-bottom over a continuous area,
in order to ascertain and where possible to explain the changes which
take place in the animal population when the nature of the bottom-
deposit changes. At the same time it was hoped that fresh light would
be thrown upon the general question of the distribution of life on the
sea-bottom and the principles upon which it depends. It appeared
that an investigation of this character gave promise of serving the

NEW SERIES. — VOL. V. NO. 4. .U'.NE, 1899. 2 B

866 ON THE FAUNA AND BOTTOM-DEPOSITS NEAK THE :'.0-FM. LINE

double purpose for which the IMarine Biological Association was
founded, namely, to increase our scientific knowledge of marine
animals, and to obtain information having a direct bearing upon
problems connected with sea-fisheries. It does not, I think, require
any elaborate argument to demonstrate what is brought out clearly in
detail in the present report, that the inter - relations between the
different animals living in one neighbourhood are so intimate and
complex that one cannot hope to understand the natural history of
any particular group, such as the fishes, without a knowledge of the
whole fauna of which that group forms a part.

Since the principal object of the investigation was to study the
relation of the fauna to the bottom - deposit, the area selected for
examination was so chosen that the general physical conditions pre-
vailing over the whole of it were uniform, and showed no very marked
differences in any feature beyond the changes in the nature of the
deposits. The hauls were all made at nearly similar depths, the thirty-
fathom line being roughly followed from the Eddy stone to Start Point.
(See Charts I.-XVl.) Probably the only variable factor which is of
any importance at all, in addition to the bottom-deposit, is the amount
of disturbance of the bottom water due to the action of waves, which
is discussed on p. 375.

On the western portion of the area the Eddystone Lighthouse, stand-
ing as it does upon a reef which rises abruptly with water of thirty
fathoms depth all round it, forms a valuable landmark, and enables one
to determine without much difficulty the positions of the difl'ereut
stations.

The instrument used in making the collections has been for the
most part an ordinary naturalist's dredge, the mouth of which was from
2 ft. 6 in. to 3 ft. long and 6 to 8 inches deep. On the finer grounds
a small otter-trawl and a small beam-trawl (27 ft. beam) have also been
employed. For obtaining actual samples of the bottom - deposits a
dredge fitted with a canvas bag inside the ordinary net was used.

About 100 hauls of the dredge or trawl were made altogether, and so
far as practicable every species captured was identified and recorded,
note being made of its relative abundance, and in the case of fixed
species, of the objects to which the specimens were generally attached.
It was afterwards found possible to group together many of these hauls,
which having been made close to one another showed a similar fauna
and bottom-deposit, and these groups have been called grounds. In
all eighteen grounds have been recognised.

As already stated, the investigation was commenced in 1895, and it
was continued each year till 1898, the hauls having been made at
different seasons, but for the most part during the summer. At these

FROM TUE EDDYSTONE GROUNDS TO START POINT. 367

depths there appears to be little change in the fauna at different times
of the year, excepting in the case of the migratory fishes.

In the identification of the species I have received very great assist-
ance from my colleagues, as well as from many naturalists who have
from time to time worked in the Laboratory, and without this assistance
it would have been impossible to have attempted to give so full an
account of the fauna of the grounds as I am now able to do. I would
therefore express my great indebtedness to Prof. Weldon, Messrs. W.
Garstang, E. W. L. Holt, T. V. Hodgson, E. T. Browne, W. I. Beaumont,
T. H. liiches, and T. H. Taylor for the help which has been so readily
given. The particular groups in which each naturalist has assisted will
be found mentioned in Section VI. It must be understood, however,
that the responsibility for the statement that a species occurs upon any
particular ground is in all cases my own.

My thanks are also due to Mr. E. H. Worth for the geological ex-
amination of the samples of bottom-deposits, and for the determination
of the amounts of carbonate of lime which they contain. Mr. Worth's
principal contribution will be found at page 381 : others are enclosed in
square brackets, and are followed by his initials.

With regard to the names adopted for the different species, my one
object has been to make my meaning understood as readily as possible.
For most of the groups therefore some standard monograph has been
made use of, the name of which is stated in each case, and the nomen-
clature there given has been employed. In a few cases old and well-
established names have been retained in place of later but less known
ones.

It will, I think, be clear to anyone studying the results of this
investigation that information of great value would result from a
comparison of the faunas of these grounds with those found in similar
situations around the British coasts. Although a great deal of dredging
has been done, very little information has as yet been published in a
form available for making such comparisons, and as will be again
pointed out (see p. 377), the accounts of the nature and texture of the
bottom-deposit require to be much more definite and detailed than those
which have generally been given.

Even when one seeks for knowledge of the true centre of distribution
of a species, either of its geographical or of its bathymetric distribution,
it is remarkable in how few instances this can be ascertained from the
published accounts. If we are ever to obtain an accurate knowledge
of the adaptation of species to their environment they must be studied
at their centres of distribution, in those localities where they are
exceptionally abundant, for it is there that the species is kept true, and
it is to the conditions there prevailing that the species is most perfectly

3G8 ON THE FAUNA AND BOTTOM-DEPOSITS NEAR THE 30-FM. LINE

adapted. So much attention has in the past been devoted to the rarer
species occurring in any district that the exact conditions under which
the common and prevailing forms exist have often received but little
attention. Yet the fact that a species is rare in any locality no doubt
in most cases means that it is only imperfectly adapted to the con-
ditions there prevailing, and that if the locality were cut off from
communication with the real centre of distribution the species would
soon cease to exist in it. Illustrations of this could be almost in-
definitely multiplied. One case in point is referred to in some detail
on p. 473.

It is clear, therefore, that much yet remains to be done all round our
coasts in the way of dredging work. A number of detailed surveys in
the different districts and in water of different depths is what is really
required. Continuous areas should where possible be examined,
samples of the bottom - deposits obtained, and all the physical con-
ditions observed. The nature of the fauna should in each case be
described in such a way that the common and characteristic species
are clearly indicated and given due prominence, and the inter-relations
of the different species pointed out. Special attention should be
directed to all spots where any one species is exceptionally plentiful,
in order to ascertain as. exactly as possible the conditions under which
it is best able to flourish.

Section II.

THE CAUSES WHICH INFLUENCE THE DISTEIBUTION
OF LIFE ON THE SEA-BOTTOM.

In this section I propose to give a brief summary of some of the more
important causes influencing the distribution of the animals and plants
which live on the sea-bottom, as it will be necessary to constantly bear
these causes in mind in considering the nature of the fauna on the
various grounds to be described. This summary is based largely on
the writings of Forbes, Gwyn Jeffreys, Wyville Thompson, Norman,
Berthold, Herdman, MTntosh, Petersen, and Walther.

The definite distribution of animals and plants in the sea, as on the
land, is due to causes some of which are obscure, whilst others, and
perhaps the most important ones, are sufficiently obvious. They
may, as a matter of convenience, be divided into two classes, the
physical causes and the biological causes. The physical causes are
the result of those physical conditions which immediately affect the life
of the individual members of a species. The biological causes include,
in addition to such as are due to the structure and activity of the

FROM THE EDDYSTONE GROUNDS TO START POINT. 369

organism itself, all those influences to which a species is subjected in
consequence of the existence at the same time of other living organisms.
Such influences may be spoken of as the result of the external biological
conditions to which the species is subjected. In ultimate analysis,
however, the external biological conditions affecting the distribution
of a species in any locality are themselves largely, if not entirely,
due to physical conditions acting in the same or in neighbouring
localities.

Since the assemblage of animals and plants forming the fauna and
flora of any particular area is merely a collection of a number of
individual species, the causes determining its nature will be the same
as those which determine the distribution of species. In the present
paper we are more particularly concerned with the distribution of a
portion of the bottom fauna and flora of the sea, of those organisms
which live in intimate relation with the bottom-deposit and are captured
by the use of the naturalist's dredge or of the trawl.

I. Physical Conditions.

Those physical conditions, the variations of which influence the life
of bottom-living species, are capable of definite statement, and for the
most part of accurate measurement. They are —

1. The constitution of the sea- water.

2. The nature of the bottom-deposit.

3. The movements of the water, due to

(a) wave action,
(&) currents,
(c) tides.

4. The temperature of the sea-water.

5. The pressure, varying with the depth of water, to which the
organisms are exposed.

6. The amount of light which penetrates to the sea-bottom.

1. The Constitution of the Sea-water. Variations in the constitution
of the sea- water of sufficient importance to have any marked effect
upon the bottom-living animals and plants are only met with in the
neighbourhood of the land. These variations are (1) the addition of
fresh-water, indicated by a lowering of density, which is the result
of the land-rainfall ; (2) the presence of soluble substances derived
from the drainage of the land ; (3) the presence of solid substances in
suspension either brought down directly by the land-water, or stirred
up by the action of waves on the coast and in shallow parts of the sea,
and (4) in all probability the amount of oxygen and carbonic acid
dissolved in the sea-water.

370 ON THE FAUNA AND BOTTOM-DEPOSITS NEAR THE 30-FM. LINE

Of these four variable factors the second, the presence of soluVjle
substances derived from tlie drainage of the land, has never, so far as
I am aware, received any attention, although in many localities,
especially in enclosed estuaries, it is probably of considerable import-
ance in influencing the distribution of animal and plant life.

The incursion of fresh-water is a factor which is liable to great
variation. At times of exceptional ilood the influence of a river will
be felt at a much greater distance from shore than at other times. In
considering the physical conditions of any particular ground it is
necessary to bear this in mind, and to know whether it is or is not
subject to such periodic incursions of water of low density at regular
or irregular intervals. It is a well-known fact that marine animals are
liable to be injured by a sudden change in the density of the water of a
much smaller amount than that to whicli they can quite well become
accustomed, provided the change takes place gradually.

2. The Nature of the Bottom-deposit. Since the time of the earliest
marine naturalists it has been fully recognised that one of the principal
factors in determining the distribution of marine animals and plants is
the nature of the bottom-deposit or substratum upon which they live.

The nature of the substratum varies both as to the kind of material
of which it is composed and as to the texture of that material. The
kind of material forming the bottom-deposit may be either inorganic,
when it varies with the geological formation of the particular locality,
or it may be organic, consisting of the skeletal remains of marine
organisms, in which case it varies according to the fauna of the locality.
Deposits composed almost entirely of organic remains have been termed
neritic deposits by Herdmau. The texture of the bottom-deposit varies
from solid rock or large stones to gravel, sand, and the finest mud.
Amongst marine animals and plants, especially amongst the former, a
great variety of adaptations are found for fixing, for boring, for burrow-
ing, and for locomotion, specially suited to the particular kind of bottom
upon which the organism generally lives. In very few cases, however,
have the different kinds of bottom-deposit, upon which a particular
species can live, been accurately ascertained, and one of the results
of such investigations as that detailed in the present report is to obtain
additional evidence on such questions.

3. The Movements of the Water, (a) Wave action. The important
infiuence exerted by the action of the waves on animals and plants
living between tide-marks, or in water of only a few fathoms depth,
has always been recognised by naturalists, and many of the adaptations
of structure and habit, by means of which this action is combated,
have been pointed out. It was not, however, until the appearance of
Hunt's paper (No. 54) on the influence of wave currents that the atteu-

FROM THE EDDYSTONE GROUNDS TO START POINT. 371

tion of naturalists was directed to the fact that this factor was in all
probability of great importance to animals living even at such depths
as 30 or 40 fathoms, at any rate in those seas which are subject to large
waves and to strong tidal currents. Even since the publication of this
suggestive paper the subject does not appear to have received the
attention which it deserves. Hunt bases his conclusions not only upon
his own observations of objects trawled from a depth of 40 fathoms in
the English Channel, but he publishes a letter from Sir George Stokes,
in which the subject is treated from a mathematical standpoint, the
conclusions being such as to entirely agree with those which had been
drawn from observation. Hunt points out in detail some of the
adaptations of animals living in shallow water to resist this movement
of the waves.*

(b) Currents. From the point of view of the distribution of bottom-
living marine organisms currents are important (1) as the bearers
of a large and important food-supply ; (2) as a means of distribution
of the larvffi of many animals and the spores of plants ; (3) as
induencing in many places the nature of the bottom-deposit ; (4) from
the alterations which they may produce in the density and temperature
of the water, and (5) from their power of sweeping away such organisms
as are insufficiently fixed.

(c) Tides. It would be beyond the scope of the present paper to
enter into a discussion of the peculiar conditions found within the
belt of sea-coast which is alternately exposed to the air and covered by
the sea with the ebb and flow of the tide. The highly special character
of the fauna and flora due to this cause is well known, and has often
been described.

The currents produced in shallow seas, such as those around the
English coasts, by the action of the tidal wave, iniiuence the bottom-
fauna in the same ways as do currents due to other causes.f These have
already been sufficiently indicated, but in the case of the tidal current
one important difference must be noted. In the great majority of
instances the tidal current runs alternately in opposite directions,
and it would not therefore be likely to bring such an abundant food-
supply as a steady current progressing at the same rate, nor would it
tend to distribute larvte over a very large area.

This ecj^ual alternation of the tidal current is often greatly modified
in the immediate neighbourhood of the coast, especially where bays
and inlets of the sea abound. In such localities the current may run
for a much longer time in one direction than in the other.

'o^

* For a further discussion of this subject see pp. 375 and 4.^)7.

t The strength of the bottom tidal current, as indeed of all bottom cm-rents, in the seas
around the British Isles is a subject about which definite information is very much needed.

372 ON THE FAUNA AND BOTTOM-DEPOSITS NEAR THE 30-F.M. LINE

4. Temperature of the Sea-water. There seems to be some difference
of opinion amongst recent writers as to the extent to which temperature
is a determining cause in the distribution of marine species.

The following general principles appear to be beyond dispute.

Change of temperature, having regard both to the amount of the
change and to the rapidity with which the change takes place, is of
greater importance in its influence upon marine life than the actual
degree of temperature, though at the same time the latter must not be
considered to be without effect.

For each species there is a maximum rate of change of temperature
which the species is able to endure without injury, and this rate of
change differs greatly for different species.

Each species is specially adapted to flourish within a particular range
of temperature, which differs both in actual degree and in extent of
range for different species.

It also seems probable that, provided the change takes place
sufficiently slowly, the particular range of temperature to which a
species is adapted may alter, and a race of the species may arise
adapted to a temperature range different to that of the species in
general. Whether or not selection plays a part in the formation of
such races it is impossible in the present state of knowledge to say.

5. Pressure. The range of many species in depth is very great, so
that it is evident — and the fact has been sufficiently recognised since
the time of Forbes and Gwyn Jeffreys — that pressure in itself has
little influence on the distribution of marine animals, unless the differ-
ences of pressure are very great indeed.

6. The Amount of Light which penet7xitcs to the Sea-hottom. The
extent to which light penetrates the sea-water is one of the most
important factors in determining the distribution of marine life, since
on it depends the existence of the plant life upon which animals ulti-
mately depend for their food supply.

Berthold has shown that different species of marine algae require
different light-intensities in order to flourish at their best. Some
grow only where the light is very strong, the majority, however, attain
their maximum development in situations which are to some extent
shaded, or in which the intensity of the light is modified by the depth
of water through which it has to pass.

The amount of light which penetrates the sea-water and becomes
available for bringing about the assimilation of plants depends, in the
first place, upon the amount of light which strikes the surface of the
sea, and will vary therefore with the particular climate and meteoro-
logical conditions prevailing in each locality. The depth at which
marine algiu will be found will be greater in localities where the sky

FROM THE EDDYSTONE GROUNDS TO START POINT. 373

remains clear and the light of the sun intense for long periods, than in
those where the opposite conditions prevail. The clearness of the
water, which depends upon the amount of solid matter in suspension,
will also be a factor of importance.

In addition to tlie indirect effect of light upon the distribution of
animal life in the sea, owing to the dependence of the latter upon plant
life, there is also a direct effect, which, however, appears to be of
importance only within somewhat wide limits. The distribution of
those animals which seek their food chiefly by the aid of sight will
evidently be limited by the amount of light which penetrates, whilst
the safety of those which serve them as food will be correspondingly
increased as the amount of light diminishes.

II. External Biological Conditions.

The external biological conditions influencing the distribution of any
bottom-living organism (animal or plant), due to the existence at the
same time of other living organisms, are often of a complicated nature.

1. One organism may exert an advantageous influence upon another.

(ft) By serving as its food-supply ;

(&) By serving as a fixed base to which it may attach itself ;

(c) By serving as a movable base, and thus extending the area

over which a fixed organism can collect its food-supply ;

(d) By bringing supplies of food to the other organism as well

as to itself, either by setting up a current, or in some
other way ;
(c) By affording the other organism means of protection or
concealment from its enemies,

2. One organism may exert a disadvantageous influence upon another,

(ft) By preying upon it ;

(&) By fixing upon it in such a way as to destroy it ;
(c) As a competitor for a limited food-supply, or for a limited
amount of fixing space.

3. The biological conditions by which the organisms on any particular
patch of ground are influenced depend not only upon the organisms
living on that ground itself, but also upon the nature and abundance
of the organisms living upon neighbouring grounds.

The meaning of the latter statement can perhaps be best explained
by supposing that a particular patch of ground could be cleared of all
the organisms living upon it, and then allowed to remain until it had
acquired a new population. The nature of this new population would
depend upon the physical conditions of the ground, upon the nature
of the larval animals which were brought to it by the moving water

374 ON THE FAUNA AND BOTTOM-DEPOSITS NEAR THE 30-FM. LINE

above, and upon the wandering animals which entered it from other
grounds. The nature of the larval forms would depend upon the
nature of the grounds over which the water had previously passed,
and it would appear that the supply of larvai from grounds in the
immediate neighbourhood would be much greater than that from those
which were more distant. In this connection the tidal current, running
alternately in opposite directions, will evidently be an important factor.
It will be shown in the present report that in many cases the nature of
the fauna at a particular spot is distinctly intiuenced by the fauna of
grounds in the immediate neighbourhood.

The principle just discussed may be extended to the fauna of any
particular district, which will be influenced by the nature of the fauna
in surrounding districts. The fact, which has long been well known,
that the fauna in the western portion of the Channel is composed of a
mixture of northern and southern species is, to some extent, a result of
the principle enunciated.

Section III.

THE rilYSICAL CONDITIONS PIIEVAILING ON THE
GEOUNDS INVESTIGATED.

The grounds have been so chosen that, with the exception of changes
in the nature of the bottom-deposit, the differences in their physical
conditions are probably only slight and not of great importance. Under
the present heading those conditions, which are nearly the same for all
the grounds, will be described, whilst the nature of the changes which
the bottom-deposit undergoes will be reserved for an independent
section.

The grounds lie in the immediate neighbourhood of the 30-fathom
line (Charts I. to XVI ), all of them being between the 25- and 35-
fathom lines. In the neighbourhood of the Eddystone the 30-fathom
line is from eight to nine miles distant from the coast, and within about
a mile of the exposed Eddystone rocks. Near Bolt Head and Prawle
Point, on the other hand, it approaches to within 1^ miles of the
shore.

The Composition of the Water. The density of the water on all the
grounds may be taken, for the purposes of the present inquiry, to be
that of normal Atlantic water, any variation from this figure being so
small as to be without importance in. influencing the distribution of the
bottom fauna.

This appears to be the case even for the Bolt Head and Prawle
Grounds, which lie close to the entrance of the Salcombe estuary, as is

FUOM THE EDDYSTONE GROUNDS TO STAltT POINT. 375

shown by the observatious made by ]Mr. H. N. Dickson (No. 21, pp.
166-169) in 1891. Dickson's stations I. and XV. are suflicieutly near
to be of value.

Station I. Bolt Head N.E. by E. U miles. June loth, 1891.

Density (^S,,.,,). Surface 1-02601

19 fathoms 1-02599

Station XV. Bolt Head N.N.E. 1^ miles. June 17th, 1891.

Density (.Si^-sg). Surface 1-02598

19 fathoms 1-02602

In November, 1891, and March, 1892, samples were also taken by
Dickson at the above Station I., as well as at other stations in various
parts of the Channel, and he reports (No. 21, p. 273) that "the examina-
tion of these samples has shown that the water over the area under
consideration is normal Atlantic water throughout."

No accurate data can be given as to the amount of solid matter
in suspension in the water at various times, as no attempts have been
made either to determine this directly or to measure the degree of
transparency of the water. It is possible, owing to the nearer proximity
of the coast in the neighbourhood of Prawle Point, that the water
there at the 30-fathom line may at times be somewhat more muddy
than that in the neighbourhood of the Eddystone.

The Movements of the Water. 1. Wave Action. No satisfactory
method has yet been devised for measuring directly the amount of wave
action at various depths. There is, however, considerable evidence
to show that a certain amount makes itself felt on the grounds under
consideration, and that although the amount is small it is appreciably
different on the diff'erent grounds.

That the amount of wave action extending to the bottom is generally
slight is shown by the abundance of the hydroids Antennularia
antennina and Aglaophenia viyi'iophi/llum, which fix themselves in the
sand or fine gravel by a felt-work of root-fibres in such a way that they
would certainly be torn up by any violent movement of the water, and
on the fine sand grounds Cellaria is abundant fixed in a similar way.
On the gravel also to the west and south-west of the Eddystone the
ascidiau Polycarpa varians (Heller) is very plentiful, and is generally
attached only to the gravel itself, for nearly all the specimens which
come up in the dredge are found to have their bases covered with
pieces of gravel to which they are firmly fixed.

The distribution of Alcyonium digitatum (see p. 457), on the other
hand, seems to indicate that the amount of movement of the bottom
water is appreciably less on the grounds where the depth is greater than
33 fathoms than it is upon those from 28 to 33 fathoms.

376 ox THK FAUNA AND BOTTOM-DEPOSITS NEAR THE 30-FM. LINE

The evidence for considerable wave action is strongest on Grounds
XIA''. and XVI., immediately to the west of the Eddystone reef, where
it is probably increased by the rebound of the Atlantic swells from the
rocks. On Ground XVI. (see Charts) the bottom-deposit is a shell
gravel, which is remarkably clean and free from silt,* as will be seen
from the figures in Table II., p. 525, which shows the texture of the
samples taken from the different grounds. There is also on this ground
au almost entire absence of such species as fix directly to the bottom-
deposit.

The sample of the bottom-deposit on Ground XIV. (haul 85) is
unique amongst all the samples obtained, in having the fine sand grains
rounded and highly polished (see p. 385), and on this ground the
number of hydroids is also very small.

There is evidence (see p. 425) that Ground XIII., which lies south-
east of the reef, is more sheltered from wave disturbance than the
grounds to the westward of the Eddystone.

2. Currents and Tides. Practically nothing is at present known as to
the strength or even as to the prevailing direction of the bottom
currents of the Channel. It is well known, however, that the surface
currents are especially strong around the various headlands, and it
is probable that these will still be felt on the bottom. If this be so the
currents on the Bolt Head and Prawle Grounds may be more rapid than
those in the neighbourhood of the Eddystone.

Temperature. The Laboratory records of bottom temperatures at
depths of about 30 fathoms show a range from 7"1° C. (48° F.,
March, 1898) to 13-9° C. (571° F., Nov. 17th, 1898). The records at
this depth are not, however, very numerous, and the above observa-
tions probably do not quite represent the maximum and minimum
temperatures. The temperature changes very slowly, generally not
more than 1° C. in a month, and the total yearly range may be
safely put at about 7° or 8° C.

Pressure. The depth of water on all the grounds varies only from
25 to 35 fathoms, which represents a difference of pressure too slight to
affect the bottom animals.

Amount of liyht ivhich penetrates. This is sufficient only for the
lowest forms of vegetable life, such as diatoms, coccoliths, etc. Xone
of the branched red or brown sea-weeds are found on any of the
grounds.

* Wave action in itself would not of course be able to remove silt which had been
deposited ; it would, however, tend to keep the silt in suspension, so that it would be
carried away liy llio prevailing currents.

FROM THE EDDYSTONE GROUNDS TO START POINT. 377

Section IV.

THE BOTTOM-DEPOSITS.

The question of the changes in the nature of the fauna which take place
in shallow waters with changes in the character of the bottom-deposit
is one to which considerable attention has recently been paid. More
especially Marion (No. 74) in the Gulf of Marseilles, Petersen (No. 95)
in the Kattegat, Herdman (Nos. 40-44) in the Irish Sea, and Pruvot
(No. 98) in the Mediterranean and in Prittany have dealt specially
with the subject. At the instigation of these naturalists chemical
analyses of the bottom-deposits have been made and their geological
characters have been described.

In considering the relation between the nature of the bottom-deposit
and the fauna living upon it, the factor which appears to be of primary
importance is the texture of the deposit rather than its geological
character. This is fully recognised by the authors named, and it is a
point to which the attention of marine naturalists has always been
directed.

The terms rock, stone, gravel, coral or nullipore, shell, sand, fine sand,
mud, muddy gravel, muddy sand, etc., have generally been used to
express differences in the nature and texture of the deposits. These
designations are adopted from navigators, and are the terms used on
Admiralty and other charts to express the nature of the material
brought up on the tallow placed for the purpose at the end of the
ordinary sounding-lead. But a very slight study of the accounts of
dredgings given by various authors is sufficient to show that these
terms are used in very different senses by different individuals. The
term sand especially seems to be employed in a very broad sense to
include deposits having a wide range of texture. Several of the other
terms are also much confused.

After the present investigation had proceeded for some time it
seemed necessary that an attempt should be made to actually measure
the texture of the deposits found in different places, so that accurate
and consistent descriptions might be given. The readiest method of
doing this is to separate the particles of different sizes by means of a
series of sieves of standard meshes, and then to determine the percentage
of material of each size in the sample. Since my results were obtained
I have found that three or four of Petersen's samples were examined in
the same way, though, unfortunately, he does not give the numbers of
the hauls from which they were obtained, and it is impossible, therefore,
to discover the fauna connected with them.

378 ON THE FAUNA AND BOTTOM-DEPOSITS NEAR THE 30-FM. LINE

The method of procedure which has been adopted will now he
described.

Obtaining the Sam2)l€. In order to get a correct idea of the nature
of the deposit it is not sufficient to take a sample of so much of it as
happens to come up in the ordinary dredge. Samples obtained in this
way have lost much of the finer portions of the deposit, and generally
give a very incorrect idea of its nature. The samples, the composition
of which is here described, have always been taken with a moderate-
sized dredge (about 2 ft. 8 in. long),* fitted with a bag of stout canvas
inside the ordinary net. At the end of a haul of the ordinary dredge
it was our custom to steam back a little way over our course and then
work this dredge with the canvas bag, leaving it down only for two or
three minutes. In this way a good sample of the deposit was obtained,
and the haul often yielded interesting species not obtained in the usual
way of dredging.

Examination of Samples for Texture. The samples were brought back
to the Laboratory, and for their examination a series of sieves made of
zinc and with perforated zinc bottoms was employed, through which
the samples were washed. The sieves had a diameter of 15 centimetres
and six of them were used, the sizes of the (circular) perforations being
15 mm., 5 mm., 2*5 mm., 1"5 mm., 1 mm., and 0*5 mm.f The material
passing through the 0"5 mm. sieve was further subdivided into two
parts, one of which was regarded as fine sand and the other as silt.
This separation was made by stirring the material up with a considerable
quantity of sea-water, allowing it to settle for one minute, and then
pouring the water off. The process was generally repeated a second
time, the material remaining in suspension being regarded as silt, whilst
that which settled in one minute was regarded as fine sand.

In this way eight grades of material were obtained altogether, and
it was found that these could conveniently be distinguished by the
following nomenclature : —

I. Stones. All inorganic material which will not pass through
15 mm. sieve,
11. Coarse Gravel. Material left on 5 mm. sieve.

III. Medium Gravel „ „ 2-5 mm. „

IV. Fine Gravel „ „ 1*5 mm. „
V. Coarse Sand „ „ 1 mm. „

VI. Medium Sand ,, „ 05 mm. „

• The size of the dredge is important, as a smaller and lighter one would probably not
dig so deeply into the deposit. A strong net is retained outside the canvas bag in order
to take some of tlic strain when the dredge is brought up.

t Perforated zinc with holes of these diameters can be oljtained from Messrs. J.
Stauiar & Co., Manchester Wire Works, Manchester.

FROM TBE EDDYSTONE GROUNDS TO START POINT. 379

VIT. Fine Sand. Material which passes through O'o mm. sieve
and when stirred up with sea-water settles in one
minute.
VIII. Silt, liemaius in suspension at the end of one minute.

The designations here adopted seem to agree very well with the ideas
generally connected with the respective terms, and it would be a great
advantage if these terms could in future be used in the exact senses
proposed.

In determining the texture of a sample by the use of a series of
sieves it is necessary, in order to obtain constant results, that a con-
siderable quantity of material be examined, especially in the case of
coarse and mixed deposits. My practice was to sieve the quantity
which was contained in a bottle of about 800 cc. capacity.

After trials of various methods the following was adopted as the
readiest and most convenient way of obtaining satisfactory results.
The finest sieve was placed in a vessel somewhat larger and deeper
than itself, so large in fact that the sieve could be conveniently worked
about with the hand. Sea-water was then poured into the surrounding
vessel until the sieve, standing in it, was nearly full. Small portions
of the sample were placed in the sieve and worked about until all the
fine sand and silt were washed out. In the case of very muddy samples
the process was repeated in a second quantity of water. The portion
remaining on the sieve was washed through the other five sieves
successively in a similar way, commencing with that of largest mesh.

The mixture of fine sand and silt was separated by stirring it up well
in the sea-water, allowing it to stand for one minute, and then pouring
the water off. Where two washing waters had been used, the second,
with its contents, was poured on to the first sample of fine sand,
the whole stirred up again, left to stand one minute, and the water
poured off. The water in which the silt was suspended was allowed
to settle for at least twenty-four hours and the clear portion then
drawn off. The remainder was passed through a weighed filter paper
and the silt collected.

The samples of gravel and sand on the various sieves and of silt on
the filter paper were all dried at a low temperature and weighed, the
results being expressed as percentages of the total weight. The tex-
tures of the various samples examined are shown in Table II., p. 525.
One of the most curious features brought out by this method of
examination of the texture of the bottom-deposits is the fact that nearly
every sample of the coarser deposits is composed of a mixture of coarse
gravel and fine sand or mud, material of intermediate texture being
present in small quantity only. Thus sample 84 is a mixture of coarse

380 ON THE FAUNA AND BOTTOM-DEPOSITS NEAR THE SO-FM. LINE

gravel (47'6 per cent.) with fine sand (177 per cent.), and a little silt
(2'8 per cent.), the intermediate grades of gravel and sand being small.
Sample 103 is a mixture of gravel with mud, the proportion of silt here
rising to 17 per cent,, with only 10 per cent, of fine sand, the highest
percentage of silt in any sample examined from these grounds.

For comparison with the figures in the table I have given in the last
column the texture of a sample of fine, sticky mud from Plymouth
Sound, which contains 70 per cent, of fine sand to 244 per cent, of silt.

Tlic Organic Constituents of the Bottom-deposits. Mr. Worth reports
below on the relative amounts of organic carbonate of lime contained
in the different samples. The organic constituents from which this
carbonate of lime is derived consist, on the grounds under investigation,
almost entirely of the remains of molluscs, echinoderms, serpulids, and
polyzoa, and there is no example on the whole area of a " nullipore "
ground. It is especially noticeable in Grades II. and III. that the shell
material is composed very largely of entire small shells of lamelli-
branchs or of fragments of such small shells, and not of broken pieces
of large shells. Many of these shells show the clean circular perfora-
tion, such as is produced by the boring gasteropods.

Sponge spicules are abundant in the finer grades.

The Silt. Although constituting only a small percentage of the whole
material forming the bottom-deposit on the grounds included in the
present investigation, the silt is of great importance from the biological
point of view, since many animals living on the grounds obtain their
food by passing it through the alimentary canal and extracting such
nourishment as it contains. The silt from a freshly taken sample of
deposit, when shaken up with sea-water, forms a flocculent precipitate,
the greater part of which settles fairly rapidly. On the other hand,
when shaken up with fresh-water, a great deal of it remains in sus-
pension for a long time, and the water may have a muddy appearance
for several days.

Microscopical examination of the fresh silt shows that a very con-
siderable portion of it is of organic origin, and the analysis and
examination of dried samples confirm this {cf. p. 386). Diatoms are
very numerous as well as foraminifera (for species recognised see
p. 442), and Coccoliths are invariably present in very considerable
numbers.

Attention has recently been drawn to the presence of Coccoliths in
our coastal waters by Joly and Dixon (No. 57), who found them in
the precipitate obtained by treating a quantity of sea-water in a centri-
fugal apparatus revolving at a high rate of speed. They had, however,
been found by Behrens (No. 6) in samples of bottom-deposit from the
Baltic as long ago as 1873.

FROM THE EDDYSTONE GROUNDS TO START POINT. 381

Coccoliths can be readily obtained in large numbers by shaking up
a small quantity of bottom-deposit with sea-water, pouring off the
muddy water, and allowing it to settle. I have found them to be much
more numerous in samples taken from below 15 fathoms than in those
obtained from the shallow waters of Plymouth Sound, although a few
can generally be found in the latter. These organisms must now there-
fore be regarded as very abundant in the sea, and their importance in
the economy of many marine animals must be great, since they furnish
a source of food-supply containing carbonate of lime.

Determination of the Amount of Carbonate of Lime in the

SAMPLES OF Bottom-deposit, and Description of their

Geological Features. By E. H. Worth.

" 1. Average Grade of Sample. — The sands and gravels had already been
sieved and graded before their examinations for geological purposes and for
the determination of carbonate of lime. It appeared evident, however, that as
a ready means of determining the relative texture of a whole sample it would
be necessary to compress the information contained in the table which gives
the percentage of each grade in each sample (Table II., p. 525).

" The method adopted is founded on the determination of the average grade
of the whole sample. The figures I., II., III., etc., having reference to grades
left in a sieve of 15 mm., 5 mm., 2*5 mm., etc., are purely conventional, but
may be conveniently adopted for the purpose of shortly stating the average
grade of any sample. The actual method followed was to multiply each per-
centage in the table by the conventional number attached to its grade, add
together all the figures so obtained, and divide by 100 ; the result has been
described as the ' average grade ' of each sample, and affords a ready means
of comparing the texture of any two deposits. Close comparison still of
necessity requires a reference to the detail on which this average is based.
As an instance of the method the determination of the ' average grade ' of
sample 83 is appended : —

I.

Stones ....

0-00x1= 0-0

II.

Coarse gravel

27-9 X 2 = 55-8

III.

Medium gravel .

28-3x3 = 84-9

IV.

Fine gravel

14-1x4 = 56-4

V.

Coarse sand

6-0x5 = 300

VI.

]\Iedium sand

7-3x6 = 43-8

VII.

Fine sand ....

8-3x7-58-1

VIII.

Silt

8-2x8 = 65-6

394-6-^-100 =
3 946, the 'average grade' of sample 83.

"Averaged in this manner the samples fall naturally into two divisions; the
one division lies between the grades 3-6 and 4 "6, and the (>thcr between the

NEW SEKIES. — VOL. V. NO. 4. 2 C

382 ON THE FAUNA AND BOTTOM-DEPOSITS NEAR THE 30-FM. LINE

grailes G'3 and 7"0, the lower numbers corresponding to the coarser and the
higher to tlie finer textures.

"Grade VII.— the 'fine sand' — varies considerably in the different samples.
Its coarser forms approximate in some few samples to a sand the individual
grains of which are none greatly under "5 mm. in diameter. Its finer forms
in some samples have but few grains of these dimensions, as compared with
a great number of grains approximating to the ' silt.'

" 2. Carbonate of Lime. — Care was taken to ascertain how far any results
of chemical determination might be invalidated by the presence of inorganic
carbonate of lime in the rock fragments. The result of inquiry proved that
practically no lime existed in the rock fragments which was soluble in cold
dilute hydrochloric acid. All carbonate of lime so soluble is in these samples
of organic origin.

" In the finer grades below III. carbonate of lime was determined by treat-
ing each sample with dilute hydrochloric acid, filtering, neutralising the filtrate
with ammonia and again filtering, precipitating the lime with ammonium
carbonate [(NH^)oC03], filtering, washing precipitate, drying and weighing
as carbonate of lime.

"In grades I., II., and III. the shells, shell fragments, etc., were picked out
by hand and weighed.

"Tables III. and IV., p. 526, give the results thus obtained.

" A feature of these results is the low percentage of CaCog in the fine
texture deposits, having an average grade of 6"4 to 7 0. In Table V., p. 528, the
samples are arranged in order of their average textures and the total percentage
of CaCog set opposite each sample.

" The coarse samples are not, perhaps, uniformly high in their percentage of
carbonate (94 is a notable exception), nor are the fine samples uniformly low,
89 B and 109 being the exceptions, but on averages the general figure for the fine
textures falls much below that for the coarse. Another noticeable fact is that
the percentage of carbonate of lime found in the finer sands of each sample
shows a distinct tendency to follow the total amount of carbonate of lime
present in the gravel and coarse sand of the same samples (again with the
exceptions of 89B and 109, which are evidently detrital matter from adjacent
shelly grounds).

" This points to the fact that most of the carbonate of lime in the fine sands
is detrital matter from shell fragments, etc., in the gravels and coarse sands,
and microscopic examination confirms this.

"The percentage of carbonate of lime in the silts is comparatively low, with
the exception of silt 109. It apparently follows no definite rule, beyond
a mere tendency to be somewhat higher in silts where the whole sample
is rich. There is less variation between different samples in the matter of
percentage of carbonate of lime in the silts than in any other feature,

" An attempt might be made to explain the poverty of the silts in carbonate
by the fact that once shell fragments are ground sufficiently fine to pass into
this grade they present so much surface area in proportion to their solid
capacity as to fall an easy prey to the solvent action of sea-water.

FROM THE EDDYSTONE GROUNDS TO START POINT. 383

" 3. Rock Fragments and Sand Grains. — Grades I., II., and III. were
examined and the rock fragments identified. Advantage was taken of the
search for foraminifera to examine tlie sand grains in grades VI. and VII., and
the residues from the acid solutions after dissolving out the carbonate of lime
have also been examined.

"There are three clearly defined geological areas represented by these
samples.

"The first, represented by a single dredging only, occurs at 90 (Ground V.),
to the north-east of the Eddystone and south of Rame Head. Here the
rock fragments are almost entirely Devonian in character, the gravel consisting
of fragments of slate and quartz from veins in slate, closely resembling the
rocks of Penlee Point. A little Trias occurs.

"The second area covers the whole of the rest of the samples examined
from the Eddystone neighbourhood. This may be called the Triassic area.
The prevailing rock fragments are the detritus of Triassic rocks ; mottled
sandstones, red jaspideous sandstones, micaceous sandstones, and drab sand-
stones. This must be taken as an indication and not an exhaustive definition
of the nature of the rocks. In consequence of the presence of these rocks
the bottom-deposits contain a great amount of free crystalline silica and a
considerable amount of iron. Associated with the Trias are some Devonian
rocks, but the amount of these present is comparatively small, rarely rising
above 15 per cent, and never reaching 16 per cent. Fragments of the
Eddystone gneiss also occur, but in small quantity except in the immediate
neighbourhood of the reef.

"The third area is represented by samples 105 and lOG (Ground XVII.)
from the neighbourhood of the Bolt. This may be described as the ' Archean
Schist ' area. The rock fragments are largely derived from mica and chlorite
schists, similar to or the same as those forming the promontory of the Bolts.
In 105, II., the Archean schists form 78-75 per cent, of the whole rock
fragments, Flint pebbles form 12-74 percent., and Triassic rocks 8-51 percent.
The Prawle Stony Ground (XVIII.) corresponds geologically to 105.

"Further south, at the point at which 106 was dredged, the Archean falls
to 48-90 per cent, and the Flint rises to 40-44 per cent., apparently indicating
the proximity of a cretaceous area. Trias is still present as 10-66 per cent.

"These Archean rocks are referred to in 'The Rocks of South-west
Devon,' R. N. Worth, Devonshire Association Transactions, 1887, as well as
elsewhere in the same Transactions 1)y other writers.

" Briefiy stated the geological results are as follows : —

" It is almost certain that the gneiss and granitoid rocks which constitute
the summit of the Eddystone reef are restricted in area of exposure to little
more than the summit and a portion of the sloping sides of the reef. It
is only at 87 that the gneiss preponderates over all other rock constituents
in the gravel, and here in 87, III., it reaches 74-07 per cent, of the
total rock constituents. This is on tlie immediate western fringe of the reef.

"At 85, a little west of 87, the gneiss forms 25 per cent, of the rock
constituents, and at 103, south-east of the reef, it forms 26 per cent.

:"58-4 ON THE FAUNA AND BOTTOM-DEPOSITS NEAR THE 30-FM. LINE

"The presence of the Trias is not surprising. The probable existence of
submarine Trias between the Lizard and Plymouth had already been
suggested by E. N. Worth, who, in 1886, reported the existence of a sub-
marine Triassic outlier, having its centre about ten miles south-east of the
Lizard. (Quart. Join: Geol. Soc, Aug., 1886.)

" But although not altogether unexpected, this Trias of the Eddystone
neighbourhood is now reported for the first time, and deserves more detailed
and lengthy description than would be appropriate to the objects of the
present investigation. For present purposes it will be sufficient to state that
the nearest shore exposures of rocks of similar formation occur at Oddicoml^e
Beach, St. Mary Church, again at a point immediately to the west of the Bolt,
and lastly, on either shore of Plymouth Sound, in Cawsand Bay and to the
south of Bovisand respectively.

"The presence of the iron of the Trias has apparently had its effect on the
foraminifera, for some of the Miliolina especially present an unusually
ferruginous appearance.

"Among the Eddystone gravels were found scattered fragments of
amorphous silica, insufficient in number or weight to affect numerical results.
These were mostly regarded as Triassic before the Bolt examples had been
examined. Such an identification was justified by the known existence of
veins of calcedony in the submarine Trias off the Lizard. Their absolute
identification is still problematic. Not so, however, with the flint gravel
from the Bolt district. This, although much affected by the solvent action of
the sea-water, is still recognisable as flint, and possibly more exact information
may on further examination be derived from some of the apparent fossils
which have survived the solvent action of the water. It is interesting to note
the extent to which this solution has been carried. The outside of practically
every flint pebble has been converted by it into a microscopic honeycomb,
and only the larger fragments have any core of unaffected silica remaining.
The crystalline quartz grains of the Trias, on the other hand, have resisted
the chemical action of the water.

"The sands are interesting as giving evidence of the relative degree to
which Avave action has affected the sea-bottom. It may seem a truism to
suggest that a fine -grade sample may owe its fineness of textures either to
the presence of a large quantity of fine sand or to the absence of all but a
small proportion of coarser gravel. The two causes are, however, quite
distinct, and cither may act alone or both in conjunction.

" The dredgings in the Eddystone neighbourhood are not perhaps so many
or so scattered as might be desired for this discussion, the objective having
been rather zoological than geological. None the less, it is interesting to note
the relative positions of the fine textures an<l the coarse textures. With one
exception the fine textures occur at some considerable distance from the reef,
while the coarse textures are clustered around the reef or around the Hand
Deep.s. The exception as to a fine texture occurring near the reef is in the
case of dredging 89J>, taken from the centre of the channel between the Hand
Deeps and the Eddystone reef.

FROM THE EDDYSTONE GROUNDS TO START POINT. 385

"Dredging 85 is remarkable for the manner in which the quartz grains
have been rounded and polished, and also for the extremely coarse texture
of the 'fine sand,' VII. As has been pointed out, this grade may either have
a maximum coarseness, in whicli all the grains are of such size as to barely
pass through the 0*5 mm. mesh, or may approximate to silt. In the present
instance the maximum coarseness is closely approximated. (The actual silt
only forms 0-6 per cent, of the whole sample.) The greater portion of the
sample is almost uniformly distrilnited between III., IV., V., and VI., a
feature which does not recur. The average grade is 4'597, or almost a mean
between IV. and V. The conditions at this point, therefore, are unfavourable
to the existence of either coarse gravel or fine sand ; of the first, it is
suggested, because the strong wave actions breaks up all large particles, of
the second, because the same action will not allow small particles to settle.
Add to this the rounded and polished quartz grains, grains rounded as they
are practically never found on any beach, and almost every individual grain so
polished, and the conclusion should apparently be that here is a centre of
wave action. And yet it lies below the 30-fathom line. But at the same
time it lies under and to the westward of the Eddystone reef, which, rising
above low- water, meets and breaks the south-west Channel seas.

" The sudden check to the great Channel rollers can certainly not be effected
without the accompanying creation of intense currents in the neighbouring
depths, and these it is that must be looked to as providing the necessary
abrading forces. That these forces only operate at intervals may be gathered
from the occurrence in this storm-washed sand of fair-sized specimens of
Rotalia beccarii and Miliolina seminulum. The more delicate foraminifera
are, however, conspicuously absent.

" The sand grains at 87 also show a similar but not equally finished polish.
This point, however, lies further to the north of the highest point of the
reef. To the north-west of the Eddystone the Hand Deeps also take a share
in arresting and converting the surface-wave motion.

" Between the reef and the Hand Deeps the back-wash, refiux currents or
arrested and converted wave motion have scooped and maintain a channel,
represented by the incurve of the 30-fathom line on the chart. All around
the margin of this area there is evidence of wash, which must result in the
formation of a considerable amount of fine detrital matter, and this not being
able to settle when formed is constrained to collect in the (piieter but still
disturbed waters of the centre of the channel and forms the deposit at 89B,
56-S per cent, of which is fine sand, a line texture, but not comparable with,
say, 92, which lies well clear of the reef and has 90 9 per cent, of fine sand,
or with 102, 91, and 104, with 85-4 per cent., 82-7 per cent., and 95-8 per
cent, of fine sand respectively. It is, however, more nearly comparaljle with
90, which lies at the northern extreme of the eastern Eddystone channel and
has 68 8 per cent, of fine sand. Dredging 89B also difi'ers from all the other
fine texture sands in having a large percentage (29-2 per cent.) of medium
sand.

" The conclusion which apparently follows these considerations is that the

386 ON THE FAUNA AND BOTTOM-DEPOSITS NEAR THE 30-FM. LINE

deposits around the Eddystone reef owe their coarse texture, in part at least,
to the intense wave action which prevents the accumuhition of the hner
particles, in part to the same intenser action which provides additional coarse
particles at the expense of the neighbouring submerged rock surfaces.

"The finer deposits elsewhere are in more quiescent localities, with no
abrupt changes in the levels of the bottom to deflect the surface waves.

" 105 and 106 (Ground XVII.) are subject to totally different geological
and other conditions, and more drcdgings from their locality would be
necessary to fully appreciate the circumstances affecting them.

" It is to be noted that no rock fragments occur Avhich must have
necessarily, or have even probably, been drifted from the neighbouring shores,
guarding, however, the case of 105 and lOG, in which it is none the less quite
possible and even probable that the Archean schists underlie the gravels in
which they occur.

" Three of the samples of silt have been approximately analysed, with the

result set out in the following table. The results should be accurate to the

nearest 0-25 per cent.

Analysis of Silts.

83 94 103

Loss on Ignition.

Bunsen . ll-50|oArn 12-00)oArA 12-50) „, ^.^

Blowpipe . Q.OOpO-^^ ■•■ 8.50}2^-"^<^ - S-bO^^-^^

SiOa . . 42-35 ... 35-42 ... 41-56

AI2O3 . . 10-18 ... 9-64 ... 7-53

FcgOg . . 9-29 ... 7-70 ... 8-00

CaO' . . 13-67 ... 17-60 ... 12-69

MgO . Heavy trace Heavy trace Heavy trace

Undetermined 4-01 ... 9.14 ... 9-22

" It is apparent that the CaO obtained in these analyses is more than can

be accounted for by the organic CaCOg, the figures being :

CaO in present analysis, CaO equivalent to organic

per cent. CaC03, per cent.

83 . . . 13-67 ... 9-24

94 . . . 17-60 ... 10-45

103 . . . 12-69 ... 11-85

" On the other hand, the loss on ignition before blowpipe after previous
ignition over bunsen appears to roughly represent the COg in the organic
carbonate of lime. Thus :

Additional loss on ignition over CO2 in CaCOj, per cent.

blowpipe, per cent.

83 . . . 9-00 ... 7-26

94 . . . 8-50 ... • 8-21

103 . . . 8-50 ... 9-31

"The loss on ignition has accordingly been given in two figures, of which
the figure for loss over bunsen fairly represents the more volatile substances
and organic matter.

FROM THE EDDYSTONE GROUNDS TO START POINT. 387

"Under the head of 'undetermined' must be classed the alkalies, any-
slight traces of metallic oxides, and a small residue of COg left after ignition,

"All the samples were fairly thoroughly washed before analysis to remove
salts derived from sea-water, and were desiccated before ignition."

Section V.
DESCKIPTION OF THE GROUNDS INVESTIGATED.

The grounds from the Eddystone to Start Point lying in the neigh-
bourhood of the 30-fathom line fall naturally into four groups. The
grounds around the Eddystone rocks, comprised within a circle of
about four miles radius, having the lighthouse for its centre, are for
the most part coarse grounds, with bottom-deposits of gravel or broken
shell mixed with more or less mud or fine sand. Towards the outer
limit of the circle the deposits become more and more sandy in nature.
These grounds will be referred to in a general way as the Eddystone
Grounds. (See Chart I.) South of Bolt Head the bottom-deposit is
broken shell-gravel, and the ground here will be named the Bolt Head
Shell-gravel Ground. (Chart I., Ground XVII.) Between the Eddystone
Grounds and the Bolt Head Shell-gravel is a stretch of fine sand, the
Eddjjstone Trawling Ground, the inner or northern portion of which
will be distinguished as the Inner Eddystone Trawling Ground, the
outer or southern portion as the Outer Eddystone Trawling Ground.
(Chart I., Grounds I. and II.). Between Prawle Point and the Start
is a patch of ground with many stones, the Prawle Stony Ground.
(Chart I., Ground XVIII.)

The lists of species living on the various grounds will be arranged
according to zoological groups, but in the description of the fauna of
each ground, which precedes the list, the species will be grouped
according to their general habit, the following kinds being dis-
tinguished : —

1. Burrowing species.

2. Fixed and clinging species.

3. Wandering or free species.

Associated species will in all cases be ranged with their hosts, the
host being, in the case of fixed and burrowing animals, the one most
intimately connected with the bottom-deposit, in the case of wandering
species, the one having the greater powers of locomotion. It will
be found that the burrowing and fixed species, with their associates,
are the most restricted in distribution by the nature of the bottom-
deposit, whilst the wandering species may exist upon bottoms of many

388 ON THE FAUNA AND BOTTOM-DEPOSITS NEAR THE 30-FM. LINE

different textures, wlien the deposit is once sufficiently firm to support
their weight. The distribution of the wandering species will therefore
depend, under the same conditions of temperature, water-movement,
etc., chiefiy upon the presence of a suitable food -supply and the
absence of enemies.

In considering the geographical distribution of marine animals
Forbes introduced the idea of a specific centre, by which he meant
the locality, named also the metropolis of the species, where the
species flourished in large numbers, and he showed that as one passed
away from this locality the species became less and less abundant,
until it finally disappeared. In what follows I think I have been
able to show that the facts with regard to the local distribution of
species are of a very similar kind. Many instances will be given
of a species being specially abundant upon one particular patch of
ground, where the nature of the bottom-deposit or some other physical
condition is specially suited to its requirements, and in almost every
case of this kind it will be found that the species is taken in smaller
numbers on all the immediately surrounding grounds, even though the
general nature of the fauna and of the bottom-deposit of the latter
grounds may be very different. In this way the fauna of any particular
ground depends not only on the nature of the ground itself, and the
physical conditions to which it is subject, but also to a greater or less
extent upon the predominant fauna on neighbouring grounds, which
in its turn depends upon the physical conditions there existing.

In the descriptions of the grounds, places where a species is especially
abundant will be referred to as centres of distribution of the species,
and such centres will be spoken of as influencing the fauna of sur-
rounding grounds.

The numbers of the different grounds have been arranged according
to the texture and general character of the bottom-deposit. Grounds I.
to VIII. are all fine sand grounds, of which I., II., and III. show the
fine sand fauna in its most typical forms. Grounds IX. to XIII. are
coarse gravels mixed with sand or mud, of which IX. is the most
typical. Grounds XIV. and XV. are fine gravel, of which XIV. is
typical. Grounds XVI. and XVII. are clean broken-shell gravel, and
Ground XVIII. is stony. In order to understand the nature of the
fauna on many of the intermediate grounds, it is necessary that
acquaintance should be first made with that of the various typical
grounds.

For a list of the individual hauls see Table I., p. 521.

. 0-2

per

cent

. 0-8

)>

. 4-8

»

. 90-9

)>

. 3-4

11

FROM THE EDDYSTONE GROUNDS TO START POINT. 389

Ground I. The Inner Eddystone Trawling Grouisd.

Fiends. 50 (Dr.),* 51 (Dr.), 81 (B.-tr.), 82 (B.-tr.), 92 (O.-tr. and
C.-dr.). The approximate limits of this ground are, on the north the
28-fathom line, south the 33-fathom line, west the Eddystone Grounds
(comprised iu a circle of four miles radius, with the lighthouse as
centre), and east, a line drawn north and south about nine miles east
of the Eddystone. (Chart I., Ground I.)

Bottom-deposit. Fine sand. The texture in haul 92 was found

to be : —

IV. Fine Gravel

V. Coarse Sand

VI. Medium Sand ...

VI r. Fine Sand

Vlll. Silt

[92. Average gYade of sample, 6071. Percentage of carbonate of
lime in whole sample, 17'41. Highest percentage occurs in iV., which
contains 82-43 per cent, but this and V., containing 74'40 per cent.,
may be passed over as constituting but a small portion of the whole
sample. VI. contains 58'00 per cent. A tine-textured deposit owing its
low percentage of carbonate of lime to the fact that VII., which forms
90'9 per cent, of whole sample, only contains 14"63 per cent, of CaCog.

Triassic material is largely present, some Devonian and no Eddystone
reef.

Foraminifera are fairly plentiful. The following are the species
present in VI. and VII,, arranged in order of frequency : — Botalia
hecearii (greatly predominant), Miliolina seminulum, Iruncatidina
lobatida, Textularia f/rarnen, Bidimina inqwidcs, Discorhina rosacea,
Bolivina punctata, Miliolina hicornis (reticulate variety). In all eight
species. — R. H. W.]

Unbroken shells were scarce, with the exception of Cardium echin-
atuni shells.

B\Lrrowing species. Astropectcn irregularis, Cardium echinatnm,,] and
Dcntalium cntale are the common burrowing forms on this ground.
Corystes cassivelaunus was present in haul 92 only, where, however,
it was plentiful. {Cf. p. 397.)

Fioxd species. The fact that few shells are present causes iixed
species to be scarce. Ccllaria Jistulosa and sinuosa are moderately

• Dr. = Drcdge. B.-tr. = Beam-trawl. O.-tr. = Otter-trawl. C.-dr. ^Drctl^e fitted with
canvas bag.

t The presence of Cardmm echinatum on this ground and in the lino sand of the outer
trawling-ground is inferred from the fact that fresh valves, often still joined together, are
a constant feature of the hauls, and are the only shells at all [)lentiful. The species is
known {cf p. 500) to be a sand-dwelling one.

390 ON THE FAUNA AND BOTTOM-DEPOSITS NEAP. THE 30-1'M. LINE

abundant, fixed iu the sand by their root-fibres; Antennularia antennina
and ramosa are fairly common, fixed in the sand by "sponge-like masses
of interlacing fibres" (Hincks) ; whilst jhjlaophenia myriophyllMu, fixed
iu a similar way, also occurs, though not frequently.

The tubes of the polychaite Thclejms (cincinnatus?) serve as an attach-
ment for the hydroid Scrtularclla Gayi, which is the commonest and
most typical hydroid on the ground, whilst to the base of the hydroid
Ascidiclla scabra and Sabella pavonina, are attached. Seriularella poly-
zonias, Eudendrhiin ramosum, Boitgainvillia ramosa, Ohelia dichotoma,
and Clytia Johnstoni also occur attached to other hydroids, or to poly-
chaete tubes. Halccium halccinum and //. Beanii are represented
by one or two colonies only in a haul, or are entirely absent, and
H. halecimim, at any rate, must be regarded as an immigrant from
coarser ground.

Stray tubes of Chaetopterus variopcdatus were taken in hauls 82 and
92 only, and are also clearly immigrants from neighbouring grounds.

Of the other fixed species Alcyonium digitatum only occurs in
moderate quantity, and the colonies, generally attached to Cardium
cchinatum shells, are small. Epizoanthus incrustatus, which forms a
feature of the outer trawling-ground (Ground II.), has never been
taken on the inner. The polyzoa Bicellaria ciliata, Scrupocellaria
scruposa, and Cellepora aviaUaris are found attached to hydroids, but,
owing to the absence of shells, there are few incrusting polyzoa.

Wandering species. Owing in all probability to the scarcity of fixed
and burrowing forms to serve as a food-supply, the number of wander-
ing species is also small.

Pecten opercularis is scarce, and Astericcs ruhens and A. glacialis,
which generally are found feeding on the Pecten on neighbouring
grounds, are never present in numbers. There are usually a few
Ophiura ciliaris, but Opliiothrix fragilis is only represented by small
specimens at the roots of Cellaria or hydroids. Palmipes placenta
was taken in one haul only (82).

Eupagurus Bernhardtis (with Sagartia ^:)«?'«si^zca or Hydr actinia
echinata on the Buccinum undatum shells which they inhabit), Galatliea
dispersa and Porcellana longicornis are the only Decapod Crustacea which
can be considered common on this ground. There are a few examples
only of Sfenorhynchus longirostris and Inachus dorsettensis, which live
amongst the hydroids, whilst Maia squinado and Eiirynome aspera were
taken twice.

The fish fauna is characterised by the abundance of Arnoglossus
laterna, Zeus faber, Trigla pini, Trigla gurnardics, Callionymus lyra,
and Gohins Jeffreysi.

From the list of species it will be seen that haul 82 contains several

FROM THE EDDYSTONE GROUNDS TO START POINT.

391

stray specimens of species which are typical of coarser grounds than
the present. This suggests the presence of such grounds near it, and
it is not unlikely that they will be found on the unexplored area
between the present ground and the Bolt Head Shell-gravel, Ground
XVII. (See Chart I.)

List of Species. Ground I.

FORAMINIFEIIA.
Trinicatiilina lobatula. On Scrtularella
Gayi aud Cellaria.
Plentiful.

Clioiia celata.

PORIFEEA.

Boring Buccinum undatum
shell in 92.

Hydrozoa.
Hydractinia cchinata. On shells inliahited

by Eupaynrus
hardus.

Bern-

Eiidendriiira ramosuni.
Heterocordyle Conybeari. Oa Buccinum
widatiim shells.

Bougainvillia raniosa. Occasional large
colonies.

Clytia Johnstoni. On other hydroids.

Oljelia dicliotoma. Fairly common, grow-
ing on polychaete tubes
and other hydroids.

Campanularia Hincksii.

,, verticillata. Not frequent.

Lafoea dumosa, var. robusta. Not fre-
quent.
Lafoea fruticosa. In 81 only.
Cuspidella costata. On hydroids.

Coppinia arcta. On Lafoea dumosa, var.

rohusta.

Halecium haleciuum. Scarce. Small
colonics only.

Halecium Beanii. Somewhat more frequent
than H. halecinum.

Scrtularella Gayi. Not in large quantities,
but one of the most
abundant hydroids on
the ground.

Sertularella polyzonias. Not in large
quantity.

Diphasia rosacea. In 82 only.
Sertularia argentea. In 81 only.
Hydrallmania falcata. Not frequent.
Antennularia autennina. Plentiful.

,, ramosa. Less frequent than

A. antennina.

phe mjTiojihyllum. One or two
pieces in 82 and 92 only.

Plunuilaria Catharina. Ordinary ft)r)ii
and green variety in
82 only.

Alcvonium

ACTIXOZOA.

digitatum. Not

plentiful.
Generally on Cardiicm

echimUinn shells

Sagartia parasitica. On shell of Buccinum
undatum inhabited by
Eiqmgurus Bcrnhardus.
Not conmion.

ECHINODERMATA.

Astropecten irregularis. In every haul.
Solaster papposus. One in 92 only.

In 82 only.
Few only.

Palmipes placenta.
Asterias glacialis.

, , rubens.
Ojihiura ciliaris. Few only.

Ophiotlui.x fragilis. One or two small
ones only, at base of
hydroids and Cellaria.

Nemertina.
Carinella annulata.
Tetrastemma flavidum.

, , dorsale.

Linens bilineatus.

POLYCHAETA.

Lagisca propinqua.

,, rarisjiina.
Evarne impar.
Hermadion assimile. One in 92 only

recorded .
Acholoe astericola. Commensal with

Astropecten irrcgu laris.
Nereis pelagica. Recorded in .50 only.
Ghaetopterus variopcdatus. One tube in

82 and one in 92 only.

Nicolea venustula. One small one in 92.

Theleptis. Moderately plentifid.

Sabella (pavonina?). Generally at base of
Scrtularella Gayi.

Dasychone bomby.x. Several in 92.

Ilydroides pectinata. Generally on Buc-
cinum undatum shells,
inhabited by Hupagiinis
Bcrnhardus.

Crustacea.

liumarus vulgaris. Two specimens in 81
only.

392 ox THE FAUNA AND HOTTOM-DEI'OSITS NKAR THE 30-FJ\l. LINE

Eupagurus Bcnihaidus. In Bucciniim
undntiim sliolls, gener-
ally ■with Hydractinia
echina/a or Ucteroconlylc
Conybcari, less fre-
quently with Sagartia
parasitica. Shells some-
times covered with Scr-
pulids.

Porcellana longicornis.

Galathea dispersa.

Stenorhyuchus longirostris. A few only.

luachus dorsettensis. A few in 92 only.

Maia squinado. One or two specimens
in 82.

Hyas coarctatus. In 50 only.

Eurynome asjjcra. A few only taken.

Corystcs cassivelaunus. Many sjjcciniens
in 92 ; none in the other
hauls.

Atelecyclus heterodon. One or two speci-
mens in 82 only.

Scalpellum vulgare. At hase of stalk of
hydroids.

MOLLUSCA. Living.

Saxicava rugosa, var. arctica. Small free
form attached to shells
and hydroids. Scarce.
In 92 only.

Pecten opercnlaris. Small number only
of adult. Many small
ones on hydroids.

Chiton asellus. In 92 only on Lepralia
foliacca.

Dentalium entalis. Buried in sand.

Tritonia plebeia.

Dendronotus arborescens. ^

Doto fragilis. |

,, pinnatifida.

Cratena viridis.

Coryjihella Landsburgii.

Lamellidoris oblonga. On Ccllaria.

Loligo, sp. One or two small ones.

Shells.

/

On hydroids.

Cardium echinatum

Recent shells
numerous, sometimes
covered with Scrpulids,
or bearing colonics of
Alcyonixim or hydroids
(Scrtularella and llalc-
cium). Genera]]}' free
from iucrustiiig I'olyzoa.
On one shell Mcmhrani-
pora Dumerilii was
growing on the outer
side and llippothoa
divaricata on the inner.

Buccinum nndatum. Inhabited by Eupa-
(jurus JJcrnhardus.

POLYZOA.

Ccllaria sinuosa. ) In considerable
listulosa. ) quantity.

Scrupocellaria scruposa. Small quantity
only.

Bicellaria ciliata. Small quantity only.

Cellepora avicularis. On hydroids.

jMembranipora Dumerilii. On outer side
of a Cardium echinatum
shell in 51.

Hippothoa divaricata. On inner side of
Cardium echinatum,
shell in 51.

Lepralia foliacca. One piece (dead ?) in
92 only, on which were
fixed Serpulids, Ascidi-
ella scahra, Chiton asel-
lus, and
polyzoa.

Schizoporclla linearis. \

,, auriculata.

Porella concinna.
Mucronclla ventrieosa.
Diastoi)ora patina.
Lichenopora hispida.
Pedicellina cernua.

encrusting

In 92 onlygrow-
►•ing on Lepralia
foliacea.

TUNICATA.

Polycarpa varians. Small specimens on a
Buccinum shell in 92
only.

Ascidiella scabra. Attached to base of
hydroids.

Fishes.
Arnoglossuslaterna {Scaldback). Plentiful.
Gadus minutus. Three specimens in haul
92 only.

Merluccius vulgaris {Hake). One in 92
only.

Capros aper (Cuckoo).

Zeus falwr {John JJory). Six specimens in

haul 81.
Trigla pini {Red gurnard). A few in each

haul.
Tvig\iign\\\a.\-i\\\s{Grcy gurnard). Plentiful.
,, hirundo {Tub gurnard). One in 81

only.

Callionynuis lyra {Dragonet). A few
specimens.

Gobius Jeflreysi {Jeffreys' Goby). Numer-
ous amongst C'cZZa?7'a,&c.

Scyllium canicula {Rough dog). One small
one in 81.

Raia clavata {Thornback). One in 81.

V.

Coarse Sand

VI.

Medium Sand

VII.

Fine Sand

VIII.

Silt

FKOM THE EDDYSTONE GROUNDS TO START POINT, 393

Ground II. The Outer Eddystone Trawling Ground.

Hauls. 22 (O.-tr.), 23 (O.-tr.), 24 (O.-tr.), 25 (Dr.), and 104 (B.-tr.
and C.-dr.). The outer trawling ground extends southward from the
33-fathom line (10 miles south of the Plymouth Mewstone), and hauls
have been made to about the 35-fathom line. The fine sand, however,
which forms its bottom-deposit extends for a long distance into the
Channel. The area examined during the present investigation lies
between the Eddystone Grounds on the west and a line similar to
that bounding the inner trawling ground on the east.

Bottom-deposit. As will be seen from Table II., this is the finest sand
ground examined. The composition in haul 104 was found to be: —

IV, Fine Gravel ... ... ... O'l per cent.

0-2 „

2-1 „
95-8
1-9 „

[104. Average grade of sample, 6'998. Percentage of carbonate of
lime in whole sample, 15'80. The following are the species of Forami-
nifera present in Grades VI. and VII., arranged in order of frequency : —
llotalia heccarii, Miliolina scminidum, Truncatulina lohcdula, Planorhu-
lina meditcrranensis, Discorhina rosacea^ Textidaria gramen, Miliolina
trigomda. E, H. W.].

Unbroken shells were scarce, with the exception of Cardium echinatum
shells. The ground is very barren, and all the five hauls made on it
yielded comparatively few specimens. The fauna is, however, well
characterised, and has many invariable and distinguishing features,
which mark it out from all the other grounds.

Burrowing species. Astropecten irregularis, Cardiuvi echinatum,^' and
Nucula nitida are the commonest species. Corystes cassivelaunus, a
characteristic fine sand species, was only represented by one specimen
in haul 22. Echinocardium cordatum and Echinocyamus pusillus were
present in 104. The absence of Dentalium from the sand in the
sample taken at haul 104 is noteworthy.

Fixed species. As on Ground I., these are scarce owing to the scarcity
of shells. The absence of species which fix themselves in the sand by
a mass of root-fibres is noteworthy, this kind being represented by one
colony of Antennidaria antennina in haul 25, and by an occasional
piece of Cdlaria, both species of the latter genus being, however, very

* The evidence for the i)reseuce of this species is similar to tliat for its iircsence on
Ground I., viz., the constant capture of recent shells of the species and of shells of no
other kind.

394 ON THE FAUNA AND BOTTOM-DEPOSITS NEAR THE 30-FM. LINE

scarce. I imagine that the scarcity of species of this habit is due to
the fineness of the sand, and there are two ways in which this might
be detrimental. Either the general nature of the sand might be too
loose to afford a satisfactory hold, or the absence of larger particles
mixed with the fine sand might prevent the embryos from fixing in
their earliest stage. A comparison of the composition of the sand
on this ground with that on Ground I. shows that they differ in two
ways. There is a smaller percentage of medium and coarse sand on
Ground II., but at the same time there is a somewhat smaller propor-
tion of silt. The first of these differences might make it more difficult
for the embryos to fix, whilst the second might tend to make the sand-
particles bind together somewhat less firmly.

Of the other fixed species Sertularella Gayi is not uncommon, fixed
generally, as on the inner trawling ground, to the tube of the polychajte
Thclejnis (cincinnatus ?), and the abundance of Sertularia ahidina, which
is not present on the inner ground nor on the Eddystone Grounds,
is a characteristic feature. I have not satisfied myself as to the mode
of attachment of this species on the present ground, the specimens
examined for this purpose not having afforded evidence on the point.
On the Sertularia the creeping variety of Lofoea dnmosa and the
hydroid Coppinia arda are plentiful, as well as a species of Foraminifera
{Trimcatulina lohatula) tubes of Sinrorhis and the Polyzoa Cellepora
avicularis, Cellepora ramulosa, and Idmonea serpens. Plinmdaria
Catharina is fairly plentiful on the ground, and as will be seen from
the list several other hydroids are occasionally taken.

Three other fixed species are characteristic of Ground 11., viz.,
Alcyonium digitatum, large colonies of which are abundant, fixed often
to Cardium ecliinatum shells ; Chondradinia digit ata, fixed to the same
kind of shells ; and Epizoanthus incrustatus in its free form (see
Haddon, No. 35, p. 638), which is constantly taken.

Ascidiella scahra attached to Sertularella Gayi was not plentiful,
whilst a few Ciona intestinalis fixed to shells are recorded. The few
shells which are present are generally free from encrusting Polyzoa.

Wandering sjyecies. Ophiura ciliaris is present in moderate numbers,
but only a few small specimens of Ophiothrix fragilis, clinging to the
roots of hydroids, were seen. Asterias ruhcns and A. glacialis were
often represented by large specimens. Of Crustaceans Galathea dispersa,
Eiqxigurus Bernhardus, and Anapagurtis Icevis were constantly taken,
together with occasional specimens of Stenorhynchus longirostris, Inachus
dorsettensis, and Eurynome aspera, A few fair-sized Pecten opercularis
were obtained in two of the hauls. Fishes were very scarce, the three
species represented being Trigla pini, Trigla gurnardus, and Baia
davata, of which only a few specimens were taken.

FEOM THE EDDYSTONE GROUNDS TO START POINT.

395

List of Species. Ground II.

FOKAMINIFEKA.

Truncatulina lobatula. Abundant on
Sertularia abietina.

POKIFERA.

Suberites domuncula. Large pieces on
Dentalium shell.

Hydrozoa.
Hydractinia echinata. On shells inhabited
by Eiipagurus Bcrnliur-
dus. Not plentiful.

Eudendiium raniosum. One colony 4 to 5
inches high in haul 22.
A fragment of the small
variety in 104.

Perigonimus repens. Fine colony in 104.

Bougainvillia ramosa. A large colony in
104 only.

Clytia Johnstoni. Common on other
hydroids.

Lafoea dumosa. Creeping variety only,
on Sertularia abidina.

Coppinia arcta. Common on Sertularia
abietina.

Sertularella Gayi. Not uncommon.

Sertularella polyzonias.

Sertularia abietina. In considerable
quantity. Very char-
acteristic of this ground.
Covered with SjJirorhis
and Truncatulina.

Diphasia attenuata. Small quantity only.
Hydrallmania falcata One or two pieces
in a haul.

Antennularia antennina. A colony in 25
only.

Plumularia pinnata. Two large, luxuriant
colonies with gonopliores
in 24 only.

Plumularia Catharina. Large colonies
moderately plentiful.

ACTINOZOA.

Sagartia parasitica, on shell of Buccinum
undatum, inhabited by
Eupagu rus Bcrnhardus.
Not common.

Chroudractinia digitata. Generally on
shells of Cardium cchi-
natum. A few speci-
mens only.

Epizoanthua incrustatus. iloderatcly
common. Not frc(|uent
on any of the other
grounds described in
this report.

Alcyonium digitatum. Large pieces
plentiful, often on Car-
dium echinatum shells,
sometimes on shells of
Buccinum undatum in-
habited by Eupagurus
Bernhardus.

ECHINODERMATA.

Asterias rubens. \Both species present.

glacialis./ Large specimens.
Liiidia Sarsi. One large specimen in 24.
Astropecten irregularis. Common.

Ophiura ciliaris Fairly common in 22

and 23, few or none in

other hauls.
Ophiothrix fragilis. One or two small

specimens only in each

haul.

Echinus acutus. Small specimens only

in 23.
Echinus miliaris. A few small.
Echinocardium cordatum. Two specimens

in 104.
Echinocyamus pusillus. In stomach of

A stropecten irregu laris.

Nemertixa.
Tetrastemma dorsale.

Polychaeta.
Lepidonotus squamatus. One in 104 only.
Lagisca propinqua.

Laenilla setosissima. One in 104 only.
Acholoe astericola. In ambulacral gi'oove
of Astropecten irregu-
laris.

Nereis procera. Several in 104 and 24.

Chaetopterusvariopedatus. One tube in 24.

Thelepus.

Sabella (pavonina ?). Few only.

Dasychone bomb3-x.

Hydroides pectinata. On Cardium echin-
atum and Buccinum
undatum shells.

Potamoceros triqueter. Few only.

Spirorbis sp. Abundant on Sertularia

abietina.

Crustacea.
Eupagurus Bernhardus. Common in
shell of Buccinum un-
datum.

Anapagurus laevis. Common in Natica
shells.

Galathea disjiersa. Numerous amongst
the hydroids.

39(1 ON THE FAUNA AND ROTTOM-DEPOSITS NEAR THE 30-FM. LINE

Porcellaiia loii,<,'ieoriiis.

Stcnorli^'nchus longirostris. Not frequent.

Inaclms dorsettensis. Not frequent.

Eurynonie asjicra. One or two in 22 only.

Corystes ca.ssivclaunus. One female sjieci-
nien in 22.

Ebalia tunicfaeta. Few in 23 only.

Scalpelluni vulgare. Common at base of
hyilroiils.

Molluscs. Living.
Nucula nitiiia. j\Iany specimens Imried
in the sand.

Pecten opercularis. A few adult speci-
mens only, but very
many small ones at-
tached to hydroids.

Anomia patelliformis. Attached to Pecten.

Ovula patula. On Alcyonium digitaium.

Tritonia Hombergii. Small in 23 only.

Galvina tricolor. In 104.

Doto coronata. In 104. Spawning on
hydroids.

Hero formosa. In 22.

Loligo sp.

Shells.

Cyprina islandica. Recent shells.

Cardiiim celiiiiatum. Recent shells nu-
merous. Typical of this
ground.

On Sertularia
ahietina.

Nucula nitida.

Pecten opercularis. Few only.

Dentalium entalis.

Aporrhais pes-pclccani. One in 23 only.

Natica nitida. Inhabited by Anajtagurus
laevis.

Buccinum undatum. Inhabited by Eiqya-
giirus Bcrnhardus.

POLYZOA.

Cellaria sinuosa. i . i, ,., ,

> A small quantity only.
,, fistulosa. '

Cellepora avicularis.
, , ranuilosa.

Idmonea serpens.
Membrauipora Flemingii on living Pecten
opercularis.

Tunic ATA.
Ascidiella scabra. A few small specimens

attached to hydroids.
Ciona intestinalis. A few only.
A compound Ascidian.

Pisces.

Trigla pini {Red Gurnard). Few only.

,, gurnardus (Grey Gurnard). Few
only.

Raia clavata {Thornhach). Two speci-
mens in liaul 104.

Ground III. The Outer East Eddystone Sand.

The position of this ground will be seen on the charts.

Hauls. 57 (B.-tr.), 72 (B.-tr.), 91 (O.-tr. and C.-dr.), 49 (O.-tr.), 53
(Dr.), and 56 (B.-tr.).

Bottom-deposit. Fine sand, which is somewhat coarser than that of
Ground I., and less muddy than Ground V., the two adjoining fine
sand grounds.

The texture of the sample at haul 91 was : —

IV. Fine Gravel
Coarse Sand
Medium Sand ...
Fine Sand
Silt

V.

VI.

VIL

VIII.

0"5 per cent.
2-5 ,.

... 13-2 „
... 82-7 „
... 1-1 „

[91. Average grade of sample, 6'814 Percentage of carbonate of
lime in whole sample, 14*13. Highest percentage occurs in IV,, which
contains 6470 per cent., but this forms so small a portion of the whole
sample that V. at 28"8 per cent, should be taken. As in 90 this is a
fine-textured deposit with low percentage of carbonate of lime. The
rock materials are Triassic and Eddystone reef. In 91 VI. Foraminifera

FROM THE EDDYSTONE GROUNDS TO START POINT. 397

are comparatively scarce, only twenty individuals were found in 0'45
grams (seven grains), or 4-4 per gram. In 91 YII. sixty-seven fora-
minifera were counted in O'lo gram (two grains), or 515 per gram.
In VI. Rotalia heccarii was present to the almost total exclusion of
every other form, while in YII. the individuals of this species
practically equalled in number those of all other species added
together. Arranged in order of frequency the following is the list of
species : — Rotalia heccarii, Miliolina seminulum, Textularia gramen,
Truncatulina lohakda, Discorbina rosacea, Boliviiia dilatata, Plan-
orhulina mediterrancnsis. In all, seven species. — E, H. W.]

There are very few shells on this ground.

Burroiving sjjccies. As on the inner trawling ground (I.), Astropecten
irregularis and Dentaliuvi entalis are abundant. Corystcs cassivelaunus,
which on the inner trawling ground was taken in haul 92 only, is here
abundant in all hauls excepting 53 and 56. From the position of the
various hauls it will therefore be seen that a centre of distribution of
this species occurs on the S.E. portion of Ground III. and the N.W.
of Ground I. (Chart XIII., cf. also p. 492.) There is no evidence of
Cardium echinatum on the present ground. Aphrodite aculeata is
occasionally taken.

Fixed species. The most obvious distinction between the ground now
under consideration and the inner trawling ground (1.), which adjoins
it, is the much greater abundance of Cellaria and the much richer
hydroid fauna. Of the hydroids which fix themselves in the sand
by a felt-work of root-fibres Aglaophenia myriophyllmn is invariably
taken, and is much commoner than on Ground I., and Antennularia
antennina is common also.

SertulareUa Gayi is very common, being by far the most plentiful

hydroid on the ground, and is generally attached to the tube of Thelepus.

It is associated, as on the inner trawling ground, with Sahella (pavoninal)

and Ascidiella scahra. The other characteristic hydroids are SertulareUa

polyzonias, Eiidendrium ramosum, Bougainvillia ramosa, Plumularia

pinnata, Plumularia Catharina, and occasional specimens of Hydrall-

mania falcata. Lafoea dumosa, var. rohusta, is not uncommon, associated

with Coppinia arcta and Dondersia banyulensis. Occasional specimens

of Halecium halecinum and Halecium Bcanii are the result of the

influence of the neighbouring Eddystone gravel grounds, which is

also shown by one or two specimens of Chactopterns. Ahyoimim

digitatum occurs only as small colonies, and one specimen of Paraphellia

expansa was taken in haul 72. Cellaria fistiilosa and Cellaria simtosa

are both abundant, and Bicellaria ciliata, Cellepora avicularis, Ccllepora

raviulosa, Scrupocellaria scraposa are common on hydroids, but incrust-

ing Polyzoa are very scarce.

^ '> i>

NEW .SERIES.— VOL. V. NO. 4. - ^'

398 ON THE FAUNA AND BOTTOM-DEPOSITS NEAR THE 30-FM. LINE

Wa7idering species. Asterias ruhcns and A. glacialis are not numerous,
and PecUn opcrcv.laris, which is their usual food on these grounds, is
also scarce. Ophiura ciliaris occurs in small numbers, and Ophiothrix
fragilis is again only represented by small specimens at the roots of
hydroids and Cellaria. Falmipes placenta was taken twice (hauls 53
and 57), and one or two specimens of Solastcr paj^i^osiis and Henricia
sanguinolenta were seen. Echinus miliaris was the only species of
Uchinus.

Bucci7mm undatuiii was common. Stenorhynchus longirostris and
Inachus dorsettensis were abundant amongst the hydroids, and Pandalus
hrevirostris amongst the Cellaria. Galathea dispersa, Porcellana longi-
cornis, Eiirynomc aspera, Portunus depurator were also common, together
with Eupagurns Bernhardus, associated with Sagartia parasitica or
Hydractinia echinata, and Eupagurus Prideauxii, associated as usual
with Adamsia palliata.

Fishes were more numerous here than on any other ground upon
which the trawl was used. The species most plentiful were Pleuro-
nectes limanda and microcephalus, Trigla pioii and gurnardus, Callio-
nymus lyra and Gobms Jeffrey si.

List of Species.

FORAMINIFEllA.

Truncatulina lobatula. Abundant, at-
tached to liydroids,
especially to Scrtula-
rella Gayi.

PORIFEKA.

Suberites domuncula. One with Anapa-
gurus Iccvis in 56 only.

Hydrozoa.

Hydractinia echinata. In 72 only, on
shuU inhabited hylJupa-
giirus Bernhardus.

Eudendrium raniosum. Plentiful.

,, sp. A small species of Eu-

dendrium (not E. capil-
lare).

Bougainvillia ramosa. Large colonies.

Clytia Johnstoni. Abundant on hydroids
and Cellaria.

Obelia dichotoraa. Scarce. On Cellaria.

Canipanularia Hincksii On hydroids.
,, verticillata. In 72 only.

Lafoea dnmosa, var. robusta. In quan-
tity, attached to shells.
,, fruticosa Not frequent.

Coppinia arcta. Couunon, on Lafoea
duinosa.

Halcciuni halecinuni. Small quantity
only.

Ground III.

Halecium Beanii. Less common tliau
II. halccinum.

Sertularella Gayi. In large quantities,
generally attached to
Thelepus tubes.

,, polyzonias. Less common

than S. Gayi.

Sertularia argeutea. Not frequent.

Hydralhnania falcata. A small quantity
only.

Antennularia antennina. Plentiful.

,, ramosa. Not so conmion as

A. antennina.
Aglaophenia niyriophyllum. Plentiful.
Several pieces in each
haul of the trawl.
Rooted in the sand.
Plumularia pinuata.

„ Cathariua. Plentiful.

ACTINOZOA.

Sagartia parasitica. On Buccinum un-
datum shell inhabited
by Eupac/urus Bern-
hardus. Not frequent.

Adamsia palliata. On shells inhabited by
Eiipai/nrus ]'rideauxii.
Not frequent.

Alcyonium digitatum. Generally only
small colonies on I'ccten
upcrcularis.

FROM THE EDDYSTONE GROUNDS TO START POINT.

399

ECHINODERMATA.
Cuciunaria lactea. Not abuudant.
Astropecten irregularis. Numerous.
Palmipes placenta. One or two speci-
mens in 53 and 57 only.
Solaster papposus. One or two in 72 only.

Henricia sanguinolenta. One or two in
72 only.

Asterias glacialis. \ Always present, but
, , rubens. ) not in large numbers,

Ophiura ciliaris. Several in 91. Few or
none in the other hauls.

Ophiothrix fragilis. A few small ones,
generally at the roots
of C'ellaria.

Echinus miliaris. A few.

Nemertina.
None recorded.

POLYCHAETA.

Aphrodite aculeata. Three in 91 and
one in 72 only.

Lepidonotus squamatus. One in 91 only.

Lagisca propinqua. Not numerous.

Harmothoe imbricata. One in 91 only.

Hyalinoecia tuliicola. One in 72 only.

Nereis fiicata. In 57 and 91.
,, procera. Several in 91.

Nephthys Hombergii. One in 91.

Chaetopterus variopedatus. One or two
in a haul only.

Nicolea venustula.

Thelepus. Many specimens.

Sabella (pavonina ?). At base of Serlula-
rella Gayi.

Da-sychone bombyx. Numerous.

Seri)ula vermicularis.

Hydroides pectinata.

Crustacea.
Pandalus brevirostris. Many, living
amongst the Ccllaria
and hydroids.

Eupagurus Bernhardiis. Numerous in
Buccinum undaticm
shells.

„ Prideauxii. Not so frequent as

E. Bcrnhardus. Shells
covered with Adamsia
palliata.

Anapagurus laevis. In 56 only, living in
Suherites domuncula.

Porcellana longicornis. Abundant.

Galathea dispersa. Abundant.

Stenorhynchus longirostris. Abundant
amongst hydroids and
Cellaria.

Inachus dorsettensis. Abundant amongst
hydroids and C'ellaria.

Maia squinado. One in 56 only.

Eurynoiue aspcra. A few only.

Cancer pagurus. In 56 only.

Portunus de^jurator. Alisent in 72 and
91. Numbers taken in
the remaining liauls.

Corystes cassivelaunus. Numerous in 49,
91, 72, and 57. Absent
in 53 and 56.

Scalpellum vulgare. Abundant at base
of stalk of hydroids,
especially of Antcnnu-
laria antennina.

MoLLUSCA. Living.

Pecteu opercularis. ilany in 49 ; com-
paratively few large
ones in remaining hauls.
Young specimens at-
tached to hydroids
numerous.

Anomia ephippium. On Peden opercularis
and on Buccinum xm-
datuin shells inhabited
by Eiqjagurus Bcrn-
hardus.

Dentalium entails. Numerous in the

sand.
Buccinum undatum. Common.
Cypraea europaea. One or two in a haul.

Proueomenia aglaopheniae. Occasional
specimens coiled on the
stem of Aglaophenia
myriopliylhim.

Dondersia banyulensis. Occasional speci-
mens on Lafoca dumosa,
var. robusta.

\

Doto coronata.

Coryphella rufibranchialis. J On hydroids.

Archidoris tuberculata.

Lamellidoris oblonga. On Cellaria.

Shells.
Buccinum undatum. Inhabited by Eupa-
gurus Bcrnhardus,

Dentalium entalis.

[No Pecten or other common shells.]

POLYZOA.

Cellaria sinuosa. i y , ...

„ ^ , In large quantity.

,, nstulosa. )

Scrupocellaria scruposa. Plentiful.
Bugula flabellata. Not generally plenti-
ful.
Bugula avicularia. In 56 only.
Cellepora avicularis. \ Plentiful on
,, ramulosa. ) hydroids.
Idmonca serpens. Plentiful on hydroids.
Alcyonidium gelatiuosum. A little only.

400 ON THE FAUNA AND BOTTOM-DEPOSITS NEAR THE 30-FM. LINE

Cyhuilioeciuni dilatatnni. ) ^ , , . i
_•',.„. J On hydioids.

Pcnicellina ccnuia. )

Membranipora Dinneiilii. On Buccimim
sliell in 53 only.

Microporella ciliata. > Qn Buccinum

Miicronclla ventricosa. | shell in 53
Schizoporella auriculata. ' only.

TUNICATA.

Ascidiella scabra. Numerous at base of
Ccllaria and hydroids,
especially of Sertularella
Gayi.

Botryllus, sp. Common on hydroids and

CcJlaria.

A compound Ascidian common on Cellaria.

Fishes.
Pleuronectes platessa {Plaice). Not

numerous.
Pleuronectes limanda (Dab). Plentiful.
,, microcephalus {Lemon Bab).

Plentiful.

Solea lutea. One in 56 only.
Arnoglossus laterna {Scaldback). Several
specimens.

Capros aper (Chickoo). Generally one or
two specimens.

Zeus faber {John Dory). One or two in

each haul.
Trigla pini {Bed Gurnard). Plentiful.
„ gurnardus {Grey Gurnard). Plen-
tiful.

,, liueata {Parrot Gurnard). Two in

72 only.
Lophius piscatorius (Angler). One or two

only.
Callionymus lyi-a (Dragonet). Plentiful.
Gobius Jeffreysi {Jeffreys' Goby). Plentiful

amongst Ccllaria, &c.

Crystallogobius Nilssoni. Recorded in 91
only.

Scyllium canicula (Bough Dog). One
small one in 91 only.

Raia, sp. A few small specimens.

Ground IV. The Inner East Eddystone Sand.

Two to three miles east of the Eddystone.

Hauls. 34 (O.-tr.), 39 (O.-tr.), 40 (Fine mosquito net), 77 (B.-tr).

The four hauls taken between two and three miles east of the Eddy-
stone show a fauna in most respects similar to that of the fine sand
of Ground III. (the Outer East Sand), but there are several important
additional features, which indicate a coarser ground. No sample of
the bottom-deposit was taken here. It is not unlikely that the
hauls were made on two kinds of ground, first on fine sand similar
to that of Ground III., and as the Eddystone was approached on a
coarser deposit.

Shells are numerous, the common ones being Pecten opercularis, P.
maximus, Tapes virginea, and Gardium ccliinatum.

Burroioing species. There are important differences in the burrowing
species on this ground and on Ground III. Astropecten irregularis is
much less abundant here, and Corystes cassivelaunus is entirely absent.
Atelecyclus heterodon was taken in haul 34, and Cardium norvegicum
in both 34 and 39. These differences all indicate an approach to the
coarser Eddystone grounds.

Fixed species. The hydroid fauna is practically ideniical with that
of the preceding ground, excepting that Ilalecium halecinum and
//. Beanii are much more abundant, and ChactojJtcriis, to the tubes
of which these species are often fixed, is also somewhat more plentiful.
Cellaria is still plentiful.

The Ascidians and branched Polyzoa are identical with those of

FROM THE EDDYSTONE GROUNDS TO START POINT.

401

Ground III. ; but incrusting Polyzoa, which were scarce on the latter
ground, now become abundant with the increase in the number of

shells.

Wandering species. All the important species on Ground III. are
present, but in addition Ground IV. has the following: — Porania
pulvillus (one in haul 39), Ophiura albida (one in 77), Opliiactis Balli
(seen in 40 only), Echinus acutus and esculcntus, Hyas coarctatus (in
39 only), Portunus pusillus* (in 39 only), Turritclla communis (in 39
only), Pectcn maximus, many Pccten opercularis, and with them an
increase in the number of Asterias glacialis and A. mbens. The
greater abundance of shells has already been noticed. All these
features indicate an approach to the coarser Eddystone grounds.

Tiie fish fauna is much less numerous than on Ground III., but the
species present are all taken on that ground also.

List of Species. Ground IV.

FORAMIXIFERA.

Tiuncatuliua lobatula. Ou hydroids, etc.

PORIFEKA.

Cliona celata. Boring shells, especially
Peden and Lutraria,

Hydrozoa.

Hydractinia echinata. On shell inhabited
by Eupagurus Bcrn-
hardus. In 34 only.

Eudendrium ramosum.

,, capillare. In 77.

,, sp. Small species, not ca^Ji^

lare,

Clytia Johnstoni. Plentiful.

Campannlaiia Hincksii. On Halecium
and other hydroids.

Lafoea dumosa, var. robusta. Abundant.

,, fruticosa. In 77 only.

Halecium halecinum. Fairly abundant,
gi'owing on shells and
on Chadopterus tubes.

Halecium Beanii. Less abundant than
H. halecinum.

Sertularella Gayi. Abundant, generally
on 2'olychaete tubes.

Sertularella polyzonias. Less frequent
than S. Gayi. Gener-
ally ou shells.

Sertularia argentea. Scarce. In 40 only.

Hydrallmania falcata. A few colonies in
each haul.

Not very abun-

Antennularia antennina.
dant.

Aglaophenia myriophyllum. Abundant,

fixed in the sand.
Plumularia pinnata. In 34 only.

,, setacea. In 34 and 77.

,, Catharina. In 34 only.

ACTINOZOA.

Sagartia parasitica. On shells of Biiccinum
undatum, inhabited by
Eupagurus Bcrnhardus.
Not frequent.

Adamsia palliata. On shells inhabited by
Eupagurus Pridcauodi.
Not frequent.

Alcyoniuni digitatuni. Small colonies
only, often on living
Peden opercularis.

Sarcodictyon catenata. Red variety. In
39 only.

ECHINODERMATA.

Astropecten irregularis. Very few speci-
mens.

Porania pulvillus. One specimen in 39
only.

Solaster papposus. Common in 77, not
frequent in other hauls.

Henricia sanguinolenta. One or two
specimens in each haul.

Asterias glacialis. | Common generally,
,, rubens. i only small ones in 77.

• Portunus depurator and P. ]msillus have been included under the head of wandering
species on account of their marked adaptation for swimming. At the same time both
species do sometimes burrow, although to what extent has never been determined.

402 ON THE FAUNA AND BOTTOM-DEPOSITS NEAR THE 80-FM. LINE

Ojiliiura ciliavis. Very few (none in 77).

,, alliida. One small specimen in 77.

02)liiothrix fragilis. A few small speci-
mens at roots of Ccllaria
only.

Ophiactis Balli. Seen in 40 only.

Echinus aculus. Two specimens in 34
only.

,, miliaris. Few only.

,, esculentns. Several in 34, not
numerous in other hauls.

Nemertina.
Cariuella aunulata.
Amphiporus pulcher.
Liueus bilineatus.
Micrura fasciolata.

POLYCHAETA.

Aphrodite aculeata. Cue in 77 only.
Lagisca propinqua. In 39 only.
Hyalinoecia tubicola. Several in each

haul.
Nereis pelagica. One in 34 only.

Chaetopterus variopedatus. One or two
sjjecinieus in 40 and
in 77.

Thelepus. Abundant.

Sabella. At base of Serlidarella Gayi.

Dasychono bombyx. Not numerous.

Serjjula vermicularis. Few only recorded
in 77.

Crustacea.
Pandalus brevirostris. Numerous amongst
the Ccllaria and hy-
droids.

Eupagurus Bernhardus. In Buccirmm

uiulatum shells. Not

numerous.
Eupagurus Prideauxii. "With Adamsia,

palliata. Not numerous.
Anapagurus laevis. In 39 only.
Porcellana longicornis. Alnmdant.
Galathea dispersa. Abundant.
Stenorhynchus \ Abundant amongst

longirostris. | hydroids and Cel-
Inachus dorsettcnsis. ) laria.
Hyas coarctatus. A few in 39 only.
Eurynome aspera. In 39 only.
Portunus depurator. Aliundaut except

in 77.
Portunus pusillus. In 39 only.
Atelecyclus heterodon. One or two in 34

only.

Scalpellum vulgare. Frequent at base of
hydroids, especially An-
tcnmdaria and Hale-
cium.

Mollusc'A. Living.

Saxicava rugosa, var. arctica. Attached
to shells.

Cardium norvegicum. Two or three speci-
mens in 34 and 39.
None in 77.

Modiola modiolus. At roots of hydroids,
&c. Small only.

Pecten maximus. Few or none.

,, opercularis. Numerous full-grown
specimens and manj
young on hydroids.
Turritella communis. In 39 only.
Buccinum undatum. Common.
Cypraea europaea. Not very frequent.

Dondersia bany\ilensis. On Lafoea du-
mosa, var. robusta.

Lamellidoris oblonga. On Cellaria.

Shells.
Solen ensis. Not numerous.
Solecurtus candidus. Two in 36 only.
Tapes virginea. Common.
Artemis exoleta.
Cyprina islandica.
Cardium norvegicum.
Pinna pectinata. One or two only.
Pecten maximus. Numerous.

,, opercularis. Numerous.
Dentalium entalis.

Trochus grauulatus. Inhabited by Eupa-
fjurus Prideauxii.

Buccinum undatum. Inhabited by Eupa-
gurus Bernhardus.

POLYZOA.

Cellaria siuuosa. ) y

■ In masses.

J, fistulosa. '

, , Johnstoni. Small quantity.

Scrupoccllaria scruposa.

Bugula flabellata. In 34 only.

Cellepora avicularis. i

1 ( On hydroids, uu-

,, ramulosa. > •' '

" I merous.

Idmonea serpens. '

Incrusting forms very numerous on
shells. For list see Tabic VI., p. 534.

TUNICATA.

Ascidiella venosa. Few in 39 only.

,, scabra. Numerous at base of
Sertularella Gayi and
of Ccllaria.

Compound Ascidian on Cellaria.

Pisces.

Pleuronectes microcephalus {Lemon Dab).
One in 77 only.

Solea variegata (Thickback). In 39.

FROM THE EDDYSTONE GROUNDS TO START POINT.

403

Arnoglossus latenia (Scaldback). In 34
only.

Zeus faher {Johii Dory). One in 77 only.
Trigla gurnardus {G'rcy Gurnard). One
in 77 only.
■ „ lineata {Parrot Gurnard). Five
specimens in 77.

Trigla liiiundo (2'ub Gurnard). One in

77 only.
Callionymns lyra {Dra/jonct). A few only.

Gobius JefTreysi {Jeffreys Goby). Many
amongst Cellaria, etc.

Rliina squatina {Monk). One small one
in 77 only.

Ground V.

Four miles N.E. f N. of Eddy stone.

Haul 90 (otter-trawl).

It has been necessary to consider this haul separately from
Ground III., as both the bottom-deposit and the fauna show several
important differences.

Bottom-deposit. The sand has the following texture : —

II. Coarse Gravel ... ... ... 27 per cent.

Medium Gravel
Fine Gravel
Coarse Sand

III.

IV.

V.

VI.

VII.

VIII.

Medium Sand
Fine Sand
Silt

2-3
2-4
3-2
13-7
68-8
6-8

The sand is therefore at the same time coarser and more muddy than
that of Ground III.

[90. Average grade of sample, 6'561. Percentage of carbonate of
lime in whole sample, 22*91. Highest percentage occurs in IV., which
contains 57'o0 per cent. This is one of the fine-textured deposits, in
which VII. constitutes more than 50 per cent, of the whole, and
shows the low percentage of carbonate of lime which characterises
these fine-texture sands among the present series of samples.

Geologically 90 is parted from all the other samples by a very wide
distinction indeed. Eoundly speaking, 80 per cent, of the identifiable
rock materials are Devonian and only 20 per cent. Triassic. No
Eddystone reef material is present. No other sample presents more
than 15 per cent, of Devonian rock.

In 90 VI. Foraminifera are comparatively scarce, in 90 VII. they are
numerous, 104 individuals were counted in 0'13 grams (2 grains),
or 800 per gram. The following species are present, arrangement
as before : — Rotalia heccarii, Miliolina seminulum, Lcujcna orhignyana,
Bolivina dilatata, Textularia gramen, Diiporhina rosacea, Truncatu-
lina lohatula. In all, seven species. — R. H. W.]

There are few unbroken shells.

Burrowing species. The abundance of Aphrodite acideata forms a

404 ON THE FAUNA AND BOTTOM-DEPOSITS NEAR THE 30-FM. LINE

characteristic feature of the fauna. The only other burrowing species
captured were Astropeden irregularis (one only), Corystcs cassivclaunus
(one only), Gonoplax angulata (one only, see p. 495).

Fixed species. The hydroid fauna is practically identical with that
of Ground III., excepting that Halecium hedccinum is entirely absent,
and only a small quantity of H. Beanii was taken. There was only
a little Cellaria, and branched Polyzoa were scarce.

Wandering species. The most characteristic feature is the abundance
of Palmipes p)lacenta. In other respects the wandering species are
similar to those found on Ground III., excepting that Solaster papposus
and Anapagurus laevis were plentiful, whilst Pandalus hrevirostris and
Buccinum undatum were not taken.

List of Species. Gkound V.

Hydrozoa.
Hydractinia cchiuata. On shell iuhabited

by Eiqmgurus
hardus.

Bern-

Eudendrium raniosuni. Veiy small colony,
probably younff ravio-
sum, on a piece of leather.

Bougaiuvillia raniosa. Two good pieces.

Clytia Johnstoni. On Bougainvillia.

Common.
Obelia dichotoma. A little.
Lafoea dumosa, var. robusta. Plentiful.
Coppinia arcta. Common on Lafoea

dumosa.
Halecium Beanii. Small quantity only.
Sertularella Gayi. A moderate qnantit}-.

,, polyzonias. Not so plentiful

as S. Gayi.

Hydrallmania falcata. A little only.
Antennularia antennina.
Aglaophenia myrioi)liyllum.
PlumulariaCatharina. Small quantity on
a bit of old leatlier.

ACTINOZOA.

Sagartia parasitica. On Buccimim vnda-
tuin shell inhabited liy
Eiqxtguriis BcnilturdiLS.

Adamsia palliata. With Eupagurus
Prideauxii.

Alcyonium digitatum. One piece on
Chactopterus tube and
one on Fcctcn opercularis
shell.

Eghinopekmata. •

Astropecten irregularis. One only.

Palmipes placenta. Plentiful. Five speci-
mens.

Solaster papposus. Plentiful.

Astcrias glacialis. 4 or 5 specimens.

,, rubens. Many.
Ophiura ciliaris. One.

POLYCHAETA.

Aphrodite aculeata. A number of speci-
mens, probably (5 or 8.

Chaetopterus variopedatus. Piece of tube
only.

Sabellu (pavonina ?).

Hydroides pectinata. Few.

Crustacea.
Eupagurus Bernhardus. In Buccinum
undatum shell, with
Sagartia parasitica.
,, Prideauxii, with Adamsia

palliata.

Anapagurus laevis. Plentiful.
Porccllana longicornis. Plentiful,
Galathea dispersa. Plentiful.
Stenorhynchus longirostris. Plentiful.
Inachus dorsettensis. Plentiful.
Corystes cassivclaunus. One only (male).
Gonoplax angulata. One only (male).

MoLLUSCA. Living.
Pecten ojiercularis. Very few.

Shells.
Pecten opercularis. Few.

Polyzoa.

Cellaria siiiuosa. \ , ,.,,, , ,. ,
„ , , > A little only ot each.
„ nstulosa. ;

Cellepora avicularia. y On Hydrallmania

,, ramulosa. I falcata.

Pedicellina cernua. On Bougainvillia

ramosa.
Schizoporella auriculata. On piece of old

leather.

FKOM THE EDDYSTONE GRuUNDS TO START POINT. 405

TuNiCATA. Trigla liucata {Parrot Gurnard). Two

Ascidiella scabra. Two or three young specimeus.

specimens on Inachus Lophius piscatorius {Angler). One speci-

dorsettensis. men.

Fishes. Raia clavata ( yAor?i6ac^). One specimen.

Tr\^3iT^\m {Red Gurnard). Two specimens. ,, blanda (^?onrfe). One specimen.

Ground VL The South Eddystone Fine Sanu.

Hauls. 101 (Dr.) and 102 (Dr. and C.-dr.).

The fauna at hauls 101 and 102 was practically the same, and
resembles most nearly that found on Ground III. (the Outer East
Sand). In one or two points, however, it resembles also that of the
fine sand of Ground II. (the Outer Trawling Ground).

Bottom-deposit. Fine sand. The texture is as follows : —

II. Coarse Gravel ... ... 0"2 per cent.

III. Medium Gravel 0-2

IV. Fine Gravel OS „

V. Coarse Sand ... ... ... 1-3 „

VI. Medium Sand 10-8 „

VII. Fine Sand 85-4 „

VIII. Silt 1-7 „

This resembles somewhat closely the sand of haul 91 (Ground III.).
{Cf. Table II., p. 525.)

[102. Average grade of sample, 6'849. Percentage of carbonate of
lime in whole sample, 14'86. Highest percentage occurs in II., which
contains 41"38 per cent., but this grade only represents 0'2 per cent,
of whole sample. In 102 VII., which is 85'4 per cent, of whole
sample, the percentage of CaCog is 1300. This is another fine-texture
sand. No Eddystone reef material occurs in either 102 II. or 102 III.
The latter grade consists, as regarding rock material, of 85 per cent.
Trias and 15 per cent. Devonian. 0'13 grams (two grains) of 102
VII. contained 48 Foramiuifera, or 369 per gram. The species of
Foraminifera present in 102 VI. and VII. are given below in order of
frequency : — llotalia heccarii, Tnmcatulina lohatula, Miliolina scmin-
idum, Discorhina rosacea, Sjnrolocidma i^lc-^ulata, Lagena orhignyana,
Bulimina pupoides. In all, seven species. — It. H. W.]

Unbroken shells are fairly common.

Burroiving species. Astropectai irregularis is represented by one
specimen in 102 only. Dcntalium cntalis is common, and fresh shells
of Cardium echinatum are abundant. Several specimens of Atelecyclus
heterodon were also taken.

Fixed species. Cellaria is abundant, and the hydroid fauna is
practically the same as that on the sand of Grounds III. and IV.,

406 ON THE FAUNA AND BOTTOM-DEPOSITS NEAR THE 30-FM. LINE

excepting that Halecium hakcinuni is more abundant, corresponding to
a considerable abundance of Chactopferus vario2)cdatus, upon the tubes
of which it is generally growing. The tubes of the latter species were
generally attached to shells on this ground. Halecium lialecinum and
Chaetopterus show the influence of the neighbouring coarser Eddystone
grounds.

Two other noteworthy fixed species are Chondractinia digiiata, fixed to
Cardium echinatum shells, and large colonies of Alcyonium digitatum*
which are numerous. In both these features the ground resembles the
fine sand of the Outer Trawling Ground (II.), which adjoins it.

Wandering species. Here again the species are practically the same
as on Grounds III. and IV., the exceptional features being the presence
of several specimens of Ehalia tuherosa, a species abundant on the
Eddystone gravels, and the presence of a number of ITyas coarctatus.-f

Plentiful.

List of Species.

Hydrozoa.

Hydiactinia echinata. One colonj' in 101.

Tiibiclava cornucopiae. On Dentalium

shell.
Perigouimiis sp. On Dentalium shell.

Bougainvillia raniosa. On Chaetopterus

tube.
Lafoea duniosa, var. robusta.

Campanularia verticillata. One or two
colonies.

Halecium halecinum. Plentiful.
Sertularella Gayi. Plentiful.
Hydrallmania falcata. One piece only in

101.
Antennularia antennina.
,, ramosa.

Aglaophenia myrio])hylluni. One piece
only, with Scalj)cUii7)i
vulgare on it.

Plumularia pinnata.

,, Catharina. On Chaetopterus

tube.

ACTINOZOA.

Adamsia palliata. With Eupagurus Pri-
deauadi.

Choiidractinia digitata. On Cardium
echinatum shells. Two
or three specimens only.

Alcyonium digitatum. In quantity; large
colonies.

ECHINODERMATA.

Astropecten irregularis. One only, in 102.

Asterias glacialis. \ ^ , ,

, ? Several of each.

,, rubens. )

Ophiura ciliaris. A few only.
* Cf. p. 4.57.

Ground VI.

ophiura albida.
Amphiura elegans
Oijhiothrix fragilis

Several.

A few small ones only
at roots of Cellaria.

Echinus miliaris.

Nemertina.
Carinella annulata.
Tetrastemma dorsale.
Lineus bilineatus.

Polychaeta.
Lagisca propinqua. Two specimens only.
Nereis procera. Five or six specimens.
Typosyllis alternosetosa. Several speci-
mens.
Polydora caeca. Several specimens.

Chaetopterus variopedatus. Fairly abun-
dant.
Nicolea venustula. One in 101 only.
Thelepus. Many.
Sabella.

Sabellaria spinulosa.
Dasychoue boml)yx.
Serpula vermicularis.
Hydroides pectiuata.
Potamoceros triqueter

Several.

Four specimens.
Tubes only.
Several.
Tulies only.

Crustacea.

Eupagurus Bernhardus. A few in Bucci-
num xmdatum shells.

,, Prideauxii. Not plentiful.

\S\i\\ Adamsia 2Mlliata.

Anapagurus laevis. In shell of 2'ornatella
fasciata, and in Turri-
tella communis shell.

t Cf. p. 490.

FROM THE EDDYSTONE GKOUNDS TO START POINT.

407

Porcellaua loiigicornis. Plentiful.

Galatliea dispersa. Pleutiful.

Steuorhyiichus longirostris. Dressed with
hydroids, etc. {I'lumu-
laria pinnata).

Inachus doi'settensis. Dressed with barn-
acles, compound ascid-
ians, sponges, and Scru-
pocellaria.

Hyas coarctatus. A few females, breeding,
dressed with barnacles,
compound ascidians,
Ascidiclla scabra, Scru-
pocellaria, and Bicel-
laria.

Eurynome aspera. In 101 only, one or
two specimens.

Portuuus depurator. Several. Females
with eggs.

„ pusillus. Few.

Atelecyclus heterodon. Several.

Ebalia tuberosa. Few only.

Balanus. On Hyas coarctatus.

Scalpellum vulgare. On Aglaophenia
tnyriophyUum.

MoLLUSCA. Living.
Pecten tigriuus. One specimen in 101.

,, 02)ercularis. A few only.
Chiton asellus.
Deutalium entalis. A few.
Buccinum undatum.

Doto fragilis.

, , coronata.

,, pinnatifida.
Archidoris tuberculata.
Triopa claviger.
Polycera quadrilineata.

Shells.
Psammobia ferroensis. One or two only.
Tapes virginea. Plentiful.
Cyprina islandica. A few.
Cardium echinatum. Shells numerous.
Nucula nucleus.

Pinna pectinata. One or two only.
Pecten maximus.

, , opercularis. Many.
Dentalium entalis.

I In quantity.

POLYZOA.

Cellaria sinuosa.

,, fistulosa.

Scrupocellaria scruposa.

Bicellaria ciliata. On Hyas coarctatus and
on Sertularella Gayi.

Bugula avicularia. On Sertularella Gayi.
Cellepora ramulosa. In quantity on hy-
droids.

Ttjnicata.
Ascidiella scabra. Fairly common.
Compound Ascidian on Sertularella Gayi.

Ground VIT. The South Eddystone Intermediate Sand.

Hauls. 75 (Dr.), 76 (Dr.). 70 (Dr.), 71 (Dr.), 54 (Dr.), 69 (Dr.), 38
(Dr.), 80 (Dr.), 79 (Dr.), 100 (Dr.), 32 (Dr.), 109 (Dr. and C.-dr.).

The hauls combined under the present heading vary somewhat
individually, but the prevailing features are the same, and indicate
a predominant sand fauna mixed with a considerable number of species
characteristic of the gravel grounds which lie immediately to the north,
especially Ground XIV.

Bottom-deposit. This is probably fine sand over the whole ground,
though the more northerly hauls may have been taken partly on gravel
and partly on fine sand. Gravel was noted at the time in haul 76.

A sample with the canvas bag taken at haul 109 had the following

texture : —

Medium Gravel O'Ol per cent.

III.

IV.

V.

VI.

VII.

VIII.

Fine Gravel
Coarse Sand
Medium Sand
Fine Sand
Silt

0-2

1-2

24-0

72-7

1-9

408 ON THE FAUNA AND BOTTOM-DEPOSITS NEAE THE 30-FM. LINE

[109. Average grade of sample, 6749, Percentage of carbonate of
lime in whole sample, 30"15.

The following are the species of Foraminifera in grades VI. and VII.
in order of frequency : — Rotalia beccarii, Miliolina seminuhim, Tcjiularia
grainen, Truncatulina lohatula, Discorhina rosacea, Tea^hUaria agglutinans,
Miliolina hicornis, Lagena sulcata, Bolivina dilatata. — E. H. W.]

Shells were plentiful in all the hauls, and in hauls 32, 75, 79, and
100 a number of stones were obtained.

Fauna. The ground as a whole is barren, and in no haul were many-
specimens taken, with the exception of haul 100.

Burroioing species. A few Astropecten irregularis were present, but
the species was not at all common, Dentalium entalis was present in
the sample of sand, and several bivalve molluscs were taken in individual
hauls, as will be seen from the list of the fauna.

Fixed species. Of species which usually fix themselves in fine sand
the following occur on this ground : Antennularia antennina and
ra7iiosa, Aglaophetiia mgriophyllum, and Cellaria fishdosa and sinuosa,
the two latter in considerable abundance. The other representatives
of the fixed fauna include species which are typical of the gravels to
the north and also those typical of the fine sand to the south. Of the
former are Polycarpa varians and Chaetopterus variopedatus, with
Halecium halecimim, H. Beanvi and Flumidaria Catharina ; of the
latter Sertulay^ella Oayi, Bougainvillia ramosa, and Ascidiella scahra.

Wandering species. These are not abundant, and are of kinds found
both on the gravel and on the fine sand grounds. A noteworthy feature,
characteristic of the ground, is the presence in almost every haul of
Falmip)es placenta.

List of Species, Ground VII.

Foraminifera.
Ti'uncatulina lobatula. On Cellaria and
hydroids.

PORIFERA.

Suberites domuncula. Fairly common, in-
habited by Eupagurus
cuunensis.

Cliona celata. Common, boring shells.

Hydrozoa.
Hydractinia echinata. In 76 only, on
shell inhabited l)y Eu-
jKigurus Bernhardus.
Eudendrium ramosum. Fairly plentiful.
,, capillare. Scarce.

,, sp. Scarce.

Bougainvillia ramosa. Not nucommon.

Clytia Johnstoni. Common, on hydroids,
etc.

Obelia dichotoma. In 32 only.
Campanularia Hincksii. Common, on

hydroids and shells.
Lafoea dumosa, var. robusta. Frequent.

Creeping variety also

abundant on hydi'oids

and Cellaria.
CalycelJa fastigiata. Recorded in 75 only.
Halecium halecinum. Plentiful on CMe-

topterus tubes and on

shells.
,, Beanii. Not so plentiful as

H. halecinum.
,, labrosuni. Recorded in 75 only,
Sertularella Gayi. Generally moderately

plentiful. In hauls 69,

71, and 109 small

pieces only.
,, polyzonias. Scarce.

Sertularia argentea. In 79 and 32 only.

Not abundant.

FROM THE EDDYSTONE GROUNDS TO START POINT.

409

Hydrallmania fiilcata. Frequent, but not

abundant in any haul.
Antennularia anteuuina. Frequent.
,, ramosa. In 109 only.

Aglaojjhenia m3-riopliylluni. In five hauls,

not abundant.
Plumularia pinnata. Common.
,, setacea. In 32 only.

,, Catharina. In 100 and 109

only, abundant on Choc-
topterits tubes.

ACTINOZOA.

Sagartia parasitica. On Buccinum un-
datum shell inhabited
by Eupacjurus Bern-
hurdiis. One specimen
in 75 only.

Adamaia palliata. On shells inhabited by
Eupagurus Prideauxii.
Not numerous.

Paraphellia expansa. One in 109 only.

Caryophyllia Sraithii. Not frequent.

Alcyonium digitatum. Generally small
colonies only. In 100
larger colonies on stones.

Sarcodictyou catenata. In 100 only,
where it was present
in large quantities on
stones.

ECHINODERMATA.

Cucumaria pentactes. In 100 only, at-
tached to stones.
,, lactea. In 79 only.

Astropecten irregularis. One or two in
69, 79, and 109 only.

Palmipes placenta. Frequent, but only
one or two in each haul.

Solaster papposus. Not numerous.
Henricia sanguinolenta. One or two in

71 and 75 only.
Asterias glacialis. Frequent Init not
numerous.
,, rubens. Not numerous,

Ophiura ciliaris. Few only.
,, albida. Few only.
Ophiactis Balli. Generally present.
Ophiothrix fragilis. Not generally plen-
tiful. Most numerous
in 76 and 109.
Amphiura filiformis. One in 109.
Echinus acutus. One in 54 only.
,, miliaria. Common.
,, esculentns. Not abundant.

Echinocyamus pusillus. Recorded in 75
and 109 only.

Spatangus purpureus. In 38 only, caught
on the tangles attached
to the dredge.

Nemertixa.
Carinella superba.
Lineus bilineatus.
Micrura purpurea.
Cerebratulus fuscus.

POLYCHAETA.

Lepidonotus squamatus. In two hauls
only.

Lagisca propinqua. Not uncommon.
,, rarispina. Two specimens re-
corded in 70 only.
Polynoe scolopendrina. In 54 only.

Harmothoe imbricata. Recorded in 54
only.

Evarne impar. One or two in 54 and 70
only.

Hyalinoecia tubicola. Not frequent.

Arabella geniculata. One in 100 only

recorded.
Nereis procera. Occasional specimens.

Several in 100.

Eulalia viridis. Recorded in 54 only.

Chaetopterus variopedatus. Constantly
present, but not in large
numbers.

Pectinaria auricoma. Occasional speci-
mens.
Polymnia nebulosa. One in 100 only.
Nicolea venustula. Recorded in 54 only.
Thelepus. Abundant.
Amphitrite gracilis. Recorded in 32 only.
Terebellid tubes.
Sabella (pavoniua ?).

Filograna implexa. Attached to shells.

Frequent.
Dasychonc bombyx. Abundant.
Protula tubularia. A few only.

Serpula vermicularis. Attached to shells,

etc.
Hydroides pectinata.
Potamoceros triqueter.

Crustacea.

Pandalus brevirostris. Few only amongst
Cellaria.

Eupagurus Bernhardus. Not frequent.
As usual in Buccinum
undatum shells.
,, Prideauxii. Shells covered

by Adamaia palliata.
Not frequent.

,, cuanensis. Not frequent.

Covered with Suberitcs
domuncula.

Anapagurus laevis. Not frequent.
Porcellana longicornis.
Galathca dispersa. Frequent.

410 ON THE FAUNA AND BOTTOM-DEPOSITS NEAR THE 30-FM. LINE

Steuorhynchus longirostris. Frequent, but

uot abuudant in any one

liaul.
Inachus dorsetteusis. Frequent, but not

abundant in any one

haul.

Eurynonie aspera. Frequent, but only
two or three in a haul.

Cancer pagurus. One in 75.

Portumis pusillus. In 38 only.

Atelecyclus heterodon. In 38 and 100
only. Not numerous.

Ebalia tuberosa. In 38 only.

Balanus crenatus. On Pecten opercularis.

Scalpellum vulgare. Attached to Hale-

cium and Antennularia.

MoLLUSCA. Living.

Saxicava rugosa, var. arctica. Not fre-
quent. Attached to
shells and base of hy-
droids.

Pandora obtusa. One specimen in 75
only.

Venus verrucosa. One in 76 only.
,, casina. One in 79 only.
,, ovata. In 76 only.

Circe minima. In 76 only.

Cardium echinatum. One in 75 only.
,, norvegicum. One or two in 79
and 100 only.

Kellia suborbicularis. In 80 only.

Modiola modiolus.

Nucula nucleus. One or two in 76 only.

,, nitida. One in sample of sand of
109.
Lima Loscombii. In 75 only.

Pecten tigrinus. One or two in 38 and
80 only.

,, maximus. Generally several speci-
mens.

,, opercularis. Generally not a large
number ; most abun-
dant in 54.

Anomia ephippium. ^ Generally on Pec-

,, patelliformis. > ten opercularis.
Chiton asellus. On shells and stones.
Dentalium entalis. In sample of sand

from 109.
Emarginula reticulata.
Lamellaria perspicua. In 75, 80, and

109.
Buccinum undatura. Generally present.
Cypraea europaea. In 75 only.

Proneomeuia aglaopheniae. In 100 and
109 on stem of Aglao-
phenia myriophyllum.

Doto fragilis.

,, pinnatifida.

,, coronata.
Doris maculata. One specimen in 100.
Lamellidoris oblonga. On Cellaria.

Shells.
Lyonsia norvegica. In 76 only.
Solecurtus candidus. In 100 only.
Psammobia ferroensis. In 75 and 80 only.
Lutraria elliptica.
Tapes virginea. Frequent.
Artemis exoleta.
Cyprina islandica.
Cardium echinatum. Frequent.
,, norvegicum. Frequent.
Pectunculus glycimeris. A few small only.
Pinna pectinata. Few only.
Pecten tigrinus.

,, maximus. Numerous.

,, opercularis. Numerous.
Dentalium entalis.
Turritella communis. Few.
Aporrhais pes-pelecani. Few.
Fusus islandicus. One in 80 only.

POLYZOA.

Cellaria sinuosa. Plentiful.

,, fistulosa. Plentiful.

Bicellaria ciliata. Frequent, attached to
Cellaria and hydroids.

Scrapocellaria scruposa. Abundant on
shells and at base of
hydroids, etc.

Bugula avicularia. Few only,

Cellepora avicularis. On hydroids. Com-
mon.

,, ramulosa. On hydroids. Com-
mon.

Crisea eburnea. Not frequent.

Pedicellina cernua. In 100 only.

Alcyonidium gelatinosuni. In 100 only,
on stones.

Incrusting Polyzoa numerous. For list
see Table VI., p. 534.

TUNICATA.

Molgula simplex. On Chaeiopterus tube

in 100.
Polycarpa varians. Numerous.
Ascidiella scabra. Few only,
Ciena iutestiualis. Few only.

Corella larvaeformis. On Cellaria in 75
and 109.

Flshe.s.

Lepadogastcr bimaculatus. Single speci-
mens in several hauls.

FROM THE EDDYSTONE GROUNDS TO START POINT.

411

Ground VIII.

Eddystone S.E. | S., about one mile distant.

Haul 48, (Dr.) with 89 B (?) C-dr.

Haul 48 resembles in all the characteristic features of its fauna the
hauls made on the fine sand of Ground VII., and it is therefore
necessary to separate it from Ground XIV., which adjoins it on the
southern side. As in the case of Ground VII. the fauna is clearly
very much influenced by that of XIV., but the abundance of Cellaria,
the nature of the hydroid fauna, the presence of Falmipes placenta, all
point to a fine sand deposit. It is not unlikely that the dredge passed
over more than one kind of bottom-deposit.

That a fine sand deposit does exist in this neighbourhood was shown
by a sample taken with the canvas dredge at the conclusion of haul 89.
The latter haul (Ground X., see p. 417) was composed almost entirely
of Ophiothrix fragilis, but when at the end of it the canvas dredge was
used, it came up full of fine sand, and with no specimens of the
ophiurid. This sample has been numbered 89 B. That the ophiurid
ground had been passed when it was obtained I have no doubt, as in all
cases where the canvas dredge has been used on grounds where
Ophiothrix was very abundant, both on the Eddystone grounds and in
other localities, a very large number of specimens of the species came
up with the sample of deposit, and the latter was always muddy gravel.

The composition of the sample 89B is therefore given here : —

II. Coarse Gravel ... ... ... 1*3 per cent.

1-5

2-8 „

6 3 „

292 „

56-8 „

20 „

[89B. Average grade of gample, 6-386. Percentage of carbonate of
lime in whole sample, 4861. Highest percentage occurs in VI., which
contains 62"73. This is one of the fine-texture deposits, in which the
percentage of grade VII. to whole sample rises above 50 per cent.

In 89 B VI. Foraminit'era were numerous, thirty-eight individuals
being counted in 0-16 grams (2| grains), or 237 per gram. In
89B VII. Foramiuifera were very numerous. The following are the
species found, in order of frequency: — Rotalia beccarii, Miliolina seminu-
lum, Truncatulina lohatula, Tcxiidaria gramen, Textidaria agglutinans,
Discorhina rosacea, Planorhidina mediterranensis, Lagena sulcata, Mdio-
lina trigonula, Miliolina hicornis. In all, ten species. — II. H. W.]

No shells were present in the sample.

III.

Medium Gravel

IV.

Fine Gravel

V.

Coarse Sand

VI.

Medium Sand

VII.

Fine Sand ...

VIII.

Silt

412 ON THE FAUNA AND BOTTOM-DErOSITS NEAR THE 30-FM. LINE

List of Species. Ground VIII.

Hydrozoa.

Campanularia Hiiicksii.

Lafoea duniosa.

Halecium lialeciniim.

Sertularella Gayi.

Seitularia argentea. A few young colonies.

Antenniilaria antenniua.

Aglaophenia myriopliylluni. Fairly com-
mou.

ACTINOZOA.

Alcyoniuni digitatum. One or two pieces
only.

ECHINODERMATA.
Palmipes placenta.

Henricia sanguinolenta. One or two only.
Asterias glacialis. One or two.

,, rubens. One only.
Opliiura ciliaris. Many.

,, albida. One.
Ophiocoma nigra. A moderate number,
Opliiotlirix fragilis. A moderate number.
Echinus esculentus.
Spataugus purpureus.

POLYCHAETA.

Hyalinoecia tubicola.

Chaetopterus variopedatus. Few only.

Pectinaria auricoma. One or two only.

Thelepus.

Protula tubularia. Few only.

Crustacea.
Eupagurus Prideauxii.
Anapagurus laevis.
Porccllana longicornis.
Galathea dispersa.
Stenorhynclius longirostris
Inachus dorsettensis.
Eurynome aspera.

Portunus depurator.

, , pusillus.
Ebalia tumefacta.
,, tuberosa.

MoLLUSCA. Living.

Pecten maximus.

,, opercularis. A few adults. Young
on hydroids common.

Aporrhais pes-pelecani. One living speci-
men.

Ovula patula. One or two only.
Pi'oneomenia aglaopheniae. On Aglao-
2}hcnia myriophylluvi.

Shells.
Eulima. With Anapagurus laevis.
Lutraria elliptica.
Cardium echinatum.
,, norvegicum.
Pecten opercularis.
Dentalium entalis.

POLYZOA.

Cellaria sinuosa. \ ^

„ , , \ in quantity.
,, nstulosa. )

Bugula avicularia.
,, flabellata.
Scrupocellaria scruposa. In quantity on

Terebellid tubes.
Bicellaria ciliata. On Serhilarclla Gayi.
Cellepora avicularis.
, , ramulosa.
Idmonea serpens.
Alcyonidium gelatinosum. A large piece.
Pedicellina cernua.

Lichenopora hispida. ) On reden oper-
Mucronella ventricosa. i cularis shell.

TUNICATA.

Ascidiella seabra.

Common on
hydroids.

Ground IX. The West Eddystone Coarse Gravel.

Hauls. 93 (Dr.) and 94 (C.-dr.).

These two hauls show the fauna of the West Eddystone coarse
gravels in its most typical form, without admixture of the fine sand
fauna, and the description of the ground will therefore be given in
some detail.

FROM THE EDDYSTONE GKOUNDS TO START POINT.

413

Bottom-deposit. A mixture of coarse gravel with fine sand. The
texture is shown by the percentage composition as follows : —

I. Stones ...

II. Coarse Gravel .

III. Medium Gravel.

IV. Fine Gravel
V. Coarse Sand

VI. Medium Sand

VII. Fine Sand

VIII. Silt

09 per cent.

44-4 „

14-0 „

10-2 „

7-5 „

5-5 „

1(3-2 „

1-2 „

69-5 per cent.

y 30-4

Percentage of carbonate of

[94. Average grade of sample, 3'66.
lime in whole sample, 1771. Percentage in each grade except I.,
which may be neglected, uniformly low ; highest in VI. at 2914 per
cent. In 94 II. 75 per cent, by weight of the gravel is Triassic,
9 per cent, derived from the Eddystone reef, 16 per cent, is Devonian,
In 94 III. 69 per cent. Triassic, 18 per cent. Eddystone reef, 13 per
cent. Devonian. Some amorphous silica, probably flint and cretaceous,
is present in this and many other samples, and is referred to elsewhere,
(p. 384.) Foraminifera are fairly numerous in VII. and numerous in VI.
The following species are present, following order of frequency : —
Rotalia ieccarii, Truncatulina lohaiula, Discorhina rosacea, Miliolina
seminulum, Flanorbulina mcditcrranensis, Textularia gramen, Bulimina
piqjoides, Lagena striata, Spiroloculina plamdata, Miliolina hicornis,
Lagena apiculata. In all, eleven species. — R H. W.]

Shells were very numerous on this ground. (See list, p. 416.) The
fauna is varied and abundant, the nature of the ground offering great
advantages, especially to fixed species.

Burrowing species. Ebalia tumefacta and Ebalia tuherosa* were very
numerous, as well as small specimens of Atelecyclus heterodon. The
other burrowing animals were one small specimen of Astropecien
irregularis and one specimen of Cardium norvegicum.

Fixed sjjccics. Hydroids which root themselves directly in the
bottom-deposit are represented by one or two specimens of Antcnnu-
laria antennina only, and Ccllaria is also practically absent, one small
piece of C. fistidosa only having been obtained.

One of the chief characteristics of the ground, and one which has
a marked influence on its general fauna, is the presence of large
numbers of Chaetopterus variopedatus. The large, leathery tubes of
these worms are found either attached to shells, joined together into
masses of considerable size, or, less frequently, apparently living freely

* Mr. Ciarstang tells mc that he lias obscrvcfl the burrowing of Ebalia in gravel in tlic
Liiboratory. Tliey fin not burrow doojjly, but rcinnin witli the fmnt jiart of the i'ai'a](ace
just above the surface.

NEW .SEUIES, — VOL. V, NO. 4. 2 E

414 ON THE FAUNA AND BOTTOM-DEPOSITS NEAR. THE 30-FM. LINE

buried in the gravel. The tubes form excellent fixing places for other
species of animals, more especially for the hydroid Halcduvi halecinum,
which is exceedingly abundant and characteristic of this ground.
Plumularia Catharina, P. ^;mn«to, and Ilalecium Beanii are also
commonly found attached to the tubes of the same worm.

Only one or two small pieces of Sertulai^ella Gayi, which was the
abundant hydroid on the fine sand, were taken here. Another charac-
teristic species is the ascidian Polycarpa varians, which is very
numerous, and seems to be attached directly to the gravel, since pieces
of gravel and shell are generally fixed all over its base when it comes
up in the dredge.

Caryophyllia Smithii is abundant on shells, especially on Pecien
shells, associated with the barnacle Pyrgoma anglicum. Alcyoniiim
diyitatum is found only in the form of small colonies on living Peden
ojjcrcularis. One specimen of Parcqjhcllia cxpansa was obtained.

Amongst other fixed species Anomia cpliippium, A. 2^tttelliformis,
Scrupocellaria scrvposa are common attached to the Chactoptcms tubes
or to shells, Bicellaria ciliata on Halccium, and incrusting polyzoa
on shells.

Wandering species. Peden opercularis is numerous, and with it
Asterias nibens and Asterias glacialis. Peden maximus is also common,
and is a characteristic species of these coarse gravel grounds, though
by no means so numerous as P. ojjercularis. Ophiotlirix fragilis, of
which only a few small specimens at the roots of hydroids and Ccllaria
were seen on the fine sand, is here very numerous. Ophiura ciliaris
is present in considerable numbers, but is by no means so plentiful as
0. fragilis. Ophiura albida, which was never taken on the fine sand,
is common, as well as Ophiactis Balli, a small species which hides away
in crevices amongst shells and Chactopterus tubes. Echinus aeutus and
esculenius are both taken.

The hermit crabs Bu2Jagurus Bernardus and E. Prideauxii are plenti-
ful, the former associated with Hydradinia echinata, the latter with
Adamsia palliata. Anapagurus laevis is very abundant, so much so
that it becomes one of the peculiar features of the ground. Inachns
dorsettensis is plentiful, covered with sponges, &c. Stcnorhynchis longi-
rostris is less abundant. Eurynome aspera was represented by several
specimens. Porcellana longicornis and Galathca dispersa are exception-
ally numerous. The polychaete fauna is abundant and varied, the
abundance of Hyalinoecia tuhicola and the presence of Hermione hystrix
being characteristic of the coarse deposit.

Living specimens of T^irritella communis, a species only represented
by single specimens on other grounds, were here numerous. Buccinum
undatum was present, and single specimens of Lima Loscomhii and

FROM THE EDDYSTONE GROUNDS TO START POINT.

415

Trochus granulatus were seen. The small sucker, Lcpadogaster bwiacu-
lahis, was the only fish taken.

List of Species.

FORAMIXIFERA.

Tnincatuliiia lobatula. On hydroids.

POUIFEIIA.

Cliona celata. Boring shells of Pecten
tnaxitmis and Fcdcti
opercularis.

Hydrozoa.
Hydractiuia echinata. On shell inhabited
by hermit crab.

Eudendrinm ramosum. Small colony,
growing on Ascidiella
scahra.

Campanularia Hincksii. Large variety,
growing on Pecten oper-
cularis shell.

Halecium haleciuuni. Very plentiful on
tubes of Chaetoptcrus
and on shells, especially
Pecten maximus.

Haleeinm Beanii. Several pieces.

Sertularella Gayi. One or two pieces only.

Hydrallraania falcata. A little only, grow-
ing on C'yprinalslandicn
shell.

Anteunularia raniosa. One or two pieces
only.

Fhiniularia pinnata. On Chaetopterus
tubes, fairly plentiful.
,, sctacea. Small variety, with

gonopliores.

,, Catharina. On Chaetopterus

tubes, common, both
ordinary and green
variety.

ACTINOZOA.

Caryopliyllia Sniilhii. Common on old
shells of Pecten maximus.

Adamsia palliata. With Eiqiagurus
Pndcauxii.

Paraphellia cxpansa. One specimen.

Alcyonium digitatum. Small colonics on
Pfclcii opercularis only.

ECIIINODERMATA.

Astropecten irregularis. One small speci-
men.

Solaster papposus. One only.

Asterias glacialis. \ „, ,.„ ,
° , \ Plentiful.

,, rubens. )

Opliiura ciliaris. Many.
,, albida. Many.
Ophiactis Balli. Plentiful.
Ophiocoma nigra. One largo one and one
small one only seen.

Ground IX.

Ophiothrix fragilis. Plentiful.
Echinus acutus. Two specimens.

,, miliaris. A few.

,, cs(!ulentus. Two specimens.

Nemertina.
Carinella superba.
Micrura fasciolata.
,, purpurea.
Tetrastemma (? Havidum).

POLYCHAETA,
Hermione hystrix. One specimen.
Lepidonotus squamatus. Very many

specimens.
Lagisca propinqua. Very many.
Halosydna gelatinosa. One only.
Hyalinoecia tubicola. Many.

Chaetopterus variopedatus. Very abund-
ant, attached to shells
and to gravel.

Polymnia nebulosa. Three specimens.

Thelepus. Very abundant.

Terebellid tuljes.

Sabella (pavonina ?).

Filogi-ana implexa. Small pieces on Pecten
opercula7-is shells.

Dasychone bombyx. Abundant.

Serpula vermicularis. Fairly plentiful,
attached to shells.

Hydroides pectinata.

Potamoceros triqueter.

Crustacea.

Pandalus brevirostris. Few only.

Eupagurus Bernhardus. Several in Bucci-
nu/ii umlatum shell.

,, Pridcauxii. With Adamsia

palliata. In Trochus
granulatus shell.
Anapagurus lacvis. Common in the
following shells, Turri-
tella communis, Natica
nitida,Mangeliagracilis,
and A^assa incrassata.

Porcellana longicornis. Plentiful.
Galatiica dispcrsa. Plentiful.
Stenorhynciius longirostris. Common.

Less plentiful than

Inachus.

Inachus dorsettensis. Common.

Eurynome aspera. A number of speci-
mens.

Portunus pusillus. One or two.

41G ON THE FAUNA AND BOTTOM-DEPOSITS NEAR THE 30-FM. LINE

Atelecyclus heterodon. Many small speci-
mens.

Ebalia timiefacta. ) -^

> Very numeroiis.
, , tuberosa. )

Balanus, sp. Common on shells.

Scalpellum vulgare. Attached to base of
Halecium halecimim,

Pyrgoma anglicum. Associated with
Garyophyllia Smithii.

JIoLLXTSCA. Living.

Saxicava rugosa, var. arctica. On Peden
maximus shell.

Cardium norvegicnm. One living only.
Modiola modiolus. Small, on Peden
opcrcnlaris shells.

Lima Loscombii. One living.
Pecten maximus. Many.

, , opercularis. Mauy.
Anomia ephippium. i Many small ones

„ patellifonuis. 1 on shells.
Chiton asellus. On Peden shells.
Pileopsis hungaricus. One specimen.
Trochus gramilatus. One living.
Turritella communis. ]\Iany.
Buccinum undatum. Several specimens
and spawn.

Doto fragilis. Abundant on Halecium
halecimcm.

Shells.
Lutraria elliptica.
Tapes virginea. Many,
Venus verrucosa. Few.

,, ovata. Many.
Cyprina islandica. A few only.
Cardium norvegicum. Numerous.
Pinna pectinata. One or two only.

Pecten tigrinus. Few.
,, iiiaxiiims. I'lcntiful.
,, 02)ercularis. Plentiful.

Ti-ochus granulatus. Inhabited by Eupa-
gtirus Prideauxii and
covered with Adamsia
palliata.

Turritella communis. Numerous, many
inhabited by Anapa-
gurus lacvis.

Aporrhais pes-pelecani. One shell.

Natica nitida. Shells inhabited by Ana-
pagurus lacvis.

Nassa incrassata. Shells inhabited by
Anapagurus laevis.

Mangelia gracilis. Shells inhabited bj-
Anapagunis laevis.

Trophon muricatus. One shell.

POLYZOA.

Cellaria fistulosa. One piece only.

Scrupocellaria scruposa. In quantity on
shells, on C'hadopterus
tubes, and on Polycaipa
varians.

Bicellaria ciliata. On Halecium Beanii.
Incrusting forms fairly common on

shells. For list see Table VI., p. 534.

TUNICATA.

Polycarpa varians. Many, attached to
shells or to gravel.

Ascidiella scabra. At base of stem of
Antenmilaria anteniiina
and Sertularella Gayi.

Botryllus, sp.

Fishes.

Lepadogaster bimaculatus. One or two
only.

Ground X. The Ophiothpjx fragilis Ground.
Hauls. 42 (Dr.), 55 (Dr.), 89 (Dr.), 95 (Dr.), and 96 (C.-dr.).
This ground lies to the west and north-west of the Eddystone,
between the medium gravel of Ground XIV. and the coarse gravel of
Grounds IX. and XI.

Bottom-deposit. Coarse gravel and muddy sand. The texture of the
sample at haul 96 was : —

II. Coarse Gravel ... ... ... 35*3 per cent.

14-3 „

9-1 „

8-9 „

16-3 „

12-1 „

3-9 „

III.

Medium Gravel

IV.

Fine Gravel

V.

Coarse Sand

VI.

Medium Sand

VII.

Fine Sand

nu.

Silt

FROM THE EDDYSTONE GROUNDS TO START POINT. 417

[96. Average grade of sample, 4-081. Percentage of carbonate of
lime in whole sample, 33'18. Highest percentage occurs in IV., which
contains 60 08 per cent. In 94 II. the gravel consists of Trias, 77 per
cent.; Eddystone reef, 13 per cent.; Devonian, 10 per cent. In 94 III.
the proportions are, Trias, 69 per cent.; Eddystone reef, 18 per cent.;
Devonian, 13 per cent. In 96 VII. Foraminifera are numerous. The
following species occur in VI. and VII., following order of frequency : —
llotalia hcccarii, Textularia gi'amen, Miliolina seminuhim, Truncatulina
lohatula, Spiroloeulina plcmulata, Lagena sulcata, Textularia agrjlutinans,
Biloculina ringens, Miliolina hicornis, Polymorphina lactea, Discorhina
rosacea. In all, eleven species. — R H. W.]

Shells were numerous. For list see p. 418.

The fauna of this gronnd is characterised by the very great abundance
of Ophiotkriv fragilis, which occurs almost to the exclusion of every
other species. The dredge comes up nearly full of these ophiurids.
In haul 89 the only other living species taken was Ophiocoma nigra, of
which there were a few large specimens. In the remaining hauls a few
specimens of other species were obtained, but generally not more than
one or two in each. These species, as will be seen from the following
list, consist of immigrants from the grounds on either side, that is, from
the medium gravel of Ground XIV. and from the coarse gravel of
Ground IX. Ground X, may be regarded as a great centre of distri-
bution of Ophiothrix fragilis, from which it extends on all sides on to
the surrounding grounds (Chart VIII.). The ophiurids were found to
be feeding on the fine silt, of which there is a somewhat high
percentage in the bottom-deposit.

List of Species. Ground X.
A. Haul 89.

ECIIINODERMATA. MOLLUSCA. Sliclls.

Ophiothrix fragilis. Dredge half full. Pecten operciilaris. A few only.

Ophiocoma nigra. A few, large.

B. Hauls 42, 55, 95.

(B). Hyduozoa. Antciinularia anteuuiua. Not plentiful.
Eudcndriuni, s;j. ^wvAWsp.woiE.capillarc, „ ramosa. One piece in 42

in 55 only, growing on o\\\y.

Ilildndlmania, which Aglaophenia tulmlifera. In 55 only, grow-

was fixed to a stone. m>;on Pu/i/carjiavariaus.

Canipaniiiaiia iiiuuksii. riunmlaria Catharina. Green variety iu
Lafoea duinosa, var. roljusta. In 55 only. 55 only.

Halecium halccinum. Not i)leiitiful.

Most abundant in 55. (15). Actinozoa.

Halecium Beanii. Not i)lentiful. Alcyonium digitatum. Young colonics on

Sertularelia llayi. Not iilcntiful. Largest I'lxlcn opercular is. One

(quantity in 55. or two only.

Hydrallniania falcata. In 55 only, grow- Sarcodictyon catcnata. A small <|uantily

ing on a stone. iu 95 only.

418 ON THE FAUNA AND BOTTOM-DEPOSITS NEAR THE 30-FM. LINE

Caryophyllia Smitliii. Fairly plentiful on

shells.
Adamsia palliata. With Eupagurus

Prideanxii in 42 only.

(B). ECHINODEKMATA.

Porania pul villus. One specimen in 42
only.

Solaster iiapposus. A few small.

Asterias glacialis. j _, , ,

° , > One or two only.

,, rubens. ;

Ophiara ciliaris. One or two specimens
in each haul.

Ophiactis Balli. Few.

Ophiocoma nigra. One in 42, one small
one in 95.

Ophiothrix fragilis. In very large num-
bers.

Echinus acutus. One in 42 only.
, , miliaris.

,, esculentus. In 55. One small
one in 42.

Spatangus purpureus. One or two in each
haul.

(B). Nemeetina.
Drepanophorus rubrostriatus. In 55 only.

(B). TOLYCHAETA.

Hermione hystrix. One in 42 only.

Lepidonotus squaraatus. One in 95 only.

Lagisca propinqua. One in 95 only,

Hyalinoecia tubicola. One in 95 only.

Chaetopterus variopedatus. A few speci-
mens in each haul.

Pectinaria auricoma. One in 42 only.

Nicolea venustula. In 55 only.

Terebellid tubes.

Sabella (pavonina ?). One or two in 95.

Dasychone bombyx. In 55 only.

Protula tubularia. Few onlj'.

Serpula vermicularis. Few only.

Hydroides pectinata. Few only.

(B). Crustacea.
Eupagurus Bernhardus. One or two in 95

only.
,, Prideauxii. One or two in 42

only.
Porcellana longicornis.
Galathea dispersa. In 55 only.
Stenorhyiiclius longirostris. In 55 only

(the haul iu which

liydroids wcrc])lcntiful),
Portunus pusillus. Not numerous.

Atelecychis heterodon. Two or three in
a haul.

Ebalia tuniefactii. ^ Few only. None
,, tuberosa. .• in 55.

Balanus crenatus. On Pcden opcrcidaris.

Scalpelluni vulgare. On Ilalccium hale-
cimcm in 55 only.

(B). MoLLUSCA. Living.
Astarte sulcata. Plentiful in 95 only.
Cardiuia norvcgicum. In 42 only.
Kellia suborbicularis. In 42 only, in line
mud in bivalve mollusc
shells.
Pecten maximus. A few in each haul.

,, opercularis. Few only.
Anoniia epliippium. | Chielly on Fedcn

„ patellirormis. ) opercularis.
Chiton asellus.

Pileopsis hungaricus. On Pcden oper-
cularis in 95.
Emarginula reticulata. One or two only.
Aporrhais pes-pelecani. One in 55 only.
Buccinum undatum. Few only.

Dondersia banyulensis. On Lafoea du-
mosa, var. rohusta in
55 only.

Shells.
Lutraria elliptica.
Tapes virginea.
Venus ovata.
Astarte sulcata.
Cardium echinatum. One in 42 only.

, , norvcgicum.
Pinna pectinata. One in 42 only.
Lima Loscombii.
Pecten tigrinus.

,, maximus.

,, opercularis. Numerous.
Dentaliuni entalis.
Aporrhais pes-pelecani. One in 42 only.

(B). POLYZOA.

Cellaria sinuosa. \ Scarce. Most plentiful

,, fistulosa. / in 55.
Scrupocellaria scruposa. \
IJugula avicularia. > In 55 only.

,, flabellata. )

Cellepora ramulosa. i On hydroids in 55
Pedicellina cernua. i only.

IniTustiiig polyzoa only moderately
plentiful. For list see Table VI.

(B). TUNIGATA.

Polycarpa variaus. Several specimens in

a haul.

(B). Fishes.
Lepadogaster bimaculatus. Single speci-
mens in u haul.

FROM THE EDDYSTONE GROUNDS TO START POINT. 419

Ground XI. The North- West Eddystone Coarse Gravel.

Hauls. 8 (Dr.), 9 (Dr.), 46 (Dr.), 47 (Dr.), 84 (Dr. and C.-dr.).

This ground lies just to the eastward of the Hand Deeps, and at a
distance of two to three miles from the Eddystone. The dredgings
were generally commenced on the line passing through the old and new
Eddystone Lighthouses.

Bottom-deposit. Coarse gravel mixed with fine sand.

The texture, as indicated by percentage composition, is as follows, in
the sample taken at haul 84 : —

II. Coarse Gravel ... ... ... 47*6 per cent.

III. Medium Gravel ... ... ... 14*o „

IV. Fine Gravel 7-5

V. Coarse Sand ... ... . . . 4'0 „

VI. Medium Sand 5-9

VII. Fine Sand 17-7

VIII. Silt 2-8

[84. Average grade of sample, 3704. Percentage of carbonate of
lime in whole sample, 34'66. Highest percentage occurs in IV.,
which contains 64'90. In 84 VI. Foraminifera are not numerous.
Twenty-one were counted in 0'45 grams (seven grains) of this grade,
or 46 per gram. In 84 VII. Foraminifera are not numerous. In
these grades the following foraminifera were found, arranged in order
of frequency : — Truncatulina lobatula, Textidaria gramcn, liotalia
heccarii, Planorhulina mcdiierranensis, Discorbina rosacea, MilioliTui
hicornis, Bolivina dilatata, Miliolina scnmiulum, Bulimina pupoidcs,
Lagena orhignyana, Nodosaria sp., Polymorphina lactea. In all, twelve
species. — R. H. W.]

Shells are plentiful. For list see p. 422.

The principal difTerence of texture between this sample and that of
Ground IX., which seems to be of importance, is the larger percentage
of sand and silt in the present case, 18 per cent, and 3 per cent,
respectively, as against 10 per cent, and 1 per cent, on Ground IX.

As will be seen by comparing the two faunas, the great difference
between them is the presence or greater abundance on the present
ground (XI.) of species typical of the fine sand grounds, which species
are scarce or absent on Ground IX. Since the general nature of the
fauna of the two grounds (IX. and XI.) is very similar, I shall assuiue
in the following account of Ground XI. that the reader is acquainted
with the nature of the fauna of Ground IX., which is the typical
coarse gravel fauna, and shall confine myself to pointing out the
differences between the two grounds. This method of treatment

420 ON THE FAUNA AND BOTTOM-DEPOSITS NEAR THE 30-FM. LINE

should bring out clearly the fact that line saud species are more
abundant on Ground XI. than on the typical Gravel Ground IX.

Burrovjing species. Ehalia tumcfacta and Ehalia tuherosa are
decidedly less numerous in XI. than in IX. Atekcyclus hetcrodon, of
which small specimens are numerous in IX., is not abundant in XI.
Gardium norvegicum, which was represented by one specimen in IX,,
was not taken in XI. Dentalmm entalis, which was absent in IX., was
present in one haul (47) in XI.

Fixed species. The only species common on the typical Coarse Gravel
IX., which is scarce in XI., is Folyccwpct varians, of which one or two
specimens were taken in haul 47 only. On the other hand : —

Seriularella Gayi is much more common on XI. than it is on IX.

Antcnmdaria antennina. Common on XI., is scarce on IX.
,, ramosa. „ XI. „ IX.

AglaoiJhenia myrioijhyllum. Occasionally taken on XL, is absent on
IX.

Ascidiella scahra is more common on XI. than it is on IX.

Cellaria sinuosa ) , vt ^.i tv

_, „ , ^ [-are much more common on XI. than on IX.

Cellaria fistulosa )

Proneomenia aglaophcniae was found on XL, clinging to the stalk of
Aglaophenia myrio2)hyllum.

Wandering species. Pccten opercidaris and Pecten maximus, which are
common on the typical Gravel Ground IX., are scarce or absent on XL,
and with them Asterias ruhens and A. glacialis become scarce. The
following species also, which are common on IX., are scarce or absent
on XI. : — Ojjhiura albida, Eupagurus Bcrnliardus, Eiipagurus Prideauxii,
Anapagurus laevis, and Turritella communis.

List of Species. Gkound XL

Hydrozoa.

Eudeudrium sp. Small species, not
capillare.

liouyainvillia ramosa. One piece in 84
only.

Clytia Johustoui. Plentiful on hydroids
and shells.

Lafoea dumosa. Creeping form only.

,, I'rutieosa. Pliiiilirul in 84 only.

Halecium halecinum. Pkntirul, growing
on ChiuUiptcrus tubes
and on shells, esi)ccially
Pecten maximus shells.

„ Beauii, Plentiful, growing on
C'hactoplerus tubes and
on shells, esi)ecially
Feden maximus shells.

Sertulai-ella Gayi. Plentiful, attached to
pol3'eliaete tubes (es-
pecially Chactopkrus),
or less frequently to
shells. Not so conmion
as Halecium.

Sertularella polyzonias. Less common
than S. Gayi.

Antennularia antennina. Common, lixed
in till' sand by felt-work
of libres, or attached to
Chaetojttcrus tubes.

„ ramosa. Less common than

A.antcnniiui. Often fixed
to Ckc(cto2)terus tubes.

Aglaophenia myriophyllum. Generally
abundant, fixed in the
.sand by felt-w'ork of
libres.

FROM THE EDDYSTONE GROUNDS TO START POINT.

421

Plunuilaria pinnata. On stems of Hale-
cium or other hydroids.

,, setacea. In 84 only, gi-owing

on stem oi Antcnnularia
antennina.

„ Catharina. Plentiful, gener-

ally growing on C/ucc-
topterus tubes.

ACTINOZOA.

Adamsia palliata. One specimen in 8
only, surrounding a Tro-
chus granulaius shell.

Paraphellia expansa. Three or four speci-
mens covered with sand.

Caryophyllia Smithii. Attached to shells,
often Pcctcn maxi)iius
shells.

Alcyonium digitatum. One or two small
colonies only in each
haul.

ECHINODERMATA .

Astropecten irregularis. In 47 only.
Pabnipes placenta. Two or three speci-
mens in 8 and 9.

Solaster papposus. Small specimens (1 to
2 in. diam.) only.

Asterias glacialis. Not numerous.

,, rubens. Generally not numerous,
but several large ones
in 84.
Ophiura ciliaris. Abundant.

Ophiactis Balli. Generally present, hiding
in crevices of shells,
Chaetoptcrus tubes, &c.

Ophiocoma nigra. Large specimens fairly
plentiful in 47. Absent
in other hauls.

Ophiothrix fragilis. Abundant.

Echinus acutus. One or two generally
present.

, , miliaris. Numerous.

, , esculentus. Not numerous,

Nemehtixa.
Eupolia curta. One specimen in 47 only.

POLYCHAETA.

Lepidonotus S(|uamatus. Not numerous.

Lagisca propin(pui. One in 9 only.

Hyaliuoecia tubicola. Several in each
haul.

Nereis pelagica. Few in 8 only.

Chaetoptcrus variopedatus. Plentiful in
all hauls.

Thelepus. Plentiful.

Tercbellid tubes.

Sabclla (pavonina?).

Sabellaria spinulosa. One in S only.

Ilydioides ptetiuala.

Potamoceros triqueter.

Eurylepta cornuta.
Phascoliou strombi.

Crustacea.

Eupagurus Bernhardus. One full-sized
one in 84 and one small
one in 9.
,, cuancnsis. Not plentiful.

Anapagurus laevis. In 9 only.

Porcellana longicornis. Conmion.

Galathea dispersa. Common.

Stenorhynchus longirostris. Not plentiful.

Inachus dorsettensis. Not plentiful.

Eurynome aspera. One or tw-o generally
taken.

Portuuus pusillus. Often numerous.

Atelecyclus heterodon. One in 47, one
small one in 84.

Ebalia tumefacta. "I

. , I Two or three generally

" tuberosa. V present in each haul.

, , Cranchii. )

Balanus crcnatus. On Pccten opcrcularis.

Scalpellum vulgare. On stem of Ualc-
cium and Antennularia.

Pyrgoma anglicum.

Phthisica marina.

Erichthonius abditus. Forming tubes on
stem of Sertularella
Gayi.

A Caprellid. On Antennularia.
MoLLTJSCA. Liviiuj.

Saxicava rugosa, var. arctica. Numerous,
attached to shells, roots
of hydroids, &c.

Venus fasciata. One specimen in 9 only.

Kellia suborbicularis. Living in the mud
inside empty bivalve
mollusc shells.

Modiola modiolus.

Lima Loscombii. In 46 only.

Pecten tigrinus. One in 47 only.

,, maxinius. One or two generally
taken.

,, opercularis. Few adults. Small
ones attached to hy-
droids numerous.

AuDMiia ephippiuni.
Dcutalium entails. In 47 only.
Pileopsis hungaricus. Attached to .shells.
Emarginula reticulata. Common on shells.

,, rosea. In 8 only.

Trochus granulatus. One in 9 onij'.
Kwlinia polita. One large specimen in 84.
Natica iiilida. In 46 only.
LamuUaiia pcrspicua.

422 ON THE FAUNA AND BOTTOM-DEPOSITS NEAR THE 30-FM. LINE

Buccinum uiulatum. Generally two or
three specimens.

Proneonicnia aglaopheniac. Occasionally
found, on stem of
Aijlaophcniaimjrioplnjl-
lum.

Scaphander lignarius.
Doto fragilis.

On Ualccium halccinum.

Shells.

Lyonsia uorvegica. One or two only.

Solen ensis. One or two only.

Tcllina donacina. Few only.

Tapes virginca. Numerous.

Artemis exoleta. Numerous.

Cardium echinatum. Few only.

,, norvegicum.

Lima Losconibii. Many in 46 only.

Pecten maximus. Fairly numerous.

,, opcrcularis. Abundant. (Few in
84.)

Dentalium entalis.

Troclius granulatus. One in 8, with
Adamsia imlliatM.

Turritella communis. Few.

POLYZOA.

Cellaria sinuosa. 1 „ , . ,

„ fistuiosa. r ''^ ^" ^"^-g*^ i"""*^*y-

Bicellaria ciliata. Fixed to hydroids, &c.

Scrupocellaria scruposa. Fixed to the
base of hydroids and to
shells. Plentiful.

Cellepora avicularis. ^

1 I Attached to hy-

Idmonea serpens. '

Incrusting species not very numerous.
For list see Table VI., ^i. 534.

TUNICATA.

Molgula oculata. In 47 only.

,, s}). In 46.
Polycarpa varians. One or two large in

47 only.
Ascidiella venosa. Few,

, , scabra. Few only.

Ground XII.
Edge of Hand Deeps.
Haul 83 (Dr. and C-dr,).
Buttom-deposit. Medium gravel mixed with some mud.

Texture :-

II. Coarse Gravel

III. Medium Gravel

IV. Fine Gravel
V. Coarse Sand

VI. Medium Sand

VII. Fine Sand...

VIII. Silt

[83. Average grade of sample
lime in whole sample, 40 '74 Hi

, 27-9 per cent.
28-3 „
14-1 „
6-0 „
7-3 „
8-3 „
■ 8-2 „
•94G. Percentage of carbonate of

ghest percentage occurs in V., which
contains G2-29. In II. over 90 per cent, by weight of the rock con-
stituents are Triassic, and only about 8 per cent, derived from the
Eddystone reef. In III. over 70 per cent, by weight of the rock
constituents are Triassic, over 18 per cent, derived from the Eddystone
reef, and about 10 per cent, are Devonian. In 83 VI. Foraminifera are
particularly abundant, as also in 83 VII. In these grades the following
species occur, arranged in order of frequency : — Truncatulina lohatida,
Miliolina scminulum, Spiroloculma 2danulata, liotalia hcccarii, Dis-
corhina rosacea, Textularia gramcn, Tcxtularia agghUinans, Miliolina
hicornis, Lagcna orhignyana, Planorhdina mediterrancnsis, Bolivina
dilatata, Spirilllna vivipara, Biloculina ringens, BiUimina pupoidcs. In
all, fourteen species. — U. II. W.]

FROM THE EDDYSTONE GKOUNDS TO START POINT.

423

Shells are plentiful.

The fauna of this haul was comparatively poor both in number of
species and in number of specimens. It will be seen that the species
taken consist in about equal numbers of those typical of the fine sand,
as found on Grounds I. and III., and of those typical of the coarse
gravel, as found on Ground IX.

Burrowmg species. There was no burrowing species recorded in the
haul.

Fixed species. Of species fixing by masses of root-fibres to the
bottom-deposit, Antcnnidaria antennina was abundant, and Antennu-
laria ramosa and Ar/laophcnia Tnyriophyllum, the latter bearing
Froneomenia aglaopheniac, were present in smaller quantity. Ccllaria
was represented only by one fragment of C. fistulosa. There was a
moderate number only of Chaetopterus variojjcdatus and a small
quantity of Halecium hcdecinum. ScrUdarella Gayi was plentiful
fixed as on the fine sand grounds to the tubes of Thelcpus {cincinatus ?).
A few other hydroids were present, as will be seen from the list.
One specimen of Ascidiella scahra was found, attached to the base of
Antennidaria antennina. There were few incrusting Polyzoa. One
specimen of Lepadogaster Mmaculatus was taken.

Wandering species. Ophiura ciliaris and Ophiothrix fragilis were
both numerous, but only one specimen of Asterias glacialis anfl of
Ecliinus esculentus was taken. Single specimens of JSapagiirus Bcrn-
hardiis, Eurynome aspcra, Pecten maxinius, and Buecinum undatiini
were found, and a few half-grown Pecten opercidaris.

List of Species.

Hydrozoa.

Eudcndrium ramosum. Fairly plentiful.

,, sp. Small species, not E.

capillare.

Boiigainvillia ramosa. Small variety in

quantity.
Campanularia Hincksii. On Ccllaria

fistulosa.
Halecium halecinum. Small quantity only.
Sertularclla Gayi. Plentiful.

,, i)olyzonias. Moderate quantity.

Antenmilaria antennina. Plentiful.

,, ramosa. One or two pieces

only.
Aglaophenia myriophyllum. One or two

pieces only.
I'himularia pinnata. Small (jiiantity.

[.tntcnnularia anlcnnlna and ramosa
were mueli more plvntifiil in lliis liaiil
tlian in S-1 on Ground XI. In SI Huh-
cium halecinum was much moie common.]

Ground XII.

ECHIXODEKMATA.

Asterias glacialis. One large specimen.

Ophiura ciliaris. Eight or ten specimens.

Ophiactis Balli. One in an empty Chae-
topicrus tulie.

Ophiocoma nigra. One small one only.

Ophiothrix fragilis. Very many.

Echinus esculentus. One.

POLYCIIAETA.

Ciiactoiiterus variopedatus. Few only.

Pectinaria anricoma. One onl}".

Thelcpus.

Dasyclioue bonibyx. Several.

Ckustacea.

Kupagurus I'l inhardns. One in Uuccinum

uiidiilum sIk'11.
lMir\ niiiiir asiii'ia. ( )iir.

Scaliic lliiiii vul,!:;are. On Ualccium hale-
ciniiin.

424 ON THE FAUNA AND BOTTOM-DEPOSITS NEAK THE 30-FM. LINE

Eiiclitliouius abditus. Forming tubes on
Sertularella Uaiji.

MoLLUSCA. Living.

!Modiola modiolus. Small specimens only.

Pecteu maximus. One only.

,, opercularis. A few half-gi'own
ones.

Anomia epliipiiium. Small, abundant on

Chaet02)tcrus tubes.
Buccinum undatum. One.

Proneomenia aglaopheniae. On Aijlao-
2>hc)iia myriopItijUum.

Doto fragilis. On Ilalccium halccinum.

Shells.
Lutraria elliptica.
Cyprina islandica.
Cardiura cclunatum.

,, norvegicuni. Small shells only.
Pecteu maximus. One.

Peeten opercularis. Many.

Buccinum undatum. Witli Eupagurus
Bcrnhardus.

POLYZOA.

Cellaria fistulosa. One small piece only.

Idmonea serpens.

Cellepora avicularis.

Few incrusting Polyzoa. Shells mostly
clean.

On P. opercularis shells : —

Schizoj)orella linearis.

Porella conciuna.

Scliizoporella auriculata.

Rhynchopora bispinosa.

TUNICATA.

Ascidiella scabra. One at root of Ajiten-
nularia antennina.

Pisces.
Lepadogaster bimaculatus.

One.

Ground XIII.

One mile south-east of the Eddystone.
Haul 103 (Dr.).

Bottom-deposit. The bottom-deposit consists of a mixture of shell-
gravel of medium texture, with a considerable quantity of mud. This
is shown by the following figures expressing the composition of the
sample : —

... 13*4 per cent.

290

17-0 „

6-2 „

6-9 „

10-4 „

17-1 „

[103. Average grade of sample, 4"638. Percentage of carbonate
of lime in whole sample, GTIS. Highest percentage occurs in III,,
which contains 90'50 per cent. This grade, which constitutes 29 per
cent, of the whole sample, is the predominant grade in the sample.
The rock constituents in 103 II. are proportioned as follows: — Trias,
79 per cent.; Eddystone reef, 17 per cent.; Devonian, 4 per cent.;
while 103 III. contains little or no Devonian, but Trias and Eddystone
reef materials in the proportion of 74 per cent, and 26 per cent. 0"13
grams (two grains) of 103 VII. contained 203 foraminifera, or 1562
per gram, a large number as compared with nearly every other sample.

II.

Coarse Gravel

III.

Medium Gravel

IV.

Fine Gravel

V.

Coarse Sand

VI.

Medium Sand

VII.

Fine Sand

nil.

Silt

FROM THE EDDYSTONE GROUNDS TO STAllT POINT. 425

except perhaps 89B. The following species of foraminifera occur in 103
VI. and VII., arranged in ord'er of hiHinency. — TrimcatuIina lobatula,
Rotalia heccarii, Textularia gramen, MilioUna scminulum, Bulimina
pupoidcs, Discorhina rosacea, Lagena orhignyana, Bolivina dilatata,
Polymorphina lactea, MilioUna irigonula, Textularia agglutinans,
Spirillina vivipara, Glohigerina hulloides. In all, fourteen species — the
largest number of distinct species found in any of the samples. —
R H. W.]

Shells are numerous. For list see p. 42G.

It is possible that the accumulation of silt at this place may be due
to its being somewhat sheltered from the south-westerly swells by the
Eddy stone reef, which runs out in a southerly direction. Rocky ground
was found due south of the lighthouse, at a distance of one mile (hauls
31 and 78. See Chart I.).

Fauna. The fauna has many points in common with that of the
gravel and fine sand grounds to the west of the Eddystone {e.g.,
Ground IX.). Chactopterus, for instance, is very plentiful and with
it Halecium Jialccinum and Flwnularia Catharina. Ophiothrix fragilis
is also very abundant, and the Echinoderm and Crustacean faunas
are similar to those of Ground IX. There are, however, some marked
points of difference between the two grounds. Pecten opercularis,
which was plentiful on Ground IX., is scarce on XIII., and with
it Asterias ruhens and A. glacialis are scarce. Many full-sized speci-
mens of Atelecyclus heterodon were taken on Ground XIII., which
may be regarded as a centre of distribution for this species, whilst on
Ground IX. the specimens, though numerous, were all small.^' On the
other hand, TurriteUa communis, of which living specimens were
numerous on IX , was not taken on XIII., and Polycarpa varians, the
abundance of which was one of the features of IX., was represented by
a few small specimens only in XIII. TTycdinoecia tuhicola, as on
Ground IX., was plentiful.

Species typical of the fine sand grounds were absent or represented
only by stray specimens.

The presence of several fair-sized pieces of Alcyonium digitatum, of
vrhich only very small colonies were taken growing on P. opercularis on
Ground IX., is noteworthy, and, like the large quantity of silt in the
bottom-deposit, may be due to the more sheltered position of the
ground. {Cf. p. 376.) The masses of Filogmna implexa also were much
larger here than on any other ground examined.

* Haul 93 (Ground IX.) wa.s made on March 3rd, 1898, and haul 103 (Ground XIII.) on
May 26tli, 1898. The diirerence in size between the .specimens on tlie two gioiui<ls was
prohably greater than would he accounted for hy growth lietwcon tlic two dates, tliougli in
tlie absence of direct eviilencc tlie j>oiiit is somewiiat uncertain.

42G ON THR KAUNA AND BOTTOM-DEPOSITS NEAR THE SO-FM. LINE

List of Species. Ground XIII.

Hydrozoa.

Lafoca tlumosa, var. robusta. Plentiful.
Halocium halecinnin. Plentiful.
Sertularella Gayi. Scarce.
Hydrallmania falcata. A little.
Antcnuularia aiiteunina.
Aglaoplioiiia niyrioiiliyllum.
Plumularia pinnata.
, , Catharina.

ACTIXOZOA.

Caryoiihj'llia Smithii. On shells.
Alcyouiuni digitatuni. Several pieces.
Sarcodictyon catenata. A little on shells,
Adamsia palliata. Few only, with Eu-
pagurus Pridcauxii.

ECHINODERMATA.

Thyone fusus. One large specimen.
Solaster pap]iosua. One.
Asterias rubens. One.
Ophiura ciliaris. One.

,, albida. Several.
Ophiactis Balli. rientiful in crevices
amongst Chaetoj)terus
tubes.
Ophiotlnix fragilis. Many.
Echinus miliaris.

,, esculentus. One only.
Echinocyamus pusillus.

Nkmrktixa.
Aniiihiporus pulcher.
Micrura purpurea.
, , fasciolata.

POLYCHAKTA.
Lcpidonotus squamatus. Two specimens.
Lagisca propinqua. Five specimens.
Hyalinoccia tubicola. Several.
Lumbriconereis, small. One only.
Chactoptcrusvarioi)cdatiis. \'erynumcrou.s.
Polymuia nebulosa. One large' specimen.
Polycirrus aurantiacus. Two specimens.
Filograna iniplexa. Considerable quantity.
Dasychone boml)yx. Three large speci-
mens.
Serpula vcrmicularis.
Hydroides pcctinata.

Crustacea.

Eupagurus Prideauxii. Few only.

,, cuanensis. In Aporihais pes-

pelecani shell.

Porcellana longicornis.

Galathea dispersa. Plentiful.

Stenorhynchus longirostris.

Inachus dorsettensis. Dressed with
sponges, Compound As-
cidians, Anomia, and
small Serpulids.

Eurynome aspcra. Few only.

Portunus depurator.

Atelecyclus heterodon. Numerous.

Ebalia tuberosa.

Mollusca. Living.
Saxicava rugosa, var. arctica.
Astarte sulcata. One living.
Nucula nucleus. One living.
Pecten tigrinus. One living.
Pecten maximus.

,, opercularis. A few only.
Anomia ephippium. Large specimens.

,, patelliformis.
Trochus granulatus. One living.
Eulima polita. One large living specimen.
Buccinum uudatum. One small one.
Cypraea europaea.

Doto fragilis. On Halecium hcdecinum.

Shells,

L3'onsia norvegica. One.

Tapes virginea.

Venus ovata.

Cardium echinatum.

, , norvegicum.

Nucula nucleus.

Pectunculus glycimeris. One small shell.

Pecten maxinms. Numerous.

,, opercularis. ,,

Aporrhais pes-pelecani. Shell inhabited
by Eiqjagurus cuannisis.

Polyzoa.

Ccllaria sinuosa. ) . ,.,,, ,
> A little only.

,, iistulosa. *
Scrupocellaria scruposa.

Many incrusting forms on shells.

TUNICATA.

Ascidiella scabra. Few only.

Polycarpa variaus. A few small.

Styelopsis grossularia Squat variety
plentiful on Pecten
shells.

Compound ascidian on Sertularella Gayi,

Pisces.
Lepadogaster bimaculatus. One,

III.

Medium Gravel

IV.

Fine Gravel

V.

Coarse Sand

VI.

Medium Saud

VII.

Fine Sand ...

VIII.

Silt

FROM THE EDDYSrONE GROUNDS TO START POINT. 427

Ground XIV. The West Eddystone Fine Gravel.

Havls. 73 (O.-tr.), 74 (Dr.), 35 (Dr.), 36 (O.-tr.), 88 (Dr.), 41 (Dr.),
85 (C.-dr. and Dr.), 58 (Dr.), 59 (Dr.).

Bottom-dc2')osit. Fine gravel. A sample with the canvas dredge was
taken only at haul 85, and had the following texture : —

II. Coarse Gravel ... ... ... 41 per cent.

1/ y

... ... Jo'l ,,

21-0 „

23-4 „

5-2 „

0-6 „

[85. Average grade of sample, 4*597. Percentage of carbonate of
lime in whole sample, 27'87. Highest percentage occurs in II., which
contains 56'00 per cent., but this grade is only present in small propor-
tion, and III. at 39"50 per cent, is more reliable. Practically speaking
in grades II. and III. 66 per cent, by weight of the rock fragments are
Triassic, 28 per cent, derived from the Eddystone reef, and 6 per cent,
apparently Devonian. A great feature in this sample is the evidence of
long-continued and somewhat violent wave action, presented by the
beautifully rounded and polished form of the quartz grains and other
constituents of the gravels and sands, especially in the finer grades.
This will be found referred to at greater length elsewhere (pp. 376 and
385). Foraminifera are not numerous, the smaller varieties are absent,
and Milioline forms largely predominate. The following species were
found in VI. and VII., and have been arranged in order of frequency : —
Miliolina seminulum, Rotalia beccarii, Textularia gramen, Tcxlularia
agghitincms, Miliolina bicornis, Discorbina rosacea, Biloculina ringcns.
In all, seven species. — E. H. W.]

Shells were numerous (for list see p. 430). The material of the
gravel in the above sample was largely inorganic, but in some of the
other hauls, where no samples were taken with the canvas dredge,
there were indications of the deposit containing a much larger quantity
of broken shell, more nearly approaching that of Ground XVI.
(Haul 87.)

Biivroiving sjjccics. The most characteristic burrowing animals on
this ground are Spatangus ^;?<?7?2«'ews, Cardium norvegicum, and
Drepanophorus rubrostria tus.

Fixed species. Very few hydroids are present, the most common
forms being Halecium halecinum and Halecium Beanii fixed to the
tubes of Chactopterus, which is moderately plentiful, but nut nearly so

428 ON THE FAUNA AND BOTTOM-DEPOSITS NEAR THE 30-FM. LINE

numerous as on the typical coarse gravel and sand of Ground IX.
The scarcity of hydroids may be due to the disturbance of the deposit
by periodic wave action, the existence of which, as pointed out above,
is also shown by the rounded and polished quartz grains. One of the
characteristic features of the fauna is the presence of large specimens
of Polycarpa varians attached to the gravel. CaryoiJhyllia Smithii is
plentiful on shells and Sarcodictyon catc7iata is also not uncommon. There
are few branched polyzoa, but incrusting forms on shells are numerous.
Wandering species. The presence of I'orania pulvilhts in considerable
numbers, and of Luidia Sarsi in small numbers, must be regarded as
characteristic. Ophioihrix fragilis is plentiful, but Ophiura ciliaris,
though generally present, is never numerous. Echinus esculentus and
£. acutus are not uncommon. Pectcn opercularis was very numerous
in some hauls, but scarce in others, the abundance of A. (jlacialis and
A. o^ubcns varying with that of the mollusc. Two or three specimens
of Pccten maximus were present in each haul, and must be considered
as one of the characteristic features of the ground. Crustaceans were
not numerous ; the species represented were those typical both of the
fine sand and of the coarse gravel.

Considering the fauna of this ground as a whole, one may regard it
as composed of four elements, viz. (1), a fauna of its own, represented
by an abundance of Folycarpa varians, Porania pulvilhis, Pecten oper-
cularis, Cardiuni norvcgicum, Echinus esculentus, and E. acutus; (2)
many species found on the coarse gravel grounds, c.^., Ophiothrix fragilis
(abundant), Ohaetopterus variopedatus and its associates, Ehalia tumefacta
and tidjerosa ; (3) species characteristic of the clean shell gravel of the
neighbouring Ground XVI., e.g., Spatangus purpureus, Sarcodictyon
catenata ; (4) a few immigrants from the fine sand grounds, e.g.,
Sertularella Gayi (scarce), Astropecten irregularis (an occasional small
specimen only), Ophiura ciliaris, and Ascidiella scabra.

List of Species. Ground XIV.

POHIFERA.
Snberites domuncula.
Cliona celata. Common, boring sliells.

Hyduozoa.
Hydractinia ecliinata. In 73 only.
Clytia Johnstoni. On hydroids in 73.

Campanularia Hincksii. On liydroids and

on sliells.
Lafoea duniosa, vnr. rolnista. Recorded

in 58 only.
Halci'iiini lialcciiiuiu. Fairly abnndant

on Chnriojilrriis tubes

and on sliells.

Halecium Beanii. Small quantity in 59
only.

,, labrosuin. One colony in 73.

Sertularella Gayi. Small quantity only.

,, polyzonias. Small quantity

only.

Sertularia argentea. A little in 35 only.

llydrallmania falcata. A few colonies
only.

Aiitcinnilaria antenniiia. A few colonics
only.
„ raniosa. A few eolnnies

only.

FROM THE EDDYSTONE GROUNDS TO START POINT.

429

Plumularia pinnata. In 35 only.

,, Catharina. Green variety in

58 only.

ACTINOZOA.

Adamsia palliata. On shell inhabited by
Eupagurus Prideauxii
in 73 only.

Caryophyllia Sniithii. Plentiful on shells.

Alcyonium digitatuni. A few small colonies
only, chiefly on Pccten
opcrcularis.

Sarcodictyon catenata. Good colonies on
shells in 41 and 58, in
latter case on Lutraria
elliplka shell.

ECHINODERMATA.

Astropecten irregularis. One or two speci-
mens, generally small,
in a haul. One or two
large specimens in 58.

Luidia Sarsi. One specimen in each of
the hauls 73 and 36
(Otter-trawl).

Porania pul villus. Plentiful in 73 and 36.

Solaster papposus. Few specimens, gener-
ally small.

Henrieia sanguiuolenta. One specimen in
36 and in 88.

Asterias glacialis. Generally plentiful.
Some very large speci-
mens.
,, rubens. Comparatively few.
Much less numerous
than A. glacialis.

Opliiura ciliaris. One or two specimens
in each haul.

,, albida. Not numerous.
Ophiactis Balli. Fairly numerous amongst
Chaetoptcrus tubes, &c.
Ophiocoma nigra. Few or none.
Oiihiothrix fragilis. Numerous.
Echinus acutus. Present in 36, 73, and 74.
,, niiliaris. Generally present.
,, esculcntus. Present in 73, 36,
and 41 ; aliundant in
36 only.

Echinocyamus pusillus. In 74.

Spatangus purpureus. A few generally
taken, except in 73 and
36, which were hauls
of the Otter-trawl.

Nemertina.

Carinella superba.

Drcpanopiiorus rubrostriatus. In 73, 58,
and 85.

Tetrasterama flavidum.

,, candidum.

Linens bilineatus.

NEW SEUIES. — VOL. V. NO. 4.

Micrura purpurea.
, , fasciolata.

POLYCHAETA,

Lepidonotus squamatus. Few only.
Evarne impar. One in 41 only.
Eunice Harassi. One in 88 only.
Lumbriconereis. Large species.

,, Small ,,

Chaetoptcrus variopedatus. Numerous,
attached to shells.

Polymnia nebulosa. One in 88.
Thelepus. One only recorded.
Terebellid tubes. Very plentiful.

Filograna implexa. Common on Pecten

opcrcularis shells.
Protula tubularia. Few only.
Serpula vermicularis. Fairly plentiful.
Hydroides pectinata. Fairly jilentiful.

Phascolion strombi.

Crustacea.

Eupagurus Bernhardus. A few only in
Buccinum undatum
shells.
,, Prideauxii. In 73 only, with

^klamsia palliata.
,, euanensis. One in 85 only.

Porcellana longicornis.
Galathea dispersa.

Stenorhynchus longirostris. Not numer-
ous.

luachus dorsettensis. Not numerous.

Eurynome aspera. In 73 only.

Portunus dcpurator. In 36 and 88 only.

Ebalia tumefacta. In 88 only. One or
two specimens.

,, tuberosa. One or two specimens
in 35 and 85 only.

Balanus crenatus.

Scalpellum vulgare. On stem of hydroids.

MOLLTJSCA. Living.

Tapes virginea, One each in 88 and 41
only.

Astarte sulcata. One or two specimens in
73 only.

Cardium norvegicum. In 58, 85, and 88.
Montacuta substriata. On spines of Spat-
angus purpureus.
Kellia suborbicularis. In 88 only.
Modiola modiolus.

, , barbata.
Lima Loscombii. In 35 and 41 only.

Pecten maximus. A few specimens gener-
ally present.

,, opercularis. Many in 73 and 36.
Few in otlier hauls.

2 F

430 ON THE FAUNA AND BOTTOM-DEPOSITS NEAR THE 30-FM. LINE

Anomia cphippiuni. ^ Generally on Pec-
,, patellifonnis. ) ten opercularis.
Chiton asellus. Frequent on shells.
Pileopsis hungaricus.
Emarginula reticulata.
Trochus zizyphinus. In 35 only. Small

variety.
Buccinuni undatum. Few or none.
Cypraea europaea. In 73 only.

On hydroids.

Tritonia plebeia.

Doto fragilis. )^

Coryphella Landsburgii. (

Shells,
Solen ensis. Few.

Psammobia ferroensis. One small one in 74.
Lutraria elliptica. Common.
Tapes virginea. Very common.
Venus striatula.
, , fasciata.
Artemis exoleta.
Cyprina islandica.
Astarte sulcata.
Cardiura echinatum.

Few only.
Abundant.

Nncula nucleus.
Pcctunculus glycimeris.

Pinna jiectinata. One in 73 only.
Lima Loscombii. Frequent.
Pecten tigi'inus. Not numerous.

,, niaximus. Abundant.

,, opercularis. Abundant.
Dentalium entalis Not abundant.
Turritella communis. Not abundant.
Scalaria Turtonis. One in 73 only.
Buccinuni undatum. In 73 only.

POLYZOA.

Cellaria fistulosa. Very little.
Scrupocellaria scruposa. In 85 only at
roots of Antennularia.

Bugula avicularia. One piece in 85.

Cellepora avicularis. \ ^ , , . , .

_ . , On hydroid stems.

Crisea eburnea. )

Incrusting Polyzoa numerous. For list
see Table VI., p. 534.

TUNICATA.

Styelopsis grossularia. Small flat variety
common on shells, es-
pecially Pecten maximus
shells.

Polycarpa varians. Abundant.

Ascidiella scabra. Not numerous.

Ciona intestinalis. In 73 only.

Ground XV. East Eddystone Fine Gravel.

Raids. 33 (Dr.) and 97 (Dr. and C.-dr.).

Two hauls lying from one to two miles east and south-east of the
Eddystone have a similar fauna, and have been united as Ground XV.
Bottom-deposit. Fine gravel.
The texture of a sample taken at 97 is as follows : —

II.

Coarse Gravel

III.

Medium Gravel ...

IV.

Fine Gravel

V.

Coarse Sand

VI.

Medium Sand

VII.

Fine Sand

VIII.

Silt

13-4

per cent

20-5

18-2

lG-0

19-7

9-0

3-1

[97. Average grade of sample, 4"471. Percentage of carbonate of
lime in whole sample, 46"68. Highest percentage in V., which contains
7770 per cent. In 97 II. the gravel consists of Trias, 91 per cent.;
Eddystone reef, 7 per cent.; Devonian, 2 per cent. In 97 III. the
proportions are Trias, 75 per cent.; Eddystone reef, 17 per cent.;
Devonian, 8 per cent. Sixty foraminifera were counted in 0"13 grams

FEOM THE EDDYSTONE GROUNDS TO START POINT.

431

(2 grains) by weight, of 97 VIT. 461 per gram. The following list of
species of forarainifera in 97 VT. and VII. is arranged as before : —
Miliolina seminulum, Rotalia heccarii, Textularia gramen, Truncatu-
lina lobatula, Discorhina rosacea, Miliolina trigonula, Lagena sulcata,
Biloculina dcpressa, Miliolina hicornis, Lagena orhignyana, Spirillina
vivipara, Bulimina fupoides. In all, twelve species. — R. H. W.]

Unbroken shells were not numerous.

FaunM. As will be seen from the list, the ground is very barren.
The fauna shows no distinct characteristic species of its own, and seems
to be made up of stray individuals from the various grounds in the
neighbourhood, the sand, the gravel, and the broken shell faunas being
represented.

List of Species.

Cliona celata.

PORIFERA.

Boriug shells.

Hydrozoa.

Eudendi'ium, sp. Small species with male
and female gonophores
on Haleciiim Beanii
in 33.

Clytia Johnstoni. In 97.

Lafoea dumosa, var. robusta. In 97.

Trichydra pudica. In 97 on Halecium
and on Pecten shell.

Halecium halecinum. A little in both.

„ Beanii. A little in both.
Sertularella Gayi. A small quantity in

each.
Hydrallmania falcata. In 97 only.

Antennularia antennina. i .,.,,, ,

> A little only.
,, ramosa. )

Aglaophenia myriophyllum. In 33 only.

Plumularia Cathaiina. Growing in Hale-
cium.

ACTINOZOA.

Caryophyllia Smithii. Several specimens
on shells in 97.

Alcyonium digitatum. Very small colony
on stem of Halecium
Beanii in 33.

Sarcodictyon catenata. In 97 only, on
shells.

ECHINODERMATA.

Astropccten irregularis. One in 97 only.
Echinocardium cordatum. One in 97 only.

POLYCHAETA.

Chaetopterus variopedatus. One small

piece of tube in 97.
Terebellid tubes.

Ground XV.

Hj'droides pectinata.

Crustacea.
Galathea dispersa.

Stenorhynchus longirostris. In 33 only.
Inachus dorsettensis. In 33 only.
Atelecyclus heterodon. One in 97 only.

Scalpellum vulgare. At base of hydroids,

A caprellid on Antennularia antennina.

MoLLirscA. Living.
Pectunculus glycimeris. A few small.
Pecten opercularis. Small ones only.
Anoniia patelliformis. On Pecten maximus

shells.

Chiton asellus.

Small only.

Shells.
Tapes virginea.
Pectunculus glycimeris.
Lima Loscombii.
Pecten maximus.
, , opercularis.

POLYZOA.

Shells mostly clean.

On P. maximus shell : —

Lichenopora hispida.

Mucronella venti'icosa.
On Terebellid tube:—

Cellejwra avicularis.

TUNICATA.

Forbesella tessolata. In 97.

Cephalocuorda.
Amphioxus lanceolatus. In 97.

432 ON THE FAUNA AND BOTTOM-DEPOSITS NEAR THE 30-FM. LINE

III.

Medium Gravel

IV.

Fine Gravel

V.

Coarse Sand

VI.

Medium Sand

VII.

Fine Sand ...

VIII.

Silt

Ground XVI. The West Eddystone Clean Shell Gravel.

Hauls. 86 (Dr.), 87 (Dr. and C.-dr.), 10 (Dr.), 13 (Dr.), 14 (Dr.),
98 (Dr.), and 99 (Dr.).

Immediately bordering the rocky ground of the reef, north, west, and
south of the Eddystone, at a distance of from half to one mile from the
lighthouse, is a strip of clean shell gravel upon which the fauna is very
scanty, though at the same time very characteristic.
Bottom-deposit. Clean shell gravel.
A sample taken at haul 87 had the following texture : —

II. Coarse Gravel ... ... ... 173 per cent.

31-7 „
19-3 „
10-5 „
14-9 .,
5-2 „
1-1 „

[87. Average grade of sample, 4*1 51. Percentage of carbonate of
lime in whole sample, 72-25. Highest percentage occurs in IV., which
contains 79'60 per cent. This deposit lying on the northern boundary
of the Eddystone reef, just below the 30-fathom line, is the one and
only sample in which Eddystone reef materials predominate over the
other rock constituents. In grade 11. no rock fragments but those
derived from the reef are present, while in grade III. Eddystone
material stands at 74 per cent, and Trias at 26 per cent. Foraminifera
are numerous; in VII. 81 individuals were counted in 013 grams
(2 grains), or 623 per gram. The Miliolina greatly predominate. The
following species were found in VI. and VII., arranged as before in
order of frequency : — Miliolina seminulum, liutalia beccarii, Textularia
gramen, Truncatulina lohatula, Miliolina hicomis, Miliolina irigonula,
Spiroloculina plamdata, Lagena orhignyana, Spirillina vivipara, JDis-
corbina rosacea. In all, ten species. — E. H. W.]

Large unbroken shells were not numerous.

Haul 99 was partly on rocky ground.

Burrovjing species. The most characteristic species are Spatangus
jjurpiorens, Echinocyamus pusilhis, Eupolia curta, Amphioxus lanceolatus,
and Glycera convoluta. Several bivalve molluscs nut taken on other
grounds were found here (see p. 433). Occasional specimens of Poly-
gordius were obtained, and 'fercbcllid tubes were numerous.

Fixed species. These were very scarce. Lafoea dumosa, var, robusta,
was the hydroid most frequently taken, other species being represented
by occasional small pieces only. Sarcodictyon catenata attached to

FROM THE EDDYSTONE GROUNDS TO START POINT.

433

shells was common, and one of the characteristic species of the
ground. Molgula ocido.ta occurs fixed in the gravel. Polyzoa were
not numerous.

Wandering species. The only species taken in numbers were Echinus
miliaris, Amphinra elegans (peculiar to this ground), and PorccUana
longicornis. Occasional specimens of the following species not com-
monly distributed on the other grounds around the Eddystone are
noteworthy : — Plumularia frutescens, Cucumaria lactca, Holothuria
nigra, Lima Loscomhii, Aporrhais pes-pelccani (living), and Aegirus
punctilucens.

List of Species.

Hydrozoa.

Lafoea durnosa, var. robusta. Frequent,
but in small pieces.

Halecium halecinum. Little or none.

Sertularella Gayi. Little or none.

Diphasia rosacea. ) r no ^

„ tamarisca. 1 ^^ ^^ °°^y-
Sertularia argentea. Growing on Diphasia

tamarisca.
Hydrallmania falcata. A little in 99 only.
Antennularia ramosa. Little or none.
Aglaophenia tubulifera. In 99 only.
Plumularia Catharina. In 99 only.

,, frutescens. A large colony on

Pecten opercularis shell
in 10 only.

ACTINOZOA.

Caryophyllia Smithii. Many in 10. Few
or none in other hauls.

Alcyoniuni digitatum. Several pieces in
99 broken from rock.
None in other haids.

Sarcodictyon catenata. Frequent.

ECHINODEUMATA.

Cucumaria lactea. Two specimens in 99
only.

Holothuria nigra. In 10 and 99. Two

or three specimens.
Astropecten iiregularis. One in 87 only.
Solaster papposus. Small. In 10 oidy.
Ampliiura elegans. Numerous in 10 and 14.

Ophiactis Balli. Occasional specimens
only.

Ophiocoraa nigra. Small. In 10 only.

Ophiothri.\ fragilis. Small. In 10 only.

Echinus miliaris. Plentiful.

,, esculentus. Three specimens in
99 only.

Ecliinocyamus pusillus. Generally present.

Spatangus jiurpurcus. One or two in each

liaul.

Ground XVI.

Nemertina.
Carinella annulata.
Tetrastemma candidum.
Eupolia curta.
Micrura purpurea.
,, fasciolata.
Cerebratulus fuscus.

POLYCHAETA.

Polygordius, sp. Occasional specimens.
Harmothoe imbricata. One in 87.
Lumbriconereis. Large. One in 98.
Ehlersia cornuta. One in 87.
Glycera convoluta.
Terebellid tubes. Numerous.
Dasychone bombyx. One in 87.
Protula tubularia. Occasional specimens.
Hydroides pectinata. Occasional speci-
mens.

Crustacea.

Eupagurus cuanensis. Infested with Sac-
culina. In Dcntaliuni
shell. One in 10 only,

Porccllana longicornis.

Galathea dispcrsa. In 13 only.

Portunus pusillus. In 10 only.

Ebalia tumefacta. In 10 and 13.

Balanus crenatus. On I'cctcn opercularis.

Pyrgoma anglicuni. With Caryophyllia
Smithii.

MOLLLVSCA. LiviV'J.

Psammobia costulata, Turton. One living
specimen in 10.

Tellina cras.sa. In 87 and 99 only.

Tapes virginea. One in 87 only.

In 13 only.

Two living specinions
in 99 only.

Oardium norvegicum. In 87 only.

Venus fasciata.
Artemis cxoleta

434 ON THE FAUNA AND BOTTOM-DEPOSITS NEAR THE 30-FM. LINE

Montacuta siilisti'iata. On Spatangus
piirpurcKs.

Lima Loscombii. Fairly plentiful in 10.

Pecten tigrinus. In 13 only.

,, maximus. One or two in 13 and 14.

,, ojicrcularis. P'ew, mostly small
specimens.

Chiton asellus. In 13 only.

Emarginula reticnlata. Few.

Aporrhais pes-pelecani. In 87 only.

Aegirus punctilucens. One specimen in
10 only. Tins was very
pale in colonr, and no
green specks were to be
seen. Small specimen.

Shells.
Tellina crassa.

Lutraria cUiptica.

Tajjcs virginea. Numerous.

Artemis exoleta. Numerous, especially

in 99.
Astarte sulcata.

Cardium norvegicum. Numerous.

Pectunculus glj'cimcris. Small onl}'.
Lima Loseumbii.
Pecten maximus.

, , ojiercularis.
Dentalium entalis.
Aporrhais pes-pelecani.

POLYZOA.

Cellepora ramulosa. In 99 only.
Crisea ramosa. In 13 only.
Idmonea serpens. In 13 only.

Incrusting polyzoa not very numerous,
though a good many species are repre-
sented. For list see Table VI., p. 534.

TUNICATA.

Ascidiella scabra. A few in 87 only.
Molgula oculata. A few only.
Botryllus, sp.

Cephalochorda.

Am[ihioxus lanceolatns. A small specimen
in 87.

Ground XVII. The Bolt Head Shell Gravel.

Hauls 1, 6, 7, 21, 43, 44, 61, 62, 68, 105, 106, 107. 27, 28. 20, 60
(all hauls of Dredge. Canvas-dredge at 105 and 106).

The position of this ground, which lies south of Bolt Head, will be
seen from the charts. The hauls enumerated above have been combined
as one ground, though further investigation would probably lead to a
division into at least three. This is indicated in the enumeration of
the hauls by the separation of 27 and 28 and of 20 and 60 from the
other numbers. The two deepest hauls (27 and 28), and the two to
the westward of Bolt Head (20 and 60), show several differences from
the typical shell-gravel hauls.

Bottom-deposit. Clean shell gravel.

Samples taken at 105 and 106 have the following texture : —

I.

Stone and Broken Shells

(above 15 mm.)

II.

Coarse Gravel ...

III.

Medium Gravel

IV.

Fine Gravel

V.

Coarse Sand

VI.

Medium Sand ...

VII.

Fine Sand

VIII.

Silt

[105. Average grade of sample, 4

105.

106.

1-4

per cent.

0-7

per cent

23-1

33-8

15-4

18-8

8-3

12-6

7-3

7-3

25-7

19-9

18-3

6-7

0-5

0-3

498. Percentage of carbonate of

FROM THE EDDYSTONE GliOUNDS TO START POINT. 435

lime in whole sample, 47'26. Highest percentage occurs in V., which
contains 75 per cent. Geologically there is a wide separation between
samples 105 and 106 and the other samples taken from the westward.
A large percentage of the rock fragments in 105 and 106 is derived
from Archean rocks similar to those which constitute the Bolt pro-
montory. Trias is present, but flint, which has suffered considerable
surface decay, is also a prominent constituent. The rock fragments
in 105 II. are divisible as follows : — Archean (chiefly mica
schists), 7875 per cent.; Flint, 1274 per cent.; Trias, 8-51 per cent.
In 105 VII. 43 foraminifera were found in 019 grams (3 grains), or
226 per gram. Rotcdia heccarii and Miliolina seminidnm greatly pre-
dominated ; the complete list of species from 105 VI. and VII. being :
Rotcdia heccarii, Miliolina seminulum, Textidaria gramen, Trunccdidina
lohcitida. In all, four species.

[106. Average grade of sample, 3-803. Percentage of carbonate of
lime in whole sample, 5277. Highest percentage occurs in IV., which
contains 7875 per cent. The rock constituents of this gravel are
similar to those of 105, but the proportions are different, the Archean
rocks are not so well represented, while flint is much more frequent.
The proportions in 106 II. are: Archean, 48-90 per cent.; Flint, 40-44
per cent.; Trias, 1066 per cent. Fifty-eight foraminifera were counted
in 0*26 grams (4 grains) of 106 VII., or 223 per gram. Again, as in
105, Rotcdia heccarii and Miliolina sc7ninuhim greatly predominate.
The species found in 106 VI. and VII. are as follows, arranged in
order of frequency : — Rotcdia heccarii, Miliolina semimdum, Truncatu-
lina lohcUula, Bulimina pupoicles, Miliolina hicornis, Textidaria gramen,
Textularia agglutinans, Discorhina rosacea. In all, eight species. —
E. H. W.]

Shells were numerous in all hauls, for list see p. 438, In haul 20
stones were taken.

As on the clean broken shell to the west of the Eddystone (XVI.),
to which ground the present one has many points of resemblance, the
fauna is comparatively poor, especially in the number of fixed species,
for the shells present, although numerous, are generally almost clean.

Bitrroiving species. The typical burrowing species are Spcdangus
purpureiis, Pcctunculus glycimcris (abundant), Echinocyamus pusUhis,
Pulycjordius, sp., Eupolia curta, and a few Amphioxus lanceolatus.

Fixed species. In the most typical hauls Sarcodictyon catenata, a few
encrusting polyzoa, an occasional specimen of Caryopliyllvi Smithii,
with perhaps one or two stray colonies of some hydroid, are all the
fixed species constantly met with. In haul 107 the hydroid Cam-
panularia flexuosa was fairly abundant on empty Fcctunculns glycimeris
shells, and in the same haul and in haul 105 Tuhicla'ba cornucopiac was

436 ON THE FAUNA AND BOTTOM-DEPOSITS NEAR THE SO-FM. LINE

abundant on livinfr specimens of tlie same mollusc and of Vemis fasciata .
The deepest hauls (27 and 28) are characterised by large colonies of
Alcyonmm digitatum, as well as by the hydroids Sertidaria abictina and
Thuiaria articulata.

Wandering species. As on the Eddystone shell gravel these are not
numerous, the only I'orms generally common being Echinus miliaris,
Porcellana lortgicornis, and a few Ebalia. Occasional specimens of
many other species are found, as will be seen from the list below.
The presence of several specimens of Fusus islandieus in hauls 105
and 107 is noteworthy, as this is the only locality in the neighbourhood
where the species has been found. Asterias glacialis was present only
in haul 60 (the most westerly haul on the ground), and has never been
taken at any point to the eastward of this {cf. p. 466).

List of Species. Ground XVII.

FORAMINIFERA.

Truncatulina lobatula. On hydroids.

PORIFERA.

Cliona celata. Boring shells.

Hydkozoa.

Tubiclava cornucopiae. In 105 and 107,
on living Fectunculus
glycimeris and Venus
fasciata.

Eudendrium rameuni. One colony in each
of the hauls 106 and
107 only. In 106 on
piece of old Chaetoptcrus
tube, in 107 on Peden
oj)ercularis shell.
,, capillare. Occasional speci-

mens on other hydroids.
,, sp. A small species, not

E. capillare. Not un-
common.

Clytia Johnstoni. On other hydroids.

Campanularia Hincksii. On other hydroids.

„ verticillata. One colony in

28 and one in 60.

,, flexuosa. Common on Pec-

tuHCulusglycimeriss,\\B\\s
in haul 107.
Lafoea dumosa. Recorded in 21 only.
Calycella syringa.

Halecium halecinum. Occasional speci-
mens only. Jlost plenti-
ful in GO.

,, Beanii. Very rare.

Diphasia attenuata. In 21 only.

,, tamari.sca. Young colonies in
28 only.

Sertularia abietina. Common in deepest
hauls (7, 27, 28). Oc-
casional pieces only in
remaining ones.
,, argentea. Occasional specimens
frequent.

Hydrallmania falcata. One or two colonies
in each haul.

Thuiaria articulata. In the two deepest
hauls, 27 and 28 only.

Antennularia antennina. Not common.
,, raniosa. In 21 only.

Plumularia pinnata. In 43 and 61 only.
Scarce.

Scyphistoma. In 107, on inner side of
Peden opercularis shell.

ACTINOZOA.

Alcyonium digitatum. Occasional small
colonies only, except in
hauls 27 and 28, the
two deepest dredgings
on the ground.

Sarcodictyon catenata. Red variety not
uncommon on shells.

Caryophyllia Smithii. Occasional speci-
mens on shells. Not
frequent.

Epizoanthus incrustatus. Rare. Hauls
21 and 27 only.

Adamsia palliata. Occasional specimens
with Eupagurus Pri-
deauxii.

ECHINODERMATA.

Cucumaria lactea. In 20 only, where
stones were present.

Solaster papposus. Occasional sjieciniens
only.

FROM THE EDDYSTONE GROUNDS TO START POINT.

437

Asterias glacialis. In haul 60 only
(the most westerly
hanl).
,, rubens. Present in hauls 43, 44,
60, 61, 62, 68. Two
small ones in 107.

Ojihiura ciliavis. One or two in 28 and
60 only.
,, albida. Occasional specimens.
,, affinis. One in 28 ouJy.

Amphiura elegans. Occasional speci-
mens.

Ophiactis Balli. Not frequent. Occasional
specimens only.

Ophiocoma nigra Not frequent. Oc-
casional specimens only.

Opliiothrix fragilis. Not frequent. Oc-
casional specimens only.

Echinus acutus. Not frequent. Occasional
specimens only. Several
in haul 60.

,, miliaris. Frequent and abun-
dant.

,, esculeutus. Single, specimens in
many hauls.

Echinocyamus pusillus. Not uncommon.

Spatangus purpureus Generally a number

of specimens.
Echinocardium peunatifidum. One in

haul 7 only.

Nemektixa.
Eupolia carta. Rare.
Micrura fasciolata,

POLYCHAETA.

Polygordius, sp. Plentiful.

Lepidonotus squamatus. Several speci-
mens.

Lagisca propinqua. One recorded in 68
only.

Nereis pelagica. Few.

Amblyosyllis specabilis. Recorded in 27

only.

Glycera, sp. Milk-white in colour.

Chaetopterus variopedatus. Occasional
specimens only. Most
numerous in 7.

Pectinaria auricoma. Single specimens
frequent.

Aniphitrite gracilis. Recorded in 28
only.

Terebellid tubes. Numerous

Sabellaria spinulosa Recorded in 43 and

'27 only.
Protula tubularia. Recorded in 28 only.

Serpula vermicularis. Occasional sjieci-
meiis only, attached to
siiells

Hydroides pectinata.

CRU.STACEA.

Eupagurus Beruhardus Occasional speci-
mens, generally in Biic-
cinuni unda/um shell.
In hauls 106 and 107
in Fusus islandicus.
Never with Sagartia
parasitica.

„ Prideauxii. In 68 and 27 only.

In Trochiis shell.
,, cuanensis. In 28 only.

Anapagurus laevis. In 27 only.
Porcellana longicornis. Plentiful.
Galathea dispersa. Generally not numer-
ous.
Stenorhynchus longirostris. Present in
hauls 27, 28, and 60 only.

luachus dorsettensis. Present in hauls
68, 27, 28, and 60 only.

Hyas coarctatus. Not uncommon.

Euryuome aspera. In hauls 6, 27, and
44 only.

Portunus pusillus. Occasional specimens

only.
Corystes cassivelaunus. In 27 only.
Atelecyclus heterodon. In 27 and 28 oiil3\

Ebalia tumefacta. )

. , f One or two generally

„ tuberosa. J in a haul
,, Cranchii. '

Balanus crenatus.
Scalpellum \-ulgare. Seldom.
Pyrgoma anglicum. With Caryophijllia
Smithii.

Ampelisca spinipes.
Gammaropsis erythrophthalmium.

MoLLUSCA. Living.

Saxicava arctica. Single specimens fre-
quent.

Lyonsia norvegica. One in haul 7.

Venus fasciata. In hauls 6, G8, and 107.
Single specimens.

Astarte sulcata. One in 106.
Montacuta substriata. With Spatangus
purpureus.

Modiola, sp. Small. Occasional.

Area tetragona. Small. Occasional.

Pcctunculus glycinieris. Common, and
characteristic of the
ground.

Lima Loscombii. In 27 only.
Pecten tigrinus. Single specimens in 21
and 107 only.

,, opercularis. Very few or none.
Most common in 60.

Anoiiiia ciiliiiiiiium. i „

,,' . / rreciuout.
,, patellifornus. )

438 ON THE FAUNA ANH BOTTOM-DErOSITS NEAR THE 30-FM. LINE

Chiton ascllus. Common.
Dentalium entalis. In 7, 28, and 20.
Pileopsis luingaricus. One specimen in
106 and 107 only.

Emarginula reticulata. In 21 and 27 only.
Trochus zizyphinus. One small in 27 only.

,, granulatus. One in 27 only.
Lainellaria perspicua. One in 28 only.
Nassa incrassata. In 20 only.
Bucciuuni undatum. Not uncommon.
Fusus islandicus. Four or five in 105 and

one ill 107.
Cypraea europaea. In 27 only.

Tritonia Honibergi. In 27 and 28 only.
Dendronotus arborescens. In 28 only.
Doto coronata. In 28 only.

Shells.

Solen ensis. Few.

Solecartus caudidus. In 20 and 28 ; single
valves.

Tellina crassa. One in 105.

Lutraria elliptica. Frequent.

Tapes virginea. Not frequent.

Venus fasciata. Not frequent.

,, ovata. Common.

Artemis exoleta. One in 105.

Astarte sulcata. One in 106 only.

Cardium norvegicum. Not frequent.

Pectunculus glycimeris. Numerous.

Pecten maximus. Very few,

,, opercularis. Numerous.

Trochus granulatus. Occasional.

Aporrhais pes-pelecani. In 27 only.

Natica nitida In 27 only.

Fusus islandicus. In 105 and 107, not
uncommon.

Ostrea edulis. Occasional shells.
POLYZOA.

Branched forms almost absent. In-
crusting forms numerous. See Table V'^I.

TUNICATA.

Styelopsis grossularia. Small, squat variety

on shells.
Ascidiella scabra. One or two in 20 and

107 only.
Ciona intestinalis. Frequent, but not

numerous. Attached to

shells.

Ascidia depressa. A few specimens, at-
tached to shells.

,, luciitula. One in haul 1 only.

Cephalochorda.
Aiiipliioxus lanceolatus. One in 28 only.

Pisces.

Lepadogaster bimaculatus. One in 106

only.

Ground XVII I. The Prawle Stony Ground.

Hauls. 2 (O.-tr.), 3 (O.-tr.), 4 (Dr.), 45 (Dr.), 66 (Dr.), 65 (Dr.), 64
(Dr.), 63 (Dr.), 29 (Dr.), 30 (Dr.).

This ground again could probably, with further investigation, be sub-
divided. The hauls all lie to the eastward of a line passing north and
south through Prawle Point, and are characterised by the presence of
stones, often of considerable size. The ground is very rough and
dredging upon it ditiicult. No samples of the bottom-deposit were
taken with the canvas bag,

Burroiving species. Spatangus purpureus, Echinocyamus pusillus, and
occasional specimens of Elalia were the forms most frequently taken.
The boring mollusc Pholadidea papyracea was common in the Trias
rock of haul 4. Atckcyclus hcterodon was taken once, and an occasional
burrowing bivalve mollusc was found.

Fic'^ed sp)ecies. It is, however, by its fixed species that the fauna of
this stony ground is specially characterised. The following species,
which were absent from the other grounds, or at most only very
occasionally met with, were present here, generally attached to stones: —
Corynactis viridis, Gorgonia verrucosa, Garveia nutans, Tidndaria indivisa,

FROM THE EDDYSTONE GROUNDS TO START POINT.

430

Diphasia rosacea, HydraUmania falcata (abuiiflaTit), Scrtvlaria arrjcntea,
and Thuiaria articulata. The presence of large colonies of Alcyoniuvi
digitatum may also be noted (see p. 457), as well as the abundance ol
Scrtularia abidina (.-ee p. 453), and Caryophjllia Smitliii with tlie
associated barnacle Fyrgnma anc/licum.

Wandering species. Characteristic of the stony ground are Cucumaria
lactea and Ophiocoma nigra. Other species plentiful are Ophiactis Balli,
Echinus miliaris, Porcellana longicornis, and Galo.thea dispersa, whilst
occasional specimens of many forms common on sand and gravel
grounds are taken.

List of Species. Ground XVIII.

Cliona celata.

PORIFEllA.
Boring shells.

Hyduozoa.

Eudeiidriuiii, • sp. Small species, not
/-'. capillarc, conniiou.

Garveia nutans. In haul 29, on large
stone.

Tubularia indivisa. In Iiaul 29, on large
stone.

Clytia Johnstoui. Common.

Obelia dichotoma. Occasional only.

Campanularia Hincksii. On shells and
hydroids.

Campanularia verticillata. In 45 only.

Lovenella clausa. Recorded in 29 only.

Opercularella lacerta. In 29 only.

Lafoea dumosa. Common on other hy-
droids. Also var. rohusta
on shells, &c.

Calycella syi'inga. Recorded in 45 only.

Halecium Beanii. A little in haul 4 only,

Diphasia rosacea. In 4 and 29.

Sertularia abietina. Conmion, especially
in the deepest hauls.

,, argentea. Frequent, but not
very abundant.

HydraUmania falcata. Present in nearly
every haul, and often
abundant. Attached to
stones or sometimes to
shells.

Thuiaria articulata. Several pieces in 45
and 63.

Anteniiularia antennina. Not frequent.
,, raniosa. Not frequent.

Aglaophenia niyriophyllum. In 29 only.

Plumularia pinnata. Not common.
,, setacea. Not common,

ECHINODEUMATA.

Cucumaria lactea. One or two in 30 only.

Asterias rubens.

Oiihiura alljida.
Opliiacti.'s Balli.
Ophiocoma nigra.

specimens

Solaster papposus. Occasional specimens
only.

Occasional

only.

One in haul 4.
Moderately jilentiful.
In four hauls. Numer-
ous i n 3 0 an d 6 3 . Presen t
in 45 and Qii.

Ophiothrix fragilis. Occasional specimens
only.

Echinus miliaris. Frequent.

,, esculentus. Occasional small

specimens.
Echinocyamus pusillus. In 4 and 45 only.
Spatangus purpureus. In 29, 45, and 63,

one or two specimens.

ACTINOZOA.

Alcyonium digitatum. Large colonies
common, esi)ccially in
hauls 3, 4, 45, and 60.

Sarcodictyou catenata. In 4 and 63 only,
on shells.

Gorgonia verrucosa. In 3 only. Probably
growing on rock,

Caryo2)hyllia Smithii. Frequent and
plentiful, on stones and
shells. With Fijrgoma
anglic2ivi.

Corynactis vividis. In 29 and 30, on large
stones,

Nemertina.
Carinella superba.
Micrura purpurea.
,, fa.sciolata.
l.ineus marinus,

Gephyrea.
Phascolion strombi.

POLYCHAETA.

Lcpidonotus squamatus. One each in 29
and 45.

440 ON THE FAUNA AND BOTTOM-DEPOSITS NEAR THE 30-FM. LINE

Eunoc nodosa. One in 45.
Evarne inipar. One in 29.
Chaetopterus variopedatus. One or two

in 45 and 63 only.
Pectinaria auricoma. Occasional specimens

only.
Serpnla vermiculaiis. Recorded in 3 only.
Hydroides pectinata. Few only.

Crustacea.

Eupagurns Bernhardus. Scarce. In haul
45 and 63 only.

Anapagnrus laevis. In 3, 4, and 29 only.

Porcellana longicornis. Common.

Galathea dispersa. Common.

Steuorhyuclms longirostris. One or two

in haul 3 only.
Inachus dorsettensis. One or two in hauls

4 and 45 only.

Hyas coarctatus. Frequent.
Eurynome aspera. Many in 4. Occasional
in other hauls.

rihunnus hirtellu.s. One in haul 3 only.

Portunus pusillus. In 4 and 45 only.

Atelecyclus heterodon. One or two in 45
only.

Ebalia tumefacta. ) _ . ,

, , f Occasional specimens

" tuberosa. ^^^^^

,, Cranchii. )

Ampelisca spinipes.
Melita obtusata. In 29.
Pyrgoma anglicum. Associated with
Caryophyllia Smithii.

MOLLITSCA.

Pholas parva.

Living.
One specimen in
rock. Haul 4.

Pholadidca

jjapyracea.
rock.

Trias

Trias

Many in
Haul 4.

Saxicava arctica. One or two in 29 only.

Tapes virginea. One small one in 29.

Venus fasciata. In haul 45 only.

Kellia suborbicularis. In haul 30 only.

Modiola, s^J. Small, in 30.

Area tetragona. Occasional small speci-
mens.

Pectunculus glycimeris. One small one
in haul 29.

Pecten tigiinus. One in haul 4.

,, maximus. One small one in haul 4.

,, opercularis. A few in haul 4 only.
Chiton asellus. Common.

,, discrepans. Two in haul 4 only.

Emarginula reticulata. Frequent.

Trochus zizyphinus. Occasional small
specimens.

Nassa incrassata. In 45 only.

Buccinura undatum. In 45 only.

Ovula patula. In haul 4.

Doto coronata. In 29 only.
Polycera quadrilineata. In 3 only.
Coryphella Landsburgii. In 30 only.

Shells.

Lutraria elliptica. In 4 only.

Tapes virginea. In 45 only.

Venus fasciata. In 45 only.

Cardium norvegicum. In 45 only.

Pectunculus glycimeris. In 45 and 63
only.

Lima Loscombii. In 4 only.

Pecten tigrinus. In 45 only.

,, opercularis. A few generally present.

Murex erinaceus. In 45 only.

Fusus islandicus. In 45 only.

POLYZOA.
Cellaria sinuosa. -,

,, fistulosa. [in 29 only, a

Scrupocellaria scruposa. j little.
Bicellaria ciliata. ^

Bugula turbinata. In 4 and 66.

Incrusting forms numerous. See Table
VI., p. 534.

TUNICATA.

Ciona intestinalis. In 63 only.
Ascidia depressa. In 29 only.

Section VI.

THE DISTRIBUTION OF PARTICULAR SPECIES ON THE
GROUNDS UNDER INVESTIGATION.

In this section the distribution of the individual species of the more
important groups on the grounds from the Eddystone to Start is
discussed, and the relation of this distribution to changes in the nature
of the bottom-deposit pointed out. Notes are also given on some
habits of the species which appear likely to influence their distribution.

FROM THE EDDYSTONE GROUNDS TO START POINT. 44 L

In the case of many of the species the geographical and bathy metric
distribution is noted, and this is followed by an account of the kinds
of deposit upon which the species has been obtained by other observers
in different localities. In considering the latter records it must be
constantly borne in mind that the terms made use of up to the present
time (sand, gravel, mud, etc.) have not been employed in the strict and
definite sense which has been given to them in the present paper, and
there has been much obvious confusion in their use.

There is, in particular, one source of error which has probably
operated very frequently, and by which I was myself several times
misled until actual samples of the deposits were obtained with the
canvas dredge. Dead shells of bivalve molluscs are frequently taken
with the two valves united and closed, which, on being opened, are
found to be filled with fine mud or muddy sand. No doubt this has
often been supposed to indicate that the deposit is mud or fine muddy
sand. Such, however, is by no means the case, as shells so filled may
be taken on all grounds where a certain proportion of nmd is mixed
with coarser material, and I have found them particularly numerous on
the coarse muddy or sandy gravels. It is very probable that this
circumstance has led to many animals being recorded as living on mud,
when in reality the bottom-deposit from vt^hich they were taken was a
muddy gravel or coarse sand.

The explanation of the fact that the shells are filled with mud
appears to be that when the bottom is disturbed, either by wave
action or by the movements of animals, the mud in the deposit is
stirred up, and the muddy water, entering the shells by a narrow
aperture, deposits its solid particles, which gradually accumulate
inside the shells.

In addition to the error which has probably been made in describing
as mud the deposit on grounds where such shells have been dredged,
the term sand has clearly been used in a very general sense to include
much coarser deposits than those included in the present paper under
that head.

FORAMINIFERA.

[^Nomenclature: — Brady, No. 13.]

Tritncaivlina lohatula. This species is abundant on all hydroid

grounds, whether the prevailing species is Sertulardla Gayi, Halecium

halecimim, or Sertalaria abiclina, and on the grounds where Cellaria is

plentiful. It is found clinging in numbers to the stems of the zoophytes.

Foraminifera were also found in large numbers in the dried samples
of the bottom - deposit. The skeletons, many of which doubtless

4-42 ON THE FAUNA AND BOTTOM-DEPOSITS NEAR THE 30-FM. LINE

contained living protoplasm when captured, were picked out from
weighed quantities of the samples and mounted by Mr. Worth, the
species being afterwards identified by Mr. Worth and myself working
together.

[Although numerically well represented, the Foraminifera do not
appreciably affect the percentage of carbonate of lime in the sample.
Thus, although 103 VII. with 203 foraminifera in 0-13 grams has
the high percentage of 40"15, this is due to the abnormal amount
of shell in the coarser grades of the sample; for 83 VII. has an
even higher percentage of 47*83 of carbonate of lime with only 93
foraminifera to 0-13 grams, and other similar examples might be
instanced.

This is not surprising when it is remembered that it would take to
cover 13 sq. cms. about 5500 grains of sand of the largest size that
could pass a half-millimetre mesh, while the actual number of grains
present in such an area from most of the line sands would probably be
from 16,000 to 20,000. The numerical proportion of 200 foraminifera
would thus be small, and their chambered structure, as compared with
the solidity of the sand grains, would render their proportionate weight
even smaller.

Foraminifera are found in the medium sands (Grade VI.), the fine
sands (Grade VII.), and the silts (Grade VI 11.). They are more
numerous in VII. than in VI., and more numerous in VI. than in VIII.
Only the Foraminifera from Grades VI. and VII. have been thoroughly
examined. These have been recorded in Section V., under the headings
of the different orounds.

The silts contain numerous foraminifera of small species and small
specimens of foraminifera of large species. As a result of floating
them from the silts it was found that many species sparingly repre-
sented in either grades VI. or VII. were all present in almost every
sample of silt, as well as species entirely absent from grades VI.
and VII.

Among the species sparingly represented in VI. and VII., but
frequent in the silts, are Glohigerina hidloidcs (very frequent), Bvlimina
pupoides, Lagena striata, Bolivina dilatata, Folymorphina ladca, and
Spirillina vivipara.

The species present in the silts but not found in VI. and VII. are
Cristdktria crepidida, Nodosaria scalaris, Nodosaria laevigata, Nodosaria
comrmmis, Bolivina punctata, Ha2)lop]iagmium canariensis, and Lagena
lagenoides.

In some few cases a census was taken of the number of Foraminifera
to be found in 13 centigrammes by weight of fine sand, spread out to
cover 13 sq. cm. in such manner as to present a single layer of sand

FROM THE EDDYSTONE C! ROUNDS TO START POINT. 443

grains lyiug as nearly as possible side by side without overlap. The
figures were as follows : —

102 VI f., 13 c. grms. by weight, 48 forarainifera.

103 VII.

90 VII.

91 VII.
87 VII.
97 VII.

105 VII.

106 VII.
83 VII.

))

I)

203
104

67

81

60

29

29

93 „ R H. W.]

PORIFERA.

The only two species of sponges of which satisfactory records were
kept are Snterites domuncula and Cliona celata. The sponge fauna was
nowhere numerous on the grounds ; but in addition to the above, two
or three other unidentified species were occasionally taken.

Stiberites domuncula was met with, forming the dwelling of the
hermit crab Uupagurus cuancnsis.

Cliona celata. The importance of this species is very great, for,
boring as it does in mollusc shells of all kinds, it is the chief agent
which brings about their disintegration, and prevents their continued
accumulation on the sea-floor. On all the coarse grounds in the
neighbourhood of the Eddystone there are few shells, with the excep-
tion of those which are obviously quite recently dead, which have
not been attacked to a greater or less extent by Oliona, and a large
number are reduced to what is little more than a framework held
together by the sponge.

Hydrozoa.

[^Nomenclature : — Hincks, British Hydroid Zooiihytcs^

In this group I have received much assistance from my friend
Mr. E. T. Browne, the specimens in a number of hauls having been
identified by him. For geographical distribution I have relied largely
on Hartlaub (No. 38).

The iiijluence of the hottom-dejoosit on the distribution of hydroids.
The Hydrozoa being all fixed organisms, the nature of the bottom-
deposit has in most cases, either directly or indirectly, a very great
influence on their distribution, and in an area such as that examined
during the present investigation, where the remaining physical con-
ditions to which the grounds are subjected are practically the same
for all, this influence can be very largely traced.

Considered from the point of view of their modes of attachment.

444 ON TilE FAUNA AND BOTTOM-DEPOSITS NEAR THE 30-FM. LINE

and of the nature of the objects to which they fix, several kinds of
hydroids may be distinguished, namely : —

1. Hydroids which usually fix directly to the bottom-deposit.

a. Those which attach themselves, generally by means of a
creeping stolon, most frequently to rocks or stones, less
frequently to dead shells.

h. Those which fix themselves in sand or gravel by means of
a felt-work of root-fibres.

2. Hydroids which usually fix themselves to other living organisms
or their remains.

c. Those which fix to moving organisms.

d. Those which fix to stationary organisms or remains of

organisms.

It must not, of course, be supposed that any species of hydroid is
entirely confined to one only of these manners of fixing, but it will
be found that for each species there is one (or in some cases possibly
two) of these ways of attachment to which its structure is specially
adapted, and that in the great majority of instances, more particularly
where the species is exceptionally abundant, it will be fixed in this way.

a. Hydroids attaching tlicmselves to rocks or stones. The nature of
the rock is of importance in this connection, though the amount of
evidence at present available on this point is not sufficient to render
profitable a detailed discussion of the matter.

Of the hydroids considered in the present paper, those most typical
of this class are Garveia nutans, Tubidaria i7idivisa* Aglaoplienia
ttihidifera, and Hydrallmania falcata, the latter species being most
frequently attached to stones or gravel. Such hydroids are plentiful on
rocky or stony grounds.

h. Hydroids fixing themselves in sand or gravel by a felt-work of
root-fibres. Examples of this class are Aglaophenia myrioiihyllum,
Antennidaria antennina, and Antennularia ramosa. The texture of
the bottom -deposit is a most important factor in determining the
distribution of such forms, as will be seen especially by referring to the
account of the distribution of Aglaophenia myriophyllum. Antennularia
antennina and A. ramosa are perhaps not such good representatives
of the class as the species first mentioned, since they are also rather
frequently found attached to shells, especially in shallow water.

c. Hydroids ujhick fix to moving organisms. Hydractinia echinata,
Heterocordyle Conybeari, Perigonimus rcpens represent this class. The
habit has evidently been acquired by the hydroid by reason of the
advantages in the matter of food -supply offered by the constant
movement of the host.

• Cy. p. 448.

FROM THE EDDYSTONE GROUNDS TO START POINT. 445

The distribution of such species depends upon that of suitable hosts,
and since the hosts are all wandering animals, the nature of the
bottom-deposit, when it is once sufficiently firm to support them, has
little direct effect on their distribution.

d. Hydroids which generally fix themselves to stationary living
organisms or remains of organisms. We may to some extent distin-
guish between those which most frequently fix (1) to dead shells of
molluscs,* (2) to sea-weeds, (3) to other zoophytes, (4) to the mem-
branous or leathery tubes of polychaetes, (5) to living lauiellibranch
molluscs. Typical examples of (1) are Eudendrium rameum and
rariiosum, Campamdaria veriicillata (?), and Lafoea dumosa, var. rohusta;
of (2) Sertularia pumila and Ohclia geniculata ; of (3) Eudendrium
ca'pillare, Coppinia arcta, Halecium tenellum ; of (4) Ifalecium hale-
cinum, Sertidarella Gayi, Lar sabellarum ; of (5) Tuhiclava cornucopiae.
The distribution of these forms depends almost entirely upon the
distribution of their hosts, which are themselves fixed organisms
generally directly attached to the bottom, whose distribution therefore
is largely influenced by the nature of the bottom-deposit,

Tuhiclava cornucopiae (Table VI., p. 529). This species was abundant
on the Bolt Head Shell Gravel (Ground XVII). In haul 105, in which
Pectuncidus glycimeris was abundant, nearly every living specimen
of that mollusc had Tuhiclava growing in considerable quantity on
the posterior margin of the shell. In haul 107 on the same ground
Tuhiclava cornucopiae was growing on the posterior end of living
Venus fasciata.

The hydroid was also present on the fine sand south of the
Eddystone (Ground VI., haul 102), growing on the posterior end of
the shell of Dentalium entalis.

DiSTKiBUTiON. Geographical. Shetland (Norman, No. 90) ; Northumberland (Alder) ;
Plymouth (Garstang, No. 27, p. 334 ; No. 28, p. 212).

Depth. 15 fathoms (Garstang) to 80-100 fathoms (Norman).

Habitat. Norman found his specimens growing on Astartc sulcata and Dentalium
entalis. In every instance the mollusc was living and the hydroid was on the posterior
extremity of the shell, where, as Norman says, " it would receive the henefit of the
aqueons currents caused by the mollusc, which, while 2>ioviding for its own necessities,
thus unwittingly performed the kindly office of feeding its hungry neighbour." Alder's
specimens were also found on the posterior end of Dentalium entalis.

Garstang found the species ujmn Aporrhais pcs-pelecani shells inhabited by Flmscolion
strombi, and subsequently also on shells of Turritella inhabited by the same Gepliyrean.
These specimens were obtained in 1.5-25 fathoms, south of the Plymouth Mewstone. The
species is still frequently taken in this locality on a bottom of clean shell gravel.

Speaking of Pectunculus glycimeris, Gwyn Jeffreys (No. 55, p. 168) says, "The anterior
side of the sliell, while the animal is alive, is frequently fringed with the tubes of a

* Those hydroids which fix on shells are less clearly marked as a separate class, proba})ly
since a dead shell offers conditions very similar both to those of stones and of other living
organisms.

NEW SKRIES. — VOL. V. NO. 4. ■^ Q

44:0 ON THE FAUNA AND BOTTOM-DEPOSITS NEAR THE 30-FM. LINE

HydroM j)olype (one of the Titbulariidae), which seems to take advantage of tlie strong
gyratory current jiroduced l)y the mollusc for its own food- seeking ])uriiose." It is
jn-obalile tliat the reference is to the present species, tliougli in my specimens the hydroid
was always on the posterior end of the shell,

Hydradinia echinata (Table VI., p. 529). Generally on Baccinum

undatum shells occupied by Uiipagiirus Bernhardus, occasionally (haul

93) on shell occupied by £. Prideauxii. The presence of Hydradinia

appears to be rather more frequent on the fine sand than on the

coarser grounds.

DlSTRlBl'TiON. Geogj-ajyhical. Greenland, Iceland, North Sea, British coasts,
Normandy and Brittany, and North America (Agassiz). [Fide Hincks, No. 46, and
Hartlaub, No. 38.]

Depth. Low-water to 90 fathoms.

Habitat. On Buccinum undatum, Fiisus corneus, Turrifella communis, Nassa reticu-
lata, Littoj-ina, Natica, Trochus zizyphinus (Hincks). On Mytilus edulis and on stones
(Hartlaub).

Eudcndrium rameum (Chart III.). Specimens of B. ramenm were
obtained only on the Bolt Head Shell Gravel, in hauls 106 and 107
(Ground XVll.). In 106 a fine colony was growing on an old
fragment of the leathery tube of Chaetopterus, and in 107 another
fine colony was found on a shell of Fedcn opercularis.

Distribution. Geographical. West Greenland, Kara Sea, Norway, Baltic, North
Sea, British Seas, Mediterranean, and Kerguelen {Challenger). [Fide Hartlaub, No. 38.]

Depth. 5-105 fathoms {Challenger, No. 3).

Habitat. On shells, stones, etc. (Hincks, No. 46).

Eudendrium ramosum (Chart III.). Generally growing on shells
or on other hydroids. The species is far more frequent and abundant
on sandy grounds than on the gravels. It was most numerous on
Grounds I., Ill, IV., VII., and XII.

Dlstribution. Geographicad, Greenland, Norway, North Sea, British Seas, Mediter-
ranean (Hartlaub, No. 38).

Depth. Low-water to 542 fathoms {Porcupine, Allnian, No. 4).

Habitat. On shells and on Laminaria roots (Hincks, No. 46 ; Hartlaub, No. 38).

Eudendrium capillare and E. sp. (Table VI., p. 529). The true
Eudcndrium capillare was met with on several grounds, generally
growing on other hydroids, sometimes on worm tubes or shells. A
small Eudendrium of a rather more robust character was also
frequently taken in similar situations, but there is some doubt as to
whether this is a distinct species.

DiSTRiBTJTiON. Geographical. Norway, Baltic, North Sea, British coasts (Hartlaub,
No. 38).

Depth. 4 to 30 fathoms (E. J. A.).

Habitat. On Antennularia ramosa, Delesseria sangidnea, on Salicornaria farciminoides
(= Cellaria fisttdosa) {fide Hincks).

Ptriyoninius repens (Table VI.). A good colony of this hydroid was
found growing on the claw of Eupagurus Bernhardus, in haul 104,
on the fine sand of Ground II. The species was not found on any
other ground.

FROM THE EDDYSTONE GROUNDS TO START POINT. 447

Distribution. Geographical. Norway, Baltic, Kattegat, North Sea, British Coasts,
Mediterraiiean (Hartlaub, No. 38).

Depth. Shallow water to 33 fathoms (E. J. A.).

Habitat. On Sertularians and on the Spider Crab ("Wright). On Dentalium entalis,
Fiisus anliquus, Turritella communis, and on stones {fi^le Hincks, No. 46). On Mya
areiiariu, on mussel shells, frequent on Nucula nucleus (Hartlaub). On Twritclla,
Chiton, Leda, Nucula, and Dentalium (Levinsen, No. 66). Growing on legs of a crab
and on Turritella shells at Plymouth (Bourne, No. 12). It is also frequently taken at
Plymouth on Nassa reticulata. Ferigonimus repens is clearly a species which fixes itself
most frequently to living crustaceans and molluscs.

Garveia nutaiis. On the Prawle Stony Ground only, in haul 29
(depth, 30 fathoms), growing on Tubularia indivisa, which was itself

fixed to a large stone.

DiSTUiBi'TioN. Geographical. Scottisli Coasts, Shetland, Morecambe Bay (Hincks,
No. 46, and AUman, No. 2) ; Hilbre Island, Mouth of Dee ; Plymouth (Garstang).

Depth. Between tide-marks (Allman) to 30 fathoms (E. J. A.).

Habitat. On rocks, zoophytes, and sea- weeds (Allman).

Heterocordylc Conyheari. On the fine sand of Ground I., in haul
51 only, fixed to shell of Buccinum undatum inhabited by Eupagurus
Bernhardus.

DiSTiiiBUTiox. Geographical. Glengariff Harbour, co. Cork, Oban (Allman and
Hincks).

Depth. Near low- water mark (Hincks) to 30 fathoms (E. T. B. ).

Hahital. On univalve shells tenanted by Hermit Cra])s (Allman). On Buccinum
(Hincks). Mr. E. T. Browne has found the species aljundant in Plymouth Sound on the
shells of living Nassa reticulata. Heterocordyle Conyheari is clearly a species which fixes
itself to living and freely-moving animals.

Bougainvillia ramosa (Chart III). As will be seen from the Chart,
in the area described in this report, this species is practically confined
to the fine sand grounds, on which it is frequently met with, though
not in large quantities. The only exception to this was in haul 84,
on Ground XI., where the bottom-deposit is coarse gravel mixed with
fine sand, and in this haul only one piece was seen. It was generally
found growing on polychaete tubes or on other hydroids.

DiSTiiiBOTiON. Geographical. Baltic, North Sea, British Coasts.

Depth. Low-water (Allman, No. 2) to 26 fathoms (Hartlaub, No. 38), 35 fathoms
(E. J. A.).

Habitat. On shells and stones and on other zoophytes (Hincks). On Virgularia
mirahilis (Dalyell). Allman records it on rocks near low-water. On Hyas aranea
(Apstein). Hartlaub found it at Heligoland, in 8i fathoms, on sandy ground, with many
Ascidians. By the Pommerania expedition it was dredged on ground described as muddy,
in 26 fathoms (Schulze, No. 105).

Tubularia indivisa (Table VI., p. 529) was taken only on the Prawle
Stony Ground (XVIil.), where it was growing on a large stone.

DisTiiiBUTlON. Geographical. Alaska, Greenland, North Cape, White Sea, Norway,
Baltic, North Sea (rare at Heligoland), British Coasts, Bay of Biscay {fide Allman, No. 2,
and Hartlaub, No. 38), Mediterranean (Pruvot, No. 98).

Depth. Low-water to 55 fathoms.

Hahitat. Tubularia indivisa is most frequently found on rocky and
stony ground. It is often taken on Uoatiug objects, such as buoys,

448 ON Tilt: FAUNA AND BOTTOM-DEPOSITS NEAI! THE 30-FM. LINE

hulks, etc. It also, however, is not uufretiueutly met with, according to
various authors, on line sandy or muddy ground. Hincks (No. 46)
quotes Thomas as saying that "on the oozy bottom which lies outside
a line drawn between Flamborough Head and the Staples " it grows to
a very large size. According to the same author Forbes found it in
Eothesay Bay, flourishing, as it seemed, " upright, on a muddy ground,
like a flower, fixed by the tapering root-like termination of its horny
case." Schulze (No, 105) records it in a number of the Pommerania
hauls, from bottoms of sand and shell at depths from 23 to 50 fathoms.
The entire absence of the species from all the sand and gravel grounds
examined during the present investigation is therefore noteworthy.
Indeed, I know of no such locality in this neighbourhood where the
species lives.

Clytia Johnstoni (Table VI.). Abundant on all grounds where other
hydroids or Ccllaria are common. It appears to grow less frequently
upon Halecium halecinum and Beanii than on Sertularians and Hydrall-

mania.

Distribution. Geographical. Nonvay to the Mediterranean, Baltic, Greenland,
Alaska, east coast of North America (fide Hartlaub, No. 38).

Depth. To 50 fathoms (?).

Habitat. On algae and hydroids.

Ohelia dicliotoma (Table VI.). This species has been met with on fine
sand grounds in the neighbourhood of the Eddystone, and occasionally
on the Bolt Head Shell Gravel and the Prawle Stony Ground. It was
found growing on Pccten opercidaris shells, on other hydroids {Hyclrall-
mania, Bougainvillia, Sertularia argentea), and on Ccllaria.

Distribution. Geographical. Norway, Baltic, British Seas to Mediterranean {fide
Hartlaub, No. 38).

Depth. 6-29 fathoms.

Habitat, On shells, algae, and other zoophytes.

Ohelia longissima was only found in haul 80 on Ground VII., south of

the Eddystone.

Distkibi'tion. Geographical. Circumpolar, Norway to British and Belgian Coasts
{fide Hartlaub, No. 38).

Depth. To 20 fathoms (Hartlaub).

Campanularia Uinchsii is generally distributed on the grounds ex-
amined, growing sometimes on shells, sometimes on Ccllaria, and
probably less frequently on hydroids.

DisTKiisuTiON. Geographical. British Coasts (Hincks, No. 46).
Depth. 10 or 20 fathoms to deep water (Hincks).
Habitat. On zoophytes, etc.

Campanularia verticillata (Table VI.). Occasional specimens were
taken on the fine sand grounds, I., III., and VI., in the neighbourhood
of the Eddystone. A fine colony was taken growing on a stone in
haul 45 on the I'rawle Stony Ground (XVIII.), and it was also met
with in hauls 28 and 60 on the Bolt Head Shell Gravel.

FROM THE EDDYSTONE GEOUNDS TO START POINT. 449

Distribution. Gcographiml, Kara Sea, White Sea, North Cape, Norway, Baltic,
North Sea, British Coasts to Mediterranean; Greenland, Labrador, Nova Scotia, Massa-
chusetts {fide Hartlaub, No. 38).

Depth. To 300 fathoms (Sars, fide Allman, No. 2).

Habitat. On shells and other hydroids (Hincks, No. 46, Schulze, No. 105).

Gai-iipanularia fiexuosa. A hydroid was very abundant in haul 107
on the Bolt Head Shell Gravel (XVII.), growing on dead shells of
Pectuncidus glycimeris. The specimens were without gonophores, but
were identified independently by Mr. Browne and myself as C. flexuosa.
C. flexuosa was not taken in any other haul.

Distribution. Hincks (No. 46) says it is confined to the littoral region, and is
extremely common on all parts of our coasts. Mediterranean (Carus, No. 14).

Lovenella clausa. Growing on Tubularia indivisa, in haul 29, on the
Prawle Stony Ground (XVIII. ).

Distribution. On stones in Torbay, 10 fathoms (Hincks). On Fuci from stony
ground off the coast of Sweden (Loven). Taken once at Heligoland (Hartlaub).

Opercularella laccrta. Growing on Tubularia indivisa, in haul 29, on

the Prawle Stony Ground (XVIII.).

Distribution. Between tide-marks and in moderate de2)ths not uncommon. British
Coasts and Belgium {fide Hincks).

Zafoea dumosa. The creeping variety of L. dumosa* was present on
practically all grounds, growing on shells and on other hydroids when
the latter were present. The branched variety (var. robusta) was
frequently met with, especially upon fine sand grounds, attached to
shells or polychaete tubes. The Neomenian Dondersia banyulensis

was often found associated with this variety.

Distribution. Geographical. White Sea, North Cape, eastern side of Atlantic to
Mediterranean (Pruvot, No. 98), Greenland, Alaska, Labrador and western side of
Atlantic, West Indies, Chili {fide Hincks, No. 46, and Hartlaub, No. 38).

Depth. To 450 fathoms {Challenger, Allman, No. 3).

Lafoca fruticosa. This species was taken occasionally on different
fine sand grounds (I., III., IV., VII.), and a fine colony was also found
in haul 84 on the coarse gravel and fine sand north-west of the Eddy-
stone (Ground XI.).

Distribution. Geographical. North Cape, Iceland, Norway, British Seas {fide
Hincks), Strait of Magellan {Challenger, Allman, No. 3).

Depth. To 100 fathoms (Iceland, Hincks).

Habitat. On shells and zoophytes.

Calycella syringa. This was recognised occasionally on the Bolt
Head Shell Gravel and on the Prawle Stony Ground, growing on Pccten
opercidaris shells, on Sertularia abietina, and on Hydrallmania falcata.

Distribution. Geographical. White Sea, Iceland, Greenland, Alaska, North Sea,
British Coasts, north coast of France {fide Hartlaub, No. 38 ; and Hincks, No. 46),
Mediterranean (Carus, No. 14).

* What we have regarded as the creeping form of L. dumosa has probably often been the
form recorded by other authors as Filclhcm serpcm, but we have not felt able to distinguish
between the two. We have often compared the IMymouth La/oca with Hincks' ligures of
Filellum scriMis, but up to the present have not seen anything like Filellum as figured.

450 ON THE FAUNA AND BOTTOM-DEPOSITS NEAR THE 30-FM. LINE

Depth. To 42 fathoms (HartkuL).

Habitat. On other zoophytes and sea-weeds, very common (Hincks).

Calycella fastiijiata. This was recognised in haul 75 (Ground VII.).
DiSTKiBUTiox. Scotland, Cornwall (Norman, No. 90 ; Hincks, No. 46), North Sea
(Schulze, No. 105). Growing on other hydroids. To 81 fathoms (Porc!<pr/ie, AUman, No. 4).

Cuspidella costata. liecognised in haul 81 on the fine sand ground (I.).
Distribution. Whitby, Yorkshire. On Syncoryne eximia (Hincks).

Trichydra pudica. This species was found by Mr. Browne growing
on Hakcium halecinum and on a Pcdcn opcrcularis shell in haul 97
(Ground XV., fine gravel).

Distribution. Found by Wright in the Firth of Forth, on a small shell. There are
no other records (Hincks, No. 46).

Coppinia arda (Table VI.). Abundant on the fine sand grounds,
especially on Lafoca dumosa (var. robusta) and on Sertularia abietina.
Whenever special attention has been paid to the point, I have always
found the creeping variety of Lafoca dumosa growing on the branch
of Scrtidaria abietina upon which the Cop^rwitft was found. As the
gonothecse of Lafoea dumosa are quite unknown, the constant associa-
tion of Cop)p>inia arda with it naturally suggests the idea that the
latter might be the reproductive stage of Lafoea.''^

Distribution. Geogrcqjliical. Circumpolar (Norman), Norway, British Seas, Pas-de-
Calais (fide Hartlaub, No. 38).

Depth. To 50 fathoms (Schulze).

Habitat. Growing on Scrtidaria abietina and on Hydrallmania falcata (Hincks).
Hartlaub also found it on these two hydroids, generally associated with Filellum serpens.
Schulze (Pommerania, No. 105) records it on Hydrallmania falcata.

Hakcium halecinum (Chart II.). The distribution of this hydroid
is both interesting and significant. The species is very abundant on
the grounds to the westward of the Eddystone, but is scarce or entirely
absent on the remaining grounds. The abundance of Hakcium is
specially characteristic on the mixed coarse gravel and fine sand of
Grounds IX. and XI., on the finer gravel of Ground XIV., and on
the coarse sand of Ground VII. As will be seen from the chart, the
species extends from these grounds on to those which immediately
surround them, in what appears to be diminishing quantity according
to the distance from the centre of abundance. Thus on the fine sand
of Ground VI. it is fairly abundant, on the coarse sand of Ground IV.
it is still met with in some quantity, on the fine sand of Ground III. it
is scarce, whilst on the fine sand of Ground I. it is represented by
two colonies only, one in liaul 92 and one in haul 82. On the fine
gravel of Ground XII., again, the species is present, but in much

* Since the above wa.s in type C. C. Nutting's paper on "Hydroids from Alaska and
Puget Sound" (Proceed. U.S. Nat. Museum, vol. xxi.) has come to hand, in which it is
maintained that Cojrpinia arcta is in reality the gonosome of Lafoea, a view which appears
to have been definitely held ])y Levin.sen in 1893. [Meduser, Ctenophorer, og Hydroider
fra Gi-'6nlands Vcstkyst, Copenhagen, 1893.)

FROM THE EDDYSTONE GROUNDS TO START POINT, 451

smaller quantity than on the neighbouring coarse gravel of Ground XI.
Ground X., as Chart II. shows, is surrounded by grounds on which
H. halecinmn is abundant. As has been already explained (p. 416),
this ground is occupied almost exclusively by Ophiothrisn fragili% but
occasional specimens of H. halecinum were taken upon it in some
hauls. A single specimen of the hydroid occurred in haul 10 on the
clean shell gravel of Ground IX., close to the Eddystone rocks, a
ground upon which hydroids were practically absent. It was occasion-
ally taken on the Bolt Head Shell Gravel, but never on the Prawle
Stony Ground.

On the grounds where the species was most abundant the specimens
of Halcciinii halecinum were in by far the greater number of instances
fixed to the leathery tubes of Chaetoptcrus, the distribution of which, as
will be seen by comparing Chart II. with Chart X., is practically
identical with that of the hydroid we are considering. But in addition
to the Chactoptents tubes the hydroid was also found, though much
less frequently, attached to shells or (in haul 100 only) to stones. The
shells of Tapes virginea and Pecten opercularis were the most common
ones used by the hydroid, but exceptionally fine colonies were some-
times found attached to the flat upper valve of living Pecten maximus.
This latter mollusc was generally present on the Halecium grounds, but
only a comparatively small proportion of the specimens had colonies
of the hydroid growing upon them.

Undoubtedly the presence of Chaetopterus in numbers, by offering a
suitable fixing place for the hydroid, is an important factor in deter-
mining the abundance of Halecium halecinum upon the grounds where
it is found in quantity. At the same time it is not the only cause,
since Chaetopterus is obtained in numbers on a ground some four miles
south-west of Iiame Head, where Halecium halecinum is by no means
plentiful.

Distribution. Geographical. North Cajie, Norway, Baltic, Kattegat, Nortli Sea,
British and French Coasts, Mediterranean, Massachnsetts Bay {fide Hartlaub, No. 38).

Depth. 12-50 fathoms (Sars,/de Hartlanb).

Habitat. On shells, stones, etc., in hoth shallow and deep water, Init more usually the
latter (Hincks). Schulze (No. 105) states that in the rommcrania dredgings the species
was found on bivalve shells, worm tubes, etc. It was taken six times on stony gi'ouud or
sand with stones, four times on sand and shell, and twice on mud.

Halecium Bcanii (Table VI., p. 529) was met with on all the grounds
upon which H. halecinum was found, although it was by no means
so abundant as the latter species on the grounds to the westward of the
Eddystone. It was found, so far as I remember, for I have no definite
records on the point, more frequently upon shells than on Chaetopterus
tubes, differing in this respect from H. halecinum.

Distribution. Geographical. British Seas; Azores (450 fathoms, CAaZZ<;?iirer, Allman,
No. 3), south-east coast of Australia (150 fathoms, ditto); Mediterranean (Carus, No. 14).

452 ON THE FAUNA AND BOTTOM-DEPOSITS NEAR THE 30-FM. LINE

Dq)th. To 150 fathoms.

Habitat. On shells, etc., and very often parasitic on other zoophytes, from moderate
dejiths to deep water (Hincks, No. 46). The Pomvicrania took it on a bottom of sand,
and on sand, shell, and small stones (Schuke, No. 105).

Hahxium lahrosum was identified by Mr. E. T. Browne, in Iiauls 73
and 75, on Grounds XIV. and VII., west and south-west of the
Eddystone.

DiSTiUBUTlON. Geograiyliical. North Sea, Scotland, Shetlands (fide Hartlaub, No.
38). Very common at Heligoland, especially on rhallusia (Ascidiella) virginea. Allman
(No. 2) states that this is a northern form, confined to the north coasts of the British
Isles. Mediterranean (Carus, No. 14).

Halecium teneUum was recognised only in haul 29 on the Prawle

Stony Ground, growing on the stem of Tuhularin indivisa. In haul

77 on Ground IV. a fragment of a small Halecium, which was probably

this species, was seen growing on Gellaria.

Distribution, etc. Salcombe Bay, Devon, on Salicornaria farciminoides ( = Ccllaria
fistulosa); Filey (T. H.) ; Northumberland, on Tubularia indivisa and Sertularia abietiim,
from deep water (J. A. ) [Hincks, No. 46J.

Sertularella Gayi (Chart II.). In contradistinction to Halecium
halecinum this species is specially abundant on the tine sand grounds,
where it forms one of the most characteristic features of the fauna.
It is most abundant on the line sand grounds 111. and IV. to the
eastward of the Eddystone, and on Grounds VI. and VII. to the south.
It is present in quantity also on the fine sand of the inner and outer
trawling ground (I. and II.). On the coarser grounds to the westward
of the Eddystone, it is still moderately plentiful on the coarse gravel
mixed with fine sand of Grounds XL and XII. It is scarce on the
remaining grounds in the neighbourhood of the Eddystone (one or two
colonies at most in a haul and absent in many hauls), and has never
been taken on the Bolt Head Shell Gravel (XVII.) or the Prawle
Stony Ground (XVIII.).

On the grounds upon which it is abundant Sertularella Gayi is most
frequently attached to the membranous tubes of Thclepus. It is also
found less frequently attached to shells.

A group of animals of the following kind, in which S. Gayi plays an
important part, is exceedingly frequent on the grounds where this
hydroid is abundant : — The tube of the polychaete Tlicleinis serves
as a base from which the hydroid Sertularella Gayi springs. Attached
to the lower portion of the stem of the hydroid are the Ascidian
Ascidiella scabra and the Polychaete Sahclla (pavonina ?), as well as the
barnacle Scalpellum vulgnre. Attached also to the stem of the Sertu-
larella will probably be some of the smaller creeping hydroids, especially
Clytia Johnstoni, together with a number of foraminifera belonging to
the species Truncatulina lohaiula.

FKOM THE EDDYSTONE GROUNDS TO START POINT, 453

Distribution. Geographical. British Seas and coast of Normandy (Hincks), New
Zealan<l (Allman, No. 2).

Depth. To 374 fathoms (Allman, No. 4, Porcupine).

Sertularella pohjzoiiias (Table VI., p. 530). In the earlier hauls I did
not distinguish between S. Gai/i and S. jjoli/zonias, until the difference
between the two forms was pointed out to me by Mr. Browne. The
distribution of S. iwbjzonias is practically identical on the Eddy stone
Grounds with that of >S'. Gcnji, though it is much less frequently met
with, generally not more than two or three pieces being found amongst

a large mass of S. Gayl.

Distribution. Geographical. Kara Sea, Norway, Kattegat, Baltic, North Sea (not
frequent at Heligoland), British Coasts, Madeira, Mediterranean, Alaska, Greenland,
east coast of United States, Florida, Australia and New Zealand, Chili, Soutli Africa
{fide Hartlaub, No. 38 ; Alhnan, No. 2, p. 160 ; and Hincks, No. 46).

Depth. To 374 fathoms (Allman, No. 4, Porcupine).

Habitat. On sliells, sea- weeds, etc. (Hincks).

Dii^hcisia rosacea (Table VI.). Only occasionally met with, in hauls 82
and 99 on the Eddystone Grounds, 4 and 29 on the Prawle Stony
Ground.

Distribution. Geographical. Faroe, British Coasts, North France, Massachusetts
Bay {fide Hartlaub, No. 38).

Depth. Tide-marks to 50 fathoms (Hincks, No. 46).

Habitat. On other zoophytes (cliieiiy) and on shells. Hartlaub found it on Tttbularin
indivisa and on Sertularia cupressina. Schulze (No. 105) records it three times in the
Pommcrania dredgings on sand and shell. Packard found it very abundant on gravelly
bottom, in 50 fathoms, iu Straits of Belle Isle.

Di])1iasia a.ttenuata. In hauls 23 and 24 on the fine sand of the
outer trawling ground (II.), and in haul 21 on the Bolt Head Shell
Gravel. Never plentiful.

Distribution. British Coasts, generally on other zoophytes (Hincks, No. 46) ;
Australia (von Lendenfelt and Hincks), South Africa (Allman, No. 2).

The Pommcrania took it twice on sand and shell, once on small stones.

Diphasia tamarisca. In haul 99 south of the Eddystone, and in
haul 28 on the Bolt Head Shell Gravel. Small colonies only.

Distribution. British Coasts, Bay of Biscay, Grand ^lanan, Massachusetts Bay
(Hincks), Mediterranean (Carus, No. 14). On shells and stones from deep water. The
Pommcrania took it once on sand, shell, and small stones in 30 fathoms (Schulze, No.
105).

Sertularia ahictina (Chart II.). This species is characteristic of the
fine sand of the outer trawling ground (Ground II.), where it is taken
in quantity. It is not present on the fine sand of the inner trawling
ground (Ground I.), nor on any of the grounds in the neighbourhood
of the Eddystone. It is frequently taken on the Bolt Head Shell
Gravel and on the Prawle Stony Ground, being abundant in some of
the deeper hauls (especially hauls 7, 28, 4, and 45).

In haul 28 it was growing largely on Peden opcrcularis shells, but
I unfortunately have no notes on its attachments in other hauls.

454 ON THE FAUNA AND BOTTOM-DEPOSITS NEAli THE 30-FM. LINE

Distribution. Geograjyhical. Kara Sea, White Sea, North Cape, Norway, Baltic,
North Sea, British Coasts, Bay of Biscay, Mediterranean. Iceland, Greenland, Labrador,
Newfoundland (fide Hincks, No. 46, and Hartlaub, No. 38). South Africa (Allnian, No. 2,
p. 158).

Depth. 5-75 fathoms (Allman, No. 4, Porcuphie).

Ilahitnt. On shells, stones, etc., from deep water (Hincks). Attached to living molluscs
(M'lntosh, St. Andrews). Schulze (No. 105) records it from the Pommcrania dredgings
nine times on hard or coarse ground, twice on mud or sand in 30 and 50 fathoms.

Sertularia argentea (Table VI.). This species was not uufrequently
met with on both coarse and fine grounds, though never in quantity.
It was growing on Pectcn opercularis shells, on stones, and on other
hydroids {Diphasia tamarisca).

Distribution. Geographical. North Cape, Kattegat (Levinsen, No. 66), British and
French Coasts, Adriatic, Greenland, Labrador, east coast of United States, South Africa
(fide Hincks, No. 46).

Depth. 8-50 fathoms.

Habitat. On shells, stones, etc., chiefly from deep water.

HydTcillmania falcata (Chart III.) was abundant on the Prawle Stony
Ground (XVIII.) and moderately plentiful on the Bolt Head Shell Gravel
(XVII.). On most of the fine sand grounds and coarse grounds in the
neighbourhood of the Eddystone occasional specimens were taken, but
on none of these was it at all abundant.

The hydroid was generally attached to stones, occasionally to shells.
I have never seen this species attached to polychaete tubes.

Distribution. Geographical. White Sea, Norway, Baltic, North Sea, British Coasts,
Gulf of St. La\\Tence, east coast of United States, South Africa {fide Hincks, No. 46,
and Hartlaub, No. 38).

Depth. 12-542 fathoms [Porciqnne, Allman, No. 4).

Habitat. On shells and stones in the coralline zone (Hincks). On dead shells
(Cyprina islandica, Ostrea cdulis) in Kattegat (Levinsen, No. 66). Schulze (No. 105)
records Hydrallmania in the Pommcrayiia dredgings four times on coarse bottom (with
small stones), eight times on sand and shell, and once on mud.

Thuiaria arficulata (Chart IV.). Several colonies in hauls 27 and
28 on the Bolt Head Shell Gravel (XVII.), and several in hauls 45 and
63 on the Prawle Stony Ground (XVIII.) The species was never met
with on the Eddystone Grounds. Attached to stones or shells.

Distribution. Geographical. British Seas (Hincks, No. 46), Mediterranean (Cams,
No. 14).

Depth. To 632 fathoms {Porcupine, Allman, No. 4).

Habitat. On stones and shells from deep water (Hincks). Schulze (No. 105) records it
once only in the Ponunerania dredgings on a bottom of sand, shell, and small stones.

Antennidaria antennina (Chart IV.). This is typically a sand
species, possessing at the base of the stalk a felt-work of root-fibres,
by means of which it fixes itself in the sand. It is, however, not
uufrequently also found attached to shells. It is most abundant on the
fine sand grounds, I., II., V., and VI., and on Ground XII., where
the bottom is medium gravel mixed with muddy sand. It is rare on
the very fine sand of the outer trawling ground (II.), not very plentiful

FKOM THE EDDYSTONE GROUNDS TO START POINT. 455

ou the fine gravel of Ground XIV., the coarse gravel mixed with sand
of Ground XL, and on Ground VII. It is only occasionally met with
on Grounds X., XIII., XV., and on the Bolt Head Shell Gravel (XVII.)
and Prawle Stony Ground (XVIIL).

On the whole the species, in the area examined, seems to flourish
best in the coarser sand grounds, being scarce on gravels and stony
ground, and also on very fine sand.

Distribution. Geographical. British Coasts, Belgium, Bay of Biscay {fide Hincks,
No. 46), Mediterranean (Pruvot, No. 98), western side of North Sea [Pommcrunia). Not
recorded at Heligoland (Hartlaub, No. 38), nor in Kattegat (Levinsen, No. 66).

Habitat. Commonly on a sandy bottom (Hincks). Schulze (No. 105) records it three
times in the Fommerania dredgings on coarse ground, three times on sand and shell.

Antennularia ramosa (Chart IV.). Generally on the same grounds

as A. antennina, but never so abundant. It was most numerous on

Grounds VI. and XII. This species also fixes in the sand by a

felt-work of root-fibres.

DiSTRiBTJTiox. British Coasts, South Africa {fide Hincks, No. 46), North Sea, 12 50
fathoms (Schulze, No. 105). In the Pommerania dredgings it was recorded on sand, on
sand and shell, and on small stones.

Aglaophenia myriophylhim (Chart II.). Like Antennularia antcn-
nina and ramosa this species fixes itself in the sand by a felt-work
of fine root-fibres. It confines itself much more entirely to this mode
of attachment than Antennularia, and I have never found it growing
on shells, stones, or polychaete tubes. Probably in consequence of this,
A. myriophylhim is much more restricted in its distribution. On the
Eddystone Grounds it was most common on the fine sand of Ground
III., north-east and east of the rocks. It was constantly present on
the adjoining sand (Ground IV.), and also on the coarse gravels mixed
with fine sand or mud of Grounds XL, XII., and XIII. It was rare or
absent on the remaining gravel and sand grounds in the neighbourhood
of the Eddystone. On the fine sand of the inner and outer trawling
grounds (I. and II.) it was only present in one haul, viz., haul 82.*
It was absent on the Bolt Head Shell Gravel (XVIL), and was only
once met with (in haul 29) on the Prawle Stony Ground (XVIIL).

Distribution. Geographical. British Coasts, Mediterranean, Gulf of St. Lawrence,
Massachusetts Bay {fide Hincks, No. 46).

Depth. Chiefly from dee}) water (Hincks). 364 fathoms (Allman, Porcupine, No. 4).

Aglaophenia tuhulifera. This species has only been taken twice ;

once fixed to a specimen of the Ascidian Polycarpa varians, in haul 55

(Ground X.), and once in haul 99 (Ground XVI., probably on a stone).
Distribution. Geographical. British Seas, South Africa {fide Hincks, No. 46).
Depth. In moderately deep water (Hincks).
Habitat. On sea-weeds, zoophytes, sliells, etc.

* It will be noticed tliat this haul is exceptional also in the ])resence of Haleduin
halecinnm and of fragments of Chactoplcrus tubes. There is probably some coarse ground
near it, the influence of which is being felt {cf. p. 391).

456 ON THE FAUNA AND BOTTOM-DEPOSITS NEAR THE 30-FM. LINE

Plumularia pinnata. This species is very generally distributed, but
less frequently met with on the fine sand grounds than on the gravels
to the westward of the Eddystone. It is usually attached on these
gravels to Chaetoi^terns tubes or to other hydroids. It was met with
occasionally only on the Bolt Head Shell Gravel (XVII.) and on the

Prawle Stony Ground (XVIII.).

Distribution. Geographical. Nonvay, Baltic, Kattegat (common), North Sea (rare at
Heligoland), British Seas (Hartlaub, No. 38 ; Levinsen, No 66 ; Hincks, No. 46), Medi-
terranean (?) (Carus, No. 14).

Depth. To 50 fathoms (Schnlze, No 105, Pommerania).

Habitat. On shells, stones, sea-weeds, etc. (Hincks). Tiiis species seems to be less
restricted by the nature of the material to which it readily fixes than some other hydroids.

Plumularia setacea. Less common on the Eddystone Grounds than
P. pinnata. Especially scarce on fine sand grounds. Generally growing
on other hydroids or on polychaete tubes. Taken several times on
the Prawle Stony Ground (XA^IIL).

Distribution. Geographical. Mediterranean, French Coast, British Seas. More
plentiful at Heligoland than P. pinnata {fide Hartlaub, No. 38).

Depth. Littoral to 106 fathoms.

Habitat. On weed, zoophytes, rock, etc. (Hincks). On Ciena intestincolis (Sars, fide
Hincks, No. 46), on Laminaria (Van. Ben. fide Hincks ; Hartlaub), on Halichondria
panicca (Bourne, No. 12).

Plumularia Catharina (Chart IV.). This is the most abundant
species of Plumvlaria on the Eddystone Grounds, and it is present
both on the fine sand grounds and on the gravels. On the fine sand
grounds it is generally growing on other hydroids. On the gravels to
the west of the Eddystone it is often very abundant on Chactopterns
tubes, generally in the form of the green variety described by Hincks,
in which the erect stem is wanting. In this form it is quite a char-
acteristic feature of the grounds where ChadopUrus abounds. In haul
90 (Ground V.), which is a fine sand ground, one colony only of this
variety was taken, and it was growing on a piece of old leather. This
is significant in view of the two facts that there were plenty of Pectcn
shells on this ground, to which one would at first sight have supposed
that the species could attach itself, and that the species is abundant on
other grounds in the immediate neighbourhood, fixed to the leathery
tube of Chaetopterus.

Amongst the hydroids to which the ordinary form of the species has
been found attached I have noted Hydrallmania falcata and Halecium
halecinum. The species was never taken on the J>olt or Prawle
Grounds.

Distribution. Geographical. British Coasts (Hincks, No. 46), Heligoland (Leuckart),
between Cuba and Florida (Allnian, No. 2), North Sea (Schulze, No. 105).

Depth. To 50 fathoms (Schulze).

Habitat. On shells, corallines, and especially the tests of Ascidians from deep water,
shells of Pinna; stemless variety on Sertula,rella Gayi (Hincks). Tlie Pommerania
generally dredged the species on sandy ground.

FKOM THE EDDYSTONE GROUJJDS TO STAllT POINT. 457

Plumularia frutescens. A very fine specimen in haul 10 (Ground
XVI.), 5-6 inches high, growing on a Pedcn maximitH shell.

Distribution. Geographical. Britisli Coasts, Algoa Bay (Krauss) [fide Hincks, No.
46]; Mediterranean [fide Carus, No. 14).

Depth. 5-34 fathoms (Schulze, No. 105, Pommerania).

Habitat. On stones and shells in deep water (Hincks). The Pommerania took the
species twice, on shells and stones (34 fathoms) and on stony ground (5-10 fathoms).

ACTINOZOA.
[Nomenclature : — Gosse, No. 30 ; or Had don. No. 35.]

Alcyonium digitatum. The relative distribution of Alcyonium on
the grounds examined is indicated in Chart I. Large colonies are
abundant on the fine sand of the outer trawling ground (Ground II.),
where they are generally fixed to Carclium cchinatum shells, and also
on the fine sand of Ground VI., south of the Eddystone, where they
are attached to shells of various kinds. Large colonies are also
abundant in the two deepest hauls on the Bolt Head Shell Gravel
(hauls 27 and 28), and in the deeper hauls on the Prawle Stony
Ground (hauls 4, 45, 66). On the other grounds near the Eddystone,
and in the remaining hauls on the Bolt and Prawle Grounds, young
colonies are frequently met with growing on living Pecien opercularis or
on shells of different kinds, but they seldom, if ever, attain any
considerable size.

It will be seen from the chart that all the grounds indicated above,
upon which large colonies are taken, lie at depths of 34 and 35 fms.,
and are in fact the deepest portions of the area investigated. Other
situations in which Alcyonium flourishes in the neighbourhood of
Plymouth show that depth in itself can only indirectly influence its
distribution, and that the species can also adapt itself to a variety
of conditions of density, temperature, etc., without injury. For
instance, very fine colonies are often found growing a few feet only
below low-water mark, on the iron pillars supporting the Promenade
Pier within the Sound. Colonies of moderate size are also found,
exposed at low water, on the Eddystone rocks, attached to the over-
hanging ledge beneath the remains of the old lighthouse, on the more
sheltered side of the rock.

Two of the most important factors which determine the local dis-
tribution of the species would appear to be (1) the presence of suitable
objects upon which it can fix, and (2) the absence of movements of the
water strong enough to break the colony from its base or to overturn
the object to which it is attached. Since the species can fix to rocks,
to stones, or to shells, the first of these conditions is fulfilled upon all
the grounds examined in the present investigation, for suitable shells
at least are everywhere found, so that the second becomes of the more

458 ON THE FAUNA AND BOTTOM-DEPOSITS NEAR THE 30-FM. LINE

practical importance. A large colony of Alcyonmm when fully ex-
panded offers a very considerable surface to any movement of the
water, and when such a colony is attached to a shell of the size of
Pectcn opercularis or Cardimn echinatum (which are the shells to which
the small colonies are generally attached on the grounds under investi-
gation) a very slight movement will be sufficient to overturn it. At a
depth of 30 to 35 fms. we are probably approaching the limit at which
wave action is seriously felt on the sea-bottom in this portion of the
Channel.* This diminution of wave action certainly seems a reasonable
explanation of the facts observed in the distribution of Alcyonium,
namely, that at depths less than 34 or 35 fms., although small colonies
growing on shells are common, large colonies are seldom found attached
to such objects, but large colonies do exist, at any rate in sheltered
situations, fixed to rocks or solid structures : at depths greater than 34
or 35 fms., on the other hand, large colonies are plentiful attached

to shells.

Distribution. Geographical. Bergen and Hardanger Fjords (Normau fide Hickson,
No. 45, p. 352) ; Kattegat (Leviusen, No. 66) ; North Sea (Schiilze, No. 105 ; Hartlaub,
No. 38). British Coasts ; Brittany (Pruvot, No. 98) ; Bay of Biscay {Caudan, No. 61).

Depth. Low-water to 312-383 fathoms (Caudan).

Sarcodictyon catenata (Chart I.). The red variety is found growing,
sometimes in considerable quantity, on old shells (chiefly old and worn
shells of Lutraria elliptica and Pecten opercularis), and is generally
most numerous on clean shell gravel, though by no means confined to
such ground. It was most regularly taken on the shell gravel west
of the Eddystone (Ground XVI. and some hauls of XIV.). On
Ground VII., south of the Eddystone, it was present in one haul only
(haul 100), where it was very abundant, growing on a flat piece of red
Trias stone. It was occasionally taken on Grounds X., XIII., XV., and
IV. (haul 39 only), in the neighbourhood of the Eddystone, and was
not unfrequent on the Bolt Head Shell Gravel and on the Prawle
Stony Ground.

The species was not taken on the fine sand grounds, I., II., III., V.,

VI., and VIII.

Distribution. Shetland (Norman, No. 90) ; west coast of Scotland and Lish Sea
(Herdman,No. 40, p. 319, and No. 41, VoL IX.); Brittany and Mediterranean (Pruvot,
No. 98).

On nuUipore ground, on sand and shell, on shell sand and small gravel, on shells,
stones, and echinoderm spines, and on stones and mud. 10-40 fathoms (Herdman, No.
41).

Gorrjonia verrucosa (red variety, G. Cavoliiii, v. Koch) was taken only
in haul 3, on the Prawle Stony Ground (XVIII.). The trawl had here
been over a patch of rocky ground, and came up very much torn. The
species is always obtained on tocky ground in this neighbourhood.

* See page 375, ante.

FROM THE EDDYSTONE GROUNDS TO START POINT. 459

DisniiiirTiox. Gorgonia verrucosa occurs in the I\Ic(litoinuii>an (v. Koch, No. 59 ;
Pruvot, No. 98 ; Marion, No. 74), on the coast of Brittany (Pruvot), and on the south-
west coast of England. Johnston {British Zoophytes, No. 56) records it, on the authority
of Dr. Walker and of Sowerby, from Scotland. There is a British Museum specimen said
to be collected by Forbes in the Shetlands {Cat. Brit. Had. Animals, p. 56). Herdman and
Leslie (No. 43) think that the species does not occur in the fresh condition in the Firth of
Forth, although dead pieces have been occasionally seen there. Gorgonia verrucosa is
therefore clearly a southern species which is seldom met with in any locality north of the
English Channel.

In the Mediterranean von Koch seems to have always found this species of Gorgonia
attached to stones.

Caryophyllia Smithii (Chart I.) is found attached to shells and to
stones on the gravel grounds in the neighbourhood of the Eddystone,
on the Bolt Head Shell Gravel, and on the Prawle Stony Ground. On
the Eddystone Gravels it is very conimonly attached to old Fecten
maximus shells. The barnacle, Pyrgoma anglicum, is generally asso-
ciated with it.

The species is entirely absent from the fine sand grounds.

Distribution. Geographical. Shetlands (abundant, Norman, No. 90) ; west of
Scotland (Hoylo, No. 52) ; south-west of Ireland (Haddon, No. 34) ; Devon and
Cornwall ; Brittany (Lacaze Duthier, No. 63) ; Azores (?) {Challenger, Moseley, No 89).

Leslie and Herdman (No. 43) do not record the species from the Firth of Forth. The
Pommerania (Schulze, No. 105) foirnd the dead skeleton only on the south coast of
Norway, so that it appears to be absent from the North Sea. According to Lacaze
Duthier (No. 63) the Mediterranean form, C. clavus, is a distinct species, and 0. Smithii
is not found in that sea.

Depith. 0-450 fathoms {Challenger, No. 89).

Habitat. On rocks, stones, and shells.

Epizoanthvs incrustahis (Chart I.) was generally present on the outer
trawling ground (II.), of which it is a characteristic species. It was
taken twice (hauls 27 and 21) on the Bolt Head Shell Gravel. It
was not present on the other grounds.

DisTKiBUTiON. Geographical. There is still considerable confusion as to the synonymy
of this species. According to Haddon (No. 35) E. incrustatus (Diib. and Kor. ) occurs on
the east and west coasts of the North Atlantic, as far south as the English Channel and
the Massachusetts coast. E. arcriMceus (Delle Chiaje) he regards as a distinct species
confined to the Mediterranean.

According to tlie same authority the species ranges in depth from shallow water to 906
fathoms.

Epizoanfhus incrustatus occurs gi'owing on shells, which arc sometimes, but not always,
inhabited by hermit crabs [Anapagurus lacvis (Norman), Eupagurus excavatus (Haddon) ;
Eupagurus victiculosus (Bourne, No. 11)].

Sayartia parasitica (Chart XII.) was always found associated with
Eupagurus Bernhardus, but it is a curious fact that it was only taken
on fine sand grounds (I., II., III., IV., V., and VII.), whilst the
specimens of the hermit crab, which were not unfrequently taken on
the gravels, were always without the anemone. I would not, how-
ever, suggest that this is at all a general rule.

DiSTUiiiUTlON. Geographical. A southern form, extending from the Mediterranean to
the southern shores of the British Isles. Brittany (Pruvot, Ni). 98) ; suuthern part of

460 ON THE FAUNA AND BOTTOM-DEPOSITS NEAR THE 30-FM. LINE

North Sea {Pommerania, No. 105) ; Red Scci (Gossc, No. 30). Tlie species is not recorded
from the Irish Sea (Herdmau), nor from the Shetland Isles (Norman).
Habitat. Generally on shells inhabited by Eiipagurus Bernhardus.

Adamsia paUiata (Table VI.) occurs on both sand and gravel grounds
in the neighbourhood of the Eddystone. It has never been dredged on
the Bolt Head or Prawle Grounds. The anemone was always found
associated with Eupagurus Prideauxii.

Distribution. Geographical. A. palliata extends further north than A. parasitica.
It is found in the Shetlands, on the west coast of Scotland, in the Irish Sea, south
coast of Ireland (Gosse, No. 30) ; Brittany (Pruvot, No. 98) ; Mediterranean (Andres,
No. 5).

Paraphellia expansa. Three or four specimens of this species have

been obtained on the coarse gravel mixed with fine sand to the westward

of the Eddystone (Grounds IX. and XI.). When taken, the anemones

were not attached to anything, and appear to have been living buried

in the sand.

Distribution. Paraphellia expansa was first obtained by Haddon (No. 35) on the
south-west coast of Ireland, and has since been recorded by Herdnian (No. 40) in the
Irish Sea. Holt (No. 48) and Haddon (No, 34) record it at depths of 14-40 fathoms on
the Irish coast.

Chondradinia digitata was obtained on two grounds only, namely,
the outer trawling ground {II.) and the fine sand ground south of the
Eddystone (VI.). These are the two deepest fine sand grounds
examined. In all cases the anemone was growing on Cardium
echinatum shells, fixed to the smooth inner side of the shell.

Distribution. Georjraphical. Finmark {fide Levinsen, No. 66) ; North Sea (Gosse,
No. 30) ; Kattegat (Levinsen) ; Shetlands (Norman, No. 90) ; Cornish coast (Gosse) ; Bay
of Biscay (Roule, No. 100, Cavdan).

Depth. Deep water (Gosse). 98 fathoms (Roule).

Habitat. On shells of living Baccinum and Tritonium (Liitken). On Fusus islandicus,
F. berniciensis, F. norvegicus, Buccinopsis Dalei, other common Fusi, and Bucciniun
U7ulatum (Norman, No. 90). On Fusus antiquus in the Kattegat (Levinsen).

Corynadis viridis. Found in hauls 29 and 30 only on the Prawle

Stony Ground (XVIIL), growing on large stones.

Distribution. Geographical. South-west coasts of England, of Scotland, and of
Ireland (Gosse, No. 30) ; Shetlands (Norman, No. 90) ; Irish Sea (Herdman, No. 40) ;
Brittany (Pruvot, No. 98) ; Mediterranean {fide Cams, No. 14).

Depth. Shore to 100 fathoms (Peach, fide Norman).

Habitat. On rocks and stones.

ECHINODERMATA.

[Nomendature : — F. Jeffrey Bell, Catalogue of British Echinoderins,

British Museum.]
Holothuria nigra (Chart VI.) was taken in two hauls only (Nos.
10 and 99), both on the clean shell gravel immediately adjoining and
west of the Eddystone rocks (Ground XVI.). Two or three specimens
were dredged in each haul.

FllOiM THE EDDYSTONE GROUNDS TO START POINT. 461

The species is found in abundance, in a very similar situation, by the
side of the ledge of rock running westward from the Plymouth
Mewstone. Near this ledge the bottom-deposit is clean shell gravel,
and //. nigra is generally obtained by working a dredge or trawl over
this gravel, keeping parallel to the ledge and close to it. We have
found no other locality in the neighbourhood where any but very
occasional specimens are taken.

A possible explanation of these facts is that the animal is really a
rock-haunting species, but that owing to the tenacity with which it is
able to cling it escapes capture on rocky ground by any of the methods
of collecting ordinarily used. If this be the case the specimens taken
on the shell gravel, as described above, must be regarded as immigrants
from the neighbouring rocks.

Habits, In confinement Holothuria nigra shows its climbing habit by spending a great
deal of its time clinging to the sides of the tank in -which it is placed.

The nature of its food is indicated by the fact that when captured the intestine is filled
with fine sand and silt containing diatoms and organic remains.

The habit of this species of using the sticky thread secreted by the Cuvierian organs as
a means of defence is well known.

Distribution. Geographical. Norman (No. 92) records the species from Plymouth,
South Cornwall, south-west of Ireland, Naples (= H. Poll), Lesina (= 11. catanensis), and
IJay of Biscay. Bell (No. 7) records specimens from the west of Ireland, from Cornwall,
and from Plymouth. Holt (No. 48, p. 280), Herdman (No. 40, Vol. V., p. 201), and
Gamble (No. 26) all took IT. nigra on the west coast of Ireland.

Depth. Herdman found the species between tide-marks, at Inishbofin, on the coast of
Conuemara, and Gamble in a similar situation at Valencia. The greatest recorded dejith
for the species is 30 fathoms (Bell, No. 7). In the Plymouth district it is taken in from
16 to 30 fathoms.

Bottom-deposit. Herdman's specimen was taken under a ledge of seaweed-covered
rocks on the shore. Holt trawled specimens in 16 to 13 fathoms from a bottom described as
sand and rock.

Astropeden irregvlaris (Chart VIII.). The distribution of this
species on the Eddystone to Start Grounds is shown in Chart A^lll.
The species in this neighbourhood is a typical representative of a fine
sandy bottom. It was found in greatest abundance on the clean sand
(Ground III.) 3-4 miles E.N.E. of the Eddystone, where the proportion
of silt was small (see Table 11., p. 525). It was also constantly taken,
though in somewhat smaller numbers, on the outer and inner trawling
grounds (Grounds I. and II.), where the sand is finer and contains a
larger percentage of silt (see Table II.).

But the species is not entirely confined to the fine sand. As will be
seen from the chart, it is present, though rare, on the gravel and broken-
shell grounds around the Eddystone (IX., XI., XIII., XIV., and XVL),
one or two specimens being taken occasionally on each of these
grounds, though by no means in every haul. On the sand immediately
outside these gravels (IV., VI., and VII.) the species is also rare.

On the Bolt Shell Gravel (XVII.) and on the Prawle Stony (Jround
(XVIII.) Astropeden has never been taken.

NEW .SKKIES. — VOL. V. NO. 4. 2 U

462 ON THE FAUNA AND BOTTOM-DEPOSITS NEAR THE 30-FM. LINE

The presence of Astropectcn on the gravel and broken-shell grounds
around the Eddystone would appear to be a good illustration of the
way in which the fauna of a particular ground may be influenced by
the fauna of surrounding grounds {<■/. p. 388). It will be seen
from the chart that these gravels occupy a comparatively small area,
which is almost entirely surrounded by grounds on which the bottom-
deposit is composed of fine sand, which is the true home of the species.
The few specimens taken on the gravel would therefore appear to be
rather of the nature of immigrants from these surrounding grounds.

The Polynoid Acholoe astericola is almost invariably found associated
with this species, living in its ambulacral groove.

Habits. Astropecten irregularis is specially adapted both for pro-
gressing rapidly over the surface of the sand and for burrowing beneath
it. The conical pointed tube-feet are the organs by means of which
both these movements are accomplished. From observation of the
species in the aquarium it appears that a great part of its life is spent
beneath the surface of the sand. The process of burrowing, which is
executed by the rapid movement of the tube-feet, has the appearance
of a vertical sinking in the sand. The species remains at rest for long
periods, with the central portion of its disc raised in a tall conical
protuberance, the apex of which projects above the surface of the sand.
The formation of a similar protuberance was described by Cuenot (No.
17, p. 385, and No. 18, p. 55) in the two Mediterranean species,
Astropecten spinulosus and squamatns [ = A. jonstoni (Dolle Chiaje)].
Sladen (No. 106) describes such prominences on the disc of several
species of Astropecten taken by the Challenger, and the same author has
described a similar but much more elongated and non-retractile promi-
nence as a family character of the Porcellanasteridae.

The food of Astropecten irregularis, as of other species of the genus,
consists largely of bivalve and GasLeropod molluscs, but small Echiuo-
derms and Crustaceans are also eaten. I have myself found in the
stomach of one specimen (haul 104) Echinocyamus pusillus, a fragment
of Hippohjlc sp. (?), and Natica nitida.

Forbcs (No. 22) states that he has found Venus cassina in the
stomach of this species, and that Ball found in one specimen nine
Natica Alderi and a Ihirritella terehra {=T. comiimnis).

Distribution. Geotjraphical. A. irregularis has a iioitheni distribution. It occurs
off the coast of Norway, in the Kattegat, on all British Coasts, and off the west coast
of France (TiUdwig, No. 70, p. 15, note 1). It does not ocfur in the Jlediterrancaii, tlie
statements that it is found there made by several authors resting on a record of Marion's,
which Ludwig {I. c, p. 47 and p. 49, note) has shown to be based on a mistaken identifica-
tion of the species A. jjenlaccmthus, var. scrralus. Studer (No. 108) states that A.
irregularis was taken in the Gulf of Guinea in 59 fathoms. There is no other record, so
far as I am aware, which coufn-ms such a southerly extension of the species.

Depth. The species has a very considerable range of depth. MObius and Biitschli (No.

FROM THE EDDYSTONE GROUNDS TO START POINT. 463

88) record it once from 6 fathoms (east of Skagcn), and Petersen (No. 95) found it
frequently in the Kattegat at deptlis of 10 fathoms and beyond. He found it once
(sta. 226) at a depth of 6^ fathoni.s, and again at 8^ (sta. 274), both localities being in the
same region as that from which Mobius and Biitschli's s))ecimens were obtained. In the
North Sea and more open seas around the British Islands the records (Bell, No. 7 ;
Wobius and Biitschli, No. 88 ; Jleissner u. Collin, No. 76) seem to indicate that the
species does not flourish in such shallow water as this, there being few less than 20
fathoms, the reason being, in all probability, that the amount of wave-disturbance is too
great. At dejiths below 20 fathoms it is abundant in many localities, up to 500 or even
1000 fathoms (Green and Bell, No. 83 ; Sladen, No. 106).

Bottom-deposit. Forbes (No. 22) states that he always took Astropecten irregularis on
sandy ground. From the Pommerania expedition (No. 88) it is most frequently recorded
from a sandy bottom, occasionally from muddj' sand. In the Kattegat (Petersen, No. 95)
it is generally distributed upon sand and muddy sand, but is not found on the mud.
Meissner and Collin (No. 76) appear to have found it in the North Sea in greatest numbers
upon mud and muddy sand, in smaller numbers upon sand. Haddon (No. 34) took the
species in the south-west of Ireland, on mud in 47 fathoms, and on coarse sand in 85-40
fathoms. The haul of the trawl at 1000 fathoms off the south-west coast of Ireland, in which
Astropecten irregularis (fide Bell) was captured by Green, was made upon Globigerina-ooze,
the trawl being full of this material when it arrived at the surface (No. 33). Koehler
(No 61, Caudan expedition) obtained a number of specimens from a haul on mud. From
these records it is clear that the species is abundant only on fine ground, though the exact
meaning attached to the terms sand and nuid by the different authors is too uncertain to
make it possible to define accurately the kinds of dc[>03it in which it is most numerous.

Luidia Sarsi (Chart VII.). Three specimens of this species only
have been taken, one on the fine sand of the outer trawling ground
(Ground II., haul 24), and two on the fine gravel west of the Eddy-
stone (Ground XIV., hauls 36 and 73).

Food. Petersen (No. 95) found Luidia Sarsi in the Kattegat feeding upon ophiurids,
the remains of these animals being taken from their stomachs. Ludwig (No. 70) is unable
to give any definite information as to the food of L. Sarsi, but has brought together
the observations which are known on the food of the allied form L. ciliaris, from the
stomach of which the following species have been taken -.—Naticn sp (by Ball), Spatangus
purpureus (by Couch), Ophioglypha and Echinocyamus pusillus (by Ludwig). Cuenot (No.
18) states that at Koscoff the star-fish attacks the bait on hooks set for dog-fish.

DiSTKiBUTiON'. Geographical. East Atlantic, from Norway (Throndhjemfjord) to
Cape Verde Islands, and Mediterranean {vide Ludwig, No. 70).

Depth (viilc Ludwig, p. 98). From 5 fathoms to 706 fathoms in the Mediterranean. On
Atlantic Coasts the greatest recorded depth is 374 fathoms (Bell, No. 7, Porcujnnc Exp.,
Sta. 46).

Bottom-deposit. Ludwig (I. c.) states that the species prefers a muddy or sandy bottom,
but that it is also found on coarser gi'ound. L. ciliaris, on the other hand, is generally
taken on hard ground {I c, p. 449). In the Kattegat Petersen (No. 95) found the species
at a number of stations, generally on the ndxed sand and nuid deposits, occasionally
on the mud. Koehler (No 61) took it in the Bay of Biscay {Caudan expedition) on gravel
and sand, on gi-avel, and on mud.

Porania pulvillus (Chart VII.) was taken in considerable numbers
(six or seven specimens in one haul of the otter-trawl) on the fine
gravel to the west of the Eddystone (Ground XIV., hauls 36 and 73),
one specimen was taken on the adjoining Ground X. (haul 42), and one
on Ground IV. (haul 39).

Habits. No indication of a burrowing habit in this species has been
observed, nor is it given to climbing when in confinement.

464 ON THE FAUNA AND BOTTOM-DEPOSITS NEAR THE 30-FM. LINE

Distribution. Gcograjihical. OfT the coasts of Scandinavia and Britain (Sladen,
No. 106), ofT the west coast of France (Pcrrier, No. 94, and Koehlcr, No. 61).

Porania puIviUus is not mentioned by Mobius and Biitschli (No. 88), or by Meissner
and Collin (No. 76) in the North Sea, nor by Petersen (No. 95) in the Kattegat, and it
does not appear to exist in these localities, its place being taken by Hi2)pastcrias phrygiana.
It does not occur in the Mediterranean (Ludwig, No. 70).

Depth Herdman (No. 40, Vol. VIII., p. 19; Vol. IX., pp. 33 and 34) records
specimens from 15 fathoms, 18 fathoms, and 20 fathoms, off the coast of the Isle of Man,
and the species seems to be taken at all depths greater than this to 106 fathoms (Porcupine
Expedition, Sladen, No. 106).

Bottom-deposit. Herdman gives the following records as to the natm-e of the bottom-
deposit on which this species was taken off the coast of the Isle of Man : — On sandy mud,
33 fathoms (Brissopsis lyrifer, a typical mud-dwelling species was taken at the same time)
[No. 40, Vol. VIII., p. 18]; on broken .shell and small gravel, 15 fathoms, (Vol. VIII.,
J). 19) ; on "reamy" bottom [i.e., sand and mud (?)], L!0 fathoms (Vol. IX., p. 33) ; on dead
shell, sand and shell, and echinoderm spines, 18 fathoms (p. 34) ; on stones and mud, 19
fathoms (p. 37) ; on sand, gravel, and shells, 34 fathoms (Vol. X., p. 39). The Prince of
Monaco (No. 94) took the species at four stations off the west coast of France on line sand
(74-98 fathoms). The distribution of Porania pulvillus appears therefore not to depend
directly upon the nature of the bottom-deposit.

Palmipes placenta (Chart VII.). Pahnipes was taken in largest
numbers on Ground V. (haul 90). This is a fine sand ground (see
Table II. and compare with samples 91 and 92) containing a consider-
able admixture of medium sand, together with some coarse sand and
gravel. It has, on the other hand, a somewhat high percentage of
silt (7 %). In the haul of the otter-trawl made on this ground some
ten very fine specimens were taken. The species was also very
constantly taken on the sand ground south-west of the Eddystone
(Ground VII.), though only one or two specimens were found in each
haul of the dredge. It occurred in two hauls on the coarse gravel
and sand north-west of the Eddystone (Ground XI., hauls 8 and 9),
and single specimens were taken on the sand grounds VIII., III., and
I. (haul 82).

Distribution. Geographical. Palmipes placenta has a distinctly southern distribution.
It occurs all over the Mediterranean, on the west coast of France, in the English Channel,
all around the Irish Coasts, and on the west coasts of England and Scotland as far north
as the Shetlands. Rare on the east coast of Scotland and on the coast of Belgium.
Entirely absent from other portions of the North Sea and from the Kattegat {vide Ludwig,
No. 70, ]). 265).

Depth. In Mediterranean generally from 10-55 fathoms, occasionally 220 or 330 fathoms
{vide Ludwig, p. 266). On British Coasts, from shallow water (seldom less than 10-15
fathoms) to 70 fathoms (Bourne, No. 11) and 100 fathoms (Sladen, No. 106).

Bottom-deposit. Ludwig {I. c, p. 266) has brought together the records under this head.
He shows that the species prefers hard ground to mud, and that it occurs both on gravel
and on sand mixed with mud. Pcrrier (No. 94) gives a number of records of the species
from line sand in the Bay of Biscay.

Solastrr 'prqyposus (Table Nl.). This species was not generally abun-
dant on any of the grounds. It was most numerous on Ground V.
(haul 90), where the bottom was not very fine sand. There were also
several specimens in haul 77 (Ground IV.). Single specimens were

FROM THE EDDYSTONE GROUNDS TO START POINT. 465

taken on many other grounds, both where the deposit was gravel and
where it was fine sand.

Habits. Solaster iKipiJOSits creeps on hard gi-ound. Its food consists chiefly of molhiscs,
which appear to be generally digested outside the body by the everted stomach. Forbes
(No. 22, p. 114) states that it frequents oyster and scallop banks, and that Thompson
found Cypraca and Turho crassicor in its stomach.

Distribution. Geographical. A northern species, found in the Arctic Ocean and on
both sides of the North Atlantic, as far south as Massachusetts and the French Coasts
{fide Bell, No. 7).

Depth. From shore (Forbes) to 640 fathoms (Bell).

Bottom-deposit. In the Baltic Mobius (No. 86, p. 103) records S. pappostis from a
bottom of stones and sand. In the North Sea Mobius and Biitschli (No. 88) record it
from stony ground and from mud ; Meissner and Collin (No. 76) from rocky ground and
from sand and mud. In the Kattegat Petersen (No. 95) also found it on sand and mud
and on rocky ground. Perrier (No. 94) records it off the coast of Newfoundland on
pebbles (cailloux) at a depth of 82 fathoms. As in the case of many wandering
echinoderms, the distribution of S. pappostis does not appear to depend directly on the
nature of the bottom-deposit, but rather on the presence of a suitable food-supply.

Henricia sanguinolenta (Chart VII.). The species is nowhere
common on the grounds described in this report, generally not more
tlian one, never more than two specimens haviug been found in one
haul, and on each ground it has only been taken in one or two hauls
out of the total of those made. The only points which seem to be
suggested by its distribution here are that it avoids both the fine sand
and the coarse gravel, occurring generally on those grounds which are
intermediate in texture. It may be important also that the deposit
contains little silt on those grounds upon which the species has been
found. It was taken once only on the Prawle Stony Ground.

Habits. H. sanguinolenta does not burrow. Tlie fact that its tube-feet are provided
with large suckers would at first sight appear to indicate that it is a climbing species and
specially adapted to hard and rocky ground. This conclusion is supported by observation
of its behaviour in aquaria, and Forbes (No. 22) states that on the east coast he generally
found it among rocks at low-water. On the other hand, the species is also found living
upon clay (sandy, blue, and Biloculina) and on blue mud, at dejiths down to 1350 fathoms
(Sladen, No. 106, p. 541).

Di.sTiiiBUTioN. Geographical. Both sides of the North Atlantic, Arctic Ocean, North
Sea (Bell, No. 7 ; Sladen, No. 106). Not present in Mediterranean (Ludwig, No. 70).

Depth. Low-water (Forbes) to 1350 fathoms {Cliallenger, No. 106).

Bottom-deposit. Forbes (No. 22) and M'Intosh, among rocks at low-water. Mobius and
Biitschli (No. 88, p. 148), on stony ground, on grey calcareous mud, on blue mud with some
sand, and on coarse gravel. Mobius (No. 86), in the Baltic, 15-17 fathoms, stones, sand,
and sea-weed. Petersen (No. 95), in Kattegat rare, on mixed deposits, chiefly in southern
part. Herdman (No. 41, p. 319), Isle of Man, 15-25 fathoms, nuUiporc ground. Chadwick
(No. 16), on the beach at Beaumaris, among roots of Laminaria. Holt (No. 48), on soft
mud, corals, and weed, on coral and mud, on mud, sand, and stones, and on sand. Sladen
(No. 106), on blue mud (1350 fathoms), on rock, on gravel and stones. Perrier (No. 94),
on pel)bles (cailloux) and on nuuldy sand. It apjjcars, tiuu'efore, that the distribution of
//. sanguinolenta does not depend directly, to any great degree, upon the nature of the
bottom, but is probably influenced chiefly by the food-supi)ly. As to the nature of this
food-supply I am unable to give any information.

Asterias rubens (Chart VL). This species has been taken on almost
all the grounds, though it is very much more numerous on some than

466 ON THE FAUNA AND BOTTOM-DEPOSITS NEAR THE 30-FM. LINE

on others. Its distribution depends almost entirely upon the dis-
tribution of Fecten opercular is, as will be seen clearly from the tables.
Owing to its gregarious habits P. opcrcvlaris is very much more
abundant in some hauls made upon a particular ground than in others,
and a study of the records of the individual hauls brings out the
connection between the star-fish and tlie mollusc even more clearly than
the summarised results given in Table VI.

Habits. A. ruhens creeps on the surface of the sea-bottom, and appears to he almost
independent of the nature of the bottom-deposit. It feeds very largely upon molluscs
(Forbes, No. 22, p. 87), and on the grounds described in this jiaper almost entirely upon
Pccten opercularis. I have directly observed the remains of P. opcrcularis in the mouth of
the star-fish. An account of the method adopted by this and allied species in opening
various kinds of molluscs has been given by Schiemenz (No. 104).

Distribution. Geographical. Bell (No. 7) gives "Eastern side of North Atlantic
(Senegal to Finmark), Japanese Seas. Presence in Arctic Ocean uncertain, in Mediter-
ranean very doubtful." Ludwig (No 70) does not include A. ruhens amongst Mediterranean
sj)ecies. It is generally distributed in the Kattegat (Petersen) and Baltic (Mol)ius).

Depth. 0-110 fathoms (Bell); to 337 fathoms (Mbbius and Biitschli, No. 88).

Bottom-deposit. The species is recorded on grouuds of every texture, from rocky ground
to mud.

Asterias glacialis (Chart VI.). The distribution of A. glacialis on

the Eddystone grounds is almost exactly the same as that of A.

rubens, and, like that species, it is always most abundant in those

places where Pccten opercularis is found in numbers. It is noteworthy,

however, that A. glacialis was never taken in the hauls south of

Bolt Head nor on the Prawle Point Ground. The most easterly

station was haul 60 (three miles south-west of Bolt Tail). The

importance of this point will be apparent when the geographical

distribution of the species is discussed.

Habits. A. glacialis is similar in its habits to A. rubens, and, like that species, lives
largely upon molluscs. It is perhaps rather more given to climbing than A. rubens. In
addition to molluscs, A. glacialis feeds upon almost any animal which it can capture, as
well as upon dead fish, etc. (Ludwig, No. 70). Cuenot (No. 18) found a specimen feeding
upon Portunus puber, and in the aquarium at Plymouth a specimen was found eating
Polyhius Henslowii.

Distribution. Geographical. The distribution of Asterias glacialis
is discussed in detail by Ludwig (No. 70, p. 393). It is a southern
species, common in the Mediterranean, and extending along the eastern
shores of the Atlantic from Cape Verde Islands to Norway as far north
as the coast of Finmark, Ludwig is doubtful as to whether the species
really extends to Arctic Seas. A point of great interest in its distribu-
tion is its absence from the eastern portion of the English Channel, and
from the southern and eastern part of the North Sea. " In the North
Sea it is not known either on the east coast of England nor on the east
coast of Scotland (Norman, 1865); it is also absent from the Belgian,
Dutch, and German Coast, and the neighbouring islands. It is found,
however, in the north-east part of the North Sea (Meissner and Collin)
and between Scotland and Norway (Mobius and Biitschli). From there

FROM THE EDDYSTONE GROUNDS TO START POINT.

467

it extends into the Skager Rak as far as the Swedish Coast (Diiben and
Koreii, M. Sars, IMobius), but is absent from the Kattegat and from the
Baltic" (Ludwig, No. 70, p. 393). According to the same author the
species is not found in the English Channel east of a line drawn from
Plymouth to Cherbourg.

As was pointed out above, during the course of the present investiga-
tion A. glacialis was never once taken in the hauls south of Bolt
Head nor in those made between Prawle and Start Points (in a
total of 24 hauls), altiiough it was quite common in the neighbourhood
of the Eddystone. The most easterly station at which it was found
was haul 60, three miles south-west of Bolt Tail. The depth was here
23-25 fathoms, and the bottom fine sand. Large specimens of Asterias
glacialis are noted in my records as fairly plentiful, as were also
Asterias ruhens, Solasier pajjposus, and Echinus esculentus, and the haul
was evidently made upon or close to a Pecten bed, as the presence of
P. opercularis is recorded, and the shells of this species were taken in
quantity.

It would almost seem, therefore, that there is a sharp line of demar-
cation in the distribution of Asterias glacialis in the neighbourhood of
Bolt Head. Although it is true that Pecten opercularis was never
abundant in any of the 24 hauls to the eastward of this line, it was
present in several places, together with Asterias ruhens, and there is no
apparent reason why A. glacialis should not have been present as well.
Indeed, one would rather have expected to find it on a ground such as
the Prawle Stony Ground.*

Depth. 0 to 60 fathoms (Bell, No. 7) to 98 fathoms (Ludwig).

Bottom-deposit. A. glacialis is generally found on rocky and stony ground,
but occurs also on sand. It is not, however, found upon mud (Ludwig).

Since on the grounds in the neighbourhood of the Eddystone both
Asterias glacialis and Asterias rubens live side by side, under practically
identical conditions, the following comparison of the general distribution
of the two species, so far as at present known, is of interest : —

Geographical. i Depth. I Bottoni'dcposit.

Asterias rubens.

0-337 fatlioms.

All kinds of bottom,
from rocky and
stony ground to
mud.

Ea.stern side of N. Atlan-
tic from Senegal to
Finmark, including
North Sea, Kattegat,
and Baltic.
Arctic Ocean (uncertain).
In Japanese Seas.
Absent from Mediter-
ranean.

* My colleague, Mr. Holt, who has done a good deal of dredging and trawling in Start
Bay and Teignmouth Bay, tells me that the most easterly record he has of A. glacialis is of
a few specimens four miles S.W. b}- W. of Bolt Head.

468 ON THE FAUNA AND BOTTOM-DEPOSITS NEAR THE 30-FM. LINE

Asterias glacialis.

Geographical. Depth. I Bottom-deposit.

Eastern side of N. Atlan- 0-98 fathoms. I Rooky and stony
tic from Cape Verde to ground, and on

Finmark. Not found sand. Never on

in North Sea, Katte- mud.

gat, and Baltic.

Mediterranean, generally
distributed.

Arctic Ocean, probably
absent.

Ophiura ciliaris (Chart VIIL). This species has been taken on all
the grounds, with the exception of the Prawle Stony Ground (XVIII.)
and the fine gravel ground (XV.) It was taken in greatest numbers
in the hauls on the gravel and sand, north-west and west of the Eddy-
stone (Grounds IX., XI., XII.), and was moderately abundant also on
the fine sand of the trawling ground (I. and II.). On the other
grounds one or two specimens only were taken in a haul.

Habits. Ophiura ciliaris is not a Ijurrowing species, Init is capable of moving with con-
sideralile rapidity over the surface of the sand or gravel. Hence its distribution does not
depend so directly ui>on the texture of the bottom -dejiosit, as in the case of burrowing
forms, when once the deposit is sufficiently firm to prevent it sinking, but is probably
determined by tlie jiresence of a suitable food-su])ply. The only record I have found of the
food of this species is one by the naturalists of the Pommeraniu expedition. Mcibius (No.
88) state.? that Prof. Metzger took from the stomach of a specimen dredged in 9 fathoms
a Nephthys cocca, which was still alive. In a specimen which I examined from haul 93
I found the remains of a small crustacean.

Distribution. Geographical. Mobius and Blitschli (No. 88) give Norway, Kattegat,
Great Britain, France, Mediterranean, and Madeira. A comparison of the distribution of
this species with that of 0. alhida is made on p. 469, where the latter species is discussed.

Depth. Lyman (No. 71) gives the range 5 to 100 fathoms. In the Kattegat Petersen
(No. 95) records it once (sta. 180) at 2^ fathoms, once (sta. 47) at 3 fathoms, once at
6 fathoms (sta. 132), and it is common in many parts at greater depths to 70 fathoms
(sta. 58). Hoyle (No. 52) records the species from 100 fathoms, off St. Kilda, and Koehler
(No. 60, Monaco dredgings) from 136 fathoms in the Bay of Biscay.

Bottom-deposit. Forbes (No. 22) states that this species does not confine itself so much
to sandy ground as 0. alhida. Miibins and Butschli (No 88) record it in the North Sea
most frequently from fine grey sand, once only from blue mud with some sand. Meissner
and Collin (No. 76) in the southern part of the North Sea found it on coarse sand with fine
stones, on sand, on sand and mud, on sand and shell, and on mud. In the Kattegat
(Petersen, No. 95) it occurs on sand and on sand with mud. It is only recorded once from
the pure nuid (sta. 46, depth 49 fathoms). Chadwick (No. 15) records it from a muddy
bottom at 10 fathoms in the Menai Straits, associated with great numbers of 0. alhida. It
is also recorded from fine sand and broken shell, and from sandy mud in the Irish Sea (No.
40, vol. ix. p. 32). The Prince of Monaco obtained 0. ciliaris in the Bay of Biscay at five
stations, always on sandy ground (No. 60). Haddon (No. 34) found it off the south-west
coast of Ireland in 44-47 fatlioms on mud, and in 35-40 fatlioms on coarse sand. Hoyle
(No. 52) found it in Loch Slieildag in 67 fathoms on stiff grey mud.

Ophiura alhida (Chart IX. ). 0. alhida is much less numerous on the
grounds investigated, as well as in the whole of the Plymouth district,
than 0. ciliaris, and its distribution is much more restricted. The only
ground upon which it was found at all plentifully was the coarse gravel

FROM THE EDDYSTONE GROUNDS TO START POINT. 469

aud fine sand ground (Ground IX.) to the west of the Eddystone. One
or two specimens were generally taken on the fine gravel ground
(XIV.) between the ground last mentioned and the Eddystone rocks,
and several specimens were present on the gravel and mud ground
(XIIT.) south-east of the rocks. Single specimens were also met with on
Grounds VIII., VI., and IV., as well as on the Bolt and Prawle Grounds.
On the typical fine sand grounds (I., II., III., and V.) it was never met
with, nor was it ever taken on the gravel and sand grounds north-west
of the Eddystone (XL and XII.), its absence being specially noteworthy
in this case on account of the very close similarity in the composition
of the bottom-deposits, as shown by the figures in Table II. (p. 525), of
Ground Xl.with that of Ground IX., upon which the species was numerous.

Habits. I kuow of no difference in the habits of this species and those of 0. ciliaris, witli
the exception of the fact stated by Forbes (Xo. 22, p. 28), that it is less active in confinement
than that species. Mbbius (No. 88, p. 143) observed this species coil its arms around a
living Nereis diversicolor and draw it into its mouth.

Distribution. Geographical. Mubius and Biitschli (No. 88) give Norway, Kattegat,
\V. Baltic, British Seas, Faroe, W. France, and Mediterranean. Bell (No. 7) adds to
these the Arctic Ocean. Cams (No. 14) gives the Azores as one of the localities of the
species, and the same locality is mentioned by Greelf (No. 32). On the whole, therefore,
the range of 0. albida appears to be about the same as that of 0. ciliaris, with the
exception of the northerly extension of the former to the Arctic Ocean. Forbes (No. 22)
states that 0. albida is moi-e common than 0. ciliaris in British Seas, and this certainly
seems to be the case in the Irish Sea and in the North Sea. In the neighbourhood of
Plymouth, as already explained, quite the reverse is true, 0. albida being one of the rarer
ojjhiurids, and very much restricted in distribution. Had 0. albida been a distinctly
northern form and 0. ciliaris a southern one, it might have been supposed that the two
species overlapped in this district, aud that the southern form had almost but not com-
pletely replaced the northern one. The general distributions of the two species already
given, however, makes such an explanation impossible. In this connection Forbes' state-
ment, confirmed by Leslie and Herdman (No. 43), that 0. ciliaris is common at the mouth
of the Firth of Forth, whilst it becomes scarce and is replaced by 0. albida further up, is of
interest.

Depth. Lyman (No. 71) gives the range from 5-250 fathoms, showing that the species
goes lower than 0. ciliaris, a fact which may be correlated with its extension to the Arctic
Ocean, and due to its adaptation to a lower temperature.

Bottom-deposit. Forbes (No. 22) states that 0. albida frequents oyster-beds and sandy
places, and that it is more confined to the sand than 0. ciliaris. Mobius and Biitschli
(No. 88) record it in the North Sea generally from mud or sand, occasionally from gravel.
They state definitely that it is a mud-dweller (p. 146, note under Ophiocoma nigra).
Meissner and Collin (No. 76) record it also generallj' from fine sand or nuid, occasionally
from coarser ground. In the Kattegat Petersen (No. 95) took the species frequently on
sand and muddy sand, seldom on the pure mud. For the Irish Sea Chadwick (No. 15)
records it as plentiful with 0. ciliaris on a muddy bottom at 10 fathoms in the Menai
Straits. He also mentions it olf Port Erin on gravel and stones, and south of Isle of Alan
(10-20 fathoms) on nulli|iore and gravel. Haddon (No. 34) found it olf south-west coast of
Ireland, with 0. ciliaris, in 44-47 fathoms on luud. Hoyle (No. 52), on the other hand,
on the west coast of Scotland, took it in 34 fathoms with a number of smooth, rounded
pebbles, Ebnlia tuhcrosa — a sjiecies invariably founil on a coarse ground — being present in
the same haul. It would thus seem that 0. albida is found upon almost, if not quite,
as extensive a variety of bottom-deposits as 0. ciliaris, and its peculiar distribution in the
Plymouth district, where it is never taken on the fine sand and is continod to coarse
gi-ound, is the more difficult of explanation.

470 ON THE FAUNA AND BOTTOM-DEPOSITS NEAR THE 30-FM. LINE

Ophiura njinis. One specimen only on the Bolt Head Shell Gravel
Ground (XVII., haul 28).

Habits. With reference to the animals of this species Hodge (No. 47) remarks upon
"their excessively lively movements ami the wonderful pliability of the rays."

DiSTRiBi'TioN. Geographical. East and west coasts of North Atlantic and Mediterranean
{vide Lyman, No. 71 ; Hoyle, No. 51 ; and Bell, No 7).

Depth. 10-192 fathoms (Lyman and Bell), 267 and 294 fathoms (Mobius and Biitschli,
No. 88).

Bottom-deposit. Mbbins and Biitschli {Pommcrania), on mud at 267 and 106 fathoms,
on sand, on muddy sand, on sand and shell with small stones. Petersen (No. 95) found
it in tlie Kattegat chiefly on sand and on sand and nuul. Meissnor and Collin (No. 76),
on sand and mud, on coarse sand and stones, on mud and stones, on sand and shell, on
mud, on fine dark sand, etc. It is evident that the species, like 0, ciliaris and 0. albida,
lives on a great variety of grounds.

Ophiadis Balli (Chart IX.). This species is confined to the gravel

and stony grounds. It is found hidden away in crevices between

masses of Chaetoptcrus tubes, and in similar places. It is entirely

absent from the sandy bottoms.

Habits. I can onl}^ confirm the statement of Norman (quoted by Bell, No. 7), viz., "it
lives on liard ground, in deep water, and has a peculiar habit, delighting to nestle in
hollows and crevices of stones, squeezing its disk and tAvisting its arms so as to conform to
all the irregularities of the surface to which it attaches itself."

Distribution. Gcograjyhical. Scandinavian and British Coasts (Hoyle, No. 51), Bay
of Biscay (Koehler, Nos 60 and 61),

Depth. The deepest record is 240 fathoms (Hoyle, No. 50).

Bottom-deposit. Sand and gi-avel (Hoyle, No. 50), hard ground (Norman). Koehler
records it from the Monaco dredgings from 50-100 fathoms on coarse ground, and once from
the Caudan on coral ( Lophohelia) from 200-270 fathoms.

Ophiocoma nigra (Chart YIII.). The only ground amongst those

investigated where 0. nigra is at all common is the Prawle Stony

Ground (XVIII). On the gravel north-west of the Eddystone a few

specimens were taken in one haul only (No. 47), on Ground IX.

Occasional specimens were found on the gravels west of the Eddystone

(IX., X., XII., XIV., XVI.) and on the Bolt Head Shell Gravel (Ground

XVII.). The species is entirely absent from the fine sand grounds.

Habits. Mobius and Biitschli (No. 88, p. 146) state that 0. nigra is fond of climbing up
the vertical Avails of a vessel in which it is living, from which they conclude that the species
climbs rocks. A similar habit of the s[)ccies has often been noticed in the tanks in the
Plymouth Laboratory. The authors mentioned record 0. nigra from live of the stations
dredged by the Pommerania, at four of which it was abundant, and the ground is
described as stony, at one it was scarce, and the ground was white, granular sand rich
in Foraminifera. As will be seen below, it is in such stony places that the si>ecies is
generally numerous. It Avould seem, therefore, that its general habit is to climb about
amongst stones. Petersen (No. 95, p. 47) states tliat tlie stomachs of his specimens were
filled with mud (Bundmateriale), containing vegetable remains.

Distribution. Geogra^yhical. Ophiocoma nigra is a northern species. It is found on
all British Coasts, in Norway, Kattegat (rare, Petersen, No. 95), and Barent's Sea {fide
Hoyle, No. 51). I have seen no record of it from more southern waters.

Depth. The greatest dejjth recorded is 87 fathoms (Hoyle, No. 50, p. 714).

Bottom-deposit. Mobius and Biitschli record 0. nigra from stony places. Petersen found
the species at five stations only in the Kattegat on gravel and stony grounds, stones being
recorded from four of the stations. Hoyle's record from 87 fathoms was from a bottom of

FROM THE EDDYSTONE GROUNDS TO START POINT. 471

sand and shells, and tlie sjH-cies was associated with large nunihers of Ophiopholis acidcata
and Ophiolhrix fnujilis. Herdnian (No. 40, vol. viii., i)p. 17 and 20) records it in the
Irish Sea, once from shell sand and small gravel and twice from stony ground. In the
summer of 1896 I obtained this species in exceptionally large numbers off the mouth of
Fowey Harbour, a number of large stones being dredged at the same time.

Ophiothrio: fragilis. The distribution of this species on the grounds
investigated is shown on Chart VIII. It occurs in by far the greatest
numbers on the coarse gravel grounds north-west and west of the
Eddystone. 'It has already been pointed out in the description of
Ground X. that 0. fragilis occurs upon it in very large numbers, so
much so that in some hauls {e.g., 89 and 95) the dredge came up half
full of specimens of the species, to the almost entire exclusion of any
other form. The species is also very abundant on the mixed gravel and
fine sand deposits to the north-west and west of this ground (IX., XL,
XII.), as well as on the finer gravel between the latter grounds and
the Eddystone (XIV.). It is also abundant on the mixed gravel and
mud (XIII.) south-east of the Eddystone, a ground the fauna of which
in many ways resembles that of the typical coarse gravel of Ground IX.
On the fine sand grounds, on the other hand (I., II., III., etc.), Ophiothrix
fragilis is very scarce, being generally only represented by a few small
specimens, which cling about the roots of Cellaria or hydroids.

Habits. This is a creeping species which does not burrow. On the shore at low-water
it is often found hidden under stones, and it is often seen clinging to stones, shells,
and other solid objects brought up with the dredge. On those grounds where the species
is found crowded together in large numbers, such as Ground X., the stomachs of the
specimens examined have always been found to be filled with fine mud or silt, which,
as explained on page 380, is full of organic matter of various kinds. In shallower water the
species has been observed to feed on compound ascidiaus and other similar organisms. On
an old bottle recently dredged in the CattcAvater, covered with a compound ascidian
[Didemnid), there were a number of specimens of 0. fragilis obviously feeding upon the
ascidian. I do not think that actively moving animals, such as Polychaetes and Crustaceans,
upon which Ojhiv.ra feeds (see above, pp. 468 and 469), are captured by 0. fragilis.

Petersen (No. 95) found in stomachs of this species Diatoms, Peridinidac, Polychaete
setae, vegetable cells, etc., together with fine sand grains, which evidently means that they
were feeding on the fine silt, as they do in this neighbourhood. The Polychaete setae
would probably be from the faeces of some other animal.

Distribution. Geographical. Norway to Mediterranean (Mobius and Butschli, Lyman,
Bell).

Depth. Bell (No. 7) records a specimen from 767 fathoms and Hoyle (No. 50) one from
516 fathoms. Hence the species, according to our present knowledge, has a somewhat wide
range, viz., from the .shore to 767 fathoms. It nmst, however, be noted that Ijoth Bell and
Hoyle mention the difliculty of distinguishing this species from the deep-water form
0. Luelkini, Wyv. Thoms.

Bottom-deposit. Forbes (No. 22) mentions Ophiothrix fragilis as being fond of rocky
places, but rare in sandy localities. Mubius and Butschli (No. 88) found it on stony
ground in the fjords of Norway, on sand and gravel, and on muddy sand in the North
Sea. Meissncr and Collin (No. 76) found it very plentiful on mud and sand, on mud, and
on fine sand with sandy mud and stones. (The last ground would jjiobably Itc similar to
the Eddystone (iround X , on which the .species is so iilcntil'iil.) In tlie Kattegat IV'tersen
(No. 95) found 0 fragilis chielly on the mixed sand and nuul. It was practically absent

472 ON THE FAUNA AND BOTTOM-DEPOSITS KEAR THE 30-FM. LINE

from the pure sand and from the pure mud. Chadwick (No. 15) records the species in
great numbers off the southern shores of the Isle of Man in 10 20 fathoms on a bottom
chiefly of nuUipore and gravel.

Although these records are somewhat uncertain, owing to the difficulty of interjireting
the exact meanings attached by the authors to the terms employed, they appear on the
whole to indicate that when the species is found in very large numbers the bottom-deposit
is a mixture of coarse gravel or sand with mud, similar to that upon which it is abundant
in the neighbourhood of the Eddystone.

Echinus esculentus (Chart V.). Although present on most of the
coarser grounds this species was nowhere very numerous, being repre-
sented by one or two specimens in a haul of the dredge and five or six
in a haul of the otter-trawl. It was taken on all the gravel and shell
grounds lying to the westward of the Eddystone, on Grounds IV. and
XIII. to the eastward, and on the Bolt Head and Prawle Grounds. It
is absent from all the fine sand grounds.

Habits. This is a wandering species, able to travel best upon hard ground. It is
gregarious, large numbers being often found together. Its food is very various, and
in confinement it will devour almost any dead animal matter. Specimens from moderate
depths have the intestine filled with fine sand and silt, which is so common a form of food
for Echinoderms. Professor MacBride informs me that in the estuary of the Clyde he has
found the species on the shore, and that it there feeds upon red and brown sea- weeds.* In
the Plymouth district it always occurs, so far as I am aware, at de])ths greater than 18 or 20
fathoms, where such sea-weeds do not grow. It is probable that the difference of distribu-
tion in the two districts is due to the very much greater effect of wave action in the neigh-
bourhood of Plymouth than in the sheltered waters of the Clyde. Petersen (No. 95)
found in the stomach of one sjiecimen remains of Annelids, Barnacles, Polyzoa, Echinus
spines, Ostracods, Algae and Hydroids, together with sand.

Di.sTRiBTJTioN. Geographical. Eastern side of North Atlantic, North Sea, Mediter-
ranean, Port Natal, and John Adam's Bank (Brazil) {fide Bell, No. 7).

Dqith. From shore (Forbes) to 110 fathoms (Bell).

Bottom-deposit. Mbbius and Biitschli (No. 88) record Echinus esculentus from stony and
rocky ground (5-30 fathoms). ]\Ieissner and Collin (No. 76) give one record only, from
a coarse bottom {Riffcjrund). Petersen obtained it from rocky ground and from sand and
nuid. Chadwick (No. 15) records it from between tide-marks.

Echinus acutns (Chart V.). Like E. esculentus this species was never
numerous, and its distribution coincided closely with that of the allied
form. On the following grounds, however, upon which E. esculentus was
taken, no specimens of E. acutus were obtained, viz., XVI., XII., XIII.,
and XVIII. On Ground VII. only one specimen was taken, in haul 54,
and it was also represented in one haul only (34), on Ground IV. On
Ground XVII. several specimens were obtained in haul GO. It was
entirely absent from the sand. On the whole the species was most
numerous on deposits made up of a mixture of gravel and muddy sand.

Dlstkicution. Gcoyraphiad. Atlantic from Norway and Halifax to Ascension, North
Sea, Mediterranean, off Kermadec Island (fide Agassiz, No. 1, and Bell, No. 7).

Depth. To 1350 fathoms [Agassiz]. There is no evidence tliat the species is ever found
between tide-marks. From Koehler's records {Caudan, No. 61) it is clear that this is one
of the commonest Echinoids at depths of from 80 to 400 fathoms in the I'.ay of Biscay.

* Compare M'Intosh, Murine Invertebrates and Fishes of St. Andrcios, p. 95.

FROM THE EDDYSTONE GROUNDS TO START POINT. 473

Bottom-deposit. Mobius and Biitsclili (No. 88) record E. acutus on stones and mud (0-50
fatlioms) and on sand and shell (48-50 I'atlioms), and Agassiz {Challenger) on coral bottom
(425 fathoms), on rock (630 fathoms), and on mud (1350 fathoms). Bell (No. 8) records
the species from 55 fathoms, 110 fathoms, and 500 fathoms from Green's Trawling Cruise.
500 fathoms is apparently Green's Station VII. (No. 33), where the trawl brought up "one
large boulder weighing about 100 lbs., and several smaller ones, subangular and resembling
those of the Boulder Clay." Koehler gives a number of records from both Monaco (No. 60)
and Caudan (No. 61) dredgings in the Bay of Biscay, the sjiecies being taken on rock
and gravel, on coral, on sand and muddy sand, and several times on mud (80-400 fathoms).

A question of some interest is raised by the distribution of the
two species Echinus esculeniiis and Echinus acutus in the Plymouth
district, which forms a good instance of a phenomenon very frequently
met with. We here find two species of very similar structure, yet
at the same time showing perfectly definite and constant difference
in structure, living side by side upon the same grounds under what seem
to be the same conditions, and having apparently exactly similar
habits. The one species (in this case Echinus esculcnius) is very
numerous, whilst the other is much less so. The questions are often
asked, how have these differences of structure been brouoht about and
what purpose do they serve ? Does the slight difference of structure in
the less numerous species correspond to some slight difference of habit ?
or if this is not the case, how does it come to pass that the one species,
being apparently less successfully adapted to the prevailing conditions
than its more numerous competitor, survives at all ?

In the present case it is, T think, possible to give a satisfactory answer
to these questions, based on a consideration of the distribution of the
two species.

From the records given above it is clear that Echinus esculeniiis is
essentially a shallow-water species, which may be found on the shore or
down to depths of 100 fathoms. It is most numerous in the laminariau
and coralline zones. Echinus acutus, on the other hand, is essentially a
deep-water species extending to a depth of over 1000 fathoms, and
apparently most numerous from 50 to 500 fathoms. If we compare
the essential differences of structure we see that each species is specially
adapted to the conditions prevailing where it is most numerous, or as we
may express it, the conditions prevailing at its centre of distribution.
These differences of structure depend chiefly on the fact that whilst
Echinus acutus is protected by a comparatively small number of very
long spines, E. esculentus carries a large number of short and stout ones,
the latter condition being obviously more advantageous in shallow water,
where wave action is often violent, whilst it is not difticult to imagine
that the former, viz., a few very long spines, is of greater value in deep
water, where there is never any disturbance. Each species must be
regarded, therefore, as being specially adapted to the conditions prevail-
ing at its own centre of distribution, and it is at that centre ("centre of

474 ON THE FAUNA AND BOTTOM-DEPOSITS NEAR THE 30-FM. LINE

creation " of the older writers) that the characters of the species are
kept true. In a case like the present, where the centres of distribution
of two species of similar habit but slightly diflereot structure are con-
tiguous and the two areas quite continuous, there will be an intermediate
re"iou occupied by the two species in about equal numbers, whilst a few
specimens of one species may extend quite to the centre of distribution
of the other and be found living side by side with their now better
adapted rivals. They survive because they are in continuous contact
with, and are constantly recruited from, their own centre of distribution,
where the characters of the species are kept true. Echinus acutus is
found living in small numbers side by side with the numerous Echinus
esculentus in the Plymouth district, because that district is sufficiently
near to a deep-sea area where Echinus acutus is abundant, and to the
conditions of which it is specially adapted. Should this communica-
tion in any way be cut off, the species would, in all probability, die out
in the district.

Echinus miliaris. Chart V. Present upon practically all grounds.
It appeared to be relatively most abundant on Grounds XVI. and
XVIL, both of which are clean shell gravel. On sandy grounds the
species is generally found clinging to shells, hydroids, etc.

Habits. A wandering species inhabiting all kinds of grounds. On
fine sand generally found attached to hydroids, shells, etc. It has a
curious habit of attaching to itself, by means of its tube-feet, bits of
shell, small stones, sea-weed, etc., in such a way that it becomes practi-
cally hidden by these objects. It lives on food of almost any kind,
animal and vegetable, and does great damage on oyster-banks. A small
specimen of this species was kept alive in the Laboratory in a shallow
dish of sea- water for many months, being fed upon pieces of red sea-
weed, which it would eat in large quantities.

DiSTKiDUTioN. Geograjihical. Northwards to Iceland and southwards to the Mediter-
ranean, North Sea [fide Bell, No. 7), Kattegat (Petersen, No. 95), Baltic (Mubius, No. 86).

Depth. From shore to 50 fathoms (Mcibius and Btltschli, No. 88).

Bottom-deposit. Forbes (No. 22) records E. miliaris as common on oyster-beds and
scallop-banks. Mobius and Biitschli found it on stony ground, on shelly ground, on sand,
and on mud ; Meissner and Collin (No. 76) generally on coarse ground, occasionally on
sand and sandy mud.

It is evident that the nature of the bottom-deposit in itself is of no
great importance to this species.

Echinocyamus pusillus. On account of the small size of Echinocyamus,
much importance cannot be attached to the results of the dredgings as
furnishing a knowledge of its distribution. It seems to be found most
frequently upon coarse ground, especially upon clean shell gravel {e.g.,
Grounds XVI. and XVII.).

FROM THE EDDYSTONE GROUNDS TO START POINT. 475

Distribution. Geographical. Both sides of North Atlantic, Norway, Iceland, Medi-
terranean, Azores, Florida, Caribbean Islands, North Brazil (A. Agassiz, No. 1).

Depth. Between tide-marks (Forbes, No. 22) to SOo fathoms (A. Agassiz, No. 1).

Bottom-deposit. Mobius and Biitschli (No. 88) record Echinocyamus pusillus from stony
ground, from shell and sand, and from sand and mud. Meissner and Collin (No. 76) found
it at a great number of stations, and apparently upon all kinds of bottom from rough
ground to nuid. Petersen (No. 95) in the Kattegat took it generally on sand, occasionally
on the mixed ground (sand and mud). He found plant remains, diatoms, and foraminifcra
in the stomach. Hcrdman (No. 40) records it from nullipore bottom and from shell sand.
It thus apjiears that the species can live under a great variety of conditions as regards the
nature of the Iiottom-dcposit.

Spatangus purpureus. Chart V. This, being a burrowing species, is
much more restricted in its distribution by the texture of the bottom-
deposit than those urchins, such as Echinus esculent us, which have a
wandering habit. On the grounds examined during the present investi-
gation it is almost entirely confined to clean shell gravel and fine clean^
gravel. It was most abundant and the specimens were largest on the
shell gravel ground south of Bolt Head (Ground XVII.). Next to this
ground it was most numerous on the clean shell gravel west of the
Eddystone (Ground XVI.) and on the fine gravel just outside this
(Ground XIV.), on both of which grounds it was frequently taken.
Occasional specimens were found on Grounds VII., VIII., and X., the
grounds immediately adjoining the two last-mentioned, and also on the
Prawle Stony Ground (XVIII., hauls 45, 63, and 29). The species was
never taken on the fine sand nor on the coarse gravel. The bivalve
mollusc, Montacuta subsiriata, was generally found attached to the spines
of Spatangus.

Habits. The way in which Spatangus burrows by means of its short, flat bristles was
described by Osier in 1826 [Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc, 1826, p. 347). The animal is able to
sink almost vertically in the gravel in which it lives, and when lialf buried, at any rate, can
progress forwards through the gravel, leaving a deep furrow behind it. The intestine is
generally found to be fdled with fine sand and silt (c/. Mobius and Biitschli, Petersen).

Di.STRiBUTioN. Geographical. East side of the Atlantic from the Azores to Iceland,
North Sea, Mediterranean, Bermuda {fide Bell, No. 7).

Depth. 5-530 fathoms (Jide Bell).

Bottom-deposit. Forbes (No. 22) found S. purpureus abundant on scallop-banks off the
Isle of Man, generally on the cleanest part of the bank amongst tlie scallops. Mobius and
Biitschli (No. 88) record it on fine sand, on shell and small stones, on coarse gravel, and on
sand ; frequent only on the fine sand. Meissner and Collin (No. 76) give seven records,
all from coarse ground, viz., on coarse sand and gravel, on shell and small stones, on shell,
on stones and coarse sand, on shell and stones, and on coarse sand and stones. Petersen
(No. 95) found it in the Kattegat at eight stations, at six of which the bottom-deposit was
coarse sand or gravel. Once he records it from 15^ fiithoms on sand with a little mud (sta.
437), and once from 70 fathoms on mud and line sand (sta. 58). Iladdon (No. 34) found
it on coarse sand at the mouth of Bautry Bay. Bourne (No. 11) on fine sand in 200
fathoms. From the Liverpool district (No. 41, p. 137 ; No. 40, Vol. VIII., p. 20 ; Vol.
IX., pp. 34 and 37) it is noted on muddy gravel near Beaumaris, on .shells, stones,
and echinoderm spines, on dead shells, shell sand, and ecliinodcrm spines, and on " reaniy "
bottom.

47G ON THE FAUNA AND BOTTOM-DEPOSITS NEAR THE 30-FM. LINE

From the above records it is clear that Spatangus purpureus lives
most frequently in gravel and shell gravel, or in coarse sand, though
it is not possible to judge from the great variety in the nomenclature
used by the various authors exactly what texture it is intended to
indicate. There seems no doubt, on the other hand, that the species
may, under certain circumstances, be taken on fine sand and mud, and
it will be important to notice in future what exactly are the conditions
under which this occurs. Especially it should be discovered, if possible,
whether such muddy or sandy grounds adjoin a coarse ground upon
which the species is abundant.

Echinocardiurti cordatum. Chart V. Occasional specimens only of
this species have been taken, which may to some extent be due to the
fact that the trawl and not the dredge was generally used on fine sand
grounds. As the species can bury deeply in the sand, it would not be
likely to be captured in this way.

Single specimens were, however, found on the inner and outer fine
sand trawling grounds (I. and II., hauls 51 and 104), on Ground VII.,
haul 76 (sand), and on Ground XV., haul 97 (fine gravel). All the
specimens were of a dull white colour, and not bright yellow like those

generally taken between tide-marks.

Habits. The habits of this species are similar to those of Spatangus purpureus, except-
ing that it burrows in fine sand, and judging from the situations in winch it is found
between tide-marks, burrows to greater depths.

Distribution. Geographical. Both sides of the Atlantic from Norway to Spain and
S. Carolina to Bahia. North Sea, Mediterranean {fide Bell, No. 7).

Depth. 0-85 fathoms (Bell, Agassiz, No. 1).

Bottom-deposit. Forbes states that the species abounds in sandy bays, and after storms
great numbers are cast on shore. All the authors (Mobius and Blltschli, Meissner and
Collin, Herdman, Petersen) record the species from fine sand and muddy sand only,
to which it is rigidly confined.

The three heart urchins, Spatangus purpureus, Echmocardium

cordatum, and Brissopsis lyrifera, form a good example of the fact

that burrowing species are very much restricted by the texture of

the deposit in which they dwell. Brissopsis lyrifera is as rigidly

confined to mud as Echinocardium cordatum is to fine sand, whilst

Spatang^is purpureus is almost invariably found upon deposits of

coarser texture. This was recognised by Forbes when he proposed

for the three genera the English names Bank-Urchin, Mud-Urchin,

and Sand-Urchin (No. 22, p. 183).

POLYCHAETA.

[Nomenclature: — Generally that of Saint- Joseph (Nos. 101 and 102).]

The Polychaetes of the earlier hauls were identified by Mr. T. V.
Hodgsou, those of the later ones by Professor Weldon. The responsi-

FROM THE EDPYSTOXE GROUNDS TO START POINT. 477

bility for the statement that a species occurs upon a particular ground
is in all cases my own. Owing to the fact that I was only acquainted
with a few of the more common forms at the time when the dredgings
were in progress, the information as to the relative abundance of each
on the different grounds is less definite and reliable than that given for
other groups. Several species are represented by one or two specimens
only, but it is probable that if the material had been examined on
board the boat at the time it was dredged by someone with a knowledge
of them, other specimens would have been found. In all such cases it
may, however, be taken for granted that the worm was nowhere
abundant.

For geographical distribution I have relied largely on the lists given
by Saint-Joseph (Nos. 102 and 103) and by Michaelsen (No. 79).

Polygordius sp. (Chart X.). An undetermined species of Polijgordius
was abundant on the clean shell gravel of the Bolt Head Ground
(XVII.), where it formed a characteristic feature of the fauna. The
same species was also found in much smaller numbers on the clean
shell gravel immediately to the west of the Eddystone reef (XVI.).

Euphrosyne foliosa. Obtained once only on the fine gravel of Ground
XIV., west of the Eddystone, in haul 85.

Distribution. Geographical. A soutliern species. Mediterranean, west of France,
English Channel (Saint- Josepli, No. 102), Channel Islands to Shetland, especially on
west of Great Britain and Ireland (M'Intosli, Xo. 84). Apparently not in the North Sea,
where the northern species, E. borealis, Oerst., takes its place.

Depth. To 344 fathoms (Pola expedition, Jide Saint-Joseph).

Aphrodite aculeata (Chart X.). This species was most abundant on
the fine sand of Ground \., to the north of the Eddystone, where seven
specimens were obtained in one haul of the otter-trawl. One or two
specimens were taken on the neighbouring fine sand grounds III. and
IV., but the species was never found elsewhere.

Habits. Aphrodite buries itself in the sand, but probably not to any
considerable depth. In confinement it is seen travelling rapidly at the
surface of the sand, leaving deep furrows behind it.

Distribution. Georjraphical. Iceland, United States (Vcrrill), Faroe, Norway, Britisli
Coasts, Mediterranean, Red Sea {fide Michaelsen, No. 79, and Saint-Joseph, No. 102).

Depth. Shore (Saint-Joseph) to 530 fathoms {Knight Errant), 257 fathoms and 690
fathoms {Porcupine, M'Intosh, No. 82).

Bottoiii-deiJosit. All the authors record the species from sandy or muddy ground, never
from giavel or coarse ground (Mobius, No. 87 ; Hansen, No. 36 ; Michaelsen, No. 79 ;
Haddon, No. 34 ; Hornell, No. 49).

Hermione hystrix. Single specimens were obtained on the coarse
gravel of Grounds IX. and X., in hauls 93 and 42 only. The species in
the Plymouth district is generally met with on coarse grounds, and has
never been found to be abundant.

NEW SKRIKS. — VOL. V. NO. 4. ^

478 ON THE FAUNA AND BOTTOM-DEPOSITS NEATl THE SO-FM. LINE

DisTRinuTiON. Geographical. Pas-de-Calais, Xortli Sea, Channel, Atlantic, Mediter-
ranean (Saint-Joseph, No. 102). Tlie Cliallenger obtained two small specimens at Cape
Verde Islands (M'Intosh, No. 85) Irish Sea (Horncll, No. 49). Herviione Jnjslrix is a
distinctly .sonthern species. Claparede and Marion and Bobretzky (No. 73) state that
it is extremely abundant in the Mediterranean. According; to Malmgren (No. 72) and
Michaelsen (No. 79), the corresponding northern species appears to be Laetmonice filicomis,
Kinberg.

Depth. Occasionally on the shore under stones in the Mediterranean (Marion and
Bobretzky) ; 40-80 fathoms {Porcupine, ofl" Algiers, M'Intosh, No. 82).

Bottom-deposit . Hornell states that in the Irisli Sea this species is found on shell debris,
gravel, etc., never on purely sandy or muddy deposits, which agrees with the distribution
found in the Plymouth district. Marion and Bobretzky say that in the Gulf of Marseilles
it is especially abundant on zostera beds.

Lepidonotus squamatns (Table YI.) is found occasionally upon grounds

of all kinds, but is more numerous on the gravels to the westward of

the Eddystone than elsewhere. On Ground IX. (haul 93) it was very

abundant.

Di.sTKiBUTiON. A northern species. Coast of Virginia (Verrill), Iceland, Faroe, Norway,
England, north-west France [fide Michaelsen, No. 79). The Challenger dredged one small
specimen at the Azores in 450 fathoms, on a bottom of volcanic mud, which M'Intosh (No.
85) refers to this species. The Poixupine (No. 82) obtained Lepidonotus squamatns on a
stony and muddy bottom at 30-40 fathoms off Dingle Bay. Hornell (No. 49) found it
most abundant in the Irish Sea in 18 to 20 fathoms.

Uunoe nodosa (Table VI.). One specimen taken in haul 45 on the
Prawle Stony Ground (XVIII.) was identified by Prof. Weldon.

Distribution. East of North America, Greenland, Iceland, Spitzbergen, Nova Zenibhi,
Kara Sea, Siberia, Norway, Shetland, England, north-west of France, English Channel
{fide Michaelsen, No. 79).

Lagisca propinqiia (Table VI.) is an abundant species, taken both on

the fine sand and on the gravel grounds.

Distribution. L. propinqua has a wide range both in its geographical and bathy-
metric distribution. It is found on the United States Coasts, Faroe, Shetland, south-east
of Scotland, and at Madeira {fide Michaelsen, No. 79). It was obtained by tlie Knight
Errant in the Faroe Channel, at a dei)th of 515 fathoms, on a l)ottom of ooze (No. 85).
The Caudan took it at three stations in tlie Bay of Biscay, on coral and nuiil and on nmd,
at depths from 355 to 930 fathoms (Koule, No. 101). Hornell found it constant and
abundant in the Liverpool district, beneath stones and in rock cavities from mid-tide to
57 fathoms (No. 49).

Lagisca rarispina (Table VI.) was identified by Prof. Weldon in haul
92 on the fine sand Ground I., and in haul 70 on the fine sand Ground
VII.

Dlstiubution. An Arctic species East of North America, Greenland, Iceland, Siberia,
Nova Zenibla, Kara Sea, North-West Norway, North of England (fide Michaelsen, No. 79).
In the North Sea it was taken on bottoms of mud and nniddy sand, at depths from 20-24
fathoms, being sometimes abundant (Michaelsen, No. 79). Tiie Norwegian North Atlantic
expedition obtained it at a dejith of 160 fathoms, on a bottom of grey clay (Hansen,
No. 36).

Harmithoe imbricata (Table VI.). Occasional specimens on the fine
sand Grounds III. and VII., and on the clean shell gravel of Ground
XVI.

FROM THE EDDYSTOXE GROUNDS TO START POINT. 479

Distribution. Geographical. East of North America, Greenland, Iceland, FariJe,
Spitzbergen, Nova Zembla, Kara Sea, Siberia, South Japan, Norway, Scotland, England,
Ireland, north and west of France, Spain [Jide Michaelsen, No. 79].

De2)th and Bottom-deposit. This is a common species between tide-marks, where it is
found under stones [Shetlands, Irish Sea, North Sea, Dinard, Plymoutii]. The Valorous
expedition [No 83] obtained it in 20 fethoms (shell sand), 60 fathoms (sand and shell), and
80 fathoms off the coast of Greenland ; the Porcupine (No. 82) at 60-160 fathoms, cast of
Cape Gatte ; the Norwegian North Atlantic expedition [Hansen, No. 36] at depths of from
35 to 127 fatlioms (clay) ; and the Caudan [Roule, 101] in the Bay of Biscay at 98 fathoms
on gravel and sand, and at 219 fathoms on mud.

Evarne impar (Tabl(! VI.). Specimens were obtained on the fine sand
of Grounds I. and VII., ou the fine gravel of Ground XIV., to the west
of the Eddystone, and on the Prawle Stony Ground. The species was
nowhere numerous.

DiSTiiiiiUTiON. Davis Straits (M'Intosh, Valorous, No. 83), Iceland, Shetland, North
Norway, British Coasts, North France {Jide Michaelsen). Outside Gibraltar (358 fathoms,
M'Intosh, Porcupine). Shore (Saint-Joseph, No. 102, and Hornell, No. 49) to 567 fathoms
{Porcupine, No. 82).

Polynoe scolopendrinn . Mr. Hodgson has identified a single specimen
of this species in haul 54 on the fine sand of Ground VII.

Distribution. M'Intosh (No. 84) states that the species occurs from Shetland to the
Channel Islands, generally in tubes of 2'erebella nebulosa, and that it is abundant on the
shore in the Hebrides (No. 81). Saint-Joseph (No. 102) found it on the shore and also in
deeper water at Dinard. Irish Sea (Hornell). Adriatic, Trieste, Egypt {fide Cams,
No. 14).

Halosydna gelatinosa. A single specimen on the typical coarse
gravel, Ground IX. (haul 93). The species is not unfrequeutly taken in
the Plymouth district in shallower water. It occurs on the shore at
low-water.

Distribution. West Norway, British Coasts, North-AVcst France, west of Morocco
{fide Michaelsen, No. 79). Hornell (No. 49) records it from the shore at Puffin Island
(Irish Sea).

Hermadion assimile. A single specimen in haul 92 on the fine sand

of the inner trawling ground (Ground I.).

Distribution. M'Intosh (No. 84) records the species from St. Andrews and from the
Porcupine dredgings olf the west of Ireland, south of England, and Spanish coast.
Hornell (No. 49) took it in the Irish Sea in depths of 11 and 21 fathoms amongst the
spines of Echinus esculentus.

Acholoe astericola is by no means uncommon in the ambulacral groove

of Astropecten irregularis. Its occurrence is incompletely recorded in

Table VI.

Distribution. Hornell (No. 49) gives the distribution from the Mediterranean to
Galway, Marenzeller found it in the Mediterranean on Astropecten atiranliacus, on A.
bispinosus, A. platy acanthus, and A. pentacanthus.

Hyalinoecia tubicola. Chart X. This species is abundant on the
coarse gravel mixed with sand and mud in the neighbourhood of the
Eddystone, where it forms one of the typical and characteristic features
of the fauna. It is specially numerous on Ground IX., which exhibits

480 ON THE FAUNA AND BOTTOM-DEPOSITS NEAll THE 30-FM. LINE

the coarse gravel fauna in its purest form, and is still plentiful on the
gravel of the adjoining Ground XI. It was also taken in several hauls
on the Ophiothri.i- fragilis Ground (X.). On the coarse gravel and mud of
Ground XIII., south-west of the Eddy stone, the fauna of which resembles
in most of its features that of Ground IX., Ihjalinoecia was also abundant.
A few specimens were taken on the fine sand grounds adjoining the
coarse Eddystone Grounds (III., IV., VII., and VIII.). On the remain-
ing fine sand grounds and on the fine gravels and clean shell gravels
the species was entirely absent, nor was it taken on the Pravvle Stony
Ground.

Hnhits. What are the habits of Hyalinoecia tuhicola in the natural
state I am unable to say. In confinement it does not burrow, but is
capable of somewhat rapid locomotion over the surface of a gravel
bottom. The movement is effected by protruding the head and anterior
portion of the body from the tube for a distance of about an inch
in specimens of the ordinary size, holding to the gravel by the
appendages of the most anterior segments and drawing the tube along,
the body being bent sharply at right angles at the point where it
emerges from the tube. The head is then thrown forward, attached
again to the gravel, and the previous movement repeated.

Distribution. Geographical. North and West Norway, Kattegat, North Sea, British
Isles, Englisli Channel, west of France, Mediterranean, Madeira (/<?c Saint-Joseph, No. 102,
and Michaelsen, No. 79). Tlie Challenger obtained Hyalinoecia tuhicola at the Azores
(50-90 fathoms), and one small, dried specimen from the south of Japan (565 fathoms) is
also referred to this species (M'Intosh, No. 85).

Bottom-deposit and Depth. In the Irish Sea the species is taken on pure mud at depths
of from 40 to 80 fathoms, where it constitutes one of the characteristic features of the
fauna (Herdnian, No. 40, Vol. VIII., p. 18 ; Vol. IX., p. 53). In the Skagcraek and
Kattegat it also occurs on deposits of pure mud (Levinsen, No. 66). Off the south-west
coast of Ireland, Haddon, on the other hand, found it on coarse sand (35-40 fathoms) and
on sand (110 fathoms) (Haddon, No. 34). The Challenger specimens off the Azores were
on volcanic mud (50-90 fathoms), and the one small specimen off the south of Japan was
on green mud (565 fathoms). Tlie Caudan found H. tuhicola abundant at 98 fathoms at
two stations on gravel and sand, and also at 137 fathoms at one station on nuid.

From the above records, combined with my own from the Eddystone
Grounds, it would seem that Hijalinoccia tuhicola is equally at home on
pure mud and on gravels mixed with sand and mud. It is probable,
however, that further knowledge of its habits and distribution will show
that its real centre of distribution is on deposits of one only of these
kinds, and that those occurring in deposits of the other kind must
be regarded as outlying individuals, which have extended to grounds
where the conditions are still such that they can exist, though not such
as those to which they are most perfectly adapted.

Lumhriconcreis. A large and a small species, which have not been
certidnly identified, were occasionally taken (see Table VI., p. 531).

FROM THE EDDYSTONE GROUNDS TO START TOINT. 481

Nereis fucatcL This species is very frequently met with in Buccimnn
undatum shells inhabited by Eupagurus Bcrnhardus. The actual
number of records is not great, as in only a few cases in the hauls made
during this particular investigation were the shells opened to seek the
worm.

Distribution. North America, Great Britain, France {fide Michaelsen, No. 79).
Generally in i?(i(;cmit//i or Fusus shells inliabitcd hy Eiqxtgurus Be)-7ihardus {'Slicha.ehen,
Saint-Joseph, Hornell). Hornell (No. 49) found the worm in ninety per cent, of the shells
inhabited by K Bcrnhardus. He also sometimes took it free.

Nereis procera. Not uncommon on the fine sand grounds, especially
on Grounds II., III., VI., and VII. It also was taken on the coarse
gravel and fine sand north-west of the Eddystone (Ground XI.) and on
the Bolt Head Shell Gravel (Ground XVII.).

Distribution. Gulf of Georgia (Ehlers), Madeira (Langerhans), Dinard (Saint-Joseph).

Typosyllis oltcrnosetosa. Several specimens identified by Professor
Weldon in hauls 101 and 102 on the fine sand of Ground VI., south of
the Eddystone.

Distribution. This species has been recorded only from the north coast of France by
Saint- Joseph (No. 102).

Ehlersia cornuta. One specimen in haul 87 on Ground XVI.

Distribution. Norway, Spitzbergen, Atlantic, Madeira, Mediterranean [fide Cams,
No. 14].

Eukdia viridis. Identified by Mr. Hodgson in haul 54 on Ground
VII.

Distribution. Behring Straits, North Sea, Channel, Atlantic, Mediterranean {fide
Saint-Joseph, No. 102). Kattegat (Levinsen). Michaelsen (No. 79) took it in the North
Sea on both coarse and fine grounds (1-44 fatlioms). M'Intosh (No. 81) records it from
the shore at Shetland, and the Pommcrania obtained it amongst stones and algae in
4 fathoms (Mobius, No. 87). Common on shore at Plymouth.

Amhlyosyllis spectahilis. In haul 27 only on the Bolt Head Shell
Gravel (Ground XVIL).
Distribution. English Channel.

Folydora caeca. Several specimens in haul 101 on the fine sand
south of the Eddystone (Ground VI.).

Distribution. Northern Oceans, Mediterranean? [/rfe Saint- Joseph],

Nephthys Homhergii. In haul 91 on the fine sand of Ground III.

Distribution. Nova Zembla, Kara Sea, Norway, Fariie, England, France, Madeira,
Mediterranean [fide Michaelsen, No. 79].

Depth and Bottom-deposit. Saint-Joseph (No. 102) obtained this species at Dinard on
tlie shore only ; Hornell (No. 49) in the Irish Sea, common from the shore to 22 fatlioms.
The Norwegian North Atlantic expedition took it at 142, 148, and 263 fathoms on mud
{clay) (Hansen, No. 36), and the Ccnidan in the Baj' of Biscay on mud at 160 to 220
fathoms and at 98 fathoms (Roule, No. 101).

Glycera convoluta was obtained on the clean shell gravel immediately
to the west of the Eddystone rocks (Ground XVI.), where it was a
characteristic feature of the fauna. Specimens of Glycera, almost

482 ON THE FAUNA AND BOTTOM-DEPOSITS NEAR THE 30-FM. LINE

certainly referable to this species, were also taken on the Bolt Head

Shell (Jravel (XVII).

DisTiiinuTiON', Channel, Atlantic, Mediterranean (fide Saint- Joseph, No. 102). The
Caudan dredged one specimen in the Bay of Biscay on mml in 98 fatlioms (Ronle, No. 101).
Saint-Joseph states that it occurs on all French Coasts on nuuldy sand.

Chaetopterus variopedatus. (Following Joyeux-Laffuie, No. 65, and
Saint- Joseph, one species of Chnetopterus only is recognised as inhabit-
ing European Seas.) Chart X. The most striking feature of the coarse
gravel grounds in the neighbourhood of the Eddystone is the abundance
of Chadoptcms, and the presence of large masses of its leathery tubes
has a great influence on the general fauna of the grounds. The species
is most abundant on the coarse gravel and sand of Grounds IX. and XL
and on the fine gravel of Ground XIV. to the westward of the Eddy-
stone, and on the gravel and mud of Ground XIII. to the south-east.
Eroni these centres of distribution it extends in diminishing numbers on
to the surrounding grounds. On the fine sand of Ground VII., where
shells are numerous, Ghaetopterus is still moderately plentiful, and a
good many were even present on the fine sand of Ground VI., still
further from the centre of distribution. On other fine sand grounds, as
well as on the Bolt Head Shell Gravel and the Prawle Stony Ground,
the species is either absent or represented only by one or two stray
tubes.

Hahits. The tubes of Chaetopterus are generally attached in the first
instance to shells, but they soon attain a size very much greater than
that of the shell to which they originally fixed, and they then attach
themselves to the gravel itself or to any solid object with which they
come in contact. In this way one often finds large clusters of the tubes
joined together into masses, with two or three shells fixed firmly to the
mass. The fauna which depends directly upon the presence of these
masses of tubes has already been described (see p. 414). In addition to
the species there mentioned the Polyzoan IfypoplioreUa cxpansa, Ehlers,
has been found in Chuctopterus tubes taken in the neighbourhood of
the Eddystone (Harmer, No. 37), and was probably present in a large
proportion of the specimens captured (compare also Joyeux-Laffuie,
No. 64). The habits of Chaetopterus are well described by Joyeux-
Laffuie (No. 65). The animal obtains its food by drawing a current of
water through its tube and extracting the floating organisms.

Dl.STiMBUTioN. Geographical. North('rn Seas, Channel, Atlantic, Mediterranean [fide
Saint-Joseph, No. 102].

Depth and Botlom-deposil. Joyeu.x-Laffuie (No. 65) states that on thu French coasts
Chaetopterus is found in shallow water and even occasionally between tide-marks in
sheltered situations, where the action of the waves is slight, but that on exposed coasts
it occurs only in dce])er water. It is often washed ashore in very large numbers after heavy
gales. Saint-Joseph (No. 102) found it at Dinard on the shore only. In the Irish Sea it
is recorded from the shore at low-water at Beaumaris (Williams, fide Hornell, No. 49), on a

FROM THE EDDYSTONE GROUNDS TO START POINT. 483

"reamy" bottom (sand and mud), in 30 fathoms ; on dead shells and sand, 22 and
25 fathoms; on stones and mud, 19 fathoms (Herdman, No. 40, Vols. VIII. and IX.).

Pectinaria auricoma (Table VI.). Single specimens of a Pedinaria
with a curved tube, identified by Mr. Hodgson as P. auricoma, are not
unfrequently met with. They have occurred on Grounds VII. and VIII.
(fine sand with shells) and X. and XII. (coarse gravel and sand) in the
neighbourhood of the Eddystone, on the Bolt Head Shell Gravel (Ground

XVII.), and the Prawle Stony Ground (XVIII.).

Distribution. Geographical. North and West Norway, North Sea, British and Irish
Coasts, Mediterranean [fide Michaelscn].

Depth and Bottom-deposit. M'Intosh [No. 81] found Pectinaria auricoma in the
Shetlands at depths from 50-100 fathoms ; Haddon [No. 34] off the south-west of
Ireland on coarse sand in 35-40 fathoms ; Mobius [No. 87] in the Ponimerania dredg-
ings generally on sandy mud, occasionally on coarse ground from 12 fathoms to 217
fathoms. In the North Sea also Michaelsen [No. 79] obtained it generally on mud and fine
sand, occasionally on coarser ground. In the Kattegat Levinsen [No. 66] records F.
auricoma from 12^ to 17 fathoms on mixed deposits (sand or gravel with mud). In
the Liverpool district Hornell [No. 49] found P. auricoma rarely in 20-22 fathoms, whilst
P. hclgica was common from low-water to 21 fathoms.

Polymnia nehulosa (Table VI.) occurred in small numbers on the
gravel grounds around the Eddystone (IX., XIII., and XIV), and on
the sand ground (VII.) immediately to the south of these.

DiSTPJEUTiON, West Norway, British Coasts, West France, and Mediterranean {fide
Michaelsen, No. 79).

Nicolea vemistula (Table VI.). Occasional specimens almost entirely

confined to fine sand grounds.

Distribution. Greenland, Iceland, Faroe, Sjiitzbergcn, Nova Zembla, Siberia, Norway,
British Coasts, French Coasts, Mediterranean, Red Sea [fide IMichaelsen, No. 79, and
Saint- Joseph, No. 102].

Depth, etc. 2-15 fathoms (Saint-Joseph) ; 20-22 fathoms (Hornell). On zostera
(Michaelsen); on Eijtiphlaea innastroides (Saint- Joseph).

Thelepus sp. (Table VI.). A species of Thelepvs is very common on
the grounds investigated. Relying on the character of the uncini it
would seem to be T. sctosas, Saint-Joseph. The differences between this
species and the common T, cincinnatus are, however, so slight that there
is probably much confusion between the two in the literature. In the
account of the distribution I therefore give that for each of these
species.

On "the Eddystone Grounds Thdcpus is very common on all the fine

sand and also on the coarse gravel to the west of the rocks. On the

coarse gravel south-east of the Eddystone (Ground XIII.) it was not

taken, and only an occasional specimen on the fine gravel of Ground

XIV. was seen. It was not present on the clean shell gravel (XVI.),

nor on the Bolt or Prawle Grounds.

DisTiiiBUTiON. T. setosus, Saint-Joseph, has been recorded only on the north coast of
France (Saint-Joseph, No. 102) at depths of from 2 to 15 fathoms. T. cincimiatua, Fabr.
North America, Greenland, Iceland, Faroe, Spizbergen, Jan Mayen, Nova ZiiiiMa,

484 ON THE FAUNA AND BOTTOM-DEPOSITS NEAR THE 30-FM. LINE

Kara Seu, Siberia, Xoitli and West Norway, North Sea, British Coasts, French Coasts,
Mediterranean [fide Michaelsen and Saint-Joseph].

Depth and Bottom-deposit (T. cincinnatus). The Pommerania dredged the species
generally on fine sand, sometimes on coarse gronnds from 10 to 49 fathoms (Mol)ius,
No. 87) In the Shetlands M'Intosh (No. 81) obtained it from 50 to 120 fathoms,
and the Knight Errant found it at 540 fathoms (M'Intosh, No. 85). Hornell (No. 49)
records it in the Irish Sea from sliore to 22 fathoms, becoming more abundant in tlie deejjer
water. The Norwegian North Atlantic expedition obtained it at seven stations from
35 fathoms to 658 fxthoms, generally on a bottom of clay (Hansen, No. 36). The Caudan
found it numerous at three stations in the Bay of Biscay, twice at 98 fathoms on gravel
and sand, and once at 219 fathoms on mud (Roule, No. 101).

Amj^hitrite gracilis. An occasional specimen on Grounds VII. (fine
sand) and XVII. (Bolt Head Shell Gravel).

DiSTKlBUTlON. North America, Greenland, Kara Sea, British Coasts {fide Michaelsen,
No. 79). Saint- Joseph found it at Dinard on the shore only, living in mud between stones,
and not forming a tube.

Pohjcirrus aurantiacns. Two specimens on the muddy gravel ground

(XIII.) south-east of the Eddystone. The species is common in Plymouth

Sound (Millbay Channel) and in the estuary of the Yealm.

DiSTiuJiUTioN. English Channel, west of France, Mediterranean (Saint- Jose] ih, No.
102). At Dinard in 2-15 fathoms. M'Intosh records it from the Shetlands in 70-80
fathoms. The Pola dredged it in 220 fathoms {fide Saint- Joseph).

Sabcllaria sjuni'losa. Forming very hard, sandy tubes on shells, etc.

Though the records are not numerous the species was common on all

grounds where dead shells were numerous.

Distribution-. North Sea, Channel, Atlantic (Saint- Joseph). In North Sea, 0-40
fathoms (Michaelsen).

Sabella (pavonina ?). Specimens never reaching a length of more than
three or four inches, but probably belonging to this species, were
common, generally attached to the base of hydroids on both the fine
sand and coarse gravel grounds in the neighbourhood of the Eddystone.
They were especially abundant on the fine sand, usually associated
with Scrtularella Gayi.

Distribution. Geographical. North America, Greenland, North-West and West
Norway, British Coasts, North-West France, and west of English Channel (fide
Michaelsen).

Depth and Bottom-deposit. The Pommerania obtained Sabella pavonina from 1 6 to 52
fathoms. At 52 fathoms it was abundant on sandy mud. It was scarce on coarse grounds
(Mijbins, No. 87). Michaelsen also records it in the North Sea from sandy mud. The
Norwegian North Atlantic expedition obtained it on clay at 135 fathoms and at 300
fathoms (Hansen, No. 36). The Porcupine dredged it at 725 fathoms (Elders, j?c?e Saint-
Joseph, No 102) ; the Caudan on mud at 98 fathoms in the Bay of Biscay (Roule, No.
101). From these records it is clear that the species is generally found on nmd or muddy
sand.

Filofjrana implcxa (Table Yl.). Large colonies were present only in
haul 103 (Ground XIII.), south-east of the Eddystone, probably owing
to the fact that the wave action is somewhat less there than on the
grounds to the westward of the Eddystone (c/. p. 425). Small colonies,

FROM THE EDDYSTONE GROUNDS TO START POINT. 485

chieliy on shells of Pectcn opercularis, were obtained on Grounds VIL,
IX., and XIV. The species is characteristic of the coarse grounds

rather than of the fine sand.

Distribution. Geographical. East of North America, Faroe, North and "West Norway,
White Sea (?), Scotland, England, North and West of France, Mediterranean {fide
Michaelsen).

DqHh and Bottom-deposit. The Pommerania dredged Filograna implexa in the North
Sea on "sand and Sahellaria tubes" at 12 fathoms, on sand and slicll at 50 fathoms, on mnd
and on gravel and mud at 106 fathoms, on all of which grounds it was iilentifid (Jliil)ius,
No. 87). The Norwegian North Atlantic expedition took it on clay at 415 fatlioms
(Hansen, No. 36), and the Caudan in the Bay of Biscay on gravel and sand at 98 fathoms,
and on mud at 160 to 220 fathoms (Roule, No. 101). Saint-Joseph and Hornell both
record it occasionally from the shore.

Dasychonc homhyx (Table YI.). Common on both fine and coarse

grounds, attached to shells, etc.

DiSTRiiiUTiox. North and West Norway, British Seas, North Sea, English Channel,
Mediterranean [fide Saint-Joseph and Michaelsen). The Caudan took one specimen on a
coral bottom at 220-270 fathoms in the Bay of Biscay. Saint-Joseph found it on the
shore and in deeper water.

Protula tuhUaria. Occasional specimens only on the Eddystone
coarse grounds and on two fine sand grounds (VII. and VIII.) im-
mediately adjoining the latter.

DisTRiKUTiox. A southern species. Mediterranean, Atlantic, Channel. At Diuard it
is found in from 2 to 15 fathoms. The Pola dredged it in 515 fathoms {fide Saint-Joseph,
No. 102).

Serpula vermicularis. Not uncommon on all grounds where shells

are present upon which it can fix.

Distribution. North-West and West Norway, Faroe, British Coasts, Englisli Channel,
Atlantic to Madeira, Mediterranean {fide Michaelsen and Saint-Joseph). The species was
not obtained in the North Sea itself by either the Pommerania or by Michaelsen. The
Norwegian North Atlantic expedition took it in 142 and 223 fathoms on grey clay and on
sandy clay (Hansen, No. 36). The Caudan found it abundant on gravel and sand at 98
fathoms, abundant at three stations on mud from 104 fathoms to 219 fathoms, and at two
stations on coral at 219 to 273 fathoms (Roule, No. 101). It would seem that this is a
deep-water species, with its centre of distribution at depths of 100 to 300 fathoms, of
which occasional individuals reach to the shore. This would explain the fact that although
it has an extended distribution botli north and south, it is not frequently taken in the
North Sea.

Hi/droides norvegica (Gunn). This serpulid is the common species

growing on shells and on the stems of hydroids on all grounds where

shells are present. On Grounds I. and II. it is found chiefiy on Cardiiim

echinntum shells. On many grounds it occurs on Buccinum undatum

shells inhabited by Eupagurus Bernhardiis.

Distribution. Norway, North Sea, Atlantic, Mediterranean {fide Michaelsen and Saint-
Joseph). The species occurs on all kinds of grounds to deep water (300 fathoms, Norwegian
Nortli Atlantic expedition, Hansen, No. 36).

Fotamoceros iriqueter is much less common than Hydroides norvegica,

but occurs on both fine and coarse grounds.

Distribution. Iceland, Faroe, North and West Norway, North Sea, British Coasts,
French Coasts, Mediterranean {fide Michaelsen, No. 79, and Saint-Joseph, No. 102).

486 ON THE FAUNA AND BOTTOM-DEPOSITS NEAR THE 30-FM. IJNE

Hornell (No. 49) found the species common on the shore, more sparingly in deeper water to
18 fathoms, in the Irish Sea. Tlie Pommerania records also agree Avith the view that this
species is most coninion in shallow water. Michaelsen records it, however, as plontiful in
the North Sea to depths of 70 fathoms. On the whole it seems prohable that H. norvegica
has its centre of distribution in deep water, whilst that of P. triquder is near shore.

Spirorhis sp. A species of Spirorbis is common on the hydroid
Sertularia abietina, which is taken on Grounds II., XVIL, and XVIII.

Nemertina.

The specimens have for the most part been named either by Mr.
T. H. Eiches or by Mr. W. I. Beaumont. For geographical distribution
Burger's Naples Monograph has been relied on.

Crustacea.

Nomenclature : — A good list of synonyms is given by Bonnier (No. 10),
whose nomenclature has in most cases been used. In the identifica-
tionof this group I have received much help from Mr. T. V. Hodgson.

For geographical distribution Norman (No. 93) and Gourret (No. 31)
have been chiefly made use of. The records of the smaller Crustacea,
Amp)hipoda, Isopoda, etc., are very imperfect. For the Amphipoda
Sars's Crustacea of Norway has been relied on for geographical dis-
tribution, and for the Cirripedia Darwin's monograph.

Homarns vidgaris. Two specimens of the common lobster were
trawled on the fine sand of the inner trawling ground (I.) in haul 81.
Although the lobster generally frequents rocky places, it is not unusual
for one or two specimens to be captured when trawling on sand.

Distribution. Geograpliical. "West Norway to 62° N., Sweden, Kattegat, British and
French Coasts, Portugal, Mediterranean (not common). (Norman, No. 93 ; Bonnier,
No. 10; Goun-et, No. 31.)

Depth. Shore to 50 fathoms (?). (Lo Bianco, No. 68.)

Bottom-deposit. Rocky places. Gourret states that the lobster was formerly abundant
at Marseilles, but that in 1888 it was only occasionally taken on the zostera beds.

Pandalus brevirostris, Eathk. Chart XII. Numerous on Grounds
III. and IV., present on VIL and IX. This species is generally
abundant only where hydroids or especially Cellaria abound, amongst
which it is found hiding.

Distribution. OeograjMcal. West Finmark, Norway, Sweden, Denmark, British
Seas, Bay of Biscay (Norman, No. 93 ; Bonnier, No. 10). Cams (No. 14) gives it as a
Mediterranean species, but I have found no other reference to its having been taken there.

Dfpth. .5 to 89 fathoms (A. 0. Walker).

Bottom-deposit. Metzger (No. 78) records Pandalus brevirostris on sand and shell, on
stones, and on stones and algiE in the North Sea (5-28 fathoms). Pruvot (No. 98) at
Roscoff on sand from the coastal region. Meinert (No. 75) on mud and sand and on nmd
and small stones in the Kattegat. The distribution of the species therefore appears
to liave little direct connection with the nature of the l)ottom-dej)osit. It will j)robably
depend largely on the distribution of hydroids and .such polyzoji as Cellaria.

FROM THE EDDYSTONE GROUNDS TO START POINT. 487

Evpagurus Bernhardus. Chart XII. Tliis hermit crab is present on
grounds of all kinds, though it is most abundant on the sand and on
the gravel and sand grounds where the fauna is generally rich. Its
absence from Ground XIII., the gravel and mud one mile south-east of
the Eddystone, is somewhat unexpected, but it must be noted that only
one haul was made here (103). It is noteworthy that on the fine sand
grounds (I., II., III., IV., V., and VII.) the anemone Sagartia parasitica
was often associated with the hermit, whilst on all the other "rounds
the anemone was al>sent (c/. p. 459). Eupagums Bernhardus was found
occupying the shell of Bnccinvvi vndatum on all grounds excepting on
the Bolt Head Shell Gravel (Ground XVII.), where specimens were taken
(in hauls 106 and 107) in Fusus islandicus shells. The Buccinicm shells
often had Hydradinia cchinata upon them.

Distribution. Geographical. East Finmark, Norway, Sweden, Kattegat, Baltic,
British Coasts, Mediterranean (apparently not frequent).

Depth. Shore to 200 fathoms (Pocock, No. 96).

Bottom-deposit Metzger (No. 78) records E. Bernhardus in the North Sea on sand,
on gravel, on shell, and on mud, generally however, on fine ground. Meincrt (No. 75)
in the Kattegat on all kinds of ground, on clean sand, on mixed deposits, and on pure
mud.

The distribution of this s^jecies is evidently little influenced by the nature of tlie bottom-
deposit.

Uvpagurus Prideauxii (Chart XII.) differs somewhat in distribution on
the grounds investigated from U. Bernhardus, in that it is never found
on the fine clean sand of the outer and inner trawling grounds (I. and
II.). In other respects its distribution is practically the same as that
of U. Bernhardus. It is invariably associated with the anemone
Adamsia palliata.

Distribution. Geographical. Mediterranean, Portugal, Bay of Biscay, English
Channel, Irish Sea, West of Scotland, Shetlands, Norway to Arctic Circle (Marion, No.
74; Gourret, No. 31 ; Bonnier, No. 10; Walker, Nos. Ill and 112; Hoyle, No. 52;
Norman, No. 93). It is not recorded by Metzger in the North Sea, nor by Meinert in the
Kattegat.

Depth. From 10 or 20 fathoms to 140 fethoms (Gourret, Milne-Edwards and Bouvier,
No. 80).

Bottom-deposit. Milne-Edwards and Bouvier (No. 80) record E. Prideauxii five times
from fine sand, or nmddy sand, and twice from sand, gravel, and broken shell, at depths
from 30 to 140 fathoms in the Bay of Biscay. Marion (No. 74) records it in the Mediter-
ranean on coralline gravel, on muddy sand, and nnuldy gravels. Walker (No. Ill) in the
Irish Sea on nullipore ground and on muddy gravel (20 fathoms).

Eupagurus cuancnsis (Table VI.) is never found in large numbers on
the grounds examined. It is confined for the most part to the gravel
grounds in the neighbourhood of the Eddystone, but it was present in
only comparatively few hauls. It is recorded once from the Bolt Head
Shell Ground in haul 28. It is often found living in shells covered by
iSuherites doviuncula.

488 ON THE FAUNA AND BOTTOM-DEPOSITS NEAR THE 30-FM. LINE

Distribution. Geographical. South and West Norway, Sweden, Kattegat, Iiish Sea,
English Channel, Bay of Biscay, Mediterranean (Norman, No. 93 ; Meinert, No. 75 ;
Walker, No. 112; Bonnier, No. 10).

Depth. Shallow water to 200 fathoms (Walker, No. 112, p. 80).

Bottom-deposit. On nullipore ground in Irish Sea (A. 0. Walker), on shell sand, 30-50
fathoms, off Concarneau (Bonnier). Meinert records it in tlie Kattegat on clean sand, on
clean gravel, and on pure mud, as well as on the mixed deposits, sand, mud, and gravel,
or giavel, mud, and small stones.

Anapagiirus laevis (Table VI.). This species was sometimes taken in
considerable numbers. It was more frequent on the fine sand than
Evjjcigurus cuanensis, but it was also taken on Grounds XL and IX.,
where the deposit is a mixture of gravel and sand. It was most numer-
ous in hauls 104 (Ground II.), 93 (Ground IX.), and 90 (Ground V.).
Its absence from Ground XIII. (gravel and mud) is noteworthy, as this
ground in many ways resembles IX., where the species was numerous.
On the Bolt Head Shell Gravel it was present in 27 only, a haul which
in other respects gives indic'ations of being partly a fine sand ground.
On the Prawle Stony Ground it was taken in several hauls. On Ground
IX. Anrqr/f/urus was common in shells of TarriteUa communis, and was
also inhabiting shells of Nutica nitida, Mangelia gracilis, and Nassa
incrassata.

Distribution. Geographical. Mediterranean, Azores, Bay of Biscay, English Channel,
Irish Sea, South-West Ireland, North Sea, Shetlands, Norway, Kattegat (Marion, Milne-
Edwards and Bouvier, Bonnier, Walker, Haddon, Metzger, Norman, Meinert). It is not
recorded fi'om the southern part of the North Sea.

Depth. 5 fathoms (Metzger, No. 78) to 383 fathoms (Marion, No. 74).

Bottom-deposit. Marion records Anapagurus laevis on deep mud in the Mediterranean
(273 to 383 fathoms) ; Pruvot (No. 98) on coastal sand and on deep coral and nuid (Medi-
terranean) ; Milne-Edwards and Bouvier (No. 80) on fine sand and on muddy sand in the
Bay of Biscay (74-98 fathoms), on gravel, sand, and broken shell at the Azores (71
fathoms) ; Metzger (No. 78) on stones (5-20 fathoms), on gravel and shell (12 fathoms), on
sand, on sandy mud, and on grey mud (50-80 fathoms) in the northern part of tlie North
Sea. Norman says it is common on the Haddock (soft) grounds in the Shetlands. Haddon
(No. 34) records it on coarse sand at the mouth of Bantry Bay (35-40 fathoms), and
Meinert (No. 75) on mud with sand or gravel (70-22 fathoms) in the Kattegat.

It seems evident from the above records, and my own observations
tend to confirm this, that Ancqjagurus laevis occurs most frequently on
sand or mud grounds.

Forcellana longicornis (Table VI.). Like Galothea dispersa this species
is found on all the grounds, and was taken in practically every haul,
often in large numbers.

Distribution. Geographical. Norway, Sweden, Denmark, British Seas, Mediterranean
(Norman, No. 93). Courret (No. 31) states that it extends to tlie Canary Isles.

Depth. From low-water (Bell, No. 9) to 100 fathoms (Bonnier, No. 10). Milne-Edwards
and liouvier (No. 80) do not record it from any haul in the Bay of Biscay deeper than 10
fathoms.

Bottom-deposit. Tlie species is recorded from all kinds of bottom, though, as in the case
of many other very common and widely di.stributed species, very few records are to
be found.

FROM THE EDDYSTONE GROUNDS TO START POINT. 489

Galathea dispersa was taken on all the grounds and almost in every
haul. It was most rarely found on the clean shell gravel grounds,
viz., Ground XA^L, west of the Eddystone, and the Bolt Head Shell
Gravel Ground (XVII.). It was most abundant where hydroids were
numerous.

Distribution. Geographical. Norman (No. 93) gives South and West Norway,
British Seas, and Mediterranean. Mihie-Edwards and Bouvier (No. 80) found it
commonly in the Bay of Biscay.

Depth. 5-140 fathoms (Milne-Edwards and Bouvier).

Bottom-deposit. The S3-n()nymy of the species is too doubtful to permit of a detailed list
of references. Milne-Edwards and Bouvier took the species upon all kinds of ground in
the Bay of Biscay.

Stenorhynchiis longirostris. Chart XL This species is most plentiful
on Grounds IV., TIL, and V., where the bottom-deposit is fine sand (see
Table A^I.). It is less common on the still finer sands (Grounds I. and
IL). It is present, though not numerous, on all the gravels west of the
Eddystone with the exception of the clean shell gravel immediately
adjoining the rocks (Ground XVI.). It is scarce on the Bolt Head Shell
Gravel and on the Prawle Stony Grounds (XVII. and XVIII.).

The species is scarce or absent on those grounds on which branched
hydroids of more or less luxuriant growth are scarce or absent respec-
tively. It appears to be specially abundant where the prevailing
hydroid is SertuJarella Gayi {e.g., Grounds III., IV., and V.), less
abundant where Haleciiim halccinum is the most characteristic repre-
sentative of the group, as on the West Eddystone gravels. My notes
are, however, not sufficiently' full to establish this connection in detail
for all the hauls.

Habits. The habit of this species of decking itself with bits of
hydroids and polyzoa for the sake of protection is well known. When
placed in a small aquarium with pieces of hydroid it will generally be
found clinging to the hydroid. Whether or not it spends most of its
time in a similar position in its natural haunts, or whether it is gener-
ally travelling about on the intervening patches of sand, I am not able
to say, though from what I have seen of its habits in confinement I
incline to the former view.

Dlstribution. Geographical. Stenorhynchus longirostris has a distinctly soutliern
distril)ution. It occurs in the Mediterranean (Marion, No. 74 ; Gourrct, No. 31 ; Norman,
No. 93), Canaries and Portugal {fide Gourret), north coast of Spain (A. Milne-Edwards
and Bouvier, No. 80), west coast of France (ditto and Bonnier, No. 10), north coast of
France, Belgian Coast (fide Metzger, No. 78), south coast of Devon and Cornwall, Irish
Sea (scarce, A. 0. Walker), Clyde (lloyle. No. 53). The Pommernnia took it once in the
North Sea (south-east of Yarmouth), and it is not recorded from Norway nor from tlie
Kattegat. Bell (No. 9) states that Embleton includes it in his list of Crustacea from
Berwickshire and North Durham. It is not recorded in Firth of Forth by Leslie and
Herdman (No. 43).

Depth. From 10 fathoms (Gourret) and 15 fathoms (A. 0. Walker, No. 40, Vol. IX.,
p. 33) to 230 i&thoms {Travailleur, No. 80, p. 5, footnote).

490 ON THE FAUNA AND BOTTOM-DEPOSITS NEAR THE 30-F^r. LINE

Bottom-deposit. llilne-Edwards and Bouvier (No. 80), on gravel, sand, and Vn-oken
shell and on fine sand, more frequently on gravel and coarse ground (5 stations) than
on fine sand (2 stations) [Bay of Biscay and north-west of Sjiain, 30 to 150 fathoms].
Mctzger(No. 78) on sand and shell (south-east of Yannoutli, 23 fathoms). Pruvot (No. 98),
on mud and sand below 25 fatlioms. Marion and Gourret (No. 31), on sandy mud and
deep mud (20-100 fathoms). Stcnorhijiichus lonyirostris ajipears to be most frequent
amongst hydroids from about 20 to 50 fathoms. Its place is taken in shallower water
by Stenorhynchus phalangium, and in the North Sea this species seems to replace it even
in 30 to 50 fatlioms (see p. 518). Its distribution appears to l)e only indirectly influenced by
the nature of the bottom-deposit.

Inachus dorsettensis. Chart XL On the whole the distribution of
Inachus on the grounds under examination corresponds closely with
that of Stenorhynchus longirostris, though it has never been met with
in such great numbers as the latter species is when at its maximum.
On the gravels to the west of the Eddystone it is more frequent than
Stenorhynchus, though generally not represented by more than a few
specimens in a haul.

Habits. Inachus dorsettensis is usually taken with its legs and often
most of its carapace covered with growing sponges, compound ascidians,
and polyzoa (Scrupoccllaria scriqjosa). Occasionally specimens of
Balanus are also attached to the carapace. It is a more sluggish
animal than Stenorhynchus lonyirostris, and it does not seem to spend
its time clinging to branching hydroids as that species probably does.

DisTKiBUTioN. Geographical. Mediterranean, Portugal, West France, British Seas,
Kattegat, West Norway to latitude 62° N. Only taken by the Pommerania in North
Sea at one station {fide Norman, No. 93 ; Gourret, No. 31 ; Meinert, No. 75 ; Metzger,
No. 78 ; Bonnier, No. 10). Apparently not common in Irish Sea (A. 0. Walker, No. 112).

Depth. From about 6 fathoms (Gourret) to 136 fathoms (Milne-Edwards and Bouvier,
No. 80).

Bottom-deposit. A. Milne-Edwards and Bouvier {Monaco expeditions) record the species
from two stations on sand and gravel, and from seven stations on fine sand and on muddy
sand. Metzger {I'ommerania) records it once on sand and shell. Pruvot, No. 98 (at
Roscoff), from the lower littoral gravel. Gourret (at Marseilles), on gravels, on muddy
sand, and on sandy gravel. Meinert (No. 75) {Hauch expedition), generally on gravel
mixed with sand and mud ; occasionally on pure mud or on clean sand. It thus appears
that the species may occur on both gravel and sandy grounds, thougli according to the
results of the Monaco dredgings it is more frequent on sand. I find no record of its having
been taken on fine mud, but on grounds harder than this it appears to be distributed
without immediate reference to the bottom-deposit.

Maia squinado was only taken in two hauls, both on fine sand

grounds, in haul 56 on Ground III. and in haul 82 on Ground I. It is

common amongst the rocks outside Plymouth Sound.

Distribution. Geographical. Mediterranean (general and common). Canaries, Portugal,
West France, North France, southern and western coasts of England, and south coast of
Ireland (Gourret, No. 31 ; Bonnier, No. 10 ; Pruvot, No. 98 ; Bell, No. 9). Not recorded
from North Sea nor from Irish Sea.

Depth. Shore (Gourret) to 50 fathoms (Bonnier).

Hyas coarctatus. Several specimens were taken on the fine sand
south of the Eddystone (Ground VI., hauls 101 and 102), one specimen
on the sandy ground east of the Eddystone (Ground IV., haul 39), and

Fi;OM THE EDDVSTONE GROUNDS TO START POINT. 491

one on the fine sand Ground I. (haul 50). The species was taken in no
other hauls.

Habits. Most of the specimens were females carrying ova. They
were more or less completely covered with compound ascidians, polyzoa
{Scrvjiocellaria scruposa and Bicellaria ciliata), and large Balanus. In
one case several specimens of Ascidiella scahra were attached.

Distribution. Geographical. An Arctic species, attaining both its maximum size and
abundance within tlie Arctic circle. It is one of the three species of Crustacea Brachyura
which are found in higli latitudes (Norman, No. 93). It is circum]talar in distribution
(Meinert, No. 75). The species occurs on the eastern and western sides of the Atlantic as
follows :— Greenland, Labrador, Newfoundland, Norway, Sweden, North Sea (northern
part, seldom in south), Irish Sea, South-West Ireland, English Channel, Brittany {vide
Norman, Milne-Edwards and Bouvier, Meinert, Metzger, A. 0. Walker, Pocock, Bell,
Pruvot). It does not extend into the Kattegat (Meinert), nor is it taken on the west coast
of France (Bonnier).

Depth. Shore (A. 0. Walker, No. 112) to 250 fathoms (Pocock, No. 96).

Bottom-deposit. From the Irish Sea (A. 0. AValker) Hyas coardatus is recorded in stony
places (0-10 fathoms), on small gravel and shells (15 fathoms), on sandy mud (30 fathoms),
and on nullipore gravel (15-18 fathoms). Milne-Edwards and Bouvier (No. 80) record it
from north of the Great Bank of Newfoundland on fine sand and small pebbles. Metzger
(No. 78), in the North Sea, notes it generally on mud and sand. Pruvot (No 98), on the
Brittany coast on gravel, and Meinert (No. 75), in 70 fathoms north of Skagen, on mud
and fine sand. In the case of this species also it seems clear that the nature of the bottom-
dejiosit is not a very important factor in directly determining its distribution.

Eurynome aspera (see Table VI.). The only haul in which several

specimens of this species were taken was haul 93 (Ground IX. j, on the

mixed gravel and sand west of the Eddystone. It was present in small

numbers (one or two specimens in a haul) on nearly all the other

grounds, both fine sand and gravel. The only grounds from which it is

not recorded at all are V., X., XV., and XVI.

Habits. Not a burrowing species (Garstaug, No. 29).

DiSTRiBUTiox. Geographical. A southern species, especially abundant in the Mediter-
ranean, where it is common on all kinds of ground from the shore to a depth of 140
fathoms. It is found on the coast of Portugal, west and north coasts of France, Englisli
Channel, Irish Sea, south-west of Ireland, Shetlands (rare, Norman, No. 90), south and
west of Norway ; not recorded from North Sea, seldom in Kattegat (Marion and Gourret,
Bonnier, Milne-Edwards and Bouvier, Walker, Pocock, Norman, Metzger, Meinert).

Dcpith. In Mediterranean, shore to 140 fathoms (Gourret, No. 31); south-west of
Ireland, 315 fathoms (Pocock, No. 96). Shallowest depth recorded on British Coasts,
15 fathoms (Walker, No. 111).

Boltom-drposit. Gourret records Eurynome aspera in the Mediterranean from all kinds
of ground, on gravel, on sand, on muddy sand, and on mud. A. Milne-Edwards and
Bouvier (No. 80) found it on fine sand or muddy sand nine times, on sand with gravel
three times in the Bay of Biscay and north-west of Spain. Walker (Nos. Ill and 112)
records it in the Irish Sea from nulli])Oie ground, from " reamy " bottom (i.e., mud and
gravel), and from broken shell and small stones. In the Kattegat (Meinert, No. 75) it was
taken generally on gravel mixed with small stones or with sand, more rarely with mud.
It was seldom taken on pure mud. This is another example of a wandering species, the
distribution of which does not depend directly to any great extent upon the nature of the
bottom-deposit.

Fortunus depurntor. Chart XIII. Abundant only on Ground VI.

(three miles east of tlie Eddystone), which is a sandy ground witii many

492 ON THE FAUNA AND BOTTOM-DEPOSITS NEAR THE 30-F.^r. LINE

shells. The species was also present on Grounds III., VI., and VIII.,
which are also fine sand, and scarce on XIV. and XIII., fine gravel
and coarse gravel with mud respectively. In Plymouth Sound it is
abundant on stony ground in 5 fathoms.

Habits. A gregarious species (Bell), which can swim rapidly. It
does not appear to burrow like many other species of this genus.

Distribution. Geographical. Mediterranean, Portugal, west coast of France, Channel
Islands, English Channel, Irish Sea (abundant), Clyde area, Shetlands (rare, Norman),
North Sea (once only, Pommcrania), Kattegat (chiefly on deep mud), Norway to Arctic
circle {vide Gourret, Bonnier, Bell, Walker, Hoyle, Norman, Metzger, Meinert).

Depth. 3 fathoms (Walker) to 104 fathoms (Hoyle, No. 53).

Bottom-dej)osit. In the Irish Sea Walker (Nos. Ill and 112) records it as abundant on
stony ground in 3-7 fathoms. Metzger (North Sea, No. 78), on sandy mud in 69 fathoms.
Pruvot (Mediterranean, No. 98) on sand, on gravel, and on mud. Marion (Mediterranean,
No. 74), on mud and on muddy sand in 34-50 fathoms. Meinert (Kattegat, No. 75),
generally on pure mud, occasionally on mud with sand or gravel, occasionally on clean
sand. In this case again the species is found upon deposits of very different texture. In
shallow water (3-10 fathoms) it appears to inhabit chiefly stony ground.

Portunus pusillus (Chart XIII.) was most numerous on the Gravel
Grounds IX. and XI. to the west of the Eddystone. It was very rarely
obtained on the fine gravel ground XV., and on the fine sand grounds
IV., VI., and VII.. Occasional specimens were found on the Bolt
Head Shell Gravel and on the Prawle Stony Ground. The species was
never taken on the fine sand grounds 1., II., III., and V.

On the whole, therefore, on the grounds under investigation, Portunus
pusillus lives principally on gravel, a few wandering on to the sand
grounds immediately adjoining the gravel.

Distribution. Geographical. Mediterranean, Canary Isles, Portugal, Bay of Biscay,
English Channel, Irish Sea, Shetlands, Norway to Lat. 62°, Sweden, Kattegat, North Sea
(Milne-Edwards and Bouvier, Norman, No. 93, Gourret, Bonnier).

Depth. Shore (rare. Bonnier, No. 10) to 98 fathoms (Milne-Edwards and Bouvier,
No. 80).

Bottom-deposit. Milne-Edwards and Bouvier record Portumis pusillus from the Bay of
Biscay on nullipore ground, on fine sand, and on muddy sand. Metzger (No. 78), on stony
ground, on .sandy mud, on gravel, and on sand. Pruvot (No. 98) mentions it on sand
and gravel, and on gravel. Bonnier (No. 10), on muddy sand. Gourret (No. 31), on mud, on
gravel, and on muddy gravel, and Meinert (Kattegat, No. 75), generally on mud mixed
with gravel and stones, occasionally on tine sand.

Corystes cassivelaunus (Chart XIII.) is found practically exclusively
upon clean fine sand, and is abundant on Grounds I. and III., or,
speaking more accurately, on the portions of those grounds which adjoin
each other. The hauls in which it was most plentiful are 91, 72, 57,
and 92, which it will be seen all lie near together. One specimen only
was taken on Ground II. (haul 22), and it was also met with on
Ground XVII. (Bolt Head Shell Gravel) in haul 27 only, probably
because this haul extended on to the fine sand. The species is
entirely absent from all the Eddystone Gravel Grounds.

FROM THE EDDYSTONE GEOUNDS TO START POINT. 493

Habits. The habit of Corystcs cassivdavnus of burrowing in fine
sand was recorded by several of the older naturalists {Couch, Gosse,
Robertson), and recently Garstang has made a special study of the
species in relation to this matter. He found that the crabs burrowed at
once in fine sand, but would not burrow in gravel. They came out of
the sand and became active at night.

DiSTUiBUTiON. Geographical. Mediterranean, Bay of Biscay, English Channel, Irish
Sea, West Ireland, southern part of North Sea only (not north of Scarborough) (Marion
and Gourret, Pruvot, Bonnier, "Walker, Mctzger).

Depth. Between tide-marks (Walker) to 30 fatlioms (E. J. A.).

Bottom-deposit. Corystes cassivelaunus is recorded by Marion and Gourret (Mediter-
ranean, Nos. 74 and 31) on mud, rare ; by Pruvot (No. 98), on mud and on sand ; by
Metzger (North Sea, No. 78), on sandy mud and on fine sand ; by Holt (West Ireland,
No. 48), on sand and on soft mud ; by Walker (Irish Sea, Nos. Ill and 112), on sand.

Corystes cassivelaunus is a good example of a burrowing species whose distribution is
directly controlled by the texture of the bottom-deposit.

Atelecyclus heterodon (Chart XIII.) was abundant on two grounds, on
Ground XIII,, one mile east of the Eddystone, where the bottom-deposit
is medium gravel mixed with a considerable amount of mud (see Table
II., Sample 103), and on Ground IX., three miles west of the Eddystone,
where the deposit is coarse gravel mixed with fine sand (see Table II.,
Sample 94). On the muddy gravel the specimens were both large and
numerous, on the sandy gravel they were numerous, though compara-
tively small. On the other grounds in the neighbourhood of the
Eddystone occasional specimens only were taken, generally in not more
than one haul, as follows : (Cf. Chart XIIL), Ground XI. (one in 47,
one small one in 84), Ground X. (haul 42, small in 95), Ground VII.
(hauls 38 and 100), Ground XV. (one in haul 97), and Ground IV. (in
34 only). One specimen was also taken on the fine sand of the inner
trawling ground (I.) in haul 82. On the Bolt Head Ground (XVII.)
the species was taken only in hauls 27 and 28, which are the two hauls
on this ground furthest from the shore, and differ in other respects
from the remaining hauls. One or two specimens only were taken in
these hauls, and the bottom is described from observation of the
contents of the dredge as shells, broken shell, gravel, and sand. (At the
time the hauls were made the taking of proper samples of the deposit
with the canvas bag dredge had not been commenced.) On the Prawle
Stony Ground (XA'III.) Ateleci/cliis was taken in haul 45 only on a
bottom described as gravel, stones, and shells. (No sample taken.)

Habits. A burrowing species (Garstang, No. 29).

Distribution. Geofjraphical. Mediterranean, Portugal, Bay of Biscay, Brittany,
English Channel, South-West and West Ireland, Ii'ish Sea, Shetlands (common), North Sea
(northern portion), Norway to Arctic circle (Marion and (iounet, Pruvot, lioiinier, Bell,
Holt, Walker, Nonuan (No. 93), -Metzger). It does not appear to have lieen recorded from
the s<nitlierii part of tlie North Sea, nor from tlie ivattegat.

NEW SEKIES. — VOL. V. NO. 4. ^ ^^

404 ox THE FAUNA AND ROTTOM-DEPOSITS NEAR THE 30-FM, LINE

Depth. Shallow water to 400 fathoms (Bourne, No. 11). Milne-Edwards and Bouvier
give several records between 50 and 100 fathoms.

Bottom-deposit. Marion (Mediterranean, No. 74) found small specimens of Atelecyclus
on the mud at 100 fathoms. Gourret (Mediterranean, No. 31) records it from mud and
under stones. Jlilne-Edwards and Bouvier (Bay of Biscay, No. 80), from muddy sand
and from line sand (50-100 fathoms). Walker (Irish Sea, No. 112), from broken shells
and small stones (22 fathoms). Metzger (North Sea, No. 78), from sand and shells (50
fathoms). Pruvot (Brittany, No. 98), from gravel and (Mediterranean) from mud, from
sand (30 fathoms) and from rocks and mud (shore).

These records are not very conclusive as to the nature of the ground which Atelecyclus
usually fret^uenta, but combining them with my own observations there seems to be reason
for supposing that it likes nuiddy ground, but that the mud is generally mixed with a
coarser deposit. Occasionally it is found on fine sand.

Ehalia tumefada (Chart XI.) is abundant on the coarse gravel mixed
with fine sand, which is found on the west side of the Eddystoue
(Grounds IX. and XI.). It is constantly present, though in much
fewer numbers, on clean shell gravel grounds (XVI. and XVII.). One
specimen was taken on the fine sand, Ground II., haul 23, but this was

quite exceptional.

Dlstribution. Geographical. Mediterranean, Portugal, Bay of Biscay, British Coasts,
Norway to Arctic circle (Gourret, No. 31 ; Norman, No. 93).

Depth. 25 fathoms (Metzger) to 98 fathoms (Milne-Edwards and Bouvier).

Bottom-deposit. Goodsir {fide Bell, No. 9, p. 143) states that this species is generally
found on stony bottoms and on fishing-banks. Metzger (No. 78) records it once from the
Pomvierauia dredgings in the North Sea on a bottom of sand and shells (25 fathoms).
Walker (No. 112) records it on nullipore gi'ound in the Irish Sea, and Pruvot (No. 98)
on gravel at Roscoff and on coastal mud and sand in the Mediterranean. Gourret (No. 31)
found it on very muddy sand (26-36 fathoms, Mediterranean) ; Bonnier on shell sand and
coral bottom ; Milne-Edwards and Bouvier in the Bay of Biscay on muddy sand.

Ehalia tuberosa. Chart XI. The distribution of E. tuherosa on tlie
area under examination is almost exactly the same as that of E.
tumefada. Single specimens have, however, been taken in addition on
Grounds VIL, XIII., and VI. A. 0. Walker (No. 112, p. 98) has
drawn attention to the fact that these two species are almost invariably
taken together, and has expressed a doubt as to their specific dis-
tinction. The differences between them are certainly very slight.

Distribution. Geoyr((phical. Mediterranean, Portugal, Bay of Biscay, British Coasts,
Norway to Arctic circle (Gourret, No. 31 ; Norman, No. 93).

Depth. Shallow water (2 fathoms, Gourret) to 90 fathoms (Milne-Edwards and
Bouvier).

Bottom-dcjMsit. A. 0. Walker (Nos. Ill and 112) records the species in the Irish Sea
on nullipore ground, on broken shell and small stones, on stones and mud, and on shells,
sand, and gravel. Milne-Edwards and Bouvier (No. 80) on muddy sand and on grey sand ;
Gourret (No. 31), on muddy gravel, on muddy sand, and on gravel. Bonnier (No. 10), at
Concarneau, records it from the same grounds as E. tumcfacta.

Ehalia Cranchii (Chart XT.) is only recorded on one ground in tlie
neighl)ourhood of the Eddystone, viz., Ground XI. (hauls 8 and 9). It
has been taken also on the Bolt Head Shell Gravel and on the Prawle
Stony Ground, but only in small numbers.

FEOM THE EDDYSTONE GROUNDS TO START POINT. 495

Distribution. Geographical. Mediterranean, Bay of Biscay, British Seas, Norway,
Kattegat (Gourret, Bonnier, Norman, Meiuert).

Depth. 8 fathoms to 550 fathoms (Bonnier, No. 10).

Bottom-deposit. Gourret (No. 31) records the species in the Mediterranean from
muddy gravel and sand, from coralline gravel, from muddy gravel, and from nmddy sand.
Bonnier (No. 10) found it at Concarneau on the same kind of bottom as E. tumefacta.
Pruvot (No. 98), on gravel, on nuid and sand. Milne- Edwards and Bouvier (No. 80),
on gi-avel, sand and broken shell, on line sand, and on grey sand. Metzger (No. 78)
records it in the North Sea three times on sand and shell, once on fine grey sand, and
three times on mud and sand. "Walker (Nos. Ill and 112) records it in the Irish Sea from
shell sand and small gravel, and Haddon (No. 34) on the south-west coast of Ireland on
coarse sand. In the Kattegat Meiuert (No. 75) mentions it as occurring occasionally on
pure mud, generally on mud with gravel or sand. The species therefore clearly is most
plentiful on coarse deposits.

Gonoplax angidata. Chart XIII. (Followmg Fisher and Bonnier,
G. angulata and G. rhoinboides are here treated as one and the same
species.) One specimen of this species only was obtained, on Ground V.
(haul 90), four miles north-east of the Eddystone. As will be seen from
Table II., the bottom-deposit on this ground consists of sand of a some-
what coarser texture than the majority of the tine sands examined, but
containing at the same time a high percentage of silt (7 per cent).

Habits. According to Cranch " they live in excavations formed in
the hardened mud," and " their habitations, at the extremities of which
they live, are open at both ends." It is probably on account of this
habit that specimens of the species are so seldom captured.

Distribution. Geographical. Mediterranean, Canary Islands, Bay of Biscay, English
Channel, Irish Sea, South-West Ireland (Gourret, Bonnier, Bell, "Walker, Holt). It is not
recoi-ded from the North Sea or from Norway.

Depth. Shallow water to 50 fathoms (Bonnier, No. 10).

Bottom-deposit. A. 0. Walker records Gonoplax on fine mud (45 fathoms) in the Irish
Sea ; Holt (No. 48), on sand (45-48 fathoms) on the west coast of Ireland. Cranch (fide
Bell, No. 9) found it in hardened mud (shore ?) ; Marion (No. 74), on mud ; Gourret (No.
31), on muddy gi-avel and on mud. Bonnier (No. 10) states that at Concarneau the species
is frequently taken by lobster fishermen in their pots.

MOLLUSCA.

Nomenclature: — Lamellibranchiata and Gasteropoda, Forbes and
Hanley, History of British Mollusca. For geographical distribution
I have relied largely on Gwyn Jeffrey's British Conchologij and on
Locard (Travailleur ct Talisman. Mollusca. No. 69).

Pholas parra. One specimen only, on the Prawle Stony Ground
(XVIII.) in haul 4 The animal was found, along with numerous
specimens of Pholadidca pa^nfraeca, boring in red trias rock.

The species is recorded boring in new-red sandstone, marl, clay,
and submarine peat (Jeffreys, No. 55). Montague found it in decayed
wood at Salcombe (Forbes and Hanley, No. 25). It appears to be a

49G ox THE FAUNA AND BOTFO^r-DEPOSITS NEAR THE 30-FAI. LINE

southern species, and has been recorded from Malaga and Algiers.
There are also records from the Irish Sea.

Pholadidca pa2Jiiracca. Like Pholas pao-va this species was taken in
one haul only, viz., haul 4 on the Prawle Stony Ground. It was
plentiful in pieces of red trias rock.

Tlie species is recorded by Forbes and Gwyii Jeffreys from new red sandstone or trias,
peat, submarine forest, sandstone, and hard clay. It has been obtained from the Englisli
Channel, Irisli Coasts, and west of Scotland (_/?(7c Jeffreys, No. 55). The Talisman expedi-
tion took it in 60 fiithoms west of Morocco (Locard, No. 69). It is found from low-water
mark (South Devon Coast) to SO fathoms (olf the coast of Antrim) [Jellreys].

Sn.ricavn rngosa (Table VI.). The variety nrctica was found on
grounds of all kinds attached to shells and similar objects, or to the
roots of hydroids.

Hahits. The varieties arctica and minutci do not bore like the
common Sacdcava, but are found attached to shells, etc., in deeper
water.

Distribution. GeograpMcal. Locard (No. 69), who regards S. arctica as a distinct
species, gives its distribution as coast of Finmark, Norway, England, France, Bay of
Biscay, and I\Ieditcrranean. The boring variety is found in all parts of the world.

Depth. Shore to 700 fathoms (var. arctica, Dauzeuberg, No. 20).

Pandora obtusa [ = P. inaequivalvis, var. obtusa of Gwyn Jeffreys].
One living example only taken in haul 75 (Ground VII.). The bottom-
deposit is one of the coarser kinds of fine sand, and a large stone is
recorded in this particular haul.

Distribution. Geographical. Gwyn Jeffreys (No. 55) distinguishes two varieties of
Pandora inaequivalvis ; var. tenuis, with a southern range from Algeria to Guernsey, and
north to Shetlands ; var. obtusa ranging from Spitzbergen to the Canaries.

Depth. Low-water to 100 fathoms, var. tenuis ; between 85 and 100 fathoms (Shetlands)
[Gwyn Jeffreys]. Var. obtusa, 7-50 fathoms.

Bottom-deposit. In sand, Channel Islands, at low-water ; often among Zostera marina
(Jeffreys). Usually on muddy ground (Forbes, No. 25). In the British Association Report
(1850) Forbes records the species once from mud, twice from mud and stones, once from
sand and gravel, twice from gravel, and once from nullipores.

Lyonsia norvcgica. Taken once only alive in haul 7 on the Bolt Shell
Gravel (Ground XVIL). Shells were taken on Grounds XL, XIII., and
VII., all of them coarse grounds in the neighbourhood of the Eddystone.

Distribution. Geographical. Sea of Okhotsk, Iceland, Scandinavia, France, Mediter-
ranean, Madeira (Jeffreys).

Depth. Shallow water (4 fathoms, Jeffreys ; 7 fathoms. Holt, No. 48) to 100 fathoms
(Forbes, Brit. Assoc. Rep., 1850).

Bottom-deposit. Sand (Jeffreys) ; shells, mud, corals, and weed (Holt) ; on shells, stones,
and mud (Herdman, No. 40, Vol. IX., p. 37) ; on sand and mud, on stones and mud, on
gravel, and on sand (Forbes, Brit. Assoc. Rep., 1850) ; on mixed deposits (sand or gravel
and mud) [rctcrsen. No. 96]. From these records I should judge that the species was most
frequent upon muddy gravel or sand.

Sokn ensis has been represented by shells only. It is not unlikely
that the species occurs in water of 30 fathoms, though from what is

FROM THE EDDYSTONE GROUNDS TO START POINT. 497

known of its habits on the shore there is little chance of its being
captured by a dredge.

Solecurtus candidus. Shells only have been occasionally taken.

Distribution. Gwyn Jeffreys (No. 55) states that Solecurtus candidus is a very active
species whicli lives in sand exposed at low-water spring tides, and also at various depths
from 20-85 fathoms. Forbes and Hanley (No. 25) say that it probably buries deeply
in pure sand. It is a sonthern species, extending from the English Channel to the
Canary Islands and Madeira, and is also present in tlie Mediterranean (Jelfreys).

Psammobia ferroensis. Shells only have been taken of this species.

Psamviohia costulata. One specimen only on the clean shell gravel
(Ground XVI.) immediately west of the Eddystone reef.

Distribution. Mediterranean, Madeira, Canaries, British Suas, Norway (Jeffreys).

Tdlina crassa. One living specimen only was obtained in haul 99
and one in 87, both on the clean shell gravel close to the Eddystone

rocks (Ground XA"I.).

Distribution. Geographical. North Sea, French Coast, Gibraltar, and Gulf of Tunis
(Jeffreys, No. 55).

Dcjith. Low-water to 55 fathoms (ditto).

Bottom-deposit. Forbes and Hanley say that tlie species generally lives in the upper
part of the coralline zone in gravelly sand. At Herm, in the Channel Islands, it is found
in sand at low-water, and also in the Isle of Man. Forbes (No. 24, Brit. Assoc, 1850)
records it once on sand (35-40 fathoms) and once on gravel (40 fathoms). In' the Liverpool
district it is recorded on small gi'avel with some melobesia (No. 40, Vol. IX., p. 33). The
species appears therefore to prefer coarse ground.

Tdlina donacina. Shells only in haul 9 (Ground XI.).

A sonthern species, not extending further north than the west coast of Scotland ; south
to Azores, Mediterranean, Red Sea (Locard, No. 69). The Challeiujcr dredged it on
volcanic mud in 450 fathoms off the Azores (Smith, No. 107).

Lutraria elliptica. Shells of this species were fairly common on all

shelly grounds. They were generally old and much bored by Cliona.

The species extends from Fiumark to the Mediterranean, and occurs in soft mud from
low tide to 15 fathoms (Jeffreys). As the animal generally burrows very deeply in the
mud, it is most unlikely that it would be captured by a dredge.

Tapes vivf/inea. Although shells of this species, often very fresh,
were exceedingly common on all shelly grounds, living examples were
only rarely taken. These occurred on the fine gravel (XIV., hauls 41
and 88), on the clean shell gravel (XVL, haul 87), and on the Prawle
Stony Ground (XVIII., haul 29).

Distribution. Geographical. Norway to Mediterranean, but its capital is in the
Celtic province (Forbes).

Depth. Shore to 145 fathoms (Jeffreys).

Botto)ii-dcposit. Forbes (No. 24, Bril. ytssoc, 1850) gives five records of the species
living on sand, one on shell and nullipores. Metzger records it from the roimacrania
expedition six times on stony or gravelly ground.

Venus verrucosa. One living specimen only was taken in haul 70 on
Ground VII. The haul was apparently a mixed one, showing some
characters of Ground XIV. (fine gravel), and some of VII. (sand witli
many shells).

408 ON THE FAUNA AND BOTTOM-DEPOSITS NEAR THE 30-Fl\I. LINE

DisTKiiiUTiON. Geographical. A southern species extending north to south and west
Ireland, and south to Mediterranean, Canaries, Madeira, Cape Verde, and the Cajje of Good
Hope (Locard, No. 69).

Depth. Generally in littoral and lauunarian zone ; seldom beyond coralline zone
(Locard). Tlie Talisman took it off the Canaries in 100 fathoms.

Venus casina. Shells only of this species were taken.
A southern species extending from West Norway to the Mediterranean, Madeira, and
Canaries, 5-145 fathoms (Jeffreys).

Ve7ms striatula [= Venus gcdlina]. Shells only taken.

From Iceland to Mediterraiiean. Sandy ground, low-water to 85 fathoms (.Jeffreys, No.
55). Forbes (No. 24) records it frequently on sand, and on sand and mud ; Metzger (No.
77) records it nine times on sand and shell or on sand and mud, and twice on mud;
Ileincke (No. 39) finds it frequent in the neighbourhood of Heligoland, chieily on clean
sand ground ; and Petersen (No, 95) records it in the Kattegat on sand or on mixed
deposits.

Verms fasciata (Table VI.). A few living specimens, chiefly on coarse
grounds, viz. : — Ground XL, haul 9 ; Ground XVI., haul 13 ; Ground,
XVIL, hauls G and 68; and Ground XVIII., haul 45.

DisTiur.UTiON. Geographical. From the North Cape to the Mediterranean (Jeffreys,
No. 55).

Dej)th. Shore to deepest water around British Coasts (Jeffreys) ; 100 fathoms (Hoyle,
west of Scotland, No. 52).

£oUom- deposit. Chieily on gravel and gravelly sand in coralline zone (Forbes and
Hanley). Metzger (No. 77) records it three times in the Pommerania dredgings, all on
coarse ground. From the Liverpool district (No. 40, Vol. IX., p. 33) it is recorded on
small gravel and shell. Petersen (No. 95) took it in the Kattegat on gravel and on sand.

Venus ovatct. The shells of this species were very plentiful on all

gravel and shell grounds. It was not, however, taken alive.

DiSTrJBUTiON. Geographical. From Finmark to Mediterranean and Azores.

Depth. Shallow water to 1046 fathoms [Porcupine expedition).

Bottom-deposit. Forbes and Hanley state that the species has a preference for gravelly
sand. Forbes [Brit. Assoc, 1850) records it from all kinds of bottoms; generally, how-
ever, gravel or sand. Heincke states that it is the commonest lamellibranch near Heligo-
land, and is frequent in muddy sand with shells and small stones at 16-32 fathoms. He
also finds it on coarse sand and nuid. Metzger (No. 77) took it in the North Sea nine
times on coarse ground and four times on fine sand. Petersen (No. 95) found it in the
Kattegat on mixed deposits (on gravel and nuid, and on sand and nuid).

Artemis exoleta. Two specimens were taken in haul 99 on the clean
shell gravel (Ground XVI.) close to the Eddystone rocks. Shells of
the species were also very numerous in the same haul, as well as on
several other shelly grounds.

Di.srianuTioN. Gcograjyhical. Finmark to Mediterranean.

Depth. Shore to 70 fathoms (Forbes, No. 24).

Botlom-flcposit. Sandy ground (Forbes and Hanley). Forl)es [Brit. Assoc. Pep., 1850)
records it on shell and sand, on gravel, on nullipores, and on mud, as well as on .sand.

Cyprina islandica. Shells only were taken on the grounds examined.
These were present on the ordinary shell and gravel grounds, and also
on Ground 11., a line sand ground upon which shells were not numerous.
DisTKlKUTioN. GcograpliAcal. Lapland, Iceland, Finmark, Norway, British Seas,
French Coast, bay of liLseay : also on the coast of New England. This is a distinctly
northern sjieeies \_fidc Locard, No. 69].

FROM THE EDDYSTONE GliOUJSDS TO STAliT POINT. 499

Depth. Shallow water to 1150 fathoms {Porcupine).

BoUom-deposit. Generally on muddy sand (Jeffreys, Forbes and Hanley, Jletzger,
Heincke, No. 30).

Circe minima. One specimen in haul 7G on Ground VII., south-west
of the Eddystone. This haul was probably first on gravel and then on
fine sand with shells.

Distribution. Geographical. Finmark to Mediterranean, Azores, Madeira, and
Canaries (Jeffreys, No. 55, and Dauzenberg, No. 20). Not recorded by Metzgcr in the
North Sea, nor by Petersen in the Kattegat.

Depth. 5 to 704 fathoms (JettVeys and Dauzenberg).

Bottom-deposit. Forbes and Hanley state that Circe minima occurs on nuUipore and
broken shell. Forbes {Brit. Assoc, 1850) records it generally on sand, on gravel, on nulli-
jiore, and on shell, once on sandy mud. The Challenger took the species oil' the Azoi'es in
450 fathoms on volcanic mud (Smith, No. 107).

Astarte sulcata. Taken in three hauls only, viz., 95 (on Ground X.),
73 (on Ground XIV.), and 103 (Ground Xlll.). Several specimens were
captured in haul 95 ; in the other two hauls only one in each. Shells
were found on Grounds X., XIV., and XVI.

The bottom-deposit on the grounds where the living specimens were
obtained is in all cases gravel, mixed with fine sand and mud (see
Table II.).

Distribution. Geographical. Lapland, Finmark, Norway to the Canaries. Rare in
the Mediten-anean (Locard, No. 69).

Depth. 7 to 1380 fathoms {Porciqnnc).

Boitom-dep)osit. Forbes and Hanley and Gwyn Jeffreys state that the species lives in
nuiddy sand and in sand and mud. Forbes {Brit. Assoc, 1850) records it generally from
coarse ground (nullipore, shell, gravel), as well as from sand, sandy mud, and once from
nuid. Metzger (No. 77) records it in the Pommcrania dredgings seven times on coarse
ground, once on mud. Herdman dredged it in Kors Fjord in 89 fathoms, the dredge
coming ui) half full of nuid and stones (No. 40, A'ol. VI. p. 80). The same author
also records the species 1^ miles west of Contrary Head in the Isle of Man on nuidily sand
with stones, and where there were many ophiurids. This ground must be very similar
to the grounds upon which the species was taken near the Eddystone. Haul 95, where
it was most abundant, was on Ground X., the special feature of which is the abundance
of Ophiothrixfragilis, which generally nearly filled the dredge.

Cardium cchinatum. Chart XIV. Although only one living speci-
men of the species was obtained, the distribution of the shells is in this
case so characteristic that there can be little doubt that it affords some
indication of the distribution of the living molluscs. The one living
specimen was obtained in haul 75 on Ground VII., south-west of the
Eddystone. As has been pointed out already (see p. 389), fresh shells of
Cardium cchinatum are a characteristic feature of the fine sand of the
outer and inner trawling grounds (I. and II.), where they are constantly
taken, and are the only shells of any size found on those grounds.
Similar fresh shells are also frequent on the fine sand ground (VI.) three
miles south of the Eddystone. The shells are somewhat less numerous
on Ground \11., where the sand is coarser, and they are occasionally

500 ox THE FAUNA AND BOTTO.M-DEl'OSITo NEAK THE 30-FM. LINE

taken on ihe various gravel grounds west of the Eddystone, but on these
latter the valves are generally separate, old, and worn. From what we
know of the habits of the species in other localities the conclusion seems
justified that the animal really lives on the fine sand (Grounds I., II.,
and VI.), but that it lives too deeply buried in the sand to be captured
by the dredge.

Di.sTRinrTiON. Geographical. Greenland, Scandinavia, British and Frencli Coasts,
Mediterranean, and Canaries (Jeffreys, No. 55).

Depth. 5-100 Itithoms (Jeffreys).

Bottom-deposit. Forbes and Hanley (No. 2.*^) give mnddy ground, sandy mud, and
muddy gravel. Metzger (No. 77), in the Pommerania dredgings, records young living
specimens (10-15 mm.) on sandy mud and empty shells on fine sand. Heincke (No. 39)
states that large empty shells are frequent on muddy ground, on which small living
specimens are geuorally taken. In the Liverpool district fresh, large shells are abundant.
An immense number of shells and some live specimens were thrown up at Southport,
where the shore is sandy, in January, 1891 (No. 40, Vol. VI., p. 110).

Two species closely allied to Cardium ccJiincUum have been distin-
guished by conchologists, namely, C. aaUcatum and C. tuberculatum.
The three species are said to differ somewhat in the relative proportions
and solidity of the shell and in the length of the spines. These latter,
which furnish the most characteristic distinguishing features of the
three species, are long, curved, and sharp in C. aculeatam, short and
stout in C. echinattcm, and more like tubercles in C. tuhcrculatum.
With regard to the habits of the two latter species the following quota-
tion from Mr. A. E. Hunt's paper (No. 54) on " The Influence of Wave
Currents on the Fauna inhabiting Shallow Seas" is important: — "The
large cockle, Cardium acideatum, is abundant in fine muddy sand off"
Paignton in Torbay. In this deposit the long spines of this species are
of service to increase its holding powers. An allied species, C. tuhcrcu-
latum, whose shell is rough and ribbed but not spined, dwells in hard
sand at and below low-water mark off the same place. The two species
are not commonly found living together, though I have found specimens
of C. aculcatum that had been washed in from sea, and their spines
denuded in the process, living side by side in hard ground with C.
tuhcrculatum. In both these species the rough shells tend to prevent
the molluscs being readily dislodged by the waves. Each species keeps
to the ground best suited to it. The spines of C. aculcatum would
apparently be too great an impediment in burrowing in the hard sand,
whereas the spineless shell of C. tuhcrculatum would afford insullicient
hold in the soft sand. A very slight advantage from form or sculpture
might be ot' great importance in saving the cockles from local extinction ;
for in the case of Torbay the struggle for existence is so severe that both
species are occasionally washed on shore in suflicient quantities to be
carted away for manure."

Curdiuut cchinaluni is an intermediate form standing between 0.

FROM THE EDDYSTONE GROUNDS TO START POINT. 501

acv.leatum and C. tuherculatvm, and specimens are constantly taken,
which are very difficult to distinguish from one or other of these
forms. The fine sand in which Cardium echinatunt lives on the
Eddystone Grounds could hardly be described as fine, muddy sand, as
it contains a comparatively small quantity of silt, and it seems pro-
bable that the species lives in sand intermediate in texture between
that described by Hunt as occupied by 0. aculcatnm and by C. tvhcr-
cuiatum. The case is one of those in which it is extremely difficult
to decide whether we are dealing with one species, which grows in
a different manner according to the nature of the ground which it
occupies, or with three closely-allied species, each specially adapted
to sand of a particular texture. Such questions can only be settled
by experimental breeding of the species.

Cardium norvegicum. The distribution of this species is shown on
Chart XIV. and should be conti-asted with that of Cardium cchinatum
(fresh shells). The species is most abundant on Ground XIV., which
is a fine gravel ground. It extends on to the grounds immediately
surrounding this, but is not abundant on the coarse gravel mixed with
fine sand, one living one only being taken on Ground IX. Living
specimens were also taken on Ground IV,, which in other features
indicates the influence of fine gravel as well as sand.

DisTKiBUTlON. Geocjraj)hicaJ . Finiuark, British Coasts to Mediterranean, Azores
(Locard, No. 69), Madeira, and Canaries (JetTreys, No. 55).

Depth. 10 or 15 to 1200 fatlionis (Talisman, No. 69).

Bottom-deiwsit. Forbes and Hanley state that the species occurs on sandy or gravelly
hottoms ; Forbes (No. 24, Brit. Assoc, 1850) records it from shell; Gwyn JeflVeys says
that it is found on sandy and nnllipore bottoms. Metzger (No. 77) gives three records
from the Pommcrauia drcdgings, viz., on stony ground, on fine sand with small balls
of mud, and on fine sand with pieties of shell. From the Liverpool district the species
is recorded from small gravel and shells (No. 40, Vol. VI., p. 110). Petersen (No. 95)
says that in the Kattegat the species seems to prefer sand to soft, mixed gi-ounds.

From the above records it is, I think, clear that this species is found
especially on coarse ground, such as broken shell and nullipore ground.
C. norvegicum, which has a perfectly smooth shell, may therefore be
regarded as completing the series presented by C. aculcatnm, with long
spines, living in fine muddy sand; C. cchinatum, with stout spines,
living in fine sand ; and C. tiiberculatum, with tubercles, living in
"hard" sand.

Montacuta suhstriata. This mollusc was invariably found attached
to the spines of Spcdaiigus purimrcus, tiie position in which it is
commonly found. Gwyn Jeffreys states that it sometimes occurs also
on Eckinucardiuni cordatiim and on other sea-urchins.
DisiKiiiUTiON. Finniark to Mediterraiiciin.

KcUia suborhicu/ariii. Table VI. This species, taken on Grounds VII.,
IX., X., and XiV., west of the Kddystoiie, was guiu'rally found living

502 ON THE FAUNA AND BOTTOM-DEPOSITS NEAR THE 30-FM. LINE

iu fine mud in the interior of dead laiuellibranch shells, the valves
of which had remained together.

Distribution. Geographical. Fiimuuk to Mediterranean and Canary Islands (JelFreys).
Kcrguelen Islands {Challenger, No. 107).

DcjHh. Low-water to 800 fatlioms {Porcupine).

Bottom-dcx>osit. Both Forbes and Haiiley, and Gwyn JefFreys mention the habit of this
species of living in the mud inside dead bivalves. Jeffreys also states that it is sometimes
found under stones at the lowest range of spring tides, sometimes in the excavations made
by other animals in rocks

Modiola s]). Small specimens of Modiola, which I am inclined to
regard as young Modiola modiolus, were frequently taken attached
to shells and at the roots of Cellaria, hydroids, etc. Modiola harhata
has also been recorded.

Micula nucleus. Two living specimens only were taken, one in haul
7G (Ground VIT.) and one in haul 103 (Ground XIII.). The former
haul (7G) is probably a mixed haul, first on fine gravel and then on
somewhat coarse sand. Haul 103 is on gravel mixed with a good
deal of mud. Empty shells were taken on Grounds VI., XIII.,
and XIV.

Distribution. Geographical. Lofoten Islands; British Coasts, etc., to Morocco and
the Mediterranean (Locard, No. 69).

Depth. 3 fathoms (Jeffrej's) to 219 fathoms (No. 61, Caudan expedition).

Bottom-deposit. Forbes and Hanley (No. 25) state that Nucula nucleus frequents coarse
bottoms (7-10 fathoms) and gravel, or muddy gravel to 90 fathoms. Forbes (No. 24,
Brit. Assoc, 1850) records it from gravel, from stony ground, from nullipores, from sand,
and occasionally from mud. Gwyn Jell'reys says it is conmion on sand and gravel.
Metzger (No. 77) records it on sand and shell, on mud and sand, on fine sand and
on mud. Heincke (No. 39) states that at Heligoland the species is very common on
fine muddy sand with shells and small stones, where it is associated with Vcniis ovata,
Cardium fasciatum, and Trochus tumidus. Petersen (No. 95) records it from mixed
deposits (nmddy sand and gravel). On the whole, therefore, we may conclude that
tlie natural home of the species is upon gravels and coarse sand mixed with mud. The
following species {N. nitldu) is found largely on fine sand as well as on coarser ground.

Nucula niiida. This was only taken once, viz., on the outer
Eddystone Trawling Ground (II.) in haul 104. It was obtained in the
sample of fine sand brought up with canvas bag dredge. This explains
why it ■was not seen in the other hauls on Ground II. Several living
specimens were buried in the line sand (for the composition of this sand
see Table II.), and its shells were very numerous.

Distribution. Geographical. Greenland, Norway, British Coasts to Mediterranean
(JellVeys, No. 55).

Depth. Low tide-mark to 86 fatlioms (Jeffreys) ; to 100 fathoms (Hoyle, No. 52).

Bottom-drposit. Forbes and Hanley state that the species occurs on sand in shallow water,
whilst Gwyn Jeffreys says only that it is found with Nucula nucleus, but is neither so gener-
ally diffused nor so plentiful. Forbes {Brit. Assoc, 1850), gives several records, the majority
(eight) being on coarse ground, whilst four are on sand or on sandy mud. Metzger
(No. 77) mentions it twice in the I'ommerania dredgings on grey calcareous mud and on
mud. Petersen (No. 95) saya that in tbr Ivattegat A'urula nitidu is never found on the

FIlOiM THE EDDYSTONE GROUNDS TO START I'OIKT. 503

mud ("clay"), is occasionally met with on sand and mud, but that it prefers clean sand.
Heincke (Ko. 39) states that near Heligoland it is frequent on pure mud, or mud with a
little sand mixed, and that it only occasionally occurs with N. nucleiis.

It must be admitted tiiat the above records are not ver}' consistent, and cannot be held
to afford much confirmation of the idea that N. nucleus is a coarse gi'ound species (gravel,
broken shell, nuUipores, etc.) whilst N. nitida prefers fine sand.

Area tctragona. A few small specimens attached to shells, etc., on
the Bolt Head Shell Gravel (XVII.) and on the Prawle Stony Ground
(XVI II.).

Distribution. Geogrcqjhical. Fiumark to Mediterranean, Azores and Canaries
(Jeffreys).

Dcjdh. Shore to 450 fathoms {Challenger, No. 107) ; to 704 fathoms (Monaco expedi-
tion, No. 20).

Bottom-deposit. Crevices of rocks and chinks of old shells (Forbes and Hanley).

Pinna pectinata. Shells only of this species were obtained. Small
single valves were moderately frequent on the Eddystone Grounds.

Distribution. Geographical. British Coasts to Mediterranean and Canaries. On
British Coasts it appears to be only common in tlie western portion of the English
Channel.

Depth. Low spring tides to 320 fathoms {Porcupi')ie).

Bottom-deposit. In muddy and sandy gravel (Jeffreys). According to Forbes and
Hanley, Montagu found the species in Salcombe Bay at low spring tides, sticking in the
gravel with the valves upright, the broader end about one inch above the surface.

Pectunculus glycimeris. Chart XV. Both living specimens and shells
of this species were abundant on the Bolt Head Shell Gravel (Ground
XVII.) and on no other ground. One small living specimen was
obtained on the Prawle Stony Ground (XVIII.) in haul 29, and another
small one in haul 97 on the fine gravel (Ground XV.) east of the
Eddystone. Shells were occasionally taken on the gravels west of the
Eddystone (see Table VL), but they were never abundant. Tuhidava
cornucopiae is often found growing on the posterior end of living
examples of this bivalve (see p. 445).

Distribution. Geographical. Lofoten Islands to Mediterranean, Madeira, and
Canaries.

Depth. 7 fathoms (Jeffreys) to 250 fathoms {Pm-cupine).

Bottom-deposit. Forbes and Hanley say of this species that it is gregarious and prefers
a nullipore bottom. Forbes (Brit. Assoc, 1850) gives records from sand, gravel, nullipores,
and mud and stones. Gwyn Jeffreys says it occurs on sandy and shelly gravel and on
nullipores. Pectunculus gbjciineris is not recorded by Metzger in the North Sea, nor by
Petersen in the Kattegat. In the Liverpool district it is recorded on nullipore ground
(No. 41, p. 319), on stones, sea-weeds, and dead shells (No. 41, p. 323), on shells, stones,
and echinoderm spines (No. 40, Vol. YIIL, p. 20), and on shells, sand, and gravel (No.
40, Vol. IX., p. 34). It is clearly very generally confined to coarse grounds.

Lima Loscombii. Chart XV. This species was most numerous in
haul 10 on the clean shell gravel north-west of the Eddystone (Ground
XVI.), and several living specimens were taken in haul 4G on the
coarse gravel and sand of Ground XI. In both these hauls the shells
were also nuiiicious. Single living .specimens were taken in hauls Jj5

504 ON THE FAUNA AND BOTTOM-DEPOSITS NEAR THE 30-FM. LINE

and 41 (Ground XIV.), haul 75 (Ground VII.) and haul 93 (Ground
IX.), all of them coarse grounds to the west of the Eddystone.

In one haul on the Bolt Shell Gravel (haul 27, Ground XVII.)
several specimens of the species were taken, but it was not captured
alive in other hauls in the neighbourhood of Bolt Head and Prawle.

No specimens were taken on any of the fine sand grounds.

DiSTiUBUTiON. Geographical. Greenland, Iceland, Scandinavia to the Mediterranean,
Azores, and Madeira (Jeffreys, No. 55, and Locard, No. 69). Tristan da Cunha
{Challenger).

Depth. Shore at low-water (Forbes and Hanley) to 1480 fathoms {Porcupine).

Jiottom-dc]Wsit. Forbes and Hanley state that Lima Loscomhii occurs on gi'avel, on
nullipores, and on scallop-banks. Forbes {Brit. Assoc, 1850) gives eight records, all on
gravel, on shell, on nullipore, or on stony ground. Gwyn Jeffreys says it lives on sandy or
fravelly ground. Metzger (No. 77) records it once only in the Pommerania dredgings
(Hongesund SchJiren) on stony ground. In the Liverpool district it is recorded on
nullipore ground (No. 41, p. 319) and on "reamy bottom" {i.e., sand or gravel mixed
with mud). Petersen (No. 95) found it in the Kattegat eight times on muddy gravel,
four times on .sand and mud, and four times on mud or pure mud (" Slik " or " Ren Slik ").
The Challenger (No. 107) took it off the Azores in 450 fathoms on volcanic mud.

From the above records it appears that the species is usually found on coarse ground
often, if not gcnerallj^, mixed with mud, but that it may occur also on mud.

With regard to the nest-building habit of Lima Gwyn Jeffreys says that this species {L.
Loscomhii) seldom makes a nest, although specimens in nests have been seen both by
himself and by Sars. He remarks further that "in all probability this habit depends on the
nature of the sea-bottom. When the latter is soft nuid the Lima can partly bury itself,
and does not require to be otherwise protected from its voracious enemies. The haddock
seems fond of it, the shells being often found in its stomach."

Peden maximus. Chart XIA^. Aloderately abundant on the various
gravel grounds in the neighbourhood of the Eddystone, two or three
specimens being generally taken in each haul of the dredge. It was
most numerous on Ground IX., where the bottom-deposit is coarse
gravel mixed with fine sand. The species was entirely absent from the
fine sand grounds and from the Bolt Head shell gravel. On the Prawle
Stony Ground one small specimen only was obtained (in haul 4).

Distribution. Geographical. Norway, British Seas, France, etc., to Azores, Madeira,
and Canaries (Jeffreys, No. 55 ; Locard, No. 69). The species does not appear to be common
in the North Sea. Metzger (No. 77) gives no records from the rommerania North Sea
dredgings, and Heiucke (No. 39) does not record it from Heligoland. Forbes and Hanley
state that Bean took only three alive during very many years at Scarborough. It is scarce
in the Kattegat (No. 95).

Depth. Shallow water (Forbes and Hanley, 3 fathoms) to 848 fathoms (Locard, No. 69,
Azores).

Bottom-deposit. Forbes {Brit. Assoc, 1850) records living Pecten maximus twice from
shell, once from gravel, once from sand. Metzger {rommerania expedition) gives one
record (Siilsvig, 0-20 fathoms) on stones and bivalve sliells. Petersen (No. 95) found it
three times in the Kattegat on gravel and small stones, on shell gravel, and on gravel, nuid,
and stones. In the Liverpool and Isle of Man districts P. maximus is recorded on nullipore
ground, on line gravel, on muddy sand and stones, and on sand and shell fragments (No.
40, Vol. IX., pp. 33 and 34 ; No. 41, p. 319). In the record on muddy sand and stones it
is stateil that many ophini'ids were ]iresent, which indicates a similarity with the gravels
tu the west of tlie Eddystone, where we have obtained the species. In the Isle of Man
haul, on sand and shell fragments, Pectunculiis glycimcris was also taken. On the grounds

FROM THE EDDYSTONE GKOUNDS TO START POINT. 505

described in the present report P. ghjcimeris was only numerous on the Bolt Head shell
gravel, and on this ground P. maximus was never taken. The above records show that
Peclen vmxiynus is generally found on coarse gi'ound, especially where there is a consiiler-
able admixture of mud.

Pecten operciilaris. Chart XIV. This, as is well known, is a gre-
garious species often occurring in large shoals or flocks. These shoals
are often of comparatively limited size, so that two hauls near together,
and taken on what have been regarded as the same ground, have differed
very much in the number of P. opercularis captured. The species was
taken in larger or smaller numbers on each of the eighteen grounds into
which the district examined has been divided, and Chart XIV. indicates
roughly the relative frequency upon the different grounds. The species
is most numerous on the Eddystone gravels and on the sand imme-
diately outside these. The largest beds occurred on Grounds IV., IX.,
and XIV. On the fine sand of the outer trawling ground (Ground II.)
many specimens were captured in one haul only, viz., haul 24. On the
Bolt shell gravel and on the Prawle Stony Ground P. opercularis was
never numerous, and was generally not taken at all.

On all the Eddystone Grounds young Pecten opercularis from about
O'o mm. breadth were abundant, attached to hydroids (especially
Halecium halecinum and SertulareUa Gayi), wherever these were
common, both on gravel and on fine sand bottoms.

Distribution. Geographical. Norway to Mediterranean, Azores, Madeira, and Canaries
(Locard, No. 69).

Depth. 5 fathoms (Forbes and Hanley) to 1457 fathoms {Porcupine).

Bottom-dcp)Osit. Tlie records, which are fairlj' numerous for this species, indicate that
the mollusc may occur on both coarse and fiue bottoms, on gravel, on sand, or on mud.
In the Kattegat Petersen (No. 95) found P. opercularis chiefly on the mixed deposits and
not on the pure nmd. On the latter P. radiatus was the frequent species.

Pecten tigrinus (Table VI.). Living specimens of this species were
not abundant, one or two in a haul being the largest number taken.
Shells also were not very numerous. The living specimens were for the
most part taken on coarse ground.

Dlstkibution. Geogra^^hiad. Iceland, Scandinavia, British Seas to Vigo Bay (Jellreys,
No. 55).

Depth. 7 fathoms (Jeffreys) to 106 fathoms {Pommcrania, No. 77).

Bottom-deposit. Forbes and Hanley state tiiat tlie species is found on shells, gravel, and
sandy mud. Forbes (No. 24, Pril. ytssoc, 1850) gives seven records on niillijiore, on
gravel, or on shell, three on sand, one on sandy mud, and one on mud. Gywn Jeffreys
says that the species is found on a sandy bottom mixed with gravel. Mctzgcr (No. 77)
records it three times on stony ground, once on sand, and once on nuul. Petersen (No. 95)
found Pecten tigrimis (living) in the Kattegat three times on gravel or shell, five times on
sand and mud, and once on nuid. In the Liverpool district it is recorded on shell and
gravel (No. 40, Vol. IX., p. 33). The species may be found on either gravel, on samly
mud, or on mud, and its distribution seems to be littlo influenced by the nature of the
deposit.

Anomia epkippinvi and Anomin patelliformis. Tiiese two species are

found nil nil groiuKl^ where they can iiiid suitable places of atLacliinent.

50G ON THE FAUNA AND BOTTOM-DEPOSITS NEAR THE 30-FM. LINE

These they find least frequently on the tine sand grounds. Anomia is
taken attached to stones, shells — both living and dead — worm tubes,
and various crabs, especially Inachus dorsettensis and Hyas coardatus.

Distribution. Geographical. A. cpMpinwni — Iceland, Fiumark, Lapland, Norway,
West Europe to JIadeira and Azores ; Labrador, Brazil, Cuba, and Corea {fide Locard, No.
60). A. patdliformis — Lofoten Islands to Azores, North-East America (ditto).

Depth. A. ephijjjmun — Low-water (Jeii'reys) to 1118 lathonis {Liyhinincj, fide Locard,
No. 69). A. patelliformis — 10 fathoms (Jeffreys) to 771 fathoms {Porcvpine).

Botlom-deposit. The authors for the most part state simply that the animals are found
attached to stones and shells.

Chiton asellus. On all grounds where there are suitable objects, shells,
stones, etc., upon which it can fix. Least frequent on the fine sand
grounds. A favourite locality is on Leyralia foliacca when that polyzoan
is present.

DisTUiBUTiON. Geographical. Greenland, Iceland, Scandinavia, British Seas, Vigo
Bay, Mediterranean (Jeffreys).

Depth. Laminarian zone to 145 fathoms (Jeffreys).

Bottom-deposit. The authors all state that C. asellus is common on shells and stones.

Chiton discrejxtns. Two specimens (flesh-coloured) were found on the
Prawle Stony Ground (XVIIL), on red trias rock, in haul 4.

Gwyn Jeffreys states that this species is found in the Channel Islands, Cornwall, French
Coast, and in the Mediterranean, from low-water to 25 fathoms.

Dentalium entalis (Chart XV.) has been obtained on all fine sand
grounds upon which the dredge, fitted with a canvas bag, has been used,
with the exception of haul 104 on the fine sand of the outer trawling
ground (Ground IT.). It is seldom captured by the ordinary dredge or
by the trawl. Occasionally only on gravel grounds.

DisTRiBUTiox. Geogru'phicul. Iceland, West Europe to Mediterranean, State of Maine,
and North-West America (Jeii'reys).

Depth. 3 fathoms (Jeffreys) to 300 fathoms (Herdman, No. 40, Vol. VI., p. 82).

Bottom-deposit. Forbes (No. 24, Brit. Assoc, 1850) records it thirteen times from gravel,
shell, or nullipore bottom, seven times from sand, six times from sandy mud, live times
from mud. ]\Ietzger (No. 77) records it generally from muddy sand in the North Sea.
Petersen (No. 95) in the Kattegat from deposits containing a considerable admixture of
mud ("stferkt lerljlandet Bund"). Herdman records it from mud at 200 fathoms in
Norway {I. c, p. 80).

Pileopsis hvngaricus. This species has been taken only on the gravels
west of the Eddy stone (Grounds XI., IX., X., and XIV.) and on the
Bolt Head Shell Gravel (XVII.). It is found attached to shells.

Distribution. Geographical, Iceland, Finmark to Gibraltar, and Mediterranean
(Jeffreys).

Depth. 7-145 fathoms (ditto).

Bottom-deposit. The autliors agree in stating that tlie species occurs on rocky and stony
gi'ound or on sliells.

Emrmjinula reticulata (Table VI.) E. fissura of Jeffreys. Very
constant, but seldom in great numbers, on all the grounds where
shells (upon whicli it creeps) are plentiful.

FROM TIIK EDDYSTONE GROUNDS TO START POINT. 507

Distribution. GeograpMccd. Finmark to Mediterranean and Canaries (Jeffreys, No. 55,
and Locard, No. 69).

Depth, SlioVe to 809 fatlionis {Porcupine).

Bottom-deposit. Forl)es {Brit. Assoc., 1850) gives many records, all on coarse ground.
Metzger (No. 77) found it on stony ground and Petersen (No. 95) on mixed deposits.
Gwyn Jeffreys says it occurs everywhere on shells and stones from low-water to 145
fathoms.

Emarginula rosea. Once only, in haul 8, on Ground XI.

DiSTRlBt'TlON. Geographical. South Coast of England, French Coast, and in the
Mediterranean (Jeffreys).

Depth. 7-25 fathoms (Jeffreys).

Bottoia-dcposit. Forbes {Brit. Assoc, 1850) gives two records, on gravel and nulliiwres
and on shell.

Trochus granidaUis. On the Eddystone Grounds this species was
taken on IX., XI., and XIII., all of them with a bottom-deposit of coarse
gravel mixed with sand or muddy sand. One specimen was also taken
on the Bolt Head Shell Gravel (XVII.) in haul 27, where the bottom is
recorded as shells, broken shells, gravel, and sand.

Di.sTKiBUTiON*. Geographical. Scottish and English Coasts, France, Spain, Canaries,
Madeira, and Mediterranean (Jeffreys, No. 55 ; Locard, No. 69).

Depth. Coralline zone to 2105 ftithoms {Travailleur, Locard).

Bottom-deposit. Forbes (No. 24, Brit. Assoc, 1850) gives three records, on shell, on
mud and stones, and on gravel.

Trochus zizi/phinus. The small deep-water variety of this species was
occasionally taken, viz., on Grounds XIY. (fine gravel) and XYII. and
XVIIL, the l>olt Head Shell Gravel Ground and the Prawle Stony
Ground respectively.

Distribution. Geographical. Finmark to Canaries and Mediterranean.

Depth. Shore to 450 fathoms {Challenger, No. 107).

Bottom-deposit. ' The chief habitat is on sea- weeds and rocks on the shore and in
the laminarian zone. Records from deeper water by Forbes {Brit. Assoc, 1850) are from
all kinds of bottom. The Challenger specimen was from volcanic mud off the Azores.

Turritella communis. Chart XV. Both shells and living specimens
of this species were numerous on Ground IX. (hauls 93 and 94), which
has a bottom-deposit composed of a mixture of coarse gravel and fine
sand. The only other haul in which living specimens were taken was
haul 39 on Ground IV. (three miles east of Eddystone).

Distribution. Geographical. Lofoten Islands to Mediterranean (Jeffreys, No. 55).

Depth. 5-100 fathoms (Jeffreys). Forbes and Hanley say that it occurs in immense
numbers in some places in 7-10 fathoms. In 219 fathoms (Koehler, No. 61).

Bottom-dc2}osit. Forbes and Hanley (No. 25) state that the species lives especially in
muddy and weedy localities. Forbes {Brit. Assoc, 1850) gives nine records on mud mixed
willi stones, gravel, or sand ; eight on gravel or stones or nuUipores ; four on sand.
Metzger (No. 77) gives five records froin the Pommcrania dredgings on sandy mud, one on
mud, one on stones, and one on sand, shells, and small stones. Petersen (No. 95) found
the species in the Kattegat on mixed deposits (sand or gravel with mud) and on nnid, but
not on clean sand. The Liverpool Biological Society (No. 40) give three records, on sandy
mud (30 fathoms), on mud in 34 fathoms, and on tln' dc('|it'i' mud in 50 fathoms, where it
is a characteristic S2>ecics,

508 ON THE FAUNA AND BOTTOM-DEPOSITS NEAR THE 30-FM. LINE

From the above records it is clear that Turritella communis generally
frequents a bottom of soft mud, or one in which there is a considerable
proportion of mud mixed with coarser deposits. Under these circum-
stances it seems rather strange that it should have been abundant near
the Eddystone on Ground IX., whilst it was absent on Ground XIII.
As will be seen from Table II., the bottom-deposits on these two grounds
are both coarse gravel, mixed in the one case (IX-, haul 94) with fine
sand, ill the other (XITL, haul 103) with mud; that is to say, the
percentage of silt in the latter case is very much greater than in
the former. We should have expected to find Turritella abundant on
the more muddy ground, but this is not the case.

Aporrhais pes-pelecani. This mollusc was only twice obtained living,
once in haul 87 on the clean broken shell of Ground XVI., and once in
haul 55 on the coarse gravel mixed with fine sand of Ground X., both
on the west side of the Eddystone. Shells were frequently taken on
many other grounds, especially on the gravels to the west of the
Eddystone. These shells were sometimes occupied by hermit crabs,
sometimes by Fhascolion strombi.

DisTiiiBUTioN. Geographical. Iceland, Finniark, British Coasts to Gibraltar and
Mediterranean (Jeffreys, Locard).

Depth. 5 fathoms (Jeffreys) to 200 fathoms (Herdman, No. 40, Vol. VI., p. 80).

BoUom-dejJOsit. Forbes and Hanley say that jipo7Th(tis pes-pelccani is found on gravelly
bottoms. Forbes {Brit. Assoc, 1850) gives seven records on coaise ground, two on sand,
one on sandy mud, and three on mud. Metzger gives four records from the Pommerania
dredgings, viz., on fine sand and shell, on sand, on nmddy sand, on shell and small
stones. Petersen found the s])ecies frequently all over the Kattegat, generally on the
mixed deposits (muddy sand or nniddy gravel), occasionally on pure sand, seldom on mud.
Iliancke (No. 39) found it at Heligoland only on muddy sand with some gravel. Herdman
found Aporrhais pcs-pelecani in Norway on mud and stones and on mud (200 fathoms).
In the Liverpool district Herdman records a very large number of living specimens
opjwsite Fleshwick Beach in 13 fathoms (No. 40, Vol. VIII., p. 18). In his subsequent
l)aper on the floor deposits of the Irish Sea (No. 44) the same author descril)es a sample of
the bottom-deposit of! Fleshwick Bay in 12 fathoms, which, I presume, refers to the spot
where these specimens were taken. This deposit consisted of slaty gravel mixed with shells,
and with fine material consisting of sand and a very fine "sand fioTir." Herdman also
records the sjjecies west of Fleshwick Bay, \ mile off shore, in 13 fathoms, on fine
sand and broken shell (No. 40, Vol. IX., p. 32). From these records it seems probable
that tlic distrilmtion of Aporrhais pc.s-2irhc(t)ii is not directly influenced by the nature of
tiie bottom deposit, and that the animal can live upon any kind of bottom, provided the
food supply and other conditions are satisfactory. It appears, however, that it is upon
muddy gravel that the species finds the conditions most suited to its needs and tliat it is
most abundant With reference to tlie peculiar shape of the shell of this animal, the
following suggestion, due to Mr. A. R. Hunt from his paper, " On the Influence of Wave
Currents on tlie Fauna inhabiting Sliallow Seas " (No. 64), is worth quoting in full :— " The
Gastropod Aporrliais pes pc/emni is a sluggish mollusc that frequents exposed areas of
sand a few fathoms below the surface of the water. Its long wing-like processes, jutting
out on one side of the shell, though allbrding the animal a broad base on which to rest,
apj)ear at first sight to be a source of danger in case it were overturned. They are in
reality self-acting pieces of mechanism that will, in tlic majority of instances, ensure tlie
mollusc being ultimately left in its normal posture sliould it encounter wave cuncnts

FROM THE EDDYSTONE GROUNDS TO START POINT. 509

sufficiently strong to upset it. On examining a specimen of Aporrhais 2}es-pelecani it will
be seen that, when on its back, it lies indilferently on either side of a line drawn between
two points, of which the end of the middle wing-like process is one, and one of the
nodules on the body-whorl the other. The shell will rock freely backwards and forwards
across this line ; and experiment jn'oves that a very moderate alternate current will suffice
to replace the shell in its normal position. I have tried this experiment over and over
again, not only with Aporrhais, but also with heavy foreign shells furnished with spines,
processes, and more or less developed lips, such as Mure.r, Pteroceras, and Slrovibus. In
many cases the righting action of wave currents is most marked."

Eidima jJolita. Living specimens of Eulima polita were obtained
twice, once in haul 84, on the coarse gravel mixed with fine sand of
Ground XI., and once in haul 103, on Ground XIII., where the bottom-
deposit is coarse gravel mixed with' mud.

Distribution. Geographical. Finmark to j^gean (Jeffreys).

Depth. 2-80 fathoms (Jeflreys).

Bottom-deposit. Forbes and Hauley state that Eulima polita frequents sandy bottoms.
Forbes (Brit. Assoc, 1850) gives seven records from coarse ground (shell, nullipore, gi-avel,
etc.) and two from sand. Gwyn Jeffreys says it is found on muddy sand. Metzger
(No. 77) records it once on stony ground.

Natica nitida { = N. Alderi of Jeffreys). One specimen only in
haul 46, on Ground XI., bottom coarse gravel with fine sand.

Distribution. Geographical. Lofoten Islands to Mediterranean (Jeffreys, No. 55).

Depth. Low-water to 135 fathoms (Locard, No. 69).

Bottom-deposit. Forbes (No. 24, Brit. Assoc, 1850) gives thirteen records from coarse
ground, five from sand, three from nuid. Gwyn Jeffreys says it occurs everywhere in sand.
Metzger (No. 77) gives eleven records on coarse ground, twelve on sand, line sand, or
sandy mud. It appears, therefore, that the species frequents coarse and fine ground about
equally.

Zamellcma perspicita. A few specimens of this species were obtained
on Grounds VII. and XL in the neighbourhood of the Eddystone and
on the Bolt Head shell gravel (XVIL). It is generally found crawling
on hydroids.

Distribution. Geographical. Norway to Azores, Madeira, and Mediterranean. Also
Canadian and United States Atlantic Coasts (Jeffreys).

Depth. Low-water to 704 fathoms (Dauzenberg, No. 20).

Bottom-deposit. Most abundant on sea-weeds, etc., in tidal and laminarian zones.

Nassa incrassata. This was taken alive on the Prawle Stony Ground
(XVIIL).

Distribution, Geographical, Iceland to Azores and Mediterranean (Jeffreys).
Depth. Low-water to 145 fathoms.

Bottom-deposit. The authors agree that the species frequents stony gi'ound, especially
in the tidal and laminarian zones.

Buccinum undatum (Chart XV.). The common whelk was numerous
on the gravel and coarser sand grounds in the neighbourhood of the
Eddystone and on the Bolt Head Shell Gravel. It was entirely absent
from the fine sand of the outer and inner trawling grounds, and was
only taken once on the Prawle Stony Ground (haul 45).

As will be seen from Chart XV., the species was absent also from the
clean shell gravel clo.so to the Eddystone rocks (Ground XVI.), and was

NEW series.— vol. V. NO. 4. 2 L

510 ox THE FAUNA AND BOTTOM-DETOSITS NEAR THE 30-FM. LINE

very scarce on the fine gravel of Ground XIV. As this latter was a
very rich ground, the ahnost entire absence of whelks is noteworthy.

Distribution. Geographical. Both sides of the North Atlantic from the North Cape
and Iceland to Roclielle and Massachusetts. In the stomach of Trigla gurnardus in the
Gulf of Lyons {fide Jeffreys).

Depth. Low-water to 180 fathoms (Porcujnnc, fide No. 33).

Bottom-deposit. Forbes (No. 24, Brit. Assoc, 1850) records Buccinnm undatum from all
kinds of bottom-deposits, and the other authors agree with this. Heincke (No. 39) says
that near Heligoland it is specially conmion on sandy mud and on pure mud. Petersen
(No. 95) found it common all over the Kattegat. The animal is able to burrow in sand
(Jeffreys).

Fusus islandicus { = F. gracilis of Jeffreys). Taken only in hauls 105
and 107 on the Bolt Head Shell Gravel, where several living specimens
and a number of shells were obtained.

DiSTRiRUTiON. Geographical. A northern species. White Sea (?), Russian Lapland,
Iceland, Faroe Islands, Norway, Sweden, Kattegat,* British Seas, North of France, Loire-
Inferieure. Rare in the South of England, common on northern fishing banks (Jeffreys).

Dep)th. 20-145 fathoms (Jeffreys).

Bottom-deposit. Forbes [Brit. Assoc, 1850) found it on shell, on stones, on sandy gravel,
and on sand ; Metzger on sandy mud, and on sand, shells, and stones.

Cypraea europaea (Table VI.). Not uncommon in the neighbourhood
of the Eddystone, on the coarser sand grounds, and on the Prawle Shell
Gravel, especially amongst hydroids and Cellaria.

Distribution. Geographical. Drontheim to Gibraltar and Mediterranean (Jeffreys).

Depth. 0-100 fathoms.

Bottom-deposit. Forbes (No. 24, Brit. Assoc, 1850) gives ten records, all on coarse
ground, and Gwyn Jeffreys says the species occurs on stony and coral grounds. Metzger
(No. 77) gives two records, one on stony ground and one on sand.

Ovula patula (Table VI.). Single specimens were taken on Grounds

II., VIII., and XVIII. The species is generally found on Alcyonium

digitatum.
Distribution. Geographical. British Coasts, Gulf of Lyons (?) (Jeffreys).
Depth. Coralline zone (Jeffreys).
Bottom-deposit. On Alcyonium (Forbes and Hanley).

Dondersia hanyulensis, Pruvot. A few specimens of this species,
which is very conspicuous owing to its bright red colour, were obtained
always upon colonies of Lafoea dumosa. It is recorded on Grounds
III., IV., and X.

The species was first described by Pruvot (No. 97), who found it
always on Lafoea dumosa. It is relatively abundant at Banyuls, in the
Mediterranean, in 25-165 fathoms, and a few specimens were obtained
at Roscoff, in Brittany, in 44 fathoms.

Proneomenia aglaopheniac (Kowalevsky et Marion). This Neomenian
was met with not unfrequently coiled around the stem of Aglaophenia
myriophyllum, though it was present on only a small proportion of the
total number of specimens of the hydroid which were taken. It is
recorded on Grounds III., VII., VIII., XL, XII.

* Petersen does not record it. Jeffreys gives it on the authority of Jonas.

FEOM THE EPDYSTONE GROUNDS TO START POINT. 511

Froneomenia aglaopheniae was described by Kowalevsky and Marion
(No. 62) from specimens obtained at Marseilles, and has since been
taken by Pruvot (No. 97) at Banyuls (33-44 fathoms). In both cases
the animal was coiled around the stem of A. myriophyllum. The
specimens from the Eddystone Grounds are, so far as I am aware, the
only ones which have been taken outside the Mediterranean.

NUDIBRANCHIATA (Table VI., p. 533). By far the most numerous
nudibranchs taken were Doto fragilis and Lamellidoris oUonga. The
former species was abundant on grounds where hydroids were plentiful,
especially on the coarse gravels to the westward of the Eddystone,
where Halecium halecinum was the characteristic species. On the fine
sand grounds Doto pinnatijida and Doto coronata, which were not taken
on the gravel, were also met with. Lamellidoris ohlonga is associated
always with Cellaria Jistulosa and sinuosa, and is present on the grounds
where these species are abundant. {Cf. Garstang, Jour. Mar. Biol. Assoc,
III., p. 220.) Occasional specimens only of other nudibranchs were
taken, as will be seen from Table VI., and also from the descriptions
of the grounds.

Most of the specimens were identified by Mr. W. I. Beaumont. With
regard to the geographical distribution of these forms I am unable to
add anything to the information given by Norman in his Revision of
the Mollusca (No. 91).

POLYZOA.

For nomenclature and for geographical distribution (Table VI., p. 534)
I have relied entirely upon Hincks {History of British Marine Polyzoa).
The specimens in several of the earlier hauls were identified by Mr. T.
H. Taylor. The distribution of only a very few of the species of Polyzoa
on the grounds investigated offers any points of interest.

Cellaria fistulosa and Cellaria sinuosa. Both these species are abun-
dant on the fine sand grounds in the neighbourhood of the Eddystone
(Grounds I., III., IV., VI., VIIL), where they form a marked and
characteristic feature of the fauna. Whenever the trawl is used on
these grounds masses of Cellaria are taken, and the polyzoan, which is
attached either to small pieces of shell or directly to the sand by means
of its root-fibres, affords a fixing-place for the smaller hydroids {e.g., Clytia
Johnstoni) and for the nudibranch Lamellidoris ohlonga. At the bases
of the colonies the polyzoon Scrupocellaria scruposa is often attached,
and very small specimens of Ophiothrix fragilis find a hiding-place.
The extreme scarcity of Cellaria on the fine sand of the Outer Trawling
Ground (II.) is noteworthy {cf p. 393), as well as its scarcity on Ground
v., to the north of the Eddystone. On the gravels to the westward of

512 ON THE FAUNA AND r.OTTOM-DEPOSITS NEAK THE 30-FM. LINE

the Eddystone only occasional pieces of these polyzoa are met with,
whilst it has never been taken on the shell gravel grounds. (Chart XVI.)

Scrupocellaria scruposa. After the two species of Cellaria this is the
most abundant branched polyzoan. It is plentiful both on the fine sand
grounds and on the gravels in the neighbourhood of the Eddystone. It
is generally attached to the tubes of polychaetes {e.g., Thelcjms, Chae-
topterus variopcdatus) or to the base of Cellaria. It is rarely met with
on the shell gravel grounds and on the Prawle Stony Ground.

Biccllaria 'ciliata is not unfrequently met with attached to hydroids
of various kinds. The most common species of Bugula is B. avicularia,
and B. fiahellata is also occasionally taken. Cdlcpora avicularis and
Cellcpora ramulosa are abundant on the fine sand grounds attached to
hydroids. Incrusting Polyzoa are plentiful on all grounds where mollusc
shells are numerous (see Table VI.).

TUNICATA.

Nomenclature: — Herdman, " Ee vised Classification of the Tunicata,"
Journ. Linn. Soc., XXIII., 1891.

In the identification of the Tunicata I have received much help
from my colleague, Mr. W. Garstaug.

Molgula oculata. Specimens of this species were only occasionally
taken, covered in each case with broken shell gravel. They occurred on
the clean broken shell of Ground XVI. immediately to the westward of
the Eddystone rocks, and on the coarse gravel of Ground XL to the
north-west of the Eddystone. The species is one which is usually
taken only on coarse ground.

Molgula simplex. Specimens which we have identified as M. siinplex
occurred somewhat frequently on Chactopterus tubes, though they were
not recorded in many of the hauls, owing to their only having been
identified at a somewhat late stage in the investigation. The specimens
were usually 5 or 6 mm. in diameter. The species probably occurs on
all the Chaeto2)terus grounds.

Forbesella tesselata. One specimen only on the fine gravel ground
XV.

Siyelo'psis grossularia. The small squat variety of this species was not
unfrequently met with on shells, especially Pecten shells, on the gravels
to the westward of the Eddystone and on the Bolt Head Shell Gravel.

Polycarpa varians, Heller = (P. pomaria, Sav.). This species is very
much restricted to one area, west and south-west of the Eddystone,
where, however, it is abundant, and forms a striking and characteristic
feature of the fauna. It is very abundant on Grounds IX. and XIV.,
on li()th of which the bottom- deposit is gravel, and also on those hauls

FKOM THE EDDYSTONE GROUNDS TO START POINT. 513

on Ground X, which are not entirely occupied by Ophiothriv frayilis. The
species extends south of these grounds to Ground VII., where in some
hauls it is still moderately plentiful. On the gravel to the north-west
of the Eddystone (Ground XI.) specimens were taken only in haul 47,
whilst on the gravel to the souLli-west (Ground XIII.) only one or two
very small ones were seen, although on both these grounds the general
fauna is very similar to that of Ground IX. The specimens were found in
most cases attached directly to the gravel, with which their bases were
covered when they came up, but were sometimes also attached to shells.

The only other record of the species was of two small specimens
attached to a shell in haul 92 on the fine sand of Ground I., so that it
may be regarded as practically absent from all fine sand grounds, as
well as from the Bolt Head and Prawle Grounds. (Chart XVI.)

Ascidiclla venosa. Occasional specimens only were taken. These
were on Grounds IV., XI., and XVI.

Ascidiella scahra. Although some specimens of A. scabra have been
met with on almost every ground examined, when the question of
abundance is considered it is found that the species has a very definite
and characteristic distribution. It occurs in greatest abundance on the
fine sand grounds, being specially numerous where the hydroid
Sertularella Gayi is plentiful, its favourite situation being at the base
of the stem of the hydroid. On the coarse grounds near the Eddystone,
where Sertularella seldom occurs, specimens of Ascidiella scahra are
only rarely seen, and are then attached either to shells, to the tubes of
Cliaetoptcrus, or on the backs of Inachus dorsettensis. On the Bolt Head
Shell Gravel one or two were seen in hauls 20 and 107 only, and the
species was never taken on the Prawle Stony Ground. (Chart XVI.)

Ascidia deprcssa (Garstang, Journ. Mar. Biol. Assoc, Vol. II., p. 125).
Not uncommon on the Bolt Head Shell Gravel, attached to shells.
With the exception of an occasional specimen on the Prawle Stony
Ground the species was not elsewhere taken.

Ascidia mentula. Taken once on the Bolt Head Shell Gravel.

Ciona intestinalis. Occasional specimens attached to shells on
Grounds II., VII., XIV., XVII., and XVIII., being most freciuent on
XVIL, the Bolt Head Shell Gravel.

Conqjound Ascidians. These have not been identified. A species of
Botryllus was not uncommon, and a Didemnid was plentiful on Ccllaria.

Fishes.

As the trawl was only used on a few of the grounds, the list of fishes
is very incomplete. I shall enter into no discussion on the subject of
their distribution, as my colleague, Mr. Holt, is engaged in a study of

514 ON THE FAUNA AND BOTTOM-DEPOSITS NEAR THE SO-FM. LINE

the distribution of the fishes on all the grounds in the Plymouth district,
and those met with in the present investigation, which were for the
most part identified by him, will be included in his general account.
For the Geographical Distribution, as given in Table VI., I have
relied on Smitt's Scandinavian Fishes and on Giinther's British Museum
Catalogue.

Section VII.
GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS.

The Association of Species with one Another. In the descrip-
tions of the grounds investigated, as well as in the accounts of the
distribution of individual species, numerous instances of the definite
association of one species with another have been pointed out. Many of
these are examples of the kind of association which is already well
known, e.g., Sagartia parasitica with Eupagiirus Bernhardus, Adamsia
palliata with Eupagurus Prideauxii, Montacuta suhstriata with Spaiangus
purpureus, etc. Others, such as the frequent association in one group of
Thclepus sp)., Sertularella Gayi, Ascidiella scabra, and Sahella {pavonina ?)
(cf. p. 390), or of Chaetopterus variopcdatus, Halecium halecinum, Plumu-
laria Gatharina, etc. (p. 414), have not been previously described in
detail, and are probably of a less definite nature. It will be of
interest and importance not only to compare such groups with those
found in other localities, but also to compare the whole fauna found
upon similar bottom-deposits in different districts. Unfortunately the
published data upon which any such comparison can be founded are
neither numerous nor altogether satisfactory. The most promising
reports from which the general nature of the fauna at particular spots
can be ascertained are those giving the results of the dredgings and
trawlings of the German expedition in the Pommerania, which worked
in the North Sea in 1872 and 1873. In these the numbers of the
stations at which each species was obtained are given, and by working
through the reports of the specialists in each group one can compile
a list of the fauna at any particular station. Unfortunately there is
a good deal of internal evidence to indicate that, in the case of the
more common species especially, the list of stations at which each was
taken is by no means complete, and the lists of the fauna obtained
at particular stations derived from the reports are, therefore, not as
perfect as could be desired, nor can one be sure that the common
and prevailing species are mentioned.

I give below the lists for five stations where the fauna was evidently
in many ways similar to that found on some of the Eddystone Grounds.

FROM THE EDDrSTONE GROUNDS TO START POINT.

515

Such indications as the reports afford, as to which were the abundant
and characteristic species, are also mentioned, but in this respect the
information is very imperfect. There are few indications as to the
attachments of fixed species, and it is not made clear in most cases
which species were definitely associated with each other. This was
almost inevitable in the case of an expedition covering a very large
area, and when the animals belonging to different groups were divided
amongst a number of specialists not in immediate communication with
each other. In the case of the Eddystone to Start Grounds, described
in the present report, where the area dealt with is limited, and where
the species have nearly all been identified in the same laboratory, it has
been much more easy for one individual to obtain some knowledge of
the whole fauna and co-ordinate the different groups. I must, however,
emphasise the fact that lists of the species found upon a ground are
of very little service in giving an idea of the character of its fauna
unless information is added as to the relative abundance of each animal,
and so far as possible as to its relations with other organisms and with
the bottom-deposit.

Comparison tvith North Sea and Irish Sea Faunas. Lists of the
fauna at five stations dredged by the Pommcrania. expedition in the
North Sea, compiled from the reports of the expedition : —

Station 111.

Pomme)unia Expedition, August 20th, 1872.

9 a.m. 1| miles E.S.E. of Lowestoft.

Depth, 16 fathoms; Bottom-deposit, Small stones.

[m = many ; p = present in moderate numbers ; F = few. ]

ACTINOZOA.

Alcyouium digitatum

Hydrozoa.
Bimeria vestita
Hydractinia echiuata
Tubularia indivisa (m)
Clytia Jolmstoni
Camjianularia flexuosa
Calycella syringa
Filelluni serpens
Halecium halecinum (m)
Sertularella polyzouias
Dipliasia atteniiata
Sertularia aldetina (m)
„ argentea (m)
Hydrallmania falcata (m)
Antennularia antennina (m)

,, raniosa

Plumularia setacea

POLYCHAETA.

Thelepus cincinatus (m)
SabcUaria alveolata (m)
Sabella penicillus (f)

(=5'. iMVonitw,)
Polynoe squamata (f)
Nereis pclagica (r)
Nephthys caeca (m)

Ckustacea.

Dryope crenatipalniata
Aniathilla Sabinei
Mysis inermis
Gastrosaccus sanctns
Pandalus annulicornis
Virbius fasciger
Porcellana longicornis
Stenorhynclius rostratus
( = S, pJuilaiujiiun)

MOLLUSCA.

Pecten varius {vai: alba)
Modiola modiolus
Natica Aldcri ( = N. nitida)
Murex erinaceus
Pleurotoma rufa

Doto fragilis
Doris tubercnlata

, , pilosa
Tliecacera pennigera

POLYZOA.

Bugula plumosa
Flustra foliacea
Alcyonidiuni gelatinosum
Lepralia annulata

TUNICATA.

Phallusia virginea

( = Ascidiclla virginea)

olG ON THE FAUNA AND BOTTOM-DEPOSITS NEAR THE 30-FM. LINE

Station 83.

Pommerania Expedition, August 7tli, 1872.

3 p.m. 1^ miles E.S.E. of Peterhead.

Depths 30 fathoms ; Bottom-deposit, Sand, with shells and small stones.

ECHINODEIIMATA.

Ophiogl3-iiha affinis (p)
Ojiliiopliolis aculeata (p)
Luidia Savignyi (i-)
Astropecten Miilleri (f)

(= A. irregularis)
Ecliiiiocardiuni flavesceiis (f)
Spataiigiis purpureus {see

p. 235)
Strongj'locentrotus droe-

bachiensis (m)

Hydrozoa.

Hydractinia ecliinata
Tubnlaria indivisa

„ larynx (m)
Clytia Johnstoni
Caiiipamilaria flexuosa
Cuspidella grand is
Halecium halecinum

,, Beanii
Sertularclla polyzonias
Dipliasia rosacea

, , taraarisca

Sertularia abietina (m)
,, argentea (m)

Hydralhnania falcata (m)

Thuiaria tliuia
,, articulata

Antcnnularia raniosa (m)

rhiniularia pinnata
, , Catharina

,, echinulata

POLYCHAETA.
Polynoe cirrata (p)
Glycera capitata (f)

Crustacea.
Ancens maxillaris
Arcturus longicornis
Hyas coarctatus

MOLLUSCA.

Anomia ephippium
Pecten sinuosus ^

,, Islandicus [ Shell
,, tigrinus I only
,, Testae

Modiola modiolus
Montacuta substriata
Astarte sulcata
Venus fasciata

,, casina

,, ovata
Tapes edulis ( = T. virginea)
Lucinopsis undata
Tellina crassa
Psaraniobia ferroensis
Mactra solida
Chiton albus
Punctiuella Noachina
Trochus tumidus

,, millegranus (one
shell)
Turritella ungulina
{= T. communis)
Natica Alderi { = N. nitida)
Fusus antiquus

,, gracilis

{ = F. islandicus)

Eolis aurantiaca
Tritonia plebeia

Station 85.

Pommerania Expedition, August 8th, 1872.

Firth of Forth, E.N.E. of Isle of May.

Depth, 30 fathoms ; Bottom-dejwsit, Coarse sand and stones

ECHINODERMATA.

Asteracauthion rubens (f)
{= Aster ias rubens)

Hydrozoa.

Perigonimua repens (on

Turritella)
Hydractinia ecliinata
Tubnlaria larynx (m)
Clytia Johnstoni
Halecium halecinum
Dipliasia rosacea
Sertularia argentea (m)
llydralliiKuiia falcata (m)
Thuiaria thuia

Antcnnularia ramosa (m)
Plumularia pinnata
,, Catliarina

POLYCHAETA.
Thelepus cincinnatus

Crustacea.
Callisoma Kroyeri

MOLLUSCA.

Turritella ungulina
(= 1\ cummunis)
Fusus antiquus

Fusus gracilis

{ = F. islandicus)
, , propinquus
,, Jeffreysianus

Eolis Drummondii
Tritonia Hombergii

POLYZOA.

Alcyonidium hirsutum
, , parasiticum

TUNICATA.

riiallusia virginea

( — Ascidiclla virginea)

FROM THE EDDYSTONE GROUNDS TO START POINT.

517

Depth, 23 fathoms;

ACTINOZOA.

Sagartia troglodytes

,, parasitica on Buc-
cinum

Hydrozoa.

Hydractinia echiiiata
Tubularia iudivisa
Obelia dicliotonia
Campanularia verticillata
Filelluni serpens
Haleciuni lialecinuni

Station 115.
Pommerania Expedition, August 20tli, 1872.
2° 50' N. 52° 22' N.
Bottom-deposit, Sticky blue-grey mud with shells.

Sertularclla polyzonias
Diphasia attenuata
Sertularia argentea
Hydrallmania falcata
Antennularia antennina
Plumularia setacea

MOLLUSCA.

Pecten varius

,, opcrcularis {var. lin-
eata, abundant)
Area lactea, shell

Venus gallina
Donax vittatus
Syndosmya pi-ismatica
Cultellus pellucidus
Ensis (Solen) ensis — Young?
Buccinum sp. (see p. 140)

POLYZOA.

Flustra truncata

{ = F. securifrons, Pallas)
Menibranipora pilosa

Station 84.

Pommerania Expedition, August 7th, 1872.

7 p.m. 3|- miles S.E. of Peterhead.

Depth, 50 fathoms ; Bottom-deposit, Sand and shells.

[M = niany; p = present in moderate mmibers ; F = few. ]

PORIFEKA.

Suberites donmncula

ECHINODERMATA.

Ophioglypha texturata (r)
( = Ophiura ciliaris)

Luidia Savignyi (p)

Solaster endeca (p)

Echinus miliaris (m)
„ acutus (p)

Strongylocentrotus droe-
brachiensis (p)

Hydrozoa.

Tubularia iudivisa

,, larynx (m)
Clytia Johnstoni
Campanularia ilexuosa
Lafoea dumosa
Calycclla syringa
Filelluni serpens
Coppinia arcta on Uydndl-

mania falcata
Dipliasia rosacea
Sertularia aljictina (m)

Hydrallmania falcata (m)
Tliuiaria tliuia
Antennularia ramosa (m)
Plumularia pinnata

Polycuaeta.

Eumenia crassa (f)
Thelepus cincinnatus (m)
Pectinaria auricoma (v)
Sabellaria alvcolata (m)
Protula protensa (m)
(=P. tiibularia)
Filograna implcxa (m)
Hydroidcs norvegica (m)
Aphrodite aculeata (p)
Polynoe cirrata (f)

,, squamata (f)
Lumbriconereis fragilis (f)
Nereis pelagica (f)
Phyllodoce maculata (f)

Crustacea.
Naeuia rimapalmata
Megamocra semiserrata
Mysis ornata

Pandalus annulicornis
Hippolytc Lilljeborgi
Craugou Allmani
Galathea squamifera
Pagurus Bernhardus

,, pubescens
Inachus dorsettensis
Hyas coarctatus
Stenorhynchus rostratus

( = /S'. 2^halan(jium)
Atelecyclus septemdentatus

{ — A. hcterodon)

MOLLUSCA.
Stilifer Turtoni
Fusus gracilis
{ = F. islandicus, F. & H.).

POLYZOA.

Gemcllaria loricata
Flustra foliacea
Crisia eburnea

TUNICATA.

Ciena intestinalis

The first four of these hauls appear to have beeu made on grounds
similar in many respects to the Eddystone Gravel Grounds and to

518 ON THE FAUNA AND BOTTOM-DEPOSITS NEAR THE 30-FM. LINE

the Prawle Stony Ground. The fifth (Sta. 84) was clearly on a fine sand
ground with shells, similar to the sand bordering the Eddystoue gravels.
Imperfect as the lists doubtless are, one cannot but be struck by the
fact that on the whole we are dealing with the same species as those
found on the grounds examined during the present investigation,
arranged possibly in a somewhat different manner, with a few forms
added and a few taken away.

Some of the more striking differences may be pointed out, in order to
indicate the nature of the information which one would wish future
investigators to supply when dredging in similar localities. The con-
stant abundance of Tubularia indivisa and Tubularia larynx, both on
the coarse and fine grounds in these North Sea hauls, is noteworthy.
Fragments only of T. indivisa were obtained on the Eddystone to Start
Grounds (viz., on the Prawle Stony Ground, attached to a large stone),
and so far as our experience goes the species in this neighbourhood
is confined to rocky situations. A knowledge of the exact conditions
on the North Sea Grounds, and of the kind of material to which the
hydroid is generally attached,* might throw light upon this difference.

Halecium halemium is present and sometimes abundant on each of
the coarse North Sea Grounds, whilst it is absent from the sand. This
is similar to its distribution on the Eddystone Grounds, but on these
latter it is in by far the larger number of cases attached to the tubes of
Chaetopterus, a species which is not recorded in the Fommerania reports.
Schulze makes the general statement that JI. halecinum was attached to
shells, worm tubes, etc., but there is no indication as to whether any
particular worm takes the place which Chaetopterus occupies on the
Eddystone Grounds.

Amongst the Crustacea one may notice that in the North Sea hauls
Stenorhynchus rostratus { = S. phalangium) takes the place of S. longi-
rostris, and that, as on the Eddystone Grounds, Stenorhynchus and
Inachus are present on the fine grounds, but rare or absent on the
coarse.

The almost entire absence of Pecten opercularis and the entire absence
of P. maxivius on these particular North Sea Grounds is noteworthy,
and there is no species which obviously takes the place which they
occupy on the corresponding Eddystone Grounds. On the other hand
Fusus antiqmcs on the North Sea Grounds seems to take the place of
Buccinum undatum on the Eddystone Grounds. A similar change of a
striking nature (confirmed by other hauls of the Ponimerania) is the fact
that Fiustra foliacea seems to exactly take the place usually occupied by
Cellaria Jistidosa and sinuosa in the neighbourhood of Plymouth.

* T. larynx is stated by Scliulzc to be attcaclied to shells and to other hydroids, e.g.,
Tubularia indivisa. No statemeut is made as to tlie attachnieut of the latter s])ecies.

FROM THE EDDYSTONE GROUNDS TO START POINT. 519

Differences of this kind are of very great interest, but our knowledge of
them is far too slight at the present time to make any satisfactory
explanation possible.

In the Presidential Address to the Biological Section of the British
Association, at the Ipswich meeting, Herdman gives a list of the species
obtained in a single haul of a trawl in the Irish Sea. (Tie^j. Brit.
Assn., 1895, p. 713.) This haul was recorded in order to find the
number of species and genera represented on the ground, and un-
fortunately no information is given as to the relative abundance of
each species. It is therefore impossible to get a good idea of the
characteristic nature of the fauna on the ground. On the whole it
resembles that found on the grounds to the west of the Eddystone, both
the gravel and fine sand faunas being represented. It is of interest to
note that Chaeto2)terus and Halccmm hakcinum are both recorded and
that Fusus antiquus is present, whilst Buccinum undatum is absent.

In the Proceedings of the Liverpool Biological Society (No. 40) Herdman
also records several grounds where ophiurids occur to the almost entire
exclusion of other species, a condition of things similar to that occurring
on Ground X., to the west of the Eddystone (c/. pp. 416 and 499).

Geographical Distribution. Following Michaelsen (No. 79), three
of Forbes' geographical provinces have been recognised, under the names
Arctic, Boreal, and Lusitanian. The Boreal province contains the
greater part of Forbes' Celtic. The Arctic province (A.) Michaelsen
regards as bounded on the south by a line commencing at Cape Kace in
Newfoundland, running parallel to the south-east coast of Greenland,
cutting oiT the north corner of Iceland, and then striking the Scan-
dinavian coast at the Lofoten Islands. The Boreal province (B.) lies
south of this line, and comprises the temperate portion of the east coast
of North America, the greater part of Iceland, the greater part of the
Scandinavian Coast, the North Sea and the Baltic, and the British Seas
with the exception of the south coast. The Lusitanian province (L.)
extends from the English Channel to the Canaries and Azores, and
includes the Mediterranean.

In Table VI., p. 529, the distribution of each species in the three
provinces has been indicated by the letters A. B. and L. Our know-
ledge of the true centres of distribution of the species is still too
imperfect in the majority of cases to make it possible to say whether a
species which is found in two provinces is equally at home in both, or
whether its centre of distribution occurs in one of the provinces and the
species must be regarded merely as an immigrant into the other.

Species extending from the Arctic Seas to the Mediterranean, Azores,
and Canary Islands are indicated by the letters A.L. ; those which are
found in the Arctic and extend throughout the Boreal region by A.B.;

520 ON THE FAUNA AND BOTTOM-DEPOSITS NEAR THE 30-FM. LINE

whilst those which have only been recorded from the Boreal by B. The
letters L.B. denote species extending from the Mediterranean to
the north of Norway, Iceland, and often to the eastern coast of America.
The letter L. indicates that the species has its centre of distribution in
the Lusitanian province, but such species may extend up the western
coasts of the British Isles to Shetland, or even to the southern parts of
Scandinavia.

In Table VII., p. 536, the total number of species falling under each
of these heads is given for the various groups of animals obtained during
the present investigation, all of which, therefore, live at a depth of about
30 fathoms between Start Point and the Eddystone. In each case also
the percentage of animals belonging to the group, living in each region,
is added.

Eegarding this fauna as a whole, it will be seen that the prevailing
element is southern, or Lusitanian ; 56 per cent, falling under the heads
of L. and L.B., and 30 per cent, under L. alone, whilst only 26 per cent,
come under A.B. and B. Eight per cent, of the recorded species occur
in the Arctic and Boreal regions only, whilst 18 per cent, have a very
wide range, extending from the Arctic to the Mediterranean.

Looking at the figures for each group (excluding those in which
the number of species is too small to give reliable results), it may
be noticed that the fishes and Crustacea show the southern element
most markedly, whilst the Hydrozoa and Polyzoa are remarkable
for the number of species which have a very extended range.

In a subsequent paper I hope to compare the figures obtained for
species living at 30 fathoms with similar ones for species extending
from the shore to about 15 fathoms.

FROM THE EDDYSTONE GROUNDS TO START POINT.

521

Table I. List of Hauls.

The entries under the h^ad of "Nature of bottom" in this table are in most cases the notes
made on board the vessel at the time the dredge came on deck.

No. of Xo. of Direction Instriiinont

haul. Date. ground. Locality. towed. Xatnrc of bottom. used.

1 July 30, XVII. Prawle Point, l)caring N. S. by E. Coarse i,a'avel and Dredge

1895 by E., 2i miles off shells"

2 July 30, XVIII. Prawle, bearing X., S. by E. Rocks. Trawl fast Otter

1895 3 miles off Trawl

3 July 30, XVIII. Prawle Point, N. by W., S. by E. Stones or rock.s. Otter

1895 3 miles off Trawl torn Trawl

4 July 30, XVIII. Prawle, N. l)y W., 4^-5 S. by E. Broken shells and Dredge

1895

Dredge

6 Aug. 2,

1895

7 Aug. 2,

1895

8 Aug. 16,

1895

9 Aug. 16,

1895
10 Aug. 16,
1895

13 Aug. 16,

1895

14 Aug. 16,

1895

miles stones

XVII. Bolt Head, N,, 5 miles Easterly Broken shell

XVII. Bolt Head, N. by W., Easterly Broken shell and Dredge
5 miles some gravel

XI. Eddystone, bearing S. E. S.E. ^S. Gravel and shells Dredge
4 S., 3 miles off

XI. Eddystone, bearing S.E. S.E. ^S. Gravel finer than Dredge
^ S., 2^ miles off in 8

XVI. Eddystone, S.E. ^ S.,
5 mile

XVI. Eddystone, E. i N.,
2 mile

XVI. Eddystone, N., 1 mile

XVII. Bolt Tail, N. N. E.
3 miles off

20 Aug. 31,

1895
•21 Aug. 31, XVII. Bolt Head, N.E. by N.,

1 mile off

II. 10 miles S. of Plymouth
Mewstone

W.

II. 12 miles S. by W. of
Plpnouth Mewstone

II. Eddystone, bearing N.W., W.
6 miles (? weather foggy)

II. End of last haul

1895

22 Aug. 31 ,

1895

23 Sept. 9,

1895

24 Sept. 9,

1895

25 Sept. 9,

1895

27 Sept. 17, XVII. Prawle, N., 4-5 miles

1895

28 Sept. 17, XVII. 1 mile W. of haul 27

1895

29 Sept. 17, XVIII. Prawle, bearing N.W.

1895 Start, bearing N.E. by N.

30 Sept. 17, XVIII. Prawle, W.N.W.

1895 Start, N.N.E.

Fine, clean broken Dredge
shell

Fine broken shell, Dredge

some large shells
Bottom similar. Dredge

shells broken into

finer pieces, and

with some mud

Stones, shells, and Dredge
gi-avel

Broken shell with a Dredge

few small stones
Fine sand Otter

Trawl
Fine sand Otter

Trawl
Fine sand Otter

Trawl

31 Sept. 26,
1895

Eddystone, N. by E., S. by W
1-1. I miles

w.

Fine sand

Dredge

S.W.

Shells,broken shells,
gravel, and sand

Dredge

w.

Shells,brokenshells,
gravel. Not so
much sand and
mud as 27

Dredge

E.

Large red stone, loose
stones, gravel and
broken shell

Dredge

£.

Large stone, many
medium and small
stones. Gravel

Dredge

. by W.

Rocky ground.
Dredge broken

Dretlge

522 ON THE FAUNA AND BOTTOM-DEPOSITS NEAR THE 30-FM. LINE

No. of
haul. Date.

No. of
ground.

Locality.

Direction
towed.

In
Nature of bottom.

strunient
used.

32

Sept. 26,
1895

VII.

Eddystone, N. ^ W.,
li miles

S.W.

Stones.

Rough ground

Dredge

33

Sept. 26,
1895

XV.

Eddystone, N.W.,
2 miles

S.W.

...

Dredge

34

Sept. 26,
1895

IV.

Eddystone, W. by S.,
3 miles

W.byS.

Sand

Otter
Trawl

35

Sept. 30,
1895

XIV.

Eddystone, E. ^ N.,
f mile

S.W.

Broken shell and a
little gravel

Dredge

36

Sept. 30,
1895

XIV.

Eddystone, E. ^ N.,
3 mile

S.W.

Broken shell and a
little gravel

Otter
Trawl

38

Sept. 30,
1895

VII.

Eddystone, N.E.,
1:1 miles

S.W.

A little broken
shell and mud

Dredge

39

Sept. 30,
1895

IV.

Eddystone, W. by S.,
3 miles

w.

Sand

Otter
Trawl

40

Sept. 30,
1895

IV.

Eddystone, W. by S.,
3 miles

w.

Sand Fine

mosquito net

41

April 7,
1896

XIV.

Eddystone, S.E. ^ S.,
1^ miles

S.E.

Gravel and shells

Dredge

42

April 7,
1896

X.

Edd"ystone, S.E. by E.,
2^ miles

E.

Gravel, fine sand,
and shells

Dredge

43

April 8,
1896

XVII.

Bolt Head, N. , 4 miles

E.

Gravel and broken
shell

Dredge

44

April 8,
1896

XVII.

Prawle, N. by E,,
3 miles

E.

Gravel (coarser than
last) and shells

Dredge

45

April 8,
1896

XVIII.

Prawle, N. ^ W.,
4 miles

E.

Gravel, stones, and
shells

Dredge

46

Aug. 4,
1896

XI.

Eddystone, S.E. ^ S.,
3 miles

S.E.

Shells, gravel, and
coarse sand

Dredge

47

Aug. 4,
1896

XI.

Eddystone, S.E. ^ S.,
2 miles

S.E.

Sand (?)

Dredge

48

Aug. 4,
1896

VIII.

Eddystone, S E. ^ S.,
1 mile

S.E.

Sand and mud

Dredge

49

Aug. 4,
1896

III.

Eddystone, W. by S.,
3 miles

E.

Sand

Otter
Trawl

50

Aug. 6,
1896

I.

7^ miles (log) S. by E. of
Mewstone Buoy

W. by S.

Fine sand

Dredge

51

Aug. 6,
1896

I.

Eddystone, W. by N.

AN., Mewstone, N.N. E.

W. by S.

Fine sand

Dredge

53

Aug. 20,
1896

III.

Eddystone, S.W. ^ S.,
3 miles

W.N.W.

Fine sand

Dredge

54

Aug. 20,
1896

VII.

Eddystone, N. E. ,
l^ miles

W.

Shells and sand

Dredge

55

Aug. 20,
1896

X.

Eddystone, E. by S. ^S.,
1^ miles

w.

Sand, stones, and
shells

Dredge

56

Aug. 28,
1896

III.

Eddystone, S.W. ^ S.,
3 miles

E.S.E.

Fine sand

Beam
Trawl

57

Aug. 28,
1896

III.

Eddystone, W. by N.,
4 miles

N.N.W.

Fine saml

Beam
Trawl

58

Oct. 21,
1896

XIV.

Eddystone, E., 1 mile

W.

Gravel and broken
shell. Shells

Dredge

59

Oct. 21,
1896

XIV.

Eddystone, E., 1^ miles

w.

Gravel and broken
shell. Shells

Dredge

60

Oct. 1,
1896

XVII.

Bolt Tail, N.E., 3 miles

S. i E.

Sand

Dredge

61

Oct. 1,
1896

XVII.

Bolt Head, N., 2-3 miles

S. ^E.

Sand and shells

Dredge

62

Oct. 1,
1896

XVII.

Prawle, N.E. by N.,
3 miles

S. i E.

...

Dredge

FROM THE EDDYSTONE GROUNDS TO START POINT.

523

No. of
haul. Date.

63 Oct. 1,
1896

No of
ground.

XVIII.

Locality.
Prawie, N.N.W. ^N.,
3 miles

Direction
toweJ.

s.

Instrnnient
Nature of bottom. used.

Stones and shells Dredge

64

Oct. 2,
1896

XVIII.

Piawle, N.W. i W.,
2-3 miles

w.

Stones

Dredge

65

Oct. 2,
1896

XVIII.

Prawie, N.N.W.,
2-3 miles

w.

Stones

Dredge

66

Oct. 2,
1896

XVIII.

Prawie, N., 3 miles

E.

Stones

Dredge

68

Oct. 2,
1896

XVII.

Bolt Head, N. by E.,
2 miles

E.

Shells and gravel

Dredge

69

Oct. 21,
1896

VII.

Eddystone, E., li miles

W.

Sand

Dredge

70

Oct. 21,
1896

VII.

Edd3^stone, N.E.,
1^-1 1 miles

W.

Sand

Dredge

71

Oct. 21,
1896

VII.

End of last haul

AV.

Sand

Dredge

72

Sept. 10,
1897

III.

Eddystone, W., 4 miles

W.byN.

Fine sand

Beam
Trawl

73

Sept. 15,
1897

XIV.

Eddystone, E. | S. ,
1 mile

W.KW.

...

Otter
Trawl

74

Sept. 15,
1897

XIV.

Eddystone, E. by S.,
1 mile

W.N.W.

Gravel and shells

Dredge

75

Sept. 15,
1897

VII.

Eddystone, E.N.E.,
1 mile

W.S.W.

Large stone

Dredge

76

Sejit. 15,
1897

VII.

Eddystone, N.E. by E.,
1 mile

W.S.W.

Gravel and small
shells

Dredge

77

Sept. 30,
1897

IV.

Eddystone, W. by S.,
3 miles

W. by S.

...

Beam
Trawl

78
79

Sept. 30,
1897

Sept. 30,
1897

VII.

Eddystone, N, , 1 mile
A little to west of 78

...

Rock. Dredge
empty

Red stones, shells

Dredge
Dredge

80
81

Sept. 30,
1897

Oct. 12,
1897

VII.

I.

i mile west of 79

6| miles (log) south of
Mewstone Buoy

N.W.

Clean shells (prob-
ably sand)

Fine sand

Dredge

Beam
Trawl

82

Oct. 12,
1897

I.

8 miles south of Mewstone

N.W.

Fine sand

Beam
Trawl

83

Jan. 7,
1898

XII.

Eddystone, S. by E. i E.,
3 miles

W.S.W.

Gravel and sand. 1. Dredge
See Table II. 2. Canvas bag

84

Jan. 7,
1898

XI.

Eddystone, S.E. byS.,
2J miles

W.S.W.

Gravel and sand, 1
cleaner than 83. 2
See Table II.

. Dredge
. Canvas
bag

85

Jan. 7,
1898

XIV.

Eddystone, S.E. by S.,
1 mile

W.S.W.

Fine gravel and 1
shell.
See Table II. 2

. Canvas

bag
. Dredge

86

Jan. 11,

1898

XVI.

Eddystone, S.E. by S.,
i mile

W.

One large stone

Dredge

87

Jan. 11,

1898

XVI.

Eddystone, S.E. by S.,
1 mile

W. Fine broken shell. 1. Canvas bag
See Table II. 2. Dredge

88

Jan. 11,
1898

XIV.

Eddystone, E., f mile

W.

Fine broken shell,
with some gravel

Dredge

89

Jan. 11,
1898

X.

Eddystone, S.E. by S.,
U-2 miles

N.E.

?

Dredge

89b Jan. 11,
1898

VIII. ?

At end of 89

N.E.

Fine sand.
See Table II.

Canvas
bag

90

Jan. 14,

1898

V.

Breakwater Light, N.W.
i N., 6 miles

E.S.E.

Fine sand. 1. Beam trawl
See Table 1 1. 2. Canvas bag

o24 ON THE FAUNA AND liOirOM-DEPOSITS NEAR THE 30-FM. LINE

No. of
haul. Date.

91 Jan. 17,
1898

No of
ground.

III.

Locality.
Eddystone, W. by S.,
3\ miles

92

Jan. 17,
1898

1.

Eddystone, W. by S.,
5 miles

93

jrarcli 3,
1898

IX.

Eddystone, E. ^ S. , 3 miles

94

March 3,
1898

IX.

Miildlc of course of
haul 93

95

March 3,
1898

X.

Ed<lystone, E., 2 miles

96

March 3,
1898

X.

Middle of course of
haul 95

97

April 21,
1898

XV.

Eddystone, W., 2 miles

98

May 16,
1898

XVI.

Eddystone, N.E., 1 mile

99

May 16,

1898

XVI.

Eddystone, N.E,, 1| mile

100

May 16,
1898

VII.

Eddystone, N.E., 2 miles

101

May 26,

1898

VI.

Eddystone, N.E., 2^ miles

102

May 26,
1898

VI.

Eddystone, N". , 2| miles

103

May 26,
1898

XIII.

Eddystone, N.W., 1 mile

10-1

June 15,
1898

II.

South of Mewstone Buoy,
10 miles (log)

105

Sept. 28,
1898

XVII.

Bolt Head, N.N.E.,
1 mile

106

Sept. 28,
1898

XVII.

Bolt Head, N., 2 miles

107

Sept. 28,
1898

XVII.

Bolt Head,N., 2^-3 miles

109

Nov. 17,
1898

VII.

Eddystone, E.N.E.,
2 miles

Direction IiKstrument

toweil. Natiu'O of bottom. used.

E. by N. Fine sand. 1. Otter trawl
See Tal)le II. 2. Canvas bag

E. by N. Fine .sand. 1. Otter trawl

See Table II. 2. Canvas bag

E. h S. Gravel and shell Dredge

Coarse gravel and Canvas
fine sand. bag

See Table II.

Gravel and broken Dredge
shell

Coarse gravel and Canvas
sand. bag

See Table II.

Medium and fine 1. Dredge
gi'avel. 2. Canvas

See Table II. bag

S.E. byS. Rock Dredge

S.E. by S. Stones and shells Dredge

S.E. by S. Large stones and Dredge
sand

Dredge

E. Fine sand

E. Fine sand. 1.
See Table II. 2.

E. Gravel and mud.
See Table II .2,

Fine sand. 1.

See Table 1 1. 2,

E. Shell gravel.

See Table I L 2.

E. Shell gravel. 1.
See Table II.

E. Gravel and shell

Dredge
Canvas bag

1. Dredge
Canvas bag

Beam trawl
Canvas bag

1. Dredge
Canvas bag

Canvas bag

2. Dredge
Dredge

"W. Fine sand. 1. Canvas bag
See Table II. 2. Dredge

FROM THE EDDYSTONE GROUNDS TO START POINT.

525

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528 ON THE FAUNA AND BOTTOM-DEPOSITS NEAR THE 30- FM. LINE

Table V.

Showing the samples of hottom-dc^josit arranged according to average grade
of texture, and the total percentage of carbonate of lime in each.

No. of Sample. Average Grade.

Percentage CaCO,

94

3-66

17-71

84

3-704

34-66

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3-803

52-77

83

3-946

40-74

96

4-081

33-18

87

4-151

72-25

97

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46-68

105

4-498

47-26

85

4-597

27-87

103

4-638

61-18

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48-61

90

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22-91

109

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91

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102

6-849

14-86

92

6-971

17-41

104

. 6-998

15-80

FROM THE EDDYSTONE GROUNDS TO START POINT,

529

Table VI.

Showing the distribution and abundance of each species on the grounds investigated,

and its geographical distribution.

M = many ; P = present in moderate numbers ; F = few ; Fo, Po, Mo = Few in some hauls,

none in others, etc.
m., p., f. =niany, present, few, small sjiecimcns only.

P indicates tliat the species is present, but gives no information as to its abundance.
Geographical distribution. A = Arctic; B = Boreal; L = Lusitanian.

Fine sand.

Coarse gravel Fine Sliell
with sand or mud. gravel, gravel. Stones.

1. 11. 111. IV. v. VI. vii.viu. IX. X. XI. xn.xiii. xiv.xv. xvi.xvii. xvm.

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Truncatulina lobatula ( Walker
and Jacob)

PORIFERA.

Suberites domuncula, Olivi ...
Cliona celata, Grant...

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On stems of hydroids Avherever these are present.

i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. vii.viii. ix. x. xi. xii.xiii. xiv.xv. xvi.xvii. xviii.

_PFo P— P— —

F P V — P P P P P MP —P P

Hydrozoa.

Tubiclavacornucopiae(iV'br??irt?i) F — P —

Hydractinia echinata (i?'Zc»im(7) PPPoPoPFFo— P F— —

Eudendrium rameuiu (PaWas)... — F —

,, ranmsum {Linn.) . PFMPF— P— F P— —

capillare, yiWer ... F F— — F P

sp P P F FoP P F — P —

Perigonimus repens ( Wright)... — Po —

Garveia nutans ( Wright) ... Po

Heterocordyle Conybearei (All.) P —

Bougainvilliaramosa(F'a?i.Bcn.) PPoM — PPP — FoM — —

Tubularia indivisa, Zm?i. ... Po

Clytia Johnstoni {Alder) ... P M M M M — M — M P F — P M

Obclia dichotoma {Linn.) ... P— F— F— Fo— F

Campanularia Hincksii, Alder . P— PP MP PF— P— P— — P P

,, verticillata(ZMm.) F— Fo P — P Fo

,, flexuosa (Hincks). — Mo —

Lovenella clausa (iou^ji) ... F

Opercularella lacerta {Johnston) F

Lafoea dumosa (Pfcm«j/) ... F P MM MP MP — Fo P — M F F P Fo M

, , fruticosa, Sars ... Fo — F Fo P —

Calycella syringa (Zi)m.) ... — P F.

,, fastigiata {Alder) ... Fo — —

Cuspidella costata, Hincks ... P —

Trichydra pudica, Wright ... — P —

Coppinia arcta {Dalycll) ... F MM — M —

Halecium halecinum (Luui.) ... F — F P — P P P M FoM F M P F Fo F —

„ Beanii, /oA?is<OH ... F — F P F — P — P Fo M F F — Fo Fo

„ labrosum, Alder ... Po — —

A.L.

B.
A.B.
A.L.
A.L.

B.

L.B.

B.

B.

B.
A.L.
A.L.
L.B.

B.
A.L.
L.B.

B.

B.
A.L.
A.B.
A.L.

B.

B.

B.
A.B.
A.L.

L.

L.

i)0

30

ON THE FAUNA AND BOTTOM-DEPOSITS NEAPi THE 30-FM. LINE

Coarse gravel Fine Sliell

Fine sand. with sand or mud. gravel, {"ravel. Stones.

i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. vii. viii. i.\. x. xi. xii.xiii. xiv.xv. xvi.xvii. xviii.

Sertulaiclla Gayi, Lamourotix . P P M M P ]\I P P F Fo P M F F F Fo — —

polyzonias {Linn.) PPPPP— F— PP— F— —

Dipliasia rosacea {Linn.) ... Fo Fo — Po

,, attcnuata, /fuic^-s ... — F — Fo —

„ tamarisca (Lmji.) ... FoFo —

Sertularia aliietina, Linn. ... — JI — — — JIoM

,, argentea, JiUis and

Sohmdcr ... ... Fo — F Fo F — Fo — FoF P

Hydrallniania falcata (Zm«.)... FFFFFFFF FFo F FF FoF M

Tliuiaiia aiticulata {Pallas) ... — Po P

Antenniilanaantcnniiia(Zi/m.) M Fo M P P M P P — Fo M UP F F — F F

ramosa, Lamarck P — P M F — F Fo P F — F F FoFo F

Aglaoj)lienia myi-iophyllura

{Linn.)

Aglaojihenia tuljulifera, Hincks
Pluimilaiia jiinuata {Linn.) ...
,, setacea {Ellis)

,, Cathariua, Johnston

, , frutescens {Ellis and
Solander)

Fo — M J\I P F P P

— Po P Po — P M —

Po Fo -

F P P PoF P Mo-

M F P — F Fo

_Fo Fo— —

M — P F P Fo — — F F

P— Fo F

M Fo M - P Fo F Fo — —

B.

A.L.

B.

B.
L.B.
A.L.

A.L.
A.B.

L.

L.

B.

L.B.

B.
L.B.

L.

B.

L.

ACTINOZO.A..
Alcyoniuiu rligitiitum, Linn, ...
Sarcodictyon catcnata, Forbes ..
Gorgoiiia verrucosa, Pallas
Car^-oiihyllia Smitliii {Stokes)...
Epizoanthus iiicrustatus {DUb.

and Kor.)
Sagartia parasitica {Couch)
Adani.sia pulliata {Bohadsch) ...
Paraj)liellia cxpan.sa Iladdon . . .
Cliondractinia digitata {Miillcr)
Corynactis viridis, Allman ...

EcHINODERMATA.

Ciicumaria peutactes {Linn.) ...

,, lactea {Forbes and

Goodsir)
Tliyone fu.siis(0.i^.JI/.)
Holotliuria uigra ((?»-«2/)

Astropecteu irregularis {Penn.)
Luidia Sarsi, Diib. and Kor. ...
Porania pulvillus {O.F.M.)
Palmipes placenta {Pennant) ...
Solaster papposus {Linn.)
Henricia sanguiuolenta {O.F.M.)
Asteria.s glacialis, Linn.

,, ruljciis, Linn.
Ophiura ciliaris {Linn.)

,, albida, Forbes

,, affinis, Liitken
Amphiura elcgans {Leach)

filirorniis {O.F.M.) ...
Ophiacli.s Balli ( Thompson)
Opliiiicoiiia nigra (U.F.M.)
Opliiotlirix fragilis {O.F.M.) ...

Echinus acutus, Lamk.
,, niiliaris, ics/ic
,, esculentus, Linn.
Eeliinocyainii-s pusillus {O.F.M. )
Spatangus jnirpurcns (O.F.M.)
Ecliinocardiuni cordatuni {Pen.)
,, pcnnatiliduin,iVw.

F JI F F F M F F
Fo Mo—

F FoF — P

— Fo F

F f PoF(M)M
P F U M M
Fo

B.
L.
T.

P _

M P P — P

M F MoF M

L.

_M

FFFPF— F —

F P P P F —

Fo —

_F F

P Fo Fo — F

F — F

Fo —

F — — F —

B.
L.
L.
L.(?)
B.
L.

Po

Fo

A.L.

F Fo-

ZZZZ7

FoFo

Po —
Fo —

Fo

B.

L.B.

L.

B.

L.B.

B.

il M M F F Fo Fo —
_ Fo

f _Fo

f Fo
F —
M —

—

— Fo

_

Fo - F — M — P P

—

L.

Fo — Fo Po M — F —

F fo f - F

f —

fo F

F

A.B,

Fo P F F

Fo —

—

A.B,

F P P M P P P F

U Fo P F —

M -

— Fo

—

L.

F P P M JI P P F

M Fo P — F

PM —

— P

F

15.

F P F F F F F M

M F — M F

F —

— Fo

—

L.B,

fo — F F F

M —R — P

F —

— F

Fo

A.L.

— Fo
M F

F F

T, R

Fo —

Fo P —

M Fo P F M

P -

U

A.L.

L.B.

B.

P

F F Pof —

Fo-

fo F

Mo

A.B.

f f f f — f P P

M M .M M M

M —

fo F

F

L.B.

_ fo — Fo Fo —

F FoF

P ~

-F

LB.

— f P F — P M —

P F M — P

P —

M M

U

L.i;.

F -P P

F FoP F F

P —

PoF

f

L.B.

- F Po -

. />

Fo-

P F

F

L.B.

Fo P

_F

_Fo

F —

— Fo

P U
— Fo

Po

LB.
L.B.

FROM THE EDDYSTONE GKOUNDS TO START POINT.

531

Coarse gravel Tine Shell

Fine sand. with sand orniud. gravel, gravel. Stones.

Nemektina. i- ii. iii. iv. v. ri. vii. viii. ix. x. xi. xii.xiii. xiv.xv. xvi.xvii. rviii.

Cariuella superba (.ffoZ/.) ... P F — P P — P L.

Ca.i\m\\a.ta,{Mont)C.McInloshii P — P P — — L.

Aniphiponis jmlclier (Jo/i?(s<(5») P P — A.L.

Drepauophonis rubiostriatus,

Huhrccht ... ... — Fo F— — L.

Tetrastemma flavidum {Ehren.)

McI. p r— _ L.

Tetrastemma dorsale, ^/6i7(T?. ... P P P —

,, caudidiim(0.i''.il/.) p — p — _ A.L.

Eui)olia curta, Zr»6?rcA< ... F FF — L.

Linens bilincatus (/t';?a'cr) J/c/. F P — P Y — P — — L.

,, mariuus (J/o;(<.) ... p B.

Miciura pm-purca (Z>«72/cZZ) ... F — P P P — P — P L.

,, fasciolata (i7(/rH6.) ... P p p p — p p p L.

Cerebratulus fuscus, Mcintosh ... F — — A.L.

TUEBELLAKIA.

Eurylepta coniuta (0.i?'.J/.) ... F

Gephyrea.

Phascolion strombi {Mont. ) ... FP P P — F

POLYCHAETA.

Pol3'gordius sp. ... ... FM —

FA\i)hrosyne{oliosa,,Atid.<i;i:dw. Fo — — L.

Aphrodite aculeata, Linn. ... Fo Fo M — L. 13.

Hermione hystrix, 5'rtJ/. ... FFo — L.

Lepidonotus squamatus (Linn. ) — Fo Fo F — M Fo P — F Fo — — P Fo B.

Euiioe nodosa (.S'ot-s. ) ... Fo A.B.

Lagisca propinqua (.W;»r/H. ) ... P P P Fo — F P — M FoFo — M — Fo — L.B.

,, rarisjiina (iW//!(/?i. ) ... P Fo — — A.B.

Harmothoe imbricata (Linn.) ... Fo F — Fo — — A.B,

Evarne impar (/o7ms<o^^) ... P F — Fo — Fo A.B.

Polynoe scolopendriiia, <$"«?;. ... Fo — — L.

Halosydna gelatinosa [Mlmgn.) F — L.

Hermadion assiniile (J/c /?!<.) ... F — B.

Acholoe astericola, CZ/jf?. ... PPP? — L.

Hyalinoecia tubicola {O.F.M.) FoP FoP MFoP— P — L.B.

Lumbriconereis (large) ... P — Fo — —

(small) ... F P— —

Nereis fucata {Sav.)... ... With Eupagurus Bernliardus iu Bnccinum shells. B.

,, procera (A'AZ.) ... FoP MFo— P M— F — Fo — L.

Typosyllisaltcrnosetosa (5. Jos.) P — B.

Ehlersia cornuta {Pdhkc.) ... Fo — — A.L.

Eulalia viridis, ^«t).... ... Fo — — A.L.

Amblyosyllis spectabilis [John.) — Fo —

Polydora caeca (Oc?-5<<^?.) ... P — A.L.

Nephthys Hombcrgii (^. tt J?.) Fo — A.L.

Cllycera convolnta (A't/.) ... F sp? — L.

Chae top terns variopedatus,C/;;rf. Fo — F Fo — P P F M Po M F M M fo — Fo Fo L.B.

Pectinaria auriconia, Dan. ... F F — Fo — F — — P F L.B.

Polymnia nebulosa (Mont.) ... Fo — F F Fo — — L.B.

Nicolea venustula (r. Mrdlr.) f —P FFo— — Fo — A.L.

The]epns,sp. ... ... P P MM— MMP M Fo M P — Fo — — A.L.

Amphitrite gracilis (v. Mrzllr.) Fo— — Fo — A.B.

Polyeirrns aurantiacus (ffr.) ... F — L.

Tcrebellid tubes ... ... F — PPF MP MM —

Sabella (pavonina?) ... ... P F P P P P P — P FoP — A.B.

Sabellaria spinulo.sa (Zc)(ci-) ... P P P P P B.

Filograna imple.xa, PcrWcT/ ... P — p M P — — L.B.

Dasychonel)omliyx (7><Z.) ... P P MP — P M— M Fo — P P Fo— — L.B.

Protnla tulnilaria (Mont.) ... F P — Fo Fo — F F — L.

Ser|iula vermicnlaris, ZiViH. ... P Fo— F 1' — P Fo P P — — Fo F L.B.

Hydroidcs norvegica (6'M?m) ... F P P — F P P — P Fo P — P P F F P P L.B.

Potamoceros triquetcr(l7))7i.)... — Fo — P F — P — P — — — L.B.

ypirorbis sp. ... ... — p . 1' p

532

ON THE FAUNA AND llOTTOM-DEPOSITS NEAK THE SO-FM. LINE

Fine sand.

Coarse gi-avel Fine Shell
withsanJ orniud. gravel, gravel. Stones.

CitrSTACEA.
Honianus viilj,'aris, M.-Edw. ...
Puiidalus brcvirostris, Kthke. ...

Eupagurus Iknihardus, Linn...

,, Piideauxii {Leach) ..

, , cuaiien.sis ( Thomjison)
Aiiaipagurus laevis {Thompson)
I'orcellaua loiigiconiis {Linn.)...
Galathea dispersa, Bate

ii. iii. IV. V. VI. vii.viii. IX. X. xi. xii.xiu. xiv.xv. xvi.xvu. xviii.

Fo

iM M

P M M P P P
P P P P

— M Fo Fo M P
P P M M M M
P M M M M M

F —

F P

F —

V P

V P
M P

P FoF F —

p Fo F

P — P

M — Po

]M F M - P
M Fo M — 1\I

F — — F F

Fo — — Fo —

Fo— FoFo —

— Fo F

P — P ]\I M

P F FoF M

Stenorhynclnislongirostris, i^a6. F F MMMP V P P Fo P — P P F — Fo Fo

Inaclius dorsettensis {Pennant) Fo F M M M P P 7' Jl — P — P P F — Fo Fo

Maia S(iuinado, LatreiUe ... Fo — Fo — — —

Ilyas coarctatus, Leach ... Fo Fo— P — — F M

Eiirynome aspera (Pc?rH«HO ••• F Fo F Fo — F F F M — F F F Fo — — Fo P

Cancer pagunis, Linn. ... Fo Fo — —

Piluninus hirtellus, ie«cA ... Fo

Portuuus depurator (ZtK?i ) ... Mo M — P — F P Po — —

„ imsiWm, Leach ... Po— F FoF P Fo M FoF Fo

Corystes cassivelaumis {Penn.) MoFoMo — F — Fo —

Atelecyclus heterodoii, iertc/i... Fo Fo — P Fo — m— F — M — Fo — Fo Fo

Ebalia tumefocta {Montagu) ... — Fo F MFoP Fo— FF F

,, tuberosa {Pennant) ... FFoF MFoP— P F— — F F

,, Craiichii, Zc«cA ... P — F F

Goiioplax aiigulata (P«&7-) ... F —

Balanus crenatus, Bruguiere
Scalpelluni vulgare, Leach
Pyrgoma anglicum {Gray)

P P M M — P

P —
P —

— F P —
M Fo P P
M — P —

P — P P —
P F — F —
P P P

Phthisica marina, <S7aWcr ... P — P —

Aniiielisca spiiiipes, Bocck ... — — P P

Mclita obtusata (il/oH)'.) ... F

Gaminaropsiserythrophthalmiuni

Lilljchorg ... ... — P P

Erich tlionius abditus, Tcmpleton P P — —

MoLLUSCA. Living.

Pholas jiarva, Pennant ... Fo

Pholadidea papyracea ( Turton) • M

Saxicava rugosa, var. arctica,

(ii?m.) Fo P P— P— M— P — P F

Pandora obtusa, Leach ... Fo — —

Lyonsia norvegica {Chemnitz)... — Fo —

Psanimobia ccstidata, Turton... F — —

Tellina crassa, Pennant ... • F — —

Tapes virginea {Linn.) ... F — Fo — Fo

Venus verrucosa, Linn. ... Fo — — —

,, casina, Ti^HH ... Fo — ■ — —

,, fasciata, Donovan ... Fo Fo Fo Fo

„ ovata, Pennant ... Fo — —

Artemis exolcta (Xin?i.) ... — Fo — —

Circe minima {Montagu) ... Fo — —

Astarte .s\d(;ata (I>(t CWa) ... — Mo F Fo — — Fo —

Cardium ecliinatum, Lin7i ... Fo — —

,, norvcgicum, Spenglcr F Fo — FFo P — Fo — —

Mont'icuta substriuta {Montagu) P — PP —

Kellia suborbicularis {Montagu) Fo — — FoP Fo — F'o

Mocliola modiolus (At'dH.) ... f p — p — p p — P — — 1' f

Nucula nucleus {Linn.) ... Fo — F —

,, nitida, Sowerby ... — M Fo — —

Area telrngona, I'oli. ... — f f

Pectunculus glycimeris {Linn.) — f — M fo

Lima Losconibii, .S'oiwrily ... Fo — F — Fo P — MoFo —

B.
B.A.

B.A.
L.B.

L.

L.

L.

L.

L.

L.

L.
A.B.

L.
B.L.

L.
L.B.

L.

L.
L.B.
L.B.
L.B.
L.B.

L.

A.L.

L.B.

L.

L.B.
B.
B.

L.B.
L.B.

L.
L.

L.B.
A.L.
A.L.

L.

L.
LB.

L.
L.B.
L.B.
L.B.
L.B.
L.B.
A.L.
A.L.
L.B.
LB.
L.B.

L.B.
A.L.
L.B.
L.B.
A.L.

FROM THE EDDYSTONE GKOUNDS TO STAllT POINT. 533

Coarse gravel Fine Shell
Fine sand. with sand or mud. gravel, gravel. Stones.

i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. vii.viii. ix. x. xi. xii.xiii. xiv.xv. xvi.xvii. xviii.
Tecten iigvinns, Mailer ... F Fo — Fo— F Fo Fo Fo B.

„ maximus (ii;m.) ... Fo PP MFoPFP P— F— Fo L.

,, Oliercularis (Z,ai?t.) ... FniFmMFmMmF F P Fm M Fo Fni f F MF p f Fo Fo L.

Anomia ephippium, Z^■«/^. ... P P — M Fo P in P P — — P — A.L.

„ patelliformis, Lm?t. ... -P P— MFo P PP — P — L.B.

Dentalium entalis, Zm/i. ... M— M P P — Fo — Fo — A.L.

Pileopsis huugaricus (ZiH«.) ... FFoP P— — Fo — L.H.

Emarginula reticulata, Sowcrbij P— — FoM P— FPo M L.B.

,, rosea, Bell ... Fo — L.

Trochus zizyphinus, Linn. ... f'i — — fo f L.B.

, , gramilatus, Born ... F — Fo — F — Fo — L.

Turritella coimuunis, liisso ... Fo M — L.B.

Aporrhais pes-pelecani {Linn.) ■ — F — Fo Fo — — L.B.

Eulima polita {Linn.) ... Fo— F — L.B,

Natica uitida (Z)09i0iY'/i) ... — ■ — Fo — L.B.

Lamellaria perspiciia (i«iH.) ... F — F — Fo — L.B.

Nassaincrassata (i1/«Wc>-) ... — Fo Fo L.B.

Buccinum undatum, ZiTiM. ... M M — 7^ P — P Fo P F f Fo — — P Fo B.

Fusus islandicus, Chemnitz ... — Mo — A B.

Cypraea europaea, Montagu ... F F ■ Fo — F F — — Fo — L.

Ovula patula (P«r,i«nO ... — F F Fo L.

Chiton asiillus, Chemnitz ... Fo P P — P Fo MP F P M A.L.

, , discrepans, Brown ... Fo L.

Proneomeuia aglaopheniae. Mar.

& Kowulcvsky ... ... P FF PF— — L.

Dondersia banyulensis, Pruvot . PP — Fo — L.

Scaphander lignarius, Linn. ... F — L.B.

Oscanhis membranaceus {Mont. ) —

Tritonia Horabergii, Cuvier ... — fo — P — L.

,, -plehcisi, Johnston ... P P — — L.

Dendronotusarborescens(O..F.J/.)P — P — A.B.

Doto fragilis (PorM ... P PP— M— PPP P— — L.

„ pimiati fida (J/o«<a[/u) ... P P P — —

„ corona.ta {Gmelin) ... — PoP PP— — P P L.B.

Hero forniosa, Lovdn ... — Fo — B.

Crateua viridis (Po?-M ... P — B.(?)

Gal vina tricolor (Po)-ics) ... — Po • — B.

Coryphellarutilnanchialis {Jon.) P — L.B.

, , Landsburgii (A Idcr

d:Hancock) ... ... P P — P L.

Arcliidori.s tubcrculata (C?<i/7e?-) P P — L.B.

,, maculata, Garstawj . Fo — — —

Laiiiellidoris oblonga. Alder d-

Hancock P -P P P

Triopaclaviger (0. P. il/.) ... P — B.

Aegiru-spunctilucens, D'OWnV/ny Fo — — B.(?)

Polycera quadrilineata {O.F.M.) P P L.

MoLLUscA. Shells.

Lyonsia norvegica [Chemnitz) ... F — F — F —

Solen ensis, iu(7!. ... ... F F F — — F —

Solecurtu.s candidus (i?«um)... F F — — Fo —

Psammobiaferroeii.si.s(C7tc?>i?iiY2) F F — — Fo — —

Tellina crassa, Pennant ... P Fo —

,, donaciiia, Linn. ... F —

Lutraria clliptica, Zft)/ta/-c7j ... F /' 1' F — P — M — P M Fo

Tapes virginea (/.ijJM.) ... M— MM— MFM— P J\ll' MP Fo

Venus verrucosa, Linn. ... F — — — —

striatula, Z/oJioiY/ji, ... \ P — —

fasciata, Donovan .. P— — P Fo

534

ox THE FAUNA AND liOlTOM-DErOSlTS NEAK THE 30-FM. LINE

Venus oviita, I'ennaut
Artemis exoleta {Linn.)
Cypriua islaudica [Linn.)
Astarte sulcata {Da Costa)
Caidium echinatuni, Linn. ..
,, uorvcgicum, Spcnfflcr
Nucula nucleus (Linn.)
,, nitida, ^owcrbi/
Pcctunculus glycinieris, Linn..
Piuua pectinata, Linn.
Lima Loscombii, Sou-crhi)
I'ectcn tigrinus, Miillcr
,, niaximus (Linn.)
,, opcrculavis (Zm?i.)

Ostrea edulis, Linn

Dentalium entalis, Linn.
Trochus granulatus, Boiii
Turritella uomniuuis, Risso
Ajiorrhais pcs-pelecani {Linn.
Scalaria Turtonis {Turton)
Natica nitida {Donovan)
llurex erinaceus, Linn.
Nassa incrassata {Miiller)
Buccinum undatum, Linn.
Fusus islandicus, Chemnitz

Fine sand.

Coarse gravel Fine Sliell
with santl or mini, gravel, gravel. Stones.

1. II. \l\. IV. V. VI. Vll. VIII.

M

P —
M —

P —
P —

— P

— F —
P F —

M M P

— MP
P

IX. X. XI. XII. XIII. XIV XV. XVI.XVU. XVIII.

M F P — M —

M /' — AI Fo —

F 1' — 1> — —

_Mo P — P Fo —

— FFPP F — —

M F P p P M — MP Fo

M

F — F F —

■F —
P P

Fo —
P —

M —

M F

— 7^ —
P M —
M M P

P P P F

f — f P p p M Fo

F F Fo— —

_ F Mo MP P — Fo

FF F— Fo

M P ]\I F M M P P F —
M M M M M M P P M P
_F —

P7^P — PP F— P— —

P— F — F —

— F— M — F F— —

— F— FF F PFo —

Fo

_Fo— — P Fo

POLYZO.V.

Aetea recta, Hincks ... ... — F Fo

Serupocellaria scru])Osa (Linn.) F — M P — P M M M Fo M — P F — — F F

Bicellariaciliata{XM)?i.) ... F PMP P— P F

Bugula turliinata, Alder ... F

„ avicularia (Zm«.) ... Fo PFP — Fo F— — F —

„ flabellata {Thompso7i)... F Fo P — Fo —

Cellaria sinuosa (Z/a5sa?0 ••• MF MMF MMM — Fo F — F Fo

,, fistulosa(Zt?(?;.) ... M F M M F M M M F Fo F f F F — Fo

,, Johnstoni, Bu.sk ... F — — — —

MembraniporaDinnerilii{.<4j?fZ.) P— FoF F— — F FF P

,, catenularia(J«Hi.) F F— P— — Fo P

Flcniingii (Bi'sk) —P—F F— P

Mioropora coriacea (Espcr) ... — Fo Fo

Cribrilinaradiata (i/o/^.) ... P P— FP P

„ figularis (/o/i/i5ion)... P F— l'_FF P

Mieroporella ciliata (P««f«5) ... Fo P P — P F F P — P P P

Malusii(yiM(^o?a;0 P F— P— PP P

,, violacea (/o/^HS<o?0 P — P — FFo P

Ch<)rizoporaBroiigniartii(yi!C£^.) P p _ p F F M— — P P

Schizoiiorella linearis (Ilasmll) Fo P p _ _F F P — P — F P P

auriculata (Zfas^.) Fo P F — P — P F F P — P — F P P

Schizotheca fissa (Bnsk) ... Fo — FF —

Ilippothoa divaricata, Lamrx. F P P— P P— PP P

Lepralia foliacea {Ellis <£; Sol.) Fo Fo Fo Fo— —

liertusa (&7;cr) ... P F — — F Fo — Fo

Porella concinna (Pits/.-) ... Fo P F — M F P P — P — Fo P P

Siiiittia tiispinosa f./w/f/istot)... P F — — F •— P — Fo P 1'

,, cheilostonuita {Manzoni) P — F Fo — Fo P F

Pliylactella collaris {Xormmi). F F — —

Mucronclla ventrieosa (//rt.swfi/) Fo — Fo P P P P F P — !:c> P F Fo P P

VcixcWn (Johnston) . P P — P F F — ■!>< P — Fo P P

variolosa (Johnston) P g!^~ '^°^' ^l

,, corcinca... ... P g'' l*'o

PalmicellariaSkenci,/i7^(',sttiSyZ. xg" Fo — —

Klivncli..|M.r.ibispiiiu.sa(,7«/r/wY(-») — F F F g^ F F F

Celleporaavicularis (//uic^s) ... P P M M P — M M P /' '^|, P F — F F

ramulosa, Zm». ... — P MMP MMM — Fo P — Fo— —

B.

L.B.

B.

■?

A.L.
L.

i

L.

L.

B.
L.B.
A.L.

B.

L.

L.
A.L.
A.L.

L.

L.
L.B.
A.L.

L.
A.L.

L.
A.L.
A.L.
A.L.

2
?

A.L.
A.L.
L.
A.L.
A.B.
L.(?)
A.L.
A.L.

FKO.M THE EDDYSTONE GROUNDS TO START POINT. 535

Coarse gravel Fine Shell
Fine sand. with sand or mud. gravel, gravel. Stones.

i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. vii.viii. ix. x. xi. xii.xiii xiv.xvr. xvi.xvii. xviii.

Crisia eburnea (Linn.) ... F — u> ^ iT

,, rsimosa., Ha )-)ner ... — ~ i>< p v p~ P in

Stomatopora major (Johnston)... P P 2=P ^ ]_ r }2

Jolmstoni (Ilel/er) F J3§ ^F — L.

:; gv^mx\ata(M.Ediv.) F .S^.F-FF F B.(?)

Idmonea serpens (iwrn.) ... MM M P — P P ^g FoF F L.B.

Diastoporasul .orbicularis, F-wZ-s. F F- Fo — g-g-P— I'P 1 A L.

„ sarniensis (Xorman) F F - P F Fo - ==- p _ 1 lo P 1

ohelia (Johnston) ... F— F— — — — A.L.

r)atin^ (La marck) ... Fo Fo— P F - — Fol A.L.

Lichenopora hispida (Fleming) Fo P PP PFF PF FP I^ A.B.

Alcyonidiumgelatinosum(/^i;i.) F FoP A.B.

parasiticum (Flcm.) — "•

albidum, Aider

TUNICATA.

Molgula oculata, Forbes

, , simplex, Alder d; Han
Forbesella tesselata (Forbes) .
Styelopsis grossularia, Van Ben.

Ascidia depressa, Alder
mentula (O.F.M.\

Cephalociiorda.
Amphioxus lanceolatus, Yarrell

A.B.

Cylindroeciumdilatatum(Zf?ifo.) P ■ '^•

Pedicellina cernua (PftZfos) ... P — P — P — Fo P —FoP Fo A.L.

Fo F — — L.B.

B.

F ?

P I> — — P — B.

Polycarpa varians, ^e««- ... fo M — M Po Fo — f M— — KB.

Corella larvaeformis, //a?!cocZ-... Fo— B-

Ascidiella venosa (O.F.M) ... Fo F — — — L.B.

sciihva (O.FM.) ... P F M M f M F P F -F F F F - Fo Fo - L.B.

F Fo ?
— Fo — L.B.

Ciona intestinalis (Xi?m. ) ... — F F— Fo P Fo L.B.

— F FF — L.

Fishes.

Pleuronectes platessa, Linn. ... F ar"

,, Hinanda, Zm/(. ... M a u

,, microcephalus, i)o'/i. MFo A.B.

Solea liitea (Ptsso) ... ... Fo — L.

,, variegata (Donovan) ... — Fo Y

Arnoglossus latenia ( Walb) ... M— MFo — L-

Gadiis miuutus, Linn. ... Fo |r'-

Merluccius vulgaris (Linn.) ... Fo • — j-'-

Capros aper (Linn.)... ... P — P r'*

Zeus faber, 7.«»i. ... ... Mo-PFo — L,-

Trigla pini, i>Voc/i F F M— F — L

,, gurnardus, ii?m. ... M F M Fo — LB.

,, lineata, 07)16^. ... Fo MoF — |^-

,, liiruudo, Linn. ... Fo Fo- • ^•

Lophius piscatorius, iz'jui. ... F — F B.L.

Oallioiiviiuis lyra, Linn. ... P— MF — L-

Gobius Jell'reysi, (?«)ii!/<cr ... M— MM — 1^-

Cry.stallogobius Nilssoni,ZA<£.'A'. F —

Lcpadogasterbimaculatus(Z'wi.) F— FF— FF — Fo— L.

Seyllinm canicula (Z^m/z.) ... fo — fo 'l

Kaia clavata, Linn.... ... FoFo F — ^^■

,, blaiida, //o/< ... ... F

,, SY>. (j/oa,irj) ... ... f —

Rhina srpiatiua (!,«)(».) ... fo ^-

536 ON THE FAUNA AND BOTTOM-DEPOSITS NEAR THE 30-FM. LINE

Table VII.

Showing the number and ijcrccntage of animals of each group living at
a depth of about 30 fathoms between the Eddystone and Start
Point, lohich are found in the different geographical regions.

A. L.

Arctic to
Lusitanian

A. B.

Arctic and
Boreal

B.

Boreal

L. B.

Lusitanian
and Boreal

Lusitanian

Remarks

Foiaminifera

1

—

—

—

—

Foramiiiifera from
bottom - deposits not
included.

Hydrozoa

11
'^^ %

4

9%

17
39%

6

14%

6

14%

Anthozoa

—

—

3

30%

—

7
70%

Echinodermata |

3

12%

3

12%

5

19%

12
46%

3

12%

Nemertina

1

3

25%

—

1
8%

—

8

67%

Nemertina of northern
seas not well known.

Polychaete

!

6
16%

6

16%

5
13%

11
30%

9
24%

Crustacea

1

1
3%

3

10%

3
10%

11

35%

13

42%

Mollusca

9

14%

2

3%

10%

27
41%

20

31%

Polyzoa

1

19

40%

4

9%

8
17%

4

9%

12
26%

Tunicata

t
1

—

—

3

33%

6

67%

—

Tunicata of northern
seas not well known.

Fishes

!

—

3

14%

1

4%

3

14%

15

68%

Tlic number of fishes
captured is not large,
as the results are most-
ly those of dredgings.

Total

53

18%

25

8%

53

18%

80

26%

93

30%

FROM THE EDDYSTONE GROUNDS TO START POINT. 537

LITERATURE.

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538 ON THE FAUNA AND BOTTOM-DEPOSITS NEAR THE 30-FM. LINE

29. Garstang, W. — Contributions to Marine Bionomics, ii., Journ. Mar. Biol. Assoc,

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30. Qosse, P. H. — A Historv of the British Sea-Anemones and Corals. London.

1860. '

31. Gourret, P. — Kd vision des Crustacea Podoi>hthalmes du Golfe de Marseille.

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1876-1878.

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1894.

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1887-1898.

41. „ Fauna of Liverpool Bay, vol. i. 1886.

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43. Herdman, W. A., and Leslie. — The Invertebrate Fauna of the Firth of Forth.

1881.

44. Herdman, W. A., and Lomas, J. — On the Floor Deposits of the Irish Sea.

Proceed. Liverpool Geological Society, 1897-98, p. 205.

45. Hickson, S. J. — Tlie Anatomy of Alcyonittm digitatum. Quart. Journ. Micr.

Sci, xxxvii., 1895, p. 343.

46. Hincks, T. — A History of the British Hydroid Zoophytes. London. 1868.

47. Hodge, G. — On a new Sand Star of the genus Ophiura {Ophiura Normani)

found on the coast of Northumberland and Durham. Trans.
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48. Holt, E. W. L. Survey of Fishing Grounds, West Coast of Ireland, 1890-1891.

Sci. Proceed. Roy. Dublin Soc. 1892.

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Trans. Liv. Biol. Soc, v. 1890-91.

50. Hoyle, \V. E. — Report on the Ophiuroidea of the Faroe Channel, mainly

collected Ijy H.M.S. Triton in August, 1882, with some
Remarks on the Distribution of the Order. Proceed. Roy.
Soc Edinburgh, 1883-84.

51. „ A Revised List of British Ophiuroidea. Proceed. Roy. Phys.

Soc. Edinburgh, viii. 1885.

52. „ Report on the Biological Investigations on the Sea to the

West of Lewis during July and August. Sixth Ann. Report
Fishery Board for Scotland. 1887.

53. „ On the Deep-water Fauna of the Clyde Sea-area. Journ.

Linnean Soc Zoology, xx. 1889.

54. Hunt, A. J{. — On the Influence of Wave-currents on the Fauna inhabiting

Siiallow Seas. Trans. Linnean Soc, xviii , 1884, p. 262.

FROM THE EDDYSTOXE GROTJXDS TO START POINT. 539

55. Jeffreys, J. Gwyn. — Britisli Conchology. London. 1863-67.

56. Johnston, G. — A History of the British Zoophytes. Edinburgh. 1838.

57. Joly, J., and Dixon, H. H. — Coccoliths in our Coastal Waters. Nature, vol. 56,

1897, p. 468.

58. Kirchenpauer. — Zoologische Ergebnisse der Nordseefahrt {Pomvierania) VI.

Bryozoa. Jahresber der Comm. zur loiss. Untersuch. d. deutsch.
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59. Koch, G. V. — Die Gorgoniden des Golfes von Neapel. Fauna und Flora des

Golfes von Neapel. XV. Monographie. 1887.

60. Koehler, R. — Echinides et Ophiurcs provenant des canipagnes du yacht

V Hirondelle. Result. Gamp. Sci. Prince de Monaco, xii. 1S98.

61. „ R(5sultats scientifiques de la canipagnes du Caudan dans le Golfe

de Gascogne, 1895. Annales de I'Universite de Lyon.

62. Kowalevsky et Marion. — Contributions a I'Histoire des Solenogastres ou

Aphicopliores. Ann. Mus. d'Hist. Nat. Marseille,
iii. 1887.

63. Lacaze-Duthier, de. — Faune du Golfe du Lion. Coralliaires zoantliaires

sclc'n'odermes. Arch. Zool. Exp. et Gen., v. 1897.

64. Laffuie, J. Joyeux. — Description du Delagia chaetopteri (J. J.-L.) Archiv. Zool.

Expe'r. et Gen., vi. 1888.

65. „ Etude Monographique du chetoptere (Chaetopterus vario-

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66. Levinsen, G. M. R. — Annulata, Hydroidae, Anthozoa, Porifera. Det

Videnskahelige Udbytte af Kanouhaden "Hauchs"
Togter. Copenhagen. 1889-93.

67. „ Polyzoa. Det Videnskahelige Udbytte af Kanonbaden

" Hauchs" Togter. Copenhagen. 1889-93.

68. Lo Bianco, Salvatore. — Notizie biologiche riguardanti specialmente il periodo di

niaturita sessuale degli animali del golfo di Napoli.
Mitt. Zool. Sta. Neapel, viii. 1888.

69. Locard, A. — Expeditions scientifiques du Travailleur et du Talisman. Mollusca.

Paris. 1897-8.

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Neapel. 24 Monogr. 1897.

71. Lyman, T. — Ophiuroidea. Challenger Report, v.

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Anouioures. Result. Gam^iag. Scicnt. Prince
de Monaco, vii. 1894.

540 ON THE FAUNA AND BOTTOM-DEPOSITS NEAE THE 30-FM. LINE

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Mr. Gwyu JeflVeys. Brit. Assoc. Rep. 1868.

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Arch. Zool. Expe'r. et Gen., ix., 1891, p. 699.

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(Manche et Ocean). Ann. Sci. Nat. Zool, 8'"e
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Coelenteraten. Jahresher. der Comm. zur tuiss. Untersuch. d.
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Itt7. Smith, E. A. — Lamellibranchiata. Challenger Report, \m.

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Kano7ibaden " Hauchs" Togter. Copenhagen. 1889-93.

FROM THE EDDYSTONE GROUNDS TO START rOINT.

541

110. Walther, J. — Einleitung in die Geologle als historische Wissenschal't. I. Tlieil.
Bionomie des Meeres. Jena. 1893-94.

WalkLT, A. O. — Reports on the Higher Crustacea of the L. M. B. C District.
Fauna of Liverpool Bay, i., 18S6. Proceed. Biol. Soc. L'pooL,
ii., 1888. Litto, iii., 1889. Ditto, iv., 1890.

„ Revision of the Podophthalniata and Cuinacea of Liverpool

Bay. Proceed. Biol. Soc. L'pooL, vi. 1892.

111.

112.

EXPLANATION OF CHABTS

Illi(strati7iff the BcjMvt " On the Fauna and Bottom-deposits near the
Thirty-fathom line from the Eddystone Grounds to Start Point."

Conventional sign.s have been adopted to indicate the texture of the
bottom-deposits.

Each species is indicated by a letter, and the kind of type shows the
relative abundance of the species. A thick capital placed on any ground
indicates that the species is very abundant on the grountl ; a hollow capital
that it is moderately plentiful ; a thin capital that it is generally present l)ut
only in small numbers ; and a small letter that only one or two occasional
stray specimens have been taken on the ground.

Chart I.
Alcyonium digitatuuj.
Caryophyllia Smithii.
Sarcodictyon catenata.
Epizoanthus incrustatus.
Chondractinia digitata.

Chart II.

Haleciuni halecinum.
Sertuhirtlla (iayi.
Aglaoplienia niyriophyllum.
Sertularia abietina.

Chart III.
Eudendriimi ramosum.

„ rameuni.

Bougainvillia ramo.sa.
Hydrallinania falcata.

Chart IV.
Antennularia antennina.
Antennularia raniosa.
Tlmiaria articulata.
Plumularia Catharina.

Chart V.
Echinus esculentus.

acutus.

niiliaris.
Spatangu.s purpureus.
Ecliinocardiuni cordatum.

Chart VI.
Asterias glaciali.s.

,, rubens.
Holothuria nigra.

NEW .SEIIIES.— VOL. V. NO. 4.

Solaster papposus,
Amphiura elegans.
„ tiliformis.

Chart VII.
Palniipes placenta.
Luidia Sarsii.
Porania pulvillus.
Henricia sanguinolonta.

Chart VIII.

Astropecten irregularis.
Opliiura ciliaris.
Ophiothrix fragilis.
Opliiocoma nigra.

Chart IX.

Opliiactis Balli.
Ophiura albida.
„ atlinis.
Proneomenia aglaopheniae.
Dondersia lianyulensis.

Chart X. ^
Chaetopterus variopedatus.
Polygordius sp.
Hyalinoecia tubicola.
Aphrodite aculeata.

Chart XI.
Stenorliynchu.s longirostris.
Inachus dorsettensis.
Hyas coarctatus.
Ebalia tuniefacta.

„ tuberosa.

„ Cranchii.

2n

542 ON THE FAUNA AND BOTTOM-DEPOSITS NEAR THE SO-FM. LINE

Chart XII. Cardium echinatum (shells).
Pandalus l)revirostris. „ „ (living).

Eupagur.,s Bernliardiis.

Sagartia parasitica. 1 ectunculus glycimens.

<= t- J, ^g^g islandicus.

Chart XII I. Bucciimm iindatum.

Atelecyclus heterodoii. Dentaliuiu entails.

Corystes cassivelaunus. Turritella coinmunis.

Gonoplax aiigulata. T^ima Losconibii.

Portunus depurator. ^ va^t

rm«illii« L/HART A. \ i.

" P "■ Cellaria fistulosa and sinuosa.

Chart XIV. Ascidiella scabra.

Pecten opercularis. Polycarpa varians.

„ maxinius. Ampliioxus laiiceolatus.

Cardium norvegicum. Lepadogaster bimaculatus.

A - Altyomum du/ifahim. C " CajyophfUiu. SmiiJva,. S = SarcodzctyoTV ctctautbcu. E — Epizoanthiis incrastatus. J) = 'Chondrajciutia/ dujilata/.

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[ ,-,4M ]

INDE

r

Acholoe aMericola, 479, 531.

Actinotrocha, 191.

Adinozoa, 457, 530.

Adamsia palliata, 460, 530.

AeijiruH jnmctilucenx, 533.

Aetea recta, 534.

Aijastra mira, 191.

Aijlaoplienia myrioplujUam, 455, 530.

— tubulifera, 455, 530. -
Agn7iiis rntaphradus, larva, 157, etc.
Alnjonidium albidum, 535.

— (jelatinoAum, 535.

— parasiticum, 535,
Alcyoninim digitatum, 457, 530.
Allen, E. J., see Contents.
AuihlijoaylUx spedahilis, 481, 531.
Ammodytes, .sp., larva, 163, etc.
Ampelisca spinipes, 532.
Amp)hinema d.inema, 186, etc.
AmphioxuH lanceolatiis, 535.

— larvae, 191.
Amphiporus pulcher, 531.
Amphifrite gracilis, 484, 531.
Amphiura elcganx, 530.

— Jiliformis, 530.
Atuipagurus Iccevis, 488, 532.
Anomia ephippimn, 505, 533.

— patelliformis, 505, 533.
Antennularia ramosa, 455, 530.

— antennina, 454, 530.
Aphia pellucidaj 89.
larva, 163.

reproduction, 338.

Aphrodite aciileata, 477, 531.
Aporrhxiis pes-pelecani, 508, 533, 534.
ylrca tetragona, 503, 532.

NEW SEUIF.S. — VOL. V. NO. 4.

great

silver

Arrhidoris macidata, 533.
Argentina xilnx, Nilss.,

smelt, 341.
Arnoglossus conspersus, 48.

— development of, 47.

— Grolviiianni, 89.

egg, 50, 168, etc.

reproduction, 136.

— Interna, 535.
egg, 164, 49.

reproduction, 48, 135.

— lophotes, o^'a, 49.

reproduction, 136.

Artemis exoleta, 498, 532, 534.
Ascfdia depress/ (, 513.

— mentula, 513.
Ascidiella srahra, 513, 535.

— venosa, 513, 535.
Astarte sulcata, 499, 532, 534.
Astcriiis glaciaUs, 466, 530.

— rubens, 465, 530.
Astropeden irregularis, 461, 530.
Atelecyclus heterodon, 493, 532.
Atherina presbyter, i-eproduction, 148.

B.

Balanus crenatus, 532.

Belone vulgaris, larva, 162, etc.

Beroe, 191.

Bicellaria ciliaia, 512, 534.

Bipinnaria, 191.

Blennius ocellatus, reproduction, 122.

— pholis, re2)r()dnction, 123.

larva, 169, etc.

Blonde Ray, in Start Bay, 304.

in Teignnioutli I'ay, 31.').

Bottle-no.sed Bay ami itsegg-pur.se, 181.

544

INDKX.

Bottom-deposits, 377.

Bongainvillia ramosa, 447.

Bream, Sea, Malformation in the

mouth, 345.
Brill, in Start Bay, 302.

— in Teignmouth Bay, 313.

— in Torbay, 308.
Browne, E. T., see Contents.
Buccinum undatum, 509, 533, 534.
BwjuUi avicidaria, 512, 534.

— flabellida, 512, 534.

— turbinata, 534.

Byrne, L. W., see Contents.

C.

Callionymus lyra, 44, 535.

larva, 161, etc.

ova, 130, 157, etc.

reproduction, 111.

— viaculatus, 90, 343.
ova, 111.

Oalycella fastigiuta, 450, 529.

— syringa, 449, 529.
Camiximdaria HincJcsii, 448, 529.

— Jlexuosa, 449, 529.

— verticillata, 448, 529.
Cancer pagiirufi, 532.
Cantharus lineatus, 89.
Capros aper, 535.

egg, 42, 121, 164.

larva, 42, 167, etc.

reproduction, 11, 120, .339.

Caranx trachuruH, egg, 167, etc.

larva, 169, etc.

reproduction, 116, 340.

Canlium echinatum, 499, 532, 534.

— norvegicum, 501, 532, 534.
Carinella annulata, 531.

— supcrha, 531.
Caryoj^hyllia Smithri, 459, 530.
Causes wliich inlliicnce the distribution

of life on the sea bottom, 368.
Cellaria Jlstulosd , 511, 534.

— Jolmstoni, 534.

— sinuosa, 511, 534.
Cellepora avicnlaria, 512, 534.

— ramnlosfi, 512, 534.
Gentronotas gunmllns, larva, 157, etc.
Cephalochmxla, 535.

Cepola rubescevs, 197.
Cerebratulus fmcus, 531.

Chaetopterus variopedaHx, 482, 531.

— larvae, 191.

Charts, Explanation of, 541.
Chiton aselliiA, 506, 533.

— discrepans, 506, 533.
Chondrnctinia digitata, 460, 530.
Chorizopora Brognuirtii, 534.
Ciona intestinalu, 513, 535.
Circe minima, 499, 532.

Clione celata, 443, 529.

Clupea harengu.% larva, 156, etc.

reproduction, 154.

— 'pikhfdilns, egg, 165, etc.
(?), larva, 169, etc.

— fiprattus, eggs, 156, etc.

larvae, 160, etc.

Clytia Johnstoni, 448, 529.
Cod, rate of growth, 8.

— in Start Bay, 302.

— in Teignmouth Bay, 314.
Coppinia arcta, 450, 529.
Corella hrvaeformi.% 535.
Coria-like Labroid, egg, 167.
Coris Julis (?), reproduction, 126.
Corynnctifi viridis, 460, 530.
Coryplielld riijibranchialiit, 533.

— Landsburgi, 533.

Corystes cassivelaimus, 492, 532.
Cottus bnbalis, larvae, 158, etc.
Crutena viridis, 533.
Cribrilina radiata, 534.

— figularis, 534.
Crisia eburnea, 535.

— ramosa, 535.
Crystallogohius Nilssoni, 535.

reproduction, 339.

Ctenolabrus rupestris, egg, 130, 161, etc.

reproduction, 124, 339.

Cucumaria lactca, 530.

— pentactes, 530.
Cuspidella costata, 529.
Cydippe, 192.

Cylindroecium dilatatnm, 535.
Cypraea Europaea, 510, 533.
Gyprina Islandica, 498, 534.
Cytaeandra areolata, 1 86, etc.
Cytaeis, sp. (?), 186, etc.

D.

Dabs {Pleuronectes limanda), 304, 305,
309, 316.

INDEX

^ /I "

Dabs in Start Bay, 301.

— in Teignnioutli Bay, 312.

— in Torbay, 308.

Danish Biological Station, Remarks on
Dr. Petersen's Rejjort for 1895,
82.

Dasychone bombyx, 485, 531.

Dendronotus arborescens, 533.

Dentalium enUtlis, 506, 533, 534.

Determination of amount of Calcium
Carbonate in the samples of
bottom-deposit, and descrij^tion
of their geological features, 381.

Diastopora patina, 535.

— obelia, 535.

— Sarniensis, 535.

— snborbicularis, 535.
Diplmsia aftenuata, 453, 530.

— rosacea, 453, 530.

— tamarisca, 453, 530.
Director's Report, 92, 232, 354.
Doliolum tritoms, 191.
Dondcrsia banynhnsis, 510, 533.
Dory in Start Bay, 302.

— in Teignmouth Bay, 314.
Doto coronata, 511, 533.

— fragilis, 511, 533.

— pennutijida, 511, 533.
Drepanophorus rubrostnatus, 531.
Duncker, G., .see Contents.
Dunn, M., see Contents.

E.

Ebalia Cranchii, 494, 532.

— tuberosa, 494, 532.

— tumefada, 494, 532.
Echinocardium cordatum, 476, 530.

— pennatifdum, 530.
Echinodermata, 460, 530.
Echinocyamus pusillaa, 474, 530.
Echinus ucutus, 412, 530.

— esculentus, 472, 530.

— miliaris, 474, 530.
Ectopleura dnmortieri, 186, etc.
Ehlersia cornutu, 531.
Evmrginula reticulata, 506, 533.

— rosea, 507, 533.
Epizoanthus incrustatus, 459, 530.
Erichthonius abditns, 532.
Escharoides quincuncialis, 52.
Eudcndi'iura, sp. (?), 529.

E adendrium capillare, 446, 529.

— nuiuuni, 446, 529.

— ramosum, 446, 529.
Eulalia viridis, 481, 531.
Eulima piolita, 509, 533.
Eunoe nodosa, 478, 531.
Eupagurus Bernhardus, 487, 532.

— cuanensis, 487, 532.

— Prideauxii, 487, 532.
Euphysa aurata, 186, etc.
Euphrosyne foliosa, 477, 531.
Eupolia curta, 531.
Eurylepta cornuta, 531.
Eurynome aspera, 490, 532.
Eutima insignis, 186.
Evarne impar, 479, 531.

Fauna and Ijottom-dcposits near 30 fm.

line from Eddystoue Ground."*

to Start Point, 365.
Filograna implexa, 484, 531.
Fish in Start Bay, 310.
Flounder in Teignmouth Bay, 312.

— in Torbay, 308.

— in Start Bay, 301.
Foraminifera, 529.
Forb&^ella tesselata, 512, 535.
Fusus islandicus, 510, 533, 534.

G.

Gadoid, Unidentified eggs of, 145, 167.
Gadus Esmarkii, 79.

— luscus, reproduction, 138.
eggs, 156, etc.

— merlangus, egg, 160, etc.

— minutus, 535.

egg, 161, etc.

larva, 158, 161, etc.

reproduction, 140.

— polUtchias, eggs, 157, etc.

larva, 160, etc.

reproduction, 141.

Galathm dispersa, 489, 532.
Galvinia tricolor, 533.
Gammaropsis erytlirophthabniam, 532.
Garstang, W., see Contents.
Garveia nuta7is, 447, 529.
Gemmaria implexa, 186, etc.
Gephyrea, 531,

Gibb.«, H., sec Contents.

546

INDEX.

Ghjcera convohUa, 481, 531.
Gohiits Jeffreysii, 89, 535.
reproduction, 337.

— niger, reproduction, 335.

— paganellus, reproduction, 335.

— pictus, reproduction, 336.

— quadritimculatus, 89.

— scorpioides, reproduction, 337.
Gonoplax anyulata, 495, 532.
Gorgonia verrucosa, 458, 530.
Grey Gurnard in Start Bay, 303.

in Teignninutli Bay, 314.

in Torbay, 309.

H.

Halecium Beanii, 451, 529.

— halecinum, 450, 529.

— labrosum, 452, 529.
Haloi^ydna gelatinosa, 479, 531.
Harnier, S. F., sec Contents.
Harmothoe imhrimta, 478, 531.
Henricia sanguinolenta, 465, 530.
Hermadion assimile, 479, 53 1 .
Hermionc hydrix, All, 531.
Hero foimosa, 533.

Herring. On the occurrence of large
numbers of larval herring at
the surface, 184.

— rate of growth, 8.
Hderocordylc Conybcari, 447, 529.
Hippothoa divaricata, 534.

Hjort's " Hydrographie Biological
Studies of the Norwegian
Fisheries," 56.

Eolothuria nigra, 460, 530.

Holt, E. W. L., see Contents.

Homarus vulgaris, 486, 532.

Homelyn in Start Bay, 304.

— in Teignmouth Bay, 315.
Hyalinoecia tubicola, 479, 531.
Hyas cuarctutus, 490, 532.
Hydradiiiia echinata, 446, 529.
Hydrallniania falcata, 454, 530.
Hydroides norvegica, 485, 531.
Hydrozoa, 443, 529.
Hypocodon irrolifura, 1 90.
Hypophorella expansa, 51.

Idmonea serpens, 535.
Inachus dorsettensis, 490, 532.
Irene pelluciday 186, etc.

K.

Kdlia saborbicularis, 501, 532.

L.

Labroid, unidentified, resembling Coris,

reiiroduction, 126.
Labrus vutculatus, colour change, 193.
Lafoea diunosa, 449, 529.

— frudicosa, 449, 529.
Lagisca propinqua, 478, 531.

— rarispina, 478, 531.
Lamellaria perspicua, 509, 533.
Lamellidoris oblonga, 511, 533.
Lar mhellarum, 186, etc.
Larvae, fi.sh, unidentified, 153.
Lemon or Merrysole, Teignmouth Bay,

313.

in Start Bay, 301.

Lepadogaster bimaculatus, 535.

larva, 170, etc.

ova, 122.

Lepidonotihs squamat ns, 478, 531.
Lcpralia foliacea, 534.
■ — pertusa, 534.
Lidienopora hispida, 535.
Lima Loscombii, 503, 532, 534.
Linens bilineatus, 531.

— marinus, 531.
Liparis, larvae, 161, etc.
Liriantha appendicidata, 186, etc.

List of animals found in tow-nets,

September, 191.
Lizzia blondina, 186, etc.
Lobsters, larvae at the surface, 196.
Lophius piscatorius, 535.

reproduction, 121.

Lovenella dausa, 449, 529.
Luidia Sarsi, 463, 530.
Lumbriconereix, .sp. (?), 531.
Lutraria elliptica, 497, 533.
Lyonsia norvegica, 496, 532, 533.

M.

Mackerel, American investigations of
the habits and migrations of, 30.

— breeding, 3.

— distribution, 2, etc.

— food, 9.

— migrations, 9, 286.

— summary of evidence concerning

the races uf the, 284.

INDEX.

547

Mackerel, quantity lauded, England and
Wales, years 1893-95, 14.

— quantity landed at French jtorts,

1894-96, 15.

— races, variation and migrations of,

235.

— rale of growth, 4, 6.

— Report, 1887, U.S.A. Comuiissit)n of

Fish and Fisheries, 31.

— (Scomber scomber), 1.

— size and maturity, 8.
Maia squiiiado, 490, 532.
Magelona, larva, 179, 191.
Manjelis, sp. (?), 186, etc.
Mdrciellium ocfopiuirtatuin, 190.
Medusae, distribution during St'pt.,

1897, 189.

— notes on, 188.
Meek, A., see Contents.
Melitii obtusata, 532.
Membranipora Flemincjii, 534.

— catenulana, 534.

— Dumerilii, 534.
Merluccius vulgnru, 79, 535.
Micropora complamita, 52.

— coriacea, 534.
Microporella ciliata, 534.

— Malnsii, 534.

— violarcd, 534.
Micrura fasciolata, hZl.

— p)urpurea, 531.
Mitraria, 191.

Mitrocomium, sj). (?), 186, etc.
Modiola, sp. (?), 502.

— modiolus, 532.
Molgula simplex, 512, 535.

— octilata 512, 535.
Mollusca, 495, 532.
Montacuta substriata, 501, 532.
Alorone labrax, reproduction, 333.
Motella, eggs of, 142, 156, etc.

— cimbria, 343.

— larva, 156, etc

— mudda, larvae, 166, etc.

— tricirrata, larvae, 164, etc.
Mucronella roccinra, 534.

— Peuchii, 534.

— variolosa, 534.

— ventricosa, 534.
Mwjfjiaen ntlanti»n, 191.
Mwjil cliclo, larva, 162, etc.

Mullas Perxmi, reproduction, 151.
Muraena Helena, 91.
Murex erinaceus, 534.
Myliobatis aquila, 198.
Mysidopsis angusta, 344.
Mysis lonijicornis, 344.

N.

Nassa incrassata, 509, 533, 534.
Naiica nitida, 509, 533, 534.
Nemcrfiwi, 486, 531.
Nephthys HombergU, 481, 531.
Nereis fucata, 481, 531.

— 2)rocera, 481, 531.
Nicolea vennstula, 483, 531.
Noctiluca miliaris, 191.
Northumberland Sea Fisheries Com-
mittee. Scientific work, 72.

— tables of fish caught, 76.
Nucidu vitidn, 502, 532, 534.

— nucleus, 502, 532, 534.
Nudibranchiata, 511, 533.

O.

Ubclui dichntuDia, 448, 529.

— lucifera, 186, etc.

— medusae of, 179.
Operrularella laccrta, 449, 529.
Ophiactis iJulli, 470, 530.
Ophiocoma nigra, 470, 530.
Ophiothrix fragilis, 471, 530.
Ophiura affinis, 470, 530.

— albidu, 468, 530.

— ciliaris, 468, 530.
Oscanius membranaceus, 533.
Ostrea edidis, 534.

0 Villa pat Ilia, 510, 533.

Painted Ray in Start Bay, 304.
Palmiccllaria Skenei, 534.
Palmipes placenta, 464, 530.
Pandnliis brevirostris, 486, 532.
Pandora obtusa, 496, 532.
Paraphellia expansa, 460, 530.
Parrot Gurnard in Start Bay, 303.
Pectcn maxim us, 504, 533, 534.

— opercularis, 505, 533, 534.

— tigrinus, 505, 533, 534.
Pectunculus glycimcris, 503, 532, 534.
Pectinaria auricoma, 483, 531.

548

INDEX.

Pedicellina cernua, 535.

Pelagic Fauna of Plymouth, Sept.,

1897, 186.
Perigonimus repens, 446, 529.
Phascolion strombi, 531.
Phialidiuvi, 179.

— biiskianum, 186, etc.

— cymbaloidcAun, 186, etc.
Pholadidea pcqyyracea, 496, 532.
Pholas parva, 495, 532.
Phrynorhombus (?), larvae, 165, etc.

— unimaculatiis, 128, 343.

reproduction, 45.

Phthisica marina, 532,

Phycis blennioides, rejiroduction, 147.

Phylactelln colhtris, 534.

Pileopais imgaricus, 506, 533.

Pilidium, 191.

Pilumnus hirtellus, 532.

Pinna piecfinata, 503, 534.

Plaice, 84, 304, 305, 309, 316.

— in Start Bay, 300.

— in Torbay, 307.

— in Teigninouth Bay, 312.
Plcuroncdes JlesHs, larvae, 160, etc.
statistical investigation, 172.

— limanda, 535.

— - — larva, 162, etc.

— microcephalus, 535.
eggs, 157, etc.

— platessa, 535.

eggs, 157, etc.

Plunudaria Catharina, 456, 530.

— fridescens, 457, 530.

— pinnata, 456, 530.

— setacea, 456, 530.
Plunger, 176.

Polycarpa varians, 512, 535.
Polycera quadrilineata, 533.
Polychneta, 476, 531.
Polycirrus aurantiacus, 484, 531.
Pohjdora caeca, 531.
Polygordius, sp. (?), 477, 531.
Polymnia nebulosa, 483, 531.
Pobjnoe scolopendrina, 479, 531.
Polyzoa, 511, 534.
Pontobdella miiricata, incubation, 195.

Notes on, 331.

Porania pulvillus, 463, 530.
Porcellana lowjicornis, 488, 532.
Porella concinna, 534.

Porifera, 443, 529.
Potamoceros triqueter, 485, 531.
Portunus depnrntor, 491, 532.

— pusillus, 492, 532.
Proneomenia aglaopheniae, 510, 533.
Protula tubiilaria, 485, 531.
Psummobia coafulata, 497, 532.

— ferroensis, 497, 533.
Pyrgoma aiujlicum, 532.

E.

Raia, sp. (?), 535.

— alba, and its egg-purse, 181.

— blanda, 535.

— clavata, 535.

— marginata., 181.
Rays, 306.

Red Gurnard in Start Bay, 303.
Reproduction of Teleostean Fishes in
the S.W. district. Notes on, 333.
Rhiiia squatina, 535.
lihoinbus maximus, larva, 165, etc.

— jnmctutics, 128.
larvae, 160, etc.

— norvegicu?', 128.
Ehyncopora bispinosa, 534.

Sabella 2MVoni na (1), 484, 531.
Sabellaria spinulosa, 531.
Sagartia parasitica, 459, 530.
Sand Soles, 306.

in Start Bay, 301.

Saphenia mirabilis, 186, etc.
Sarcodictyon catena ta, 458, 530.
Sarsia gemmifera, 179, 189, etc.

— sp., 186, etc.
Saxicava rugosa, 496, 532.
Scalaria Turtonis, 534.
Scalpellum vulgare, 532.
Scaphander lignarius, 533.
Schizoporclla auriculata, 534.

— cristata, 53.

— linearis, 534.
Schizotheca fissa, 534.
Scomber colias, 2.

— scomber, reproduction, 112.

young, 113. See Mackerel.

Scrupocellaricc scruposa, 512, 534.
Scyllium canicuki, 535.

Sepia eleqans, 343.

INDEX.

549

Serpula vermicularis, 485, 531.
Sertidarella Gayi, 452, 530.

— pohjzonias, 453, 530.
Sertularia ahietina, 453, 530.

— argentea, 454, 530.

Silver Smelt, Great, 341, 454, 530.
Skate Leech {Pontobdella nutrina), in-
cubation, 195.
Smittia cheilostomata, 534.

— trispinosa, 534.
Solaster papposus, 465, 530.
Solea lascaris, reproduction, 138.

— lutea, 535.
eggs, 163, etc.

— varicgata, 535.

egg, 168, etc.

larvae, 160.

reproduction, 137.

— vulgaris, egg, 160, etc.

larvae, 163, etc.

Soles, 306.

Sole in Start Bay, 301.

— in Teignmouth Bay, 313.

— in Torljay, 308.
Solecurtus caudidus, 497, 533.
Soleji ensis, 497, 533.

Spanish Mackerel (Scomberomonis niac-
ulatiis), 2.

SjMtangus jnirpureus, 475, 530.

Spirorbis, sp. (?), 486, 531.

Start Bay, List of hauls in, 299.

fisii in, 304.

Statistical and Ichthyological Investi-
gations at Plymouth Laboratory,
Prel. Report, 172.

Stenorhynchus longirostris, 489, 532.

Stomatopora grunulata, 535.

— Jolinstoni, 535.

— major, 535.

Styelopsis grossularia, 512, 535.

firiberiti's domuncula, 443, 529.

Surface drift of Englisli Cliunuel,
Report for 1897, 199.

Synroryiie, 180.

Syngyiatluis rostellatus, statistical in-
vestigation, 175.

T.
Tajws virginea, 497, 532, 533.
Teignmouth Bay, Fish in, 311.
Teleostean fish, Notes on Reproduction
in S.W. Pifjtri.t, 107.

Tellina crassa, 497, 532, 533.

— donacina, 497, 533.
Temnodon suitor, ova, 116.
Terebella, larvae, 191.
Terebellid tubes, 531.
Tetrastemma candidiim, 531.

— dorsah', 531.

— Jlavidum, 531.

Texture of bottom-deposits, 525
Thalia democratica, 191.
Theh'pus, sp. (?), 483, 531.
Thornback in Start Bay, 303.

— in Teignmouth Bay, 315.

— in Torbay, 309.
Thuiaria articulata, 454, 530.
Thyone fusus, 530.

Tiara pileata, 186, etc.
Tomopteris onisciformis, 192.
Topknot, egg, 158, etc.

— (Zeugopteras, Phrijnorhombus), repro-

duction, 128.
Torbay, Fish in, 309.
Tornaria, 191.
2'rachinns draco, 197.

— vipara, egg, 164, etc.
larva, 169, etc.

Trawling in the Bays on the South
Coast of Devon, 296.

— in Teignmouth Bay, 311.

— in Torbay, 307.
TricMjdra pudica, 450, 529.
Trigla gurnardas, 535.

breeding, 110.

egg, 160, etc.

larva, 168.

— hirundo, 110, 535.

larva, 168, etc.

reproduction, 109.

— lineata, 535.

reproduction, 109.

— nigripes, 1 1 0.

— obscura, 197.

— pini, egg, 165, etc.
535.

Triopa clam'ger, 533.
Tritonia Hombergii, 533.

— plebda, 533.

Trochus granulatas, 507, 533, 534.

— zizyphinus, 507, 533.
Truncatuliiia lohatula, 529.
Trygnv fasfinnrin, 198.

550

INDEX.

Till) Gurnard, Teignmoutli Hay, 314.

in Torbay, 308.

Tub or Latcliet in Start Bay, 303.
Tuhiduva corniicoirine, 445, 529.
Tabiilaria indivisa, 447, 529.

— crocea, 54.
Tunicnta, 512, 535.
Turbellaria, 531.
Turbot in Start Bay, 302.

— in Teignmoutli Bay, 313.
Twrritella communis, bOl, 533, 534.
TjiposylUs nltenwsetosa, 481, 531.

V.

Ve7ius casinn, 498, 532.

— fasciata, 498, 532, 533.

— ovata, 498, 532, 534.

Venus striatula, 498, 533.

— verrucosa, 497, 532, 533.

W.

Whiting in Teignmoutli Bay, 313.

— in Torbay, 308.

— in Start Bay, 302.
WilUia stellata, 179.

Worth, R. H. Determination of CaCO.j
in the samples of bottom-de-
posits, and descriptions of their
Geological features, 381.

Wrasse (Lahnts marulatiis). Observa-
tion of colour change In a, 193

Z.

Zensfaber, 535.

PLYMOUTH :

WILLIAM BRENDON AND SON, PRINTERS.

OBJECTS

OF THE

Ularint 'biological ^association of t^c ^Initcb |\ingboni.

THE ASSOCIATION was founded at a Meeting called for the purpose in March, 1884,
and held in the Rooms of the Royal Society of London.

The late Professor Huxley, at that time President of the Royal Society, took the chair,
and amongst the speakers in support of the project were the Duke of Argyll, the late
Sir Lyon Playfair, Sir John Lubbock, Sir Joseph Hooker, the late Dr. Carpenter, Dr.
GuNTHER, the late Lord Dalhou.sie, the late Professor Moseley, the late Mr. Romanes,
and Professor Lankester.

The Association owes its existence and its present satisfactory condition to a combina-
tion of scientific naturalists, and of gentlemen who, from philanthropic or practical reasons,
are specially interested in the great sea fisheries of the United Kingdom. It is universally
admitted that our knowledge of the habits and conditions of life of sea fishes is very small,
and insufficient to enable either the practical fisherman or the Legislature to take measures
calculated to ensure to the country the greatest return from the "harvest of the sea."
Naturalists are, on the other hand, anxious to push farther our knowledge of marine life
and its conditions. Hence, the Association has erected at Plymouth a thoroughly efficient
Laboratory, where naturalists may study the history of marine animals and plants in general,
and where, in particular, researches on food fishes and molluscs may be carried out with u.c
best appliances.

The Laboratory and its fittings were completed in June, 18SS, at a cost of some £12,000.
Since that time investigations, practical and scientific, have been constantly pursued at
Plymouth. Practical investigations upon matters connected with sea-fishing are carried on
under the direction of the Council ; in addition, naturalists from England and from abroad
have come to the Laboratory, to carry on their own independent researches, and have made
valuable additions to zoological and botanical science, at the expense of a small rent for the
use of a working table in the Laboratory and other appliances. The number of naturalists
who can be employed by the Association in special investigations on fishery questions, and
definitely retained for the purpose of carrying on those researches throughout the year,
must depend on the funds subscribed by private individuals and public bodies for the
purpose. The first charges on the revenue of the Association are the working of the sea-
water circulation in the tanks, stocking the tanks with fish and feeding the latter, the
payment of servants and fishermen, the hire and maintenance of fishing boats, and the
salary of the Resident Director and Staff. At the commencement of this number will be
found the names of the gentlemen on the staff. In no case does any one salary exceed
£250.

The Association has received some £30,000, of which £14,000 has been granted by
the Treasury. The annual revenue which can be at present counted on is about £1,820, of
which £1,000 a year is granted by the Treasury, the remainder being principally made up
in subscriptions.

The admirable Marine Biological Laboratory at Naples, founded and directed by Dr.
Dohrn, has cost about £20,000, including steam launches, &c., whilst it has an annual
budget of £7,000.

The purpose of the Association is to aid at the same time both science and industry. It
is national in character and constitution, and its affairs are conducted by a representative
Council, by an Honorary Secretary and an Honorary Treasurer, without any charge upon
its funds, so that the whole of the subscriptions and donations received are devoted
absolutely to the support of the Laboratory and the prosecution of researches by aid of
its appliances. The reader is referred to page 4 of the Cover for information as to
membership of the Association,

CONTENTS OF NEW SERIES Vol. V., No. 4.

PAGE

Ox THE Fauna and Bottom-Deposits near the Thirty-Fathom Line
FROM the Eddistone GROUNDS TO Start Point. With 7 tables and
16 charts. By E. J. Allen, B.Sc. . . . . . 3G5

NOTICE.

The Council of the Marine Biological Association wish it to be understood that
they do not accept responsibility for statements published in this Journal,
excepting when those statements are contained in an official report of the Council.

£ s.

d.

, per annum.

1 1

0

Composition Fee.

15 15

0

.

100 0

0

500 0

0

TERMS OF MEMBERSHIP.

Annual Members
Life Members
Founders
Governors

Members of the Association have the following rights and privileges : they elect
annually the Officers and Council ; they receive the Journal of the Association free
l)y post ; they are admitted to view the Laboratory at Plymouth, and may introduce
friends with them ; they have the first claim to rent a place in the Laboratory for
research, with use of tanks, boats, &c. ; and have access to the books in the Library
at Plymouth.

All correspondence should be addressed to the Director, The Laboratory,
Plymouth.

k

Date Due

3 2044 093 366 748

i'

1

.

^^'

r ¥