s.^£

JOURNAL

OF

NATURAL PHILOSOPHY,
CHEMISTRY,

AND

THE ARTS.

VOL. XXIII.

3jUugtrateo toit& Cngrattingg.

BY WILLIAM NICHOLSON.

LONDON:

f RINTED BY W. STRATFORD, CROWN COURT, TEMPLE BAR } FOR

W. NICHOLSON,

CHARLOTTE STREET, BLOOMSBURY;
AND SOLD BY

J. STRAtFORD, No. 112, Holborn Hill.

1809.

PREFACE.

HE Authors of Original Papers and Communications in the
present Volume are Dr. John New; Pat. Neill, Esq. F.W. S. ;
Richard Lovell Edgeworth, Esq. F. R. S. and M. R.I. A. ; J. G. ;
W. N. ; Mrs. Agnes Ibbetson ; Mr. James Thomson ; John Gough,
Esq.; the Rev. J. Blanchard ; Dr. Clarke; Mr. Peter Barlow;
Mr. J. Acton ; J. S. K. ; Mr. Charles Sylvester; Mr. T. Sheldrake;
William Saint, Esq.; A Correspondent.

Of Foreign Works, M. Vauquelin ; M. Fourcroy ; M. Chevreul ;
M. Bertrand; Professor Link ; M. Boul lay; Professor Lampadius;
L. Cordier; M. Gay-Lussac; M.Tbenard; M. Guyton-Morveau ;
M. Aluau; Professor Moj on ; M. Resal; M. Leblanc; B.G.Sage;
M. Berthier; M. Gehlen; M. Deseotils; M. Bosc; C. L. Berthollet ;
M. Seguin; Professor Curaudau.

And of British Memoirs abridged or extracted, Thomas Andrew
Knight, Esq. F. R. S. &c; Rev. Jofeph Townshend; Mr.
Ezekiel Cleall; W.* Bond, Esq.; W.Matthews, Esq.; Mr.
Parkinson; J. Christ. Curwen, Esq.; J. Franklen, Esq.; Mr.
Samuel Curtis; Mr. Thomas Davis; Mr. Samuel Clegg; Mr.
Thomas Saddington ; Mr. Wagstaffe ; J. Butler, Esq. ; Thomas
Walford, Esq. F. A. S. and L. S. ; Thomas Marsham, Esq. Trea.
L. S; George Montagu, Esq. F. L. S. ; John Williams, Esq. ;
Arthur Young, Esq. F. R S. ; Captain Kater; Humphry Davy,
Esq. Sec. R. S. F. R. S. Ed. and M. R. I. A. ; Mr. William
Sewell; Thomas Young, Esq. M. D. For. Sec. R. S.

The Engravings consist of 1. Knight's new Method of Training
Fruit Trees: 2. Mr. Cleall's Machine for Beating out the Seed of
Hemp and Flax: 3. Mr. Bond's Machine for Breaking Hemp: 4.
Mr. Samuel Clegg's Apparatus for making Carburetter! Hidrogen
Gas from Pitcoal: 5. His Lamp for burning the Gas . 6. Different
Insects, called Wireworms, that destroy Wheat: 7. The Nasal
Membranes of two Species of Horseshoe Bat: 8. Figures to il-
lustrate the Vivification of Seeds, by Mrs. A. Ibbetson: 9. A
very sensible Hygrometer, by Lieutenant Henry Kater: 10. An
improved Hygrometer, by the fame Gentleman : 11. Mr. Davy's
Apparatus for heating Potassium in Gasses, Distilling Potassium,
and taking the Voltaic Spark in Sulphur and Phosphorus: 12. Va-
rious Figures by Mrs, Agnes Ibbetson, to illustrate the Growth of
Leaves, and the Divisions of the Wood in the Stem of Trees :
13. Figures showing the Line of Life in Trees entering into Flower
Buds, passing by Leaf Buds, and avoiding an injured Part: 14.
Dissections of Seed Vessels: 15. Cryptogamian Plants, that have
been mistaken for Perspiration on Leaves: 16, Delineations by
the Camera Obscura and Camera Lucida,

TABUS

TABLE OF CONTENTS

TO THIS TWENTY-THIRD VOLUME.

MAY, J 8 09. /

Engravings of the following Objects: 1. Knight's new Method of Training
Pruit Trees; 2. Mr. CleaH's Machine for Beating out the Seed of Hemp and
Flax ; 3. Mr. Bond's Machine for Breaking Hemp.

I. On a new Method of Training Fruit Trees. By Thomas Andrew Knight,
F. K. S. &c. - - - - 1

II. On the Food of Plants, by the Rev. Joseph Townshend, Rector of Pewsey,
Wilts .-.->. 5

III. Description of a Machine for Beating out Hempseed and Flaxseed, likely
to be useful in Canada. By Mr. Ezekiel Cleall, of West Coker - 16

IV. Observations on the Culture of Hemp, and other useful Information, re-,
lative to Improvements in Canada. By William Bond, Esq., of Canada IS

V. Remarks on sundry important Uses of the Potato. i « 28

VI. On the Dissimilarity between the Creatures of the present and former
World, and on the Fossil Alcyonia. From Parkinson's Organic Remains 33

VII. An Account of Improvements in the Culture of Vegetables, by John,
Christian Curwen, Esq., M. P. of Workington Hall, Cumberland 51

VIII. Electrical Experiments on Glass considered as a Leyden Phial, and on
coated Panes : by Mr. * * * - - - - 62

IX. On the Identity of the Base of Charcoal and Hidrogen, or its Base. In a
Letter from Dr. John New - - - - 71

X. Extract of a Letter from a Gentleman in Jersey to his Friend in Glamorgan-
shire, on the Use of Vraic as a Manure. Communicated by J. Franklen,
Esq. - - - - - 72

XI. Account of an extensive Orchard planted at Bradwell in Essex, by Mr;
Samuel Curtis, of Walworth - - 75

XII. On the Management of Marsh Lands, Irrigation, &c. in a Letter to a
Friend. By Mr. Thomas Davis ' - - -77

Meteorological Journal * «s « r 80.

JUNE<

CONTENTS. v

JUNE, .1809.

Engravings of the following Objects: 1. Mr. Samuel Clegg's Apparatus far
inaking Carburetted Hidrogen Gas from Pitcoal : 2. His Lamp for burning
the Gas: 3. Different Insects, called Wireworms, that destroy Wheat: 4. The
Nasal Membranes of two Species of Horseshoe Bat.

I. Observations on the Natural History of the Divers. In a Letter from Patrick.
Neil, Esq., Secretary to the Wernerian Natural History Society 81

II. Description of an Apparatus for making carburetted Hidrogen Gas from Pit-
coal, and lighting Manufactories with it. By Mr. Samuel Clegg, of Man-
chester r ----- 85

JII. A cheap Method of Preserving Fruit without Sugar, for Domestic Uses or
Sea Stores. By Mr. Thomas Saddington, No. 73, Lower Thames Street 89

IV. On Reclaiming Waste Lands. By Mr. WagstafTe 95

V. Account of Waste Land improved, by J. Butler, Esq., of Bramshott, in
Hampshire 98

VI. Some Observations on an Insect that destroys the Wheat, supposed to be
the Wireworm. By Thomas Walford, Esq., F. A. S. and L. S. With an ad*
ditional Note, by Thomas Marsham. Esq. Treas. L. S. 102

VII. An Account of the larger and lesser Species of Horseshoe Bats, proving
them to be distinct; together with a Description of Vespertilio Barbastellus,
taken in the South of Devonshire. By George Montagu, Esq., F. L. S. 106

VIII. An Account of the Method of hastening the Maturation of Grapes. By
John Williams, Esq., in a Letter to the Right Honourable Sir Joseph Banks,
Bart. K.B. P. R. S. &c. - - - 116

IX. An Essay on Manures. By Arthur Young, Esq., F. R. S. - 120

X. On the Construction of Theatres. In a Letter from Richard Lovell Edge-
worth, Esq., F. R. S. and M, R. I. A. - - 129

XI. Plan for Preventing or Suppressing Fires. In a Letter from a Cor-
respondent --..-- 137

XII. On the Method of taking Transit Observations. In a Letter from a Cor-
respondent, with a Reply by W.N. - 139

XIII. Examination of the Root of Calaguala: by Mr. Vauquelin - 141

XIV. On the Chemical Nature of the Smut in Wheat. By Messrs. Fourcroy
and Vauquelin - - - - - 14t>

XV. Of the Action of Nitric Acid on Cork; by Mr. Chevreul - 149

XVI. Method of fabricating artificial Stone employed in the Vicinity of Dun-
kirk. By Mr. Bertrand, Apothecary to the Army of the Coast. - 154

XVII. Letter from Mr. Link, Professor of Chemistry at Rostock, to Mr. Vogel

155
Scientific News - - - - - -156

Aleteprological Journal r * - * • 160

JULY,

vi CONTENTS.

JULY, 1809.

Engravings of the following Objects: 1. Figures to illustrate the Vivification of
Is, h\ Mrs. A. Ibbetson: 2. A very sensible Hygrometer, by Lieutenant
Henry Kater: 3. An improved Hygrometer, by the same gentleman.

I. On the Impregnation of the Seed, and first Shooting of the Nerve of Life,
in the Embryo of Plants. In a Letter from Mrs. A. Ibbetson - 161

II. On the Perspiration of Plants. By the same Lady - - 195

III. On the Analysis of Sulphate of Barytes. By Mr. James Thomson. Com-
municated by the Author. - - - 174

IV. Experiments on the Expansion of moist Air raised to the boiling Tempe*
rature. In a Letter from John Gough, Esq. - - 182

V. An Essay on Manures. By Arthur Young, Esq. F. R. S. - 187

VI. Table of the Rain that fell at various Places in the Year 1808, by the
Rev. J. Blanchard, of Nottingham ; with a Meteorological Table for the
same Year, by Dr. Clarke, of that Town - - - 197

VII. Observations on Sulphuric Ether, and its Preparation ; by Mr. Boullay,
Apothecary at Paris - - - - - 201

VIII. Investigation of a Problem in the Doctrine of Permutations. By Mr.
Peter Barlow ----- 203

IX. Description of a very sensible Hygrometer. By Lieutenant Henry Kater,
of his Majesty's 12th Regiment - - , - 207

X. Description of an improved Hygrometer. By Lieutenant Henry Kater, of
his Majesty's 12th Regiment - - - , 211

XL On the Germination of Seeds. In a Letter from Mr. J. Acton, of Ipswich

214

XII. Analysis of the Kaneelstein ; by Professor Lampadius - 231

XIII. Observations on a Lunar Rainbow ;#by L.Cordier, Mine Engineer [ ib.

XIV. On the Want of Tables of the Proportions of the constituent Principles
of Salts, and on the Luminous Smoke from Lead Smelting-Houses. In a
Letter from a Correspondent - 232

Scientific News - 233

Meteorological Table - 240

/

AUGUST,

CONTENTS. vii

AUGUST, 1809.

Engravings of the following Objects: 1. Mr. Davy's Apparatus for heating
Potassium in Gasses, Distilling Potassium, and taking the Voltaic Spark in
Sulphur and Phosphorus : 2. Various Figures by Mrs. Agnes Ibbetson, to il-
lustrate the Growtli of Leaves, and the Divisions of the Wood in the Stem
of Trees.

I. The Bakerian Lecture. An Account of some new analytical Researches on
the Nature of certain Bodies, particularly the Alkalis, Phosphorus, Sulphur,
Carbonaceous Matter, and the Acids hitherto undecomposed ; with some ge-
neral Observations on Chemical Theory. By Humphry Davy Esq., Sec. R. S.
F. R.S.Ed, and M.R.I. A. - - - 241

II. On the Production of an Acid and an Alkali from pure Water by Galvanism.
In a Letter from Mr. Charles Sylvester, with Remarks by W. N. 258

III. Account of the Decomposition and Recomposition of Boracic Acid. By
Messrs. Gay-Lussac and Thenard - 26*0

IV. On the Influence of Galvanic Electricity on the Transition of Minerals ;
read at the Meeting of the Mathematical and Physical Class of the Institute,
the 13th of July, 1807. By Mr. Guy ton - - - 263

V. On Artificial Sandstones, that have undergone a regular Contraction in the
Fire. By Mr. Aluau - . - - - 268

VI. Observations on the Oxigenized Muriatic Acid. By Mr. Joseph Mojdn,
Professor of Pharmaceutic Chemistry in the Medical School of the Imperial
University of Genoa, &c 273

VII. Extract of a Letter from Mr. Resal, Apothecary at Remirement, to Mr.
Cadet, Apothecary to the Emperor, on the Conversion of Malt Spirit into
Vinegar, and on the Red Colour of Oil of Hempseed - 275

VIII. Remarks on some Points of Hydrography, by Mr. Leblanc, Officer in
the French Navy. - - - - 27 S

IX. On the Spontaneous Tgnition of Charcoal: by B. G. Sage, Member of the
Institute, Founder and Director of the first School of Mines - 277

X. Theory of the Detonation and Evplosion of Gunpowder, by the same 270

XI. On the Sulphates of Lime, Barytes, and Lead - - 280

XII. Extract of a Letter from Mr. Gehlen to Mr. Descotils, on the Igneous
Fusion of Barytes - - - - 281

XIII. Note on a Species of Manna, or concrete Sugar, produced by the Rho-
dodendron Ponticum - - - 283

XIV. An Essay on Manures. By Arthur Young, F. R. S. # - 2S4.

XV. On the Formation of the Winter Leaf Bud, and of Leaves. By Mrs.
Agnes Ibbetson - 293

XVI. A Letter on a Canal in the Medulla Spinalis of some Quadrupeds. In a
Letter from Mr. William Sewell, to Everard Home, Esq. F. R. S. 300

XVII. Note on the Alteration that Air and Water produces in Flesh. By Mr.
C. L. Berthollet. - 302

XVIII. Analysis of a Schist in the Environs of Cherbourg, taken from the
Excavations made in Bonaparte Harbour. By Mr. Berthier, Mine Engineer

304

XIX. Method of rendering'common Alum as good for Dyeing as Roman Alum;
by Mr. Seguin, Corresponding Member of the Institute - 307

Scientific News ----- 308

Meteorological Table * 320

SUPPLEMENT

viii CONTENTS.

SUPPLEMENT TO VOL. XXIII.

I. The Bakerian Lecture. An Account of some New analytical Researches oil
the Nature of certain Bodies, &c. By Humphry Davy, Esq., Sec. R. Si
F.R.S. andM.R. I. A. 321

II. On the Stem of Trees ; with an Attempt to discover the Cause of Motion
in Plants. By Mrs. Agnes ibbetson. - 334

III. On the supposed Perspiration of Plants. By Mrs. Agnes Ibbetson. 351

IV. A numerical Table of elective Attractions; with Remarks on the Sequences
of double Decompositions; By Thomas Young, M. D. For. Sec. R. S. 354

V. Experiments on Sulphur and its Decomposition ; by Mr. Curaudau, Professor
of Chemistry applicable to the Arts, and Member of several learned Societies.

305

VI. Experiments in Continuation of those on the Decomposition of Sulphur ;
by the Same - - - - - -369

VII. On the Camera Lucida. In a Letter from Mr. T. Sheldrake, with Remarks
by W. N. - - - - - 372

VIII. Remarks on some of the Definitions and Axioms in Barrow's Euclid. In
a Letter from William Saint, Esq. - 377

IX. Account of a new Acid, obtained from Ginger. In a Letter from a Cor-
respondent. - - - - - -384

1

4

A

JOURNAL

OP

NATURAL PHILOSOPHY, CHEMISTRY,

AND

THE ARTS.

MAY, 1S09.

ARTICLE I.

On a new Method of training Fruit Trees, By Thomas
Andrew Knight, F. R. S. fyc*.

ROM the result of experiments I have made to ascer- Usual forms o?
tain the influence of gravitation on the descending sap of training trees
trees, and the cause of the descent of the radicle, and as- e ectlTe'
cent of the expanding plumule of germinating seedsf , I
have been induced to believe, that none of the forms, in
which fruit trees are generally trained, are those best calcu-
lated to promote an equal distribution of the circulating
fluids; by which alone permanent health and vigour, and
power to afford a succession of abundant crops, can be
given. I have therefore been led to try a method of train- a different
ing, which is, I believe, different from any that has been manner tried
practised; and as the success of this method has fully an- Wltk success.

* Trans, of the Horticultural Society, p. 79.

■f Phil. Trans, for I806 and I8O75 or Journal, Vol. XIV, p. 409, and
XIX, 241.
Vol. XXIII. No. 101.— May, 1809. B swered

motion, im-
portant.

2 NEW METHOD or TRAINING FREIT TREE!.

swered every expectation I hud formed, I have thought a
concise account of it might not In: unacceptable to the Hor-
ticultural Society. I confine my account to the peach
tree, though, with a little variation, the method of training
and pruning, that I recommend, is applicable, even with su-
perior advantages, to the cherry, plum, and pear tree; and
Form of train- I must observe, that when trees are by any means deprived
u^trcMwben f t» motion, which their branches naturally receive from

thoir branches # J

aredeprived of winds, the forms in which they are trained operate more

powerfully on their permanent health and vigour, than is
generally imagined.
New metkod My peach trees, which were plants of one year old only,
were headed down, as usual, early in the spring, and two
shoots only were trained from each stem in opposite direc-
tions, and in an elevation of about 5 degrees ; and when the
two shoots did not grow with equal luxuriance, I depressed
the strongest, or gave a greater elevation to the weakest, by
which means both were made to acquire and to preserve an
equal degree of vigour. These shoots, receiving the whole
sap of the plants, grew with much luxuriance, and in the
course of the summer each attained about the length of four
feet. Many lateral shoots were of course emitted from the
young luxuriant branches ; but these were pinched off at the
first or second leaf, and were in the succeeding winter wholly
destroyed; when the plants, after being pruned, appeared
Should be as represented in PI. I, Fig. I. This form, I shall here
thenuTcry '" observe, might with much advantage be given to trees while
in the nursery ; and perhaps it is the only form, which can be
given without subsequent injury t* the tree : it is also a
form that can be given with very little trouble or expenge to
the nurseryman.
Second year. In the succeeding season as many brandies were suffered
to spring from each plant as could be trained conveniently,
without shading each other; and by selecting the strongest
and earliest buds towards the points of the year old branches,
and the weakest and latest near their bases, I was enabled to
give to each aunual shoot nearly an equal degree of vigour;
and the plants appeared in the autumn of the second year
Dearly as represented in Fig. 2. The experienced gardener
will here observe, that I exposed a greater surface of leaf

to

NEW METHOD 0? TRAINING FRUIT TREES* JJ

to the light, without placing any of the leaves so as toshade
others, than can probably be done in any other mode of train-
ing; and in consequence of this arrangement, the growth of
the trees was so great, that at two years old some of them
were fifteen feet wide ; and the young wood in every part ac-
quired the most perfect maturity. In the winter, the shoots
of the last season were alternately shortened, and left their
whole length, and they were then prepared to afford a most
abundant and regular blossom in the succeeding spring.

In the autumn of the third year the trees were nearly as Third year.
represented in Fig. 3, the central part of each being formed
of very fine bearing wood; and the size and general health
of the trees afford evidence of a more regular distribution
of the sap, than I have witnessed in any other mode of
training.

In the preceding method of treating peach trees very little Necessity of
use was made of the knife during winter: and I must re- ^d^bT**
mark, that the necessity of winter pruning should generally much as pos-
be avoided as much as possible; for by laying in a much s'ble Prevent*
larger quantity of wood in the summer and autumn than
can be wanted in the succeeding year, the gardener gains no
other advantage, than that of having a " great choice of fine
bearing wood to fill his walls," and I do not see any advan-
tage in his having much more than he wants; on the con- -
trary, the health of the tree always suffers by too much use
of the knife through successive seasons.

To enter into the detail of pruning, in the manner in Remarks on
which I think it might be done with most advantage, would pruning
of necessity lead me much beyond the intended limits of my l)cac
present communication ; but I shall take this opportunity
of offering a few observations on the proper treatment of
luxuriant shoots of the peach tree, the origin and otfice of
which, as well as the right mode of pruning them, are not
at all understood either by the writers on gardening of this
country, or the Continent.

I have shown in the Phil. Trans, for 1805*, that the albur- xhe alburnum
num, or sap wood of oak trees loses a considerable part of a reservoir of
its weight during the period in which its leaves are formed **** win e

• Sec Journal, Vol. XII, p. 233.

B a ia

j| 1*EW METHOD OF TRAINING FRUtT TREES.

in the spring ; and that any portion of the alburnum affords
less extractive matter after the leaves have been formed than
previously. I have also shown, that the aqueous fluid which
ascends in the spring in the birch and sycamore becomes
specificially heavier as it ascends towards the buds ; which,
I think, affords sufficient evidence, that the alburnum of
trees becomes during winter a reservoir of the sap or blood
of the tree, as the bulb of the hyacinth, tulip, and the tu-
ber of the potato, certainly do of the sap or blood of these
Wall trees gc- plants. Now a wall-tree, from the advantageous position of
than standards. **' ^eaves relative to the light, probably generates much
more sap, comparatively with the number of its buds, than
a standard tree of the same size; and when it attempts to
employ its reserved sap in the spring, the gardener is com-
pelled to destroy (and frequently does so too soon and too
abruptly) a very large portion of the small succulent shoots
emitted, and the apis too often prevents the growth of those
which remain. The sap in consequence stagnates, and ap-
pears often to choke the passages through the small
branches ; which in consequence become incurably un-
healthy, and stunted in their growth : and nature then finds
means of employing the accumulated sap, which if retained
would generate the morbid exudation, gum, in the produc-
Luxwriant tion of luxuriant shoots. These shoots our gardeners, from
shoots should Lang]ev to Forsyth, have directed to be shortened in sum-
ened. mer, or cut out in the succeeding spring; but I have found

great advantages in leaving them wholly unshorteried; when
they have uniformly produced the finest possible bearing
wood for thesucceding year; and so far is this practice from
having a tendency to render naked the lower, or internal
parts of the tree, whence those branches spring, that the
.strongest shoots they afford invariably issue from the buds
near their bases. I have also found, that the laterals that
spring from these luxuriant shoots, if stopped at the first
leaf, often afford very strong blossoms and fine fruit in the
succeeding season. Whenever therefore space can be found
to train in a luxuriant shoot, I think it should rarely or ne-
ver be either cut out, or shortened : it should, however, ne-
ver be trained perpendicularly, where this can be avoided.

II,

ON' THE ITOOD OF PLANTS.

II.

On the Food of Plants, by the Rev. Joseph TownsAend,
Rector of Pewsey, Wilts*.

HAT is the food of plants ? Before we can give a sa- Seeds vegetal*

tisfactory answer to this question, we must collect facts; we rapidly in oxi-

11 t-< i • ■ iL gen; and not

must multiply experiments, r or this purpose, in the years at au -in nnTi^

1702 and 1793 I put various seeds to vegetate in different gen-
airs; m atmospheric air, in vital air, and in azote. The ge-
neral result was that neither wheat, oats, nor barley, vegeta-
ted in azote; but in vital air vegetation was uniformly rapid.

July 12, 179o\ I placed eleven cabbage-plants in pots, all Cilbba?c
healthy plants, and weighing each f ounce apothecaries' plants,
weight. The pots stood in pans with water, and remained
in them till June 12, 1797, when the plants were taken out
of the pots and weighed again.

Of these pots four had quartz sand, washed clean, and
rendered perfectly free from mixture of either argil or cal-
careous earth.

No. 1 had nothing but this sand ; the plant lived, but did in P^e quartz
not increase in bulk; when examined, the radical fibres '
were found numerous and extended, but very small ; and
when the plant was weighed jn January 1797> it had not in-
creased in weight.

No. 2 had the same kind of sand and woollen-rags: the sand and wool-
roots shot vigorously, the plant cabbaged, and in January
1797 weighed two ounces.

No. 3 had the same kind of sand, with about $ part char- sand andcharr
coal in powder ; the roots were less vigorous than the for- coa *
mer, and in January 1797 the plant weighed J ounce.

No. 4 had this sand with about <£■$ lime. The plant did sand & lime,
not increase, yet lived, and in January 1797 weighed only '
3 dwts. having lost |- of its original weight.

No. 5 had brickmaker's clay alone ; the plant lived, brick clay,
looked fresh, but in January 1797 weighed only § ounce.

No. 6 had brickmaker's clay, with an equal proportion of clay and sand,

* Bath Society's Papers, tol. X, p. 1.

the

J

O ON THE FOOD OF PLANTS.

the quartz sand. This plant, like the fomer, lived, looked

fresh, and in January 1797 weighed \ ounce,
clay and char- No. 7 had brickmaker's clay, with about i part charcoal

» in powder. In January 1797 the plant weighed J ounce.

clay and rags, No. 8 had brickmaker's clay and woollen rags. This

plant cabbaged well, and in January 1797 weighed 4 ounces,
c,lay and lim«, No. 9 had brickmaker's clay, with about ^ lime. The

plant lived till December, but never grew,
sand and No. 10 had clean dung from the bowels of a horse, with

horse-dung, qllartz sand well washed. This plant dropp'd some of its

largest leaves during the frost; and yet in January 1797 it

weighed 4| ounces.
peat-earth, No. 11 had peat earth alone ; the plant continued healthy

to appearance, and in January 1797 weighed ~ ounce, but

the root was rotted off.
& rich mould. No. 12 was planted at the same time in the garden, near

the pots, in rich mould : this did not drop any leaves, and

in January 1797 weighed 4 ounces.

Such was the result of these experiments on cabbage

plants.
Wheat sown, In January 1797) having removed the cabbage plants, I

sowed wheat in the same pots ; and 25th September of the

same year I made the subsequent report.
in sand, No. 1, with quartz sand alone, had two stems, 23 inches

long, and the ears 1£ inch,
sand and rags, No. 2, the sand and rags, had four stems, 28 inches long,

and the ears 1\ inches.
?and and char- No. 3, the sand and charcoal, had one stem, 18 inches
c0*!> long, and the ear 1 J inch.

sand and lime, No. 4, the sand and lime, had two stems, 21 inches long,

and the ear % inches.
c\iyt No. 5, the clay alone, had three stems, 27 inches long,

and the ears l£ inch.
clay and sand, No. 6, the clay and sand, had four stems, 25 inches long,

and the ears 2f inches,
clay and char- No. 7, the clay and charcoal, had four stems, 24 inches,
c°a), and the ears 2 inches.

«!ay and rags, No. 8, the clay and rags, had twelve stems, 33 inches

long, and the ears 2| inches,

^To,

QN THE FOOI> OF PLANTS J

No. 9, the clay and lime, had one stem very slender, 15 clay and lime,
niches, and the ear 1^- inch.

No. 10, the dung and sand, had sixteen stems, 37 inches dungandsar.d,
long, and the ears 2£ inches, very strong.

No. 11, the peat earth, had six sterns, 35 inches long, peateartht
and the ears 2 \ inches.

Thus, it appears, that in both sets of experiments the re-
sults were similar.

From these facts, compared with other facts with which js water t^c
w« are conversant; such as the flowering of bulhous roots in food of plants?
water, and more especially the vast increase of the withy-
tree, recorded by Mr. Boyle, our attention is naturally turn-
ed in the first place to water, as the supposed nutriment of
plants.

In the experiments before us, both the cabbage and the Water used
wheat of No. 1 were well supplied with water; but in the with the sand,
space of six months the former had not increased in either
weight or bulk ; and the latter in eight months produced
only two miserable stems.

In Catalonia, more especially in the vicinity of Barcelo- A sandy soil
na, the soil is principally quartz, from decomposed granite; ProducUye«
yet being well watered, and plentifully supplied with light
and heat, the crops of every kind are most abundant.

Mr. de Saussure remarks, that " we deceive ourselves ex- Quality of the
ceedingly when we imagine, that the fertility of any ^strict an^Tmoistwc
depends wholly on the nature of its soil, because abundance important.
and scarcity in crops arise principally from the degree of
heat and humidity in the air, with the quantity and qua-
lity of the exhalations with which it is charged." He adds,
" I have seen, in Sicily and Calabria, rocks and gravel arid
and uncultivated, such as in Switzerland would have been
altogether barren, which there produced more vigorous
plants than are to be seen on the richest and best cultivated
lands amongst the Helvetic mountains.*"

It is astonishing to see, in a warm climate, the rapid growth Effects of well

of vegetables when they are well supplied with water. The watering in a
,, . ,. . .... . n t%m . warm cliau'.e

smallest cutting ot a vine will in the space of fifteen or six-
teen months cover the front of an extensive edifice, or form

^ •Voyage dans les Alpcs, 1J319.

a spacious

g ON THE FOOD OF PLANTS.

a spacious harbour, from which the assembled family may

gather in abundance of the most luxuriant grapes. In such

a situation the seeds of limes, oranges, and lemons, will in

four or five years produce a shady grove; and mulberry

trees, when wholly stripped of their leaves for the nutriment

of silk-worms, will again, in a few days, be covered thick

with foliage.

Adanson, in his account of Senegal, informs us, that

«* when every thing green has been devoured by locusts, not

a vestige of their destructive progress after a few days can

be discovered."

Water decom- From the consideration of these and other faets similar to

posed both ui them, many distinguished chymists have delivered it as their

animals and . ■* ° *

vegetables. opinion, that water is decomposed by vegetables. Mr.

Chaptal says, " that the decomposition of water is proved,

not only in vegetables, but in animals also." And for this

last he quotes the authority of Roudelet.

But this not That water, as such, enters largely into the composition

yet demon- 0f vegetables, is evident; but whether or not, and to what

extent, it is decomposed, has not, as I apprehend, been yet

demonstrated. In water meadows, with a plentiful supply

of running water, vegetation proceeds even in the depth of

winter, and during the severest frosts; but stagnant water is

at all times unfriendly to our meadows. Any given quantity

may remain upon the surface for weeks or months subject to

decomposition; but instead of being in this state beneficial,

it is injurious to our crops. In our water meadows we uni<-

versally observe, that it is not humidity which does good,

but a thick sheet of water flowing incessantly, night and

day, (for a certain period) over the surface.

Probably it is a Hence it seems probable, that water is essential to the

vehicle of growth of plants, not merely as such, but as it proves a ve-
other substan f . , ■ ' ' . . . ,

ces> hide of other substances, which are their proper jood.

Perhaps car- If we may form a judgment from their analysis, carbon

bon their chief m ay foe regarded as the chief pabulum of plants; and this

we know can, in a given proportion, be conveyed to them by

water. Mr. Chaptal is not only of opinion, that carbonic

1 acid is essential to their growth, but he affirms, that the base

of this acid contributes to the formation of the vegetable

fibre, I(i support of this opinion he observes, that in fungi,

which

ON THE FOOD OF PLANTS, y

which live in subterraneous places, this acid abounds ; but
by bringing them from almost perfect darkness gradually to
the light, this acid disappears, and the fibres proportionally
increase. This opinion is confirmed by some experiments
of Mr. Senebier, in which he observes, that " plants abun-
dantly supplied with water, which had been impregnated
with carbonic acid, transpired much more oxigen, than when
they were supplied with common water." %

Some plants take more carbon than others into their com- Some plants
position; as for instance, the agaricus qnercinus, agaricush™*m™*&
antiquus, boletus versicolor, boletus igniarius, boletus striaius,
boletus perennis, clavaria hypoxylon, clavaria pist Maris, and
many others. All these contain, from the result of analy-
sis, a quantity of carbon, nearly equal to all their other com-
ponent parts. But the lichen crispus, pinaster granulatut,
and lycopcrdon tessellatum, contain a very small portion of
carbon.

Plants do not however retain all the carbonaceous mat- Th ^Q not
ter they receive : they obtain more in the day when exposed retain all they
to light, than they naturally require; but by the absence of receive-
light they part with this surplus, and therefore yield respir-
able gas only in the day-time.

The separation of oxigen from plants by radiant light Oxigen sepa-
seems to arise from the chemical affinity between oxigen and ™ ?°5 ,
light. Fortius fact we are indebted to Dr. Ingenhousz ; and hidiogea*
but Humboldt was the first who ascertained, that hidrogen
gas applied to plants, even when excluded from the light,
occasions a separation of their accumulated oxigen.

Some plants, as for instance, tremella nostoc, the Jilices, Oxigen retain-

musci, and alsce, retain their oxigen weakly, and part with ed ™th dlf?er*
' . . , ent force, and

it readily. And it is remarked by Van Uslar, to whom I affects the co-
am indebted for many of these observations, that such lour*
plants as contain much oxigen, and retain it obstinately, are
white; as for instance, our endive and celery, when excluded
from the light; while such as contain much oxigen, and
part with it easily, are generally green.

If the analysis of plants leads us to consider carbon as one phnt« require
of the most essential articles in their composition and sup- ^getable
port, no less does the existence of ages prove to us, that the
principal source from which they derive their nutriment,

whatever

J 5 OUT THE FOOD OF PLANTS.

whatever it may be, is to be sought for in vegetable earth,
the produce of animal and vegetable substances decayed.
Many plants indeed require little or no earth for their ve-
getation, such as the numerous lichens and tragacanths, of
which genera the former were discovered by Saussnre on the
highest of the Alpine granite rocks. Tn lower situations
these form a soil for the genista, for the cistuses, and more
especially for rosemary and lavender, which abound on the
most elevated mountains of the Pyrenees. These again,
by their decay, form vegetable earth, in which the luxuriant
pine trees and the ilex grow.

Valleys. This vegetable matter, being washed down into the val-

lies, helps to form and to increase their soil to a considerable
depth, and to give them that fertility, which is not readily
exhausted.

Soil composed When we analyse a soil, we never fail to find it composed

©f earths trom Qr sul)Stances derived from a superior level. If the hills are
the hills, & ve- . .„ ■ f . . .

getablfc or ani- quartsoze, calcareous, argillaceous, or magnesian, so is the

mal matter. sojl ;n all the vallies which communicate with them. But
with these earths in a rich soil we tind a great proportion of
Vegetable matter, or of animal exuvire ; and as these are de-
ficient or abound, vegetation languishes, or is exceedingly
luxuriant.

Mould. Good mould abounding with vegetable matters is com-

monly of a dark colour, pulverises easily, and has therefore
what is called a mellow look ; but when exhausted or im-
poverished by frequent crops, the richest soil, such as I have
here described, becomes arid, of a lighter colour, compact,

Some will bear and comparatively barren. In a maiden soil, or where every

continual shower of rain brings down from more elevated regions a
quantity of vegetable matter, a succession of luxuriant crops
may bte taken incessantly, without any diminution of fer-
tility. Thus it is in the country newly occupied by the
Americans, hi Kentucky, on the Ohio, and in the whole ex-
tent of territory watered by the Mississippi, or by its tribu-
tary streams. Thus- also in some parts of Spain, where an
extensive plain happens to receive the spoils of rich circum-
jacent hills, as in the well-watered vale of Orihuela, near
Murcia, of which they say, " Let it rain or not rain, corn
ixever fails in Orihusla." Indeed, so productive is wheat in

thit

ON THE FOOD OF PLANTS. ] J

this highly- favoured district, that the farmers commonly re-
ceive 100 for 1 upon their seed.

In my experiments, No. 10, we see, by the luxuriant Vegetable
growth of the cabbage and the wheat, what vegetable mat- matter*
ter can produce. For in neither of these could any kind of
nutriment be derived from the quartz sand in which they
spread their roots.

The same kind of sand, in the vicinity of Barcelona, is Its importance
by the assistance of a bright sun and copious irrigation ren-
dered exceedingly productive; but then they spread upon
the land all the dung they can procure, and not only station
children and old women on the highways, with little baskets
to collect this manure as it falls from horses or from mules,
but like the farmers in the south of France they pick the.
leaves from the trees in autumn, and this at a considerable
expense. Of such importance do they consider vegetable
matter as the food of plants.

It must be confessed, that we have frequently occasion to Plants affect
observe plants dependant on the nature of the earth in which l)CC",,ar

curt } is *

they are found, and affecting each its peculiar earth, in
which they grow spontaneously and thrive.

Thus on chalky and calcareous soils we find thesium lino- as chalk;
phyllum, anlhyllis vulneraria, asperula cynanchia, lotus cor-
niculatus, hippocrepis comosa, poa cristata; and three of the
sedums, the*, acre, s. album, and s. reflexum; as on the
Wiltshire downs and on the hills round Bath.

On sand we see arenaria, rumex acetosella, and all the sand;
sorrels ; the plantago maritima, the plantago coronopus, the
onopordum acaiithium, the sedum anglicum, and most re-
markably the spartium scoparium.

On clay, if wet, the carices, thejunci, schoemts, aira ces- wet day ;
pitosa, and aira cccrulea, orchis latifolia, and orchis conopsea ;
if dry, the primula veris, orchis mas, orchis maculata, and dry day;
poa pratensis.

On bogs, the equiseta, vaccinium uliginosum, anagallis te- bogs;

nella, sctrpus palustris, menyaiithes trifoliata, and droscra

delight to dwell.

On the sea-shore, and wherever the muriatic salt abounds, ,,

. . * or tne | |

as near Alicant m Spain, we find salicomia Europcea, four shore.

species

13

ON THE FOOD OF PLANTS.

T*rt of the soil
decomposed.

But earths
not their
*rod.

Woollen n%$
>ery beneiiciiil.

L»meinjuri-
eus.

txper»men>s
seemingly di:

speaies of sakola, chenopudium maritimum, and two species
of yiesembryantkemum.

These maritime plant* appear to decompose a part of the
soil in which they grow; the alkali produced by burning
them, or the sal sodae used in glass and soap, is evidently
derived by them from the muriatic salt.

But when we see the lichen parellus fixing itself on the
siliceous rock, or the lichen immersus affecting as it does the
calcareous rock, in preference to the siliceous; whatever
may influence this choice, we cannot suspect, that either of
these rocks contribute by its decomposition to the nutrition
of these plants; nor as I apprehend, have we reason to ima-
gine, that either chalk, sand, or clay, is in any form the
aliment of the plants.

Woollen rags have been found of great utility as a manure,
more especially for ivhcat. And in the experiments before
us we may observe, that sand with rags produced a cabbage
of two ounces, and four strong years of wheat. In clay with
rags our cabbage weighed four ounces, and we had twelve
strong years of wheat. But in what manner these rags pro-
duced effect it is difficult to say; for in January 1797 they
were not visibly decayed ; and in the month of September
in that year they still retained their texture. The quantity
we usually spread upon one acre is not more than four or five
ewt. ; and yet in the experience of every farmer it is found,
that in the first year they nearly double the crop of wheat;
and in the two succeeding years they yielded a visible in-
crease. At present, therefore, we can merely record it as a
fact, that woollen rags are highly beneficial to the land : but
we cannot pretend to say by what process they contribute to
the nutriment of plants.

Lime in our experiments was clearly detrimental with
sand; the cabbage lived, but weighed less in January than
when planted in July: the wheat had two slender stems.
In clay with lime our cabbage lived till December, but never
grew. The wheat had one stem, which was extremely slen-
der, and the ear was diminutive.

These facts appear discordant with the experience of far-
. mers in every quarter of the globe ; for lime is found to be

an

0*N THE FOOD OF PLANTS. ]g

in excellent manure. In some parts of Wales they have agree with ex-
scarcely any other dressing for their wheat. I well remem- Pen«Ilce-
ber, that in the parish of Lansamlet, in Glamorganshire,
my father, who was very attentive to agriculture, put most
of his stable dung on meadow land, and used only lime for
wheat. He had two lime-kilns constantly burning for his
own use, and with this manure he obtained the most abun-
dant crops; but then his land was principally a dark vege-
table mould, and much of it was peat, which before it was
drained had been a bog. On this land I have counted
sixty grains to an ear, not picked and culled out of many
others as being longer than the rest, but taken by handfuls
at random.

In his land, lime as a dressing was particularly apt, be- Attempt tor,*.
cause, as we know, it hastens the putrefactive process, and coucllc l"«m»
promotes the dissolution of vegetable substances, convert-
ing them quickly into vegetable mould.

Now in my experiments there was no vegetable matter
to be dissolved, and therefore no benefit according to chy-
mical principles was to be expected from the lime. The
trial was however made, and the received opinion as to
the effect of lime is thus far confirmed.

But in my experiments the lime appeal's to have been Injurious by>
deleterious. This was not from its causticity, for the plants f°r"j>nsacru<t
lived ; but from its action as a cement in forming a crust
on the surface of the pots impervious to air. For in these
pots I remarked, that after rain the water stagnated, and
did not readily penetrate as in the other pots.

Free access of air to the roots of plants seems to be of vast Access of air
importance, and almost essential to their growth. With re- to roots a™*
gard to seeds, access of air is absolutely needful to their ve- sary#
getation. Hence it is that charlock (sinapis arvensisj
will remain in the earth for centuries, if deposited below the
vegetating distance, as we have occasion to observe on Salis-
bury-plain, where no charlock is ever seen, unless when

the downs are broken up. The land is then covered with c a

r oeed vege-

it ; but till then the seeds remain as in vacuo, and are there- tating
fore not liable to change.

This deposit of seed must have happened in most remote after having
antiquity, either when the hill country, like the low lands, lain in the

formed

]£ ON THE FOOD OF PLANTS*

ground far formed part of an extensive forest; or more probably when
a»es* these extensive downs were subject to the plough.

Being solicitous to know whether these seeds were ante-
diluvian, 1 took earth from different depths, and soon got
below the stratum in which these seeds are found.

The necessity of air for the vegetatiou of seeds will ac-
count for pffects which in agriculture are too frequently ob-
served.
Injurious- cf- If soon after wheat or barley has been sown on what is-

fectsofahar- cajje(j_ a running sand there falls a dashing rain, the sand
dened surface. , ° . . ° . .

runs together, that is, it forms a crust, which in a great

measure is impervious to air, and scarcely a grain of corn
will grow; or if on clay land, during a time of drought, a
garden plot is watered, and left exposed to the scorching
beams of a meridian sun, the ground will bake, that is, the
surface will be hardened, and being thus rendered irapervi-
F *t ntio ous to air> veoetat^on ceases« I*ut *f tne surface has been
previously covered with fern leaves, as practised by skilful
and attentive gardeners, no such effect will be produced.
The plot may be watered and vegetation will be rapid.
Advantage of The admission of air, and its vast importance to the
harrowing growth of plants, will account for the good effect produced
by harrowing our wheat crops in spring, as lately introduced,
and now universally adopted by our best farmers. The
good effect produced is made apparent by the luxuriant
thenu * growth of pease, beans, turnips, and cabbages, after they

have been hoed ; and is at present so well understood, that
many agriculturists hoe their turnips twice, and their beans
four times, not merely with a view to the destruction of
weeds, but because they observe the benefit arising to their
crops by a free admission of air into the earth. The pal-
pable advantage of this practice has led many farmers to
consider the principles on which the practice has been
founded, and to try by experiments how far it can be
pushed.

In this pursuit, and satisfied of the benefits to be derived
dereduanecM- fr°m loosening the surface of the ground contiguous to his
•arjr. crops, the Rev. Mr. Close has given up the broad-cast hus-

bandry, keeps the hoe constantly in motion, and nowiinds
that he has never ©ccasiou for a fallow.

But

crop

or hoeing

ON THE FOOD OF PLANTS. 25

But the most astonishing effect produced by giving free Astonishing .

admission of air to the roots of wheat was last year ex„ affect of admit-

' ttngairtothe

hibited by Mr. Bartley, secretary to the society of Arts at roots of wheat-
Bath. In August 1800 he sowed his wheat in, rows with
three feet intervals, and six inches distance from grain to
grain. The proportion of seed was two quarts to au acre.
The soil was a deep sandy loam, but out of condition, and
filled with couch. This wheat was hoed in autumn, hoed
again, and earthed up both at Christmas and spring. When
it was in bloom the intervals were dug up, and it was once
more earthed up. At harvest this crop yielded sixty-six
bushels per acre. Such was its luxuriancy, many of i\\c-.
plants produced 98 perfect ears, many of which, nine
inches long, contained each 1,00 grains.

In the broad-cast husbandry of the hill counties of Wilts
and Hants, the produce was formerly three or at most four
for one, as it was in the greatest part of France. By the
drill, without hoeing, the return would not be near so
much ; but in Mr. Bartley's crop we see more than 1000 for
1 ; and some grains yielded nearly ten times as much*.

I shall make but one observation more upon this subject, Orchards,
which is, that an orchard planted on the green sward requires
double the time for its maturity as one on cultivated land,
that has a more plentiful supply of air admitted to its roots.

Thus we see that all the great agents in nature are con- Conclusion,
cerned in the process of vegetation, and may be considered,
as the food of plants. But to determine in what manner
each contributes to nutrition, must be left to the investiga-
tion of succeding generations.

* It must ever be with reluctance, that an exception can be taken
against any argument of so able a writer as the present, especially in a
matter of alleged fact. But in this instance it seems^ proper to remark,
that the argument drawn from the reported success of Mr. Bartley should
be received with caution, on account of the peculiarity of, the soil. That
soil being remarkably deep, fat, and productive, and within the limits of
a nursery-man's garden, near a city abounding with manure, arc circum-
stances not common to other situations. Consequently the result of any
experiments made in such a spot is not to be considered as applicable to
the general practice of agriculture and planting, on a large and common
scale of cultivation. With the necessary allowances which the local ad-
vantage above-mentioned suggests, the consequences drawn by this gen-
tleman may still be of importance for the consideration of our practical
readers. EDITOR.

IQ MACHINE FOR THRESHING HEMP AND FLAX*

III.

Description of a Machine for Beating out Hempseed and
Flaxseed* likely to be useful in Canada, By Mr. £zekiel
Cleall, of West Coker*,

SIR,

Machine for JL MADE a model of a machine for thrashing out hemp-
thrashing seed and flaxseed, in the year 1803; and in the year 1805,
' ' I had a real machine made after the plan of the model, by
Mr. John Wad man, carpenter and hemp merchant. The
said machine has been since tried and approved by many-
hemp and flax merchants.

I now send the model for the inspection of the Society,
aud leave the event thereof to their decision. It does not
injure the stalk of the. hemp so much as the common mode
of thrashing out the seed, and consequently leaves it much
better for scaling.

I am, Sir, your humble servant,

EZEKIEL CLEALL.

West Cok-ery near Yeovil, Somerset, ML

March 22, .1806.

Certificates. We whose names are hereunto subscribed, do certify,

that we well know Mr. Ezekiel Cleall, of West Coker; that
we have many times seen his machine at work, in thrashing
out hempseed and flaxseed, and think it likely to be of
great public utilily; inasmuch as two women, whose wages
and allowance never exceed one half of what are allowed to
two men, will do as much work in any given time as such
two men.

That the seeds thrashed by this machine are not so much
bruised or injured as by the old or common way, and the
hemp and flax are preserved from many injuries which they
suffer from the old method.

* Trans..of Soc. of Arts, vol. XXV, p^H-3. Twenty guineas were
Tot*d to Mr. Cleall for this intention.

In

MACHINE FOR THRASHING HEMP AND FLAX. 1/

In witness whereof, we have hereunto added our signa-
tures.

John Wadman.
James Wadman.
John Baker.
John Pin net.
John Chaffev.

SIR,

The machine, of which a model was sent to the Society Machine for
, i • t • t n -i • hemp seed.

some months ago, must be used with eight nails, two on

each arm, for beating out hemp seed.

When required to be used for beating out flax seed, the For flax seed.
above eight Hails must be taken out, ajad four beaters put
in their place.

The height of the machine from the floor to the top of Dimensions.
the board on which the flax or hemp is laid, is two feet;
the breadth, two feet ten inches ; the length of the board,
four feet four inches ; the length of each of the arnfs, from
the axis of the machine, is three feet two inches; the flails
for the hemp seed, two feet two inches long; the heights of
the uprights, seven feet two inches; the beaters for the flax
seeds, are each one foot three inches long, and seven inches

broad. ftl^^Jt •" #

The machine will thrash, in one day, as much hemp as Work per-
grows on an acre of land, and other crops in proportion ; *ormed by lt-
and the work is dong with less than half the expense of
thrashing in the usual way. Jj^ fc dvl J^

I am, Sir, your obedient' servant,

EZEKIEL CLEALL.

Reference to the Engraving of Mr. ClealVs Machine for
beating out Hemp Seeds and Flax Seeds. PL II. Fig. 1, 2.

Fig. 1. Represents the machine for beating out hemp Explanation of
seeds, in which A is the table or board on which the hemp the plate.
is to be placed ; B the axis in which the four arms C CCC
are fixed ; D D D D, eight single flails, moving upon four
pins near the extremities of the four arms ; these flails di-
verge from the pins on which they move, so that two of

Vol. XXIII— -May, 1809, C them

18 IMPROVEMENTS IN CANADA.

them united on each arm are nearly in the form of the let-
ter V. E is the winch or handle by which the machine ia
put in motion ; F F, two upright pieces of wood to sustain
the axle of the machine ; G, an upper cross piece, to se-
cure the uprights firm ; H H, the two bottom pieces or
sills, in which the two uprights are mortised, also the two
smaller uprights which support the board or table A; IT,
two lower cross pieces to secure the machine firmly ; K K,
two levers on which the table A rests, and by which it
may be raised or lowered, as thought necessary, by iron
pins, at KK, passing through these levers and the two up-
rights.
Method of When the machine is used, the hemp must be laid on the

nsinfthema- table A, and moved about in different directions bv the

chine. ...

person who holds it, whilst another person turns the ma-
chine by the handle E ; the flails D of the machine fall in
succession on the hemp; as the axis moves round they beat
out the seeds as different surfaces of the hemp are exposed
on the table, and when the seeds are all beaten out from
one parcel of hemp, a fresh quantity is applied upon the
table.

Flax machine. Fig. 2. Represents one of the flax beaters, which is made
of a solid piece of wood, one of which is attached instead
of the two flails, to every arm, when the machine is employed
for beating out flax seeds, as they require more force to se-
parate them from the flax plant.

IV.

Observations on the Culture of Hemp, and other useful In-
formation, relative to Improvements in Canada. By Wil-
liam Bond, Esq., of Canada*.

Observations on the culture of hemp.

Culture of JL HE culture of hemp in Upper Canada is no doubt one
hemp mCanada Qf t|ie most desirable objects with every person of discern-

• Trans, of Soc. of Arts, vol. XXV, p. 147. The silver medal was
voted to Mr. Bond for this «ornuaunication.

men!

IMPROVEMENTS IN CANADA. • ]$

ment settled there, and more particularly so with those of
this description in our mother country ; and though there >
are so many millions of acres so well calculated to the
growth of this highly valuable article, yet 1 do not expect
much progress therein for some time, for the following rea-
sons.

The part of the country the best calculated for the Obstacles to its
growth of hemp is so lately and in so small a degree occu- mtr0 uctlon*
pied, that few have begun to use the plough, but depend
upon raising a sufficiency of grain by harrowing only ; in
this they are not disappointed for two or three crops ; — in
the mean time they clear away fresh fields from the woods,
many of them to a large extent, which take up so much
time in fencing and dressing, that few of the farmers have
been able to raise more than needful for their own families'
consumptipn, and for the use of their neighbours; indeed
they are ignorant as to the growth and management of
hemp, and in general so poor, that they cannot afford to
raise any thing for sale that will not bring them ready mo-
ney as soon as brought to market ; and grain brings such a
high price in cash, that few farmers are inclined to turn
their attention to any other article. Another obstacle is,
there being no person or persons appointed to buy small
quantities of hemp, and pay ready money for the same.

The tract of rich hemp land in Upper Canada is that Tract of rich
part west of Yonge Street*, and north of Dundas Street f, hemp iand'
and partly enclosed by lakes Ontario, St. Clair, Huron, and
Simcoe, and to the east and north-east almost as far as
Grand or Ottaway River, and to within a few miles of the
south and south-east side of lake Huron. I have not failed
to make annually from one to three journeys through this
tract ; I have crossed it in all directions with Indian guides,
great part of which no white man, except myself, has ever
set foot in ; and I rind, that the chief of the interior part
consists of a rich deep black soil, which I am well con-
vinced, when well inhabited with farmers, will become one

* A street leading from York, the seat of government, to the naviga-.
b!e waters of Lake Simcoe.

t Leading to the Riyer Thames.

C 2 of

20 IMPROVEMENTS IN CANADA.

of the finest countries in all his Majesty's territories for the
growth of hemp.

But lately be- It is only about five years since this valuable tract began
to be occupied at all, and though by industrious farmers,
yet by such as have brought little to the country. A few-
cows and sheep, a pair of plough oxen, one or two horses,
a small stock of farming tools, such as two or three axes,
as many hoes and iron wedges, one or two ox chains, being
the most that a new settler (generally speaking) possesses
on his arrival ; with these they* make a shift to clear away
the woods, and divide and fence the land with split timber
into fields, and they are greatly encouraged to continue
clearing away the forest, in consequence of the high price
given for the ashes by the potash makers: this eventually
will be vastly in their favour, in future, when hemp becomes
the object, as it gives time for the roots and stumps of trees
to rot, and their stock of horses and oxen to increase, which
is essentially necessary before the farmer can expect to be
successful in the growth of hemp. It is in this progressive
manner, that this fine country will be settled ; the nature
of things demands the pursuit; and the first settlers are in
a situation capable of putting the same in practice ; their
stock of horses and oxen are sufficiently strong to work the
ground a second time over, tear up the stumps and roots,

Hemp requires plough and pulverize the soil; and until the ground is

vcrkelT11 PUl" bought to tms state> i* *s not nt for hemp, as hemp, in its
nature, depends chiefly upon a tap root, and when this root
is interrupted in its progress downwards, it will throw out
horizontal ones, which produce horizontal branches also,
and the open spaces round the stumps of the trees admitting
so much air, permits these branches to grow to such a
length and strength as greatly to injure the bark or hemp
of the stem. Such hemp, when it comes to the hackle,
breaks off, and drags away at the knobs of the branches, so
as to leave it short, and make a very great waste. Notwith-
standing, if there was a sure market for as small a quantity
as 50lb., there are few farmers but would try the experi-
ment ; and if one was more successful than the rest, his
neighbour would endeavour to find out thej reasons why it
was so. Thus, step by step, the knowledge in the manage-
ment

IMPROVEMENTS IN CANADA. O]

roent of hemp would be greatly extended, the farmer would
generally be in possession of fresh seed, and when grain
becomes less an object, he would feel no fear in turning
his attention to the culture of hemp upon a large scale : and,
in order to encourage the farmer, it would prove highly ad-
vantageous to take in any quantity, great or small, of sound
hemp, assorted perhaps into four or five qualities, according
to its length, which will vary for some years to come, for the
reasons before given.

The high price of labour, owing in some measure to the High price of
high price of grain, is such, that hemp, agreeable to the ,jlbourand «f
present regulations, is not an object with the farmer; if an
addition of about a third of the present price was given, it
would be an inducement for the farmers to cultivate their
old fields in a more spirited maimer; which bounty might
be taken off again, when grain becomes less an object than
it is at present, which will soon be the case in time of peace,
and no doubt will affect the price of hemp in proportion in
the English market.

In all new countries where labourers are scarce, we find Contrivances
many contrivances calculated for the purpose of reducing ju' diminishing
labour, more for the sake of expedition than ease ; such,
for instance, as the saw mill, the hoe ploughs, scythe and
cradle for cutting and gathering grain, the wooden machine
(drawn round by one horse) for thrashing grain, the iron
shod shovel, drawn by oxen, and held by two handles, as a
plough, for the purpose of levelling the roads, &c. Nor
are the Americans, or other settlers in this country, fond of
any work that needs violent exercise of the body ; which
the breaking of hemp in the old way certainly occasions, in Disadvantage
consequence of requiring a cross motion of the arm, which of breaking
makes the breakers complain of a pain about the short ribs ^d way.
on the side they hold the hemp ; and on the opposite side a
little under the shoulders, so that breaking of hemp in the
old way is a great obstacle to its increased culture. To
render labour, therefore, somewhat more easy and expedi-
tious, is an object worthy the first attention, and I consider
it practicable at a small expense, and have sent to the So-
ciety a model of a machine for this purpose.

I have observed among the clothiers1 and fullers* ma- D&sn wheel*

chinery,

22 IMPROVEMENTS IN CANADA.

erected across cliinery, great power and rapid motion proceeding from
what is commonly called a dash wheel, erected across a
stream of rapid water, the flies or float boards of which are
fixed in the octangular axis, from fifteen to twenty-five
feet in length, and from three and a half in depth, each
fly. I have seen many corn mills in Upper Canada, with
no other water wheels than such as the above described,
which save a vast expense in raising dams, &c.

?VePfCapU" There area number of streams in that part of Canada,

nada. which I have endeavoured to describe, (as to the practica-

bility of the various ways of cultivation) that are well cal-
culated for such wheels; and where these streams or rivers
are not too wide, the axis of the wheel might be extended
across so as to reach the land on each side, where I propose
the breakers to be fixed to go by a tilt the same as a forge
hammer. Such a simple piece of machinery would not cost
more than 70 or 80 dollars, as little iron would be wanted,
and timber we have for nothing; and when in motion would
employ four breakers and two servers, from whom I should
expect as much good work as fifteen or sixteen persons
could possibly do in the old way, and that without much
bodily labour.

Mills for break- Mills for breaking hemp, on the very same principle as

mg iemp, ^at ^ a gaw m\]\9 <dS to motion only an addition of an iron
crank, so as to run with two cranks instead of one, with
something of a larger sweep than that of a saw mill, would
be of vast utility in a neighbourhood of a large* growth of
hemp, and would not cost more than a common saw mill.
As the brakes of the frame continue in motion the same
as that of a saw mill, twenty men might be employed, who
would do as much as fifty or sixty could do in the old way, and
' with much more ease and pleasure to themselves; and this

Some collateral is not the only advantage that would result from such mills ;

advantages. jt would cause something of a social meeting, which the
youth would Jbe particularly fond of. At such meetings all
the defects respecting the culture and management of hemp
would be examined into, and those who raised the best
would become ambitious, and try to excel each other; thus
we might reasonably expect, that Upper Canada would-far

exceed

IMPROVEMENTS IN CANADA. 23

exceed all other countries in the world for the growth of
good hemp.

Reference to the Engraving of Mr. Bond's Machine for
breaking Hemp* Pi. II, Fig. 3, 4, 5.

Fig. 3. a. Represents the axis of a water wheel, on which Descriptien of
is fixed a trunnion of four lifters b b b b, each of which tlle machine.
lifters raises in succession a lever c, which, by means of a
chain connected with it, pulls down another lever d, and
thereby raises the upper part of the double brake e. As
each lifter of the trunnion passes the lever c,* it allows the
upper part of the brake to fall upon the hemp placed on
the lower part of the brake ff\ and by its weight, and
teeth intersecting the teeth of the lower brake fj\ the
woody parts of the hemp plant are separated by repeated
strokes from the filaments or fibres of the hemp proper for
use. This completes the first operation necessary in the
preparation of hemp, g is a table on which the woody
parts of the hemp fall, and which gives security and strength
to the frame ; h h h h are the four legs or supports of the
frame.

Fig. 4 shows a section of the teeth of one half of the
double brake abovementioned : it is betwixt the upper and
lower rows of these teeth that the breaking of the hemp
takes place, by the repeated rise and fall of the upper part
of the brake upon it.

Fig. 5 shows the upper part of the brake, in which ii
show the two rows of teeth, kk the two pins on which it is
moyed, / the part to which the chain which raises the upper
part of the brake is attached. After the breaking of the
hemp, it is wholly finished for use by scutching or swingling,
an operation which may be either performed by the hand or
machinery, and is easily executed by either mode.

The machinery for breaking hemp should be removed
from the rivers previous to the beginning of the frosts.

On the breeding of rabbits.

To include the interest of the colonists and the mother interests »f< ...

country also in one and the same pursuit, is not onlv Jaui e

* * Mr

able,

£4i IMPROVEMENTS IN CANADA.

try should go able, but most likely to succeed; especially where only a
together. trifle of property of the individuals or of the public is wanted

to set the bountifu hand of Nature to work in a country
where animal subsistence and a suitable climate call for the
industrious husbandman, who may in various ways be use-
ful to himself and his country.
Warren rabbit. In my travels through America, I have often been sur-
prised, that no attempt has been made to introduce, for the
purpose ©f propagation, that useful little animal, the warren
rabbit, of such vast importance to the hat manufactory of
Its fur essential England. It is chiefly owing to the fur of this animal, that
to good hats. t^e English hats are so much esteemed abroad. It is a fact
well known amongst the hatters, that a hat composed of
one half of rabbit wool, one sixth old coat beaver, one sixth
pelt beaver, and one sixth Vigonia wool, will wear far pre-
ferable to one made of all beaver, as it will keep its shape
better, feel more firm, and wear bright and black much
longer.
Importance of The value of the rabbit wool, the produce of the United
«ountr ^ UllS Kingdom only, is not less, I will venture to say, than
.£250000 per annum ; but the quantity is much diminished,
owing to the banishment and persecution they meet with
on every side, and so many small warrens taken in for grain
land; in consequence of which it is time, that some protec-r
tion should be afforded, if possible, to that important branch
of British manufactory (in which rabbit wool is used) from,
suffering any inconvenience in the want of so essential an
article, and the accomplishment of this grand object I con-»
ceive perfectly easy.
The warren General Observations. — When I speak of the warren rab-

rabbit only of ^j^ j have to observe, that there are in England, as well as
most parts of Europe, three other kinds, viz. the tame rab-
bit, of various colours, the fur of which is of little value,
except the white; the shock rabbit, which has a long shaggy
fur of little value; the bush rabbit, like those of America,
which commonly sits as a hare, and the fur of each is of a
rotten iuferior quality.
Two sorts. To return to the warren rabbit. — There are two sorts in

respect to colour, that is, the common gray, and the silver
gray, but little pr no difference in respect to the strength

an4

IMPROVEMENTS IN CANADA. gj

and felting qualities of the fur. The nature of this animal Manners.
is to burrow deep in sandy ground, and there live in fami-
lies, nor will they suffer one from a neighbouring family to
come amongst them without a severe contest, in which the
intruders are generally glad to retire with the loss of part of
their coats, unless when pursued by an enemy, when they
find protection.

It is scarcely worth while for me to mention a thing so Prolific, and
generally known, viz. that rabbits, particularly those of the ^Slly exP°rt-
warren, are the most prolific of all other four-footed animals
jn the world; nor do 1 apprehend any difficulty would at-
tend the exporting this little quadruped with safety to any
distance, provided it was kept dry, and regularly supplied
with clean, sweet food, and a due regard to the cleanliness
of the boxes or places of confinement.

•Twelve or fifteen pair oi* these valuable animals taken to Would soon'be-
Upper Canada, and theye enclosed within a small space of p^^w? y
ground suitable to their nature, but furnished with a few
artificial burrows at the first, by way of a nursery ; and
spread over those now useless plains, islands, and penin-
sulas, so well calculated to their nature; would, I will make
bold to say, the eighth year after their introduction, furnish
the British market with a valuable raw material, amounting
to a large sum, increasing every year with astonishing rar
pidity, so as to become, in a few years, one amongst the first
pf national objects.

It may be supposed by some, that the above project isf
magnified beyond possibility, or even probability ; but the
serious attention I have paid to the subject, these many
years past, as to all points for and against, leaves me no
Toom to accuse myself of being too sanguine ; for if pro-
perly managed a few years at the first, I cannot find a single
thing likely to interrupt their progress.

Some idea of the astonishing increase of the rabbit may jncTeas<, ^ t
be had from the following facts: — pair in one

An old doe rabbit will bring forth young nine times in ye5Mr#
one year, and from 4 to 10 each time; but to allow for ca-
sualties, state the number at 5 each litter.

£5 IMPROVEMENTS IN CANADA.

In nine months • - • . . . . 45

The females of the first litter will bring forth five
times the proportion, of which is 2{ female's pro-
duce 62

Those of the second litter 4 times produce. • .#.«.... 50

Ditto of third ditto 3 ditto 37

Ditto of second ditto 2 ditto 2.5

Total in one year from one pair 219

The third female race of the old dam, and the second of
the first litter, seldom breed the first year, but are early
breeders in. the spring following, when we might expect an
increase of the whole in proportion to the first pair, if pro-
perly attended to and protected.

Hares, It is generally allowed, that hares are not more than one

fourth as prolific as rabbits, notwithstanding, agreeable to
an experiment tried by Lord Ribblesdale, who enclosed a
pair of hares for one year, the offspring was (as J have been
credibly informed) 68 : these animals, could they be ex-
ported to Upper Canada with safety, and there protected
within enclosures for a few years, would soon after spread
over a large extent of country ; the fur is nearly as valuable
as that of the rabbit.

Climate of la that part of Upper Canada within 45 degrees of

pper ana a. nortjl latitude, and the southern and western boundaries,
the climate is nearly the same as that of England, a little
hotter a few days in summer, and a little colder a few days
in winter, according to Fahrenheit's thermometer, which I
have paid great attention to for some years, comparing the
same with the observations of the English.

Animals in- The increase of most animals appears much greater in

creaso fast in proportion in America than in England, mankind not ex-
cepted. That of sheep is very apparent to those that pay
attention to their breeding stock, which gives me hopes, that
in a few years we shall be able to pay for our woollen cloths
in wool. Finding the effect of soil and climate so salutary
to sheep, &c, it may be reasonably supposed, that rabbits
will answer the most sanguine expectations; as I understand
the wool of the sheep retains all its nature the same as in

England,

IMPROVEMENTS IN CANADA. &J

England, particularly its strength, and felting qualities
among the hatters; which assures me, that rabbits' wool
from those bred in Upper Canada will do the same; and
there are some millions of acres, within the latitude and
boundaries which I have before described, suited to the
nature of the warren rabbit ; nor do I apprehend that the
wolves, foxes, &c. of Upper Canada will be half so de-
structive as the poachers in England.

The Guanaco,

or camel sheep of South America, no doubt will be a na- The guanaco
tional object at some future period. This is a tame, do-
mestic animal, very hardy, and used with much cruelty by
the natives in travelling over the mountains with their bur-
thens. It shears a fleece of wool of from 2lb. to 3 lb., which
is of a dusky red on the back, on the sides inclined to
white, and under the belly quite white; its texture is very
fine, yet strong; its felting qualities are very powerful; and v
it is worth, when ready for use, from five to fifteen shillings
per lb. This animal would no doubt thrive, and do well
in England, Upper Canada, and in particular I should sup-
pose in New Holland,

The Beaver

might be propagated to great advantage in Scotland, Ire- The beaver
land, and the northern parts of England. It is an animal, might be intro-
when tamed, very familiar, and will eat bread and jnilk, ta^o\TrelaiuL
willow sticks,* elm bark, &c, and no doubt might be im-
ported with safety; but as these two last mentioned animals
are not likely to be attended to immediately, I shall say no
more respecting them for the present.

Pine Timber.

There are many thousands of large pine trees on the pines for mast*,
borders of the lakes, rivers, &c, in Upper Canada, which
might be marked and secured for naval purposes, and
which might be floated down to Montreal and Quebec
with great ease, and which no doubt would be of great be-
nefit

25 ON THE USE OF THE POTATO.

Befit in furnishing a large supply of good masts for the
navy of this empire.

I am, Gentlemen, with respect,

Your obedient servant,

WILLIAM BOND.

V.

Remarks on sundry important Uses of the Potato*,

On the use of JL HE potato has, though deservedly, occupied so much
the potato of the attentjon 0f different writers, and of this Society,
that it may seem almost necessary to bring forward some
new and important discoveries concerning it, if we attempt
to say more on its qualities. It is not however, a singular
opinion, that so important is this vegetable, and so appli-
cable to economical uses, as human food ; that it will re-?
main for posterity fully to appreciate its positive and com-
parative value. But as no new and promising experiment,
however imperfectly conducted, should be suffered to escape
general notice, it will be acceptable to our readers to re-r
ceive a general statement of certain trials made by a very
respectable British merchant, who is also a member of the
Society, with a view to ascertain the value of the potato for
for sea stores, sea provision and other stores* His diffidence about having
done justice to the subject, which he doubts of finding lei-
sure to prosecute, prevents his allowing his name to appear
as to a finished Essay of his own, for this volume; but cer-
tain statements laudably reported by him to the Society,
are deemed too important to be lost, as they may lead to
farther discoveries and facts. The statements then are in,
substance as follow :

Chrap methods "The ease with which this root is prepared by boiling
of preserving aild for immediate consumption, either in its separate form,
no/been or mixed in bread ; the little trouble there is in preserving

sought after.

* Bath Society's Papers, vol. X, p. 293.

it

ON THE USE OF THE POTATO* £Q

it through the winter months ; and the short period between
the time of planting, and the return of the crop ; have most
probably been the causes, why less pains have been taken
to find out cheap methods of preserving potatoes, as a
store for future sustenance, than would otherwise have been
the case.

" The large quantity of potatoes produced in the last Experiments
season, and the reputed scarcity of bread corn, induced me «» drying than.
a few weeks since to make some small experiments on the
means of drying potatoes, either in substance or in flour;
either for future consumption at home, or for the supply of
our seamen on long voyages.

" The ease with which I found this might be done, and This may easily
the probable benefit which I think may be derived to the be done-
public from a farther pursuit of the subject, induces me to
submit to the inspection of the Society a small quantity of
the flour of potato sent herewith.

" The potatoes were boiled with their skin on, dried on a potato Hour,
kiln, and the whole ground in a steel com mill : none of the
skin has been separated by dressing.

" By experiments that have been before made on fine £t wjh keep
dried flour of potatoes, it is known, that it will keep longer longer than
than the flour of wheat, without spoiling ; that it is used as * eat uur
a substitute for sago, and makes good biscuits without ad-
mixture. And I have every reason to believe it will mix
and make good bread, in a much larger proportion with-
wheat flour, than has hitherto been employed of the boiled
root, in the common mode of using it.

" The expen.se of preparing the flour from the root in
large quantities, I am not prepared to speak to. The chief Washing the
labour is washing the potatoes from the mould which ad- chief labour,
heres to the eyes, particularly in those sorts, the eyes of
which are much depressed. Drying them will be consider-
ably expensive ; but 1 think maybe reduced much below
what at first it will be estimated at. Grinding will not cost
more than corn.

n From what I believe were accurate experiments, I find „ .,.

r ■ Boiling not ne-

that one hundred pounds of washed potatoes will produce cessary,
full twenty-five pounds of flour (such as the sample). The
difference in weight wiil be very little, whether the potatoes

are

20 OH THE USE 0F THE POTATO*

are boiled, or only ground in an apple mill, and the juieg
suffered slowly to drain from them before they are dried.
It might seem therefore at iirst view, that the boiling might

feat advantage- be omitted ; my trials however have shown me, that the co-
lour of the flour is much fairer when boiled, and the taste
more pleasant; and that the expense of boiling in steam is
very little. With the greatest care even some of the starch
{the most nutritive part of the root) will separate with the
juice; above three pounds of fine starch (weighed after
it was dried) passed off with the water from lOOlbs. of po-
tatoes.

" Other persons will, I trust, ascertain such facts with
more accuracy r I myself hope soon to ascertain more satis-
factory particulars. In the mean time permit me to make
an estimate of the probable produce of an acre of potatoes
in quantity, when reduced to the state of flour.

Quantity of " The average produce of an acre managed with care,

a^e'ofpma" estimatecl at ab««t eighty sacks of 240lbs. each.

toes. " According to my experiments (as before) lOOlbs. of

washed potatoes will produce 25lbs. of dry flour ; or each
sack 60lbs. ; or one acre, two tons and upwards.

" I am not qualified at present to carry these calculations
farther — if quantity alone be the question, I need not.

" Note. The potatoes used in the foregoing trials were
the red apple potato.

Peking. " The steel mill has not ground this flour so fine as I be-

lieve a stone mill would have done. Some of these had
their skins stripped off after boiling. Should an expedi-
tious method be found of stripping off the skins, it will
perhaps be less troublesome than washing so carefully as
must otherwise be practised."

After giving a numerical account of the samples of flour
of potato prepared for exhibition ; this gentleman gives also
samples of bread and biscuit made from different sorts of
potato flour, mixed with different proportions of wheat
flour of different degrees of finenes ; but these would be
unintelligible iu this place, in the absence of such sam-
ples.

Maufacture " The potato flour used in the bread and biscuit is made

of the flour, of the whole of the potato, washed, steamed, bruised

slightly

ON THE USE OF THE POTATO. 3 J

slightly after steaming, dried on a malt kiln, and ground
in a common corn mill, no alteration whatever having been
made in the set of the stones, from what they were as used
for • mding wheat; it may reasonably be supposed however,
that a miller, accustomed to grind this article, would make
better work and finer flour. x

" Nothing was taken from the flour except some large
pieces that were not ground, and a little large bran in the
proportion of the sample sent herewith.

" The potatoes of which this flour was made were cer- The potatoes
tainly over dried; and having lain in a heap after steaming should bedried
i \ i n , , , ., without delay

upwards of two days before they were put upon the kiln, after boiling, &

some degree of fermentation had begun to take place, but not over dried,
which was thought so little as to have been perfectly cor-
rected by the drying. In the bread, however, it is certainly
distinguishable. The baker considers, that it is from this
cause that the bread is not so light as it otherwise would
have been. It rose well in the oven, but fell when the door
was opened. He thinks that wrhen mixed with the flour of
dry wheat, the potato-meal will have exactly the same effect
as the mixture of a certain portion of cone wheat flour, and Similar to con«
that it will answer as well in about the same proportion. wheat flolir*
He has no doubt, but that even with this flour he shall
succeed better in the second attempt. With potato meal
well made, he believes that bread of the best quality may
be produced.

" The chief precautions necessary in making potato flour Precautions,
seem to be, to prevent any fermentation taking place in
the boiled potatoes, previously to their being dried, and to
avoid giving them too great a heat in drying. With this
view it seems advisable to construct the apparatus for pre-
paring it, so as that the steaming tubs and kiln should be
heated by the same lire, without loss of time or labour; the
potatoes may then be immediately removed from the steam
to the kiln, and means should be used to regulate the heat
of the kiln, so that it should not much exceed 90°.

" For the common purposes of bread, it seems evident, Peeling not .
from the samples, x'that taking off the rind or skin is by no necess^r}'-
means necessary; to wash the potatoes carefully before boil-
ing seems, therefore, the only precaution required.

" From

3<j2 01* THE USE OF THE POTATO.

More potatoes " From experiments as before slated, the produce of dry
may be used in meaj ^ tQ the faw potato as 2(j or 07 to 100, but let it be
making bread r

this way than estimated at 25 or 1 qr. of the whole* The greatest quan-
ra\r or boiled. j^ Qf raw potatoes said to be used a3 a mixture with wheat
flour in bread is one third ; not muvli above the same quan-
tity of boiled potato has usually been employed. The pro-
portion of flour in boiled potato exceeds that in raw potato
by about 1 qr. As a rough ground for calculation, we may
take 33 per cent as the proportion of flour in any given
quantity of boiled potato.

" The proportion therefore which the potato meal makes
of the whole mixture in this bread, above that in which one
third raw potato has been used, is four times: that is, the
actual quantity of potato flour in this bread is as great, a«
if 2-llbs. of raw potato had been mixed with 12lbs. of
"wheaten flour; and compared with boiled potatoes, it is as
great as if 18lbs. of potato had been mixed with 12lbs. of
wheat flour."

Practical appli- From the foregoing statements, it is not presumed that
cation. much farther information is imparted, than may have been

gathered from some former accounts of bread making from'
a mixture of such flours, except as to the mode of preparing
the potato flour. Neither is it at present supposed, that for
common use, when corn is not dear, the potato will super-*
sede the use of neat wheaten flour for family bread* But in
very dear times, when it may be used in some places to
great advantage, the most economical mode of doing it is
important; and the process of steaming, kiln drying, grind-
ing, and dressing, seems excellent. If equal quantities of
wheat and potato flour are found to make very good bread,
and the potato to have the effect of cone Jlour in the mix-
ture; this may be set down as a sufficient regulation, and a
valuable fact.

But what is of great consequence to be known and fully
noticed is, that the flour of the potatoes so prepared, if
barrelled up, and kept in any common dry place, will re-
tain its virtues longer either on land or at sea, than the other
sort of flour made from grain: in short, from frequent ap*
pearances and well attested facts, the flour of this vegetable,

prepared

Potato flour
almost impe-
rishable.

• FOSSIL ALCYONIA. 33

prepared as aforesaid, seems to possess the lingular quality
of being- almost imperishable. In addition to this quality,
the power of preserving potatoes in barrels, after being
kiln dried, either when whole or cut into parts, for the use
of the table in long voyages, is very important; and it 19
found, that, after being so preserved, they are capable of
being again boiled soft, and served up as a vegetable at ta-
ble, retaining much of their original flavour, consistence,
and other qualities. s

Editor.

(£5* For two valuable papers on the fecula of potatoes, and its uses,
fey Mr. W. Skrimshire, jun., see Journal, vol. XXI, p. 71 and 182.

VI.

On the Dissimilarity between the Creatures of the present
and former World, and on the Fossil Alcyonia. From
Parkinson s Organic Remains.

lj)OME of the extraordinary circumstances which have ar- Great diisiml-
rested our attention, whilst examining into the nature of larity between
fossil corals, now demand a few general remarks. You sil corals.
cannot but have observed how completely I was foiled, in
my attempt to preserve a parallel between the fossil corals
which I have particularised, and the several corals which
are enumerated in the Systema Naturce of Linnaeus. In-
deed, so little could this parallel be preserved, so little a-
greement could be traced between the recent and the fossil
corals, that I find myself under the necessity of acknow-
ledging, that I am not certain of the existence of the recent
analogue of any really mineralized coral.

This dissimilarity between the creatures of this and the This inexpli-
creatures of the former world, is a circumftance which ap* cable.
pears to be so inexplicable, that I can only admit it, with*
out attempting to account for it. It however furnishes us, The present
I think, with a ftrong argument againft that theory, which state of our
supposes the changes which this planet has undergone are J2*: of°re u-
fcll attributable to the constant, regular, and gradual pro* lar workings of

Vol. XXIII.— May, 1809. D cesses nature :

34

FOSSIL AI.CTONIA.

cesses of nature, which have been acting from an indefinite
period of time, aided by the occasional heavings of strata j
effected by subterraneous heat. By this system — by the
gradual interchange of situation between land and water,
we might account for the mountains of fossil coral which
are found at considerable distances from the sea, were it
not that so little agreement is observable between the fossil
and the recent coral. Had the coral of the mountain and
the coral of the sea been constantly the same, it would, in-
deed, have furnished a powerful evidence of the gradual
change of relative place in the strata, which were once co-
vered by the ocean, but which are now thousands of feet
above its surface : the gradual receding of the sea would
have sufficed for the explanation.

But how, according to this theory, shall we explain the
disagreement between the coral of the mountain and the
coral of the sea ? I see no explanation which can be thus
obtained : every thing being supposed to have proceeded in
its regular course, the animals of the first creation must then
but of some have exactly resembled those of the present hour. Some
tr^he* *S" vast cnange> °f powerful and even universal influence, must
be sought for, to explain this wonderful circumstance : and
such, doubtless, can only be found in the deftruction of a
former world. Thus, indeed, we shall be enabled to ac-
count for the existence of various animals, in a mineral
state, whose analogues are unknown ; but it must be ad-
mitted, that even this circumstance is not sufficient to ac-
count for the existence of animals at the present period, of
which no traces can be found in the ruins of that former
world.
Fossils of ani- We now arrive at the examination of that class of bodies,

mat origin re- 0f whicb it was remarked, in the former volume, that al-

sembhng vege- ■" '-". ' .-..,, r

tables. though they were decidedly animal substances ot marine

origin, yet, from the resemblance which they bore to ter-
restrial fruits, their animal origin had been doubted, and
they had been considered as petrified oranges, figs, fun-
guses, nutmegs, &c.

There is no substance which has attracted our attention*
daring the prosecution of these inquiries, which can yield
so many subjects for investigation as these bodies. For

whether

FOSSIL ALCYONIA. 35

whether we consider the peculiar forms with which they. are
endowed, the original modes of their exifteuce, or the ex-
traordinary changes which they have undergone, a variety
of subjects of inquiry, of the most curious nature, will ne-
cessarily arise.

That many terrestrial fruits and seed-vessels^ containing Many hate
the ligneous matter* have been found in a petrified state, been deceived
has been already shewn : of these, of course, it is not in- n^ ^he^e-
tended here to speak. But substances have been repeatedly semblance.
met with, the general appearances of which have so much
accorded with those of some terrestrial fruits, as to have
led several learned and ingenious men to place them among
these substances. Thus Volkmann was deceived, and fi-
gured and described one of these bodies as nux rtioschata
fructu rotundo, Casp* Bauhin *. Scheuchzer, on the au-
thority of Volkmann, adopted the same figure and descrip*
tion. Nor will this errour be considered as without excuse,
when the great resemblance of many of these substances to
terrestrial fruits is shewn. Indeed, T much suspect that,
after all the circumstances have been examined, some per-
sons will be found who will not be readily disposed >to con-
sider subftances, bearing such appearances, as subjects of
the animal kingdom* The propriety however of doing this
will perhaps appear, when other bodies will be shewn pas-
sing, through almoft insensible gradations, from these bo-*
dies, which so closely approximate, in their general ap-
pearances, to the subjects of the vegetable kingdom, up to
others, whose characters are sufficiently marked, to leave
no doubt whatever in the mind as to their animal origin.

No one I believe has been more industrious, or more Guettard very
successful in their inquiries, respecting these bodies than u^Sffi! j?
M. Guettard, as appears by his very ingenious Essay, Sur into them,
quelque$ Corps Fossiles pen connus, in the Memoirs of the
Academy of Sciences at Paris for the year 1757. M. Guet-
tard observes, that at Verest, near Tours and Saumur, and
at Mentrichard, in Touraine, there are found, at some
depth in the earth, numerous bodies, which from their
very close resemblance, in figure, to figs, pears, oranges,

• Silesisc Subterranean. Tab. XXII. Fig. 6.

D 2 and

33 YOSSIL ALCYONlA.

and other fruits, arc there considered us fruits, which, hav-
ing fallen from their trees, have been buried in the earth,
where they have undergone the process of petrifaction.
These bodies, it appears, not only differ very much from
each other, in their forms, but also in their ttrueture: and
in Mons. Goettard's judgm'ent are divisible into two kinds;
those which possess somewhat of a globular form, and those
which are conical or fnnnel-fonued.
t£lmkind:J °f former, he observes, may be divided into the body

Or globular part, and the pedicle or elongated part. In the
centre of the superior part of the body is a circular opening,
which, in some of the specimens, is closed by extraneous
matter, derived from the matrix in which they lie. Thi<
opening, which is larger in its upper part than it is down-
wards, is continued almost to the pedicle, and in some spe-
cimens appears even to penetrate it. This is however very
difficultly ascertained, since the opening is in general
loaded with the extraneous matter. From the circum-
ference of this opening lines may be traced, which not only
pass over the whole of the spherical part, and inosculating,
are continued to the elongated part, where the)' form stria?
more or less plain ; but they are also found to penetrate
into the substance, both of the body and of the pedicle.
These bodies have, in general, but one of these openings,
but some have more ; and Mons. Guettard found one with
three distinct openings. In this specimen, the lines or
striae just mentioned were seen to collect around the cir-
cumference of each of the openings, and after inosculating,
to pass into the pedicle, in nearly the same manner as in
the others.
The pedicle A great disproportion, it appears, is frequently observ-

vanes greaily. a^je between the size of the globular part of these bodies,
and their pedicle; sometimes the pedicle appearing very
large, and sometimes very small in proportion to the body :
this difference is however frequently the consequence of the
pedicle having been broken off; a circumftance which in-
deed so often oscurs, that a perfect specimen is very rarely
to be met with : numerous fragments of the pedicles being
dispersed about in the places where these bodies are found.

The

FOSSIL ALCYONIA. 37

The pedicles are in general of a conical form, and not un-
frequeutly flattened.

By grinding the globular part as well as the pedicle on Texture of
a stone, he discovered that {heir texture appeared to be ^l^rpam SI"
similar, and that by the frequent raaiifi cations of the fibres,
of which their substance was composed, a net work was
formed, not much unlike the parenchyma of vegetables.
We therefore perceive that a loose resemblance, sufficient to
excuse the vulgar opinion of their origin, is observable be-
tween these bodies and the terrestrial fruits. These bodies,
like fruits, appear to have been formed chiefly of a paren-
chymatous substance ; their pedicle seems to answer to the
ftalk ; whilst the opening on their superior part agrees
with what is termed the eye of fruits. But a little atten- its difference

tion shews that, unlike to the parenchyma of fruits, which from that of

, _ .... . ii fruits.

is formed ot vessels terminating in minute points, the sub-
stance of these bodies is formed of a species of net-work,
which, as M. Guettard observes, if all the matter contained
within the meshes could be removed, would resemble a
skain of thread, of which one part, answering to the pedi-
cle, is pinched together, and the other, answering to the
bodv, is spread out without being cut. Again, the eye, in
fruits, is not pervious, as is that part which answers to it '
in these fossils. ; nor does the pedicle at all agree with the
stalk of fruits, either in proportionate size, or in figure.

Scheuchzer describing a fossil of this kind refers it to the Fossil suppos-
alcyonium stupposum Jmperati* ; but of the identity of *d l0 ** a se**
these substances Mons. Guettard, with much propriety,
doubts ; although he allows that the external form, and par-
ticularly the opening in the upper part, might readily lead
to this supposition, This doubt arose in the mind of
M. Guettard, from comparing the ftructure of one of the
alcyonium stupposum of Irnperatus with the description of
its structure as given by John Bauhin and by Count Mar-
silli ; the result of his comparison being, that both the
descriptions were in some respects erroneous. Taught by
careful examination, he states it to be composed of fibres,
jmore or less fine, intersecting each other, without order or

• JLithograp. Helvet. P. 15.

regularity,

3$ FOISIL ALCYONIA.

regularity, and anastomosing together by their ramiflca-
tions, by which they form irregular meshes of various fi-
gures and quite empty. By this contexture a spongy mass
is formed, which is covered by a thin pellicle, constituted
in the same manner, excepting that the texture is more
close and compact, and extended into a membrane-like sub-
stance, which may be detached and easily raised from the
body, and which, whpn examined by a lens, appears to
be a mass of fine fibres forming very small meshes, similar
to the large oqes of which the body is composed. The foot
stalk, which spreads but and is a species of basement by
which the fig js attached to the body on which it grows,
does not seem to differ from the general substance in its
The sea fig a conformation. Hence M. Guettard concludes the sea-fig to
*P01 ge« i^ merely a sponge, differing from other sponges only in

form, and possessing like them the property of imbibing
water and losing it by compression.
t^eiThfa aTd 0n comP»rm§ tne structure of the searfigs with that of
the fossil. these fossils, M. Guettard points out differences which are
undoubtedly very essential. In the pedicles of the fossils,
he observes that circular points may be seen, which will be
found to be continued into the spherical part of these bo-
dies ; so that by different transverse sections they may be
traced, passing -on like so many yeffels, from the pedicle
into the substance, and even on to the surface of the fossil :
whereas, in the sea-fig, the fibres have no such regularity
of disposition, nor are they thus continued like tubes fron*
the pedicle into the subftance of the fig.
Fungitw, or fyl. Guettard next describes the other kind of fossil,
tiifiedmufh- wn^cn belongs to the class of fungites, and which, like
rooms. the ficoid fossils just treated of, are open at their superior

and wider part, and in general possess somewhat of a coni-
cal form : and from their varying in length, width, and size,
frequently bear a resemblance to cups, glasses, funnels, cones,
&c, whilst others are longer, cylindrical, and even fusiform.
This variety of figure is frequently dependant on the cir-
cumstances of the fractures which they have suffered ; these
fossils, like the former, being rarely found in a perfect
state. M. Guettard appears to have been entirely foiled in
the attempt to discover «ny recent zoophyte, which might
be consi&ered as bearing any analogy with these fossils.

He

F03III. ALCYONIA.

39

He first was disposed to consider them as being similar to
the spongia elegans of Clusius, or the spongia dura of
Sloane, but this opinion he found reason to relinquish, and
was then induced to believe that they bore a nearer resem-
blance, in their general characters, to some species of ma-
drepores than to any of the sponges. In several of these
fossils he discovered an outer layer, which appeared to differ
from the general substance of the fossil ; and his opinion,
he thought, derived support from this circumstance, for,
on examining the interior lamina of these fossils, he con-
ceived that it much resembled the hard smooth part which
forms the corresponding parts in madrepores, &c. Madre-
pores and corals, he observes, are covered by a substance
which has been distinguished as their cortical part, and im-
mediately beneath this, there is a smooth substance of very
close and compact texture, in which there are no strise nor
traces of any fibres. AVith this latter substance, he thinks,
the external layer of these fossils exactly agrees: and he is
confirmed in the supposition that it originally belonged to
them, and was not derived from the matrix in which they
lay, by observing that, in one specimen, several little flat
shells of oysters were adhering to this surface.

Nothing, he thinks, in the fossil kingdom approaches so Single starred
near to these fossils, as the single-starred corals of the coraJs of the
^Baltic, described by Fougt. The only difference, M.
Guettard remarks, is that the corals described by Fougt
have ftriee which extend from the centre of the coral to the
edge, in such a manner as to form a star. This difference
is however sufficient to remove all idea of similarity between
the two bodies ; since, as we have already seen, the star
constitutes the genus Madrepora, to which those corals be-
long, whilst in the fossil bodies now under consideration,
there exist none of the characters which mark any of the
species of zoophytes, which we have hitherto examined.

Many of these fossil bodies, it will be seen, differ so Many fossijs
much from any known recent zoophyte, that were it not apparently of*
that vaft numbers of these muft be concealed from us, in nwi, 8e"
the numerous recesses of the ocean, they would be con-
cluded to possess not the leaft resemblance with any animal
substance now exifting; indeed, so considerable is tnat

difference,

40 FOSSIL ALCYONIA.

difference, that some substances will be placed before you,
which, not only cannot be referred to any particular known
species, but which would almost authorize the formation of
new genera for their reception.

We shall proceed, however, as nearly as possible, accord-
ing to the generally accepted systematic classification ; and
shall derive what aid can be obtained, from the examina-
tions which have been made of living substances apparently
of a similar nature. It is intended, therefore, to endea-
vour to comprise, under the genus alcyonium or spongia,
the substances so accurately inquired into by M. Guettard,
as well as several others which have not been spoken of by
him, but are evidently of the same kind.

Difficult to With respect to the classification of these bodies, a dif-

distinguish al- ~ , , n . , , ._ . .

cvonia .rom faculty alcnott insuperable presents itself ; since the cha-

spong^sinthe racteristic marks by which the substances belonging to
these two genera are distinguished, in a recent state, are
frequently not to be discovered after they have sustained
the change of petrifaction, Previously, however, to pro-
ceeding further in an inquiry on this subject, it will be
proper to consider the nature of both alcyonium and of
sponge, and to ascertain what are the distinctive characters
of each.

Characters of The alcyonium is an animal which assumes a vegetable
eacjoma. form^ an(j wn;cn js either of a fleshy, gelatinous, spongy,
or leathery substance, having an outward skin full of cells,
with openings possessed by oviparous tentaculated hydra :
the whole substance being fixed to some other body by a
seeming trunk or root.

Count Marsilli, who carefully examined not only the
physical, but the chemical properties of these bodies, ob-
serves that they are all surrounded by a porous leather-like
bark ; and that the interior substance is, in some, a jelly*
like matter, and in others, a mass of light ash coloured
acicular spines, which prick the hands on being handled,
in the same maimer as do the spines of the plant called the
Jndian fig,

More minute- JDorjati, in his Essay on the Natural History of the Adri-

ly examined atjc gea) nag raa(iCj m some respects, a more minute 'exa-
mination of the structure of two different species of alcy-

gni.a

FOSSIL At.CYON!A.

41

onia than even that of Count Marsilli, and was able to as-
certain by the aid of a magnifying glass, the peculiar
forms assumed by the spines of which these animals are in
a great measure composed. Of these we shall soon ha\e
occasion to speak more particularly.

The forms in which these animals exist are very mime- Exist in var*.
rous; this depending not merely on the number of species, °us forms.
but on the different irregular forms which the same species
under different circumstances may assume. Thus Mar-
silli observes the same alcyonium, which sometimes grows
flat, and thus covers large pieces of rocks, is at other times
found in a rounded form. .

From the different colours as well as forms which some Named from

of the species of these substances possess, they have ob- t,ieir rese«-

. . . blance to

tained names expressive of their resemblance to certain fruits.

fruits. Thus the alcyonium lyncurium, being of a globose
form, of a fibrous internal structure, of a tubercular sur-
face, and of a yellow colour, has been termed the sea-
orange : the a, bursa being of a sub-globose form, of a '
pulpy substance, and of a green colour, has been termed
the green sea-orange or sea-apple : the a. cydonium, which
is of a roundish form, and of a yellow colour, has been
distinguished as the sea-quince: and the a.Jicus, from a
very close resemblance to the fig in its form, has been called
the sea-fig.

The sponge is a fixed, flexible animal, very torpid, va- Characters of
rying in its figure, and composed either of recticulated sponge*,
fibres, or masses of small spiculae interwoven together,
which are clothed with a living gelatinous flesh, full of small
mouths or holes on its surface, by which it sucks in and
throws out the water.

The vitality of sponges had been suspected by the an- Their animal

cients, even in the time of Aristotle; they having; per- natur ® f"*".

■ , ■ , , . . J ?„ J pected by the

ceived a particular motion in their substance, as if from ancients,

shrinking, when they tore them off the rocks. This opi-
nion of their possessing a degree of animal life was also en-
tertained in the time of Pliny. Count Marsilli * confirmed and conftrmej
$his opinion by observing, on their being taken out of the ^l(Qs^

* Histoire Physique de la Mer. p. 53.

sea,

42

Worms iri
them

adventitious.

Texture of
sponges differ-
ent.

Distinction be-
tween alcyonia
and sponges.

FOSSIl ALCYONIA.

sea, a systolic and diastolic motion, in certain little round
holes, which lasted until the water they had contained was
quite dissipated. Mons. Peysonell supposed sponges to
have been formed by certain worms, which inhabited the
labyrinthean windings of the sponge ; and believed, that
whatever life was found in these substances, existed in these
worms, and not in the substance of the sponge, which he
was convinced, was an inanimate body. This point was,
however, determined by Mr. Ellis, who, in a letter to
Dr. Solander*, relates the observations which he had made;
by which he ascertained, that these worms, which he found
in the sponge in great numbers, were a very small kind of
nereis, or sea scolopendra ; and that they were not the fa-
bricators of the sponge, but had pierced their way into its
soft substance, and made it only their place of retreat and
security. Upon examining, in sea water, a variety of the
crumb of bread sponge, the tops of which were full of tu»
bular cavities or papillae, he could plainly observe these
little tubes to receive and pass the water to and fro ; so that
he inferred, that the sponge is an animal sui generis, whose
mouths are so many holes or ends of branched tubes,
opening, on its surface ; with these, he supposes, it re-
ceives its nourishment, and discharges, like the polypes, its
excrements.

Mr. Ellis also discovered, that the texture is very dif-
ferent in different species of sponge : some being composed
wholly of interwoven reticulated fibres, whilft others are com-
posed of little masses of ftraight fibres of different sizesf
from the moft minute spiculae to ftrong elastic shining;
spines, like small needles of one third of an inch long ;
beside these, he observes, there is an intermediate sort,
between the reticulated and the finer fasciculated kinds,
which seem to partake of both sorts.

In the substances considered as alcyonia by Donati, as
well as in some of those which have been described by
Count Marsilli, similar large bundles of elastic fibres like
needles were difcovered. Thefe had been reckoned alcyonia
by moft authors, but in Mr. Ellis's opinion they mould not

Phil. Trans, vol. LV. p. 280,

be

FOSSIL ALCYONIA. 4$

be fo reckoned, since neither Donati nor Marsilli mentions
any polype suckers extending out of their pores ; he con-
sidering the exiftence of thefe as the distinguishing cha- ,
racter of the genus alcyonium, as much as the pores with-
out the polypes in these elastic fibrous bodies is the charac-
ter of the sponges *.

It is evident that these needle-like spiculoe cannot be
considered as belonging to the genus spongia only ; since
among the alcyonia some are admitted to be formed of a
spongy substance, into the composition of which these spi-
cules may of course Ije expected to enter ; on the presence
or absence therefore of polypes in the cells of the substance
must alone depend the necessary distinction.

But when the difficulty of distinguishing between the Most difficult
alcyonia and the sponges, even in a recent state, is consi- m the foss^
dered, the oryctologist wjll easily rind an excuse for his in-
ability, to make a similar diftinction between these sub-
stances, after they have undergone the lapidifying process :
when their pores have become filled ; and their colour and
their subftance, and, in fact, their whole nature has been
changed. Indeed, the assumed generic difference between
the alcyonia and sponges is such as mull be entirely loft in
mod of these substances which have undergone the change
of petrifaction. Whetjier the pores, which are discoverable
in a fossil, were the dwelling of the polypous hydraeornot,
can no longer be ascertained ; since their radiation, which
is supposed to characterize the openings in which these mi-
nute animals exist, and which is frequently so faint in the
recent alcyonium as hardly to be detected, is very likely, in
the fossil substance, to be still more difficult to be made
out. Indeed, from this indistinctness of the radiation,
much difficulty appears to have arisen in making the neces-
sary distinction between even the recent sponges and al-
cyonia ; the graduation from the perfectly radiated opening
of the alcyonium, to the plain opening of the sponge,
being so gradual and imperceptible, as to render it a dif-
ficult task, even where the substances are in a recent state,
to draw the line where alcyonium ceases and sponge begins.

* The Natural History of Zoophytes, &c. p. 163.

But

£± FOSSIL ALCYONIA.

Farther dff- But here is not the whole of the difficulty : several of the

theilpo^s- f°ssil9' wh»ch will be presently described, possess some of

ing other cha^ the characters of acidia and actinia, with those of the

SfStTn/frtm sPonSe or ah-yoninm; thereby rendering their distinct and

all known correct classification almoft hopeless. Hence, although I

sPccies* shall in general speak of these bodies as alcyonia ; 1 am

aware, that when their histories have been" elucidated by

the inspection of more illuftrative specimens, several of them

may claim other designations.

The consideration of another circumftance leads to the
necessity of giving up every idea of distinguishing the alcy-
onia from the sponges, whilst in a mineralized state. Among
the fossil zoophytes which claim a situation under one or:
other of these genera, by far the greater number are such
as are so totally different from any known species of either
alcyonium or sponge, as to render it almost impossible to
determine under which genus they ought to be placed.
Under these circumstances, you must perceive that the at-
tempt to separate these fossils, by specific distinctions, at
present, would be hopeless: it can only be effected when,
by additional observations, their nature and forms are more
perfectly known.

When it is recollected what very considerable variations
in form, are found to take place in the recent individuals, of
the several species into which these subftances are divided ;
and when it is considered, that whilst passing into a mine-
ralized state, their figure and appearance may be also much
changed, it may be suspected that hardly any opportunity
of fair comparison could be found, between the recent and
fossil alcyonia.
Their change This however is very far from1>eing the case; and indeed
c^me^to" wnen we reflect on tne transmutation which has taken
stone, wonder- place ; that a soft, gelatinous, or spongy substance, has
fully httle. become a hard and ponderous stone, we cannot but be
affected with a high degree of astonishment ; especially on
perceiving, that this great and extraordinary change of
substance has been accompanied by so little change of form*
In consequence of this I trust I shall be able to place before
you many bodies, even in a silicified state, which will im-
mediately appear to have been animals of this description,

belonging

FOSSIL ALCYDNIA* 4$

belonging to a former world. So great indeed will be the
variety of these bodies, and so perfectly well preserved
will they appear, as to render it necessary for me to say a
few words, respecting the state of preservation in which
they are found.

This is rendered necessary; since the comparatively fre- Attempt to ac.
quent appearance of these bodies, in a fossil state, appears count l **
to contradict a position laid down in the former volume*
whilst speaking of fruits, that substances possessing a pulpy
consistence were not likely to be found in a fossil state;
since their decomposition would most probably take place
with too much rapidity, to allow of that change being ef-
fected, on which their mineralization would depend. But
a peculiarity of structure exists in these animals, which
exempts them from the influence of this law. It appears,
as we have seen from the observations of Marsilli and Do-
nati, that these animals have blended, with their gelatinous
and carneous substance, innumerable minute spicula?, which
may be considered as the bones of the animal. These ma-
nifest themselves by the prickling sensation they occasion,
on being handled, which has obtained for some of these
animals the name of the sea nettle. That these spiculie,
formed of a hard and durable matter, may, in some, and
especially that the spongy fibres and coriaceous covering
may, in others, keep up the form of the animal, for a suf-
ficient time to admit of the petrifactive process being ac-
complished, seems to be not improbable; and indeed ap-
pears to afford a satisfactory mode of explaining this curious
fact.

That the bodies now about to be more particularly de- They must •

scribed are the remains of animals of a former world, seems have belonged

. to a former

to require no stronger proof, than the circumstance of these WOrld.

inhabitants of the sea being found in their changed state,

in mountains much elevated above the level of the sea, and

at a considerable distance from the situations which it now

possesses. Whilst treating of the fossil corals, many were

pointed out, whose recent analogues were positively not as

yet known, and which were therefore conjectured to be the

remains of certain species which might be now extinct. .Any

opinion of this kind with respect to these animals appears

to-

46 FOSSIL ALCYONIA.

to be hardly admissible; since from the innumerable re-
cesses in which they lurk, and still more from the compara-
tively small degree of eagerness with which they have been
sought, we are totally unable to form any conjecture, as to
the number of those which may have hitherto entirely es-^
caped observation. Analogy indeed may lead us to con-
clude, that by far the greater part of these fossil bodies are
actually the remains of extinct species; but where evidence
of a stronger kind cannot be also obtained, the fact must be
considered as undetermined.

Fossil alcyonia Having made these few prefatory remarks, I shall now
proceed to a more particular examination of such fossils of
this description, in my possession, as are most illustrative of
the history of these extraordinary animals.

Ramified. Those which are of a ramified form s.em to be most

rarely found in a mineralized state. The specimen however
which is figured, Plate VII, fig. 12*, and which was found
in Berkshire, is undoubtedly the fossil remains of one of
these species ; although it is impossible to say to what par-
ticular ramified species it belongs, or whether indeed it is
at all referable to any known species.

Silex & chalk. An examination of the substance of this fossil, now a
mixture of silex and carbonate of lime, affords us internal
evidence of its origin ; since its texture is such, as I have
found almost constantly to characterise the fossil remains of
any individual of this genus, which had been composed of
a sponge-like substance. This substance has evidently, like
sponge, been of a reticular texture ; but the disposition of
the meshes, if so they may be called, is in the spongy al-
cyonium much more uniform .and determinate than in ordi-
nary sponge, and though not to be described iu words, the
texture is so peculiar and characteristic, as directly to be
known by those, who have been in the habit of examining
these and similar substances, by the aid of magnifying
glasses.

Digitated. The fossil represented Plate VII, fig. G, and which is also

from Berkshire, appears to bear a tolerably close resem-»

* The references here and elsewhere are to the figures of the original
work.

blance

1F0SSIL ALCYONIA. 47

blance to alcyonium digitatum of Linnaeus j or the deadmaiis
hand, or dead man's toes of Ellis. Its texture evidently ap-
pears to be of that kind, being finely reticulated, which
would correspond with the carneous spongy substance, of
which the recent zoophyte is formed. Its surface also,
thickly beset with minute openings, bearing somewhat of a
stellated appearance to the naked eye, serves to confirm the
resemblance. This fossil is now a carbonate of lime mode- Chalk.
rately hard, but friable.

In the elegant work of Mr. Knorr, Mr* Walsh describes Priapolithi.
several fossil elongated alcyonia, by the silly term which
the ancients had adopted, of priapolithu One of these from
Touraine is figured, Plate VII, fig. 1. It had at its su-
perior termination that opening, observable in many of
these animals, which served for the reception of the sea-
water, from which, it is probable, they derived their sup-
port.

On rubbing down this substance on a sandstone, at this A retiform tex-
termination, for the purpose of examining its structurer its tureof sJex->
hardness and the partial polish it obtained, proved, that it
had suffered an impregnation with silica: and an examina-
tion of this surface with a lens plainly showed, that the
flinty part was regularly distributed in continuous mean-
dering lines, bearing the peculiar and characteristic form
of the spongy part of alcyonia, whilst the intervening spaces
appeared to be filled by a softer substance, a carbonate of
lime. The substance was therefore partly immersed in di- and the int^i-
lute muriatic acid, by which the calcareous part was speedily st!^s ?H^
removed, with effervescence, and the siliceous part left, pos-
sessing the fine retiform texture of the spongy alcyonium,
surrounding the central opening already mentioned, as may
be seen in the upper part of the figure.

The fossil represented Plate VII, fig. 9, approaches the
nearest, in its general form and appearance, to the alcyonium
cydoninm Linnsei, the alcyonium primum of Discorides, or
rather to the representation of this animal as given by Do-
nati. It must however be, 1 believe, considered, as differ-
ing from any known animal of this genus.

This fossil is of a roundish form, rendered unequal by
shallow depressions about the width of a finger, which pass

from

4S POSSIt ALCYONIA.

from the superior to the inferior part of the fossil, and are
separated from each other by tuberculated ridges. At the
upper part has been a circular Opening more than half an
inch in diameter; and, at the lower part, is a rugged spot
as though the pedicle had been here separated : a circunw
stance indeed which renders its affinity to the alcyonium
Lfrne^fone described by Donati rather more doubtful. The substance
ilun.' *' °^ tn's f°ss,l app^rs to be a limestone, which, probably
from some tinge of iron, has obtained a reddish brown co-
lour. It is not of a very close texture, apparently from the
superadded calcareous matter not having accurately filled
all the interstices between the fibres. Hence numerous
^inall openings are, even, in its present state, observable on
its surface, which on close inspection are seen to be such as
would result from a loose or spongy texture.
Spines men- Whilst treating of the alcyonium, of the species to which
Honed by Do- ^hig seems to approach, Donati particularly describes and
delineates the curiously formed spicule, which constitute a
part of its substance. The body, as well as the cortical
part, he remarks, is formed of two substances : the one of
which is fleshy, and the other osseous. The latter, he adds,
is formed into spines; which, near the cortical part, are in
great number, and closely intermingled ; being about the
length of two lines, and even longer. They are either of a
fusiform figure, or are finely pointed at one end, and then
gradually enlarge towards the middle: then, diminishing '
as they lengthen, they divide into three sharp conical points,
around which are fixed numerous minute globular bodies,
which are chiefly found in the cortical part.
Strictures on A very strict examination, with a lens, of the surface of
Donau by numerous fossil alcyonia, did not however discover any ap-
pearance of similar spines, and almost induced me to a
ready concurrence with Plancus, who relates, that he has
dissected various bodies of this kind, and has seen the os-
seous fibres disposed in a radiated form ; but as to the won-
derful bark, the structure of which is so floridly described
by Donati, he says, I have not seen it, and observes that
the same thing has happened to him, with respect to the
* greater part of the figures in Donati's book, which, he says,

are embellishments of the designer, drawn by the rule and

compass,.

FOSSIL ALCYONIA. 49

Compass, rather than in agreement with the truth and sim-
plicity of nature*.

Being in possession of another specimen of this kind, A sPecin]ea
01 r . examined

formed of a much harder and closer stone, ami which from

its appearance I supposed to be invested with its cortical

part, I resolved to sacrifice it to a more rigorous search for

the spines described by Donati, concluding that, since all

agreed as to their differing in their bony hardness from the

other parts of this animal, I should at least discover some

traces of them, although I might not be able to make out

their form.

This fossil was therefore subjected to the only modes of by cutting,
dissection which I could employ with substances possessing
a stony hardness. A polished section of it was obtained on
different parts of it, and at different depths; by which the
peculiar spongeous structure, already noticed as belonging
to these bodies, was perceived; but no appearance of spines
could be detected.

The specimen was then immersed in dilute muriatic acid, ancl digestion
and examined at different periods, to ascertain whether the acicj
new surfaces thus obtained displayed any particular appear-
ance. After rather more than a quarter of an inch of its
substance was thus removed, I was pleased to find, with a
lens of moderate power, several cruciform spines, formed, which exhibit-.
as it were, by two fusiform bodies, not an eighth of an inch ed the sPinei*
in length, crossing each other at right angles, and termi-
nating at each end in.a very sharp point.

When these bodies were first discovered, the specimen These an hy«

was still wet with the water, with which the acid had been d">i)haoous

chalcedony

removed. In this state they possessed a considerable degree
of transparency, which they rapidly lost, as the water eva-
porated : so that when dry, they were completely opaque,
and of a chalky whiteness. From their possessing this hy-
drophanous quality, and from their having withstood the >

action of the muriatic acid, there appears to be the greatest
reason for supposing, that these bodies, which were origi-
nally the spines of the animal, are now formed of an hy- imbedded in

chalk,

* De Conchis minus notis, App. II, page 115.

Vol, XXHI May, 18Q9. E drophauous

50 FOSSIL ALCYONIA.

drophanous chalcedony, and imbedded in a matrix of car-
bonate of lime, which has pervaded or has supplied the
place of the soft spongeous part. This and the preceding;
fossil alcyonia are from Switzerland.
Alcyonium re- Alcyonium Jicus Linn, accurately depicted in the Metal-
sea-fig lotheca of Mercatus* as Alcyonium quintum antiquorum,

and particularly described by Marsilli as Figue de substance
d'epovge Sf d'akion f , resembles much, in form, the brown
silicious fossil, Plate IX, fig. 4. The recent alcyonium,
according t© the Count, is of the form of a fig, being at-
tached to the rocks by branches proceeding from its smaller
end; its upper part being a little flattened, with a hole in
the middle. Its colour, he says, resembles that of tobacco,
and its parenchymatous substance, he thinks, cannot be
compared to any thing better than to nutgalls, when well
dried. In all these respects, a very exact agreement seems
to exist between the recent and fossil substances. Still, how-
but different, ever, the fibres running over its surface, and penetrating its
substance, with the grooves which appear to have been
formed by other fibres, which are now removed, distinguish
it, not only from this, but, I believe, from all known alcy-
Wholly silex. onia. This fossil is from Wiltshire, and appears to be formed
entirely of flint.

The fossil, Plate IX, fig. 3, from Mount Randenberg,
near Schafhousen, in Switzerland, possesses evident marks
Reticular tex- of its alcyouic origin. This fossil, like those of the ramose
filled with kind, figured in Plate VII, has that reticular texture, which
chalk. appears to be peculiar to the spongy alcyonia. In this spe-

cimen also, as well as in those, the reticular fibres are im-
pregnated with silica, and have their interstices tilled with
calcareous matter. In this, as in the fossil last described,
the remains of the pedicle, the organ, by which its attach-
ment to its appropriate spot was accomplished, are observa-
ble; as well as the superior opening, which passes into the
substance of the fossil.
Another simi- The fossil represented Plate IX, fig. 5, and which is from
lar- the neighbourhood of Saumur, being a very perfect fossil

• Arm. 6. C. 6. p. 10 'J. t Histoire Physique de IaMcr, p. 87.

of

IMPROVEMENTS IN THE CULTURE OF VEGETABLES. 5 J

of the kind described by Moris* Guettard, agrees, in its

general characters, as well as in its texture, with that one

which has been juft described. In this specimen, at its

superior surface, there are, as Mons. Guettard observes

is sometimes the case, four openings ; and the pedicles, as

well as its lateral processes, which appear like roots, seems

to have been formed with a great degree of luxuriance.

A very perfect fossil of this kind, and similar in its sub* Avery perfect
* , . , . i . , , , . one of the

stance and texture to the alcyonia, which have been just same texture.

described, but of a dark red colour, where it is not in-
vested with its cortical part, which is of a grey colour,
pervaded by a slight tinge of red, is represented Plate IX.
fig. 8. The pedicle, and the opening at the superior part,
are here very perfect. Slight traces of lines, passing from Fibres for

the pedicle to the opening, are discoverable on this speci- draw!ng man<J
r , . r ejecting water.

men, and, doubtlessly point out the arrangement of fibres,

by which the animal was enabled to draw in and eject the
water which supplied it with food. This fossil, I have rea-
son to believe, is English.

VIII.

An Account of Improvements in the Culture of Vegetables,
by John Christian Curwen, Efq., M. P. of Work*
ington Hall, Cumberland *.

I

SIR,

AM fearful you should suppose, that I am become indo-
lent, and that the favours so liberally bestowed on me by
the Society had ceased to operate as a ftimulus to the far-
ther exertions of my humble endeavours to assist those ob-
jects, which by the fostering hand of the Society, have been
so essentially promoted. You will excuse me for wishing Objects of in>

to assure you that I am not idle, and to inform you that the P0,tance in

agriculture*

* Trans, of the Society of Arts, vol, XXVI, p. 79. The gold medal
of the Society was yoted to Mr. Curwen for these communications.

E 2 objects

52 IMPROVEMENTS IN THE CULTURE OF VEGETABLES.

objects which at present employ me are, I conceive, of great
importance to agriculture.

The first is by experiments to ascertain the best and most
productive mode of applying manure. The second is to de-
termine, whether the distances between the stitches in drill
husbandry may not be greatly enlarged, without any dimi-
nution of crop.

Best mole of I am strongly inclined to believe, that, where the ground.

*l>!> Ying ma* jg jajj jj.y^ manure can scarcely be deposited too deep ; by

so doing the evaporation is retarded, and consequently the

manure continues for a greater length of time to furnifh

nourifhment to the crop.

Distance of The increase of the distances between the stitches per*

the stitches in . . • . c

drill husban. mits tne power ot continuing the operations ot turning up

*ry- the soil to a more extended period, which, not only im-

proves the tilth, but furnishes a greater degree of moisture
by exhalation, than can be yielded from ground in that
state of hardness it soon acquires when undisturbed in sum-
mer. This evaporation is prodigious, though not per-
ceptible to the eye : it is, however, fully demonstrated by
a very ingenious experiment of the Bishop of Llandaff.;
and I am anxiously expecting to form such conclusions from
trials I am engaged in respecting its effects on vegetation,
as may deserve the consideration of the Society.
Feeding cattle My former objects of feeding cattle with potatoes, sup-
and horses plying milk to the poor *, &c, are pursued with increased
success. The use of potatoes as a food for horses and cattle
increases daily.

I am, dear sir,

Your faithful and obedient servant,'

J. C. CURWEN.

Dear Sir,
Benefits re- IT is with great satisfaction, that I have the honour of

suiting from again submitting the result of my farming operations to
Arts!^'^ " tbe consideration of the Society of Arts. Deeply im-
pressed with a sense of the many favours conferred upon nie
by them, I have found myself impelled, both by gratitude

* See Journal, Vol. XVI, p. 190,

and

IMPROVEMENTS IN THE CULTURE' OP VEGETABLES. 53

and inclination, to proceed with redoubled exertion, as the
best return in my power.

The liberal patronage and encouragement bestowed on Agriculture,
agriculture by the Society has powerfully contributed to
awaken the country to a just estimation of its importance,
as the basis of individual happiness and national prosperity;
ami at this moment the empire owes its preservation and se-
curity to it.

i submit with trreat deference the result of my recent Adyanta8es of

v ° J well clearing

operations. I am disposed to flatter myself, that they may and working

lead to important consequences and" discoveries, highly be- 8round-
neficial to agriculture. The experiments I have made tend
to establish the double advantage of well cleaning and
working the ground. First, as it frees the land from weeds ;
and secondly, as it conduces to the growth of the crop. It
affords likewise a very strong demonstration in favour of
using manure in its freshest state, by which not only the Manure#
great usual expense of making dunghills will be saved, but
the manure made to extend to the improvement of a third
more land.

Most of the farm I occupy was in that state of foulness as Foul ground
to require, according to general practice and opinion, a cleaned by
succession of fallows to clean it. Being unwilling to adopt
a system, which is attended with such loss, I determined to
attempt to clean a part of it by green crops, and for such
purpose to allow a much greater distance between the
Stitches, than had' ever been in practice. My firfi expe- Cabbages,
riment on this plan was made on a crop of cabbages ; they
were planted in a quincunx form, allowing four feet and a
half between each plant, in order to allow room for the
plough to work in all directions. I adopted this plan of
field husbandry, as affording the greatest facility in clean- x
ing the crop, though I believe it never was before so prac-
tised. Two thousand three hundred and fifty plants were
set per acre (eight thousand is not unusual in the common
method), and each plant had, by computation, an allowance
of a stone of manure, or less than fourteen tons per acre; Manure
though the common quantity is generally from thirty to
forty tons per acre. The manure was deposited as deep as laid deep.

the

54 IMPROVEMENTS IN THE CULTURE OF VEGETABLES.

the plough could penetrate, drawn by four horses, and the
plant set directly above it.
Ploughed and The plough and harrow, constructed to work betwixt the
har'aW hi C°n rows> were constantly employed during the summer, and
tween the the ground was as completely freed from weeds, as it could
rows. have been by a naked fallow. The very surprising weight

Great produce. Qf my crop, which in October was thirty-five tons and a
half per acre, and many of the cabbages fifty-five pounds
each, were matters of surprise to all who saw them, as well
as to me, and I could assign no satisfactory reason for the
fact. The quality of the land was very indifferent, being a
poor cold clay, — the manure was very deficient of the usual
quantity, — the plants when set by no means good, — in short
there was nothing to justify the expectation of even a tole-
rable crop. I did not find any thing in the accounts from cul-
tivators of cabbages to afford me a solution of my difficulties,
or any clew to explain it. By mere accident I met with the
fronfth*1 earth Bishop of Llandaff's experiment ascertaining the great eva-
aWsorbed by poration from the earth, as related in his admirable Trea-
t e p ants. tise oil Chemistry; lingular as it may appear, this very in-
teresting experiment had remained for thirty years without
any practical inferences being drawn from it applicable to
agriculture. It appeared to me highly probable, that the
rapid advance in growth made after the hoeing of drilled
grain was attributable to the absorption of the evaporation
produced from the earth, and was the cause of the growth
of my cabbages. With great impatience and anxiety, as I
had the honour to inform you last year, I looked forward
to the ensuing season, to afford me an opportunity of con-
tinuing my experiments, I had long been a strenuous ad-
vocate for deep burying of manure, though my sentiments
rested chiefly on opinion ; this appeared to open a field for
incontestible proofs of its advantage. My cabbages were
last year planted on the same plan as the former year. For-
Potatoes tunately I extended the same principle to my potatoes,

*^\? -a S- which I was obliged to set on wet strong ground, from want

■* lilt W 1G6 11% • A #

tcvaU. of a choice of land. My annual quantity of potato ground

is from sixty to seventy acres. They were set in beds three
feet long and two feet broad, leaving four feet and a half

between

IMPROVEMENTS IN THE CULTURE OF VEGETABLES. $$

between each bed lengthways, and three feet endways. On
each acre there were 1230 beds, and 6150 sets, or live to
each bed, viz. one at each corner, and one in the middle.
The sets of potatoes, when planted according to the usual
most approved practice, in three feet stitches, and nine
inches apart, amount to about twenty thousand. In the Advantages.
present, and indeed in all seasons when potatoes are scarce,
the saving in planting is a considerable object. A great
advantage also arises in being able to keep the potatoes and
manure from wet. In the late uncommonly wet season
I sustained little or no loss in my mode, which was not
the case in many of the driest grounds. This plan unites
hand hoeing with horse culture, and will be found service-
able in wet soils.

The lateness of planting, together with the premature
frosts, prevented my forming a fair judgment as to the
quantity per acre, which might be obtained by this method.
My view in fixing upon this plan was, to enable me to
judge of the effects of evaporation, by being able to con-
tinue my operations for a longer period. I have no doubt
but that in common seasons, notwithstanding the increased
distance, the whole ground would be covered.

My experiments on cabbages this season commenced by Cabbages,
planting them early in April. From the rain which fell sub-
sequently, and continued till the beginning of May, suc-
ceeded by severe east winds, the earth became so hard and
baked, that the plants had made very little progress.

In the first week in June the ploughs were set to work : Striking bene-
as they started, Mr. Ponsonby of Hail Hall was present, Jj 'f^0^^
and saw the crop ; it was with difficulty, that the ground vais.
was first broken, but by the end of the week it was brought
into fine tilth. Notwithstanding the whole week had been
dry, with a strong sun and severe east wind, yet such was
the progress in growth of the cabbages, that when seen
again by that gentleman on the Saturday, he could scarce
be persuaded they were the same plants.

During these operations I had been making constant ex- Evaporation
periments with glasses, contrived for the purpose, to ascer- from l!ie
tain the quantity of evaporation from the land, which I
found to amount, on the fresh ploughed ground, to nine

hundred

56

IMPROVEMENTS IN THE CULTURE OF VEGETABLES.

Evidently be-
neficial to ve-
getation.

Does rot the

air assist the
action of the
water, as in
irrigation?

Objects of in-
quiry.

hundred and fifty pounds per hour on the surface of a sta-
tute aere: whilst on the ground uninokeii, though the glass
stood repeatedly for two hours at a 'mie, there was not the
least cloud upon it; which p^rpvfid, that no moisture then
arose from the earth.

The evaporation from tee ploughed land was found to de-
crease rapidly after the tiril and second day, and ceased
after five or six days, depending on the wind and sun.
These experiments w* re carried on' for many months.
After July the evaporation decreased, which proves that
though the heat of the atmosphere be equal, the air is not
so dense. The evaporation, after the most abundant rains,
was not advanced beyond what the earth afforded on being
fresh turned up. The rapid growth of my potatoes corres-
ponded perfectly with the previous experiments; and their
growth in dry weather visibly exceeded that of other crops
where the earth was not stirred- The component parts of
the matter evaporated remain yet to be ascertained; the
beneficial effects arising from it to vegetation cannot be
doubted or denied, but whether they proceed from one
or more causes, is a question of much curiosity and im-
portance.

May not a similar process here take place, as when water
is exposed to the action of the air in irrigation ? Is it too
much to suppose some natural operation to take place in
the earth, which may decompose the oxigen contained in
air from the hidrogen, during the absence of the sun,
which on the sun's reappearance may be again given out in
a state highly propitious to vegetation ? Oxigen is found
to contain carbon ; and may not the growing plants imbibe
it from the air, and may we not thereby account for its form-
ing a constituent part of all vegetables?

The investigation of these objects presents a wide field
for inquiry, and may lead to very important discoveries.
From more or less oxigen contained in the earth, may not
its proportions account for the fertility of one soil above
another ? May not the advantages supposed to be derived
from loosening the soil, proceed from its being thus ren-
dered in a fit state to imbibe the air? Fallows soon be-
come so hard upon the surface, as to be capable neither of

absorption.

IMPROVEMENTS IN THE CULTURE OF VEGETABLES. $J

absorption nor evaporation. One very important result is Great crapora-
placed before the eyes, and within the reach of every prac- J^,rom
tical agriculturist to ascertain, namely, that the evaporation
from dung is live times as much as from earth, and is equal
on the surface of an acre to 5000 pounds per hour. By Dung shouM
making use of dung in its freshest state, the farmer may ex- be ute&tnJk
tend his cropping to one third more land with the same d
quantity of manure. It is with regret that I have viewed
in many parts of the kingdom the quantity of manure which
is exposed on the surface, and tends to no good. I am
: strongly of opinion, that in all light soils, if the manure
was buried in trenches as I propose, and the turnips sowed
above it, more abundant crops would be procured. By
cleaning with the plough, great advantage would be de-
rived to the crop, from the evaporation yielded by the
earth. Hot manure might also be used. By fermentation
dung is reduced to one half its bulk, and its quality re-
duced in a much greater proportion. The manure now com-
monly taken for one acre of broad cast would, if deposited
whilst hot in drills, answer for four acres, and the crop pro-
duced be much more.

If the Society of Arts extend their sanction and patronage Experiments
to my exertions, I shall feel bound to proceed, and to en- , pur"

J . ■,'..• sued.

deavour to bring the experiments to a regular system. The
glasses I used for determining the quantity of evaporation
were of a bell form, and placed with the open part upon the
earth ; a quantity of tow was first weighed, ready to wipe
off the moisture collected from evaporation within the glass,
which tow was then again weighed as exactly as I could
after the glass had flood for a given time, and been wiped
dry with the tow ; and from knowing the contents of the
glass I made my calculations. Mr. Robert Wood, watch
maker, of Workington, attended to the experiments made
with the glasses.

I have tie honour to be, with great respect,

Dear Sir,

Your obedient humble servant,

J. C. CURWEN.

Pear

5S IMPROVEMENTS IN THE CULTURE OF VEGETABLES,

Dear Sir,

Of^m** th it IT is with great pleasure and satisfaction, that I learnt
S^lSfy in- Icsterday f,ora Mr- Arthur Young, the Secretary of the
the Board of Agriculture, that he has adopted my idea of the
great importance of evaporation, and that he has actually
ordered Mr. Blunt, optician of Cornhill, to construct him
an instrument for ascertaining the evaporation, which in-
strument I shall request Mr, Blunt to show to the Society.
Mr. Young intends in the course of the summer to make a
variety of experiments on .the quantity of evaporation pro-
duced from different soils, agreeing with me, that the greater
or less degree of it influences most materially the luxuriance
or growth of the crop.

In all the valuable tracts which Mr. Young has given tp,
the world, he has never adverted to this, and the first
knowledge of it as a principle for promoting the growth of
/ crops was obtained from my account of the Schoose Farm,
in the report of the Workington Agricultural Society, of
which he is a member.
Afwwf KKing Being unable to account for the surprising weight of my
atnacure. grsfe crQp 0f cubages, with only one third of the manure
usually given, I was led to make the experiments I have
laid before the Society; and I believe I am not only the
first person in Lancashire, but even in Great Britain, who
ever thought of ploughing the ground upon the principle
I have executed, for promoting the growth of the crops.
^rt^fa'T6 * flatty myself, that my experiments on the economical
might be in- application of manure will lead in a high degree to facili-
elcxed. tate a lnore extended "cultivation, and obviate the ob-

jections, which have been started by some persons against
the enclosure of waste lands, from their supposition, that
manure could not be furnished for more than the land at
present cultivated.

I remain, dear Sir,

Your obedient servant,

J. C. CURWEN.

Certificate*.

improvements in the culture of vegetables. 5«

Certificates.

A certificate from Miles Ponsonby, Esq., of Hail Hall, Certificate* of
testified, that he had seen Mr. Curwen's statement of the the benefit* ac
rapid progress made by his cabbages in the month of June Mr <j ur wen**
1807; that he perfectly recollects viewing them on the Mon- plan.
day, and again on Saturday in the same week ; that the im-
provement in the appearance of the plants was so great, that
he imagined the land had been replanted, till Mr. Curweu
explained the cause, which had produced so great a change.

That he considers Mr. Curwen's plan of managing his
potatoes and cabbages as very good garden husbandry, and
the best calculated for keeping the land clean, improving
the plant, and at the same time enriching the ground, of
any that he had observed ; and though the mode is entirely
new there, he has no doubt but it will be found beneficial,
and that it will in a few years be much attended to.

i

A Certificate from Mr. yD. Campbell, Secretary to the
Kendal Agricultural Society, stated, that he had attende4
to the cultivation of potatoes in most parts of Lancashire,
and could speak with the greatest precision respecting it in
that part of the country which is north of Lancaster.

That whether they were planted in the lazybed way, by
the dibble, or with the plough, they were always set in roivs
from one end of a field, or piece of ground, to the other end
or side, with narrower or wider intervals, as the cultivator
might deem best suited to the kind of potato he was raisings
That he never before saw or heard of their being cultivated
in beds, in the manner practised and described by Mr. Cur-
wen, and that being more particularly desirous to ascertain
whether any such method was pursued in the great potato
district which lies south-west from Lancaster, including
Pilling, the Felde, RufTord, and the neighbourhood of Pres-
ton, he applied to George Clayton, Esq., of Lostock Hall,
and Robert Hesketh, Esq., of Warrington Hall, gentlemen
upon whose accuracy the utmost dependance may be placed,
and who informed him, that neither from their own know-
ledge, nor from inquiries they have made, can they learn

that

~$T> IMPROVEMENTS IX THE CULTURE OF VEGETABLES.

that the method of cultivating potatoes alluded to has been
seen or heard of in a tract of country, wnere more are rais-
ed for the market than in any other of the same extent per-
haps in the kingdom.

Arfvsntas? of jyj,.# Campbell further stated, that Mr. Curwen's cab-
Mr. Curwen's \
mode of plant- bages were planted at a much greater distance than any he

k)g cabbage*, had ever before seen, and their size far exceeded, as a gene-
ral crop, any that had fallen under his observation; that the
ground was perfectly clear from weeds, and from having
been frequently turned over by the plough in the intervals,
the mould appeared to be in fine order for a subsequent
crop, and he conceived that in the two essential points of
freedom from weeds, and of the land being in a fine tilth,
no garden could exceed it.
Farther ccrtifi- Other certificates respecting the novelty of the method
cates. 0f p]anting potatoes, as practised by Mr. Curwen, were

received from the following gentlemen:

William Knott, Summerhill.

Mr. Sunderland, Ulverston.

J. Penny Marshall, Bolton Oak.

Further certificates, stating the method to be new as prae-
trsed by Mr. Curwen, for planting both potatoes and cab-
bages, were received from the following gentlemen:

Walter Gardner, Crooks.
William Harrison, Ulverston.
A. Benson, Reading.
Henry Richmond Gale, Bardsee Hall.
Jos. Penny, Budgefield.
Edward Barrow, Allithwaite Lodge.
Charles Gibson, President of the Lancaster Agricul-
tural Society.

Rev. J. Barns, Pennybridge.
Rev. E. Ellerton, Colton.
Jos. Yorker, Ulverston.
Michael Knott, Thurstonville.
Rev. Joseph Brooks, Ulverston.
Thomas Machell, Aynsome.

Als©

IMPROVEMENTS IN THE CULTURE OF VEGETABLES. C\

Also from the following farmers, resident in the neigh-
bourhood of Lancaster:

Thomas Tart.
William Armstead.
William Staller.
Anthony Eidsforth.
Christopher Atkinson,
. Robert Edmondson.

Dear Sir,
Mr. Curwen having informed me, that a question would Subject afe*m
probably arise in the Society of Arts &c. relative to the poration <**
degree of exhalation of water from the earth, and it appear- ™"^ imp<*^
ing to me to be intimately connected with various matters
in agriculture, I think you will not be displeased at my
mentioning a few circumstances, to prove, that the object
much deserves attention. I conceive that it bears upon the
point of showing the great depth, to which dung may be
ploughed with safety; for when we find, as I have done,
that from two to three thousand gallons of moisture are ex-
haled in a day from an acre of land, and that the quantity
varies greatly according to the state of tillage, it should ap-
pear, that such a vertical stream of vapour must remove all
apprehensions of burying dung. I also think it goes to the
point of hoeing and horse-hoeing such plants as demand
much moisture. I have found, that the dung in a farm-
yard, laid three feet deep and hard trodden by cattle all the
winter, has exhaled in the proportion of above four thou-
sand gallons per acre in ten hours; hence a practical con-
clusion may be surely drawn. I could much extend these
observations, but they are sufficient to convince so enlight-
ened a mind as yours of the propriety of a very extensive
pursuit of this inquiry.

I have the honour to be,

With much regard, dear Sir,

Your faithful and very humble servant,

ARTHUR YOUNG.

IX,

C% ElECTftlCAL EXPERIMENTS ON GlA£S.

IX.

Electrical Experiments on Glass considered as a Ley den PhiaU
and on coaled Panes; by Mr. *****

Experiments VyHANCE having thrown in my way two papers written
SVedoctirfneof *n ^utcn ^y Mr. Lugt, I was surprised on reading them to
plusand minus find, that this gentleman could admit the theory of plus
e ctncity. an(j mmus electricity, while almost all his experiments con-
cur in proving, that there is an actual passage through the
pores of the glass, when it has a communication on one side
with the prime conductor of an electrical machine in action,
and on the other with conducting bodies communicating
with the ground : and that to obtain this passage it is not
necessary for the glass to be coated on both sides, as it is
sufficient for that in contact with the machine to be so, and
to touch at a single point some substance that is but an im-
perfect conductor, as the wood of a table, or the like, which
has sufficient force to communicate the attraction of the
Earth through its pores. Thus I have always suspected
the charge of the cascade is effected, in the 5th experiment
of my first letter to Mr. van Mons : but as the phial seems
to retain in its pores a portion of the electric fluid, and col-
lect on the surface communicating with the ground a large
quantity of fluid sensible both to the touch and sight,
when we charge highly a phial not coated on that side ; I
Glass ha* a have thought the force of attraction of glass for this fluid
powerful affi- wag so pOVverfu]j that Abbe Nollet had reason to suspect it
electric fluid, attracted electricity from the Earth, which however did not
happen in the experiments of Mr. Lugt, as for instance the
following, which is the second of his first essay.
Insulated phial He procured an apparatus completely insulated by means

charged by an 0f four giu3S feet. Thus he could at pleasure leave the
insulated ma- . . . . _ ... .

chine. whole insulated ; or form a communication between the

ground and the conductor, or the ground and the rubbers,

which were united together by a semicircle of metal placed

«bout a foot from the insulated plate. Rods were contrived

* Journal de Physique, vol. LX1V, p. 371.

to

ELECTRICAL EXPERIMENTS ON GLASS. 6$

to be fixed occasionally to the conductor or the rubbers.
In this experiment he fastened one of these rods to the
rubbers, and made it communicate with the outer or inner
coating, it did not signify which, of a phial placed on an
insulating stand ; the other coating of the phial communi-
cating with a similar rod fixed to the conductor. The com-
munication was made by means of a wire in contact with
each coating, and terminating at the other end in a knob,
which might be brought near or removed from the other
rods at will. This phial, thus completely insulated, was
charged by an equally insulated machine. Hence the au-
thor infers, that the ground does not contribute to the
charge of the phial ; and that, when the apparatus is not
insulated, the wood of the table, and that which supports
the stand, are the invisible conductors of the fluid from the
surface that parts with it towards the point where the fluid
is excited on the plate: that in his insulated experiment the
use of the rods supplies the place of the ground, and con-
ducts the fluid : &c.

I cannot admit the theory of taking the fluid from the Glass not it*.
surface of an impenetrable substance, as Dr. Franklin as- PcnetraoJe *•
serts glass to be; because it is a fundamental law of che- flu;d.
mistry and physics, that no movement can take place with-
out a previous impulse, and consequently without immediate
action on the substance to be deprived of the fluid. Besides,
what substance is there, that the igneous matter cannot
penetrate ? and no one will deny, that the igneous matter
forms a part of the electric fluid. Accordingly I deduce an
opposite inference from this experiment.

Mr. Lugt then recites several very ingenious experiments, Affinity of

among others the following on the electrophorus, by which &Iass for th-
t u £ ■ ■ i j A ♦• 1 4. i- , electric fluid

he would go on to prove this singular deduction ; but which shown by

in reality prove nothing, except that the attraction of the

igneous fluid, developed at the disk, is strong enough to

supply the place of the attraction of the ground : in fact,

that in uninsulated and insulated experiments glass has

such an elective attraction for the fluid, as to retain the

same quantity in both situations of the phial. It is still to

be accounted for, like all chemical and physical phenomena,

bv the theory of elective attraction.

He

()4 ELECTRICAL EXPERIMENTS ON GLASS.

an experiment He takes an elcctrophorus, places it on an insulating
tr©thh^u,elCC" st:inJ» at,(* insulates himself before he rubs it. In this state
of complete separation from the ground he excites it by-
friction, touches the two coatings, and obtains sparks as
strong as if both he and the electrophorus had a communi-
cation with the ground. Hence he concludes still, that
the double contact, necessary as he says, establishes a
complete circulation, as in his experiment with the phial.

The experi- There is a more simple mode of making this experiment
ment; made in . , „ , . . , , , ,, . . ,

another way. Wlt" a sni'd»l curved exciter with a glass handle. I take an

electrophorus completely insulated ; I rub it in a state of
insulation like the Dutch philosopher; I quit the insulating
stool and take the exciter, the two coatings of which I
touch at once with its knobs ; and I not only obtain a spark,
but taking the exciter, leaving one of its knobs on the ex-
ternal coating, and raising the other four or six inches so
as to lift the cap to it in the air, a real discharge takes place.
On laying down the cap without a fresh contact, scarcely
does it give a very feeble spark. The beautiful experiments

Electricity of Mr. Libes, in which he obtains electric fluid by the mere
fiomtheron- «'■»•«» i

tact of different contact of different metals, evidently prove to me, that
metals. here, where the action is triple, or between two metals and

rubbed resin, there is a real generation of igneous matter,
if I may so express myself, which is renewed at every dou-
ble contact. The following experiment is calculated to sup-
port my conclusion.
Sparks from I had seen in the Electrical Phenomena of Mr. Sigaud

the mouldings d j Fond, that some gentleman observed the silt mould-

ot a chest of ' ° t °

d-.awers when ings of a chest of drawers to emit sparks every time he drew

onetakenfrom one. from the cap of an electrophorus accidentally placed
an electropho. . r r . J \

iusuponit. on it*. This tact led me to make the experiment with an

insulated electrophorus; by the side of which I placed a
copper ball having a rod that communicated with the
ground. This ball was about a line from the outer coating;
and I stood on an insulating stool when I took a spark. In
this state, to prove that it is no circulation that occasions
the discharge, but an attraction of the ground, which be-
comes divellent at the moment when the fluid retained in

* Phenomenes Electriq/ic;, p, G7B, § 174.

the

KLEdtRICAL EXPEfctMENtS ON GLASSo Q$

the metal of the c*p acts no longer in competition with the
glass to fix it in the metal of the inferior coating, I raised
the cap three Or four inches, and held it thus a few seconds
without seeing the least spark pass between the inferior
Coating- and the knob of the exciter ; but the moment I drew
electricity from the cap, a strong spark was emitted toward
the ground. This fact gave me the more pleasure, as it
still more confirmed the theory of elective attraction, on
which all my deductions are founded. I know not whether
this experiment be new, but I do not find it in Libes, Haiiy,
or the French translation of Fischer, which has lately ap-
peared with notes by Biot ; and it appears to me to merit
attention, as it throws light on the theory of thunderstorms. Thunder-
Here the column of air interposed between the cap and the
glass prolongs the retaining power of the glass to six, eight,
or even fifteen or sixteen inches in dry weather : there I
figure to myself a large plate of air between those clouds
that traverse the atmosphere in opposite directions, the elec-
tric fluid of which remains insulated till the moment when
the elective attraction surpasses the retaining action of the ,
stratum of air, &c. This experiment also shows the reason Doubles.
why the new doubler Of electricity, invented a few years
ago in England, charges its plate&on approaching and se-
parating them repeatedly, and acquires through the stratum
of air that separates them so intense a change* that the plates
discharge themselves spontaneously *.

The glass electrophorus, mentioned by Mr. Lugt as well Glass electro*
as Sigaud de la Fond, but the effects of which, as it appears p 10rUS'
to me, have not been compared with those of the Leyden
phial, has lately engaged my attention. The following are
the experiments I have been led to make, and in my mind
they render still more probable the complete saturation of
the Leyden phial by the retaining affinity of the substance
of the glass itself.

I take a square of German sheet glass [verre blanc de Experiment.
Boheme] twenty or two and twenty inches wide, and
place it on an insulating stand seven or eight inches in diu-

* See Journal, vol. IX, p. 19. It is for September, 1804, not 1805,
as misquoted by the writer in the Journ. de Thysique.

-Vol. XXIII— May, 1809. F meter,

Qg ELECTRICAL EXPERIMENTS ON GLASS.

»eter, gilt or silvered all over, with its edges well rounded
off, and supported by a glass foot at such a height, that
the balls of the two curved tubes may rest on a little me-
tallic circle of three or four inches diameter cemented to the
centre of the upper side of the glass. Below I place a
knobbed exciter against the edge of the gilt top of the in-
sulating stand, leaving about a line distance between them,
as in the preceding experiment. In this state I begin to
charge. At the tirst turns of the plate it frequently hap-
pens, that we see round the little upper coating some flashes
gf electric light; but if the glass be thin, they will soon
disappear, and though you continue to turn the plate a
thousand and a thousand times, the square will be charged
to the whole capacity of the coated glass, but will afterward
P&s^e of the yield a continual passage to the fluid. By this experiment
fluid through 'ln t|ie dark I have been convinced of the reality of the pas-
glass, sage of the fluid through the pores of glass as through a
filter of capillary tubes. This experiment was repeated
several times in the presence of the friend, who suggested
to me the idea of the oxidation of the metallic coatings,
comparing them with those, which probably take place in
the great in marble quarries. He is inclined to consider
this as an experbnentum crucis with respect to this passage
F.lectricity de- of the fluid. It is thus he is equally convinced, that the
Dy0oxidingS electric fluid oxides the most tenacious metals partially in
thera. its passage, before it destroys them at the instant of the de-
velopement of the gasses, which takes place in my metallic
cylinders. He is an excellent pneumatic chemist, and fre-
quently repeats to me, that caloric penetrates all bodies,
that all consequently have pores, and that the penetration
of the electric matter through those of glass is in no way
inconsistent with the true principles; but that the pre-
tended removal of it from one side of the glass, which re-
ceives a superabundance of it on the other, is contrary to
the axiom of his master, Lavoisier : there is no motion, no
sensation, unless the impulse acts through the thickness :
and hence, if we grimt this expulsive action, we must admit
a capacity of penetration in the fluid.
Common glass . In his presence I repeated the experiment with common

ladedbJt i>er* Slass' This )rields a Passaoe t0 the fluid with !ess ease, but

on

/

ELECTRICAL EXPERIMENTS ON GLASS. Qj

©n the contrary saturates itself infinitely more quickly : in sooner saturat-
a little time it discharges on itself, notwithstanding the lit- ^^^ Jj^
tie extent of the coatings. We ascribe the anomaly of* these
two different kinds of glass to different fluxes. The Ger-
man glass contains more metallic oxide, the common more
saline matter. If this inference be just, the English flint Flint glass,
glass should be like a sponge to the fluid; and if it were
possible to find large squares coloured with metals, these
perhaps would furnish us with other facts.

It must be observed, that, notwithstanding the German German glass,
glass admits this passage, a large mass will not pass, unless
it be attracted in the manner related in a former letter.
This is why we see a reflux toward the machine. The fol-
lowing experiment will in some degree account for this.

I charge a glass electrophorus, placed on an insulating Experiment,
stand, the lower coating of which is as extensive within an
inch as the glass, and stop the machine the moment the
sparks announce an approaching spontaneous discharge : if
in this state I cut off the communication with the ground,
and take the cap from the upper surface, the whole charge
will remain adhering to the glass; and on touching it a
prickling sensation will be felt, and something like an ig-
neous vapour. On extinguishing the light it is visible,
particularly if you approach the edge; but the fluid be- The fluid may

comes absolutely luminous, if you blow lightly on the sur- be blown to~.
J „ n 11 ■ • i wardmalunu-

face: then a wave ot nre traverses the glass, to join the nous wave

fluid accumulated on the other side between the glass and
the metallic coating. What is particularly remarkable, two of two colours,
colours may be distinguished in the fluid, the lower being
whiter and more vivid. This phenomenon takes place if
the communication be suffered to remain : the wave of fire,
which flows from the part blown upon toward the lower sur-
face is stronger, but it does not continue so long. This The electric
experiment gives rise to the question, whether all the in- QUnd°r c*m"
gredients pass through the substance of the glass, or whe-
ther the difference of action is to be ascribed to the state of
the glass alone. I believe it is this modification, which the
electric matter itself appears to undergo, that constitutes
the opposite states, which every natural philosopher endea-
vours to explain according to the mode in which he views

F 2 them;

£>g ELECTRICAL EXPERIMENTS ON GLASS.

them ; Franklin by plus and minus; du Fay by two fluids
• neutralized in bodies, the particles of which repel and at-
tract each other ; Sec.
Is not the fluid ' Does not this experiment demonstrate, that the attrac-

le y the tjong wnjcn act here between the surfaces of the glass reci-
a; Taction be- * t °

tween the two procally, retain the fluid on the upper side notwithstanding
surfaces of the we take off tnfi cap ? wni]e> jf ^ opp0sjte surface be not

insulated, the cap takes it off at a distance of three or four
lines above it, if we touch the cap with a metallic body
communicating with the ground without establishing a com-
plete circuit; because then the ground wholly absorbs that
which is accumulated on the opposite surface. To verify
this fact, I have repeated the transvasation of water, in the
three following manners.
Water poured I charge a bottle filled with water, and pour the water
intcTanuninsu- mto anotner bottle standing on a plate of lead, that has a
latjd bottle, communication with the ground. Whether I be insulated
or not, when I do this, the two bottles divide the charge
between them. But to retain the charge in that which ha9
lost its water, I must place myself on an insulating stool
when I pour into it fresh water, unless it be from a glass
vessel; otherwise, as the electric fluid may escape both by
my body, and by the metal on which its outer surface rests,
and which can conduct the opposite electricity into the
ground, the bottle will discharge itself entirely on one side
by my body, and on the other toward the ground ; in the
same manner as a charged bottle touched by the hand, while
there is a communication between the ground and its oppo-
site side.
and into an in- On the contrary, if T charge a bottle highly, and pour its
j»ulated bottle. Water into an insulated bottle, the water will convey away
nothing, and the whole charge remains in the bottle ; be-
cause there is no attraction of any substance to act on the
electric fluid, the glass, which I suppose to be saturated
during its fusion, having no longer any affinity to attract it.
It is like a full sponge, which takes up no more water, un-
less it can part with some of what it contains to another
body. It is not in the coatings then, that the fluid is re-
tained, but in the glass itself, and on its two sides. If, as
I have remarked above, I make the tranvasation into a bot-
tle

ELECTRICAL EXPERIMENTS ON GLASS. 6$

tie communicating with the ground by its external coating,
while I stand on an insulating stool, it neither loses nor ac-
quires more of the electric fluid. Must Ave not hence con-
clude, that the outside, when once charged, neither attracts
any thing more from the ground, nor gives off any thing
to it ?

The following experiment with the electrophone throws
still more light on all these facts.

I charge an electrophorus of glass and resin ; I touch it Experiment
, _ ° . . T • , , , • ' . At with the elec-

on both sides ; I raise the cap, and place it again on the trophorus.

electrophorus; the moment I touch with my hand either the

external coating or the cap, I perceive a spark almost as

strong as that which issues from the cap taken off. But if,

o ...

before I replace the cap, I touch the inferior coating, I take
from it its superfluous electricity; and when I touch it af-
terward the spark is almost nothing : a sign, as it seems to
me, that the fingers in touching the two surfaces only esta-
blish a communication between the two coatings, which
serves as a divellent intermedium, if I may use the expres-
sion, to develope the fluid that is disengaged.

I offer these views to the natural philosopher, not to ere- Docs not the

ate a neAV theory, but as an inquiry whether the igneous matter °' nre»

J . , . * . . . .i combined with

phenomena ol magnetism, galvanism, electricity, and ae- different ingre-

tonations, be not subordinate to the general law of affinities, dients by che-
The fine experiments with which Libes and Ermann have produce the '
enriched the fields of science concur in support of the hy- phenomena of
pothesis, that there is but one igneous matter, which forms e^e^ricVtyvkc.?
light, the magnetic, galvanic, and electric fluids, &c, and
is modified in them by different ingredients. In a letter
which I wrote to Mr. Delametherie about six months ago I
called these semigravitating, because I see them always
take a centrifugal force, and accompany this matter when
it is disengaged from combustible bodies: one of these
fluids takes it, like that of ether, at a certain degree of
heat ; another only at the strongest heat of a burning glass,
unknown before Homberg, and even in his time, which is
necessary to volatize gold ; and so on. The experiments of
Mr. Ermann demonstrate, that the flame of alcohol con-
tains different ingredients from that of sulphur, or that of

phosphorus.

70 ELECTRICAL EXPERIMENTS ON GLASS.

phosphorus*. Examine the gasses, which the same acids
evolve from different metals, or the different colours of ar-
tificial fireworks; do not all these modifications demonstrate,
that the caloric of the air, added to the ingredients latent
in combustibles, carries off various particles, the number
of which will ever remain unknown to us ? Of the nature
of carbon, nitrogen, hidrogen, oxigen, abundant as they
are, we are still ignorant. Are they simples? or are they
compounds ? How many varieties do these four bases af-
ford merely by the proportions in which they are combined?
Why does the new inflammable mixture that alarmed
Proust, and prevented him from pursuing his experiments,
Action of wa- appear still more terrible than fulminating silver? Before
the electric11 my experiments, if I nad spoken of the combined action of
flffid, will burst water, lead, and the electric fluid on the most tenacious
any metals. metals, as solders and iron, should I have ventured to say,
that the igneous expansion in them might at length become
sufficiently powerful to burst a cylinder of the best iron of
ten lines in diameter, and two lines aperture, consequently
four lines thick ; •as well as a large cartridge of an alloy of
nine parts copper and one tin similar to the former, which
so long resisted a force of about forty feet, and was burst
by one of a hundred and forty in ten explosions ? That of
iron exhibited undulations at the ninth explosion, but was
not actually cracked till the fortieth. I could wish, that
some one would try two cylinders of similar materials, to
find the proportion of the resistance, which is not in the
ratio of the square of the thickness, as I had imagined.
The progress of the resistance is greater on doubling the
, thickness of the iron ; for a cylinder of iron of half the
thickness was cracked at the fourth explosion, and at the
seventh the cracks were wider than at the fortieth in the
thicker cylinder. I cannot but be persuaded, that the ig-
neous action tends to decompose the metals subjected
to it.

* Journal de Physique, February 1807 \ or our Journal, vol. XVII,
p. 246.

X,

ANALOGY BETWEEN CHARCOAL AXD HYDROGEN. J\

IX.

Qn the Identity of the Base of Charcoal with Hidrogen, or
its Base, In a Letter from Dr. John New.

To Mr. NICHOLSON.

Stapleton, near Bristol, April 24th, 1809.

I

SIR,

N the 18th volume of your valuable Journal, p. 43, is Reciprocal ac
inserted a paper, entitled " Report on a Memoir of Mr. and "harcwxl"
•J Berthollet, jun. entitled, Inquiries concerning the reei-
«* procal Action of 8ulphur and Charcoal; by Messrs.
" Fourcroy, Deyeux, and Vauquelin."

The general conclusions from the experiments are,

" 1st. That charcoal contains hidrogen, which the most Charcoal con-
" intense heat we can produce will not completely expel," uins hidr°gen-

M 2d. That sulphur at a red heat acts upon hidrogen, Sulphur forms
" and forms compounds in very different proportions, on a compound
« which their properties depend." with hidrogen,

" 3rd. That charcoal deprived of hidrogen, or at lean1 with charcoal

" nearly so, forms with sulphur a solid compound, into de,jri ei ot

1-11 it • 11 • ». hidrogen,

" which the sulphur enters in a small proportion.

" 4th. That at a high temperature sulphur, carbon, ana* or with both;
" hidrogen unite into a compound, which assumes the state
«' of gas."

" 5th. And lastly, That sulphur contains hidrogen." and contains

The perusal of this important paper furnishes me with \ roSen-
an opportunity ©f communicating an opinion, which I nave, base oFchar-6
for some years, entertained : That charcoal and hidrogen CJ al> or - m°-
are modifications of one and the same substance, or that hi- ^w^00 *
drogen is the base of charcoal.

My opinion was formed from tho result of various expe- This opinion
riments and obervations, made at a time when expeniuen- ^ ™ment '*
tal chemistry was a favourite amusement ; but which very
different pursuits have obliged me reluctantly to relin-
quish.

Should this opinion be confirmed fay accurate expefi-
merits, (and it appears to me to have been nearly proved
by Berthollet in the Memoir above quoted, ;*o4 least by ana-
lysis

experiment,

72 °N SEAWEED AS MANURE.

lysis) what an important and extensive field will be opened
to the scientific world !
The carbon of The pabulum of plants, and the origin of that immense
plants from quantity of carbonaceous matter annually produced in the
vegetable kingdom, will be easily and satisfactorily accounted
for, as originating from water alone,
Diffe-ent ap- Although the two substances hidrogen and charcoal differ
hydrogen and so much in appearance, yet, it may be a question whether
charcoal no the diamond and charcoal, or steam, in its greatest degree
argument. Qf rarjtVj anci jce or snow, do not differ quite as much.
This intended I do not mean by this communication to lay claim to any
only as a hint priority of discovery, but only to furnish a hint to others,
which, if improved by those who have leisure and ability to
pursue the inquiry, might lead to the discovery,

I took no notes of the experiment* to which I have al-
luded, and certainly cannot, at this distant period, narrate
them from memory ; and, if I could, it is by no means
improbable, that they might be explained in a different

manner.

I am, Sir, yoqr obedient servant,

JOHN NEW, M.D,

Extract of a Letter from a Gentleman in Jersey to his
Friend in Glamorganshire, on the Use of Vraic as a Ma*
nure. Communicated by J. Franklen, Esq*,

Seaweed good "T T

manure for y RAIC, or its ashes, we esteem here good for all man-
itsashos'on nerpfsoil, whether deep and heavy, shallow or light; for
etrpng. we use it on all our lands. I think ashes agree best in the

strong soil, as they lighten it, and open its pores ; and the
vraic in the light or shallow soil, for it keeps it moist in the
summer: yet our people use both together on all lands.
The ground receives no benefit from the vraic but for the

* Bath Society's Papers, Vol, X, p. 258,

year

ON SEAWEED AS MANURE* 73

year in which it is laid on ; but does from the ashes for seve-
ral years.

Our time of gathering it in summer is always the first or Collecting and
second spring-tide after Midsummer : the Court fixes the cunn8 lt"
day to begin to cut it. There are but six or seven days
allowed to do it. It is done with a small hook, partly cut
and partly torn from the rocks. It is brought ashore just
above high-water mark, and there spread and dried in the
same manner as hay. Three or four days of fine weather
are enough, (for it must not be too dry.) It is put in
large cocks, and carried home at leisure, and housed. If
there be no convenient place they make a rick, and a cer*
tain quantity is brought within at a time. A small bundle Burning for
of brambles, or a little faggot, is put in the chimney, and
twice or thrice as much vraic as a man can take in his arms
placed over it, It makes a good fire, and as it burns must
be supplied with fresh vraic. The ashes must be drawn
aside in a corner of the chimney every now and then, for it
must not be burned too much, otherwise it would lose the
best part of its virtue. The ashes are, carried away every
morning to a place under cover. Before I leave this arti-
cle, 1 must observe to you, that it may be gathered with
you, as there is no restraint, any time in the summer.

The winter vraic is begun to be gathered about the mid- Spring gaih«r-
dle of February, and continues till about the latter end of
March. That with large broad leaves, which usually grows in
deep water, is the best to be used green. It is carried as
soon as possible on the land for which it is intended, and
spread on it, if rainy weather. If very dry weather, it is left
pn the ground in little heaps till moist weather.

This is the method by which we gather our vraic here. Method of
Now I will describe how we use it. After our land has usm6lU
lain fallow three or four months, about December or Ja-
nuary we give a light ploughing, just to turn the turf.
Some spread their ashes before it is turned ; others after.
J believe it is no great matter which. We allow forty-
eight bushels to a vergee, (two vergees and a quarter make
an English acre) the green vraic is brought, as before*
mentioned, and spread in such a manner as that the leaves

almost

~l r °* SEAWEED AS MANURE.

almost, touch one another. We generally allow two cart-
loads, or sixteen horse-loads, to a vergee.

Crops. In the latter end of March, or beginning of April, this.

ground is ploughed deep, and sown generally with barley.
Some sow a sort of wheat which we call /rente, which must
be sown the beginning of March ; others sow the common
red wheat in the beginning of December, allowing the
same quantity of ashes ; but instead of vraic they put dung.
This is the way of our ploughing the first year. The se-
cond year the soil is manured and ploughed as the first,
but always sown with barley, at the season before-men-
tioned. The third year there is no manure used, nor the
following years. AU the ground is either dug with a spade,
or turned with two ploughs, one following the other in the
same furrow, that the ground may be turned deep. In
January and February beans are planted in ridges, and
parsnips sown all over the ground ; the weeding and
digging of which is very expensive ; but nothing that I
know answers better than parsnips to fatten hogs or black
cattle.

This ground that has been dug deer), stirred in the
weeding, and again dug to get the parsnips, is finely pre-
pared to sow wheat the fourth year, which is done in De-
cember and January. I generally sow clover seed in it in
the beginning of April, which I think better than taking
oats the filth year ; for it impoverishes the soil, and its pro-
duce is not answerable. However, most people sow oats
after their wheat and clover seed.

I*. Now as to the produce. This cannot be exactly ascer-

tained, as it depends on the nature of the soil, goodness of
the season, &c. So I will fix it as near as I can at a me-
dium. Of barley, we have sixteen bushels per vergee, each
bushel fourteen gallons ; of beans, about eight bushels
{same measure) per vergee ; and five cart-loads of parsnips.
The produce of wheat is about fourteen bushels, of ten
gattons each, per vergee. We have about the same number
*f bushels of oats, at fourteen gallon* each.

ON PLANTING ORCHARDS. 7$

XI.

Account of an extensive Orchard planted at Bradwell in Es-
sex, by Mr. Samuel Curtis, of Walworth**

SIR,

JL Take the liberty of sending you an account of an under-
taking, for which I hope I shall be entitled to some notice
from the Society of Arts, &c. I do not know whether they
have offered premiums or medals for planting fruit trees,
nor do I suppose it is always requisite, as I understand the
Society confer their favours without such offers for matters
they think deserving of them.

Two years ago I took a small farm in Essex, (a county Farm of fifty

where fruit is scarce,) consisting of near fifty acres. As the acres converted

into an or-
soil appeared proper, and the aspect favourable, I converted chard.

the whole inro an orchard, by planting one hundred trees on
each acre, in the following manner, viz. The fruit trees are
placed in rows one rod asunder; between the trees in each
row is a space of two rods; the plants are cherries, and ap-
ples or pears alternately, so that one half of the plantation
cousists of cherry trees. In about twenty or thirty years the
apple and pear trees will require the whole of the ground;
the cherry trees are then to be cut out, leaving the apple
and pear trees uniformly two rods asunder each way, and in
straight lines.

The orchard is now completed with the best kinds known
or produced in the nurseries, in the whole nearly live thou-
sand standard trees. They are well staked, and have been
properly pruned twice a year. Farming crops have been Farming crop*
since produced on the same ground as good as formerly, the thegrourvdat
plough being allowed to go within two feet of the trees each before.
way, so that for many years to come the land will pay the
expenses, and yield a profit exclusive of the fruit. I have
in one part planted medlars, quinces, plums, walnuts, and
other trees, to make the fruit collection as complete as pos-
sible, and I have spared no expense which could tend to im-
prove the whole.

* Trans, of the Society of Arts, vol. XXVI, p. 123. The silver me-
dal of the Society was voted to Mr. Curtis for this communication.

I shall •

ra ON PLANTING ORCHARDS.

Defection of I shall make it an object to destroy the coccus, an insect
which is at present damaging all our orchards. I know the
application of spirits of turpentine will do it, without in-
juring the trees ; it is by fur the most easy and expeditious
method for that purpose.

I am, Sir, your obedient Servant,

SAMUEL CURTIS.

T-siimon'ies. Certificates from M. P. Carter, D. D. Rector of Brad-
well, and Mr. Thomas Fairhead, Churchwarden, confirmed,
that Mr. S. Curtis had planted about four thousand standard
fruit trees on about forty-eight acres of land, and that the
same were, on the 7th of April, 1808, in a thriving condition.

SIR,

THE certificate I sent you relative to my orchard stated
the number of trees to be about four thousand, but the real
Disease in pear number is 4620 trees. I am sorry to have occasion to notice
****• to you a disease in pear trees, almost as destructive, although*

not so frequent as that I mentioned to be produced from the
insect on apple trees. This upon pear trees appears as a dry
rotten scab, which keeps increasing until it penetrates even
the hard wood, and as it proceeds, surrounds the limb eu*
tirely. The following spring the limb dies from the diseased
part upwards. I have not found any insect to be concerned
in this disease, which frequently takes place upon the trees
of most luxurious growth. Its commencement seems to be
from the thick rind of the tree becoming spongy; it then
begins to crack and look scabby, the inner bark becomes
dark coloured, and the disease proceeds until the destruction
of the limb takes place. Some particular sorts of pear
trees are with me much more liable to this disease than
others: Windsor, autumn, bergamots, Catharine pears, &c.
I suspect the disease to arise in a great measure from the soil.
My new orchard is situate at Glazen Wood, near Cogge-
shall, in Essex. I think myself highly honoured by the in-
quiries of her Serene Highness the Margravine of Anspach
JUrcedy for concerning it. As her Highness has attended to the prun-
this, and that ing of fruit trees both in England and on the Continent,
®f a??P* lre* doubtless she is aware of the existing diseases in apple and
*Ml ,ns" pear

MAKAGEMENT of maesh lands, Sec. 77

pear trees,— any easy remedy for them would be of immense
consequence ; and if her Highness can furnish any discovery-
relative thereto, it would confer a great service on the pub-
lic, and be esteemed by me a very particular obligation and
honour.

I remain, Sir, your obedient servant,

Samuel curtis.

xii.

On the Management of Marsh Lands, Irrigation, fyc. in a
Letter to a Friend* By Mr. Thomas Davis*.

SIR,

ITH respect to the management of Marsh Lands «/- Management
ter draining, the great desideratum is to make them per- °J marshlands
fectly dry — to get rid of the coarse aquatic grasses, and to »"v*i£-

replace them with the finest and best grasses; and as the
latter root is much shallower than the former, they cannot
be made to thrive, unless the land is firm and close round
their roots. There are but few instances where land of this
description does not contain plenty of the best grasses, but
in such a weak and starved state, that you can scarcely see
them until the land is drained, and made so firm in its sur-
face as to discourage all the coarser, and encourage the finer
grasses, by bringing vegetation near the surface, and af-
fording a proper nidus for the small shallow root of the latter.

But between the decay of the coarser grasses and the At first ges<^

establishment of a better kind, there will be an interregnum, ^yapp**1*

° worse.

in which the land will be worked very little ; in some instan-
ces less than before it was drained at all. The enclosures
and drainage of the marsh lands (called moors) in Somer-
setshire, and the fens in Lincolnshire, have shown this clearly,
and the same cause must produce the same effect every where.
For the first three or four years after the drainage, the
land has generally grown gradually worse; for two more, it
has been stationary ; and then, if well managed, and parti- Afterward un-
cularly by the help of a dry summer, it has improved ra- proves.
pidly, and will never, unless shamefully neglected, revert to
the former state.

• Bath Society's Papers, vol. X, p. 324.

But

78 MANAGEMENT OF MARSH LANDS, &C.

This improve- But this interregnum may be much shortened, by reflect*
accelerated. *Da on *ts cause> an^ acting accordingly. If the coarse
grasses are to be destroyed, they must not be suffered to
seed. If the shallow-rooting fine grasses are to be en-
couraged, the earth must be trodden into contact with
their roots ; of course mowing should be avoided, and feed-
ing in dry weather, as hard as possible, encouraged', and the
stock should be that of the cow kind. Horses eat very un-
fairly, and are continually running about and poaching the
ground; and sheep will pick out all the tine grasses, and
leave the coarse. But the surface water must mostly be
drained off; and feeding in wet weather, particularly in the
winter, avoided as much as possible.
The under wa- I am supposing all this while, that the land has been corn-
ier must be pletely drained of its under-water, or else it is useless to at-
tomplete. r J _ .

tempt any thing towards its improvement. Manure may as

well be thrown into the water, as put upon land, which
(though not always under water) is full of water every win-
ter. Besides, the under-water of marsh land, particularly
under the hills which contain veins of blue lyas stone, as in
Lincolnshire and Somerset, is frequently so impregnated
with sulphur, as to be injurious to vegetation ; and the land
never improves much, till this water is completely drained
and kept out of it.
Suitable ma- When land of this description is recovered, and well
xiure requisite, stocked with good grasses as above described ; these grasses
should be encouraged by such manures as suit the soil, such
as wood-ashes, peat-ashes, soot, and other top-dressings in
the spring, till the grasses are completely established ; and
then lime, chalk, marl, clay, sand, or whatever suits the
land best, may be used in large quantities as alterative ma~
mires, but not until there is a good coat of grass on the
land. In the choice of these manures, local manures will
be useful ; theory, on the soundest principles, is sometimes
fallacious. But the golden rule of agriculture — to use such
nununnf^ manures as will make heavy land lighter, and light land
heavier; cold land hotter, and hot land colder — must never
be lost sight of. He that knows and follows this rule, and
he only, is a farmer.

If any of your land be capable of irrigation, and you have

water

MANAGEMENT OF MARSH LANDS, &C. J$

water enough to do it properly, (the great errour lias been in TrisatMoc
attempting too much land with a given quantity of water)
no improvement can be so great. But the land must not
only be first drained of its under-water, but must be by na-
ture, or made by art, capable of draining itself, and that
speedily, from the water to be brought on by irrigation,or the
attempt should not be made; and marsh land is seldom in
this shape, unless a river runs through it, and there is of course
a natural fall in the land : where you have this advantage,
embrace it by all means; if you have not, be shy of attend-
ing any thing on a large scale, until you have consulted
some one who perfectly understands the subject. With
all the improvements to be derived from irrigation,
(and it certainly is the greatest improvement in agriculture)
local prejudices, in countries where it is but little known,
are strong against it. Every thing may look favourably,
and yet the water may not agree with the land, or the land
with the water ; and the owner may be put to a great ex-
pence, and not only be disappointed, but what is to the
full as vexatious, be laughed at by all his neighbours.
Begin therefore with a little, and do that little well.
You must not pretend to undertake irrigation by any writ-
ten instructions, which I or any one else can give you. You
must get a man who understands the subject practically,
and who will undertake it at a fixed price per acre. But
even then I would do but little at first, tben wait a year,
and see the effects, before I would go farther. And by the Wece*»rjfo
by, it is absolutely necessary, that your own workmen should convince the^
see the effects, and understand the subject, and be fond
©f it; for every farmer, let him profess what he will, is go-
verned by his own workmen ; aud whatever he may at-
tempt to do will never fully succeed, unless he can get them
to like it as well as himself.

I am, &c.

Horsingham, Oct. 1805. THOMAS DAVIS.

minds of work
men.

METEOROLOGICAL JOURNAL

Tor APRIL, 1809,

Kept by ROBERT BANCKS,Mathematical Instrument Maker*
in the Strand, London.

THERMOMETER.

B A ROME-
TER,

WEA1

'HER.

MAR.

.

"" >,

■=i

Day of

2
<

3

JQ

% 2

9 A. M.

Day.

Night.

c^

o>

— -£»

n2"5

26

42

44

48

38

29*17

Fair

Fa i r

27

44

46

52

40

29*30

Ditto

Ditto

28

45

42

50

39

29'45

Rain

Rain

29

42

40

45

35

2972

Fair

Fair

30

38

42

44

38

29*83

Ditto

Ditto

31

42

40

49

36

2979

Ditto

Cloudy *

APRIL

1

40

39

45

31

2973

Ditto

Fair

2

38

36

43

29

29*80

Hail f

Ditto

3

34

37

43

28

20*90

Ditto

Ditto

4

35

28

40

32

30-05

Ditto

Ditto

5

34

36

42

30

30-26

Ditto

Ditto

6

36

36

44

30

30-27

Rain

Ram

7

38

39

46

28

30-16

Cloudy

Cloudy

%

40

42

50

37

30-33

Faii-

Ditto I

9

42

46

52

44

30-14

Ditto

Rain

10

46

50

56

45

29-91

Rain

Cloudy

n

48

42

53

32

29-56

Ditto

Ditto

12

40

43

48

40

29-80

Fair

Rain §

13

42

44

52

38

29-52

Rain

Cloudy |j

14

42

45

46

40

29-09

Dittotf

Ditto

15

43

46

50

40

29-47

Fair

Ditto

16

46

47

53

41

29-08

Ditto

Rain

17

41

40

43

34

29-13

Raiti

Ditto

18

36

37

42

32

2957

Hail

Fair

19

34

39

43

35

2977

Fair

Ditto

20

40

38

42

35

2973

Snow

Rain **

21

38

40

42

39

29-58

Ditto

Cloudy

22

44

46

47

45

29-67

Rain

Fair «

23

43

41

46

40

' 30-01

Ditto

Cloudy

24

41

43

48

38

292S

Fair .

Ditto

* With very cold wind;

f From 9 A. M. to 1 P. M. the thermometer rose 40, and during the heavy
gtorm of hail fell to 38, and afterwards rose to 43.
t Venus and Mars visible at times.

§ Very high wind at 11 P. M. || Lightning at 9 P. M.

^[ Thunder at half past 6 A. M. ; again, with hail and lightning, at 1 P. Mr
** Heavy snow at 7 P. M. j again, during the night of the 21st.

A

JOURNAL

OP

NATURAL PHILOSOPHY, CHEMISTRY,

AND

THE ARTS.

JUNE, I809.

ARTICLE I.

Observations on the Natural History of the Divers. In a
Letter from Patrick Neill, Esq., Secretary to the Wer*
nerian Natural History Society.

To Mr. NICHOLSON,
Dear Sir,

JljLaVING paid some attention to the natural history of
the Divers, I have subjoined some remarks in answer to
your correspondent's inquiries concerning the Ember-goose.

And am, with esteem,

Yours,

Edinburgh, March 17, I8O9. PAT. NEILL.

The Danish clergyman, whose account is quoted by your Blunder in the
correspondent, is said to affirm, that the ember-goose ^an's^ccount
" lives constantly on dryland; and although it has been of the immet
often seen with grown up young, no person has ever found iver

Vol. XXIII. No, 102.— June, 180& Q its

82 NATURAL HISTORY OF THE DIVERS.

its nest.'* There is here, in my opinion, a palpable blun-
probably a mis- der, which must have arisen either from a mistranslation,
translation. or frQm tyie acciJeutal omission of some words. If the ori-
ginal were consulted, I should not be surprised to find it
run thus : " The ember lives constantly at sea, and is never
seen on the dry land," &e. That this must be the import,
seems evident from the rest of the account. If the ember
lived constantly on the dry land, in the narrow and confined
islands of Feroe, the nest and young of so large and re-
markable a bird must have been familiar to the natives;
yet we are told, that, " although it has been often seen
with grown up young, no person has ever yet found its
nest." It is indeed added, " As it has a large hole under
each wing, many have imagined, that it there hatches its
eggs."
Improbability Supposing that the eggs were really hatched in hollows
of the account. lln(]er the wings, (which is too extravagant a notion to be
granted without complete proof) we cannot for a moment
believe, that the young could remain there till they were
** grown up." But further, if the ember lived constantly
on dry land, there would evidently be no occasion at all for
this singularity in the manner of hatching its eggs; which,
on the other hand, might seem commodious, on the suppo-
sition that the bird lrved constantly at sea. And the opi-
nion, that it does live constantly at sea, has procured it
sometimes the striking appellation of the " herdsman of the'
sea."
Opinion of the If any confirmation be wanted, I may state, that, by the
Orkney and correction I have suggested, the Feroe account of the em-
landers, ber is brought to agree perfectly with the opinion enter-
tained at this day by the common people in the Orkney aud
Shetland islands. These, it will' be recollected, were for-
merly subject to the Crown of Denmark, and ultimately
connected with the Feroes. That the vulgar notions, there-
fore, prevalent in our own northern islands and in the Fe-
roes should coincide, is extremely natural : that they should
be directly contrary to each other, seems exceedingly unna-
tural and improbable.
Inquiries in In the course of visiting many of these islands in the
these islands. summer of 1S045 I mad<* frequent inquiries concerning the

habits

NATURAL HI8T0EY OF THE DIVERS. $$

habits of the ember-goose, both of the best informed gen-
tlemen, and of the fishermen and common people.

By the latter class I was uniformly assured, that the em- The common

ber continues constantly at sea* without ever touching the Pe°P e belieTe

J . °. it hatches its

land ; and that it hatches its eggs in holes under its wings, eggs under the

This last opinion I found was adopted, because, though the vrln2*
ember is never seen on land, nor have its nest or eggs ever
been discovered in the islands, yet the old ember is fre-
quently observed in the friths and bays, attended by a cou-
ple of young ones. I remarked that, both in the Orkney
and the Shetland islands, the common people in general
made no distinction between the true immer and the north-
ern diver, but included both under the name of ember-
geese : some fishermen, however, denominated the northern
diver, the great emmer, or ember ; but the hatching of the
egg under the wing was supposed to be equally character-
istic of both.

From the gentlemen resident in both sets of islands, who Account given
were sportsmen, or had been sportsmen in their youth, I informe/"**
learned, that both the true immer, colymbus immer, and
the northern diver, colymbus glacialis, frequent the friths
and bays during the whole year, and very much resemble
each other in their habits ; only the northern diver is ob-
served to be more common in winter than in summer, while
the emmer is equally common all the year round. On this
account some gentlemen were of opinion, that this last
might probably breed in some of the unfrequented holms*;
but they acknowledged, that its nest had never been found :
indeed neither species had ever been seen to go ashore ; far
less been known to breed. I was told, that when pursued by
a boat, both kinds swim with astonishing velocity; when ap-
proached, they dive very rapidly; and occasionally changing
their course under water, rise to the surface at a great dis-
tance, and in u quarter altogether unexpected ; thus baf-
fling the efforts of their pursuers. When suddenly sur-
prised, or very much teazed, they sometimes, though but
rarely, run along the water, beating it violently with their
"wings, and uttering cries not unlike the howlings of some

* A holm *i9 a small uninhabited island, used only for pasture.

G 2 small

S4 NATCRAL HISTORY OF THE DIVERS.

small dogs; but they have never been observed to pet fully
on wing, or even to attempt an elevated flight. The young
ones, which are seen accompanying them, are always, I
learned, of sufficient size, to render it possible that they

Perhaps breeds may have come from a great distance, perhaps Iceland,

far to the north. Norwayj Gr Greenland : this is an important remark, and
the testimony was uniform.

There is no In regard to the alleged hole under the wing, I can as-

lark b\ iTl sure voul< correspondent, that no such hole exists. I affirm

low under ihe this, not only from having myself examined prepared spe-

VWS- cimens of the immer, in which no trace of such a cavity

existed ; but on the authority of those who have shot the
bird, or caught it, as sometimes happens, on a baited hook
on a sunk line ; and who declared, that on examination
they found no greater hollow under the wing of the ember,
than may be seen under the wing of the common goose.
The same thing may be affirmed of the northern diver. I
have at different times procured large and full grown spe-
cimens of this beautiful bird, which were found entangled
in nets set in the Frith of Forth for thornback and skate, in
the months of April and May ; and in none of these were
there any remarkable hollows under the wing.

Accounts given I shall close these remarks (which have already, perhaps,

thors r°US aU" extena*ed to to° great a length) with some slight notice of
the accounts to be found in books.

Wallace, sen. The elder Wallace, in his History of Orkney, 16Q2,
gravely states, that the emmer " has its nest and hatches

Brand. its eggs under the water.1* Brand, a visitor sent to the is-

lands by the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland,
in his Description, published 1701, repeats the same story,
with equal solemnity : " It hath its nest wherein it hatcheth
its eggs, one or two at once, under the water at the foot of

Sir R. Sibbald. a rock, as they informed me hath been found." Sir Robert

Sibbald, rather incautiously following these authors, gives a

similar account. The other notion, of its hatching its eggs

Pontoppidan. under the wring, is countenanced by Pontoppidan, in his

History of Norway, 1751.

Horrebow. Horrebow, however, in his Natural History of Iceland,

1758, gives a much more natural and rational account.

" The /cm," he says, " is unmolested; for the people give

themselves

GAS LIGHT FROM COAL. 85

themselves no trouble to look after its nest or brood, neither
their flesh nor eggs being fit to be eaten. They build in re-
mote places near fresh water;" so near, as we learn elsewhere,
that the bird may almost slide into the water. It is not per-
haps easy to determine, whether, by the term /om, Horrebow
here means the proper immer, or the northern diver; but it
matters not. As the habits of both are in other respects
much alike, and as the breeding of the northern diver is
held to be of the same mysterious nature as that of the im-
iner, we may reasonably conclude, that both perform the
offices of incubation in places of the same sort, and in a
manner somewhat similar.

Upon consulting Colonel Montagu's Ornithological Die- Col, Montagu,
tionary, (2 vols, 8vo, 1802) a work in general of the great-
est accuracy, I find, that in regard to the immer, without
taking notice of any of the fabulous reports above detailed,
he merely states, that " it makes a nest on the water, placed
amongst the reeds and flags," in fresh water lakes. He
does not, however, mention any authorities. As to the
northern diver, he observes, that '* it is not uncommon in
Iceland and Greenland, where it breeds in the fresh waters,
and is said to lay two large eggs, of a pale brown colour, in
the month of June." He mentions that this bird seldom
leaves the water; but that, in the spring of 1797> one was A northern di~

taken near Penzance in Cornwall, at some distance from ^er taken some

T -,. ,? ,. • • ■ in r i distance from

water. It appeared incapable of raising itself from the water.

ground, yet did not seem to have any defect. It lived for

six weeks in a pond, eating fish thrown to it.

n.

Description of an Apparatus for making carburetted Ilidro-
gen Gas from Pitcoal, and lighting Manufactories with it.
By Mr. Samuel Clegg, of Manchester**

Dear Sir,

HEN your son was in Manchester, he called to see Mr Clegg
my nephew, Samuel Clegg's, improved gas lights, and was

* Trans, of Soc. of Arts, vol. XXVI, p. 202. The silver medal wac
toted to Mr. Clegg for this communication.

desirous

gg GAS LIGHT FROM COAL.

desirous to have a plan of his method, which my nephew
promised him, and 1 undertook to get it conveyed to you.
1 have, accordingly, taken the opportunity of sending to
the Society of Arts a plan and explanation of his appara-
tus.
used gif lights He lighted a large manufactory in Yorkshire some years
somt-year- ago, Q UpOU ^us principle, and has since lighted some build-

and freed them » r, . x ,

from offensive ings in this neighbourhood, and 1 believe he is the first
smell. person, who succeeded in rendering these lights free from

the offensive smell which generally accompanies them.
My nephew served an apprenticeship to Messra. Boulton
and Watt, of Birmingham, in the steam engine business,
in which he is now engaged here on his own account, and
has made considerable improvements in their construction
I remain, dear Sir,

Your most obedient servant,

ASHWORTH CLEGG,
Manchester, May 18, 1808,

SIR,

Cost of the ap- Your esteemed favour I haye received, and, according to
paratus. your request, have sent you a fuller explanation of the gas-

ometer and lamp, accompanied with farther drawings.

A gasometer, containing seven hundred cubical feet of
gas, weighs about twenty hundred weight, and costs about
two pounds ten shillings the hundred weight.

The whole of an apparatus complete, capable of support-
ing forty lamps for four hours, each lamp affording light
equal to ten candles of eight in the pound, will cost about
two hundred and fifty pounds. Each lamp consumes six
cubical feet of gas per hour. I am happy to rind, that the
Society have honpured my communications with their atten-
tion, and I remain, with great respect,

, SIR,

Your most obedient servant,

S. CLEGQ,

Manchester, Aug. 12, 1808f

Reference

GAS LIGHT FROM COAL. $7

Reference to Mr. S. Clegg's improved Apparatus for extract-
ing Carburetted Hidrogen Gas from Pit Coal. See Plate
III, figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and u\

In fig. 1, A shows the cast iron retort, into which are put Description of
the coals intended to be decomposed by means of a fire the apparatus,
underneath it, the heat of which surrounds every part of it,
excepting the mouth or part by which the coals are intro-
duced. The lid or iron plate B, which covers the mouth
of the retort, is ground on air tight, and fastened by means
of a screw in the centre; C is a shield or saddle of cast
iron, to preserve the retort from being injured by the inten-
sity of the fire underneath it, and to cause it to be heated
more uniformly. D D D represents the cast iron pipe which
conveys all the volatile products of the coal to the refrige-
ratory of cast iron JE, in which the tar, &c, extracted from
the coal is deposited, and whence they can be pumped out
by means of the copper pipe 1\ G is the pipe which con-
veys the gas to the top of the cylindrical vessel or receiver
//; this receiver is air tight at the top, and consequently
the gas displaces the water in the vessel //, to a level with
the small holes, where the gas is suffered to escape and rise
through the water of the well /, into the large gasometer
K, The use of the vessel // is pointed out as follows, viz.
If the pipe G reached all through the water, without pass-
ing into the vessel H9 the gas would not be rendered pure
or washed; and if part of the pipe did not rise above the
water, the water would have free communication with the
tar, besides exposing the retort A to a very great pressure,
so. as to endanger its bursting when red hot. This vessel or
receiver II, in a large apparatus, is about eighteen inches
diameter, and two feet long ; the quantity of gas, therefore,
which it contains, is sufficient to fill the pipes and retort
when cool, prevent the pipe G from acting as a siphon, and
expose the gas to the water without endangering the re-
tort.

When the operation begins, the upper part of the cylin-
drical gasometer K, fig. I, made of wrought iron plates, is
sunk down nearly to a level with the top of the circular well
J, and is consequently nearly filled with water, but it rises

gradually

g$ GAS LIGLT FROM COAL.

Description of gradually as the gas enters it and displaces the water; the
the apparatus. two W€jg|lts £ £ suspended over pullies by chains keep it
steady and prevent its turning round, otherwise the lower
stays M of the gasometer would come into contact with the
vessel H. There are two sets of these stays, one shown at
M, and the other at N.

There is also an iron pipe O, made fast in the centre of
the gasometer by "means of the stays, which slides over the
upright pipe P, by which contrivance the gasometer is kept
firm and steady, when out of the well ; it likewise prevents
the gas from getting into the cast iron pipe P, and the cop-
per pipe Ry any where but through small holes made in the
pipe O at S at the top of the gasometer, where the gas is
perfectly transparent and fit for use.

The pure gas enters the tube O at the small holes made
in its top at S, and passes on through the tubes P and R to
the lamps, where it is consumed and burnt.

The seams of the gasometer are luted to make them air
tight, and the whole well painted inside and out, to preserve
it from rust.

Fig. 2 shows a horizontal section of the lower hoop of the
gasometer K at the part M, with its stay6 or arms, and the
manner in which the iron pipe O, before described in fig. 1,
sliding on the tube P, passes through the ring in the centre
of the hoop. A horizontal section of the receiver H ap-
pears therein.
Lamps for Fig. 5 shows a section of one of the gas lamps. The

burning the Space between the outer tube T and the inner tube V, is to
be filled with gas supplied by the pipe R, shown in fig. l,
where a stop cock is inserted for adjusting the flame, which
gas passes through a number of small holes made in the
outer edge of a circular plate shown at fig. 6, which unites
the tubes Tand V at their tops. Fis the inner tube which
conveys the atmospheric air into the centre of the flame;
the upper part of this tube is made conical, or widening
outwards, to join a circular plate with holes in it, a hori-
zontal view of which is shown at fig. 6. W is a button,
which eau be placed at a small distance above the mouth of
the lamp, and its use is to convey, in an expanded manner,
all the air which rises through this tube to the inner surface

of

CHEAP METHOD OF PRESERVING FRUIT. 3§

of the flame, which assists the combustion very tirnch; this
button may be set at any convenient distance above the
tubes of the lamp, as it slides in the cross bars XXt by
which it is supported in the inner tube.

A current of air also passes between the glass tube or
chimney and the outer tube T, through holes made in the
bottom of the glass holder, as in Argand's lamps; this
surrounds the flame, and completes its combustion, bs ex-
plained by the view, fi^. 3, and section, fig. 4, which have
a glass upon eachw Z Z Z Z, figs. 3, 4, 5, and 6, show the
tube through which the lamp is supplied with gas from the
pipe R, fig. 1.

III.

A Cheap Method of Preserving Fruit without Sugar, for
Domestic Uses or Sea Stores. By Mr, Thomas Sadding-
ton, No. 73, Lower Thames Street*,

SIR,

SHALL be much obliged to you to lay before the So- Fruits prescr*-
ciety of Arts &c. the enclosed communication, and a box ed bv tiie nesr
containing the following fruits in bottles, preserved without
sugar, namely, apricots, gooseberries, currants, raspber-
ries, cherries, Orleans plums, egg plums, green gages,
damsons, and Siberian crabs. I have also sent some fresh
English rhubarb plant, preserved in a similar manner. The
same mode is applicable to other English fruits, as cran- Applicable i©
berries, barberries, and many more. This manner of pre- other;i'
serving fruit will be found particularly useful on ship-board Particularly
for sea stores, as the fruit is not likely to be injured by the Uiefui for»ea,
motion of the ship, when the bottles are laid down on their
sides, and the corks kept moist by the liquor, but on the
contrary will keep well even in hot climates.

'■ P Trans, of the Soc. of Arts, vol. XXVI, p. 145. Five guineas were
toted to Mr. S^ddington for this invention.

Th&

00 CHEAP METHOD OF PRESERVING FRUIT.

aad cheap. The cheapness of the process will render it deserving of

the attention of all families from the highest to the lowest
ranks of society. If the instructions I have sent are well
attended to, I have no doubt, that whoever tries my method
will find it to answer his expectation,

I am, Sir,

Your most obedient humble servant,

THOMAS SADDINGTON,

A new Method to preserve various Sorts of English Garden
and Orchard Fruits, without Sugar,

Fruit generally ^fie genera^ utility, as well as luxurious benefit, arising
pwfiilj from the fruit produced by our gardens and orchards, is

well known and acknowledged at the festive board of every
family ; nor is this utility and benefit less manifested by a
desire of many persons to preserve them for culinary pur-
poses in the more unbountiful season of the year; and 1 am
well persuaded, that this commendable desire would be
laut preserving greatly extended in most families, was it not attended with
it expensive, so much expense as is generally the case by preserving fruit
in the common mode with sugar, this article chiefly con->
stituting the basis by which it is effected. In addition to
the expense of sugar, which is frequently urged as a rea-
son for not preserving, there are other objections to that
method, and what I am about to mention cannot be consi-
dered as the least, namely, the great uncertainty of success,
an<t the sugar occasioned by the strong fermentable qualities contained in
apt to ferrnent, raany sorts Gf fruit. It may be said by some, that fruit
may be preserved for a length of time without sugar by the
ordinary mode of baking or boiling, and being closely
stopped up, to which assertion I freely assent; but even
this method is frequently attended with uncertainty, for if
the cork or other means used for keeping the external air
or the fruit out of the vessel becomes dry, or from any other cause the
grow mouldy, atmospheric air exchanges place with what is impregnated

by the fruit, it soon becomes mouldy and unfit for use.
Thttedkad- from these considerations, and a desire of preserving

wo^-tir r" ^ru^'- H* a trifling expense, I have made various and suc-
cessful

CHEAP METHOD OF PRESERVING FRUIT. Q\

cessful experiments of doing it without sugar, and at the
same time with a certainty of their retaining all those agree-
able flavours which they naturally possess; and it is highly
probable, that they will keep perfectly good for two or three
years, or even a longer period, in any hot climate, by which
it appears to become a valuable store for shipping or expor-
tation, as I have exposed them to the action of the meridian
sun in an upper room, during the whole of the summer,
after they have been so preserved (being done in 1806). I
have now the pleasure of laying before the Society specimens
of the fruit alluded to.

Process for preserving Fruit*

The bottles I chiefly use for small fruit, such as goose- Process ite*
berries, currants, cherries, and raspberries, are selected i>cnbt:u-
from the widest necked of those used for wine, or porter,
as they are procured at a much cheaper rate than what are
generally called gooseberry bottles. Having got them pro-
perly cleaned, and the fruit ready picked, (which should not
be too ripe,) fill such of them as you intend doing at one
time, as full as they will hold, so as to admit the cork going
in, frequently shaking the fruit down whilst tilling. When
done, fit the corks to each bottle, and stick them lightly in,
so as to be easily taken out when the fruit is sufficiently
scalded, which may be done either in a copper, or large
kettle, or saucepati over the tire, first putting a coarse
cloth of any sort at the bottom to prevent the heat of the
tire from cracking the bottles: then fill the copper, or ket«»
tie, with cold water sufficiently high for the bottles to be
nearly up to the top in it:. put them in sideways to expel
the air contained in the cavity under the bottom of the bot-
tle ; then light the fire if the copper is used, taking care
that the bottles do not touch the bottom, or sides, which
will endanger their bursting; and increase the heat gradually
until it comes to ah6ut one hundred and sixty, or one
hundred and seventy degrees, by a brewing thermometer,
which generally requires about three quarters of an hour.
For want of such an instrument it may be very well ma-
naged by judging of the degree of heat by the finger, which
jaiay be known by the yyater feeling very hot, but not so as

tm

9& CnEAP METHOD OF PRLSLRVING FRUIT.

to scaW it. If the water should be too hot, a little cold
way be added to keep it of a proper temperature, or the
lire may be slackened. When it arrives at a sufficient de-
gree of heat, it must he kept at the same for about half an
hour longer, which will at all times be quite enough, as a
longer time, or greater heat, will crack the fruit.

During the time the bottles are increasing in heat, a tea
"kettle full of water must be got ready to boil as soon as the
fruit is sufficiently done. If one fire only is used, the kettle
containing the bottles must be removed half off the, fire,
when it is at the full heat required, to make room for boil-
ing the water in the tea kettle. As soon as the fruit is pro-
perly scalded, and the water boiling, take the bottles out
of the water one at a time, and fill them within an inch of
the cork with the boiling water out of the tea kettle. Cork
them down immediately, doing it gently, but very tight,
by squeezing the cork in, but you must not shake them by
driving the cork, as* that will endanger the bursting of the
bottles with the hot water; when they are corked, lay them
down on their side, as by this means the cork keeps
swelled, and prevents the air escaping out: let them lie
until cold, when they may be removed to any convenient
place of keeping, always observing to let them lie on their
side until wanted for use. During the first month or two,
after they are bottled, it will be necessary to turn the bot-
tles a little round, once or twice in a week, to prevent the
fermentation that will arise on some fruits from forming
into a crust, by which proper attention, the fruit will be
kept moist with the water, and no mould will ever take
place. It will also be proper to turn the bottles a little
round once or twice in a month afterwards.
Recapitulation. Having laid down the method of preserving fruit without
sugar, in as clear and concise a manner as possible, I wiH
recapitulate the whole in a few words, which may be easily
remembered by any person. Fill the bottles quite full with
fruit. Tut the corks in loosely. Set them in a copper, or
kettle of water. Increase the heat to scalding for about
three quarters of an hour; when of a proper degree, keep
at the same half an hour longer. Fill up with boiling wa-
ter.

CHEAP METHOD OP PRESERVING FRUIT- 9^

ter. Cork down tight. Lay them on their side until wanted
for use.

It may be said as an additional reason, as well as cheap- Buttles.
ness, for using wine, or porter bottles, instead of goose-
berry, that there is a difficulty of obtaining them, even at
any price, in some parts of the country ; and indeed they
are equally useful for small fruit, and answer the purpose
quite as well, excepting the little inconvenience of getting
the fruit out when wanted for use, which may be easily
done by first pouring all the liquor out into a bason, or any
•ther vessel, and then with a bit of bent wire, or small iron
meat skewer, the fruit may be raked out. Some of the
liquor first poured oft' serves to put into the pies, tarts, or
puddings, instead of water, as it is strongly impregnated
with the virtues of the fruit, and the remainder may be
boiled up with a little sugar, which makes a very rich and
agreeable syrup.

In confirmation of the foregoing assertions, I now pro- Specimen
duce twenty-four bottles as samples, containing twelve dif-
ferent sorts of fruit, viz. aprirots, rhubarb, gooseberries,
currants, raspberries, ^cherries, plums, Orleans plums, egg
plums, damsons, Siberian crabs*, and green gages — .
which have all been preserved in the manner above de-
scribed.

In order to diversify the degree of heat, and time of con- The heat must
tinuance over the fire, I have done some in one hundred £Jeat ^r^
and ninety degrees, and continued them in it for three iongcontimidL
quarters of an hour; from which experiments it is evident,
that the heat is too powerful, and the time too long, as tire
fruit by this degree and continuance is rendered nearly to a
pulpf.

In the summer of 1807 I preserved ninety-five bottles of Cost,
fruit, the expense of which, (exclusive of bottles and corks)
was £l 9s. 5~d. ; but having some fruit left, it will not be
right to judge them at a higher rate than £l Q$. ; and al-
lowing 5s, for the extra coals consumed in consequence of

* Apples and pears may be done for shipping, Sec.

f Some of these samples of 1807, were done in' 160 and 190 degrees.

my

§£ CHEAP ttETHOb OF PRESERVING fRUIT.

my not having a conveniency of doing more than seven of
eight at a time, and this being done at fourteen different
times, it will amount to £l 14s. ; the avenge cost of which
is nearly 4-\d. per bottle, exclusive of the trouble of attending
PeoSt. them. Cut if we estimate their value in the winter seasoi*

at Is. the bottle, this being in general as low or lower than
the market price, they will produce £4 15s.; but losing
one bottle by accident, reduces it to £4 14.9., leaving a net
profit of £3 on ninety-four bottles, being a clear gain of
nearly two hundred per cent.
For ship's Another great advantage resulting from this statement

s*«*s. will appear by making it an article of store for shipping, or

exportation ; and T fehall submit a few ideas tending to pro-
mote such ^1 beneticial object by doing it in large quantities ;
for which purpose sufficiently extensive premises must be
iitted up, with a proper number of shelves, one above ano-
ther, at a distance of about five inches.
Method of do- The vessel for scalding the fruit in should be a long
Sree scale*1 wooden trough of six, eight, or ten feet in length, two or
three in breadth, and one in depth, fitted with laths across
to keep the bottles upright, and from falling against one
another; this trough of water to have the heat communi-
cated to it by steam, through a pipe from a closed boiler
at a little distance. The boiling water, wanted to fill the
bottles with, may be conveyed through a pipe and cock over
the trough, by which arrangement, many hundreds of bot-
tles might be done in a short time. It may be prudent to
observe, that this idea is only speculative, not having been
actually practised, but at the same time seems to carry
with it a great probability of success, and worthy the expe*
riment.

It remains now, that I state some reason or object for
troubling the Society, whom I have taken the liberty to ad-
dress with these communications. The first is a desire of
publicity, sanctioned by their investigation of the experi-
ments made for preserving fruit without sugar, thereby
lessening the expense attending. an object of so much pub-
lic benefit and utility. The second arises from a personal
or private consideration ; but on this subject I shall only
observe, that I wish to throw myself entirely on that pro-
tection

ON RECLAIMING WASTE LANDS. Q5

t.ection which has ever characterised the liberality of the
Society; and that I shall feel highly honoured, if they con-
ceive what I have communicated deserving- any mark of
their favour.

I am, Gentlemen,

Your most obedient humble servant,

THOMAS SADDINGTON.

IV.

On Reclaiming Waste Lands. By Mr. Wagstaffe*.

Gentlemen, Norwich, June 27, 1801.

.S your influence for the enclosure of Waste Land is Wasteland
confessed, and, I conceive, extending within the scope of
your Society, and it should now seem on the eve of a Par-
liamentary encouragement ; I ask leave to recite dri expe-
riment I made on a portion of land, of as obvious fterility
as perhaps any present waste within the Western counties.

This was an acclivity, which had not been cultivated described.
within memory ; and at the foot of it a various tract, gra-
velly and moory, broken into hollow spaces, in which waters
rested during the summer months, which waters were
covered with most of the aquatic plants native to stagnant
pools. My predecessor in possession of these watery wastes,
during a summer drought, fed their interstices with sheep,
which became diseased, and many of them rotten.

The mode I pursued was as much as might be to extract steps taken to
the weeds, roots, and sediment; lay them in heaps as a imJ?r(yve **•
preparation of manure measurably to 'replace and fertilize
the barren sands and gravel, brought from the heights to
rill up these hollows. I then opened ditches, raised their
sides with sand and gravel, and on them planted large cut-
tings of poplars and willows. The ditching drained the
soil, and the materials from the heights raised; this swamp

* Bath Paper*, vol, X, p. 18.

to

96

Th.e process
applicable to
fte*t extern.

fialn

D;fFer«nt pop-
tars.

Oft ACCLAIMING WASTE LANflS.

to the proper condition of meadow. The upland I en«
closed with thorns on a willow ley*, and within the banks
inlaid them with seedling trees and forest ; divers of the
former have been taken down for use, and some of the
aquatic cuttings are grown to a timber measure; while the
several subdivisions, meadow and upland, have been culti-
vated, and borne every species of grain and herbage, con-
fessedly upon an equality with the long tilluged circumjacent
fields.

J3y a process thus pursued, of which 1 have presumed to
adduce this example, the numerous millions of waste acres.,
which yet disfigure our nation, may and will become, the
seasons favouring, under your and your compatriots' en-
couragement, a widely extended garden, replete with every
useful production congenial to our climate; and the boun-
dary of its Helds fenced with faster thriving trees, and
more abundant in number than the present large tracts of
forest produce, provide for generations yet to come an in-
crease of those necessary timbers, that have given this island
an intercourse with the inhabitants of every maritime clime,
and an acknowledged superiority in the commercial world,
which probably it would not have obtained but from the
indigenous growth of these not sufficiently valued timbers.
Although your extended encouragements have much in-
creased them by multiplied plantations, yet their growth
may be indefinitely enlarged by an encouragement for their
acorn seed to be placed in every raised bank, or their seed-
lings planted in every new formed hedge-row ; which most
efficaciously might be enforced by Parliament as a condi-
tional obligation on all to whom they are assigned, under
the statute of a national enclosure. But as every semi-
nary of oaks must be referable to a distant posterity, it
becomes worthy of every present planter in the interior
of his hedge-row3 to have large cuttings of poplar* and

willow,

* A willow fence in this situation has the appearance of improbabi-
lity, but it is yet improving.

t Of poplars, the vitrei t alba, and hybridum; this latter hath not,
I conceive, found its way into any systematical arrangement of plants,
and in comse ha* wot received any specific character. The name as-
signed

ON RECLAIMING WASTE LANDS. QJ

Willow *, and an intermixture with young trees of the re-
sinous tribe. Those I have already known may be taken
down as timber during the life of the planter, and as early
as the inlays are grown to afford shelter and shade to the
herd and the flock, that occasionally feed within their en-
closures.

I may just add, the fall of the autumnal leaf, with the
manure of the depasturing cattle, may continue the fertility
of these fields without extraneous aid ; and where not rey- The soil of va-

dily procurable, I may farther add, that in the latter end of"0*"*5"**,

J ^ » J » notuusuitedto

the autumn of 1799 I procured turves from different wastes, grain.

reserved them on a gravel walk, and thereon dibbled wheat,
almost every grain of which succeeded, branched into divers
stems, which severally bore a full and perfect grain. In
the autumn of 1800f I repeated the trial, which at this in-
stant is as promising as the other proved. The early spring
of this year, 1801, I practised the same mode with tares,
pease, oats, and barley, which severally are promising. I
bring forward these experiments to show, that generally
every waste may be rendered productive by the first simple
operation of the plough, and thereby supersede the long
process pursued by many ; call forth to the earliest produc-
tion the unprofitable wastes of the kingdom ; and hence, as
far as human foresight can discover, prevent such a sensible

signed it is on the opinion of a gentleman well acquainted with botanic
distinction, who conceives it to be a variety, perhaps of the two former.
I may speak from an enlarging experience, that it is a handsome and
fast growing tree, multiplies itself distinctly from its roots, while its
cuttings take with nearly equal facility as the two former.

* Pendundridy (laurel leaved) amygdalina, (almond leaf) albay (com- Willows for"
mon gray leaf.) These three species I know, or presume, on the pro- timber,
gross the first has already made, will severally grow to a timber bulk.
The prospective diversity of contrasted foliage can perhaps be not bet-
ter exemplified than in the vivid green of the laurel willow, and the
hoary leaf of the white poplar.

•f- There is an average of four large ears to every grain dibbled, now
in full flower, which conveys an expectation of more than a hundred
fold increase, the actual increase of the preceding year. These turvts
or flag9 have received no aid from manure, or any artificial water-
ing.

Vol. XXIII— JvNfr, UQ9. H scarcity

g§ IMPROVEMENT OF WASTE LAND,

scarcity as most of our provinces have recently felt. And
again, under the blessing of Providence, witness a compe-
tency for ourselves, and a surplus for other nations; and
thence be commereially beneficial to a large portion of
mankind.

I am, with sincere regard,

Your respectful friend,

JOHN WAGSTAFFE.

V.

Account of Waste Land improved by J. Butler, Esq, of
Bramshott, in Hampshire*,

SIR*

Wasfb land. JLN the year 1802 1 purchased an estate, situate in the
parish of Bramshott, in the county of Hants, of which
seventy acres and upwards were then waste lands, growing
a little timber, furze, and alder, and supporting a few cows
in the summer, but never cultivated or considered worth
that expense.

General state. From particular engagements at the time, I did not be-
gin any improvement till 1804, when I found sixty-five
acres and a half (statute) of the said waste lands in the fol-
lowing state : twelve acres, the site of old fish ponds,
growing nothing but reeds and rubbish; eighteen acres
one rood thirty-seven perches, affording a little sour grass
and a few alders in wet places; twenty-seven acres three
roods one perch, quite a morass or bog, with a few alders ;
and seven acres one rood four perches of very indifferent
furze.

First drained. As the greatest part of the waste was filled with innu-.
merable springs that deluged the whole, and caused the
bog to be saturated throughout the year, I considered that

* Trans, of the Soc. of Arts, vol. XXVI, p. 117. The silver medal
of the society was voted to Mr. Butler.

draining;

A'ir/u</.frii£ /'/////'< .A-/// ■//.//. V-IYMIl/'l .1 Itfftt

K,R»ff>

IMPROVEMENT OF WASTE lAND. £)£

draining was the first necessary step to be taken. Wittt
this view I made an open cut or ditch, of five to seven feet
deep or more, in the lowest part of the bog, to let out the
stagnated water, and ascertain with precision the cause that
produced it. Having obtained the lowest possible fall by
the open cut or ditch, I caused other cuts to be made to
the heads of different springs which fed the land, occasion-
ally boring with the auger, that no spring might be passed
over ; and I then laid the open cuts or drains with stones
from three to twelve feet below the surface, according to cir-
cumstances, to carry off the water, observing always to keep
the level.

At the highest ground I found rocks, under which the Principal
principal springs lay at the distance of at least fifteen feet, b *
and thence an immensity of water gushed out, which was
easily passed off through the drains, and I had the satis-
faction to find, that in the course of two years the whole
waste became perfectly dry, and so continued.

The extent of land thus drained being great, the cost of Coit.
course is very considerable, and amounts to the sum of
.£338 2t: lid.

During this I grubbed the greatest part of the land, Expense of
Which from the stems of oak and other timber that had 8rubbil,g»
formerly grown there, as well as the alder, furze, and some
timber standing at the time I made the purchase, was no
inconsiderable work, and cost for each oak stem ninepence,
and for the soil on which the alders and furze grew,
sixpence per rod, amounting in the whole to the sum of
£95.

The ground being now cleared, I ascertained, by the Prepared for
means of a water level, the position of a little brook which irrig4'tton.
ran through the waste land, and found that it was practica-
ble to turn water over thirty acres of it. This being an
object of the first consequence, I spared neither pains nor
expense to accomplish it. I removed the high banks round
the fish ponds, which contained some thousand loads of
soil ; filled up very deep ditches and stew ponds, and laid
several acres on an inclined plane ; burnt the roots and rub-
bish, and prepared, by levelling and making water car?
riages, thirty acres for irrigation, of which sixteen acres,

H 2 though

JQQ IMPROVEMENT OF WHSTE LAND.

though rough and some pasture as before described, had
by draining and feeding began to improve considerably ;
and in the spring of 1806, I was enabled to turn the water
over such sixteen acres, from which I derived a tolerable
crop of hay in that summer. Feeding it harder afterward,
and watering it the following winter, there was a good sup-
ply of feed for sheep till the latter end of April; when it
was laid up and Watered as before, but with far better suc-
cess, as the crop was not only greatly improved in quality,
but likewise in quantity, producing more than two tons to
an acre throughout the sixteen acres.

The residue of the thirty acres prepared for irrigation as
before stated, formerly fish ponds and other rough lands,
but lately levelled and sown with perpetual grasses, is now
looking remarkably well, and will certainly be in readiness
to receive the water, as soon as the land is firm enough for
this purpose.
Cost, In accomplishing this work I had the assistance of Joseph

Trigger, who lived with and managed the water meadows
of the late Mr. Bakewell of Dishley for more than twenty
years ; and it would be an act of injustice to him not to say,
that the said land is prepared for a water meadow in a mas-
terly style. This cost me not less than £223.
Pared and As soon ag I perceived the effect of my drains on the

burned. ^o^, which was composed of a good deep peat, I pared by

hand thirteen acres of it, which I burnt, and spread the
Sowed col* ashes; then ploughed the land once, and sowed it with cole
seed» 6eed in the month of July. The crop turned out very good,

and fed one hundred and sixty two-shear hogs (Leicester)
and next white for two months; after which I ploughed it once only, and
oaIS* sowed it with white oats in the month of April 1807. At

first the oats appeared sickly, but receiving a few warm
showers in May, they recovered and flourished exceedingly,
making a most excellent appearance, to the astonishment
of the neighbourhood; for when reaped, they were estimated
at from ten to thirteen quarters per acre, some part* being
preferable to others, but the whole good ; and I have no
doubt, for at present they are not threshed, that the crop
will amount to its estimate.
In the course of last year I pared seven acres more of the

said

IMPROVEMENT OF WASTE LAND. JQJ

said bog, and burnt and spread the ashes in a similar way to
the former, and sowed it with cole seed from one ploughing
in July last, which likewise turned out a most excellent
crop, and supported seventy-two large sheep on it for more
than two months.

The expense of paring and burning the twenty acres came Expense.
to j£29 10s.

The remaining waste land being a lighter peat, mixed pirt fallowed
more with sand, I did not think it advisable to pare and for *umips.
burn, but contented myself with fallowing it for turnips,
with which it was sown last summer; but from the indiffe-
rence of the season, the crop did not prove abundant, yet
as much so as I had any reason to expect ; and I have no
doubt, by proper management of it, though by far the
worst of the waste, it will shortly become very useful land,
and produce in succession good turnips, barley, and seeds.

On a review of the foregoing statement, it will appear General state*

that the expense attending the improvement of the waste ment °/ ex\
» • ■ , i . • ••! i .« \ *» -i ■ . pente& profit.

has beeu great; but it will be recollected, that the quantity

of land reclaimed is very considerable, the greatest part of

which has been drained and grubbed, and the face pf it

entirely changed ; that on the comparison I now submit, I

feel great satisfaction in being enabled to assert, in the

judgment of able men, that at the time I made the pur-

chase, the waste land was not worth more than 5s. per acre

per annum on an average, which amounts to £\6 7*. 6rf.

and that it is now worth and let as follows :

Sixteen acres of water meadow, j£3 per acre
Fourteen ditto will shortly be as valuable -
Twenty ditto of reclaimed bog, j£2 per acre
Fifteen and a half ditto lighter peat, £\ per acre

By the year -------- £145 10 O

I have not pointed out minutely every step that has been
taken lq drain, to irrigate, or improve the said waste lands,
because the subject is generally so well understood ; but I
trust I have stated sufficient to prove, that the soil, thus re-
claimed, is turned to a great and lasting benefit.

J. BUTLER,

£. *.

d.

• 48 0

0

- 42 0

0

- 40 0

0

e 15 10

0

102

Otf THE WIREWORM.
VI.

Some Observations on an Insect that destroys the Wheat, siip~
posed to be the Wireivorm. By Thomas Walford, Esq,
F. A- S. Sf L. S, With an additional Xvt.e3 by TiiOMas
vr" Marsham, Esq. Treas. L.S.*

The wireworra J|_ £IJ£ insect which is the subject of the following memoir
)ias never, I believe, been noticed or described by any en-
tomologist or agriculturift ; its depredations are the annual
topic of conversation with the latter, yet few know what
insect it is, that destroys the wheat in the months of October
and November, under the denomination of the wireworm.
Many suppose it to be a scolopendra, others a species of
irflus, and some the larva of a tipula, or of the scarabcei$s
mclolonthq of Linnaeus. I supposed it to be one of the
above, till I found £wo insects in the very act of destroying
the wheat, as represented in the annexed figure (PL IV,
Jig. 3, a.). These I believe to be the insects commonly,
although very improperly, called the wireworms in Essex
and Suffolk : they appear to me l^rucc of one of the coleop-
terous tribe; but to what genus they belong can at present
only be conjectured. The projecting jaws somewhat resem-
ble those of a lucanus. The two jointed bristles, and the
cylindrical tail, give it an affinity to staphylinus ; but the
/arva of this insect is supposed to be carnivorous, and not
graminivorous. I fear, therefore, that the genus of this
insect cannot be determined, till it is traced to its perfect
state.

I shall now proceed to relate the discovery of ihe insect,
and to detail the injury supposed to be done by it.

In October 1802, having occasion to call upon an agri-
culturist f, whose skill and judgment in farming are rarely
equalled, he informed me, that his green wheat was dying
and losing plant very much, the reason of which he could
not comprehend. I immediately suspected, that it was oc-
caiioned by the wireworm ; but what kind of insect it was,

I.arvx of a

coleopterous

iiiL'ect.

Discovery of
the insect.

• Trans, ef the Linnean Society, vol. IX, p 156.
+ Mr. Thomas Olky, of Stoke next Clare, in Suffolk,

I could

ON THE WIRE WORM. 10?

I could not inform him. I therefore requested, that he
would accompany me to the field where the greatest injury
was done, in order that we might examine into it. This
we accordingly did ; and we were successful in discovering
three of the insects in question, of which two were in the
act of destroying the wheat, as above mentioned. With Its manner of
their projecting jaws these insects cut round the outside ^^ing
grass about an inch below the surface of the soil, to get at
the young white shoot in the centre, which they eat: upon
this, vegetation is immediately (lopped, and the plant dies.
I suspect, that they first eat the flour in the grains which
has not been drawn up by vegetation ; for, when we touched
them, they ran into the husks ; and two of the three insects
I carried home in the husks, which appear to be their habi-
tations, and probably the place where they change from the
iarva to their present ftate.

The injury which the public sustains by the ravages of Great injury
these insects may, in some measure, be "calculated from one y *"
Mr. Olley's loss in 1802 : he sowed fifty acres of a clay soil
with wheat; out of these ten were destroyed by them,
which were replanted by dibbling in one bushel of seed per
acre.. The price of wheat at that time was eight shillings
per bushel.

We here observe one fifth part of the quantity sown de- Calculation of
stroyed by thefe noxious insects, but the depredations of ^^J,1^0
the wireworm, as I am informed by a friend* whose expe- from it,
rience* and observation enable him to calculate with superior
judgment, being principally confined to wheat sown upon
clover leys, old pastures recently broken up, pea and bean
stubbles, &c, we may suppose the general average of the
injury to amount to much less than a fifth (Mr. Olley's
loss) : a twentieth part of what is sown upon this description
of lands will, I think, be deemed a very fair and moderate
calculation. The number of cultivated acres of land in
England at the time above mentioned was computed at
seven millions, of which 2,400,000 were calculated to be
sown with wheat ; and as only one half of the wheat an-
nually sown is supposed to be upon clover leys, old pas-

* Allen Taylor^ Esq. Wimbish-hall, Essex.

tores

104 0N TI1E WIRLWORM.

tures, &c„ our calculations mud be confined to 1 ,200,000
acres instead of 2,400,000 : this will give 60,000 acres as
annually destroyed by the insect in queftion ; which re-
planted, at one bushel per acre, will require 60,000 bushels
of seed, which, at eight shillings per bushel, are worth
,£.24,000. Beside this, although no extra expense is in-
curred by the farmer in preparing the land, yet he has to
pay for dibbling in the seed, which, at five shillings and
threepeuce per acre, will cost £.15,750, or, at the full
price, six shillings per acre, £.18,000. If the land re-
quires harrowing, there will be a further charge of nine-
pence per acre, or £2,250,, not to name other items,
which render it difficult precisely to ascertain the logs of
the farmer.

If the above calculation be thought a fair one, and I see

no reason why it should not, we find the quantity of wheat

lessened to the market by the depredations of these insects

is very frequently, if not annually, fixty thousand bushels ;

which occafions to the farmers an additional expense of at

lead £.15,750.

vent'n* °tl Pre" J k°Pe ^ese observations will prove a spur to gentlemen

injury to be more conversant in entomology and agriculture than my-

sought after. st\^ to excite them to inquire into this subject, the result of

which must ultimately be beneficial to the public at large,

by discovering some means of preventing the iujury done by

Early plough- these mischievous insects. At present we know of no other
Jug not always ' . . , . . ,

convenient, than early ploughing, which is not always convenient to the

farmer, as he wants to feed his clover land as late as the
Lime iiuffec- geason will admit of. Unslacked lime has been tried with-
out success*; although it is well known, if laid thick upon
the land and ploughed in immediately, it will oVftroy >n=
sects of every kind, that are in the soil ; but in many
places the expense of procuring lime is too great to think
pfufing it in sufficient quantities to answer the intended
purpose f.

As

* Farmer's Magazine, page 450.
Grab of the t I am aware of its being suid that part of the injury sustained is

tipula. done by the grub of the tipula or crane-.iy; but 1 beg leave to observe,

thai i.he injury done by the grub is iu the spring, and not in October;

as

ON THE WIREWORM, 1 05

As the drawing is from the accurate pencil of Mr. Sow-
crby, no description of the insect is necessary.

Explanation of the Figures,

Plate JV. Fig. 1. The insect, natural size.
2. The same, magnified.
3. a. The same, deftroying the wheat.
•— b. Hole in the husk, into which the insect
ran upon being disturbed,

4dditional Note, by Mr. Marsham.

The above described larva is quite new to me, nor can I True *****
find any thing like it in the various authors I have con-
sulted, who have written on the larvae of insects. 1 am
therefore ignorant to which order it belongs. The name of
wireworm seems to be gives to various species of larvae, but
what I consider to be the true wireworm was bent to me
some time ago jby the right honourable Sir Joseph Banks.
A figure of this I have added to the plate (PI. IV, Fig. 4.).
The history of this animal I found fully detailed in the *n Swedea
Stockholm Transactions for the year 1777, by Mr. Clas
Bierkander, vicar of Gothene, near Skarra, under the ap-
pellation of root-worm. This larva, when full grown, is a larva
about seven lines long, very narrow, of a yellow colour,
shining, and very hard : the head is brown, with the extre-
mities of the jaws black. The body is composed of twelve
joints, on the last of which are two black indented specks.
Jt has six scaly feet on the fore part of the body. Mr. Bier- 0f a species of
kander observes, that it remains five years in this state be- sPrinSin? bee-
fore it changes into a pupa, whence issues e/ater segetis of ' °rS ipi>
jLinnaus. I have frequently found it both in fields and

as many of the flies have not deposited their eggs till the latter end of
September, and fho.se that are deposited earlier are few of them hatched
before the spring, as was proved by Mr. Strickney, whose pamphlet,
entitled u Observation; respecting the Grub" is now before me : there-
fore the depredations of the grub cannot be greatly prior to that time ;
besides, they are most plentiful in the fly state at the end of Septenv.
iwr and beginning of October.

garden

Ibfi ON BATS.

gardens at the roots of divers plants, but never succeeded
in bringing it to perfection. The author above mentioned
describes four other species of root-worms ; viz. musca se-
getis, mujca hdrdci, phalama turca, and tipula oleracea.

I flatter myself, that this valuable Essay of Mr. Walford's
will stimulate other gentlemen who reside in the country,
and who arc so materially interested, to enter seriously into
a minute examination of the various causes,, by which grain
is so frequently destroyed ; so that, by a number of such
inquiries and communications, we may at length be ena-
bled to point out a remedy — as every grain of corn that can
be preserved in times like the present must be a public be-
nefit.

Mr. Bierkander's papers on the different root-worms I
got translated by a friend ; and the translation, with some
remarks of my own, was some time since presented to the
J3oard of Agriculture.

THOMAS MARSHAM.

VII.

An Account of the larger and lesser Species of Horse-shoe
JBats, proving them to be distinct ; together with a De-
scription of Vespertilio Barbastellus, taken in the South
of Devonshire. By George Montagu, Esq. F.L.S.*

Supposed two JLVJIlOST naturalists have conceived an opinion, that there
varieties of the are two varieties of the Horse-shoe bat, vespertilio ferrum-
or>e-:>hoebat. e(juinum distinguished only by their size; as such, Gmelin
quotes the major and minor of Schreber.
Larger de- The larger species only has hitherto been noticed in

England. This was originally discovered by Doctor La-
tham, who communicated it to Mr. Pennant, and he first
made it public in his British Zoology, where he states jt to
be found in the salt-petre houses belonging to the powder
mills at Dartford, frequenting those places in the evening
for the sake of gnats ; and also observed during winter in a

* Linnean Trans, vol. IX, p. 162.

torpid

ON BATS. IQJ

torpid state, clinging to the roof. It is described thus:
•« The length from the nose to the tip of the tail is three
inches and a half: the extent fourteen. At the end of the
nose is an upright membrane m the form of a horse-shoe.
Ears large, broad at their base, inclining backwards, but
want the little or internal ear. The colour of the upper
part o^. the body is a deep cinereous; of the lower
whitifli/'

Doctor Shaw, in his General Zoology, has nearly fol-
lowed Mr. Pennant, but adds, " There is said to be a
greater and smaller variety ; perhaps the male and female :
the greater is above three inches and a half long from the
nose to the tip of the tail: the extent pf the wings above
fourteen."

With respect to the smaller horse-shoe bat, nothing Smaller.
more appears to be known than that it is inferior in size,
but in other respects similar ; from which may be inferred,
that it is very little known, and it has not, to my know-
ledge, been recorded as indigenous to England. It is
therefore with no small degree of satisfaction I have to an-
nounce, that it is by no means uncommon in particular si-
tuations; and I have the pleasure of congratulating the
zoologist, that fortunate circumftances have enabled me to
put the long unsettled opinion with respect to these two
bats beyond all possible doubt; having lately taken a con- A distinct
siderable number of both species, in each of which the sPecies»
sexual distinction was evident. But to render the subject
more clear and incontrovertible, I shall proceed, by giving
a. description of the lesser species, and endeavour clearly to
define the characteristic distinction between these two very
analogous animals. In order, however, to prevent future
confusion, I propose that the least of these should be called
vcspertilio minutus, leaving the other in full possesion of the
original Linnsean trivial name of ferrum-cquinum.

Vcspertilio minntusf

Length scarcely two inches and three quarters from the Described,
tip of the nose to the end of the tail, of which the latter is
full three fourths of an inch : extent of the wings nine in-
ches

|0g ON BATS.

die* and a half: weight from one dram three grains, to one
dram twenty grains.

The colour above is pale rufous brown, most rufous on
the upper part of the head : the nose is surrounded on the
top with a broad membrane somewhat in form of a horse-
shoe; within this is a smaller, in which the noftrils are
placed; between these are two other small membranes
standing a little obliquely, and appearing as valves to the
nostrils ; behind these stands a much more elevated longi-
tudinal membrane ; and further back is another transversely
placed, of a pyramidal shape, standing erect behind the
eyes; these last are covered slightly with hair, and some
long bristles: round the upper lip under the exterior mem-
brane of the nose is a row of minute tubercles, each fur-
nished with a small bristle, equally well calculated to guide
the lesser winged insects to the mouth, as the vibrissa
pcctinatcc observed in several species of birds: the eyes are
very small, black, and hidden in the fur : the ears large,
pointed, and turned a little back at their tips ; their base
almost surrounds the opening, but at the outer part in each
is a notch, which admits of the fore part of the ear closing
within the other as a substitute for a valve so common in
most other species, but of which this is destitute.
F«nrod in Jt is now many years since I first noticed this species &£

bat in Wiltshire; once, in particular, I recollect to have
seen a great many taken in the winter over the hollow of a
baker's oven, having got in through a small external fis-
sure. In the year 1804, about the latter end of the month
of May, I observed several in an old building at the verge
of a wood at Lackhara, in the same county, erected for the
shelter of cattle. In this shaded dark abode, surrounded
by lofty oaks, it is not unusual to see several adhering to the
plastered roof by their hind claws ; and when approached,
generally crawling a little to one side, and showing signs of
uneasiness by moving their heads about in various direc-
tions, but not seeming inclined to take flight, till they have
been repeatedly disturbed.

At this time I had not been fortunate enough to discover
the haunt of vespejtilio ferrum-equinum; but my wishes
have bince been amply gratified, by taking nine of the

v.feTTum-

"VTilt^hir

ON BATS.

109

cies differ ia
site.

t:. femm-cquimini) and seven of the minvtus, many of
which were conveyed home alive: of the former there were
four males and five females ; of the latter five males and
two females. Of the v. ferrum-equinum the largest and The two spa-
smallest were both females, one preponderating four drams
and a half, the other not exceeding four drams. The
length of these to the setting on of the tail two inches and
a half; to the end of the tail three inches and three quar-
ters : the expansion of the wings about fourteen inches and
a half.

Iu colour these two species are perfectly similar, except scarcely i*
in some instances the sides and breast of the v.Jerrum- co our*
equinum are more of a ferruginous-brown.

With respect to the face, which is so extremely curious,
there appears on a cursory view scarcely a perceptible dif-
ference, except that the upper lip of the v. ferrum-equinum
is much more tumid ; but the most material distinction is in but chiefly ;«
the formation of the nasal membranes, especially that which Membrane*
is posterior and transverse. To explain this no words can
convey what a simple outline will, and therefore the curi-
ous are referred to PI. IV, Jig. 5, which represents the side
view of the membranes of v. ferrum-equinum, Of which a
is the posterior tianverse one ; the front is seen at Jig. 6.
The same views are given of the nasal membrane of v. mi~
nutus *tjig» 7 and 8, where b b represent the membrane*
in different points of view. In these a very striking differ-
ence is observable, and it will also be perceived, that the
anterior longitudinal membrane is by no means similar in
both species.

With respect to the teeth, it will be observed, that the Teeth.
v» ferrum-equinum possesses two minute distant fore teeth
in the upper jaw, which are not to be found in the t% mi*
nutus ; a circumstance that seems to have escaped most na-
turalists, this genus being usually placed in the division
destitute of upper fore teeth : the canine teeth are also much
stronger in proportion in v. ferrum-equinum than in the
other species.

Linnceus, when he placed the bats in the first order of Linnaeus
mammalia, doubtless considered the whole genus to agree in m^he fim^"
possessing two pectoral teats, and no others; and this opi- order of mam-
malia,
mon

HO ON BATS,

nion seems to have been confirmed by succeeding natu*
ralists as far as treading in the path of so great a physiolo-
gist may be considered as a proof of the fact. It must,
however, be acknowledged, that we should do well, if, at
the same time we admire the wisdom and consummate skill
of others, we were to recollect, that circumstances do not
always concur to throw all the light upon a subject that
might be desired, and that the wisest and most skilful phi-
losopher is not proof against mortal fallibility.

Those who are in the habit of searching minutely into
the secrets of nature well know how necessary it is to be
cautious in admitting of general rules.

That the appearance of two pectoral tents in the bat

genus, without any others contiguous, should lead to a

conviction, that they were the only papilla: such animals

possessed, may easily be conceived ; but chance frequently

de\elops what the most scrutinizing eye has sought for iu

vain.

butthelpss While I was searching for some curious insects, which

horse-shoe bat were observed to move with unusual celerity amongst the
has two abdo- . J • °

imrwil papilla, fur of these bats*, the pectoral papillae of one of the

v. minutus were very conspicuous by the spaee round them
being bare, as if the animal had recently suckled its
young; and to my utter astonishment, on turning the fur
over in every direction, I discovered two other teats very-
near together, situate on the lowest part of the abdo-
men, close to the pubis. It may readily be imagined, that
so unexpected a discovery scarcely admitted the senses to
determine the validity of ocular demonstration : the aid,
however, of glasses left no doubt of the fact, and a scien-
Whether this titic friend confirmed my opinion. At the moment of this
of theCgenuser discovery I had embowelied all the specimens of v.ferrum-
or peculiar to cquinum, and consequently cannot determine whether they
a species, not similarly formed or not ; nor have I since procured a

yet ascer- J \ L

rained. female bat of any other species to examine, so that it yet re-

mains to be ascertained, whether this structure is peculiar to
one or more species, or that the two abdominal papillae are
really essential to the generic character of these animals,

* Cderipes vespertilionis, a newly discovered insect.

but

ON BATS. HI

but hitherto overlooked, by being so far removed from the
others. On future observation must depend the place to
which the bats should be properly consigned in the syste-
matic arrangement of quadrupeds. If some species only
are found to possess four papilla?, it would be a very con-
siderable violence to nature to divide them on this account:
and yet to retain them undivided in the order of primates,
according to the Linnaean definition, would be inconsistent:
but on this part of the subject there is no necessity of en-
larging until we become more enlightened.

It is probable the papillee of all the smaller bats are so Teats not
contracted, except at the time of administering no u rjqh- easily disco-
ment to their young, that they are not discoverable with when'suck^'
the utmost attention, for even in the v. ferriim-equinum no ling.
pectoral teats were to be discovered, although the sexual
distinction was sufficiently evident. But this very con-
tracted state of these parts, when nature has no demand for
the use assigned to them, is not peculiar 4o these volant
quadrupeds, since we find the same difficulty in discovering
them in mice.

These bats were taken in a large cavern near Torquay in The two spe-
Devonshire, commonly known by the appellation of Kents- cies found iu
hole, and where both species are usually observed in con- p|aCG without
siderable abundance clinging to the vaulted roof of the in- any other,
terior apartments. This vast cavern was explored with a
view to obtain whatever species of vespertilio might \
inhabit it, and with expectation of procuring speci-
mens of v. barbastellus, and possibly some new species,
having been informed trie cave abounded in number and
variety. Strange, however, as it may appear, not a single
instance occurred of any other species becoming an inhabi-
tant of this dark and frightful region.

It should therefore appear, that these two bats are as con-
genial in their animal temperature, as they are similar in
habit; and that in constitution they essentially differ from
all the other British species.

It is well known, that all places impervious to light, and Resort to ca-
destitute of a free circulation of air, can neither be sud- v.erns from
denly heated nor suddenly cooled by the changes of atmos- chan^e^f051"^
pheric temperature, and that the vicissitudes of sucli a cli- temperature.

mate

mate are extremely small : thus these species from instinct
seek those dark and dreary abodes, and wholly retire from
the face of day, their feelings being repugnant to the benign
influence of the solar rays, which vivifies and reanimates all
nature besides.
Others only The v. noctula, murinus, auritus, and probably barbas-

*rctnes,tCX* te^usi whose constitutions appear more robust, do not re-
tire into total darkness, nor wholly remove from the vicis-
situdes of the surrounding atmosphere; but, being formed
by nature to bear a greater degree of either heat or cold,
content themselves with such a hybernaculum as is suffici-
ent to protect them equally from the extremes of one or
the other. Thus we find these in the fissures of old build-
ings, in towers, under the eaves of houses and churches,
and in the hollows of trees, and not unfrequently congre-
gated ;but they seldom or never enter those gloomy regions,
which nature tjias consigned to the others as an exclusive
right of inheritance.
The bat supe- Contemplating the frolics and evolutions of these little

nor to most creatures in our summer evenings perambulations must

birds in pow- .

*rs of fight, bring to recollection the extraordinary opinion of some phi-
losophers, who scarcely admit their progressive motion to
be an act of flying. How little can such have attentively
observed their sudden and rapid turns in pursuit of flies !
It might be fairly asked, How much inferior are the atrial
excursions of a bat to that of a swallow, one of the most
powerful on wing of the feathered tribe ? and might
we not pronounce, without risk of refutation, that a bat
far surpasses the greater part of birds in its powers of
flight?

Supposed not If we are to give the utmost credit to the experiments

^ioumre of Spallanzani and Mr. de Jurine, the conclusion would be,
that vision is not of any apparent use to these animals,
since they fly about with as much ease, and equally avoid
obstacles, when their eyes are covered, or even put out, as
they do previous to this operation. That their eyes, being
minutely small, are not calculated to admit many rays of
light, as in most nocturnal birds, must be allowed, but
then they have no occasion to distinguish their prey at a
distance. If it be denied, that their eyes are of any use in.

the

. ON BATS. ^ \yj

in the discerning of objects against "which they njjght stcil^e,

surely they must be equally us< less in discovering the

smaller winged insect*, on which they prey in the dusk of

the evening. t

Can we, however, meditate on the wonderfully rapid P,llt tlus 1S

* J r improbable^

turns and evolutions of these creatures in pursuit of their

prey, au*l not allow them the powers of sight to eli'ect
the first principle of life, a power not denied to any known
animal possessed of a red circulating fluid by the arterial
system ? To assent to the conclusion which Mr. de Jurine
has drawn from his experiments, that the ears of bats are
more essential to their discovering objects than their eyes,
requires more faith, and less philosophic reasoning, than
can be expected of the zootomical philosopher, by whom it
might fairly be asked, Since bats see with their ears, do
they hear with their eyes ? It will not be sufficient for these
experimentalists to inform us, that the copious auricles of
this class of animals, or their delicate internal structure,
are adequate to the double purpose of seeing and hearing,*
when we perceive, that they are by nature provided with
organs of sight similar to what we not only feel most sen-
sibly to be the most inestimable of blessings, but also per-
ceive to be tj^ie principal fountains of locomotion in all othir
animals in the same scale of beings.

Although it cannot be admitted, that the Almighty hand Its directing :
gave to, these creatures those most wonderfully constructed darknessfun-
organs of sight, Avithout endowing them with visual pro- accountable,
perties, yet it must he allowed, that there is something ex-
tremely astonishing and unaccountable in their unembar-
rassed flight in total darkness, whether by sealing up their
eyes, or by their natural habits of finding their way through
all the smaller passages and windings into the inmost re-
cesses of their subterraneous abode. By what occult property but no more

they direct their course in total darkness, is perhaps a pro- *lian .other
J r 1 l facts in natu-

blem of as difficult solution as that of a swallow returning ral history,
from the torrid to the frigid zone, to breed in the same
nest it had prepared the preceding year, and in which it
liad performed those functions of nature. Can any human
understanding develop the cause, that so unerringly directs
the carrier-pigeon to its place of nativity, when previously
Vol, XXIII.— .June, I8O9. I taken

114

ON BATS

taken to the distance of five hundred miles ? How is the
bee instructed to find ifs hive when raptured and taken to
a distance ? This is inexplicable, and yet no one will dis-

Modeofffnd- pllte tJlc fact< Indeed the practice is common in some

ing hives c( r r .

wild bees. countries, :a order to find 'the wild hives ; for if two bees

are taken near the same spot, and turned out at different
points, distant from each other a few hundred yards, if
belonging to the same hive, the two lines formed by the
direction of their flight will discover the hive to be at the
intersection of those lines. These are the mysteries of na-
ture, so impenetrable to the human mind, that we are lost
in a labyrinth of wonder at such instinctive endowments,,
which are incomprehensible to our limited faculties. We
have only attentively to examine the operations of nature,
and we shall find a thousand instances not less astonishing,
than that the bat should find its road without one single
fay of light to direct its course *.

Vespertilio Barbastellus.

Gmel. Syst. i. p. 48. Buffon. viii. p. 130. U 19. /. 1.
Pennant Quadr. ii. p» 56 1. Shaw Zool. i. p. 133.
Brit. Miscellany, t. v.

fbund^En US Tnls sPecies nas long keen known to te an inhabitant of
land. . some parts of the European continent, especially France,

but, I believe, had not been discovered to inhabit England
till the year 1800, when I first noticed it to be indigenous
to the south of Devon, and had prepared an account of it
for the Linnean Society. Since that period others have
occurred in the same county ; and we are informed in the
British Miscellany, that it has been taken in the powder-
mill at Dartford in K«it.

The figure and description given in that work are highly
satisfactory; but as it is a newly discovered quadruped in

Teats net * Since l^e P""ecedi^g account was written, several of both these spe-

perceptible. ci« of bats have been collected from the same cavern, and in one of the
v.minutut the abdominal papillae were more conspicuous than in the
former j but not the least vestige of such could be found in the v. Ferrut,
■':uinum: it should, however, be remarked, that in these the pectoral
teats were equally invisible.

this

ON BATS. I 1$

this island, and of course little known, it may not he un-
interesting to give 9ome additional description of it i'rom
specimens in my possession, and to make such further re-
marks as may conduce to its natural history.

The tirst I obtained was taken on wing in the village of Described.
Milton, which is situate near the coast, and, I believe, was
a female.

The colour of this is a dusk-black, intermixed with a
few gray-brown hairs towards the rump : the membranes of
the wiugs and tail dusky.

On the 17th of August 1805, I procured a male spe-
cimen alive; it was found adhering to a small tree near
Kingsbridge.

* The length is nearly four inches, of which the tail mea-
sures one inch seven eighths ; the extent of the wings
about eleven inches : weight exactly one hundred grains.

The colour differed a little from that of the former, es-
pecially in having the middle of the back and the breast
mixed with silver gray hairs; the lower belly, thighs, and
behind the vent on the tail membrane more gray. The nose
is rounded in front, flat, and cavernous on the top, in
which part the nostrils are placed ; ears large and black,
furnished with a linear valve, and unusually broad at the
base, extending forwards, and meeting over the nose, so as
to cover the forehead : eyes very small, seated within the
membrane of the ear : the teeth numerous in both jaws, and
much jagged; in the upper, four cutting teeth, but no
canine, aud a vacant space between those and the grinders : -
in the lower jaw six cutting teeth and four canine or longer '
teeth, and between these last on each side is a small inter-
mediate one ; these longer teeth fall into the vacant space
in the upper jaw.

Buffon appears to be the first naturalist who recorded
this species, and his account of it has been copied by suc-
ceeding writers.

It seems to partake of the habits of the common bat ; its difference
but it may readily be distinguished from vespertilio muri- from the coa*"
tius, even on the wing, in the earlier part of the evening, m°ft at"
by its superior size, and in being by far the darkest in eo*
lour of all the British bats. Upon comparison, the flat-
tened nose, more pointed ears, ancLpaiticuiarljr the base of

I a these

tl6 OS EARLT RIPENING OF GRAPES.

the«e coming so forward on the forehead as scarcely to leave
any space between, will be found essential characters of
distinction.

I have not been able to discover the hybernaculum of
this species, but it is reasonable to believe its torpid state
is passed in similar situations to those in which all but the
V. ferrum-equinum and v. minutus retire during the colder
mouths; none of which appear to be subterraneous.

VIII.

An Account of the Method of hastening the Maturation of
Grapes. By John V¥illiams Esq., im a Letter to the
Right JJon. Sir Joseph Banks, Bart. K. B. P. R. S. #c*

SIR,

Grapes do not JlT is a fact well known to gardeners, that vines, when ex-
welP'* "Tfn posed in this climate to the open air, although trained to
climate. walls with southern aspects, and having every advantage

of judicious culture, yet in the ordinary course of our sea-
sons ripen their fruit with difficulty. This remark, however,
though true in general, admits of some exceptions, for I have
occasionally seen trees of the common white muscadine, and
black duster grapes, that have matured their fruit very well,
and earlier by a fortnight or three weeks, than others of the
same kinds, and apparently possessing similar advantages
of soil and aspect.
Karliest on old The vines that ripened the fruit thus early, I have gene*
trees with long ra|]y remarked, were oM trees having trunks eight Or ten
feet high, before their bearing branches commenced. It
occurred to me, that this disposition to ripen early might
be occasioned by the dryness and rigidity of the vessels of
from the circu- the old trunk obstructing the circulation of that portion of

obstructed^ **ie 8a;P» wn'cu 's supposed to descend from the leaf. And

to prove whether or not my conjectures were correct, I made

Incisions incisions through the bark on the trunks of several vines

through the^ growing m iny garden, removing a circle of bark from

the alburnum*

naked, * Horticultural Sociefjr, vol. I, p. 107.

each

ON EARLY RIPENING OF ORAPEf, J yf

each, and thus leaving the naked alburnum above an inch

in width completely exposed ; this was done in the months

of June and July, The following autumn the fruit grow-. occasioned th*

ing on these trees came to great perfection, having ripened fruil toriP^n

from a fortnight to three weeks earlier than usual : but in

the succeeding spring, the vines did not shoot with their

accustomed vigour, and I found that i had injured them

by exposing the alburnum unnecessarily.

Last summer these experiments were repeated ; at the end The experi-
of July and beginning of August , 1 took annular excisions mentrei,ea >
of bark from the trunks of several of my vines, and that
the exposed alburnum might be again covered with new
bark by the eudt>f autumn, the removed circles were made
rather less than a quarter of an inch in width. Two vines
of the white Fronthiiac, in similiar states of growth, being
trained near to each other on a south wall, were selected
for trial; one of these was experimented on (if I may use
the term), the other was left in its natural state, to form a
standard of comparison. When the circle of bark had
been removed about a fortnight, the berries on the experi-
mented tree began evidently to swell faster than those on
the other, and by the beginning of September showed indi-
cations of approaching ripeness, while the fruit of the un-
experimented tree continued green and small. In the be- the froit ripsn»

ginning of October the fruit on the tree that had the bark ed ^llie^».and

t r. , ... impio-ved ia

removed horn, it, was quite ripe, the otner only just began sjze and

to show a disposition to ripen, for the bunches were shortly fl^T»*».

afterwards destroyed by the autumnal frosts. In every

case in which envies cf bark were removed, I invariably

found that the fruit not only ripened earlier, but the

berries were considerably larger than usual, and more highly

flavoured.

The effects thus produced I can account for ouly by Theory of the

adopting Mr. Knight's theory of the downward circulation process.

of the sap, the truth of which these experiments, in my

opinion, tend strongly to confirm. I therefore imagine by

cutting through the cortex and liber without wounding the

alburnum, that the descent of that portion of the sup which

has undergone preparation in the leaf is obstructed and

confined in the branches situate above the incision ;

N sequontly

] ]g ON EARLY RIPENING OF GRAPES.

sequently the fruit is better nourished and its maturation
hastened. It is certainly a considerable point gained in the
culturt oi the vi- e, to be able to bring the fruit to perfec-
tion, by a process so simple, and so easily performed. But
lest there should be any misconception in the foregoing
statement, 1 will briefly describe the exact method to be
followed by any person, who may be desirous of trying this
pr0per t]me 0f mode of ripening grapes. The best time for performing
performing the the operation: on vines growing in the open air is towards
the end of July, or beginniig of August ; and it is a ma-
terial point, not to let the removed circle of bark be too
wide: from one to two eighths of an inch will be a space of
sufficient width ; the exposed alburnum wilf then be covered
a^ain with new bark before the following winter, so that
there will be no danger of injuring the future health of the
tree.

It is not of much consequence in what part of the tree
the incisioil is made, but in case the trunk is very large, I
should then recommend, that the circles be made in the
smaller branches.
Caution. It is to be observed, that all shoots which come out from

the root of the vine, or from the front of the trunk situate
below the incision, must be removed as often as they appear,
unless bearing wood is particularly wanted to fill up the
lower part of the wall, in which case one or two shoots may
be left,
Apr:icab]e to Vines growing in forcing houses are equally improved in
vuie»m forcing point of size and flavour, as well as made to ripen earlier by
taking away circles of bark : th<- time for doing this is
when the fruit is set, and the berries are about the size of
small shot. The removed circles may here be made wider
than on vines growing in the open air, as the bark is sooner
renewed in forcing houses, owing to the warmth and
moisture in those places. Half an inch will not be too
great a width to take off in a circle from a vigorous growing
vine, but I do not recommend the operation to be performed
at all in weak trees,
and perhaps I think that this practice may be extended to other fruits,

other fruits, t hasten their maturity, especially figs> in which there

™>rticiilariy ° * r. i • ,

is a most abundant flow of returning sap ; grid it demon*

strate^

4

par

ON EARLY RIPENING OF GRAPES. 1 J£

strate* to us, why old trees are more disposed to bear fruit
than young ones. Miller informs us, that the vineyards
in Italy are thought to improve every year by age, till they
are 50 years old. It therefore appears to me, that nature,
in the course of time, produces effects similar to what 1 hay*
above recommended to be done by art. For, as trees be-
come old, the returning vessels do not convey the sap into
the roots, with the same facility they did when young: thus
by occasionally removing circles of bark, we only antici-
pate the process of nature* ; in both eases a stagnation of
the true sap is obtained in the fruiting branches, and the
redundant nutriment then passes into the fruit.

I have sometimes found, that, after the circle of bark has jj0 portion of
been removed, a small portion of the inner bark has adhered tne >nner ****
to the alburnum: it is of the utmost importance to remove J^ r^^J*
this, though ever so small, otherwise in a very short space
of time the communication is again established with the
root, and little or no effect produced. Therefore in about
ton days after the first operation has been performed, 1
generally look at the part from whence the bark was re-
moved, and separate any small portion, which may havft
escaped the kniiV the first time.

I am, Sir,
Your obedient humble servant,

JOHN WILLIAMS.

Pit mast on, Worcestershire^
20/ A April , 1808.

* Hence wo may infer, that trees thus mated wi£ ha** their Adtbj
accelerated, and their natural duration shortened, C>

!&>

lj£r ON MANURES.

IX.

An Essay on Manures. By Arthur Young, Esq. F. R. %.*

oVX^ub^ct ^i-R. Young first arranges the treatment of his subject
in the following order. 1. The nature of the manure. 2.
Its properties. 3. Collecting. 4. Preparation. 5. State
in which applied. (j. Application. 7. Season when ap-?
plied. 8. Quantity. 9» On what soil.

He next classes -manures in two divisions. 1. Such as are
made or dug on a farm. 2. Such as are usually purchased.
The latter he subdivides into animal, vegetable, and fossil.
In the first-division comes

1. Marie.

jrfarIe. The raarles most common in England are clay, stone,

arid shell marie. Some distinguish them by their colours,
as Mhite, red, blue, black, he. ; but the colour deserves
no attention except as indicative of iron.

Its nature, They are usually composed of sand, clay, and calcareous

earth. The red and black have a small quantity of iron.
A marie from Cheshire had 1*7 per cent. Even in the
whitest prussiate of potash will almost always detect some
iron. The calcareous earth varies from 25 to 80 per cent.
One of the best clay marles contained 40 calcareous earth,
50 clay, 8 or 10 sand, and clear signs of some iron. It falls
in pure water, and by exposure, to the air. The clay' con-
tains generally a small portion of iron, a little volatile al-
kali, and some sulphuric acid; and even when deprived of

* Abridged from tbe Bath Society's Papers, vol. X, p. 07. This
essay was written in consequence of the following subject being an-
nounced for a prize, whicb it obtained. " Tbe Bcdfordean gold medal
v ill be presented to tbe author, who, at or before the first meeting in
November 1804, shall produce to the Society the best essay, founded
on practical experience, on tbe nature and properties of manures, and
tbe mode of preparing and applying tbem to various soils : iu which
ess?y shall be pointed out tbe cheapest manner of collecting aud pre-
paring the different kinds of manures, and tbe state, season, and quan-
tity, in which they should be applied."

all

ON MANURES. ]<21

all organic matter yields hidrogen gas. Phosphorus may be
gained from all calcareous earths.

What venders it particularly valuable is the calcareous Properties,
earth it contains. But we do not yet know what ought to
be the quantity of calcareous earth in a soil. The best spe-
cimen analyzed by Giobert had 6 per cent} by Bergman,
30; by Dr. Fordyce, 2; and a rich soil quoted by Mr.
Davy had 11. This is an inquiry, concerning which the
author has made many experiments, and on soils of the
most extraordinary fertility. In one he found 9 per cent;
in another 20; in another 3 : arid in a specimen of famous
land, procured from Flanders, 17. Many poor soils how-
ever possess nearly the same proportion as the most fertile :
and on comparing every circumstance he is disposed to con-
clude, that the necessity of a large proportion of calcareous
earth depends on the deficiency of that organic matter,
which is convertible into hidrogen gas. If the farmer find
by experiment, that his soil contains but a small quantity
of organic matter; or know by his practice, that it is poor,
and not worth more than 10, 15, or 20s. an acre ; it ought
to have 20 per cent of calcareous earth in it. If on the con-
trary it abound with organic matter, and be worth in prac-
tice a much larger rent, it will not require marling, though
it contains but 3 per cent of calcareous matter, or even less.
Maries likewise give tenacity and firmness to a soil, and for
this the clay maries are to be preferred. Some soils abound
with acid particles, which are prejudicial ; and these are
neutralized by the caleareou earth.

The earth found in vegetables is for the greater part cal-
careous. Hence we may presume, that this earth should
make a part of the soil. Lord Dundonald calculates, that
all the calcareous earth to be obtained from the vegetable
produce of an acre of most crops will not exceed eighty
po :ncls: but if even this quantity be required for every
crop,'the necessity of occasional supply appears.

Marie is generally obtained by digging, but it is also Collecting,
dredged up from the beds of some rivers. White sheil
marie, and a very light white species, are found under bogs,
and at the bottom of lakes. No person, whose land wants
marie, where it is not generally known to exist, should be

satisfied

ON MANURES.

satisfied without the most careful examination by boremg*
A borer for twenty feet depth does not cost above ,£3, for
80 feet not above 4?2l» and is use4 without difficulty by any
common workman.

Application. Marie requires no preparation. It is best applied on
/eys : and the longer it lies on them before it is ploughed
in, the better. It should not be ploughed in too deep. The
best way therefore is, to plough the ley shallow for pease.
To turnips there ib but one objection, the giving so much
tillage so early utter the improvement. Potatoes are mis-
chievous for the rirst crop after land has bteu marled. Next
to leys, fallows are the best to receive marie. When the

SooMtk farmer has a choice, on wet and heavy soils it should be

summer vyork, and on dry ones it may be winter.

Qaatitj, The quantity employed is of great importance. From 120

to. 150 cubical yards per acre being laid on a poor sand, the
productiveness of the land has been injured for twenty years.
Half this quantity would have done good. It is better to.
marie twice, than apply too much at once. On poor, loose,
wet loams more may be used than on loose sands. On loose
peat bogs, and on moors, the greater the quantity the
greater the improvement. Where the object is to give cal-
careous earth, the quantity should be small, as from ten to
twenty tuns.

Soi} requiring The defect of a soil must be understood, before a wise
farmer will put himself to the expense of marling. Every
day's experience will inform him, whether his land want
tenacity and consolidation ; but the want of an addition of
calcareous earth as a food of plants can be discovered only
by analysis. Other circumstances deserve attention. If
the chrysanthemum segeturp, corn marigold, rumex aceto-
sella, sheep's sorrel, or polygonum pennsylvanicum, abound,
the experienced farmer will pronounce, that the land wants
marling. Turnips producing deformed strings of roots,
without swelling into the proper globular form ; or being
subject to the well known distemper of the anbury ; both
afford a proof of too much looseness of texture, and sug-
gest consolidation by clay tnarle, after which these evils
vanish. The erica vulgaris, common heath, or ling, is ge?
»l\y a proof of an acid soil ; a&d all peat soils are found

»aile.

ON MANURES. J23

©n analysis to contain a considerable quantity of the gallic
acid. Some have been rendered quite sterile by acids. A
stratum of moss in Scotland was so impregnated with vitri-
olic ccid, that from four pounds of it one pound of green
vitriol was extracted. In a bog iu Bedfordshire sulphate
of iron abounded in almost equally extraordinary degree;
yet it has been converted into one of the finest water mea-
dows in England by his grace the late Duke of Bedford,
Wherever such soils are found, marie is sure to have great
effect from its calcareous earth. For wet but loose loams,
which when manured are more productive of straw thaa
corn, clay marie is a cure, and attended with unquestion-
able profit. Another quality of these loams is that of being
uncommonly pestered with the red worm ; and it is a singu-
lar quality of marie, to lessen this evil considerably. What-
ever i^ives them a firmer texture has a tendency to this
effect.

2. Chalk. Chalk-

Chalk in its properties nearly resembles marie, but it Properties,
contains a much larger proportion of calcareous earth. It
renders tenacious clay more dry and friable, which stone
marie alone will not. It is also more common to chalk
gra?s lands than to marie them; and it works a capital im-
provement on low, coarse, sour meadows, rendering them
firmer, and improving the sweetness of the herbage.

It is commonly dug from pits tike marie : but the gene- Method of pro-
ral practice of Hertfordshire is to sink shafts for it. The curing«-
chalk-drawers travel in gangs; chamber the shaft all round,
leaving columns to upport the incumbent earth ; and draw
up the chalk in buckets. They will wheel it on to the land
for Sd. the load of twenty-four bushels to the distance of
twenty poles from the shaft.

It is generally used in much smaller quantities than marie. Quantjty ^^
In Essex, whither it is brought by sea from the Kentish
coast, from live to eight waggon loads per acre are at-
tended with more remarkable effect than even dung itself,
if the land have not been chalked before. More than forty-
cubical yards are seldom spread on an acre.

The most remarkable effects attending it appear to be Effeft

upon

:<*4

OW MANUltfS.

Tipon good sound loams, worth from 15*. to 20s. an acre.
Six or seven waggon loads per acre are seen immediately in
the crops, and to an inch. Chalk presently gives the land
3 reddish colour, so that the part of a fallow which has
been chalked will be discernible at a distance from this
tinge. A singular circumstance observed in Essex is its
being an enemy to what their farmers call grazing, or run-
ping to turf. A field, which before chalking will run of it-
self to a fine head of white clover, does so no longer after
chalking. The chalk used there is not soft, but rather
hard. The sharpest frosts leave many lumps unbroken,
which must be done with pickaxes; and the hard bit*;,
which break to a clear white, are better than those that
crumble between the fingers. This is to be attributed to
the nature of the soil, which is rather too stiff for turnips.
1 ■ »ppli. Soils abounding spontaneously with sorrel are highly \m->
cable. provable by chalk. It is used successfully on all soils, on

which marie is found to answer. It is not a general favour-
ite in Norfolk for poor sand*, or even middling ones ; but
some farmers of considerable note for accuracy of observa-
tion have of late used very hard chalk, and with great suc-
cess. On all moors, peat bogs, and peat fens, every species
of calcareous earth may be applied with singularly good
effect ; and as chalk abounds more than marie in this earthy
it » full as valuable on them, if not more so.

3. Lime,

Licj2. "Every kind of calcareous stone, being in fact a carbonate

of lime, may be converted into lime by expelling its car-*
bouic acid and water by means of tire. In this state it is
caustic, and has a strong power of reabsorbing moisture,
awd likewise carbonic acid, if exposed to the atmosphere.
As limestones generally contain a portion of clay and sand,
these will remain mixed with the calcareous earth in the
iime. This is of little 'consequence, only diminishing the
-quantity of calcareous earth . But sometimes they have a
mixture of hmtine.,ia, and this ha~ been said to be detri-
mental to vegetation. Limestone that contains magnesia is
generally of a brownish hue, or fawn colour; but none is
found m ft stone :!nt breuVs blue.

La

ON MANURES. 1*25

As lime after some months exposure is converted into *t5 properties.
chalk, it must have similar effects with regard to supplying
calcareous earth : but it will not give tenacity to sand like
marie, or friability to clay like chalk. When laid on in
its caustic state, it destroys the spontaneous growth of
soils: and this is a very valuable quality, where this growth
is a nuisance. The truth of this observation is visible on
limed moors.

The most material distinction in the application of lime Appltcafiaa.
is that of spreading it fresh in its most caustic state, or
keeping it till it is slacked, and has reabsorbed more or less
carbonic acid.

On all soils in a state of nature, and greatly abounding
with undecayed vegetables, which are required to be speed-
ily destroyed, it should be spread hot from the kiln, as it is
termed ; that is, jo its most caustic state. In other cases it
is slacked, before it is spread. Upon waste lands the caus-
ticity lias an evident and necessary effect'; but not on culti-
vated lands, which this quality of the substance while de-
prived of its carbonic acid would tend to prejudice rather
than improve.

A truly practical husbandman of great experience. Mr.
Craike, of Arbigland, gives directions for the application,
which merit attention. " Let the whole quantity of lime,
intended to be used on any given field of moderate size, be
laid in one heap, where water etui be had most conveniently,
X.et it be there thoroughly slacked ; and immediately after
it is cold, which it will be in a day or two, fill the carts, and
spread the lime out of them with shovels equally over the
surface. The more common method of laying it down in
small heaps over the whole field, to slack by rain, is very
erroneous. It is liable to get too much rain, which, in
place of reducing it into a tine powder, converts it into a .
running mortar, in which state it will neither spread equally
nor mix with the soil*." And for the same reason, Mr.
Wight remarks, both the ground and the lime should be
quite dry at the time of spreading. In Dumfriesshire, quick
lime being compared with some that had lain in a heap for

* Trans, erf the Dirnif- Sec. K0. II, p. 3*,

several

]£(; 6tf MANURE.

several years in consequence of a lawsuit, the lattei* did
much more good than the former.

Season. Where improvements are carrying On Upon a large scale,

and draw-kilns are kept at work throughout the year, the
choice of season becomes of secondary importance: in other
cases liming should no more go on in winter than building.
It may be continued from March to October, but summer
is the best season. It should be spread on a ley one full
year before ploughing, that it may have time to fix itself
firmly in the sward. If ploughed too soon it falls to the
bottom of the furrow, and will be the sooner lost, for it con-
tinually sinks. Three years before breaking up a ley, part
was limed with three hundred bushels an acie; the remain-
der was limed with an equal proportion only one year before
it was broken up. The former produced oats 10 for 1 of the
seed, the latter 6 for 1.

Quantity. In common cases the quantity ought to be guided by a

chemical analysis of the soil. The largest quantities have
been spread, and with piopriety, on bogs and peat moors,
and on mountains. The Bishop of Landaff speaks of a-
thousand bushels an acre on moors in Derbyshire applied
. with great success. Five or six hundred are not uncommon
there. Lord Chief Baron Foster, in Ireland, went as far as
to three hundred barrels, on a moory waste ; and found,
that the greater the quantity the greater was the improve-
ment. Dr. Anderson tried from one to seven hundred
bushels an acre, and found the good effect to increase regu-
larly with the quantity. In more common cases the quan-
tities vary in general practice from thirty-six to a hundred
and sixty bushels.

Whr re appli- On peat bog3, peat moors, and mountains, the utility of
lime cannot be questioned. Experiments on every scale,
arid under a very great variety of circumstances, speak a
uniform language : the benefit of applying lime is great and
decided. On lining Kedgley moor, in Northumberland,
covered with ling, the ling was killed, and three tuns au
acre of white clover were mown without sowing any. Part
of Meriden heath, in Warwickshire, was fallowed for a
year, ten acres trebly folded with a thousand sheep, ten

acres

cable.

ON MANURES, \^J

acres well dressed with good rotten dung, ten acres well
Jiroed, and the whole sown with oats and seeds. The part
folded had not a bag of oats an acre, and the seeds were
not worth saving: that which was dunged succeeded very
little better: while that which was limejfl produced a very
excellent crop of oats and seeds.

In Glendale ward, Northumberland, the *oil is naturally
dry, duffy, light, full of fibrous roots, and, when in fallow,
on passing over it you sink to the ankles. After it is suffi-
ciently limed, the fibrous roots disappear,, the soil becomes
denser, firm to tread, retentive of moisture, and produces
better and more abundant crops of grain: and, if laid to
grass, white clover appears to an inch where the lime was
spread. Even on a burning sand four chaldrons an acre
/have had a striking effect; but then the sand was covered
with a mossy sward.

Lime does worst on a cold hungry clay. It cannot suc-
ceed, where in the farmer's language it has nothing to work
upon ; where water deprives it of its most material proper-
ties; or where frequent repetiton3 have given a lull dose of
calcareous earth, and consumed every vegetable particle.
After paring and burning lime is at best useless, the vegeta-
ble fibres being already destroyed by fire.

Where calcareous manures are required, powdered lime- Limestone, <k
stone may be employed with excellent effect. Perhaps it ^iestone P*"
may be questioned, whether limestone gravel be not the best
of all manures for improving a peat bog.

4. Clay, Loam, and Sand.

The effect of these depends on the deficiency of the soil. Clay, loan, St
Clay is every where Tbeneficial on sand : but sand is not san *
equally so on clay, for many clays coutuin far more sand in
their composition, than farmers are apt to suspect. Sandy
loams are frequently considered as clays, because they are
heavy for want of effectual draining.

Sea-sand partakes of another class of manures. It con- s^ samj#
tains muriate of soda ; and if it be a shelly sand it is so far
allied to shell marie.

5. Burnt

fcjjj ON MANURES.

5. ifon?* C/ay, Mark, and Earth.
Burnt clay and In various parts of the United Kingdom it has been &

eaith

practice to burn clay, and clay marles, in large heaps, and
to spread the ashes as manure. The nature and properties
of burnt earth must vary with the portion of it which is
calcareous, as this is converted into lime by calcination.
Burning clay breaks its cohesion entirely, and reduces it to
a permanent state of friability, which does not permit it to
combine with any other substance: the sulphuric acid,
which most clays contain, is dissipated : the iron and the
clay itself are oxigenated : and a faculty of generating nitre
is given in some cases. In its burnt state also it has a power
of combining with the salt of urine. Burnt clays, says Dr.
Darwin, when strewed on the ground, may contribute to
vegetation, by their parting with their oxigen in a fluid,
not? a gaseous form ; which, uuited with carbon, or phos-
phorus, or nitrogen, might supply nutritious fluids to the
roots of vegetables. Its texture is extremely beneficial in
dividing and attenuating the harshness of stiff soils, and
rendering them more absorbent. These circumstances are
amply sufficient, to account for the benefit which many
persons have derived from the practice of burning clay and
marles. Mr. Leslie, in Ireland, made great exertions in
this way : Mr. White Parsons, in Somersetshire, has burned
the earth out of ditches and drains successfully : and Mr.
Boys, in Kent, has been long in the habit of doing it,
paying his men sixpence per load of ashes for digging and

burning.

(To be continued in our nexl.h

X.

ON THE CONSTRUCTION Off THEATRES. \£(J

X.

On the Construction of Theatres. In a Letter from Richard
Lovell Edgeworth Esq., F. R. S. and M> R. I* A,

To Mr. NICHOLSON.

SIR, Edgeivorthstou-n, March 6, 1809.

Jl HE public, by the loss of two theatres in one winter, The building

inust be anxious about the plans on which those edifices are °[.a theatre an

r . . . object of pub-

to be rebuilt : tkey will not be satisfied with the opinion of uc concern.

a single architect, they will require an open discussion of

the principles, and plans upon which a new theatre is to be

constructed; this they have a just right to demand, for

their lives and properties are at stake. Every family in

London might have mourned the loss of some relative, had

the play-houses been filled at the time of the accident ;

and the whole city might have been burned to ashes by

either of the conflagrations.

We are to consider not only the loss of lives by the im- It cannot be
mediate disaster, but also the apprehensions, which the au- sV;auhTr!?event
dience must feel for some time to come ; and the anxiety, even appre-
which those who remain at home must suffer during the hension*
absence of their friends at the theatre. Nothing should
be left to embitter the cup of innocent pleasure, and
" assurance should be made doubly sure," where great
hazards are run, from no greater motive than the hope of
an hour's amusement.

Covent-garden playhouse is now rebuilding without any The public
previous appeal to the public, that I have heard of, as to should be cal«
the plan or precautions, that are to be followed in its con- ^atSm
struction. I know, that some hints were sent on these sub- ■
jects, which were not even considered, at least not noticed,
till after the plan was arranged. Surely it must be infinitely
more advantageous to the proprietors and to the nation,
that a short delay should take place before a plan is ulti-
mately arranged, than that a new theatre should be opened
ten days sooner, or ten days later.

The glaring defect, or to speak more properly, the obvi- Timber shoulc
©us blunder in the building of Drury-lane theatre, w«8 the ndi ** iatro"

You XXIII.— June; I809, K.

130

ON THE CONSTRUCTION OF TUEATRSl.

iuced as a
frame- work.

Time should
be allowed for
obtaining in-
formation from
erery quarter.

Observations
of Mr. Smea-
ton.

Architects
should be en-
gineers.

Society of civil
engineers in
|.-ondon.

introduction of timber as a frame work for bricks and atonr :
this is a fault common to buildings in London, where the
public safety is without hesitation sacrificed to the interest*
of individuals.— But to construct a wooden theatre is an
absurdity too gross, to pass without animadversion. A
frame-work of timber, rilled with cores of brick or stone,
and cased perhaps with brick or plaster, is opened for the
reception of the public, who are to run the risk of sudden
destruction from a spark of fire, or a snuff of candle, from
the fireworks and lightning of comedy and tragedy, of
pantomime and farce, without any probable means of
escape, or any security, except what a few hogsheads of
water in a cistern on the top of the house can afford.— -No
future prologue at the opening of a new theatre could re-
assure the audience upon this subject.

From a view of these considerations I hope it will appear
incumbent upon those, who rebuild Drury-lane, to take
time for receiving information from every quarter whence it
may be expected : instead of hurrying forward to a begin-
ning before they have well considered the end. A remark-
able observation made by that great engineer Mr. Smeaton,
in his account of the building of the Eddystone lighthouse,
should never be forgotten by those who direct, or by those
who undertake extensive public works.—" No resolution of
f* the proprietors," says he, " ever conduced more to ulti-
M mate success, than their leaving me at liberty fas to time J;
" had they been of the same temper and disposition as by
" far the greatest part of those who have employed me,
** both before and since, their language -would have been,
" Gel on, get on, for God's sake get on, the public is in
" expectation, get us something speedily, to show, that we
** may gain credit with the public."

Architects and engineers are so nearly connected with
each other in the objects of their pursuits, that it would be
well both for them and for the public, if every architect
were an engineer, and every engineer an architect. That
this is not always the case, we have melancholy instances to
prove.

There is a society of civil engineers in London, of which
Sir Joseph Banks is president, consisting of men of undis-
puted

ON THE CONSTRUCTION OF THEATRES* 151

puted talents and information. Would it not be advisable, should be con-
to consult this board ? No harm could possibly arise from sulted«
such application, and much good might be the consequence.
If in the multitude of counsellors there may be some delay,
there is probably much safety*

Having now animadverted upon the steps that should be Plans should
taken, before any plan is ultimately settled, I shall venture uncTeTtheeye
to offer a few hints upon the construction of a theatre. If of the pro-'
any thing, which I throw out, should become an object of Poser>
discussion, I trust that I may have an opportunity of ex-
plaining what I propose ; and if any thing be adopted from
my suggestions, that it may not be followed, without rny
being acquainted with the mode of execution. Many new or followed
attempts fail of their object by the introduction of addi- slrictI>-
tional ideas, that appear plausible ; or by the omission of
small circumstances, that seem in the original plan to be
of no material consequence.

In building a theatre, leading ob-

1. Security to the audience is the first and most neces- 'buildi'ng
sary object.. theatres,

2. Facility of ingress and egress*

3. Facility of seeing and hearing.

4. Convenience to the performers.

5. Space for scenes, with proper openings for the ma-
chinery.

6. And lastly, expense*

1. To ensure safety y common sense points out, that as For safety
little timber and as small a portion as possible of combus- avoil1 timber*
tible materials should be employed. The outside walls
should be constructed of stone**— the coins of laro-e blocks
of stone closely jointed, depending upon their own bearings and
not made apparently compact by mortar. Bricks for the
internal structure should be made under proper inspection,
and not worked hastily up, to fulfil a contract. All the
joists, rafters, and principals, and the framework of the iron.
partitions, should be iron. The framework of the roof Roof with
•should be of the same metal, with a covering of copper. c°pper,
No plumber should be permitted to exercise hr*s dan- and admit no

K 9 gerous £0ur£ber's

IS*

Iron not ex-
pensive if em
ploved with
skill.

Roof of iron
cheaper than
timber.
Hollow brick
flooring.

Wood that
does not flame
advisable.

Deal may be
prepared so as

to be less in-
flammable.

The private
apartments
should be
heated by
steam ;
and the boiler
should be
adapted to
work an en-
gine for sup-
plying and
throwing wa-
ter.

Avenues.

ON THE CONSTRUCTION OF THEATRES.

gerous trade in the construction of any part of tlie build-
ing.

It may at first sight appear, that the substitution of
iron for timber must be enormously expensive — and it
would be enormous, if scientific care were not taken, to
calculate the stress and strength of every part of the struc-
ture where iron was to be used,and to frame the material to-
gether upon mechanical principles of strength and lightness.

As to the roof, it could no doubt be made lighter and
cheaper of iron than of timber at the present price of that
material. Cotton mills are frequently floored with hollow
bricks, which are light ; and these may be covered with
carpetting.

Many other parts of the theatre might be constructed of
iron and copper ; and stucco might be introduced in many
places instead of wood. There are kinds of timber that
do not flame; these, though not very durable, might be
employed for floors and benches. And where deal is abso-
lutely necessary, it may be covered or imbued with a wash,
that in some degree will retard inflammation. After the
wood work that requires painting has received two coats of
oil paint, it may be finished with a coat in distemper*
which may frequently be renewed at small expense, and
without the disagreeable smell of oil paint.

To heat the green room, dressing rooms, and the with-
drawing rooms, steam might be advantageously employed;
and the boiler to supply the iteam should be so placed, as
to serve at a moment's warning, to work a steam engine of
force sufficient to draw water at once from the Thames, and
to drive jit with a strong impulse wherever it should be
wanted. This steam engine should be strongly enclosed in
a building, to which access on every side could be easily
obtained.

2. Some of the theatres at Paris have commodious ave-
nues ; but not one theatre in London has been so placed*
or so constructed, as to afford tolerable convenience either
to the higher or lower class of spectators.

Private property intervenes so much, that it is scarcely
to be expected, that any great improvement can be made

la

ON THE CONSTRUCTION OP THEATRE*, 153

in this respect, by enlarging the area round the site of $he

lute building.

Whether a more convenient situation might be selected, The entrances

I do not pretend to know ; but a theatre built on the old In5ght bemade
* * r ' verv comma-

foundation might be rendered extremely commodious as to dioua

its entrances, or vomitories, as the ancients called the ave-
nues to their amphitheatres.

If the whole building were raised upon arches of a height by ra'sIng tbff
_. . ; . ' •" i -r n- i ' i» , • building on

sufficient to admit carriages, and it numerous Jiightsoi stairs arches.

were constructed within the piers which support these
arches, the audience might depart commodiously in differ-
ent directions, without confusion or de]ay.

The colonnades formed by pillars properly disposed
would permit alternate rows of carriages. Company
might descend from the boxes almost immediately intfi
their carriages: passages for those who were on foot might
be railed off, and rendered secure.

This plan would be attended with considerable expense; This expense

but it might be counterbalanced by sparing one of the n)1§ht be t .
« ••11 " compensated.

higher galleries, which lately injured the audibility of the

performance, without adding much to the profits of the
house. Besides it might be so managed, that tickets for
the admission of carnages under the piazzas should be
issued, which would cover the expense of their con-
struction.

3. Facility of feeing and hearing. — As to seeing I believe Facility o/
that very little can be said, but what is obvious to every seeing,
person of common sense ; the actors and the spectators
have in this respect opposite interests. It is the interest of
the actors, to have that part of the house, which contains
the audience, as large as possible. On the contrary it
must be the wish of the audience, within certain bounds,
to be neap the stage ; and in all cases, the audience musj;
wish, that every part of the pit, galleries, and boxes,
should be equally commodious for seing. Now in a large
theatre this is impossible. To extend the pit and boxes,
they must recede from the front of the stage; they cannot
be extended in breadth without shutting out the view from,
the side boxes.

Little

134

and of hearing.

Garrick fond
of pantomime,

Audience
part.

ftage

and scenery.

Ceiling of the
stage.

ON THE CONSTRUCTION OF THEATRES.

Little inconvenience was felt as to seeing at Drury-lane ;
but every body, who wished to hear, complained. As to
the actors, to make any impression, they were obliged to
raise their voices above the natural pitch ; to substitute
pantomimic gesticulation, in the place of inflexions of
voice; and to use contortions of features instead of the na-
tural expression of the eyes, and the easy movement of the
countenance. It is in vain, that critics inveigh against the
bad taste of those, who prefer show, and pantomime, and
processions, and dancing, and all that the French call
spectacle ; unless we can hear the sentiments and dialogue,
it is useless to write good plays; but all the world loves
spectacle. Both these tastes should be gratified. Garrick,
as I have heard him declare, was always entertained with a
pantomime : he told me how many times he had seen Har-
lequin Fortunatus with delight—the number I forget,
however I am sure, that it far exceeded the number of
times any man could hear a good comedy or tragedy.
Surely the literary and the visual entertainment <*f different
spectators might be gratified. In the first place, th<? audi-
ence-part of the theatre mould be left smaller, and lower,
tlian it was at Drury-lane, Its shape might undoubtedly
be improved, by constructing it according to the known
laws of accoustics : but this, if rigorously attended to, would
contract the space so, as to affect too much the receipts of
the house.

T he area for the stage might be as large as it was for-
merly ; but the scenery should be adjusted so as to contract
the stage to reasonable dimensions. To confine the voice,
the wings should have leaves, or flaps, hinged to them, so
as occasionally to close the space between the wings, leaving
sufficient room for exits and entrances. When large objects
require admission, these leaves might be turned back, and
would then allow the same space as usual between the
wings. This would he an additional convenience to the
actors, while they stand in waiting to enter on the stage,
as it would screen them from the cold. T he ceiling of Xne stage,
which at present is made by strips of painted linen hanging
perpendicularly, should be made of well varnished iron or

copper

OS TUT. CONSTRUCTION OF THEATRES. }$S

topper frames, turning upon centres so as to open at plea-
sure like Venetian window-blinds ; and by this means to
contract, at will, the opening of the ceiling, and to con»
duct the voice of the performers towards the audience. The A gentle cxxv

current of air, so as it does not amount to wind, should rfnt?!iIP
' * „ should flo\r

flow from the stage to the audience. By experiments tried from the
upon sound by Sir Thomas Morland and some other mem- staSe*
bers of the Royal Society, it appeared, that the propaga-
tion of sound was prodigiously obstructed by the assistance
or opposition of a slight current of air. We are told by Sound in-
Vitruvius, and Lipsius, that the sound of the actor's voice brazen vessels
was increased in a surprising manner by brazen vessels umlerthe
placed under the seats of the audience.

No satisfactory account remains of the manner in which,
this desirable effect was produced. It would not however
be difficult to try experiments on this subject in any one of
our theatres when it is vacant.

About 40 years ago I happened to go with a friend into Sound m-
a large cockpit at an inn at Towcester, My friend, who creased by
was at the opposite side of the pit, appeared to me to behind the'au-
speak with a yoice uncommonly loud and sonorous. Upon, ditor*.
toy inquiring why he spoke in that manner, he said, that
he had not raised his voice above its ordinary pitch. Upon
looking about I perceived a large earthen jar behind me,
which proved the cause of this increase of sound : for upon
repeated trials the voice of my friend sounded as usual when
1 stood in any other part of the cockpit, but that in which
the vase was placed. To the best of my recollection the
jar was about rive feet high, and twenty inches in diameter.
1 remember well, that it rung clearly, but slowly, when
struck wi{h the knuckle. By what means, and by what
materials, the pulses of sound may be best returned forth©
purposes we have in view, is a subject for the joint efforts
of mathematics aud experiment.

Among other expedients pannelling the backs of the Expedient
boxes with thin elastic plates of brass might be tried. e

A saving and advantage would certainly arise in all cases
from using iron, or copper, instead of wood;they would not re-
quire renewal for many years, and they would be apreservative

against

136 0N THE CONSTRUCTION OF THEATRES.

against fire. The prompter's box might certainly be im-
proved, so as to throw the prompter's voice more distinctly
upou the stage, and to prevent its be'wag heard by the
audience.
Comforts of 4. Convenience to performers. Notwithstanding the re-

the |x-rtornn'rs verjes of Rousseau, and the declamations of the overri^hte-
shouldbestu- ... . . . * °,__

died. ous, actors have risen in the estimation ot the public, Wc

have seen with rational and sincere pleasure the excellent

conduct of many female performers. I consider this reform

as highly advantageous to morality, and it becomes a duty

in the managers of a theatre, to accommodate the performers

with every possible convenience, so that they may enjoy

that English word comfort, which in all situations of life

tends to promote independance and morality.

It is scarcely necessary to add, that pipes to speak

Speaking through should belaid from the green room to every apart-

pipes. ment 0f tne actors.

6. I have left the article of expense to the last, because
Expense. whatever essentially tends to the convenience and gratifica-

tion of the public will always find sufficient supplies from
the liberality of Britain. A small addition to the price of
tickets would amply defray the expense, that would be in-
curred by any real improvements.

If the uni ed efforts of men of science and men of prac-
tice were directed to this object, we might expect to see a
theatre superior to any on the continent, adapted both to
the purposes of splendid exhibition and of true comedy ;
where our children might be entertained with the " Forty
Thieves," and ourselves with " The Rivals" and" The
School for Scandal."

R. L. E.

XI.

ON PREVENTING OR SUPPRESSING FiaES. , \^

XI.

Plan for Preventing or Suppressing Fires. In a Let ttr from
a Correspondent.

To Mr. NICHOLSON.
SIR,

T,

HE destructive fires, that have recently taken place in Watchmen to
London, have induced me to compress a few ideas on the prevent fires.
subject of watching public buildings, which have arisen
from a desire to form a plan of safety for a building in which
1 am myself interested. I shall confine these observations
to the prevention or suppression of fire, in such a theatre N

as that lately in Drury Lane, or Covent G»rden ; and, if
they are calculated for a place in year valuable Journal,
they are at your service.

Let it be supposed, that such a building is directed to Method of «*>
be nominally divided into convenient sections, each capable s«»ng th«irvi-
of being and actually attended to by one watchman. A
small chamber, or any other space, in addition to and dis-
tinct from these, in a proper situation, shall be occupied
by a person to direct or check these watchmen. The direc-
tion may be exercised ordinarily without leaving this cham-
ber, in the following manner. Let there be one clock for
each watchman, of a certain construction (which is at pre-
sent partially in use, and proved to accomplish purposes
similar to the object of the present paper) fixed in the
chamber of the director of the watchmen ; each clock com-
municating with the section of its proper watchman by
cranks and wires, or otherwise, in such a manner, that by
pulling the wire he shall be able to effect a visible alteration
on the clock at r precise moment, as agreed upon, conform-
ably with the construction of the clock, but not at any
other moment. This clock shows the usual division of time,
and has also a revolving frame in which pins are placed in
sockets capable of being pressed down at particular times
only, as above stated. Thus, by the use of this clock, a
watchman's vigilance or neglect may be proved by the evi-
dence of the clock itself, (

Suppose,

J 38

J:* operation.

;i^t:iace ca-
ret

The plan has
been tried.

OS PREVENTING OR SUPPRESSING FIRES-

Suppose, for example, this clock be so constructed, that
a pin shall be pressed down every quarter of an hour, and
the proof of this being done shall rest with the director ©t*
the watchmen, in the first instance, simply by looking at
the clock every quarter of an hour; it is evident, that the
neglect of a watchman cannot exist longer than this space
of time, if the director fail not in his duty. This man
should himself be watched with the most scrupulous suspi-
cion, aud detected in his own failure, in the same manner
as he should detect the failure of the watchmen ; that is,
by the proof of a clock on the same principle as the above,
placed on the outside of the building, and under the abso-
lute examination of the police, or any other superintend-
mice satisfactory to those most interested. If the director
be correct, instant alarm would be led to the section of any
watchman whose duty should appear to be neglected; and
if the director be incorrect, the alarm would be ulterior,
and as active as in the case of positive danger. It may be
thought difficult for one man to examine many clocks at
the same moment: if it should be found so each clock
might be set differently, and every watchman have a clock
in his section set by his proper clock in the director's cham-
ber.

Hence, in case of fire, a discovery would not only soon
take place, but personal assistance would be on the spot,
and, with proper access to water at all times ensured, with
the best means of applying it, an increase of the first evil
would almost certainly be prevented, until additional as-
sistance could be procured : and alarm bells or other sig-
nals, by the sound or character of which the particular
building might be made known to firemen, could, if neces-
sary, be instautly sounded or displayed, and a constant in-
flux of proper persons would take place in the .very infancy
of danger.

It is not improbable, that this plan may be thought by-
many persons too elaborate and expensive. To such it will
be satisfactory to know, that very extensive and valuable
buildings in my neighbourhood, the property of some
highly ingenious aud respectable gentlemeu (one of whom
Ls the inventor of the clock) have been watched for several

\ ears

I

METHOD OF TAKING TRANSIT OBSERVATIONS. } 3<)

\ears by a single watchman, checked by this clock alone,
and with extremely few evidences of neglect. This is the
result of fines, &c, begun with judgment, and enforced
with strictness. But one objection can be offeied against Objection,
this, namely, that the morning only brings the proof of the
watchman's conduct, when nothing can be opposed to his
neglect but line or dismissal ; while the hours of greater
danger must be left to his discretion, and the fear of punish-
ment.

As many modifications of plans like this are easily de- This plan may
f , . v . be adapted to

vised, and n^w arrangements made in application to prac- circUBistances.

tice, not readily imagined before, it is deemed unnecessary
to enter into detail, or to attach any specific regulations for
each department, or for the ultimate execution of the whole.
If it is satisfactorily made out, that the plan is practicable The expense
,. i i i • mi i i »_ not ail object,

and useful, a slight calculation will show the expense to be

insignificant, when compared with the object, or even with
the premium of insurance.

I am, Sir,

Your obedient servant,
Derby, May 1 1, 180Q. M. K.

Annotation. Respecting register clocks for the useful
purpose indicated by M. K. see our Journal, vol. V,
p. 133.

XII.

On the Method of taking Transit Observations. In a Letter
from a Correspondent,

To Mr. NICHOLSON,
SIR,

In

the second volume of your Journal, Mr. Ezekiel Method of tak-

Walker, after mentioning i)r. Bradley's method of taking »ng transit ob-

, . , . .. \ servauons.

transit observations, by noting the proportional distance of

tr*

J4Q METHOD OF TAKING TRANSIT OBSERVATIONS.

thq star frorn the wire at the two beats of the clock, pra-v
poses another, which he thinks superior. This consists in
noting the time when the centre of the star comes to one
side of the wire; which, lie observes, is a real line, and not
as in Bradley's, a line drawn by the strength of imagination
down the middle of the wire, parallel to the sides. I have
tried both these methods with nearly the same success, and
must confess that, after all, I am very much at a loss to
conjecture, how the fractional part of a second can be esti-
mated in either of these ways to that nicety it appears to be
done. In the observations made at Greenwich I observe,
the time of a star's passing the meridian is always expressed
to the hundredth part of a second. How this extreme pre-
cision is obtained, as I am at a loss to conjecture, I shall be
obliged to you, or any of your correspondents, to inform
we,

I am, Sir,

Your obedient servant,

J. G .

REPLY.

Mfithodoftik- It is certainly not difficult to observe to tenth parts of a
z transit ob- ^econd ; and of this my correspondent will easily satisfy
himself by trial with a common watch of five beats in a se-
cond. A phenomenon, as for example, the transit of a
star, may take place in any one of the five beats, or bat-
tween any two of them. If the observer repeat the words
(either mentally or otherwise) One, one, one, one, one—
Two, two, two, two, two — Three, three, three, three, three,
&c, at each beat of his seconds clock, the word in Italic
at the very beat, he will be enabled to mark the fractions
of seconds with great precision. Musicians, in the rapid
execution of prestissimo movements, divide the second still
lower. As to the hundredth parts of seconds, though it
might by some expedients be practicable to observe them,
this is not implied in Astronomical Tables. They are
almost always the reswlts of means taken between a number
o.f observations; and the secoud decimal may be considereo}

as

HI

OS CALAOttAtA RCOT. |£jJ

as indicating the precise value of the first, instead of the
sign + or — , which is sometimes annexed for the like'

purpose.

W. K.

XIII.

Examination of the Root o/Calaguala : by Mr. VauqueliK*.

JL HIS root has a brown colour and a wrinkled surfacejn External ap»
consequence of dessication. In some parts it is covered Pe*rance*
with scales like those found on the roots of common ferns.
It is hard, coriaceous, and difficult to powder. It appears
to be the root of a species of polypody.

Exp. I. Thirty grammes (463 grains) of this root coarsely Digested in
powdered were digested in three hundred grammes of dis- water«
tilled water for forty eight hours. The water acquired very
little colour, but it had a degree of consistence and unctu-
osity, so that it would not easily pass the filter. Its taste
was slightly saccharine.

The infusion having been mixed with different reagents, Action of re-
the following effects were produced in it. agents on.tfw

1. By alcohol was thrown down a yellowish white floccu-
lent precipitate.

2. With sulphate of iron it assumed a blueish green
colour, but without any perceptible precipitation.

3. With acetite of lead a very copious yeilowibh white pre-
cipitate was produced.

4. Oxalate of ammonia occasioned a very light precipitate
in it.

5. No precipitate occurred on the addition of nitrate of
barytes, infusion of galls, or solution of animal gelatine.

6. Lastly it was slightly reddened by infusion of litmus.

The effect of alcohol teaches us, that it contains a mucous inference*
substance : that of sulphate of iron, that it contains a resin from thae
similar to those of cinchona, of rhubarb, &c. : that acetite * *
*f lead indicates an acid, which may perhaps be the malic : j

♦ ■Annates tfe Cfcimie, vol, LV, p. 2?.

of

142

OH CALAGtTALA ROOt*

corroborated
by farther ex-
periments.

Digested in

alcohol.

Precipitated
by water.

Distilled.

Residuum.

Resin.

Probably de-

strcya the
tape-worm.

of oxalate of ammonia, a little calcareous salt* The nitrate
of barytes proves, that it contains no sulphuric suit : the
galls, that it ha9 no animalised substance : the solution of
isinglass, that no tannin is present. The infusion of litmus-
shows the presence of some acid.

The following experiments, to which I was led by the
foregoing, will demonstrate by their results the existence of
most of the principles indicated above.

Exp. 2. Thirty grammes of the same root were digested
forty eight hours in about 200 grammes of alcohol. This
liquid assumed a deeper colour than the water employed in
the first experiment. Its taste was at first saccharine, but
it left behind a very strong sensation of bitterness.

On the addition of water it became slightly milky, which
confirms the existence of the resin mentioned above.

This tincture subjected to distillation till it was reduced
to six or seven grammes, afforded a certain quantity of oil
of a deep red colour, which was precipitated to the bottom
of the liquid. The supernatant fluid had then not so deep
a colour, and a less bitter, but more saccharine, taste. These
effects were owing to the separation of the resin by the eva-
poration of the alcohol; and to the fluid remaining as less
volatile holdiug in solution the saccharine matter.

As a little alcohol still remained in the fluid, which re*
tained some of the re^in in solution, I evaporated almost to
dryness with a gentle heat. I then washed the residuum
with a little distilled water, which enabled me to separate
the saccharine matter pretty accurately from the resin. The
alcohol that had come oyer had not carried with it any sen-
sible portion of oil, for it was not rendered turbid by the
addition of water ; but thus mixed it had a peculiar smell,
and an acrid taste.

The r< sin separated from the saccharine matter in the
manner above mentioned had a brownish red colour, a very
strong acrid and bitter taste, and was soluble in alkalis, to
which it imparted a brown colour and considerable bitter-
ness. Acids decompossed this alkaline solution, and sepa-
rated the resin just as it was before.

Is not this resinous substance, which ought equally to
be found in the other species of ferns, the principle that

destroys

ON C A LAG U ALA ROOT.

143

destroys the tape-worm ? This is not improbable, for me
know, that all acrid and caustic oils produce this effect.

The saccharine substance, which had been dissolved by Saccharin*
t'je alcohol at the same- time with the resin, gives a slight matter.
lemon colour to water. It is reduced to a thick and viscous
substance by evaporation. Its taste is sweet, pleasant, and
slightly acid. Its smell is nearly similar to that of the juice
of apples when evaporated. On being heated it swells up,
grows black, and emits a smell exactly resembling that of
burned sugar. I found in it perceptible traces of muriate
of potash. Thus it appears there can be no doubt, that this
substance is a true sugar, with which an acid, probably the
malic, is mixed ; but of this I could not satisfy myself by
experiment, the quantity being too small.

Exp. 3. To obtain those principles of the calaguala root, Root digest**
which are not soluble in alcohol, I digested in water for bei^treated**'
forty eight hours that portion of the root, which had already with alcohol.
been treated with alcohol, as has been seen. The colour it
imparted to the water was deep, as if it had given out
nothing to alcohol. This infusion had no bitter taste, like Properties of
that in alcohol : it frothed when shaken ; it precipitated this «*«»•■•
solution of silver pretty copiously in a substance which had
all the appearance of muriate of silver. Evaporated in a
gentle heat, it left an extract of a brown yellow colour,
transparent, very tenacious and stringy, on which spirit or'
wine had no effect. This extract had a mucilaginous and
slightly nauseous taste: mixed with a little sulphuric acid
it grew black, ami exhaled copious fumes of muriatic acid :
put on a redhot iron it swelled up, and emitted a smell
similar to that of gums. This matter then appears to h&
nothing but a mucilage coloured by a small quantity of
extractive matter insoluble in alcohol, and mixed with a
certain quantity of a muriatic salt, probably with potash
for its base.

Exp. 4. The root of calaguala thus successively ex- Residuum
hausted by alcohol and water I afterward treated with weak treated with
nitric acid, in order to know whether it contained any amy-
laceous matter. After two days digestion with a gentle
beat, I filtered the liquid, which had acquired only a slight

amber

]44» 0N CALAGUALA ROOT.

amber colour, while the root had become of a pretty bright
red.
An alkali An alkali mixed with this fluid precipitated nothing; but

it produced in it a very lively and agreeable violet red co-
lour. The filter too, through which I passed this nitric in-
fusion, assumed on crryinga pretty fine red.
Precipitated The same nitric infusion, being mixed with four parts of

alcohol, yielded a light flocculent precipitate of a very fine
"white colour, which, when separated from the supernatant
fluid, and washed with fresh portions of alcohol, redissolved
ill cold water. This substance had all the appearance of
common starch, that had been dissolved in nitric acid, and
afterward precipitated by alcohol: but I had not a sufficient
quantity, to satisfy myself that it was so in a positive man-
ner. At least there is every reason to believe, that it is not
gum, otherwise it would have dissolved in water, and fur-
nished some traces of mucous acid on being treated with
nitric acid ; but I obtained from it only the oxalic. The
yitric acid then, according to all appearance, took up from
the calaguala root a certain quantity of amylaceous matter,
and a colouring substance insoluble in alcohol, which alka-
lis turn to a violet.
The residuum, The calaguala root treated by the different reagents men-
£ofthewhoh*> tioned above, and afterward dried,, had lost a fifth of its
incinerated, fl^fefcfc All that remained was the woodv part, and the
earths insoluble in acids. To ascertain tha nature of the
latter, and pretty nearly their quantity, I burned the resi-
duum in a crucible till it was completely incinerated ; and
from about twelve grammes of the root, I obtained half a
gramme of ashes, which were composed of carbonate of
lime, that the nitric acid had not dissolved, and certainly
did not exist in that state in the root itself, with a small
quantity of muriate of potash, and some traces of silex.
The root treat- I treated the calaguala root a second time with the same
el with the menstrua, but in an inverted order, beginning with water,
trua in a diV- next employing alcohol, and finishing with nitric acid. By
ferent order, the first operation I obtained the sugar, the gum, part of
the salts, and a little colouring matter. By the second T
got therein, and a little of the sugar, that had escaped

the

dN calaguala root5. 145

the action of the water. Lastly by the third I dissolved the
amylaceous portion, and the peculiar colouring substance I
have mentioned above.

On recapitulating all the products obtained by the dif*
ferent operations mentioned in the course of this paper, we
find, that the root of calaguala is formed of

f. A large quantity of woody matter : Component

2. A gummy substance, which comes next in point ofroot. °
quantity :

3. A red, bitter, acrid resin, the next in proportion :

4. A sacchariue matter, tolerably abundant :

5. An amylaceous part, the quantity of which I did not
ascertain :

6. A colouring matter soluble in nitric acid, and turning
violet on the addition of an alkali .

7. A small quantity of acid, which I could not discrimi*
nate, in consequence of its being so little, but which I sus-
pect to be the malic :

8. A tolerably large quantity of muriate of potash :

9. Lastly lime and silex.

Of all these substances those soluble in water and alcohol Medicinal
are alone capable of producing any effect on the animal eco- I)arls-
nomy. These substances are the sugar, mucilage, muriate
of polash, and resin.

Since the time when I analysed this root at the request of Roots of male
Mr. Alyon, I have subjected to similar experiments the moa poiypod?
roots of common polypody and the male fern, and obtained contain the
from them precisely similar principles nearly in the same S™ean™aii-
proportions as from the calaguala root. The former roots nin.
however contain a small quantity of tannin. Thus the ana-
logy of organization, which led Mr. de Jussieu and Mr. Ri-
chard to conclude^ that the medicinal virtues of the cala*
guala root must be similar to those of other ferns, is fully
confirmed by chemical analysis.

Vol. XXIII.— Junk 1809. L XIV.

146

ANALYSIS OF THE 8MUT OF WHEAT!

XIV

On tht Chemical Nature of the Smut in Wheat, By Messrs.
Fourcroy and Vauquelin*.

£rautha« al-
ready been
examined im-
perfectly.

Described.

Prevented by
■washing with

alkalis.

Smut

treated with

hot alcohoi,

ether,
und water.

JL HE smut in wheat has already occupied the attention of
several chemists. Parmentier has found hi it a fetid, fat,
and coally substance. Cornet has observed its oleaginous
nature. Girod-Chantraus, in 1804, announced, that it con-
tained also a free, fixed avid, which he supposed to be of a
peculiar nature.

This discover}', announced to the Institute in the autumn
of that year, induced Mr. Vauquelin and ine to undertake a
full examination of this degenerated vegetable matter.

It is well known, that the smut is in fact a corruption of
the grain, which exhibits within the husk of the seed, instead
of a farinaceous substance, a black, greasy, stinking powder,
the most decided and dangerous characteristic of which is
its being capable of infecting other grains by contact, and
imparting to them the property of propagating smutty
wheat. It is known too, that washing with lime and alkalis
is the most certain method of removing its contagious pro-*
perty, and preventing the disease from being reproduced,
which it constantly is, if this practice, now generally em-
ployed by all judicious farmers, be neglected.

The smut, on which we made our experiments, was given
us by Mr. Girod-Chantrans.

Triturated in an agate mortar, and separated from the
husk, the smut imparted to hot alcohol a yellowish green
colour ; and, without communicating to it any character of
acidity* exhibited only about a hundredth part of its weight
of a deep green oily matter, as thick as butter, and acrid as
rancid grease.

Ether separated from it the same oil*

After this action of alcohol, the smut retained both its
greasy feel, and iilthy smell. Lixiviated with d\e times its

* La Revue Philosoque, &c, Nov. 1805.
at the National Institute.

Abridged from a paper read

weight

U

- && ALY9IS OP THE SMOT OF WHEATi 24^

weight of boiling water, it gave it a brown red colour, a fetid*

smell, a soapy quality, and a very decided acidity.

This acid, examined by various appropriate reagents, ex- Acid appeared

hibited all the properties of the phosphoric* to b«u> pho*

~... . . 11, phone.

On lixiviating pure smut, not previously treated by alco- This confirm*

hoi, with boiling distilled water, this liquor, which was pef*cd%
ceptibly acid, being saturated with potash, gave u precipi-
tate of animal matter, mixed with crystallized ammoniaco-
magnesian phosphate, and every proof of an alkaline phos-
phate. These experiments therefore conf \istence
of free phosphoric acid in smut, known by its fixedness, its
insolubility in alcohol, its solubility in water, its precipitation
by lime, &c.

After the aqueous infusion had been precipitated by pot- Animal mat-
ash, it held in solution a fetid animal matter, resembling in S^r^B^J
colour, smell, and the phenomena exhibited by its precipita- trad gluten.
tion with various reagents, that found in water in which the
gluten of wheat has putrefied.

After having undergone the action of alcohol and water TJte Mffetrifc*
successively, the smut of wheat still retained both its fetid dlstAlled'
smell and greasy feel. Distilled on an open fire it afforded
a third of its weight of water impregnated with acid acetate
of ammonia; nearly a third of a deep brown, concrete oir,
much resembling adipocere in its form, consistence, and
fusibility by a gentle heat; and 0«23 of a coal, which, being
incinerated, left 1 gramme [15| grs.], being a hundredth
part of the original smut, of white ashes, three fourths of
which were phosphate of magnesia, and one fourth phos-
phate of lime.

We examined the smut with its husk, to compare it with Srautexa-
that which had been deprived of it, but we did not find dif- ^"husfc!^
ference enough to ascribe to the bran that covers it any de-
cided influence on its analysis.

From our examination, the leading results of which have Its component
just been given, we conclude, that the smut of wheat con- parts*
tains,

]. A green, butyraceous, fetid, and acrid oil, soluble in Oil.
hot alcohol or ether, composing near a third of its weioht,
and imparting to it its greasy consistence.

g. A vegetc-auioial substance, soluble in water, insoluble Vegeto ani-
L 2 . ja Wa\ Hitwiiiin,

14$ AVALYtlS or THE SMUT «F WUEAT:

in alcohol, and precipitating most of tin? metallic salt, as well

as galls. It composes rather less than a fourth of the smut,

and is perfectly similar to what comes from putrified gluten.

Ceal. 3. A coal, amounting to one fifth of its quantity, which

gives a,black colour to the whole mass ; and is an evidence,

as it is the product, of a putrid decomposition ; a part which

it acts equally in mould, and in all the remnants of putrified

•rganic compounds.

Phcxphadc 4. Free phosphoric acid, scarcely constituting more than

.004 of the smut, but sufficient to impart to it the property

of reddening blue vegetable colours.

Phosphates. Lastly the phosphates of ammonia, magnesia, and lime,

in the proportion of a few thousandths only.
A mWuum of The smut of wheat then is nothing more than a residuum
gwm destr^_ of the putrified grain, which, instead of its original com po-
tion, aent parts, starch, gluten, and saccharine matter, exhibits
only a kind of carbonaceous oily substance, very analogous
to a kind of bitumen of animal or vegeto-animal origin.
Futrified glu- We must here remark, that in our examination of gluten
ten exhibits si- decomposed by putrefaction, we found characters very simi-
m r resu s. ^ ^ those of the smut of wheat ; and that the products of
the one are so like those of the other, as to render it difficult
in certain cases not to confound them together. It requires
a man to be well practised in chemical experiments, to dis-
cern the slight differences, that exist between these two pu-
trified matters, because these differences consist only in de-
licate shades, that are not easily perceivable.
Still we are Interesting as the results of this analysis may appear, we
ignorant of its must confess, there is still a great distance from the know-
ledge they give us of its nature to that of its cause ; and yet
more to that of its contagious quality, which is proved by
so many experiments, as to leave no room for the slightest
doubt. We must own too, that these results, while they
indicate the smut to be the residuum of putrified farina, do
not entirely agree with the ideas of philosophical agricul-
turists, who consider this disease as the necessary product of
May arise contagion ; since it thus seems natural to presume it arises
without con- from putrid decomposition, which may proceed from any

other circumstance as well as a communicated germe.
Attacks the The same results lead us equally to infer, that the pu-

ts1 uten . tr«scency,

ON THE SUBFRIC ACID,

trescency, which necessarily precedes the formation of the
sinnt in ull cases, whether it depend on contagion or arise
spontaneously, attacks particularly the gluten; and pro-
cedes, indeed prevents, the formation of the starch : since
we know positively, that ttiis fecula, no traces of which are,
found in the smut of wheat, suffers no alteration from that
septic process, which so powerfully attacks the glutinous
substance.

XV.

Of the Action of Nitric Acid on Cork; by Mr. Chevreul*.

1*9

•RUGNATELLl having examined the action of nitric History ©f the
acid on cork, in 1787* found, that the cork was converted disc0Tery °f
into a peculiar acid. In 1797 Bouillon-Lag range resumed
the inquiry of the Italian chemist, and connrmed the ex-
istence of the suberic acid. In the two papers he pxibli shed
on thjs subject, he described the characters of this acid,
and its combinations with the salifiable. bases, which Brug-
natelli had not studied. Notwithstanding these labours,
several persons still entertained doubts of the existence of
this acid. They thought, that it was only one of the acida
previously known combined with some matter, by which its,
properties were concealed. Of the truth of this I was de-
sirous to satisfy myself by experiment.

To form suberic acid, I followed the common process .;> preparation ©f
which I shall here recite, with the phenomena that occurred the suberic
in the operation, „*C1 *

In a. retort, to wh'ich a receiver was adapted, I heated six
parts of nitric acid at 29* on one of rasped cork. The
matter grew yellow; nitrous gas mixed with carbonic acid
was evolved ; and a pretty large quantity of prussic acid
was formed, J returned the product from the receiver inta
the retort several times, that the cprk might be acted upuu
sufficiently. When the action of the acid appeared to

* Annates 4c Cnimie, vol. LXn, p. 323.

afcatet

1^0 ON THE SUBERIC ACID.

abate, I poured the matter still hot into a poTcelain cap-
sule, where I finished the evaporation with a gentle heat,
stirring it coutiijually. As soon as it was reduced to the
consistence of an extract, I put it with some water into a
large glass phial on. a sand heat. At the end of a few hours
I withdrew it from the lire; and on cooling two solid sub-
stances separatee. One of these, which I shall call A,
sunk to the bottom in the form of large flocks : the other,
B, congealed on the surface of the liquor like wax. This
I removed with a piece of card ; the other I separated by
filtration.
Examination The flocculentprecipitate, A* was insipid; insoluble in
of the matter water anc[ m alcohol; and of a white colour, but turning a
little brown on exposure U tjjfe air. Nitric acid at 32° did
not act on it perceptibly. Placed on a red hot coal, it
burned without swelling up, and emitted a pungent smell
of empyreumat; ,.,ar. Its coal was bulky, and pretty

hard. This substance therefore was nothing but the woody
part naturally contained in the cork.
Examination The supernatant substance, B, had very little taste. It
«f the matter ^ humble in water; but boiling; alcohol dissolved it,
some portion of woody matter exceptecj. The filtered so-
lution on cooling let fall a white substance resembling wax.
This being separated by a second filtration, I added water
tb the solution, which threw down a straw coloured resinous
substance, that turned reddish by exposure to the air, and
was add, notwithstanding I had washed it repeatedly. On
distillation it yielded a sort of concrete fat, and a very acid
fluid, that precipitated acetate of lead. I could not as-
certain its nature from the smallness of its quantity.

The water that had been employed to precipitate the

resin acquired a yellow colour by evaporation, and a taste

jfes*embHng that of bitter almonds. It contained only a

little of the yellow matter, and probably a few atoms of

prtissic acid.

E**min,tion The fluid from which'the matter A had been separated

^the fluid ne- jjad an acid an*d hitter taste ; precipitated lime water and

**«*»tter A. calcareous salts ; turned solution of indigo green ; contained

* little' iron, as appeared on the addition of galls; and,

when the excess of acid was saturated, it did not precipitate

gelatine,

■ON THE SUBERIC ACID. 151

gelatine, consequently contained none of the tannin of Mr.
1 latch ett.

In evaporating the fluid with a gentle heat, it emitted a
pretty decided smell of vinegar. This induced me to finish
the evaporation in a retort; but 1 obtained only nitric acid,
without any acetous. Whether this were dissipated at the
commencement, or its quantity were too small for me to
detect it, I cannot say. The liquor, after evaporation and Suberic acid,
cooling, let fall an acid sedimentai 'matter, which T separated
by nitration. Four succcessive evaporations afforded me
fresh acid. After the fifth evaporation I obtained crystals ,
of oxalic acid. Having decanted the mother water, which
was yellow, and had a very bitter taste, I precipitated the
oxalic acid it still retained by lime water in excess, and dis-
tilled it. The liquid that came, over into the receiver con-
tained a little ammonia, 1 then precipitated the liquid left
in the retort by carbonate of potash, and lime was thrown
.down. The filtered liquor yielded in a couple of days some
small gold coloured crystals of the bitter yellow matter com*
bined with potash *.

This acid sedimentai matter was the suberic acid. I
washed off with cold water part of the yellow matter that
coloured it, and completed its purification by repeated so-
lution in boiling water, from 'which it separated by cooling
in little white flocks. By concentrating the bitter waters
J separated that, which they held in solution. By this pro-
cess I obtained a very white acid, about five parts of which
were obtained from sixty of cork.

The suberic acid is as white as starch. It has an acid Properties of
taste, without any bitterness. Light does not alter its aci^
whiteness. To dissolve one part of this acid requires 38
parts of water at 60° [140° F.], and 80 parts at 13° [554° F.].
Its little solubility prevents us from having it crystallized;
so that when it is dry it is always pulverulent and opake.

* Having saturated the mother water of these crystals with muri-
atic acid, I obtained a precipitate, which exhibited all the character
istics of benzoic acid : but 1 dare not venture to assert, that this acid
is constantly formed, for in three operations on cork I obtained it but
once, and then in a very small quantity.

Thrown

J

152

Volatiliz ».

Heatc 1 in a
retort.

Solution in
water.

Method of
purifying.

OX THE SUBERIC ACID.

Thrown on hot coals it is volatilized, without leaving any
residuum, and emitting a smell of suet.

When heated in a small glass retort on sand, it melts like
fat with a gentle heat. If the retort be withdrawn from
the tire, and the melted acid diffused over its inside, it cry-
stallizes in needles by cooling. If the distillation be con-
tinued, it rises in vapours, which condense in the summit of
the retort in white needles, some of which are half an inch
long. This sublimate has all the characters of suberic acid.
A slight coally mark is left in the retort.

Suberic acid dissolved in water reddens litmus very dis-
tinctly. It does not preceipitate lime *, strontian, or barytes
water, or the saline combinations of these bases. On eva-.
porating lime-water saturated with suberic acid, the calca-
reous suberate falls down in a white flocculent precipitate,
from which muriatic acid separates the suberic. This is
indeed an excellent method of obtaining it perfectly white.
The muriate of lime may be separated from it, by dissolving
it in a small quantity of hot water; when by cooling we
obtain the acid, which is always in a pulverulent form*f*> and
similar to what it was before being combined with the lime;
only this base takes from it the remains of the colouring
matter, which the water had not dissolved.

Mistake of
Brugnatelli*

* It seems to rpe, that Mr. IJrugnatelli must have deceived himself,
when he says, that suberic acid precipitates lime water, and all the
mineral calcareous salts. The oxalic acid, which no person has men-
tioned, and which is formed with the suberic acid, was no doubt the
occasion of the precipitate he obtained. It appears to me also, ou read-
ing the article suberic acid in Brugnatelh's Elements of Chemistry,
vol. II, p. 106, that the acid he describes still retains bitter matter,
resinous matter, and oxalic acid.

\ I made this experiment, in order to see •whether the suberic acid
were analogous to the benzoic, and, in this case, to separate it from
the matter that prevented its crystallization.
Purification by I repeated the same experiment with barytes instead of lime, and
.arytej. ^a<j tnp same resuit. The suberate of barytes is deposited by concen-

tration, and its decomposition by muriatic acid afforded me the suberic
acid perfectly white. A small excess of the acid should always be em-
ployed, in order to separate the last portions of base, which the sube~
ric acid might retain.

Ammonia

OJf T1TE SUBERIC ACID. J53

Ammonia and the fixed alkulis dissolve suberic acid very Action of
well. These combinations, when concentrated, let fall their alkaus*
acid on the addition of sulphuric acid, muriatic, &c.

The suberate of ammonia precipitates the solution of alum, Suberate o!
and the nitrate and muriate of lime. But to obtain preci- ammoni»-
pitates with the latter concentrated solutions must be em-
ployed, for the suberate of lime is pretty soluble.

Suberic acid throws down a white precipitate from a per- Action of the

fectly neutral solution of silver, from muriate of tin at a ac'a ,on th*
. . „ , . .. . . . „ . metals.

minimum, from sulphate of iron at a minimum, from nitrate

and acetate of lead, and from nitrate of mercury. It does

not precipitate sulphate of copper * or of zinc,

Suberate of ammonia decomposes almost all the metallic Action of the
solutions. The cupreous salts are precipitated by it of a suberate ot
pale blue; the cobaltic, rose-coloured ; thpse of zinc, ammcw*'
white ; &c.

Nitric acid has no action on the 9uberic. I boiled twelve Nitric ?.cid
parts of the former at 32° on one of the latter, without does not act om
having any sensible decomposition. The suberic acid was lt"
dissolved, and this solution, being boiled down, deposited
suberic acid some hours after cooling. I observed, that the
addition of water promoted this separation. 1 thought at
first, that I might obtain crystals from this acid solution,
but I could not succeed.

Alcoliol dissolves the suberic acid very welU When sa- Soluble in
tu rated with it, water precipitates a portion. alcohol.

The suberic acid does not turn green the solution of in- Mistake o*"
digo in sulphuric acid. Mr. Bouillon-Lngrange however Bouillon Le-
lays much stress on this property, which he considers as a gra,lge*
characteristic of the acid ; and in fact if this change of co-
lour were owing to a chemical action, it would be very sur-
prising, that a substance formed amidst nitric acid should
not have attained its complete oxidation, but remain capa*

* Bouillon Lagrange says, Ann. Ac Chimie, vol. XXIII, p. 48, that Mistake t>t
the suberic acid decomposes, nitrate of mercury, and the sulphates of Bouillon Le
copper, iron, and zinc ; and p. 56, that the suberic acid yields mercury grange,
and zinc to the three mineral acids, and iron and copper to sulphuric
*cid -y which appears to roc coutradictory.

Me

the «cbaeic
acid.

154 ARTIFICIAL STONED

Heof deoxuling indigo. Mr. Bouillon-Lagnmgc has ascribed
to the suberic acid a property, that belongs to the bitter
yellow matter, which forme a green by mixture with the
blue of the indict). It is this too, that turns a solution of
copper green; for I have satisfied myself, that the white
acid merely dilutes the blue colour, just as an equal quan-
tity of water would have cone.
Analopt;* to From what has been said I conclude, that the suberic
acid has great analogy with the sehaei-, with which Mr.
Thenard has made us acquainted * ; and that the only strik-
ing difference between them is the crystalline form, which
the suberic acid assumes when diffolved in water or m
alcohol.

XVI,

Method of Fabricating artificial Stone employed in the Vici-
nity of Dunkirk. By Mr. Bertha nd, Apothecary to the
Army of the Coast]',

Method of •**- HE materials employed for this purpose are the ruins

xnakiig artifi- 0f the citadel, consisting of bricks, limeJand sand. These
cial stone in . , , « •„ ,. , n

Fiance. are broken to pieces by means ot a mill, formeq ot two

stone wheels, following each other, and drawn by a horse.
Water is added; and the matter, when well ground, is red-
dish. This is put into a trough, and kept soft by means of
water.

When the trough is full, some lime is burned, and slack-
ed by leaving it exposed to the air, and this is mixed in the
proportion of one eighth with the cement above.

A wooden mould is laid on the stone, and after a thin layer
of sand is thrown on the stone, to prevent the cement's ad-
hering to it, a layer of cement is poured in, and on this a

• See Journal", tol. I, p. 34.
f Annales ds Chimie, rol. LV, p. 285,

layer

CHEMICAL MrSCXLLAMES. 155

layer of bricks broken into acute-angled fragments. Thus Method of
two other strata are put in, before the last, which is of pure 5jJS5»2
cement. The mould being removed, the stones thus form- France,
ed are laid in heaps to dry, The lime being very greedy of
water, and quickly becoming solid, these stones are notlong
in forming a hard body fit for building.

The lime is not very dear, being burned with pitcoal.
The labour is not dear, requiring only one strong man as-
sisted by two or three boys of twelve years old. The mate-
rials, being from old ruins, are cheap . and only one horse
js employed in this manufactory, which is not the only one
in the country. I believe others exist in Prussian Poland
where these stones are made with much more success, be?
cause fragments of basaltes, which are better adapted to form
a bolid body with lime and alumine, are there used.

The pebbles of Boulogne would be still preferable, and
I doubt not with these artificial stone might be made equal
to natural stone in goodness.

XVII.

Letter from Mr* Link, Professor of Chemistry at Rostock,
to Mr. Vogel*.

JL HAVE just examined the pollen of the hazel nut. It Pollen of the,
differs greatly from that of the date tree, which Messrs. haaelnut'
Fourcroy and Vauquelin have analysed. It contains a large
quantity of tannin, a resin, a great deal of gluten, and a
little fibrin. There is animal matter therefore jn this pol-
len.

To learn the properties of the membranous part of pith of elderc
plants, I subjected to research the pith of elder, and pro-
cured from it by nitric acid every thing, that Bouillon-La-

• Annates dc Chimie, vol. LXII, p. 292.

grange

166

SCIENTIFIC NEW*.

Suberic *c*>d
characteristic
t>i vegetable
ocmbrane.

Crystal* in the
toot of tree- §

pnmrose.

Vurute of «ili
•wer not blacK-
eucd \rhhout
tight.

JSertboHefte
kyyothesis.,

grange obtained from cork, but without this substance
leaving any residuum.

As Mr. Brugnateili obtained suberic acid from paper, I
believe it is a peculiar characteristic of vegetable membrane,
to furnish this acid.

In the roots of the ccnothera biennis, broadleaved tree-
primrose, I have seen by the help of a good microscope ex-
tremely small crystals, regularly formed, accumulated in the
cellular texture. It was difficult to obtain a sufficient
quantity for a chemical analysis. They appeared to me
somewhat analogous to the crystals obtained from indigo by
Nicholson : they are very little, if at all, soluble in water,
alcohol, or many of the acids: sulphuric acid itself act*
but very feebly on them ; the nitric acid alone is their true
solvent.

\ have endeavoured to blacken the muriate of silver by a
current of air employed in the darl$, but found it impossi-
ble to succeed.

Mr. Berthollet, as 1 see in his work, was able to blacken
it by a simple current of air. He says, that light acts upon
this salt by taking from it a portion of muriatic acid. But
bow will this celebrated chemist account for the black co-
lour, that muriate of silver assumes when covered with ruu-»
riatic acid ?

SCIENTIFIC NEWS.

Wernerian Natural History Society.

Minf ral strata
«f Clackman-
panshrre.

>T the meeting of this Society on the 8th of April, was
read the first part of a Description of the Mineral Strata of
Clackmananshire, from the bed of the river Forth, to
the base of the Ochils, illustrated by a large and very accu-
rate plan and section of those strata, done frgr» actual sur-
vey,

sctfc*JTi*ic t ew*. 157

,, v, Mid from the register of the borings unci workings for
coal in Mr. Erskine of Mar's estate in that district; com*
municated by Mr. Robert Bald, civil engineer, Alloa. In
tins tirst part, Mr. bald treated only of the alluvial strata.
Iu continuing the subject, he is to illustrate it still farther
by exhibiting specimens of the rocks themselves.

Mr. Charles Stewart laid before the Society a list of tlw I?***8 ne*r
Insects found by hiin in the neighbourhood of Edinburgh,
with introductory remarks on the study of entomology. It
Would appear, that the neighbourhood of Edinburgh pos-
sesses no very peculiar insects, and but few rare ones. The
list contained about four hundred species; which, Mr. Stew-
art stated, must be considered as the most common, as they
Were collected in the course of two seasons or»4y, and with-
out very favourable opportunities. It was produced (he
added) merely as an incitement to younger and more zealous
entomologists.

At this meeting there were laid on the Society's table the
first two volumes, 4to. of Count de Bournon's System of
Mineralogy, with a volumn of Outlines ; a present from the
author.

AT a meeting of this Society on the 13th of May, the Mineralogy of
second part of Mr. Bald's interesting Mi nera logical De- sj^re>
scription of Clackmananshire was read; giving a particular
account of two very remarkable slips or shifts in the strata,
near one hundred feet in depth, by reason of which the
main coal field of the country is divided into three lields, on
all of which extensive collieries have been erected.

The Rev. Mr. Fleming of Bressay laid before the So- Flora of Lia>-
ciety an outline of the Flora of Linlithgowshire, including lt ,gow*
only such plants as are omitted by Mr. Lightfoot, or mark-
ed as uncommon by Dr. Smith. This, he stated, was to be
considered as the first of a series of communications illus-
trative of the natural history of his native country.

Mr. P. Walker stated a curious fact in the history of the Edi found in
common eel. A number of eels, old and young, were j^Jjj terrdneac

found

158

Seasrufce.

Plants near

Edinburgh.

SCIENTIFIC NKWS.

found in a subterraneous pool at the bottom of an old
quarry, which had been filled up, and its surface ploughed
and cropped for above a dozen of years past.

The Secretary read a letter from the Ilev. Mr. Maclean,
of Small Isles, mentioning the appearance of a vast sea-
snake, between 70 and 80 feet long, among the Hebrides,
in June, 1808.

Aud he produced a list of about one hundred herbaceous
plants, and two hundred cryptogamia, found in the King's
Park, Edinburgh, and not enumerated in Mr. Yalden's ca-
talogue of plants growing there ; communicated by Mr. G.
Dow, of Forfar, late superintendant of the Royal Botanic
Garden at Edinburgh.

Etementory
treatise oil
Geology.

Mr. De Luc has in the press an Elementary Treatise on
Geology , which will contain an examination of some modern
geological systems, and particularly of the Huttonian
Theory of the Earth. We understand, that this work js
translated from the French manuscript of the Rev. II. De
la Fite, M. A., and will form an octavo volume.

French Jour- I HAVE just received some of the French Journals, that
n^* have been so long in arrear; and am informed, that the rest

are on their way from Paris. From those that have come

to hand I extract the following.
P hi in mica ^r* Klaproth has discovered in mica sixteen per cent of

potaJi.
Turkois ana- Dr. John, of Berlin, has lately described and analysed an
lysed. oriental turquoise from Bisiapoor, near Corasan, which he

found to contain

Alumine 73

Oxide of copper 4*5

■ iron 4

Water 18

This

• SCIENTIFIC NEW?.] * " |*j<l

This result verifies that of the late Lowitz. Wc have
therefore two distinct species of the turquoise ; and may give
to this now mentioned Pliny's name of calais.

Dr. John likewise conceives, that he has found a new vo- New metal*
hitile and acidihable metal in the grey ore of manganese
from Saxony. He obtained it by distilling the ore with sul-
phuric acid. The volatile metallic acid combines with a
weak solution of potash put into the receiver, and tinges it
Crimson. From this red liquor gallic acid, or infusion of
galls, throws down a chesnut brown precipitate. Prussiates
immediately change the red colour to a tine lemon yellow,
but without any precipitation. The carbonates do not pre-
cipitate the red solution; but if it be heated with a little
alcohol, the red colour changes to a green, a smell of eiher
is given out, and then the carbonates throw down a brown
oxide, which is soluble in muriatic acid.

Mr. Bucholz has found, that the schorUform beryl of Bat-.BnYarba
varia is a true beryl containing 0'12 of glucine. beryi.

Mr. Braconnot has analysed some fossile horns of an
extraordinary size found in an excavation at St. Martin,
near Commercy. He supposes these to have been the
horns of the great wild ox, the ttrus of the ancients, aurochs
of the Germans. From a hundred parts he obtained

Ferriferous quartz sand 4 .

Solid gelatine 4Q some feoff .

Bituminous matter 4-4 bcrats.

Oxide of iron • • 0*5

Al umine 0'7

Phosphate of magnesia 1

Water 1 1

Carbonate of lime 4*3

Phosphate of lime, composed of

Phosphoric acid 28*3 7

Lime 41 J 65'3

100*

To CORRESPONDENTS.

Mr.Ibbetson's and Mr. Rootsey's Papers, and Mr.Thornp-
son's Analysis of Sulphate of Baryt'es ft ill appear in our
next number. Met^rvh-

>

METEOROLOGICAL JOURNAL

ForMAY> 1803,

Kept by ROBERT BANCKS,Matheniatical Instrument Maker,
in the Strand* London.

THERMOMETER.

APR.

•

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Day of

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TER,

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23
24
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27
28
29
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IVIAY

1

2

5

4

5

6

7

8

9
10
.11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18

19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26

* The whole day.

t Too cloudy at 1 1 and afterward, to observe the eclipse.

t Hail at 1 1 A. M., lightuing and thunder at l P. M.

*i Lightning at 1 1 P. M. || At to high wind with lightning— sultry hot

4 In the at'ttro««» trenwndous thunder aud lightning with heary rain.

Rain

Fair

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Rain

Hail X

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Rain

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Rain

Fair

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Rain 1T

Ditto

Fair

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Fair

Ditto

Ditto

Ditto

Night.

Cloudy

Ditto

Ditto

Rain

Cloudy

Rain

Fair-fr

Cloudy

Fair
Ditto
Ditto
Ditto
Cloudy
Fair
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Ditto
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Ditto §
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Cloudy j|
Rain
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Fair
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Ditto
Fair
Ditto

Air chilly,
with rain

A

JOURNAL

OF

NATURAL PHILOSOPHY, CHEMISTRY,

AND

THE ARTS,

JULY, 1809,

ARTICLE L

On the Impregnation of the Seed> and first Shooting of the
Nerve of Life, in the Embryo of Plants. In a Letter
from A. Ibbetson, Esq.

F<

SIR,

-

OR many years botany and the study of the anatomy
of plants have been my favourite occupation in solitude, nor
had I any intention to subject that, which was undertaken
only as a recreation, to the notice of the public : but some
curious details having occurred, which appear to me not well
known, if you think them worthy a place in your excellent
Journal, they are at your service.

The very exact description that has been given by many Difficulties in
intelligent botanists of the growth of the infant plant, from the study«
the time the seed is ripe for the Earth, renders it unneces-
sary for any one to repeat, what has been so well detailed ;
but there are curious particulars, preceding this time, of
which little is said, and still less understood; which I have

Vol. XXUI. No. 1Q3.~Jui,y, 1809. M long

J 52 GROWTH OF SEEDS.

long made my particular study, though I have had to en-
counter difficulties not a little discouraging, and in the in-»
vestigation of which such patience is required, as would de-
ter the most laborious students; beside the necessity of a
most powerful solar microscope for opake objects; to which
is gdded, improvements not generally 'applied, and which
causes it greatly to excel in clearness of vision.
Imprognttion The investigation I mean is, " The impregnation of the
of the seed. seed ; and the first shooting of the infant plant, or rather
of the gerrae or vessel which precedes it." It is almost im-
possible to ascertain the exact time when the seed is first
formed in the pericarp. I have always found them in the
winter bud, where there is any large enough for dissection.
It is most curious to see the vessels, which may properly be
Outward form called the life, tracing their way to each flower bud ; for a
of the seed. ^^ may ^e s&^ tQ depend for perfection on two separate
moments: the one in which life first enters the seed, when
the whole outward form appears to be perfected ; and the
Second, when the impregnation of the seed takes place, by
the ripening of the pollen, as I shall hereafter show. But
when the life enters, it leaves a little string, and afterward
remains a long time in a torpid state. This string crpsses
the corculum, or heart pf the seed, so called because it is
the cradle of the infant plant.
Two distinct The seed is attached to the seed vessel by two distinct
organs attach- organS) which the first botanists have agreed to call the
the seed vessel, umbilical cord ; but I think they are improperly so named,
since they do not convey the nourishment to the infant
plant, which is wholly the office of the second set of vessels.
The first is, I conceive, the life of the plant, since with-
out it the plant dies, and with it uninjured, every other part
may by degrees be eradicated, and will grow again. I have
tried the experiment on many thousands, and never failed.
These delicate simple vessels, carrying a juice of a parti-
cular nature, are to be traced in every part, lying between
the wood and the pith. Nature has plainly shown their
consequence, by denying them to the leaf bud; (and what
gardener would take the leaf bud to hud with? None; for it
possesses not the life) but Providence by a sort of instinct
iiost curious teaches it to pass by the leaf bud, and proceed

GROWTH OF SEEDS. l6?3

to the female flower, where it establishes a new life in the
seed. This life will enable it to grow, but not give life
again, without impregnation. These vessels are the life
therefore, from which all flower branches grow, and all root
threads proceed. In calling it so, I only express what it*
office seems to denote. Hill traced it exactly, and called it
the circle of propagation.

The next organ, that attaches the seed to the seed vessel, The nourish-
consists of the nourishing vessels. I am rather inclined to inS vessels.
think, that these proceed from the jnner bark: at least
they may certainly be traced thence after the infant plant
has left the seed. When introduced they enter not the seed
at the same place as the life does ; they come not into the
corculum, but pass it, and spread themselves over a small
spot below it, which is visibly of a different nature from
the rest of the seed. In farinaceous plants it is yellower, Juices of each
and yields a milk white juice ; but in other seeds it is whiter, see
and gives a glutinous water of a sweetish taste. Probably
the vessels come from the fruit filled with this juice, which
medicated with that part of the seed (which very apparently
dissolves) they together form a nourishment suited to the
infant plant.

When the seed is so far perfected, it remains in an al-
most torpid state, or growing very little ; while the flower
expands daily, and the stamens are hastily advaucing to
their perfect state. It is now that beautiful process takes Contraction of
place, which, by an almost imperceptible contraction of the **
lower part of the pistil, raises the juice to the pointal,
whence it may be seen hanging in a large glutinous drop,
but which never falls. As soon however as the heat of the
mid-day ceases, this juice, which is peculiar to the pistil,
retires again within the tube, the contraction ceasing with
the heat that caused it. This is continued each day, till the ihe rising of
stamens are ripe, and ready tp give out their interior pow- the drop in the
der; the greater part of which the pistil its always so placed P°m
as to receive; and as the pollen requires only moisture to
burst it, it soon yields that find and imperceptible dust,
which quickly melting and mixing with the before-mentioned
liquid, forms a combination of so powerful and stimulating
a quality, that \t no sooner runs down the interior of the

M 2 style,

164

GROWTH OF SEEDS.

style, and touches the nerve of life in the heart of the seed;
but this vessel shoots forth in the most surprising degree,
forming directly a species of circular hook within the void;

fills the void whjch }Q jess than two days is often completely filled, though

when the sta- .,, , , • r i . >

mens are ripe. lt nad perhaps lain tor many weeks before in an absolute

torpor. This circular nerve is soon covered by an excres-
cence that hides it; but if the corculum is divided with a
tine lancet, the circular hook is discoverable, till the young
plant is near leaving its cradle or seed. At the turn of the
hook the cotyledons grow, and the root shoots from the
curved end.
Changeofpos- The plant may be now said to lie in the seed in a con-
theeSeed.eaVinS trary direction from that in which it will at a future time
grow, since the root is above, and the stem below : but
Nature has provided for their change of place, since it is
effected as they leave the seed. I have mentioned before,
Nourishment that the nourishment of the infant plant is medicated be-
oft e plant. ^ween tne juice brought in the nourishing vessels, and the
peculiar spot in the seed. This lia/uid continues to abound,
indeed the infant plant may be said to repose in it, till the
root has opened the whole, qr part of the seed. The root
Root strings then changes its direction, and runs into the earth, soon

pump up the forming a number of stringy hairs, which serve as so manv
nourishment. ,iti • i n -.

suckers to draw the liquid nourishment from the earth*

while the plant quickly shows, by the rapid progress it

makes, the advantage it receives from its change of diet ;

for it soon raises itself from its prostrate posture, emerges

from the seed, and is now seen in its proper direction.

Prove tlve I would not interrupt my account of the growth of the

sexual system, young plant, though my letter was written merely to detail

the first steps, which are I believe unknown, but which;

confirm I think most thoroughly the sexual system, though

some of the syngenesian orders give, if possible, a more

convincing proof of it. The pistil runs up from the seed,

being mostly single; and the juice of the pistil has no other

way of reaching the pointal but passing through the seed,

which it does without producing any effect, or tilling up the

vacancy at the top of the corculum. But no sooner does

this same juice get mixed with the flower of the pollen,

which dissolves in it, than the void becomes filled, the

hook

GkoWTH Of SEEtfS. Iffj

hook is soon forrried, and the young plant is raised to
life.

They who doubt, that each part of the plant has its dif-
ferent juices, proceeding from and appertaining to the pro-
duce of one part alone; that is, the wood, when rising to
the flowering part, gives its juice only to form the stamens; Peculiar juices
the line of life to form the pistil; the bark to form the.co-
rol, &c. ; would no longer deny their assent, if they would
dissect, and very much magnify the part of the pericarp
just above and below the seeds, and see the extreme pains
nature takes, that the juices may in no manner be mixed^
I have drawings of almost every different formed flower in
these parjs, both English and exotic; and I think I could
prove the truth of this assertion, without having recourse to
the rationalia of the matter, which would certainly show
the impossibility, that such parts, so different in their ap~ appropriate to
pearance, so opposite in their tendency, should grow from eac pai ,*
the iame vessels, and proceed from the same juices* Na-
ture gives us also a proof of the confusion occasioned by
the mixture of the juices in the double flower, which owes Double flowers
its deformity probably to this cause only ; as I have always owi"g to too
found, on dissecting and comparing double and single flow- ment bursting
ers of the same species together, that, when it is the pistil the finer vessel,
that fails, the style is discovered to be burst the whole way,
so that the juices can neither pass to the stigma for impreg-
nation, nor return again to the seed : but when the stamens
are imperfect, the seeds are often found in the pericarp,
but they never have the void in the corculum filled up ; and
I have often seen the inner vessel of the style hanging like and mixing the

a useless thread in the middle of the seed vessel, and a con- Jmc^> thus
r . f .. . causing mon*

fusion visible in every part, which seems to prove a general sters.

mixture of the juices, from the excess of nourishment
bursting the delicate fibres, that contained each peculiar
liquid.

I meant not however to enter into this digression, as it is
a subject that requires many drawings to elucidate it, and
more reasonings than a short paragraph will adroit of. I re-
turn therefore to the infant plant, and shall venture to add The loss of the
a few of the innumerable experiments made to prove whe- cot7^donsdoe9
ther this cwd of life (or as it is generally called umbilical

cordj

1 66 GROWTH OF St EDS,

cord) is or is not the life of the plant. I placed a bean in
the earth, and when the infant plant was ready to leave
the seed ; I opened it with a fine lancet, and cut off the
cotyledons, just where they join the heart and the circular
hook I have before described. Tying a piece of thread,
easy to be broken, round the bean, I replaced it in the earth.
The cotyledons grew again, though higher up, but they ap-
peared very weak and sickly for some time.
The loss of the I then placed another bean in the earth, and at the game

kuntd°eS UOt a°e * cut off the root* In a few days lt grew aSain» an(*
appeared perfectly healthy.

To see what the effect of taking away only the nourish-
ing vessels would be, I separated and cut them off from
Throws out each side of the bean ; but the quantity of hairs, that grew
hairs to convey from t|je Wounded part, and attained the moisture to con-
vey the nourishment, and supply the place of the part I cut
away, is almost incredible.

I now took a bean about four *days in the earth, and
Inyariably dies opening it with great care, I took out with a fine lancet the
^ith the loss of part wiHOh i esteem the cord of life (See PI. V, fig. 1, ll)t
life# that is, the part which crossed the corculum, and shot forth

on the first impregnation of the plant. The whole de-
cayed. I repeated this" more than a dozen times, the plant
always died.

I took a flower of the lilium species, as having a large
seed vessel easily attained ; and, being careful not to sepa-
rate it from the nourishing vessels, I divided the line of life,
cutting each thread between the seeds. Its seeds were
never impregnated.

I now tried the taking the nerve of life from the chesnut,

the walnut, acorn, &c, first opening a seed without touch-'

ing the nerve, that I might be assured that the opening was

I nfant plant not the cause of its death. Those from which I took the

killed by tak- nerve> a\\ died ; and the others, that I had merely laid

line of life. open, lived. It is only at the first beginning of life, that

the plant is to be killed by this process ; when older, if the

nerves decay, they shoot out above the declining part, and!

run into any part of the stem that is pure, to preserve them-

Sourec of life selves. This is the source of life in very decayed trees.

in decayed ^his [$ ^e cause of a double pith, or at least of the appear*

*"*• ance

GROWTH OF SEEDS, }Qj

ance of it, in many trees. This also in many grasses has a Double pith,
very particular appearance. I once found in the spring
four yards of the poa trivialis with a root now and then, the Poa trifialis.
whole dead ; but on farther examining the plant, the end
farthest removed from the root was beginning to shoot. On
subjecting it to the solar microscope, I found the nerve of
life had run in one diminutive string of vessels finer than a
hair, of a bright green, and defended from the inclemency
of the weather by the deadened part. As soon as the mild-
ness of the season permitted, it shot forth ; the rest of the
parts were added by degrees, and the decayed fell off.

I have many curious specimens of stems in which the Vessels of life
vessels of life have been turned out of their natural situa- the^iiatural
tion : but it requires so many drawings to give a perfect situation.
idea of them, that of course such a work as yours could
not admit them. I once traced these vessels from the stem
to the apple, and thence to the line in the seed in one string;
but this is extremely difficult to be done*

I shall now conclude with noticing two extraordinary Proofs of voli-
proofs of volition in some plants difficult to be accounted tion in Plant6,
for by mechanical force only. I divided a bean into two
pieces, and planted that half in which the young plant is
found. In five days the stem had forced itself out at the
usual place, but the root had taken a shorter road, and
come out at the truncated part as more immediate to the
earth. What mechanical power could occasion this differ-
ence ? I took a bean in health, that had just quitted the
seed, and cut off the root. The nourishing vessels had
been dried up a day or two. I wrapped the truncated part
in paper, fearing that it would throw out hairs to nourish
itself, and then replaced it in the ground. How great was
my astonishment to find, not only that the bean lived, but
that the nourishing vessels had reassumed their office of sup-
porting the plant ! that the bean, which had been perfectly
dry, was now as moist as in its earliest state, and continued
to support the plant till the root had again grown, and Nourishing
forced itself through the paper! I have ever been an ad- "^ssels regain
vocate for mechanical power, but can scarce reconcile these
two instances to such a cause.

The various names given to the infant plant and its dif-
ferent

]£g GROWTH OF SEEDS.

ferent parts have made me very unwilling to fix on an ap*
pellation, till it is ascertained what are its parts and their
vses; as T cannot but imagine, that so many various appel-
lations have the effect of making those that write unintelli-
gible to one another, and much more so to those, who wish
for information without much previous study. I shall add
a little account of the names used to the sketch annexed,
which will, I hope, make the parts easy to be compre-
hended.

Your obliged servant,

Bellevue, near Exeter. A. IBBETSON.

Explanation of Plate V.

Fig. 1. Representation of the bean, oo the nourishing
vessels. L to n the seminal leaves, or cotyledons.

I to I the embryo : what I esteem the first shoot which the
nerve of life makes, when it enters the corculum, or heart,
which is more easily seen in the seed of the lily as at fig. 2,
//, where it crosses the empty part of the corculum as before
explained.

When I took out the line of life in the bean, it was the
two vessels within, from / to /. When in the lily, fig. 3,
I merely divided the line /, preventing that communication
from seed to seed, and not touching o o, which I think is-
the nourishing vessel, as may be seen at fig. 2, o, where they
enter. Fig. 4 is the seed of the gooseberry, o the nourish-
ing vessels, / the line of life, and m the corculum, or heart.
Fig. 5 is the heart taken out of the seed of a chesnut. / is
the circular hook, o o the nourishing vessels, and 1 1 the line
of life, which I took out where it crosses the heart at m.
In almost every kind of seed it shows itself differently. In
many it enters at or near the stalk, and runs under the al-
bumen, or outward case. Having much more studied na*
ture than botanical works; which indeed I began with, till
I found that they inclined me to embrace a system, which I
wished much to avoid; I have since trusted to nature only-
I hope therefore to be excused the contradicting any one,
as I may truly say. I have not advanced a thing I have not

tried

ON THE PER3PIRATION OF PLANTS. |£Q

tried a number of times. Yet I tun but too sensible how
open I am to deception, and it is with a real feeling of hu-
mility I offer these opinions.

That the life of the plant is peculiarly resident in the
vessels that run in a circular collection between the pith and
wood, or medulla and liber, is most strongly proved by
the manner in which all fruit is killed, if examined the
morning after a sudden frost. It is not the corolla, the c«»
/yx, the males, or the seeds that are hurt ; but the female is
struck with death. And if the pistil is examined with care,
it will be found, that it is the line of life which is decayed,
and that this is the first part in which mortification com-
mences. The peculiar liquor of the pistil turns to a blood
red, and the vessels that run up to the pointal turn black,
I have marked one at fig. 7 just taken from the tree, and
killed in the last frost. The dark lines in fig. 7, whick 19
dead, show the black and red vessels mentioned above*
these being yellow in their natural state, which is delineated
at fig. 6.

It is almost unnecessary to mention, that seeds must be
examined in their first formation, to show the line of life*
which, when once it has done its office, detaches itself. It'
the seed is boiled, the line of life and nourishing vessels will
mark themselves by turning a dark colour. In very small
seeds the mouth is often the best dissecter.

II.

On the Perspiration of Plants. By A. Ibbetson, Esq.
SIR,

.S my first paper is short, I shall venture to join to it Perspiration of
an incident, that has surprised me not a little, and that P1™1*-
may perhaps from its novelty be acceptable to your readers.
I have long entertained great doubts respecting the evapo-
ration of plants; I mean not that insensible perspiration
that wiU show itself by throwing a mist on the glass that
covers it; but that which Bonnet insists on, and which Da
Hamel weighed (which iu 24 hours was double and treble

170 <>N THE PERSPIRATION OF PLANTS.

the weight of the plant, even in a sunflower, which is the
heaviest of plants) ; and tny experiments have so fully an-
swered my ideas respecting it, and confirmed my doubts,
- without however throwing the least blame on the very per-
fect experiments of these excellent botanists, that 1 shall
have the greatest pleasure in offering you the result.
Doubts re- The constant habit of watching my plants at a very early

•pecung it. hour in the morning, and examining them with very power-
ful microscopes, had almost convinced me, that the idea of
their perspiring was a mistake; still, being acknowledged
by such excellent botanists, it required the most absolute
conviction, to gain courage to deny a fact so universally re-
ceived as a truth. I rise at a very early hour, and had
often observed, that, when there was no dew, the leaves re-
mained perfectly dry, though examined with a powerful
microscope ; that when plants remaiued within doors, they
collected dust like any other furniture; and that this dust
was to be blown oft' with ease, neither agglutinating nor
sticking, which it would do if partially wet: that, after
placing a leaf for 4 hours in the opake solar microscope*
though it was so placed as to be in its growing state, and
was magnified so greatly as to show both species of pores,
yet I could never see the smallest quantity of moisture
exude, except what I shall now mention, and what I sup-
pose may be the insensible perspiration before insisted on.
Imensible per- Almost every leaf, if subjected to a large magnifier, ap-
spuauon. pears covered with a very fine scurf, which 1 have seen exude
as water with the oxigen it is continually giving out, as
Jong as the sun shines. In a very short time it turns to a
Taken back, jelly; which is, I think, received again into the same pores
with the dews of the night; and which I doubt not helps to
form that beautiful combination, which changes dead and
unorganised matter into living bodies, fitted, as Mirbel
beautifully expresses it, for the support of the animal cre-
Thi3 very tri- ation. But this is so trifling a perspiration, that it will
merely account for the dew, that appears when a vegetable
is placed under a glass; but will not raise, or in a very
slight degree only, the hygrometer placed within it.

These doubts suggested the idea of investigating the
matter more thoroughly, and I set on foot a number of ex-
periments

fling.

ON THE PERSPIRATION OF PLANTS* 171

periments, which I shall now detail, prefacing them with
an observation which is necessary to begin with, because it
is one of the signs given of perspiration, which I cannot False sign of
assent to. Hales and Bonnet both observe, that, having I**^1™
placed a plant under a glass, the water after a time ran
down or bedewed the glass. Put a wet sponge under a cy-
linder, and it will produce the same effect; and yet we
should not say, that the sponge perspired, but that some of
the moisture within the sponge had evaporated, and was
condensed by the cold of the glass. In short it is merely a
sign, that the object thus confined is full of moisture,

I shall now mention the experimentsjn the order in which Experiments
I made them. I wished first to prove, which yielded most JJ^16 rose
moisture, the earth or plants. I placed a small rose tree
under a large glass in a pot of earth, placing at the same
time Captain Kater's excellent hygrometer* with it, which
then stood at 6'20 from excess of dryness. In 8 hours the
moisture ran down the glass, and the hygrometer was at
1100, nearly excess of moisture. I then took away the
rose tree, and, drying the glass, I put a pot of fresh earth compared witli
the same size and weight, and with the same arrangement. fresh <tiiS**ki
In 8 hours the hygrometer, which had been put in at 616,
came out 1049, or 433 more moist than it was when placed
there. It was the earth therefore, that gave all that excess
of moisture, not the plant.

The next trial was made by fastening down a laurel on a laurel
branch, and passing it through a piece of sheet lead, with- ranc
out separating it from the tree; making it to fit a very large
glass cylinder, then luting it round the lead, and at its en-
trance, to keep out the circulation of air, and prevent the
wet vapour from passing upwards. After 8 hours the hy-
grometer was 130 nearer to dryness than when placed there,
and though the glass was steamed, it did not run down with
water; nor could I, with the largest magnifiers, discover any
dew drops on the leaves.

I now tried a vast number of plants with the same result, and on Tariow
the hygrometer never showed an increase, which it would Plants*
certainly have done, had the perspiration been so excessive; '

* For a description of this hygrometer, sec our pTesent number.

and

I7& O** THE PERSPIRATION OF PLANT*.

and it must have been perceptible on the leaves, but this
Perspiration was so far from the case, that the scurf before mentioned
oot perceptw wag not to bg geen . ^ ha(J certainly all sett\e^ jfl ^ew w;thin

the circumference of the glass.

I felt now perfect conviction, though not able to account,
for the mistaken opinion that prevailed, till walking one
Perspiration of morning with my microscope in my hand, I found a pea
t epea. plant covered with bubbles of water, and there had cer-

tainly been no dew. Here then was perspiration. I directly
wiped off the drops, and covering the plant with a glass,
treated it in the same manner as I had done the laurel, and
many hundred of other plants. In a few hours it was again
covered with bubbles of water, and the hygrometer indi-
Tried others of eating extreme moisture. I then tried a number of the same

the genus but g^^ but without effect, no bubbles were to be seen. I
without effect. 5

now concluded, that some vegetables did perspire, but that

the numbers were few*

Talking to a friend of the conviction I had gained, he
intreated me to repeat a part of the experiments before
him ; I consented; and having first prepared the pea, in an
hour or two it was covered with bubbles; but my friend not
being yet arrived, I cut off the branch, and laid it on the
table by me, fearful the bubbles would evaporate in the
open air. In an hour I was surprised to see them turn of a
The supposed milk white. I then applied to my solar microscope, and
le^cT °toWa" soon found' that the bubbles I had taken for water were a
mian plant. cryptogamian plant, having a regular stalk, which did not
however raise it from the leaf, for it was so heavy it ap-
peared incapable of rising. It lies like a long bubble, dies
in a few hours, and is soon succeeded by a fresh set.
This plant de- No person could in its first state take it for any thing but
•cubed. water ; indeed so completely did the bubbles resemble wa-

ter, that the smallest touch broke the film which covered
them, and their liquor was expended. Nor would any one
believe it was not water, without seeing the stalk on which
it grew, or without beholding its change of form. Its last
state is an almost hard and long ball, which soon drops off.
It is to be seen by a common little microscope; though
stronger powers are required to view the whole process,
especially the stalks. But so entirely does it cover the leaves,

th^t

©N THE PERSPIRATION OF PLANTS. fj*

that it doubles the weight of the plant, causes the hygro-
meter to indicate extreme moisture, and, confined under a Its liquor con-
glass, much of its liquor evaporates, condenses on the in- denses<m tnc
terior of the glass, and runs down on every side. I have
since tried every plant specified as peculiar fir their exces-
sive perspiration by Bonnet, Hales, and others, and have
found them all loaded with the cryptogamian plant, so
that I have not the smallest doubt, that this was by them and has btea

taken for perspiration ; for what torrents of water would be nmtaken for
.1 1. « i , i i perspiration*

necessary to supply such a transpiration f the air would be

constantly loaded. The possibility of the mistake any per-
son may convince themselves of, and how very likely it was
to happen, by taking a pea plant, a sunflower, and a num-
ber of other plants unnecessary to mention.

I said, that leaves had two species of pores ; the first large. Leaves have
which are open all the night for the admission of the dew ; two kinds of
the second small, from which the oxigen flows. See PI. y, P°re '
fig. 8, representing part of a leaf sufficiently magnified, to
show both#sorts of pores. It is from the smaller that the
jelly I have mentioned proceeds; for when the oxigen is sa-
turated with moisture, it will naturally give it out in pass-
ing these narrow apertures, and this is that scurf which ap<-
pears, when the leaves are not covered with a glass ; but
which flies upward, and is condensed on the interior, when
they are.

I believe almost every air or gas has moisture, and that a Effect of a
full stream of oxigen directed against a glass would cover stream of oxi*
it with steam* I have just tried the experiment, and it has S6n"
succeeded. It will of course depend upon its being nearly
saturated with moisture, or not; and upon the pressure it
afterward receives. I have endeavoured to condense my
subject as much as possible, without I hope rendering it un-»
intelligible. Should I see this in your first publication, it
will serve as a hint to give you a farther letter on the forma-
tion of the leaf, and the winter bud. The latter certainly
is of the first consequence in botany, and may be called the
first source of life in the vegetable world.

Your obliged servant,

A. IBBETSON.

HI.

X74 ANALYSIS OF SULPHATE OF BARYTES.

III.

On the Analysis of Sulphate of Barytes. By Mr. Jameu
Thomson. Communicated by the Author.

Sulphate of X HE analysis of sulphate of barytes has engaged the at-
accuTnt«*!y as- tention °f many distinguished chemists ; yet the problem,
ccrtaintd. though of easy solution, may be considered as still unre-
solved, since the greateft discordance prevails in their re-
sults. The accurate determination of the relative propor-
tions of its constituents, as far as concerns its chemical or
mineralogical history, is a matter of secondary considera-
This an im- tion ; but the soluble combinations of barytes being them-
portant object, sejves }mp0rtant inftruments of analysis, m detecting the
presence and ascertaining the quantities of sulphuric acid in
any compound by the production of sulphate of barytes;
the analysis of sulphate of barytes itself becomes an object
of considerable importance, and involves in it the accuracy
of the analysis of alrnoft all compounds, into which sulphur
or sulphuric acid enters. -

Its cwnposi- Withering, Black, and Klaproth, who have examined
ticn according g^p composition of this salt, agree with Kirwan in stating
it as composed of sulphuric acid 33, barytes 67.

According to Fourcroy it is composed of acid 34, bary-
tes 66.

According to Thenard of acid 25*18, barytes 74*82.
According to Berthollet of acid 27, barytes 73.
And according to the experiments of Chenevix, of acid
23 '5, barytes 76*5.

Clement and Desormes, in consequence of the discord-
ance of these results, eugaged in a series of experiments,
which appear to have been conducted with great care ; and
from which they conclude, that sulphate of barytes is com-
posed of acid 32*18, barytes 67*82.

And Klaproth once more revised and confirmed his for-
mer analysis, which gave 33 acid and 67 barytes, as the
composition of this salt.

The labours of these distinguished chemifts, together
with the general accordance of their results with those ob-
tained

ANALYSIS OF SULPHATE OF BARYTES. J *J$

tained by Richter, Bucholz, Clayfield, and others I have
not particularly quoted, might have been supposed decisive
ef the question ; yet in a memoir on the composition of
alum, subsequent to that of Clement and Desormes on the
barytic salts, and posterior also to the laft experiments of
Klaproth, Messrs. Thenard and Roard have adopted the
proportion of 26 per cent of sulphuric acid in sulphate of
barytes, as the mean of the results obtained by one 6f them,
and those of Berthollet, after experiments conducted with
the greatest care.

The question remaining still therefore undecided, and Occasion of
having myself engaged in a series of experiments on the DaperreSe0t
constitution and properties of the principal mordants em-
ployed in dyeing and calico printing, in which- 1 had fre-
quent occasion to ascertain the presence and quantities of
various sulphuric salts, I was under the neeeflity of satis-
fying myself respecting the composition of sulphate of ba-
rytes by direct experiments, the particulars of which form
the subject of this paper.

On comparing the results of the different experiments on Comparatire
this subject, it will be seen, that, with the exception of results of for*
those of Thenard, Berthollet, and Chenevix, they au meranaly**»
agree in stating the proportion of acid between 31 and 34
percent; the mean of the whole, and by far the greater
number, making it about 33. Klaproth, Cleme.it and
Desormes, an4 others, have deduced the composition of
sulphate of barytes, from that of the carbonate and ni-
trate; and as this mode appeared to me at once simple
and unobjectionable, I followed it in the first instance
exactly.

Carhoyate of Barytes,

One hundred grains of carbonate of barytes were dis- Carbonate ©f
solved in dilute muriatic acid, with all the precautions ne- barytes dis-
cessary to prevent the dissipation of the solution, or loss r°Jic add?"*"
from too rapid disengagement of the carbonic acid. When
the effervescence ceased, the last portions of gas were ex-
pelled by a momentary exposure to heat. The loss
amounted to 21*65 grains. The experiment repeated on
5Q grains of the carbpnate gave 1Q*85 grains, or 21*7 per

cent;

! ,

1?6

Tke solution

preci,

bj cachonate

of ammonia.

The artificial
carbonate si-
milar to the
nau\c.

ANALYSIS OF SULPHATE OF BARYTE0.

cent; and a third experiment 21*85 grains. The* mean of
these results gives the proportion of carbonic acid in 100 of
carbonate of barytes as -2 1*75 grains, a quantity which dif*
fers only | of a grain from that obtained by Klaproth, or
Clement and Desormes, who make it 32 per cent.

2. The muriatic solution, containing 100 grains of carbo-
nate of barytes, was precipitated by carbonate of ammo-
nia. The precipitate, well washed and dried at a heat
below ignition, weighed 100*2 grains.

3. One hundred grains of artificial carbonate of barytes,
precipitated from very pure muriate of barytes by carbo-
nate of ammonia, and dried at a temperature somewhat be-
low ignition, were redissolved in dilute muriatic acid, and
the loss of weight carefully ascertained. The experiment
repeated afforded the same result as the preceding with
the native carbonate, establishing the identity of the two
combinations, and proving, that carbonate of barytes bpth
native and artificial is composed of

Carbonic acid •••• 21*75
Barytes 78*25

100

Nitrate of Barytes,

One hundred grains of carbonate of barytes, dissolved in
nitrous acid, and gradually evaporated to dryness, afforded
132 grains of nitrate of barytes. The experiment repeated
on larger quantities, with a view to the preparation of this
salt for the purposes of analysis, gave precisely the same
results. One hundred and thirty-two grains of nitrate of
«*f the nitrate, barytes therefore contain 78*25 grains of barytes, the quan-
tity contained in 100 of the carbonate; and 100 parts of the
nitrate are composed of

59*3 barytes,

40*7 acid and water.

Casbonate of
barytes dis-
sol Ted in ni-
trous acid.

Composition

100

Clement and Desormes obtained; 130 grains of nitrate of
bavytes only from 100 of the carbonate, which gives for the
composition of nitrate of barytes, 00 barytes, 40 acid and

water.

ANALYSIS OF SULPHATE OF 8ARYTES. 177

water. It is here our experiments chiefly disagree ; but
the difference does not amount to one per cent, and more
perfect accordance will hardly be expected by those, who
are in the habit of making such experiments.

Sulphate of Earytes.

One hundred grains of carbonate of barytes were dis- Muriatic soliu
solved in muriatic acid* in a platina crucible, and preci- j^"/^0^
pitated by sulphuric acid. After slow and careful evapo- ph uric acid,
ration to dryness, the crucible was exposed to a white heat
during half an hour, and afterwards weighed. The cal-
cined sulphate of barytes amounted to 116*8 grains.

2. One hundred grains of nitrate of barytes were de- Nitrate of ba-
composed by solution of sulphate of soda added in excess, * ^ b . suj#
and the mixture gently heated. The precipitate well phate of soda.
washed, dried, and calcined, weighed 88*6 grains.

Now 100 grains of carbonate of barytes contain 78*25 Composition
grains of barytes, and produce 116.8 grains of calcined of the sul*
sulphate of barytes ; , P1 *

Aud 100 grains of nitrate of barytes, containing 5§'3
grains of barytes, produce 88*G of sulphate;

From which it follows, that sulphate of barytes is com-
posed of

Sulphuric acid • • • » 33*04
Barytes • • * 66-96

100

The results of the preceding experiments, every one of The ca«se of
which was carefully repeated three or four times, and their merit between
perfect accordance with those of Withering, Klaproth, and eminent chy-
others I have already quoted, left no doubt of their accu- miS S °
racy on my mind.

Aware however, that no individual authority, however
respectable, can add to or detract from the confidence
which the names of Thenard, Berthollet, and Chenevix
inspire; and sensible that my single testimony added to
the rest would weigh but little in the scale against them ;
I was desirous, if possible, of detecting the source of this
discordance in their experiments, as the surest and only

Vol. XXI II.— .July IS09. N means

178

Thenard's
mode of ascer-
taining the
composition
im perfectly

given.

Berthollefs
experiments
not given.

Mr. Chenevix
more particu-
lar.

His process.

ANALYSIS. OF SULPHATE OF BARYTES,

means of finally deciding the question. In the extract,
which Guyton has given of the memoir of Thenard on the
different states of antimony, in the 32d volume of the An-
nates de Chimie, the mode in which he ascertained the
composition of sulphate of barytes is not stated with suffici-
ent minuteness, to enable any one to repeat his experiment.
One hundred grains of pure barytes, fused in a crucible,
are stated to have afforded 133*3 grains of calcined sulphate
of barytes ; but whether by direct combination, which
would be liable to errour, or through the medium of some
other solvent, is not mentioned. Nor is the mode by which
the pure barytes was obtained noticed in Guyton's extract,
though of the utmost importance in this inquiry. The
experiment indeed does not appear to have been made in a
way favourable to accuracy and precision, though for
want of sufficient details it is not possible satisfactorily to
point out the sources of errour. The experiments of Ber-
thollet, which determined the proportion of acid in sul-
phate of barytes at 27 per cent, 1 am wholly unacquainted
with ; nor do I know the mode which this celebrated che-
mist pursued in making them ; which I regret the more, as
they are stated to have been conducted with scrupulous
exactness.

Mr. Chenevix's paper in the Memoirs of the Irish Aca-
demy however contains all the details necessary for the ex-
amination of his experiments, and fortunately also furnishes
additional proof* of the accuracy of my own results.

To ascertain the quantity of sulphuric acid in sulphate
of barytes, Mr. Chenevix decomposed a given weight of
sulphate of lime (the composition of which he had ascer-
tained by previous experiments); and haviug found the
quantity of sulphate of barytes, which it afforded, the pro-
portion of sulphuric acid in the latter was readily deduced.
." Upon 100 grains of calcined sulphate of lime," says
.Mr. Chenevix, '• I poured some oxalic acid, which attracts
the basis with an affinity superior to that exercised by sul-
phuric acid. Oxalate of lime was here formed, but oxa-
late of lime is soluble in a very small excess of any acid.
A little muriatic acid operated a complete solution, and

thu*

ANALYSIS OF SULPHATE OF BARYTES, \jg

thus a great quantity of sulphate of lime required but little
water to dissolve it. Into the liquor muriate of barytes was
poured, and suffered to remain some time gently heated ;
by these means any oxalate of barytes, that might have
been formed, was retained in solution by the original ex-
cess of acid, and the entire quantity of sulphate of barytes
was deposited. Of the exactness of all those methods,
which I used as the instruments by which I ascertained
these results, I convinced myself by various preliminary
experiments. After the usual filtration, washing, and dry-
ing at the gentle heat of a sand bath, I obtained in one ex-
periment 185, in another 183, and lastly in another 180*
We may therefore take 183 as the mean proportion* Con-
sequently we shall say, 183 grains of sulphate of barytes
contain the same quantity of sulphuric acid, as 100 of
sulphate of lime (43) ; and 183 : 43 :: 100 : 23*5. There-
fore 23*5 are the proportion of sulphuric acid in 100 of sul-
phate, of barytes."

I repeated this experiment of Mr. Chenevix with calcined Tl,,s exPeri-
• *• pii i iT«tn ment repeated,

sulphate of lime carefully prepared, and obtained from 100

grains, as he had done, 180-5 grains of sulphate of barytes

dried at the heat of a sand bath. Suspecting, however,

that the various and complicated affinities, which are

brought into play in this process, might be productive of

some erroiir ; and that the mode was defective, though the

results were correctly given; I dissolved 10 grains of cal- The sulphate

cined sulphate of lime in a pint of boiling distilled water, of.lin\e.dl*

i . • • _,. . . solved in diy

and poured in muriatic ot barytes. J he precipitate, washed, tilled water.

dried, and calcined, weighed 17*7 grains. This accorded
so nearly with the experiment of Mr. Chenevix, that I was
satisfied of the exactness of his method, and that it was not
here I was to look for the source of the discordance. His
analysis of sulphate of lime I had not verified, having an
indistinct recollection of its agreeing nearly with the compo-
- sition of this salt as stated by others. On a more attentive The propor-
examination however I found, that the proportions, as ^R£^a
given by Mr. Chevenix *, are the converse of those of sulphate of

Klaproth^'-faXr

* Dr. Thompson, in his excellent System of Chemistry, vol. II,
p. 355, 2d «dition, has, by a very natural mistake in quoting from the

W 2 Phil.

ence.

180 ANALYSIS OF SULPHATE OF BARYTES.

Klaproth ; the former making it contain 57 parts of lime
and 43 acid in a hundred, and the latter 57 acid and 43
lime nearly. I at first imagined this was a typographical,
or perhaps an arithmetical errotir; but this is not the case:
100 parts of pure lime afforded Mr. Chenevix 176 grains
of calcined sulphate, which gives the proportions exactly as
stated in his memoir. Here then evidently hinges the dif-
ference in Mr. Chenevix's analysis of sulphate of barytes
These there- compared with mine and others ; it remained therefore to
gated. ascertain, which of the two analyses of sulphate of lime

was to be relied on; that which makes the proportion of
acid 43 per cent, or that which makes it amount to 57.
u^rotiriat?1^ *' f dissolved 10° grains of pure lime, prepared as Mr.
acid and pre- Chenevix has directed, in muriatic acid in a platina cruci-
sulphuric/ ^le; an^' a^er Precipitating with sulphuric acid, evapo-
rated the mass slowly to dryness. The crucible was then
exposed during an hour to a white heat. The calcined sul-
phate of lime weighed 240 grains.
Carbonate of o. Fifty grains of pure carbonate of lime were dissolved in
inacetfc acid acet*c acid> and sulphuric acid added in excess. The mass,
and precipi- after slow and careful evaporation to dryness, was exposed

'huric7 SUl* to a *'hlte heat near an hour' and afforded 6?*3 grains of
sulphate of lime.

Proportions The first experiment, in which 100 grains of pure lime

according to afforded 240 of calcined sulphate, gives for the composition
menu* ' of the latter 58*34 acid, and 41 '66 lime. The second, if
we admit with Dr. Marcet, that carbonate of lime contains
44 per cent of carbonic acid, gives for the composition of
sulphate of lime, acid 59, lime 41, which are exactly the
proportions of Kirwan. I feel disposed however to place
greater confidence in the first result; the experiment was
several times repeated, and I think, if we state the pro-
portions in sulphate of lime as 58 acid and 42 lime, we shall
not be far from the truth.

These confirm ]\T0Vv Mr. Chenevix found, that 100. parts of calcined

the analys s of

Phil. Mag. vol. XI, p. 115, the proportions of acid and base, as given
by Mr. Chenevbc in his analysis of sulphate of lime, and thus restored
them to accuracy. . This errour has b«en copied into a woik of very infe-
rior merit, the " Chimie applicjuee aux Arts" of Chaptal.

sulphate

ANAJ.YSJS OF SULPHATE OF BARYTES. 181

sulphate of lime afforded 183 grains of sulphate of barytes sulphate of ba«
dried at the gentle heat of a sand bath ; but the sulphate of ba- 2^/ °re
rytes dried at this heat contains still near 3 per cent of water,
which deducted leaves 178*5 grains. If we say therefore,
that 178'5 grains of sulphate of barytes contain the same
quantity of sulphuric acid as 100 grains of sulphate of
lime, and that 100 grains of sulphate of lime contain 58
sulphuric acid ; we have for the composition of sulphate of
barytes, sulphuric acid 32*5, barytes 67*5; which differs
only half a grain per cent from what I have myself ob-
tained.

Still farther to confirm the preceding results, I made the Farther con-
following experiments. Into a solution of nitrate of barytes rnaUons °
1 poured 100 grains of sulphuric acid (the spec. grav. of
which I omitted to note). Care was taken to have an ex-
cess of nitrate of barytes, and the solution was slowly eva-
porated down to dryness. The precipitate carefully washed
from the remaining nitrate, dried, and calcined, weighed
231 grains.

An equal weight of the same sulphuric acid was poured
into a solution of acetate of lime, in which the latter was
in excess. After gradual evaporation to dryness, the ace-
tate of lime was separated by repeated washing with alco-
hol, and the sulphate of lime dried and calcined. It
weighed 133 grains.

Lastly, 100 grains of sulphuric acid were poured into a
solution of acetate of lead in excess, and the precipitate
carefully separated, washed, and dried. It weighed 296,
grains.

From these experiments it appears, that 231 grains ofsul- R^itsof
( phate of barytes, 133 grains of sulphate of lime, and 296 grains these experi-
of sulphate of lead, contain equal quantities of sulphuric raeats'
acid; and if in estimating the real quantities of acid they
contain, we adopt Klaproth's analysis of sulphate ^f
lead as the standard, to which to refer them, we shall have
29.6 grains of sulphate of lead, containing 78*4 grains of sul-
phate of acid, or 26*5 per cent;

231 grains of sulphate of barytes, containing 7S'4 grains of
sulphate of acid, or 33*9 per cent;

133 grains

182

General con-
clusions.

ON THE EXPANSION OF MOIST AIR.

133 grains of sulphate of lime, containing 78*4 grains of
sulphuric acid, or 58*6 per cent.

These results, though not in perfect accordance with those I
had previously obtained, I considered as sufficiently exact
to establish their general accuracy; and I did not think it
necessary to verify them by more careful repetition, in which
it is possible these slight differences might have wholly dis-
appeared.

The experiments detailed in this paper then confirm, with
trifling variation, the results already obtained byWithering,
Klaproth, Kirwan, Clement and Desormes, and others;
and prove,

J. That carbonate of barytes, both natiye and artificial,
is com1 osed of carbonic acid 21*75, barytes 78*25.

2. That nitrate of barytes is composed of acid and water
40*7, barytes 59*3.

3. That calcined sulphate pf lime contains sulphuric
acid 58, lime 42.

4. And lastly, that calcined sulphate of barytes is com-
posed of sulphuric acid 33, barytes 67.

Church Bridge, near Blackburn,

IV.

Experiments on the Expansion of moist Air raised to the
boiling Temperature. In a Letter from John Cough,
Esq.

To Mr. NICHOLSON.
SIR,

Objections to JJ^ERHAPS you will recollect, that I proposed some
the new doc- A . * ••■ ' . ■ \ ^

trine of the time ago in your Journal* various objections to the new doc-

con-mtuticn of irine respecting the Constitution of the Atmosphere, and
phere, the independent equilibrium of its component gasses. The

intention of these objections was to invalidate the hypothe-
sis, by showing its inability to explain natural phenomena;
and at the same time to point out certain palpable absurdi-

f Vol. XVI, p. 4.

ties.

ON THE EXPANSION OF MOIST AIR* | SS

ties, which are necessary consequences of this novelty in
meteorology. This method of examining the subject led supported by
me to use arguments,and to avoid experiments made by my- fgfaub7yenlS ***"
self, as much as possible. The choice was suggested by
common prudence; for any person can form a correct judg-
ment of a syllogism; the value of which does not depend
on the character of the logician, but on qualities that are
apparent, and constitute its intrinsic merits or imperfections.
On the contrary when an experiment is described, we have Experiments

no right to expect the reader will assent to the truth of it, |n certain en*

. „ ., . • ... j less convinc*

until he is convinced of the experimenter's abilities, and of ing.

his candour too; which is very liable to suspicion in the

course of a controversy.

The preceding reasons determined me at the time to de- Reason for re.
fer the experimental part of the refutation to a future op- curring to
portunity, in hopes, that some other person would under- c*tltijre*
take the task ; but the silence of both parties has hitherto
disappointed this expectation, and it almost obliges me to
publish certaiu experiments in my possession ; which in all
probability will place the controverted point in a clearer
light. If air and water be confined by a pellet of mercury
in a glass tube, closed at one end, and the apparatus be af-
terward raised to the boiling temperature, the new hypo-
thesis maintains, that the vapour of the water will make its
way through the pores of the permanent gasses, and counte-
ract the pressure of the atmosphere on the pellet of mercu-
ry, thereby leaving the included air at liberty to expand in-
definitely. The practical method of showing the truth of
this proposition by the manometer never appeared satisfac-
tory to me, in consequence of which I undertook to have
the experiments repeated in the following manner.

Exp. 1. Barometer 30'06, a tube one twelfth of an inch Exp. 1.
in bore, and containing a quantity of water in the sealed
end, measured b| inches from the surface of the water to the
•pen end. A column of air T4^ of an inch in length, or
something more than TV of the open space 6| inches, was
confined in contact with the water in the tube by a column
of mercury, | of an inch long, the temperature of the in-
strument being 460. The open end of the manometer was
then fixed into the neck of a narrow bottle by means of a

perforated

18=t ON THE EXPANSION OF MOIST AIR.

Exp. i. perforated cork, which was made watertight; and thp edge

of this end projected about £ a line above that extremity of
the cork which entered the bottle, so that the sealed end of
the tube, which was out of the bottle, fell 5§ inches below
the neck when the bottom was turned upwards. Things be-
ing thus prepared, the bottom of the phial wa^ cut away to
open a free communication betwixt the atmosphere and the
orifice of the manometer. A strong wire was then tied
round the bottle, by which it was kept in an oblique posi-
tion in a large pan of water, so that the open end of the
manometer was 3 inches below the surface. At the same
ftime. the interposition of the cork and bottle preserved this
aperture dry and exposed to the air. The intention of the
preceding arrangement scarcely requires an explanation,for
it is evident, that, if the pan were made to boil, the tube
would receive all the heat which the water could communi-
cate to it, and the size of the boiling vessel was such, as to
permit the manometer to be suspended in it free of the sides
and bottom, which is a necessary precaution. Lastly, the
oblique position of the tube gave the pellet an opportunity
to roll over the edge of the orifice, after which it would re-
main on the cork, provided the spring of the air proved suf-
ficient to expel it. In order to find if this would, really be
the case, the pan was gradually heated from 46° to boiling,
with the manometer suspended in it: and after the water
had continued to boil a few minutes, the instrument was ta-
ken out of the pan; upon which the mercury was seen tp
descend quickly towards the sealed end of the tube. Ac-
cording to this experiment the gas or gasses of the mano-
meter were limited in expansion under the pressure of
30-185 inches of mercury to twenty times their original
bulk at most. Now the advocates of the new hypothesis
say, that the vapour alone sustained 30*06 of this force, or
the barometrical pressure. Consequently the dilated air
supported nothing more than the weight of the, mercurial
stopple, or {■ of an inch of mercury. But air ratified 20
times will sustain more than if inch of mercury, when the
barometer stands at 30-06; neglecting the increased elasti-
ritv, which was occasioned in the present instance by raising

The barony- the pan and its contents from 4t)° to 212°. May not we

safely

ON THE EXPANSION OF MOIST AIR. ] 85

safely conclude then from tins experiment, that the baro- tncal pressure
metrical pressure is not counteracted by free vapour, which racted b'^free
certainly would be the case, were the hypothesis in question vapour,
consonant with the operations of nature?

After ascertaining the preceding fact, 1 was desirous to The manome-
approximate with a greater degree of exactness to the limit able<
of the expansion, if a proper instrument could be procured.
I say a proper instrument, because the manometer appears
to be objectionable on two accounts. In the first place it
.would be difficult to graduate a tube of a moderate length
so accurately, as to discover the dilatation by it truly to two
.or three places of figures. In the next place a manometer
of this construction may be made to give different results by
a little management, which vvjll be eyident from the follow-
ing experiment.

Exp.<2. A manometer T\ of an inch in diameter was cooled Exp. 2,
by water to 35°, and the height of the column of air was
then marked on the glass. In the next place the tube was
suddenly plunged into water x)f 95°, and the height of the
column marked as before. On cooling the instrument again
as suddenly to 3o°, the air contracted to its former dimen-
sions ; after which the temperature was raised a "second time
to 95° in a very gradual manner. The consequence was,
that the columj/fell short of its former height by nearly ■£$
of its length. This circumstance determined me, to prefer ^Eolipile pre-
an ceolipile to a manometer, the method of using which will feiable. •
appear in the following paragraph.

Exp, 3. What I have called an aeolipile is a copper ves- Exp. 5.
Lei of a conical figure and having a flat bottom. The slen-
der part of the truncated cone has an aperture ^ of an inch
in diameter, which is turned directly downwards when the
bottom of the aeolipile is parallel to the horizon. 110 grains
of water at the temperature of 64° were put into this ves-
sel, which required the addition of 2895 grains of water at
the same temperature to fill it. Things being thus prepar-
ed, the aeolipile was immersed in a large pan, and suspended
free of the sides and bottom by wires. The pan was then
heated to 212°, and kept boiling for some time; after which
it was reduced to 64° as quickly as possible by pouring cold

water

186

"Experiments
ayj3.vn*t the
*wstence of a
aqueous at
jsac&puere.

Attrition to
aMjcwtia: ne-
cessary..

ON THE EXPANSION OF MOIST Al*lt.

water into it. The seolipile was then removed from the pan,
the aperture being covered by the ringer of the operator.
After being carefully wiped with dry clothes, it was weighed,
and found to contain 185 grain measures of air, which was
evidently saturated with moisture, and at the temperature
of 64°. But 53 measures of air thus circumstanced contain
52 measures of dry air. Thus it appears, that 181*5 mea-
sures of dry air at 64° occupy 2895 such measures when
raised to 212° in contact with water of the same temperature:
whence it follows, that I measure of dry air dilates so as to
become equal to 15*^5 measures in similar circumstances.
It is proper to observe, that the barometer stood at 29*66
at the time; and that the height of the water in the pan,
reckoning from the mouth of the aeolipile, increased the
pressure to 29*90 : therefore the true dilation of one mea-
sure amounts to 16*70. But one measure of dry air at
64° occupies no more than 0*93344 parts of a measure when
cooled to 32°; therefore the whole bulk of one measure of dry
air raifed from 32° to 212° in contact with water may be
stated at 17*100 measures.

I have made several experiments both with this aeolipile
and a glass flask on air of 64°, which was raised to tempera-
tures less than 212*, but the results did not correspond to
the theorem given in the Manchester Memoirs for the
purpose of finding the dilatation of moist gasses confined in
the manometer. Does not then the evidence of direct ex-
periments authorize us to say, that the existence of an aque-
ous atmosphere is not proved? or more properly does not the
same evidence show this imperceptible fluid to be not only
invisible, but also imaginary ?

Some of your readers may think the preceding experi-
ments are related too minutely, particularly the first and
third; but should an impartial person wish to repeat them,
he will be of a different opinion. In fact too much precau-
tion cannot be used to prevent the manometer or aeolipile
from touching the bottom of the boiler ; for if this be not
done, the experiment will fail, as I have found on different
occasions ; and this has happened when the water in the pan
did not boil. I should also recommend a wide cylindrical
boiler in preference to a small vessel with a long narrow

neck

ON MANURES,

187

neck ; because the resistence which vapour meets with in itt

escape from the latter will in all probability augment its

temperature.

The foregoing remarks are confined to the. gas of water, The author

which is supposed by the new hypothesis to exist independ- *»asmade«m
rr / , i¥ , *: j penments on ■

ently in the atmosphere ; but 1 possess observations and expe- the permanent

riments respecting the permanent gasses, and their mutual ga«es.

impenetrability, which want of room obliges me to omit at

present.

Middleshaw, I remain, &c.

May 22d, 1809. JOHN GOUGH.

V.

An Essay on Manures, By Arthur Young, Esq., F.R.S*

/'Continued from p. 128. J

Paring and Burning.

JL HESE are mechanical operations ; and though nothing Much mlscon-

is directly added to the soil by them, yet the eifects are in ce.»ve{*and

J . misrepre*

many instances very extraordinary, and as such ought to sented.

be treated of here. There is no subject in husbandry

about which so many misconceptions are afloat, or such

misrepresetations hazarded, as on this.

1. The Nature of the Ashes resulting from this Operation.

We shall examine the result of burning

1st Vpo-Ptablfs Effects of par-

1st. Vegetables. ingandbum-

!|. Clay, jngi

2. Loam,

3, Sand,

4. Chalk,

5. Peat:

under one of which heads every soil may be arranged*

These two articles will include all that generally comes Destruction of
within the sphere of paring and burning ; for the animal worms *nd
substances in this case are top inconsiderable to demand at-
tention,

isa

ON MANURES.

tention, although the destruction of living animals, as-
worms and insects, is a main benefit of the work.

Paring and burning, says Mr. Kirwan, reduces the roots
of vegetables to coal and ashes, and thus prepares both a
stimulant and nutriment for plants,

Asies. Lord Dundonald observes, that " it is only from the

ashes of fresh or growing vegetables, that saline substances,
or alkaline salts, are to be obtaiued; none can be got from
peat or decayed vegetable matter. The saline matter pro-
duced in the process consists of vitriolated tartar; the al-
kali of the burut vegetables combining with the vitriolic
acid, which in different states of combination is contained
in. most soils. Vitriolated tartar has very powerful effects
in promoting vegetation. " It promotes, as Mr. Senebier
remarks, the decomposition of water. I* will hereafter be
seen, that hidrogen is a most active food of plants. What-
ever, therefore, assists in this decomposition must act a very
important part in vegetation.

Mr. Fourcroy thinks, that the ashes of burnt vegetables,
which have been supposed to consist of earth or clay, when
the fixed alkali is washed from them, are principally cal-
careous phosphorus, like those of animal bones. Lqrd
Dundonald is of the same opinion. This observation is a
most important one, and ought to be pursued. In regard
to the calcination of earths, that of clay and chalk has
been already treated. The circumstances are numerous
in which this operation may be highly beneficial.

Loam or sand. Loam is composed of various combinations of sand, clay,
and calcareous earths. The effect of fire exerted on sand,
whether mixed in the form of loam, or by itself in a sandy
loam, has not been sufficiently ascertained ; and to draw
conclusions from theory would be dangerous. If I were to
reason upon the point, I should imagine that fire would
add nothing to the nature of sand which could render it
more fertile. The tendency of its operation would be to
lessen its small degree of cohesion, from whatever cause
arising, and might so far be prejudicial. Iron brought
into combination with pure air lessens the aggregation *a

• Davy.

It

Ctt MANURES, 189

It is however a question demanding the combined efforts
of the chemist and the farmer, not reafoning but experi-
menting. TTff fl^,

The effect of heat in this operation is remarkable. Where- £»<**©* «***-
everburning has been much practised, experience has de-
monstrated the necessity of removing ail the ashes where
the fires were made ; and though careful farmers remove
some of the uncalcined earth, still these spots manifest a
deeper green in the crop, than is observable in any other
part of the field. The general warmth diffused may proba-
bly have a greater effect than is suspected.

-2. The Properties of the Ashes resulting from Paring and
Burning.

Vegetable ashes imbibe carbonic acid from the at raos- Properties of
phere*. They act in decomposition, and yield three tbe *siias-
fourths in carbonic acid, and one fourth a little inflamma-
ble ; and last many years, by reabsorbing in winter the
principles they had lost in summer f.

I imagine that the advantage of paring and burning
some soils depends on the heat emitted from the burning
vegetable fibres uniting oxygen with the clay, which forms
more than the half of the slices of turf as they are dug
from the ground £.

That the ashes produced by paring and burning operate
as a very powerful manure, cannot be doubted ; since in
nine tenths of the trials that have been made through the
wide range of so many counties, the crops which followed
have been found to be very great indeed, and generally su-
perior to those procured by means of any other manure.
It is not the want of this success that has mado so many Caution,
enemies to the practice, but rather the contrary ; the crops
have been so large, and so often repeated, because great,
that the soil has been Left in a state of exhaustion.

This is a subject that demands the attention of the expe-
rimental chemist more than most others in the theory of
agriculture. The examinations which have been made on

• Priestley. f Fabbroni. J Darwio.

the '

190 0W MANURES.

Good effects the ashes of vegetables, and of earths, will account for &
countedfor." certain degree of benefit resulting from their use; but per-
haps it does not fully account for the enormous crops, which
are gained by the operation of paring and burning. I have
gone through not an inconsiderable course of reading, with
a view to discover the theory of this fact ; but my research
has nop entirely satisfied me. The formation of charcoal,
sulphate of potash, and phosphate of lime, with the decom-
position of water, and the oxigenation of clay, added to
the mechanical change effected by the fire, may certainly
account for a considerable part of the improvement.

3. The Paring and the Burning.

Method of The common practice is to pare from two inches on peat

•Deration.5 ** sm's to na^an mcn on others: an inch is the more general
depth.

Mr. Wilkes, of Derbyshire, has ploughed nine inches
deep, and burnt the whole furrow with the assistance of
co&\ sleek; manuring double the quantity of land burnt,
but working an immense improvement on the space thus
deeply burnt. I have seen other cases in which four inches
depth was burnt with great success. In the fens of Cam-
bridgeshire the paring is done with a plough, and tke depth
from one inch to two. On sand the paring should be as
shallow as possible.

The chief attention paid in burning is to guard against
too great a calcination ; as the general opinion of those who
have most practised this husbandry is, that the turfs should
be rather scorched or charred than reduced to ashes. If
burned during a brisk wind, sands frequently vitrify, and
will not afterwards in many years, if ever, be restored to a
state capable of contributing any thing to the support of
Vegetables: hence it is a practice with those who are aware
of it, prior to burning, to shake out, in dry weather, from
the grass-roots, the greatest part of their substance with
barrows. The heaps should always be small, and the fire
be applied on the sheltered side of them : this method, in a
degree, should be regarded in the burning of earths of al-
most

OM MANURES. |f)l

most every kind ; as hereby alone a carbonized substance,
called the black ash, will be obtained; instead of a red
brick earth, of much less fertility in the outset, afterwards
less susceptible of its principles as imbibed from the at-
mosphere.

In practice, however, as I have found more^ than once
on my own farm, other circumstances will govern this
point ; such as, the weather in drying the turf, the depth
to which pared, and the age of the grass ; for these points
have all an influence on the size of the heaps.

4. State in which the Ashes are applied.

Here occurs a considerable variation in common practice. Application *f
There are two methods; one, to spread and plough in im- the ashes.
mediately; the other, to spread immediately, but to leave
them exposed to the atmosphere some months before turn- *
ing in. Mr. Wedge, on the thin sand soil on a chalk l*ot-
tom of Newmarket heath, had- in one field a treble experi-
ment; part was pared and burnt in the spring, and the
ashes spread and exposed till ploughing in the autumn for
wheat; part pared and burnt late, the ashes left in heaps,
and spread just before ploughing for wheat ; the third pared,
and not burnt at all, by reason of bad weather. The first
was by far the best; the second the next; and the third
beyond all comparison inferior. This seems to be a decided
proof, that the ashes absorb some matter from the atmos-
phere, which adds to their fertilizing qualities.

5. Application,

The circumstances which may with propriety be touched Mode «f ap-
i aj i j " plying them.

»n under this head, are,

1st. Spreading.

2d. Depth of tillage.

The fact of the ashes improving more after having been
for some time exposed to the atmosphere was probably the
motive, which induced Mr. Tuke, of York, to pursue on
tli« wolds .of Lincoln a practice that deserves attention. It

is

jg% "on manures.

is to pare along the centre of the lands a width sufficient tot
the heaps and burning; to move the sods, in order to
plough the breadth ; then to plough it ; to make the heaps
for burning on the land so ploughed; by whieh means all
the land may b« ploughed before the ashes are spread, and
by this means kept on the surface : two material objects
being attained ; 1st, the exposition of the ashes ; and, 2d,
they are not ploughed to the bottom of the furrow, but kept
on the surface to combine with the land, and early sinking
prevented.

Evenness of spreading is always a material object, what-
ever may be the manure.

The universal practice (except in one very singular in-
stance) is to plough the first time very shallow. A multi-
plicity of observations have convinced the farmers in almost
every part of the kingdom, that these ashes have a ten-
dency to sink ; and the aim has therefore been to keep them
near the surface by shallow tillage, especially at first. The
method of ploughing before they are spread entirely obviates
the necessity of such a practice;

7. Seajon*

Season of the As the work can only be^done in dry weather, it is usually
*eaI* * begun in March, in which month the NE. winds are more

drying than at any other time. When the space to be
burned is large, it is continued till September; and as the
ashes are the better for exposition to the atmosphere, any
crop may be put in that best suits the farmer's couve*
niency.

8. Soil.

As the quantity of the manure thus gained depends en-
tirely «u the depth of paring, I pass on to the consideration
of soils on which the practice may be recommended.
Soil* • I have tried it myself but on two soils ; on mountain peat,

and on middling loam : on both these I had entire success.
But the information, which the respectable society I address
look for, must be derived from more varied experience

than

6N MANURE*. \'J$

than it is possible for one person to piretend to, I aliali
therefore select a few cases which will embrace all the*
soils. These might be multiplied tenfold, but it would
swell these papers to too great a length to offer more than
a sketch.

play,

Mr. Bailey, of Northumberland, speaking from great Clay,
experience, says, " that- he has found this operation the
most effectual remedy or preventive of the calamity of the
red worm and grubs." The advantage of the practice ii
the certainty- of full crops; " I do not," says he, " recol-
lect an instance where the cultivator was ever disappointed ;
and it is this amazing fertility, that has tempted many peo-» •
pie to go on with repeated corn crops, until the soil was
exhausted."

Loam.

On the enclosure of 3tanwell in Middlesex, the allot- Loam, J
ments succeeded well under the perfect practice of paring
and burning; and ill, where the turf was ploughed without
the application of fire*. In the former case the land was1
immediately fit for turnips, tares, barley, and clover. In
the latter, the tough wiry bent heath, and dwarf furze,
kept the land too light and spungy for any crops; and the
farmer will be plagued for many years. The difference be-
tween the two methods is more than the value of the free-
hold in favour of burning. I have observed in various couiv*
ties the same decided preference f.

In the enclosure of Enfield Chase, (the soil, loam) Dr.
Wilkinson states, from experience, that paring and burning
saves a very heavy expense; that the ashes possess most
fertilizing qualities; that grasses are thus much sooner to
be introduced ; thas it is a security againft the ravages of
the worm ; and that so far from ruining its staple, the land
has afterwards retained its fertility during five successivt
crops J,

* And which will be the case 99 times in 100 universally.
•f- MiduUton's Middlesex. | Ibid.

Vol. XXIII.— July I8O9. O Aftef

1<)4^ <*» MANURES.

After nine years cultivation of land broken up without
burning, it has been noticed, that on being laid down,
young furze sprung up generally; burning is therefore ab-
solutely necessary*.

Mr. Exter, near Barnstable, broke up a grass field in an
enclosed farm, one half by paring and burning, the other
half by fallow. The first crop was wheat ; the burnt gave
thirty-five bushels per acre, the ploughed seventeen ; the
former was clean, the latter had much couch. Winter
tares; the burnt were fourteen inches long, when the
ploughed were only six ; when eaten off by sheep, the se-
cond growth was in length as twelve to four. The next
crop being turnips, and dunged equally, the burnt side
was free from the fly. Barley succeeded, which was con-
siderably better on the burnt part. Clover was next, which
was closer eaten on the burnt part; and when laid to grass
was worth 5s. per acre more than on the ploughed half.
Dots not di- Mr. Dalton, of Yorkshire, on a dry loam on limeftone
mmish the an(j grave]B « |t is a mere chimera to suppose, that the
soil is diminished by paring and burning. I have done it in
the same field twice in the course of fifteen years, and could
not discover it in. the smallest degreef." On a light loam
in Cornwall, Mr. Ans observes, " I was not singularly mis-
led by speculative writers (who, I fear, have much to an-
swer for) to think that burning caused a lasting injury to
the earth. I fallowed three fields. I expected them to con-
tinue free from moss beyond the common period of its re-
turn. I found myself much mistaken ; besides the crops
failing, like those of some of my neighbours who had not
burned, the moss returned as usual. Hence I and all my
fellow sufferers from following have totally abandoned this
practice, and stick to the ancient one of burning.'*

«« It has been the practice of a friend of mine, and his
father before him, and of others before them, for near a
century past, (the eftate having been in the family for many
generations) on their thin limestone land, constantly to
pare and burn after ten years grass. The soil is so thin.

* Middleton's Middlesex.

f Communication to the Board of Agriculture.

that

OTf MANURES. ]g5

that the plough scalps the rock; yet no diminution of soil
is in the least discovered**'*

Sand.

u Upon sand T have tried paring and burning, but un» Sand,
successfully f." But Colonel Vavasour speaks* or it fav6ur-
ably on this soil, and from experience. Query, whether
this difference of result did not hold to their courses of
crops? The former speaks, in another case, of two crops
of wheat, and oue of oats. The latter, 1. turnips, <2. buck
wheat, 3. seeds. If Mr. Wright looked on sand for corn,
and not grass, no wonder he was unsuccessful.

Chalk.

Mr. Boys, near Sandwich, in 1783, pared and burnt Chaifc.
twenty acres of loose dry chalk mould, four inches deep, .
on a hard chalk rock, value Is. per acre, and sowed barley
and sainfoin in March. His whole expense, barley crop
included, 53l. Produce sixty-six quarters of barley, at
26s., 861.: his profit 33b, or the fee-simple of the land at
twenty-two years purchase, the price at that time. The
sainfoin took well}. In 1795, he writes to the author of
the periodical work just quoted, " Should any of your
friends, who so much condemn paring and burning, come
into Kent this summer, I can show them several scores of
acre3 of wheat, barley, oats, and sainfoin, now growing on
land which has several times undergone the operation :-**
the crops of sufficient value to purchase the land at more
than forty years purchase, at a fairly estimated rent, before
the improvement. This will be ocular demonstration to
them."

Peat

Twenty years past a field of coarse rushy land was broken pert^
tip ; part pared and burnt, the rest not. Whilst in tillage,

• Mr; Wright. * Ibid. $ Annul*.

0 9 th#

\96'

ON MANURES.

the part burnt yielded crops uniformly better than the
others. It has been down to grass several years ; the burnt
part is quite free from rushes, and covered with a good
sweet herbage ; the other part full of rushes, and the herb-
age coarse*." .

Mr. Simpson says, " I ploughed ten acres of moor, on a
lime stone bottom, in the part most free from ling, without
burning, and I have had sufficient cause to repent it ; for I
have not had even one middling crop fince ; and although
laid down with seeds, they have by no means so good an
appearance as those sown the same year on similar soils
after burning, although 1 have expended as much lime and
manure on this as on any part of the farm f 1

Near Orton, on a peat moss, six or eight inches deep, on.
a stiff bluish clay ; the only vegetable produce spongy
moss, bent grass, dwarf rush, &c. wet and not drained;
pared three inches deep, and burnt in the spring ; then ,
manured with thirty bushels of lime an acre; ploughed
slightly for turnips, which were not hoed. They were worth
,31. an acre; and being sown with oats, produced seventy
bushels per acre J."

Miss Graham was the first that pared and burnt moss in
Monteith. Several acres, that were burnt above forty
years ago, continue to carry a close sward of green gras*
at this day, without a single pile of heath §.

" Of all the methods of breaking up peaty soils which I
have practised or seen, the best mode is paring and burning.
I have seen various methods on several thousand acres, but
none ever equalled this j|."

(To be continued in our next.)

* North-Riding Report. ■ f Ibid.

| Todd. Society's Transactions. § Perth Report,

. |j. Bailey.

VI,

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198

METEOROLOGICAL TABLES.

METEOROLOGICAL TABLE,

By Dr. Clarke, of Nottingham.

--

1808-

Thermometer.

Barometer. 'I^*"
jltber.

Winds.

Rain

MONTH.

E

■a

-

g

5 5 a

2 • J=

-C

br.

en
0

i

S

x c i
5.1 *

2 'Sm

'2

jS

hi

4

06
4

>

i a

•5 'c

s

1

*

1 X

a

s

P| *

u.

-r.

H

/:

>

J<S

January. .

49 1;

38 L7 19

30 39

289/129791 "«5

00

ii

2

3

51

57

1-40

February

55 22

3865

13

3074

29 42130-05 *57

2]

l

21

3

21

42

•54

March . .

52

,Y2

40 21

6

30-39

29-57I3012 -31

,23

8

65

16

—

12

58

April

5ti

3'

43 62

10

30 2<»

29-07-2979! -41

,3i,7i

141 2

27

47

385

May ....

9$

48

5901

|30-17

29 47|29«4

•24

2l|l0|

21

20

41

11

1 94

June ....

72

gfl

5995

9

13025

29 62|29-9>

•30

19 HI
24 7l

18

26

19

17

2 32

July ....

♦9

54

07 19

12

!30 16

29 54i29 S9

21

19

17

30

Jl

210

August . .

/O

53

04 62

10

,30*17

29'35J297S

71

20

11

7

9 42

35

91

Septemberl 6b i 40

57 32

9

30*28

29'28 29 76

•38

19

11

89

7

26

2S

2-37

October.. ;6o(34

46 31

10

30-32

28 9812962

I '91

19 12

10

6

4<

3;

257

November }55 3 ''45<-6

13

30 25

2872 297*>

•68

17 13

26! 15

26

23

218

December 1 |4oJ 22 1 37 -90"

14

3026

2908]2976 -55

21 1 10

30i 4

27

32

180

ANNUAL RESULTS.

Thermometer. Wind.

Barometer. Wind

Highest Observation, July 13th, 89°SW.

Highest Observation, Feb. 25th, 3074 N-

Lowest Observation, Jan. 22d, 17°SW.

Lowest Observation, Nov. 18th, 2872 SE.

Greatest Variation, in 24 hours,

Greatest Variation in 24 hours,

Jan. 22d-23d,. 19*

October 13th- 14th, g\

The Mean, 4988

The Mean, 29'84

Weather. Days— Winds. Time

s. Rain. Inches.

Fair 237 N. & NE 262 .... Greatest Quantity in April, 385

Wet .... 128 .... E. & SE 128 .... Smallest ditto, in February 54

S. & SW 356

365 W.&NW. ..352 Total

22'56

1093

ft

Ei

MA

RKS.

METEOROLOGICAL TABLES. 199

REMARKS.

The town of Nottingham is situate in latitude 52° 59' 35" Situation of
north, and in l* 7' 0" longitude west of London. It rises olunB ara"
with much grandeur from the banks of the small river Leen,
gradually increasing its elevation as it extends to the N. E.,
so that above one half stands on a considerable eminence.
The foundation is a soft sand stone rock, easily excavated,
and forming excellent cellars. The buildings are chiefly of
brick, and commonly three or four stories high. The
streets are, in general, narrow. The neighbourhood pro-
duces an ample supply of coal, which is the only fuel used
in the town. The Trent, a fine navigable river, flows, from
west to east, within a mile of the town ; it is subject to very
sudden swells, which sometimes produce floods, that inun-
date the meadow ground between the river and the town.
The atmosphere must be, in some measure, influenced by
the evaporation that follows, as well as by the dense haze
over the river in summer evenings, and the thick fogs of
winter.

The barometer, thermometer, and pluviameter (or rain Instruments &
gauge), are new instruments, made by Jones, of Holborn. °b5er™tions.
The thermometer, on Fahrenheit's scale, is placed outside
a window, facing the west, in the centre of the town, but
in a situation protected from currents of air, or reflected
heat. The observations were made daily, at 8 A.M.,
2 P. M., and 1 1 P. M., and from them the averages are
deduced. — The barometer (of the portable kind) is firmly
fixed to a standard wall over a staircase, on a level of 130
feet above the sea. The observations were tnken daily at
2 P.M., and from these the mean was obtained.— The
pluviameter is placed in a garden, on an. elevation of 140
feet above the level of the sea, where it cannot be affected
by buildings, or gusts of wind. The observations are taken
at the end of each month. — The. observations on the wind
were made at 8 A. M., 2 P. M., and at dusk, from the vane
of a church steeple, the most elevated part in the town.

The following Copy of a Monthly Journal will be the
best elucidation of the plan thathas been pursued.

METEOROLOGICAL

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3

IMPROVEMENT IN PREPARING ETHER. gQl

VII.

Observations on Sulphuric Ether, and its Preparation; by
Mr* Boullay, Apothecary, of Par in*.

Jl. HE use of sulphuric ether is at present very extensive, The malting of
and its consumption so great, that it has become a produce sulphuric ether
of the arts in the large way. Its preparation, though much proved,
simplified, still merits attention; and appears capable of
being improved, not only in respect to economy, but also as
to the purity of the product.

In the formation of sulphuric ether, whether by the dis- The latter pro-
filiation of a simple mixture of concentrated sulphuric acid <lucts always
and alcohol, or the addition of fresh alcohol to the resi- nplyte'
duutn, all the quantity obtained is not equally dulcified ;
and, in spite of careful rectifications, the last portions al-
ways retain a more or less unpleasant smell, that may be .
ascribed to some oil intimately united with it, which it is
very difficult to separate completely.

According to the theory of Messrs. Fourcroy and Vau- Theory of tht
quelin, founded on their learned researches into the subject, ™he? IOD °
the attraction of sulphuric acid for water, assisted by heat,
determines the transformation of alcohol into ether. x This
reaction of the principles of alcohol, exerted under the in- What injurious
fluen.ee of the sulphuric acid, precedes the carbonization of to lt*
the mixture, the formation of the oleum dulce, the extri-
cation of sulphuric acid, and the other phenomena of the
process carried to its end. We may even venture to say,
that ether is no longer formed, when these products appear;
and that what passes over after that time is only separated
the residuum, in which it was contained ready formed. It
would be an advantage therefore, to prevent, or at least re- This should b*
tard, the appearance of these products, which announce a PreveiUed»
complete decomposition of the alcohol; and, by adding at
a proper time fresh quantites of this liquid, to keep up
such proportions, that the etherification may go on much
)onger. For this it appears necessary, that the sulphuric

* Annalcs de Chimie, vol. LXII, p. 242.

acid

gjQg IMPROVEMENT IN PREPARING ETHER.

acid should never compose more than two thirds of the con->
tents of the retort,, and that the alcohol should be scarcely
ever less than the other third*. In this way the sulphuric
acid is prevented from burning the alcohol to its loss, and
we obtain- none of the results of a decomposition carried too
far, which is injurious to the etherification, and immediately
follows it. We shall then have a better product, and in
larger quantity; and the production qf ether will continue,
till the sulphuric acid is so much diluted by the water
formed and separated, as to be unable to effect any change
in the alcohol.

Appa-atus. The particular kind of funnel, which has facilitated my

malting" ether by means of the phosphoric acidf, and is ap-
plicable to many other chemical processes, enabled me to
carry this theory into practice in the following manner.

tmpmv&d pro- To a large tubulated glass retort, placed on a sand heat,
I adapted a glass worm immersed in a vessel of cold water.
The extremity of the worm was inserted into the neck of a
large bottle, between which and a second bottle filled with
water a communication was established by means of a si-.
phon. Into the retort I introduced ten kilogrammes [22lbs.
avoird.] of sulphuric acid concentrated to 66°. In the tu-
balure was inserted the funnel with two cocks, so that its
pipe descended nearly to the bottom of the retort, passing
through the sulphuric acid. Ten kilogrammes of alcohol
at 36° of Beaume's areometer were then poured in quickly,
being conveyed through the acid by means of the funnel.
The mixture was very well effected, though with violence ;
and it was the less coloured in proportion as the introduc-
tion of the alcohol was more speedy. The distillation was
kept up by means of a fire under the retort; and as soon
as about two kilogrammes had passed over, ten kilogrammes

Thefniddie * The proportions of equal parts of sulphuric acid and spirit of

pjoduet best, wine, constantly adopted, appear to be most suitable. It is to be ob-
served however, notwithstanding the utmost care taken to separate the
alcohol, that comes over first, the product that follows does not attain
the lightness, that constitutes true ether, till toward the middle of the
process.

-J See Journal, vol. XVIII, p. 64, and PI. II, fig. 4.

Of

• PROBLEM IN THE DOCTRINE OF PERMUTATIONS. Oqj

of fresh alcohol at 40°* were introduced drop by drop, re-
gulating the quantity as nearly as possible by what passed
over into the receiver. The process was continued so as to
obtain fifteen kilogrammes of a white limpid product, of
the most agreeable ethereal smell and taste, containing no
traces of sulphurous acid or oleum duke, and yielding,
when rectified on a water-bath, eight kilogrammes of pure
ether, with some alcohol of an ethereal smell well adapted
for future processes.

The liquid remaining in the retort was of the colour of The residuum,
beer, and very clear. It consisted of nearly the whole of
the sulphuric acid employed, some alcohol, water, and no
doubt a certain quantity of ether completely formed.

This residuum, heated afresh, quickly assumed a black Purposes to

colour, and became sulphurous and oily. In this state it which 'l* m*y

. be applied.

may enter into the composition of Hoffmann's mineral

anodyne liquor. The residuum might also be turned to

account, by using it as sulphuric acid where the alcohol

could do no harm, as for instance, in forming different

salts.

VIII.

Investigation of a Problem in the Doctrine of Permutations.
By Mr. Peter Barlow.

To Mr. NICHOLSON.
SIR,

N the course of a mathematical investigation, in which Problem in th«
I was lately engaged, it was necessary for me to determine doctrine of per-
— -How many combinations could be formed out of a given ipU a 10n*
number of things, in which there were several things of one

* I have observed, that alcohol at 36° is best adapted for the com-
mon preparation of sulphuric ether; and that the mixture is less co-
loured when it is at this strength, than if it contain less water. But at
the second addition, as the#cid is already weakened, it is better to em-
ploy it at 40°.

tort,

£04 TROBLEM IN the DOCTRINE OF PERMUTATIONS,

sort, several things of another sort, &c, by taking one at
a time, two at a time, &c, to any given number of things
at a time.
riL^^r"" I have not been able to find, that this problem has been
partially, considered by any authors, at least, that I am acquainted

with, who have written on the doctrine of permutations and
combinations; except indeed Emerson, and one or two
other authors of a later date, who have a similar problem,
that is, a partial case of the above general one, which from
a repetition of operations would be sufficient for the solution
a*3 the rule' ^ 0f the present question, but the rule which is given by them
practice. for determining the number of combinations in each parti-

'ctilar case is so long and tedious, that it is really of no use,
- beingiittle better, or less trouble, than finding the answer
from repeated trials.
Aver j- simple This circumstance led me to consider the problem inde-
jener ru e. peRf]Gnt|v 0f the measures there adopted, and having fallen
upon a very simple rule, which includes the particular case
of Emerson's in the general one above mentioned ; and as
it has not, to the best of my knowledge, been given by any
author, who has written on this subject, I have been in-
duced to submit it to you for insertion in your Journal,
should you think it deserving a place in that useful woxk.

Problem.

Problem. To determine the number of combinations, that can be

formed out of a given number of things, in which there are
m things of one sort, n things of another sort, p things of
another sort, &c. ; by taking 1 at a time, 2 at a time, &c,
to any given number of things at a time.

Rule.

JLulz. Place in one horizontal row m + 1 units, annexing ci-

phers on the right hand, till the whole number of units and
ciphers exceeds the greatest number of things to be taken
at a time by unity.

Under each of these terms write the sum of the n -\- 1
left hand terms, including that as one of them, under which
the number is placed ; and under each of these write the
sum of the p 4- 1 loft hand terms of the last line. Under

each

1111

1

1

0

0

0

0

12 3 4

5

6

5

4

3

2

13 610

15

20

23

24

23

20

1 4 10 20

35

54

74

92

105

110

PROBLEM IN THE DOCTRINE OF PERMUTATIONS. 2Q5

rach of these last the sum of the q 4- l left terms, and so
,on, through all the number of different things, and the laet
line will be the answer: that is, the second term shows the
number of combinations taking one at a time, the third term,
the number of combinations taking two at a time, &c

Example, *

Given a number of the form a* b5 c* d4 e*f* g> to find Example.
how many different divisors it lias, each of which shall be
the product of ten factors, of nine factors, of eight factors,
&c. ; a, 6, c, &e. being prime numbers.

Here m z= 5, n zz 5, p zz 4, q ZZ 4, r ZZ 4, s zz 3, t zz 1,
therefore by the rules

0 zz m -f- 1 units
\zzn +1 terms
15 — p + 1 terms
105—9 + 1 terms
15 15 35 70 123 193 275 3G0 435 486 ± r + 1 terms
1 6 21 56 125 243 421 66l 951 1263 1556 zzs f 1 terms
1 7 27 77 1B1 368 664 1082 l6l2 2214 2819 answers.

That is, the number has seven prime divisions, twenty-seven
that are composed of two factors, seventy-seven having three
factors, &c.

I have selected this question, because it includes the par- This rule com*
tkular case given by Emerson in his last example ; in order Pared wilh
that, by a comparison of both methods, an estimate may be
formed of the labour that is saved by this rule. It may not
at tie aame time be amiss to observe, that Emerson has not
put down a twentieth part of the work, that is necessary for
the operation.

Investigation of the Rule.

By the developement of the formula (l -f a -J- o • • • »am) Investigation '
*( 1 + b + 6*. . . .//») .(Hc + c2-. -cP) • (l + d + d* of the rul<>

• • • 'd?) &c, we shall evidently obtain all the possible com-
binations that can be formed with m a s, n b s, p cs, q ds,
&c. ; and, as we proceed in this developement, the law
whence the above ruU is deduced will be readily perceived.

But,

£0$ PROBLEM IN TIIE DOCTRINE OF PERMUTATIONS*

But, for this purpose it will be best to give determinate
values to m, », p, q, &c ; by which means the operation
will be more simple, and at the same time the law of forma-
tion will be equally obvious. Therefore suppose m zr 4, n
zz 3, p ss 2, then by actual multiplication we have

1 + a + «* + a* + «4

And again, multiplying this last product by 1 + c + c%
we obtain the following result.

1 +

Caxl C^1 f fl4 l

Now, without pursuing the developement any farther, ve
shall readily perceive, that all the combinations in the se-
cond place, in both products, consist of one letter, in the
third place, of two letters, and in the fourth of three letters,
&c. And farther, that in any term, for example the fifth
term, the number of combinations is equal to the number
in the fifth, fourth, and third, of the foregoing product; the
number of combinations in the fourth term is equal to the
number in the fourth, third, and second : that is, the num-
ber of combinations in each term is equal to the number in
the three last named terms of the foregoing product; and if
we had used cs, then the number in each term would have
"been equal to the four last named terms of the foregoing

product; and generally, if we had employed cp, the num-
ber

VERY SENSIBLE HYGROMETER, Cgyf

ber of combinations in each term would have been equal to

the number in the p ■{- 1 left-hand terms of the preceding
line. And exactly the same law is observed when we mul-
tiply this last product by (1 -f- d + d* — d?)> that is to say>
each term of the new product is equal to the number of
combinations in the q -f- I left hand terms of the line which
precedes it ; and so on, for any number of multiplications
whatever. Whence the truth of the rule is manifest*

We may farther remark, that, if the greatest number of
things to be taken at a time exceeds half the number *>f
things given, still, we need not pursue the operation for
more than half the given number, as will be evident from
a closer inspection of the above formulae. For it must be
readily observed, that, were we to carry the operation of
each multiplication to its whole extent, the terms on each
product would increase, from the first to the middle terms,
and then decrease again in the same manner to the other
extremity of the line.

Yours, &c.

PETER BARLOW.

Royal Military Academy, Woolwich,
May 31 Jf, 1809.

IX.

Description of a very sensible Hygrometer. By Lieutenant
Henry Kater, of his Majesty's lc2th Regiment*,

N the Mysoor and Carnaiic is found a species of grass, An India*
which the natives call, in the Canarese language, oobeena «ra:JS
hooloo, in the Maratta, guvataa see cooslee, and, in Tamul,
yerudoovaal pilloo'f. It is met with in the greatest abun-
dance, about the month of January, on the hills; but may
be procured in almost every part of the country, and is very
generally known.

* Abridged from the Asiatic Researches, vol. IX, p. 24.

•f It is the andropogon contortum of Linnxus, and may be easily dis»
tinguished from all others, b/ the seed; attaching themselves to the
clothes *f those who walk where it grows.

Accident

Hygrometer
Katie, of it.

205 VERY SENSIBLE HYGROMETER.

has a beard Accident led me to remark, that the bearded seed of this

•fmoUture grass possessed an extreme sensibility of moisture; and
being then in want of an hygrometer ', I constructed one
of this material, which, on trial, far exceeded my expec-
tations.

ABCD, PI. VI, fig. 1, represents a piece of wood,
about fourteen inches long, three inches broad,, and one
inch and two tenths thick. The upper part is cut out,
as in the figure, to the depth of two inches, leaving the
sides A and B, about three tenths of an inch thick. The
wood, thus prepared, is morticed into a square board, which
serves as its support.

Fig. 2 is an ivory wheel*, about an inch and two tenths
diameter, and two tenths of an inch broad at the rim. A
semicircular groove is made in the circumference, of such
a depth, that the diameter of the wheel, taken at the bot-
tom of the groeve, is one inch. Through the axis, which
projects on one side four tenths of an inch, a hole is made,
the size of a common sewing needle; and, on this, as a
centre, the wheel should be carefully turned ; for, on the
truth of the wheel the accuracy and sensibility of the in-
strument chiefly depend. From the bottom of the groove
a small hole is made obliquely through the side of the
wheel, to admit a fine thread. AH the superfluous ivory
should be turned away, that the wheel may be as light as
possible.

Fig. 3 represents a piece of brass wire, two inches long;
on one end of which a screw is made, an inch and a half in
length; and, in the other, a notch is cut, with a fine saw,
to the depth of half an inch. This part is tapered oft*, so
that the notch, which is intended to hold the beard of grass,
in the manner hereafter described, may be closed, by means
©f a small brass ring (a) which slides on the taper part of
the wire.

A little below the centres of the semicircles A and B,
fig. 1, two holes are made, precisely in the same direction :
one of these is intended to receive the screw, fig. 3, and the

* Tn my first rtcpdflmenta 1 used a wheel made of card'paper, with aa
axis of wood,. which answered very well.

othtr

I §

1 /

s^- 'MiWMl^MtM^

n ' f

* T

i

_■.'■■:.

Ik

in *~\

I

,h

VERY SENSIBLE HYGROMETER. QQg

ather a gold pin, which is to project four tenths of an inch
beyond the inside of the part A. The pin is made rather
smaller than the hole in the axis of the ivory wheel, and is
highly polished ; in order that the motion of the wheel may
be the' less impeded by friction.

Two fine threads, about fourteen inches long, are passed
together through the hole in the groove of the wheel, and
are prevented from returning, by a knot on the outside.
To the ends of these threads two weights are attached, ex-
actly similar, and just heavy euough to keep the threads
expended.

One of the threads having been wound on its circumfe-
rence, the wheel is to be placed on the pin, about the tenth
of an inch from the side A, as in fig. 4. Two glass tubes, T

of a sufficient bore. to admit the free motion of the weights,
are fixed in grooves, in such a manner, that each thread
should fall exactly in the axis of the tube. The tubes are
so long as nearly to touch the ivory wheel.

The beard of the obbeena hooloo, being prepared by cut-
ting off that part which is useless, is inserted about the
tenth of an inch in the projecting end of the axis of- the
wheel, and confined by a small wooden pin, which is to be
tyroken off close to the axis ; the other end is placed in the
notch of the brass screw, before described, and secured by »<ir A

means of the sliding ring. «" >d \H§r

It is evident, that when the grass untwists, the wheel will Action of.the
turn on the gold pin ; and the thread, which is wound about ^^xomc er*
it, with the weight attached, will desceud in the one glass
tube ; while, on the contrary, the weight on the opposite
tube will ascend, and vice versa.

The beard of the grass is now to be thoroughly wetted, Adjustment *
with a hair pencil and water; and when the wheel is sta- • m0isture
tionary, the weights are to be so adjusted, by turning the
brass screw, that the one shall be at the top, and the other
at the bottom of the glass tubes ; which points will mark
extreme moisture.

The instrument must then be exposed to the sun, or to and dryntM.
some heat, not powerful enough to injure it, but sufficient
to obtain a considerable degree of dryness. The weights will
now hange situati ; and, ,probably, on the first trial.

Vol. XXIII.— July, 1800. P - wiU

£]0 VERT SENSIBLE HYGROMETER.

will continue to move beyond the glass tubes. Should this
happen, the beard of grass is to be shortened, by sliding
back the ring, and advancing the brass screw, so as to in*
cTude a longer portiou in the notch. Other trials are to be
made, and the length of the grass varied, till the extremes
of dryness and moisture are within the limits of the glass
tubes.
V onvemV.ca jf the whole of that part of the oobeeva hooloo, which
of tkistorm. possesses the hygroscopic property, be used, the scale will
comprise more than twenty-four inches; a length, which,
though perhaps useful on particular occasions, will not be
found convenient for general purposes.
Trial of itsae- From an idea, that in a high state of moisture the grass
curacy. would not retain sufficient power to move the wheel equa-

bly, it was thoroughly wetted, till it indicated extreme
moisture, and, while in this state, the wheel was drawn
round, by laying hold of one of the threads: on releasing
it, it instantly regained its former situation, with consider-
able force. The same experiment was made, in various
Other states of moisture, and it was always found, that the
weights returned immediately to the degree from which they
had been removed.

t metal wheel Jfc wou^4 perhaps be an improvement, if a light wheel
iy be used, of brass, or any other metal, not liable to rust, were use4
instead of the ivory one; the grass having been found, by
experiment, to be capable of moving a wheel pf lead. The
axis of the wheel might be made very small, and supported
pn Ys, which probably would add much to the sensibility
of the instrument.
Adapted to J nave vet nac* no opportunity of comparing this with any

slight variation other hygrometer ; but it is simple in its construction, not
o$ moisture. ^asj]y disordered, and should seem, from the extent of its
scale, to be particularly adapted to experiments, in which
small variations of moisture are to be observed.
H rrometrl al The hygrometer has been hitherto an instrument rather of
observations curiosity than utility. But from most accounts that we
Skmfau have, *w appears very probable, that this instrument has
more to do with the phenomena of refraction* than either
barometer or thermometer. If then we could obtain a
ji umber of observations of apparent altitudes together

with

IMPROVED HYGROMETER. £ \ \

tvith data from which to calculate the true, noting at the
same time the hygrometer, barometer, and thermometer ,
perhaps some law might be discovered, which might enable
us to ascertain the quantity of the effect of moisture on re-
fraction. It was with this view the hygrometer above de-
scribed was constructed ; but not having yet had an oppor-
tunity of obtaining the requisite observations, it is to be
hoped they may be made by those, who are in possession
of time and instruments equal to the undertaking.

X.

Description of an improved Hygrometer. By Lieutenant
Henry Kater, of his Majesty's 12th Regiment*.

s

INCE I had the honour of laying before the Asiatic Improvement
Society " a description of a very sensible Hygrometer," I °nf '£* p™™^
have attended much to the improvement of the instrument, ter.
and am induced to think that some farther account of it
may not be deemed wholly unacceptable.

The principal objection to the hygrometer described in
my former paper arose from the necessity of shortening the
beard of the oobeena hooloo, in order to reduce the scale to
a convenient length ; this was to be obviated only by giving
. the instrument a circular form, and inventing some mode
of ascertaining without difficulty the numbpr of revolutions
made by the index.

A 15 C D, (PI. VI, fig. 5) is a frame, made of small Decryption of
square bars of brass or silver ; this frame is soldered to a the imp1"0***
square plate B E, the edges of which are turned up, as m$trume
represented by the dotted lines, to secure the index from
injury : on the face of the plate is engraved a circle (see
fig. 8) which is divided into one hundred equal parts. Three
holes, a, b, c, are made through the frame and plate in the
same direction ; the holes a and b, are of a conical form as
represented by the dotted lines, and are highly polished to
lessen friction ; the hole at c receives a screw, one end of
which is tapered, and has a notch cut in it with a fine saw,
which may be closed by means of the sliding ring d.
* Ibid, p. 394.

P2 The

tl£ IMPROVED HYGROMETER.

The axis ef is made of silver wire, very smooth and
straight, arid of the size of a large knitting needle; on the
axis a screw is formed, bv twisting a smaller silver wire
tightly around it from left to right: this screw should he
fourteen or fifteen threads in length; the end of the axis,/,
is divided, and is to be closed by a small sliding ring. As
this is the most important part of the hygrometer, fig. 6, re-
presents it on an enlarged scale.

A loop and drop (fig. 7) is made of fine gold wire, of such
a size as that when suspended on the screw it may slide
along it with perfect freedom by means of the revolution of
the axis, but not escape from one interval to another by any
other motion; should the loop, on trial, be found too large
(as indeed it ought to be) it may be easily closed a little, by
placing it on the screw, and pulling it gently by the drop,
it will then assume an elliptical form, as in the figure. This
Joop is intended to register the number of revolutions made
by the index, as it hangs freely from the axis, and advances
one interval between the threads pf the, screw, for each re-
volution.

The index, g h, is made of fine wire, accurately balanced,
and as light as possible ; it fits on the end of the axis e, and
is to be placed at right angles with the commencement of the
screw. (See fig. 6.)

The beard of the oobeena hooloo is represented between
f and d, (fig. 5.) The top of it, which is crooked, being
cut off, it is first secured between the cheeks of the axis,
at/, by means of the small sliding ring; the axis is then
turned round till the gold loop is brought to the fifth or
sixth interval of the screw, counting from the dial plate;
the. screw at c is then advanced, so as to receive the lower
or thick extremity of the beard of the oobeena hooloo in the
notch, where it is also confined by the sliding ring d.
Adjustment of The extremes of dryness and moisture are determined in
this hygroma the following manner. The hygrometer is placed in a new
earthen pot, which has never been wetted, and exposed for
a considerable time to as great a heat as the grass can bear
' without injury : when the index is perfectly steady, the hy-
grometer is to be taken out of the vessel, and the screw at
t turned round with a pair of pincers, so as to bring the

gold

IMPROVED HYGROMETER, Q\$

£old loop to tbe Jirst interval of the screw, on the axis,
counting as before from tbe dial plate, (which is to fjfe
placed to tbe left band) and the index to 109, or zero. The
hygrometer must now be suffered to cool gradually, during
which, if the atmosphere be in a mean state of moisture,
the index will make four or rive revolutions; the oobeena
hooloo is then to be continually wetted with a hair pencil
and water, till the index is again perfectly steady. This
will require some time, as it moves very slowly when within
a few degrees of extreme moisture. The degree at which
the index stands is now to be noted, and the number of t«-
tervals counted between the dial plate and the gold loop,
and this number prefixed to the observed degrees will give
the extent of the scale.

All observations made with this hygrometer are to be re* Reduction of

duced to what they would have been had the scale consisted lhe obserT»*

J . . tions to a

of 1000 parts, or ten revolutions of the index. This is standard,

most convenient, as it facilitates the comparison of obser^
vations made with different hygrometers. An example may
not be thought superfluous. Suppose the scale of the hy-
grometer to be 1145, or eleven intervals and forty-five parts;
and that at the time of observation, there are/our intervals
between the dial plate and gold loop, and 50 parts shown by
the index; this would be written 450. Then, as 1145 :
1000 : : 450 : 393 nearly, the number of degrees to be
registered*

If two of these hygrometers, in which the extremes of
dryness and moisture are well determined, be compared to-
gether, they will seldom differ ten divisions from each other,
which is as near a coincidence as can be expected.

The oobeena hooloo or andropogon contortus is found in
every part of the country, in the month of January, when
it should be gathered, and thoroughly dried in the sun, be-
fore it is used.

This grass appears to be far superior to any other by* Sensibility and
groscopic substance, hitherto discovered. In the Ency- other advan-
clopsedia Britannica, the scale of Saussure's hygrometer [^£su^£
is said to consist of 400 degrees, or rather more than on*
revolution of the index ; the hygrometer here described
wakes eleven or twelve revolutions ; U possesses also the ad*

vantage:

*r*

GERMINATION OF SEEDS.

vantage of being perfectly portable, cannot easily be de*
ranged, and may be much reduced in size, if thought ne-
cessary, without affecting the extent of the scale.

XI.

On the Germination of Seeds. In a Letter from Mr*
J. Acton, of Ipswich,

To Mr. NICHOLSON.
Dear Sir,

Physiology dif- J[t is admitted by the most enlightened philosophers, that
tigation. ' * scarcely any subject can present itself more difficult of in-
vestigation than animal and vegetable physiology. The
functions depending on vitality must not be compared to the
common chemical processes, or to those changes constantly
taking place in nature by the action of inorganic bodies on
each other. Life itself is a phenomenon enveloped in mys-
tery, and probably will ever remain so. We can form no
judgment of it but from its effects; and those are of so
complex a nature, that it is only by the most attentive and
studious examination of them we can expect to withdraw
the veil of obscurity, under which they are hidden, or at
all approximate to the truth. Any suggestions presenting
themselves to the mind on so important a subject should be
encouraged ; and if we can hope to throw the least addi-
tional light upon it by our exertions, no obstacles should
stop us ; not even the (almost) certainty of ultimate failure
ought for a moment to lessen the energy of our pursuits.
Functions of Perhaps none of the functions of organic bodies deserve
organic bodies our attention more than those tending immediately to ex-
deserving no- istence, namely the respiration of* animals, the germination
tlce« of seeds, and the consequent vegetation of plants; as also

the alterations taking place in the surrounding atmosphere
Object of the chiring their operation. The following humble attempts,
having for their object the farther illustration of these phe-
nomena by experiment, are with diffidence submitted

through

w-nter.

GERMINATION OF SEEITS. 215

through the channel of your widely circulated Journal to
the eyes of the philosophic world; and if they shall he
found of sufficient consequence to clear up ariy doubt, c-r
induce one single effort in others toward explaining the
matters to be treated of; my end will be entirely answered,
and my trouble rewarded. They have been undertaken
and preserved, amidst many interruptions and discourage^
ments ; and if they shall be found not to have all the regu-
larity and accuracy to be desired, I trust they will yet have?
some claim to attention, if not from their originality, at
least from the persevering and disinterested industry, which
gave rise to them, and brought them to a conclusion, the
striving as much as possible to corroborate each experiment
by repetition, and the avoiding to make any deductions but
such as are fully warranted by facts only.

Since the time of Dr. Priestley, the generally received General op!*
opinion has been, that in respiration the oxigen gas of the p^lon de-
atmospheric air is absorbed, and carbonic acid gas given out; strofs oxigen,
and that in vegetation plants are constantly absorbing the SLJJJJf'^S
carbonic acid gas as their natural food, and emitting oxigen
gas, tending to restore the air to its original purity; in this
manner keeping up a regular series of compositions and de-
compositions, beautiful from their apparent simplicity, and
the more deserving of admiration from seeming to harmo-
nize with what was known of the great system of the uni-
verse.

No fundamental opposition appears to have been success- JSjL, i£pi2L
fully made to this doctrine, till about two years ago; when
a work on the subject was published, in which the respect*
able and learned author* brought together in a small com*
pass almost all the experiments that had been performed,
and added a few of his own, for the express purpose of an>
nouncing and endeavouring to demonstrate the following
theory : *« That no air enters the plant or animal during its N . -

" appropriate living processes; but that, during the opera- Mr.JSilis.
*' tion of their respective functions of germination, vegeta-
** tion, and respiration, solid carbon is emitted as a secre*

* Mr. D. filiif on Germination* Sec,

*■ tiws

Sl6 GERMINATION OF SEEDS.

• ' »

" tion in a state of minute division, combines with the oxi*
•' gen gas of the atmosphere, and forms carbonic acid gas."
His work in- j nave perused this work with much attention; and, so

conclusive. rr t • ii-. - , .

lar trom being convinced by it, I can see neither simplicity

nor improvement \i\ the suggestions it contains for a new

theory : but it appears rather calculated, if the reasoning be

conclusive, to throw insurmountable difficulties in the way

of satihfactorily explaining or understanding the common

Experiment; functions of respiration and vegetation, Being extremely
made to ascer- • ' . , , " r i i • /•

tain whether anxious to ascertain the simple lactot the absorption of oxi-

oxigen gas be gen gas, I have for the most part, in conducting my experi-
ments, had this idea constantly in view : 1 have not therefore
turned either to the right or to the left, to quote from or ex-
amine those of others, wishing to keep my mind unchecked
and unfettered by the reasonings deduced from them, how-
ever plausible and respectable they may be.
AJvantrgoous It is not a very common circumstance, to detail the souf-
^irxes'ofer- ces °* errour accidentally discovered in a course of experi-
iout. ments ; nor is itunlikely, if it were oftener done, but it might

prove beneficial in putting others on their guard against the
like causes of failure, and prevent much vexation and dis-
Instance. appointment. In my own case it has happened, that many

experiments and hours of nocturnal labour have been ren-
dered nugatory by the following simple event for some time
escaping my notice, and which my previous experience did
■ not lead me to expect. When the subject of this paper
#l^ first began to engage my attention, I had made some coarse

j^auze bags exactly suited to the diameter of the mercurial
jars I intended to use, that, when rilled with the germinating
seeds, they might be placed in such a situation as I should
prefer in the inverted jars of common a^r or oxigen,,by being
thrust up and adhering to the sides. I generally preferred ,
their being near the top, on account of the superior specific
v i gravity of the carbonic acid gas produced, which thus falls

down, and makes room for every portion of the oxigen gas
to. come into contact with the seeds, and be absorbed. The
motion of carriages, i\i\d other accidental jarring, frequently
occasioned the bags to be displaced. To remedy this incon-
venience, I took a quill, and, passing the feathered end
under the mercury into the jar, returned the bag to its for-
mer

GERMINATION OF SEEDS. gfjf

mer situation. After continuing this practice for some time, Air of :
while engaged in the same manner, 1 was hastily called ™ffi^£
away, and left the quill partly in the jar, with one end rising mercury ty*
out of the mercury. '1 he jar was then two thirds full bffe*th€t»
gas, but on my return in about half an hour, I perceived it
had increased very considerably, and on placing the quill
in other jars, I distinctly heard a shrill whistling noise, like
that of air under pressure passing through a capillary tube,
and I observed the mercury slowly to sink, till it was on a
level on the inside and outride of the jar. I was then con-
vinced the atmospheric ai'* had rushed in by means of the
quill, and consequently that all the experiments, in which
this had been introduced, must have been vitiated. I re*
versed the quill, and it still had the same effect. I tried it but rrot

in jars over water, but no air passed. I afterward made use though****.

J l String, &<vth«r

of string, and other substances, and they all admitted the substances*^*-

air through quicksilver, though in different degrees, someedmthesMiW

being much slower conductors than others. After consider-

ing this phenomenon, the best judgment I am able to form

of it is, that the air does not pass through the body of the

quill, or other substance, but between the mercury and its

sides ; and in water the passage is prevented by their being Mercury does

in closer contact with each other. Whether this explanation notformaclose

contact,

be satisfactory, I leave to your superior knowledge to deter-
mine : 1 confess I was gratified with the discovery, as far as
concerned my experiments, ns it enabled me to prevent their
being so rendered incorrect for the future.

It having been stated as a principal argument in favour Argument for
of the emission of solid carbon from the seed to unite with the emission of
the oxigen gas of the air, that the quantity of carbonic ueid termination **
produced was found to be equal to that of the oxigen gas questioned*
disappearing; upon reflection, it appeared to me replete
with difficulty, if not impossible, to ascertain this to any
degree of aecuracy, from the moistened seeds never ceasing
to give out carbonic aeid gas, whether oxigen gas be pre-
sent or not. 1 was therefore desirous of informing myself
upon this subject, and for this purpose 1 instituted the fol-
lowing method of proceeding.

Exp. 1. into an inverted jar, containing about 13 cubic Experiment
iache* carefully filled with mercury, I introduced a consi- to ascertain tht

derable ac *

918

Germinating
parley.

GERMINATION OF SEEBfc

derable portion of barley previously steeped irf water, and
suffered to germinate till the radicles had shot out about
one third of an inch. In passing them under the quick-
silver it is almost impossible, even with the utmost care, to
avoid the introduction of a small portion of atmospheric
flir> which closely adheres to them ; but this being trifling,
trfti results will not be materially affected by it. The seeds
were fUffered to remain in this situation from the 11th of
February to the 2d of April, the gas being occasionally
taken out aud tried in the following manner.

In 24hourS"--

same time • *
48 hours* • • •
same time • «
same time • <

3 days «

Several days
several days
ad April

Temp. 48°, Pressure 28-68.

• 1-60 cub. in. 63-23 absorbed out of 100
parts by lime water.

6-60
7'20
4-90
6-50
7*00
5*50
2-00
1*00

91-00
Q8-00
98-16
98-18
98-18
98-46
99-00
99'00

42*30 whole of the gas produced.

2d Exp.

Geminating
leans.

A cubic inch was each time exposed to lime water in
Pepys's eudiometer. The remaining gas, generally consist*
ing of several cubic inches, was removed into a narrow gra-
duated tube, and a small quantity of a solution of caustic
potash passed up. The results of both these trials were
compared, and they were as nearly as could be analogous.
Two smaller jars were also charged with some barley in the
same manner: the gas produced was in proportion to the
above, and the absorption nearly similar.

Exp, 2. On the 19th of February, temp. 48°, pressure
30-10, eighteen very small beans, freshly germinating, were
passed up into aninverted jar full of mercury, holding about
5 cubic inches.

GERMINATION OF SEEDS. £Jf),

In 48 hours* ••• 0*56 cub, in. 90*17 absorbed out of 100.

several days 3*00 Q8-00

14 days ...» 3*00 98*47

several days 2-00 ....... 99*00

several days 2-50 99*00

ivoQ

Exp. 3. On the 24th of March, temp. 54°, press. 29*34, ^ ExP-

r . ........ Germinating

twenty germinating pease were placed in a similar situation ^ease*
under a jar, containing about #| cubic inches.

In 3 days 2*00 cubic inches 90*00 absorbed out of 100.
In 3 days 1*00 g8*90

3-00.

By these experiments it appears, that seeds, having once GermlwtilTif

begun to germinate, give out carbonic acid gas in consider* se€r3 give (^v

, . % i carbonic acid

able quantity, even at low temperatures, though excluded gas, when oM"

from oxigen gas, and placed in the most awkward and un- *?a£f* ***
favourable situations. And this circumstance should be
kept in view, as it will have some influence in determining,
if there be a possibility of ascertaining the moment when
germination ceases in seeds placed in a confined portion of
oxigen gas, or common air, or whether any other carbonic
gas be formed, than what is supposed to arise from the solid
carbon uniting to the oxigen gas, and which has been as-
sumed to be in an equal proportion to the oxigen gas that
disappears.

Now it seems evident, that carbonic acid gas can be rea-
dily produced by moistened seeds without the contact of
oxigen gas; and in several trials I have observed the gas
beginning to appear in a few minutes after passing the seeds
up the quicksilver, and when from their being in a healthy
vigorous state of germinution there was no possibility of in-
cipient putrefaction. In most instances on a small scale,
on examination of the gas collected in the first 24 hours, the
absorption by limewater has been about 90 per cent : and as
this has been an invariable case, even where every precau- *

tion was taken for ttye exclusion of common air, I suspected, A little nitro.
that in wholesome germination a small portion of nitrogen gen bUS?sCt<*

gas

220 GERMINATION OF SEEDSi

to be emitted gas might be emitted from the seed along with the carbonitf
in gemination. acid gas> '^^ by the decomposition q{ some of its gluteilf

or by absorbing a small quantity with the oxigen gas oi* the

atmosphere. Jn the experiment No. 1 it will be seen, that

the first tried gas left a considerable residue, owing no doubt

to the casual introduction of atmospheric air ID passing up

the seeds: but the gas, as it formed, being transferred into

other jars, this errour, after the first 24 hours, must have

ceased to have any effect. Latterly the production of gas

became more slow ; and if the seeds had been suffered to

remain, most likely it would in time have altogether ceased;

Theseeds after When they were withdrawn and inspected in the first expe-

the first expe- riment, no sign of putrefaction appeared; they had an ace*

rimenc ace- , ., -.,. jM. , , ,

scent. scent smell, aud distilled water poured upon them in a mo-

ment deeply reddened paper stained with litmus.
Theory of the Analysis has demonstrated the principal constituent parts
production of Gf graminaceous or cereal seeds, to be a large proportion of
oationf^ fecula, a little ready formed saccharine matter, and a por-
tion of gluten ; which last has been proved to be the active
agent in fermentation, and necessary for the conversion of
sugar and feeula into alcohol. Therefore, to account for
the production of gas in germination, as in seeds placed as
in the above experiments, it appears, that, after imbibing
a quantity of moisture, the fecula by the action of the glu-
ten becomes gradually decomposed; the already formed
saccharine matter is dissolved, and assists in the instant
commencement of germination; water most probably is de-
composed ; its oxigen, uniting to the carbon of the seed,
forms the carbonic acid evolved; while the hidrogen in its
nascent state, by combining with another portion of carbon,
assists the continued conversion of the fecula into saccha-
rine matter; the oxigen gas of the atmosphere is absorbed
for the purpose of restoring the equilibrium of the elemen-
tary parts, which the decomposition of the matter of the
*eed, while going on, has a tendency to destroy. But if
germination be impeded or stopped, by the exclusion of
Oxigen gas, or otherwise, the regular composition and de-«
composition, and consequent changes in the substance of
the seed, presenUy cease: Carbonic acid gas however still
continue* to be given out, in consequence of the action of

the

GERMINATION OF SEEDS. %%l

the gluten on the saccharine matter formed by the germina*
tion. When the sugar is exhausted, the acescent first, an4
then the putrefactive phenomena commence; but only very
partially, as T have found the seeds will remain for many
months in the jars after the carbonic acid gas has nearly
ceased to be produced, without undergoing much apparent
alteration.

Exp. 4. To observe how far the same phenomena might Paste gave 69
take place in matters completely disorganised, and u"der p^s °0-'l nitres
■what variety of circumstances this prolific gas (carbonic) gen.
would be produced, I mixed up a little flour, water, and
yeast into a stirT paste, and passed a piece of it about the
size of a walnut up an inverted jar filled with mercury.
Jn three days I collected seven cubic inches of gas. The
whole being submitted to lime water, an absorption ensued,
leaving one tenth of an inch only, which appeared to be
nitrogen.

Exp. 5. I also placed in the same situation a piece of Paste without
paste made with flour and water only, about the same size,
rolled very stiff'. The gas here formed very slowly, not more
than 3*50 cubic inches being collected in ten days. Of this
lime water took up 94 per cent. Tn 8 da s, after 4 cubic
inches more had formed, and by the same test, &6 per cent
were absorbed.

Exp. 6. Three pieces of the same paste were also placed Paste in oxi»
in an inverted jar, containing 1-30 cubic inches of oxigen gengas*
gas of the purity of 98 per cent. After the paste was in
the jar, the whole indicated by the graduated scale 2*75
cubic inches. In three days, the usual allowance being
made for difference of temperature and pressure, an ab-
sorption had evidently taken place, the volume being re-
duced to 2 cubic inches. In four days more it increased
to 3*70 cubic inches; and in four days after to 7. A little
of the air being now tried with limewater, 95 per cent
were absorbed ; evidently showing, that the greatest part of
the oxigen ga« had disappeared. To prove this still farther,
it was suffered to remain till it had increased to 15 cubic
inches, when the same test took up 99 per cent, which.it
could not have done, had iny oxigen gas remained.

Exp.7* To be convinced no errour had ensued in Exp. 5, irx% 5 repeat-

I repeated ed.

g£jg GERMINATION OF SEEDS.

I repeated it with the utmost care. After some days, 2
cubic inches of gas were collected ; and on being submitted
to the usual test, 90 per cent disappeared. In ten days
after 5 cubic inches more had formed, of which 99 percent
were absorbed ; and 3*2 cubic inches being tried with caus-
tic potash, only a bubble remained.
Germination These results prove beyond any doubt, with how much

not n«cessarjr facility the particles of seeds act upon each other, even in

w the prod lie- J . L ...

r.or, of carbomc a pulverized state, when moistened with water; and how

uncertain, under any circumstances, must be the attempt
to discover the precise time of the cessation of germination
of seeds confined in oxigen gas, or what part of the carbo-
nic acid gas is given out by that process, and what by the
spontaneous decomposition of some portion of the seed.
'Hence it should seem, that such experiments, as may have
been made with a view to establish the identity of quantity
. between the disappearing oxigen gas and the newly formed
carbonic acid gas, must be supposed to be in a great mea«*
sure fallacious, and consequently the conclusions drawn
» from them not to be depended upon.

Tb* seeds lost In my first essays on this subject, rendered fruitless by
"•^Sl1* the circumstance before mentioned, I was desirous of dis-

. covering whether seeds increased or decreased in weight
during germination. For this purpose 1 weighed accurately
several parcels of barley before placing them in the air, and
after they were taken out, having previously well dried their
surfaces with blotting paper. In every instance I found a
deficiency of weight, but not beyond what may be easily
fcyeraporation, accounted for- by the evaporation of moisture from the
seeds; as I could often, when the air was particularly dry
(as oxigen gys prepared from oxigenated muriate of potash
over mercury is), perceive some water condensed on the
rot b/gernu- skies of the jars. It appears therefore impossible in this
aation. way to come at the truth : but from all I have been able to

observe, I am persuaded a real increase takes place. The
' following statement gives an account of the loss these seeds
sustained, while confined for some days in jars of atmo*
sr.heric air.

20a

GERMINATION OF SEEDS? 221

£00 grains of barky, lost 8*00 grains

120 grains lost 6'40

100 grains lost 5"6'0

40 grains lo^t 2'30

30 grains lost 2,c20

30 grains lost 2' 10

I merely give these results as means of preventing unne*
cessary trouble and waste of time in others, and not as of
any other importance. The seeds were continued in the
air, until the increase was considerable, and the oxigeu gas
was for the most part exhausted, as appeared by the ac-
customed tests of limewater, and impregnated sulphate of
iron.

In proceeding to detail the following experiments, which Experiments
appear to me decisive of the absorption of oxigeu gas, 1 am uJjJJ^JLg, f
compelled to observe, I have found it impossible to vary oxigtn gas.
and continue some of them to the extent I intended, hav-
ing been often interrupted by the sudden intense coldness
of the weather, occasional illness, and the indispensable
concerns of business. In most of them, where it was at all
necessary, the usual corrections, according to the calcula-
tions of Gay Lussac, for change of temperature and pres-
sure were made, and for this purpose the barometer and
thermometer at the beginning of every experiment and ana-
lysis were duly noted.

Sincerely wishing the little experience I may have ac-
quired in this sort of manipulation should be serviceable to
Others just entering upon the same laudable pursuits, I
take the liberty here of strongly recommending the eudio-
metrical apparatus of Mr. Pepys, as the easiest and most Mr pe ,
correct that can be used for the analysis of gasses. When diometer.
accurately made, and the precautions and directions adopted
as stated in your Journal, vol. XlX, p. 86, scarcely any
obstacle intervenes to prevent its being managed with faci-
lity. Great attention should however be paid, when tilling Precautions,
the elastic gum bottle with the eudiometric liquor, to the
expelling from it every bubble of air; which 1 have tound
can be effectually done no other way, than by frequently
pressing the bottle in a vertical position, keeping the end

of

CC i GERMINATION. OF SEED^.

of the bent tube in the liquor the whole time, aucl suffering
it to resume its proper form very slowly. Care should also
# be taken during the operation, to hold the apparatus iirraly

at the junction of the tubes with one hand, or cautiously
with both ; as, when the greater part or the whole of the
gas is likely to be absorbed, and it goes on rapidly, the gra-
duated tube will, in consequence of the pressure, some-,
times fly ofF violently from the other, and perhaps be bro-

Eadfomemj ^en. ja making the impregnated solution of sulphate of
iron with nitrous gas, I dissolve good soft iron in small
pieces to saturation, in the purest sulphuric acid I can get,
diluted, with about twice its weight of water. The nitric
acid is more manageable than the nitrous, and preferable
for procuring the nitric oxide to impregnate the iron sul-
phate, Avhicli may be easily done with a wide mouthed bot-
tle in a common basin.

IRstttfeii when jt sometimes happens, when analysing air containing but

ofoxigiiMithe btue oxigen gas, a great deal ot nitric oxide is extricated;

•iris small. much more than can be contained in the graduated tube,
so that some difficulty arises in attempting to transfer it.
In such a case I suffer all the gas to. ascend into the elastic
bottle% then under mercury take out the tube, fill it with
the sulphated solution of iron, replace it, and thus the ni-
tric oxide is again separated, and the experiment, com-
pleted ; care being taken during the time to hold the bottle
in such a position, as will prevent the escape of any air.

Experiment g 8# Tne ] 4th of MarcQ temp# 40° pre^ 09.05.

ing barley ia In these processes it may not be unnecessary to mention,
oxigen gas. jhaj- tne jars use(] were graduated with the nicest accuracy
into coble inches and tenths, by putting into them repeat-
edly the weight of the e measures in grains of quicksilver,
and then dra. ing a line w-th the diamond. The internal
diameter of the largest is not more than 2 in lies, and of
the others about an inch. A quantity of freshly germinate
ing barley, weighing 760 gr«.,the radicles protruding about
a quarter of an inch, were conveyed in a coarse gauze bag
through the mercury into one of these jars inverted, con-
taining 17*20 cubjc inches of oxigen gas, prepared from
the oxigenated muriate of potash, and of 97 per cent pu-
rity; the greatest pains being taken, when the seeds were

under

GERMINATION OF SEEDS. £25

tinder the mercury, to exclude the atmospheric air from the
bag as much as possible, by pressing and turning it round
many times. After the seeds were in the jar, the bulk of
the whole was increased to 20*11 cubic inches. I had no
opportunity of making any observation for some day3. Ori
the 2 1st of March it stood at 19"59> and the next day at
1&*9S, the difference of temp, and press, being allowed. A
part of the air being then conveyed to the eudiometer, and.
washed with limewater, 87 per cent disappeared, leaving A
residue of 13 parts; evidently showing, that the whole of
the oxigen gas was not expended. To corroborate this sus-
picion, I made several trials with the impregnated solution
of iron, but owing to the test riot being properly prepared j *
as I found that it acted on the quicksilver, which it should
not have done, the results were so anomalous and contra-
dictory, I forbear to state them.

Exp. 9, The 18th of March, temp, 46°. press. 29*80. Germinating
Eleven germinating beans, weighing 508-3 grs., were ^luluo*,*ea
passed up ajar containing 6*20 cubic inches of oxigen gas
of 99 per cent purity. After the beans were in, the scale v

indicated 7*65 cubic inches.

In 24 hours it had diminished to 6*80 ctibic inches;
In 24 hours more to • 6*50

On the 24th of March the gas had considerably increased,
and upon trial with limewater 88*20 parts in 100 were ab-
sorbed. The beans were then taken out* and on being
weighed were found to have lost 6*90 grs.

Exp. 10. The 19th of March, temp. 48*, press. 29*72. Germinating
Twenty germinating pease, weighing 125*5 grs., were P^ase '» ox»8ea
placed in an inverted jar, containing 1*60 cubic inches of
oxigen gas of 99 per cent purity. When the pease were in,
the whole indicated by the scale 1*95 cubic inches.

In 24 hours it had diminished to • • 1*70

In 12 hours more to • • • • 1*67

In 24 hours more it had increased to 1*79

On the 24th of March it had increased some inches, and
on a portion being examined with limewater, 94 per cent
disappeared.

Vol. XXilI.-*J»vr, 1809. Q These

225 GERMINATION OF SEEDS.

These pease were then passed up a jar filled with mer*
airy, and in throe days produced 2 cubic inches of gas, 98
per cent of which were absorbed by the same test. Another
portion, formed afterward, gave a similar result.

Barley just be- Exp. 11. The 19th of March, temp. 48% press. '2972.

milTat^inoxi" ^ome fresnly germinating barley, weighing 1127 grains,

gen gas. radicles just bursting forth, were placed in a gauze bag;, as

in Exp. S, in 24 cubic inches of oxigen gas of 99 per cent

purity. When the barley was in, the scale Indicated 27*10

cubic inches. In 24 hours it had diminished to 26*70, and

in 12 hours more to 26*15. In transferring some of the gas

for trial, an accident prevented the farther pursuit of the

experiment ; but that being exposed to limewater, 34*50 per

cent only disappeared. *

Germinating Exp. 12. The 24th of M-arch, temp. 54% p. 29*34.

pease in oxi- 0 . . . . , . , _„

gengas in th« kome germinating pease, weighing 114*70 grs., were

dark, carefully passed up an inverted jar A, covered with brown

paper, containing 3*75 cub. in. of oxigen gas quite pure (an

inch of it being previously exposed to the test, only a very

small bubble remained, hardly appreciable.) When the

pease were in, the graduated scale indicated 4*10 cub. in.

In two days in jar A, it had decreased to 3*90
In three days more it had increased to • • 4*20
And the next day to 4*60

The gas being now exposed to lime water, 94 per cent
were absorbed ; and the pease, on being placed in the ba-
lance, had lost some grains in weight as before.
a*nd in the The same weight of pease was placed in jar B exposed to

1,fht# light in 377 cub. in. of oxigen gas. After the pease were

in, it stood at 41*10 cub. in.

In two days jar B stood at • • • 3'92

III three days it was increased to 4*20

And next day to 4*60

Being now tried with lime water, 93 per cent were absorb-
ed ; and the pease, being weighed, had lost two grains only.

Germinating Exp. 13. The 13th of April, temp. 46°, press. 28*90.
gengas'1 irTthe *n Jar ^' *nverted in mercury, and covered with a wrap-
dark, per

GERMINATION OF SEEDS. $$7

per of brown paper to exclude, the light, containing, 2*30
cub. in. of oxigen gas of purity 28 per Cent, were placed 6
freshly germinating garden beuus. The scale then indica-
ted 3*20 cub. inches.

In jar B, in the same situation, but the light not ex- and in the
eluded, the same number of beans were passed up into 235 llg
cub. inches of oxigen gas of like purity. The scale then
indicated 3*30 cubic inches.

In three days it had decreased in jar A, to 2*80
In the same time in jar B, to « 2*50

The air in jar A being now exposed to lime water, 66*30
per cent were taken up ; and of that in jar B 55*50 per cent.
The residues being afterward submitted to the impregnated
sulphate of iron, the quantity absorbed in each^vas propor-
tionate to the oxigen gas not consumed, both having about
rive per cent, which appeared to be nitrogen.

Exp. 14. The 16th of April, temp. 50°, press. 28*90. Germinating

beans in oxigcik,

In jar A, covered as before, containing 4*60 cub. in. of Sas in the dark
. . j u it & in the light.

pure oxigen gas, 10 germinating garden beans were placed.

After they were in, ihe scale indicated 6*15. In jar B, ex-
posed to light, were also put 9 beans, in 5 cub. in. of the
Same gas; the scale then indicating 6-85 cub. inches.

In three hours the scale of jar A indicated 6-06

of jar B 6-56

On the 18th of April* .jar A« • • . • 5*90

jar B.^ 6*30

One the 21st • • • • jar A had increased to 3 6*10
jarBto.... 6*80

On the 22d. • . • jar A to • • 6*40

jar B to • 7*20

On the 23rd > ... jar A to ... • 6*75

jar B to • 7*70

On the 24th.. •• jar A to 7*55

jar B to 8*70

Q * 615

$$& GERMINATION OF SEEflS.

tvl5 cub. in. being now taken out of jar A, and exposed
to solution of caustic potash, 4*75 were absorbed ; and of 7
cub. in. out of jar B, the same test took up 5*20 cub. in.

The residue of jar A being submitted to the usual te^t
for oxigen gas, 12.04 out of 100 parts were absorbed : and
the residue of jar B being also tried, 18*68 per cent disap-
peared.
JJohicirogen —, ,. , , ... .

f»und. 1 o discover whether any lmlrogen gas were present, the

portions left were attempted to be inflamed, but not the least
sign cf it appeared.

The beans were afterward sown, and though the weather
proved very unfavourable, some of them continued to vege-
tate, and are now in blossom.
Nitrogen emit- From the quantity of nitrogen left, I am still farther con-
nation. firmed in the idea, that a little is emitted from the seed in

germination, particularly with those of the pulse kind.

Germinating Exp. 15. The l6th of April, temp. 50°, press. 28*90.

p ase in oxigen

4gas. Fifty germinating pease were placed as above in 2*05 of

: the same oxigen gas. •»

The whole then indicated 2*80 cub. in.

In two hours it had decreased to 2*60

On the 18th April, to 2*00

J 19th it had increased to 2'6o

. COth • ♦ 2-80

21st 3-0.5

. 22d 3*70

— 24th 4'GO

25th 5*10

4*40 Cub. in. being exposed to caustic potash, only one
tenth of a cubic inch remained, which, on being submit-
ted to the test for oxigeu gas, was not determined.

Exp. 16. The 19th of May, 1809, temp. 65°, p. 29*50.

Gernrnatine Thirty germinating pease, with radicles from half to three
i'ease in oxi- quarters of an inch long, were conveyed into an inverted jar
Tjcn gas. containing rive cubic inches of oxigen gas of the purity of

*)8 per cent.

After

GERMINATION ON SEEDS. $2^

After the pease were in, it stood at 6*70

In four hours it had decreased to • 6*00

In four hours more to 5*50

In three hours more to 5'IQ

And in twelve hours more it had increased to 7*00

Six cubic inches of the air being now transferred for exa- Oxigen gas al»
mination, 95 per cent were absorbed. The residue tested ^YhVcom-
with impregnated sulphate of iron remained unaltered. mencemem,

From experiment 8 to this last it appears evident, that,
when germinating seeds are first placed in oxigen gas, a con-
siderable absorption takes place, the quantity of which is
much influenced by the state of the seeds, and the tempe-
rature of the atmosphere. As all I wish to establish is this
simple fact, I have not been anxious as to the minor parti-
culars, or in entering into any tedious aud unnecessary cal-
culations, only in instances where the difference of tempe-
rature and pressure made it unavoidable; and in such the
proper allowances were made, as I have before stated.

In the last experiment it is most decisive, and to an extent not to be ac-
beyoud any thing to be accounted for by the condensation f^rlJ^d f ar_b*
supposed to ensue from the conversion of oxigen gas and bonic acid,
carbon into carbonic acid gas.

It is also demonstrated, that, if the seeds be suffered to The whole of
remain sufficiently long, the whole of the oxigen gas disap- the oxigen d»
pears, and the carbonic acid gas notwithstanding still con- form^arbonif
tinues to be produced. But if the air be examined when aci<*«
arrived at the original quantity, after the decrease, a portion
of the oxigen gas may still be discovered, contradicting at
once the statement of the sameness in quantity of the car-
bonic acid gas formed, and the oxigen gas consumed.

In conducting experiments 12, 13, and 14, I thought it Actian ofH?ht

might not be superfluous to institute a comparison between unimportant.

the process of germination in the dark and in the light, all

other circumstances being as nearly as possible the same :

and from an attentive examination and consideration of the

results I cannot find any material difference, but what may

be readily accounted for by the difference of moisture in the

seeds, or some other unknown trifling incident. Here the *>

water was confined to the seeds.; but when they are exposed soon kills

. tecda.
la

230 GERMINATION OF SEEDS.

in the open air, and in dry weather, the evaporation from
them is rapid, they soon become corrugated, all vital action
ceases, and they consequently die. In this manner only can
the difference be satisfactorily accounted for ; as it is self-
evident that the evaporation must be quicker in the light
than the shade, the temperature on account of reflected
heat being generally much higher; and I have often seen
barley seeds vegetate to a considerable height in the dark,
when, if they had been thrown to the light, they would have
been soon parched up.
Water shows By the results of the above experiments T am well aware,
of carbonic10" tnat» ^ *ne see^s» oe suffered to remain long enough in the
acid, and ab- oxigen gas, it at length is all absorbed. This is also easily
sorption of shown by placing the jars containing the seeds over water :
the carbonic acid gas is then gradually taken up by the wa*
' ter, which ascends in the jar, till no more oxigen gas re-
mains. I have sometimes placed large quantities of ger-
minating bailey in narrow jars containing from one to three
gallons of atmospheric air, and suffered them to remain
over water many months. When the remaining air has
been tried with the test for oxigen gas, none has been found,
nor any trace of any other gas than nitrogen ; and this me-
thod may be adopted for procuring this gas for experimen-
tal purposes, when not wanted in a hurry. It is certainly
too a better eudiometrical way of ascertaining the quantity of
oxigen gas in atmospheric air, than that of absorption by-
water sometime since suggested.
Absorption of In referring particularly to experiment 15, it will be seen,
that the absorption of oxigen gas in eleven hours was ]*60
cub. in., being nearly one third of the whole quantity em-
ployed. This evidence appears to be irresistible, and is be-
yond what I could have reasonably expected. I have already
made a few trials to the same purpose in vegetation and re-
spiration, and hitherto with similar results, which as soon as
concluded I shall take the liberty of laying before you. I
shall at the same time make some remarks on fermentation.
I remain,

Dear Sir, yours &c.

J. ACTON.

XII.

ANALYSIS OP KANEELSTEIN. — LUNAR RAINBOW. 231

t

XII.

Analysis of the Kaneelstein; by Professor Lampadius*.

iL HE kaneelstein has always been considered as a species Analysis of ka-
of jacinth. Its colour is orange, approaching' that of cin- neelstein»
pamon, whence Werner gave it this name. Its analysis by
Prof. Lampadius leaves no doubt, that it is a variety of the
jacinth. He obtained from it

Silex 42:S

Zircon- 28*8

Alumme 8-6

Potash 6-0

Lime 3*8

Oxide of iron 3*0

Loss by calcination • • • • 2-(i
Loss » • • 4*4

100-0

This analysis shows, that it does not contain much more
than one fourth of zircon, while the jacinth contains 0*69.

XIII.

Observation of a Lunar Rainbow; by L. Cordier, Mine
Engineer f*

Was lately witness of a pretty rare phenomenon, a rain- Lunar rainbow,
bow in the night. The 13th of this month, August 1807,
I was standing with several persons on an eminence, that
commanded a view of the horizon. We had near us, to the
north, the tail of a storm, that poured down a copious rain. .
At the same time the sky cleared up toward the south, and
the moon, nearly at full, appeared. A fine luminous bow
then appeared on the storm ; but, though it was well de-
fined, the seven primary colours were scarcely to be distin-
guished in it. They seemed as if drowned in a tint of pale
yellow. What struck us particularly was, that the whole of
the circle encompassed by the bow was luminous, and tinged
with a similar yellow hue, though less intense.

* Journal de Physique, vol. LXV, p. 32. f Ibid, p. 208.

XIV.

232 WANT OF TABLES OF THE PROPORTIONS OF SALTS,

XIV.

On the Want of Tables of the Proportions of the constituent
Principles of Salts, and on the Luminous Smoke from
Lead Smelting-Houses. In a Letter from a Correspon-
dent.

To Mr. NICHOLSON.

Sir,

Tables of the •**" HERE are few tables more useful to a chemical in*
proportions of quirer, than such as point out the proportions of the consti-

ent Twof" tuent Parts of salts: not only tlle philosophic but the prac*
salts would be tical chemist also would be equally benefited, by having a
ighly useful. cojiection 0f tables of this description to refer to; and it is
I think a matter of surprise, that no person has attempted to
publish such upon a scale sufficiently extensive, to answer
the purpose of general reference. I was in hopes, that the
last edition of your Dictionary would have contained, among
its other valuable additions, tables of this kind* ; and it may
not perhaps be improper to suggest, that this omission may
in some measure be supplied by inserting from time to time
in your interesting journal, as opportunity of collecting the
requisite materials may afford, an alphabetical list of salts*
vith the proportion of their ingredients agreeably to the
latest researches. Such an addition, while it would render
an essential service to many pf your readers, would not a lit-
tle increase the value of your Journal.
Luminous * have observed, that the white smoke that arises from a

smokefrom ]ead furnace during the process of smelting the ore continues
ore* '"* e luminous at night for a great length of time after it has left
the chimney: sometimes I have seen the smoke retain this
luminous appearance until it has been quite dissipated.
Your explanation of this phenomenon will oblige. Sir,
Your most humble Servant,
May 6/A, 1S09. J. S. K.

• In table II at the ond of the Dictionary that of Compounds consist.
ing in general of more than twoPrincipIe.", the propoitions,uhere they had
been ascertained with.any accuracy, were given from the best authorities.

lam

' * SCIENTIFIC NEWS. 233

I am inclined to think, that the luminous smoke arise* From sulphur
from sulphur driven up in the first state of combustion. For ^c^ustioh*
sulphur, like phosphorus, may be burned with two kinds
of flame, the 6rst not visible in day-light, at less than 300°,
as I conjecture, and not capable of setting fire to the small-
est thread or vegetable fibre, and the latter much brighter,
and generally known,

W.N.

SCIENTIFIC NEWS,

il HE Russian minister for the home department has com- Meteoric
municated to the Imperial Academy of Petersburg the fol- g^*°*g>
lowing account of a meteoric stone, weighing about 160 lbs, 1907.
that fell in the circle of Ichnow, in the government of Smo-
lensko.

In the afternoon of the 13th of March, 1807, a very vio-
lent clap of thunder was heard in that district. Two pea-
sants in the village of Timochim, being in the fields at the
time, say, that at the instant of this tremendous report they
saw a large black stone fall about forty paces from them.
They were stunned for a few minutes, but, as soon as they
recovered themselves, ran toward the place where the stone
fell. They could not discover it however, it had penetrated
so deep into the snow. On their report several persons went
to the spot, and got out the stone, which was above two feet
beneath the surface of the snow. It was of an oblong shape,
blackish like cast iron, very smooth on all parts, and on one
side resembling a coffin. On its flat surfaces were very fine
radii resembling brass wire. Its fracture was of an ashen
gray. Iking conveyed to the gymnasium of Smolensko, a
professor of natural philosophy there considered it at once
as ferruginous, from the simple observation of its being ex-
tremely friable, and staining the lingers. The particles of

which

234 SCIENTIFIC NEWS.

which it is composed contain a great deal of lime, and of
sulphuric acid.
S^ral meteo- On the l$)th of April, 1808, at one o'clock in the arter
ImU^imh1 n°°n' U »reilt H'^'^'ty °f meteorolites fell in the commune
April* 1808. °f Pieve <Ai Ca>ignauo, in the department of Taro (formerly
the duchies of Parma and Plucentia}. The air was calm,
and the sky serene, but with a few clouds. Two loud ex-
plosions were heard, followed by several less violent, after
which several stones fell. A farmer, who was in the fields,
saw one fall about fifty paces from him, and bury itself in
the ground. It was burning hot. xV fragment of one of
these stones is deposited in the museum at Paris.
Peculiar claw On the 1 7th of November, 1807, during an inundation
in the beaver. of the Rhone> a better was killed ill the island of la Bar-
thalasse, opposite Avignon. Mr. Costuing has given a very
particular description of the animal, and among other things
remarks, that the fourth toe of each hind paw has a double
nail, the parts of which close on each other, so as to form a
sharp and cutting beak, opening and shutting like that ef a
bird of prey.
Bec» poisoned , A large swarm of bees, having settled on a branch of the

by the effluvia „OJSon as]1} rkut vernix, in the county of West Chester in
r ot the rnus . __ *

remix. America, was taken into a hive of fir at three o'clock in the

afternoon, and removed to the place where it was to remain

at nine. About live the next morning the bees were found

dead, swelled to double their natural size, and black, except

a few, which appeared torpid and feeble, and soon died on

exposure to the air.

Cotton tree The cultivation of the cotton tree, as well as of the sweet

to^France ^ Potuto ll om St. Domingo, has been introduced in the south-
ern departments of France, it is said very successfully.

Paper from Mrs. Lena Serpenti, of Como, to whom an honorary me-

lnounuun flax. ja[ was decreed in 1806 for having improved the method of
spinning amianthus, has fabricated paper from this fossil,
that answers well either for writing or printing, and is capa-
ble of resisting the action of fire or wrater.
Metallic ther- Mr. Urban Joergensen lias presented to the Copenhagen
woincter. Society of Rural Economy a metallic thermometer of his
invention, in the shape of a watch. The scale, on a circle on

the

SCIENTIFIC NEWS. O^^

the dial-plate, is graduated to 80° of heat and 40° of cold;
aud the temperature is pointed out by a hand fiom the cen-
tre.

Mr. Creve of Wisbaden has discovered a method of reco- Sourwine
vering wine that has turned sour. For this purpose he em- sweetened by
ploys powdered charcoal. The inhabitants of the banks of
the Rhine have bestowed on him a medal, as a reward for
this discovery.

Mr. Ljung, a Swedish naturalist, has discovered a new Diminutive

species of mouse, which he has named screx canicu/atus. It quadruped.

is the smallest animal known of the mammiferous class,

weighing only about half a drachm.

Mr. Lacepede has lately given a minute description of an XT ,

r ■•"'■■*, i, ,• New quadra-

oviparous quadruped, not hitherto noticed by any naturalist, ped.

but preserved in the Museum of Natural History. He
classes it in the genus proteus, or that of salamander, distin-
guishing it by the name of tetradactylus from the number of
its toes.

A German chemist is said to have discovered another new __ . :

' i • i i • , New metal,

metal among the grams of platina, to which he gives the

name of vestium.

Counsellor Koehler, of Moscow, is busily employed in
cleaning the old coins he is continually receiving from the
Crimea. He is publishing a collection of more than COO
kings or cities, all belonging to Grecian colonies, or king-
doms, that extended along the northern and western coasts
of the Black Sea.

The University of Leipsic has resolved, that the stars be-
longing to the belt and sword of Orion, as well as the inter- iation>
mediate stars, which have yet received no particular name,
shall in future be called the Stars of Napoleon, or the Con-
stellation Napoleon.

A Voyage of Discovery to the Countries of the South, by ^ f ,.

Order of his Majesty the Emperor Napoleon, in the sloops covery.
Geographe and Naturaliste, and schooner Casuarina, dur-
ing the \ ears 1800 — 1804, compiled by M. F. Peron, Natu-
ralist to the Expedition, is published conformably to a De- '
cree ol the Emperor, in 2 vols. 4to, with 41 plates, 28 of
them coloured, and 3 large maps, in this work aredescribed
the least known parts of van Diemen'i Laud, the large strait

that

£3(5 SCIENTIFIC NEWS.

that separates it from New Holland', the discovery ©f the
Great Land of Napoleon, the Great Archipelago of Bona-
parte, &c.

•mfcxto Buf- prof. Sue has published an Analytical and Systematic In-
dex toSounini's new edition of BufTon, with an index to the
names of authors. The index occupies 3 vols. 8vo., and
was highly necessary to a work in 124 vols.

ImWMera. }\ir. Demours published an Index to the Memoirs of the

*e Trench. v . ,

jutulemy. r rench Academy of Sciences in 9 vols. 4to, each volume

including ten years of the Memoirs. Mr. Cotte is now

employed on a tenth volume, which will make the index

complete from the commencement to the year 1790, with

which these Memoirs finished.

t>.rillary pen. £ jyrr. Baradelle has constructed a pen, which he terms

capillary, capable of tracing 144 lines in the space of a-

French inch.

Dublin Society.

Dublin So- AT a meeting of this Society, at their house in Hawkins.

<afty" Street, on the Uth of May, various resolutions were passed.

American fir . It having been suggested to the Society, that the tim-
•d'wUh'tkaT *'er illlPort€(l *voin ^olth America differs very materially in
«K' Europe. quality and strength from the timber, which has for many
ycars- past been used in this kingdom : it was resolved,

That a committe be appointed to inquire into the truth of
the above suggestion; and to. report to the Society on the
comparative strength of Norway and Memel timber, with
that of the timber of North America, in which the com-
lniUee will distinguish the particular states of North Ame-
rica, whence the timber may have been imported, the com-
parative qualities of which with those of Memel and Nor-
way shall be reported upon.

Mr. J. L. Poster prcseuted the following report from the
committee of chemistry:
Orfalojcuef of The cqmmittee of chemistry and mineralogy, to whom it
Irish mineral*. wag reIerred to report, upon Mr. Higgins's manuscript cata-
logues of lush minerals, have proceeded to take the same
into consideration, and are decidedly of opinion, that it will

not

SCIENTIFIC NEW*. 23/

toot be expedient to incur the expense of printing any cata-
logues, until the collections themselves shall have been ren-
dered much more perfect than they are at present. They
are farther of opinion, that the nature of these collections
requires, that the catalogues should be arranged according
to the topographical situation of the specimens, rather thau
by a systematic distribution into classes; but adverting to
the great labour, which would attend the making a catalo-
gue on so opposite a principle from that which has beea
adopted, they merely recommended for the present, that the
professor of chemistry and mineralogy be directed to add a
topographical index to the catalogue of each country, spe-
cifying under the names of the different places, that are
mentioued in the catalogue, the numbers of the various spe-
cimens, which have been brought from it.

The committee have farther taken into their consideration Geological nvd
the resolution of the Society of the 7th day of July last, siuvey.
authorising this committee to offer a premium not exceeding
two hundred pounds for the best geological and mineralogi-
cal survey of the comity of Dublin, to be approved of by
them, and sanctioned by the board. The committee find,
that no person has become a candidate for executing Hie
task that has been thus proposed ; and they recommend,
that the proposal itself be discontinued. * The committee
are further of opinion, that the division into counties is, in
many instances, an inconvenient mode of assigning a district
proposed for mineralogical survey ; and they should recom-
mend in preference an attention to the great lines of geolo-
gical character, which have been traced out by nature.^ Of Coal district
these they know of none more interesting than that which %o1 *^llkt;i4Uy-
marks the coal district in the vicinity of Kilkenny, compri-
sing some portion of each of the three countries of Carlow,
Kilkenny, and the Queens-county.

The committee are of opinion, that no measure would
conduce more eminently to the advancement of the agri-
culture, manufactures, and general commerce of this coun-
try, than a complete and scientific survey of its mineral pro-
ductions; but such a survey as the committee allude to
would require a degree of geological science and practical
knowledge, such as is possessed by Tcry few, and, if extend-
ed

jJ38 SCIENTIFIC NEWS.

ed to the whole of Ireland, would demand an expense fax*
beyond the means of the Society.

Still, however, they think it an object well worthy of adop*
tion, to make a beginning, to choose some limited, district;
to give it in charge to some person of undisputed science,
to request from him a map on a large scale, drawn with a
View to represent the mineralogical characters of the dis-
trict, accompanied with sections of the strata, particularly
in the vicinity of mines, elucidated by a copious memoir,
and accompanied with collections of specimens of the prin-
cipal substances referred to. If such a beginning were once
obtained, printed, and circulated by the Society, it might
serve as a useful pattern for farther undertakings ; and if
executed with that degree of science, which the commtttee
flatter themselves with being able to obtain, might possibly
appear of such national importance, as to obtain for the So-
ciety more ample funds for its further prosecution.

The committee have thought it their duty to consider
which of their present funds are more particularly applica-
ble for the purpose, and in the first place they propose the
application of the ,£200, which had been appropriated to
the execution of the survey, which they have already re-
commended should be relinquished. A more ample fund
seems to be available in a part of the j61300 reserved in the
estimate toward the completing the statistical surveys of the
County sur- thirteen counties which remain to be undertaken. Of these
*eYs- they understand but two or three are in any forwardness;

and unle s the execution of the remainder should be ver}-
superior to that of many of those which have already been
obtained, the committee are of opinion, that such a survey
as they now propose would be an application of the funds of
the Society incalculably more beneficial.

In selecting a person for the undertaking, the choice is
' necessarily confined among very few. Your committee are
of opinion, that Mr. Richard Griffith Jun. is eminently qua-
lified for the undertaking; and to h'un (subject to the ap-
probation of the Society) they have proposed to undertake
it. Your committee could have wished to make an arrange-
ment with Mr. Griffith with respect to the amount of re-
muneration, which he should finally receive; but o« suggest-
ing

SCIENTIFIC NEWS.

239

ing to him, (subject to the approbation of the Society) to
accept of the i?200 above alluded to, as soon as his map and
memoir should be extcuted and approved of. Mr. Griffith
on one hand setting a higher value on his time as a profes-
sional man, than the Society could at present aflbrd to give,
but on the other hand not desiring- to make this undertak-
ing an object of emolument, prefers to submit to the So-
ciety, at the completion of the work, an account of the mere
expenses incurred in its prosecution, proposing that the
Society should discharge the amount on accepting of his
work; and your committee, considering the great liberality
of the proceeding on the part of Mr. Griffith, and the great
advantages which may be expected from its execution, ear-
nestly recommend it to the adoption of the Society.

Mr. Leslie Foster, who made the report, stated, that he The survey
conceived the committee were fully justified in selecting ^ ^^nt-
Mr. Griffith for this undertaking, as he had heard the late fith.
Mr. Greville, one of the first mineralogists in Europe, who
was a patron of the Geological Society in Londcm, and Yrice-
president of the Royal Society, declare, that Mr. Griffith's
professional acquirements, as a mineralogical engineer, ren-
dered him fitter than any other man in Great Britain or
Ireland, that he was acquainted with, to make a mineralo-
gical survey; as such an undertaking required an intimate
knowledge of the most approved methods of working mines,s
as well as of the sciences of geology and mineralogy.

This report of the committee was adopted accordingly,
and confirmed by the society at large.

Mr. Davy intends to visit Dublin next winter, and give Mr. Dary,
a course of electi o-chmeical lectures on his late discoveries.

ERRATA.

For p. 133, read pages 133 and 156,

muriatic muriate.

180, note before the proportions add reversed.

181, lines 1 & 3 from hot* for sulphate of read sulphuric,

Page.
139,

Line.
24,

158,

18

179,

28

METEOROLOGICAL JOURNAL

For JUNE, 1809,

Kept by ROBERT BANCKS,Mathematical Instrument Maker,
in the Strand, London.

THERMOMETER.

BAROME-
TER,

WE A

THER.

MAY

•

<

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^

«£~.

M M.

Day of

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"si d

9 A. M.

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56

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3^

27

58

62

57

29*60

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29*63

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9

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* Rain, boisterous, and cold, all the forenoon.

■f Evening boisterous and very cold.

t The Moon obscured at intervals; at 12 dark and windy.

kj Afternoon suitry ; in the evening refreshing breezes.

|? Heat drops.

% Great change to cold.

I

Ku-lwhoris PhUos.Jownal VoLXWl. PLVH.b. U4j.

A

JOURNAL

OF

NATURAL PHILOSOPHY, CHEMISTRY

AND

THE ARTS*

AUGUST, 1809.

ARTICLE I.

The Balcerian Lecture. An Account of some new analytical
Researches on the Nature of certain Bodies, particularly
the Alkalies, Phofphorus, Sulphur, Carbonaceous Matter,
and the Acids hitherto unde compounded ; with some general
Observations on Chemical Theory. By Humphry Da_vy»
Esq. Sec. R.S. F.R.S. Ed. and M.R.I.A. *

1. Introduction.

1

N the following: pa*es, I shall do myself the honour of Object of tfc*
laying before the Royal Society an account of the results exPeriments*
of the different experiments, made with the hopes of extend-
ing our knowledge of the principles of bodies by the new
powers and methods arising from the applications of electri-
city to chemistry, some of which have been long in pro-
gress, and others of which have been instituted since their
last session.

* Philos. Trans, for 1809, Part I. p. 39.

Vol.XXIII. No. 104.— August, 1809. R The

242 ACTION OF POTASSIUM ON AMMONIA.

Their sub- The objects which have principally occupied my atten-

jects. tion are the elementary matter of ammonia, the nature of

phosphorus, sulphur, charcoal, and the diamond, and the
constituents of the boracic, fluoric, and muriatic acids.

Among the numerous processes of decomposition, which
I have attempted, many have been successful; and from
those which have failed some new phenomena have usually
resulted, which may possibly serve as guides in future in-
quiries. On this account, I hall keep back no part of the
investigation, and I shall trust to the candour of the Society
for an excuse for its imperfection.

The more approaches are made in chemical inquiries to-
wards the refined analysis of bodies, the greater are the ob-
stacles which present themselves, and the less perfect the
results.,
Pure sub- All the difficulties, which occur in analysing a body, are

obatalnedeld°m direct Proof* of tne energy of attraction of its constituent
parts. In the play of affinities with respect to secondary
compounds even, it rarely occurs, that any perfectly pure or
unmixed substance is obtained; and^the principle applies
still more strongly to primary combinations.
First methods The first methods of experimenting on new objects like-
imperfect. wjse are necessarily imperfect ; novel instruments are de-
manded, the use of which is only gradually acquired, and a
number of experiments of the same kind must be made, be-
fore one is obtained, from which correct data for conclusions
can be drawn.

2. Experiments on the Action of Potassium on -Ammonia, arid
Observations on the Nature ofthcfe two Bodies.

Oxig-n in am* In the Bakerian lecture, which I had the honour of read-
ing before the Society, November 1Q, 1807, I mentioned,
that in heating potassium strongly in ammonia, I found that
there was a considerable it. crease of volume of the gas,
that hidrogen and nitrogen were produced, and that the
potassium appeared to be oxidated; but this experiment,
as I had not been able to examine the residuum with accu-
racy, I did not publish. I stated it as an evidence, which I
intended'to pursue more fully, of the existence of oxigen in
ammonia.

la

J:iOh!U.

ACTION OF POTASSIUM ON AMMONIA. <243

Iii a paper read before the Royal Society last June, which
they have done me the honour of printing, I have given an
account of various experiments on the amalgam from am-
monia, discovered by Messrs. Berzelius and Pontin, and in Opinions of
a note attached to this communication, I ventured to con- ^The^rd
trovert an opinion of M. M. Gay Lussac and Thenard with erroneous.
respect to the agency of potassium and ammonia, even on
their own statement of facts, as detailed in the Moniteur for
May 27, 1808.

The general obscurity belonging to these refined objects
of research, their importance and connection with the whole
of chemical theory, have induced me since that time to ap-»
ply to them no inconsiderable degree of labour and atten-
tion ; and the results of my inquiries will, 1 trust, be found
not only to confirm ray former conclusions; but likewise to
offer some novel views.

In the first of these series of operations on the action of Apparatus,
potassium on ammonia, I used retorts of green glass; I
then, suspecting oxigen might be derived from the metallic
oxides in the green glass, emplojred retorts of plate glass,
and last of all, I fastened the potassium upon trays of pla-
tina, or iron, which were introduced into trie glass retorts
furnished with stop cocks. These retorts were exhausted by
an excellent air pump, they were filled with hidrogen, ex-
hausted a second time, and then filled with ammonia from
an appropriate mercurial gas holder*. In this way the gas
was operated upon in a high degree of purity, which vyas al-
ways ascertained ; and all the operations performed out of
the contact of mercury, water, or any substances that could
interfere with the results.

I at first employed potassium procured by electricity ; but Potassium
I soon substituted for it the metal obtained by the action of used*

* A representation of the instruments and apparatus is annexed.

PI. Vll. fig. 1. The retort of plate glass for heating potassium in
gasses.

Fig. 2. The tray of platina fur receiving the potassium.

Fig. 3. The platina tube for receiving the tray in experiments of dis-
tillation.

Fig. 4. The apparatus for taking the voltaic spark in sulphur and
phosphorus,

R 2

244 ACTION OF POTASSIUM ON AMMONIA.

ignited iron upon potash, in the happy method discovered

by M. M. Gay Lussac and Thenard, rinding that it gave the

same results, and could be obtained of a Uniform quality*,

and infinitely larger quantities, and with much less labour

and expense.

Potassium When ammonia is brought into contact with about twice

brought m:o . , t „ .

contact with lts weight ot potassium at common temperatures, the mrtal

ammonia. loses its lustre and becomes white, there is a slight diminu-
tion in the volume of the gas ; but no other effects are pro-
duced. The white crust examined proves to be potash, and
the ammonia is found to contain a small quantity of hidro-
gen, usually not more than equal in volume to the metal.
Heated in the Qn heating the potassium in the gas, by means of a spirit
lamp applied to the bottom of the retort, the colour of
the crust is seen to change from white to a bright azure,
and this gradually passes through shades of bright blue and
green into dark olive. The crust and the metal then fuse
together ; there is a considerable effervescence, and the
crust, passing off to the sides, suffers the brilliant surface of
Cooled. . the potassium to appear. When the potassium is cooled in
this state it is again covered with the white crust. By heat-
Heated a se- ing a second time, it swejls considerably, becomes porous,
time* and appears crystallized, and of a beautiful azure tint; the
same series of phenomena, as those before described, oc-
cur in a continuation of the process ; and it is finally
entirely converted into the dark olive coloured substance.
Hi'.rogen? In this operation, as has been staled by M. M. Gay Lus-

?L,J«!o-\ ?r! sac and Thenard, a gas, which ffives the same diminution bv
ammonia (lis- 7 © » »

appears. detonation with oxigen as hidrogen, is evolved, and ammo-

nia disappears.

The proportion of the ammonia, which looses its elastic

The potassium * When the potash used for procuring potassium in this operation
probablv con- , , . • ,-, . , i

taminat d was rer^ I)Ure» anc' tne iron turmngs likewise very pure and clean, and

with a little *ne "whole apparatus free from any foreign matters, the metal produced
iron. differed very little, in its properties, from that obtained by the Voltaic

battery. Its lustre, ductility, and inflammability w?ro similar. Its
point of fusion and specific gravity were, however, a little higher, it re-
quiring nearly 150° of Fahrenheit to render it perfectly fluid, and being
to water as 7960 to 10000, at 00° Fahrenheit. This lam inclined to at-
tribute to its containing a minute proportion of iron;

form,

ACTION OF POTASSIUM ON AMMONIA. $45

form, as I have found by numerous trial;?, varies according
as the gas employed contains more or less moisture.

Thus eight grains of potassium, during its conversion into I>ss of the gas
the olive coloured substance, in ammonia saturated with ^^^^
water at 63° Fahrenheit, and under a pressure equal to that
of 29'8 inches of mercury, had caused the disappearance of
twelve cubical inches and a half of ammonia ; but the same
quantity of metal acted upon under similar circumstances,
except that the ammonia had been deprived of as much
moisture as possible by exposure for two days to potash that
had been ignited, occasioned a disappearance of sixteen cu-
bical inches of the volatile alkali.

Whatever be the degree of moisture of the gas, the Theinflamma-

quantities of inflammable gas generated have always ap- . gas al^ays

peared to me to be equal for equal quantities of metal, to the metal,

M. M. Gay Lussac and Thenard are said to have stated, a«d less than

J t results from

that the proportions in their experiment were the same as the action of

would have resulted from the action of water upon potas- watfct«
sium. In my trials, they have been rather less. Thus, in
an experiment conducted with every possible attention to
accuracy ot manipulation, eight grains of potassium gene-
rated, by their'operatibn upon water, eight cubical inches
and a half of hidrogen gas: and eight grains from the same
mass, by their action upon ammonia, produced eight cubi-
cal inches and one eighth of inflammable gas. This dif-
ference is inconsiderable, yet I have always found it to exist,
even in cases where the ammonia has been in great excess,
and every part of the metal apparently converted into the
olive coloured substance.

No other account of the experiments of M. M. Gay Lus- properties of
sac and Thenard has, I believe, as yet been received in this tne substance
country, except that in the Moniteur already referred to; fhe attton of
and in this no mention is made of the properties of the sub- ammonia on
stance produced by the action of ammonia on potassium. P0ta3Slum*
Having examined them minutely and found them curious, I
shall generally describe them.

: 1. It is crystallized, and presents irregular facets, which
are extremely dark, and in colour and lustre not unlike the
protoxide of iron ; it is opaque when examined in large

masses,

$4:6 ACTION OF POTASSIUM ON AMMONIA..

masses, but is semitransparent in thin films, and appears of
a bright brown colour by transmitted light.

2. It is fusible at a heat a little above that of boiling water,
and if heated much higher, emits globules of gas.

3. It appears to be considerably heavier than water, for
it sinks rapidly in oil of sassafras.

4. It is a nonconductor of electricity.

5. When it is melted in oxigen gas, it burns with great
vividness, emitting bright sparks. Oxigen is absorbed, ni-
trogen is emitted, and potash, which from its great fusibility
seems to contain water, is formed.

6. When brought into contact with water, it acts upon it
with much energy, produces heat, and often inflammation,
and evolves ammonia. When thrown upon water, it disap-
pears with a hissing noise, and globules from it often move
in a state of ignition upon the surface of the water. It ra-
pidly effervesces and deliquesces in air, but can be pre-
served under naphtha, iff which, however, it softens slowly,
and seems partially to dissolve. When it is plunged under
water filling an inverted jar, by means of a proper tube, it
disappears instantly with effervescence, and the nonabsorb-
able elastic fluid liberated is found to be hidrogen gas.

The ponder- By far the greatest part of the ponderable matter of the

able matter of ammonia, that disappears in the experiment of its action
the ajnmonia . . . .

exists in this upon potassium, evidently exists in the dark fusible pro-
product duct. On weighing a tray containing six grains of potas-
sium, before and after the process, the volatile alkali em-
ployed having been very dry, I found that it had increased
more thau two grains ; the rapidity with which the product
acts upon moisture prevented me from determining the
point with great minuteness; but I doubt not, that the
weight of the olive coloured substance and of the hidrogen
disengaged precisely equals the weight of the potassium, and
ammonia consumed.

Results of M. M. Gay Lussac and Thenard * are said to have pro-

Gay Lussac

and Thenard. f No notice is taken of the apparatus used by M.M. Gay Lussac and
Thenard in the Monitcur ; but from the tenour of the details, it seems
that they must have operated Ml giass vessels in the \vaj heretofore
adopted ever mercury.

cured

ACTION OF POTASSIUM ON AMMONIA. 247

cured from the fusible substance, by the application of a
strong heat, two fifths of the quantity of ammonia that had
disappeared in their first process, and a quantity of hidro-
gen and nitrogen in the proportions in which they exist in
ammonia, equal to one fifth more.

My results have been very different, and the reasons will, Different from
I trust, be immediately obvious. r* avy s*

When the retort containing the fusible substance is ex- The fusible
hausted, filled with hidrogen and exhausted a second time, ^atedTn hi-
and heat gradually applied, the substance so«n fuses, effer- drogen.
vesces, and, as the heat increases, gives off a considerable
quantity of elastic fluid, and becomes at length, when the
temperature approaches nearly to dull redness, a dark gray
solid, which by a continuance of this degree of heat does
not undergo any alteration.

In an experiment, in which eight grains of potassium had Gas expelled
absorbed sixteen cubical inches of well dried ammonia in a romi y
glass retort, the fusible substance gave off twelve cubical
inches and half of gas, by being heated nearly to redness;
and this gass analysed was found to consist of three quar-
ters of a cubical inch of ammonia, and the remainder of
elastic fluids, which when mixed with oxigen gas in the pro-
portion of 6| to 6, and acted upon by the electric spark, di-
minished to 5§. The temperature of the atmosphere, in this
process, was 57* Fahrenheit, and the pressure equalled that
of 30*1 inches of mercury.

In a similar experiment, in which the platina tray contain- Heated in a
ing the fusible substance was heated in a polished iron tube polished iron
filled with hidrogen gas, and connected with a pneumatic hidrogen.
apparatus containing very dry mercury, the quantity of
elastic fluid given off, $11 the corrections being made, equal-
led thirteen cubical inches and three quarters, and of these a
cubical inch was ammonia ; and the residual gas, and the
gas introduced into the tube being accounted for, it appear-
ed, that the elastic fluid generated, destructible by detona-
tion with oxigen, was to the indestructible elastic fluid, as
2-5 to 1.

In this process, the heat applied approached to the dull
red heat. The mercury, in the thermometer, stood at 6*2°
Fahrenheit, and that in the barometer at 30*3 inches.

In

24&

ACTION OF POTASSIUM ON AMMONIA.

Simi ar results
in differ a

experiments.

Difference be-
tween 'he ion
tube and green
glass retort.

Effects of
moisture.

With a proper
quantity of

moisture, the
original' quart
tity of ammo-
nia would be
regenerated.

In various'experiments on different quantities of the fusi-
ble substance, in some of whic'; the heat was applied to the
t ay in the green glass retort, and in others, after it had
been introduced into the iron tube ; and in which the
temperature was sometimes raised slowly and sometimes
quickly, the comparative results were so near these, that
I have detailed, as to render any statement of them super-
fluous.

A little move ammouia, and rather a larger proportion of
inflammable gas*, were in all instances evolved when the
iron tube was used, which I am inclined to attribute to the
following circumstances. When the tray was brought
througn the atmosphere to be introduced into the iron tube,
the fusible substance absorbed a small quantity of mois-
ture from the air, which is connected with the production
of ammonia. And in the process of heating in the retort,
the green glass was blackened, and I found that it contain-
ed a very small quantity of the oxides of lead and iron,
which must have caused* the disappearance of a small quan-
tity of hidrogen.

M. M. Gay Lussac and Thenard, it appears from the
statement, had brought the fusible substance into contact
with mercury, which must have given to it some moisture :
and whenever this is the case, it furnishes by hnat variable
quantities of ammonia. In one instance, in which I heated
the fusible substance from nine grains of potassium, in a
retort that had been filled with mercury in its common state
of dryness, I obtained seven cubical inches of ammonia as
the first product ; and in another experiment which had
been made with eight grains, and in which moisture was
purposely introduced, I obtained nearly nine cubical inches
of ammonia, and only four of tie mixed gasses.

I am inclined to believe, that if moisture could be intro-
duced only in the proper proportion, the quantity of am-
monia generated would be exactly equal to that which dis-
appeared in the first process.

* The average of six experiments made in a tube of iron is 2'4-of in-
flammable gas to 1 of uninflammable. The average of three made in
jreeo gtass retorts is 2'3 to 1.

This

ACTION OF POTASSIUM ON AMMONIA. 249

*

This idea is confirmed 'by the trials which I have made,
by heating the fusible substance with -potash containing
its water of crystallization, and muriate of lime partially
dried*.

In both these cases, ammonia was generated with great
rapidity, and no other gas, but a minute quantity of in-
flammable gas, evolved, which was condensed by detona-
tion with oxigen with the same phenomena as pure hidro-
gen.

In one instance, in which thirteen cubical inches of am-
monia had disappeared, Tobtained nearly eleven and three
quarters bv the agency of the water of the potash ; the
quantity of inflammable gas generated was less than four
tenths of a cubical inch.

lu another, in which fourteen cubical inches had been
absorbed, 1 procured by the operation of the moisture of
muriate of lime nearly eleven cubical inches of volatile al-
kali, and half a cubical iuch of inflammable gas; and the
differences, there is every reason to believe, were owing to
an excess of water in the salts, by which some of the gas
was absorbed.

Whenever, in experiments on the fusible substance, it The fusible
has been procured from ammonia saturated with moisture, sub5tance does
I have always found that mere ammonia is generated from ammonia by
it by mere heat ; and the general tenour of the experiments neat alone,
inclines me to believe, that the small quantity, produced in
experiments performed in vacuo, is owing to the small quan-
tity of moisture furnished by the hidrogen gas introduced,
and that the fusible substance, heated out of the presence
of moisture, is incapable of producing volatile alkali.

M. M. Gay Lussac and I henard, it is stated, after having Gay Lussac
obtained "three iifths of the ammonia or its elements that had and Thenar*),
disappeared in heir experiment, by heating the product;

* If water, in irs common form, is brought into contact with the fusi*
bie sub tance, it is impossibl. to regula e the quantity, so as to gain con.
elusive results, and a very light excess of water causes the disappearance
of a very large quantity of the amm nia generated. In potash and
muriate of lim ;, in certain states of dryness, the water is too strongly
attracted by the saline matter to be given off, except for the purpose of
generating the ammonia.

procured

f50 ACTION OF POTASSIUM ON AMMONIA.

procured the remaining two fifths, by adding water to the
residuum, which after this operation was found to be potash.
No notice is taken of the properties of this residuum, which,
as the details seem to relate to a single experiment, proba-
bly was not examined ; nor as moisture was present at the
beginning of their operations could any accurate knowledge
of its nature have been gained.
Fropertfcscf I have made the residuum of the fusible substance after
«^te fusible lt has been exP0be(1 to a dull red heat, out of the contact of
substance after moisture, an object of particular study, and I shall detail its

SJuUre l° Seneral Pr°Perties.

It was examined under naphtha, as it is instantly destroy-
ed by the contact of air.

1. Its colour is black, and its lustre not much inferior to
that of plumbago.

2. It is opaque even in the thinnest films.

3. It is very brittle, and affords a deep gray powder.

4. It is a conductor of electricity,

5. It does not fuse at a low red heat, and when raised to
this temperature, in contact with plate glass, it blackens the
glass, and a grayish sublimate rises from it, which likewise
blackens the glass.

6. When exposed to air at common temperatures, it
usually takes fire immediately, and burns with a deep red
light.

7. When it is acted upon by water, it heats, effervesces
most violently, and evolves volatile alkali, leaving behind
nothing but potash. When the process is conducted under
water, a little inflammable gas is found to be generated. A
residuum of eight grains giving in all cases about f^0 of a
cubical inch.

8. It has no action upon quicksilver.

9. It combines with sulphur and phosphorus by heat,
without any vividness of effect, and the compounds are
highly inflammable, and emit ammonia, and the one phos-
phuretted and the other sulphuretted hidrogen gas, by the
action of water.

A compound As an inflammable gas alone, having the obvious propeiv
of nitrogen ties of hidrogen, is given off during the action of potassium
with suboxide Up0n ammonia, and as nothing but gasses apparently the

§ame

ACTION OF POTASSIUM ON AMMONIA. > 251

same as hidrogen and nitrogen, nearly in the proportions in
which they exist in volatile alkali, are evolved during the
exposure of the compound to the degree of heat which I
have specified; and as the residual substance produces am-
monia with a little hidrogen by the action of water, it oc-
curred to me, that, on the principles of the antiphlogistic
theory, it ought to be a compound of potassium, a little
oxigen and nitrogen, or. a combination of a suboxide of
potassium and,nitrogen; for the hidrogen disengaged in the
operations of which it was the result nearly equalled the
whole quantity contained in the ammonia employed; and
it was easy to explain the fact of the reproduction of the
ammonia by water, on the supposition, that by combination
with one portion of the oxigen of the water, the oxide of
potassium became potash, an,d by combination with another
portion and its hidrogen, the nitrogen was converted into
volatile alkali.

With a view to ascertain this point, I made several expe- Experiment*
riments on various residuums, procured in the way that I to pro^e this,
have just stated, from the action of equal quantities of pot-
assium on dry ammonia in platina trays, each portion of
metal equalling six grains.

In the first trials, I endeavoured to ascertain the quantity Quantity of
of ammonia generated by the action of water upon a resi- ammonia pro*
duum, by heating it with muriate of lime or potash par-
tially deprived of moisture; and after several trials, many
of which failed, I succeeded in obtaining four cubical in-
ches and a half of ammonia. In three other cases, where
there was reason to suspect a small excess of water, the
quantities of ammonia were three cubical inches and a half,
three and eight tenths, and four and two tenths.

These experiments were performed in the iron tube used
for the former process ; the tray was not withdrawn ; but the
salt introduced in powder, and the apparatus exhausted as
before, then filled with hidrogen, and then gently heated in
a small portable forge.

Having ascertained what quantity of ammonia was given The com-

off from the residuum, I endeavoured to discover what P°«rif* intro-

p '2. j i • i n duced into ox-

quantity ot nitrogen it produced in combustion, and what jgen «Tas.

quantity of oxigen it absorbed. The methods that I em-
ployed,

£52 ACTION OF POTASSIUM ON AMMONIA.

ployed, were by introducing the trays into vessels filled with
over mercury. The product often inflamed
spontaneous!)', and could always be made to burn by a slight
degree of heat.
0*5»en ab- *n l^e tr'ii^ tnat I regard as the most accurate, two cubical

«wbe<l andni- inches and a half of oxigen were absorbed, and only a cubi-
cal iueh and one twith of nitrogen evolved.

Surprised at the smailness of the quantity of the nitro-
gen, I fought for ammonia in the products of these opera-
tions; but various trials convinced me, that none was
formed. I examined the solid substances produced, ex-
pecting nitrous acid; but the matter proved to be dry
potash, apparently pure, and not affording the slightest
traces of acid.

The quantity of nitrogen existing in tlje ammonia, whicji
this residuum would have y)roduced by the action of water,
supposing the volatile alkali decomposed by electricity,
would have equalled at least two cubical inches and a
quarter.
Txnoscd to ^ heated the same proportions of residuum with the red

cascent oxi- oxide of mercury, and the red oxide of lead in vacuo, ex-
rtKintitv of ni- pecting that when oxigen was supplied in a gradual way,
tsugen small, the result might be different from that of combustion ; but
in neither of these cases did the quantity of nitrogen ex-
ceed a cubical inch and a half.

But on what could this loss of nitrogen depend ; had it
entered into any unknown form with oxigen, or did it not
really exist in the residuum in the same quantity, as in the
ammonia produced from it ?
Residuum ex- I hoped that an experiment of exposing the residuum to
4>osed to in- intense heat might enlighten the inquiry. 1 distilled one of
the portions, which had been covered with naphtha, in a tube
of wrought platina made for the purpose. The tube had
been exhausted and filled with hidrogen, and exhausted
a*rain, and was then connected with a pneumatic mercurial
apparatus. Heat was at first slowly applied, till the napti-
tha had been driven over. It. was then raised rapidly by an
excellent forge. When the lube became cherry red, gas
was developed ; it continued to be generated for some mi*
nutes. When the tube had received the most intense heat,

that

ACTION 01? POTASSIUM ON AMMOMA. j255

that could be applied, the operation was stopped. The
quantity of gas collected, making the proper corrections and
reductions, would have been three cubical inches and a. half
at the mean temperature and pressure. Twelve measures The gas dat»-
of it were mixed with six of oxigen gas, the electrical spark
was passed through the mixture ; a strong inflammation
took place, the diminution was to three measures and a half,
and the residuum contained oxigen. This experiment was
repeated upon different quantities with the same compara-
tive results.

In examining the platina tube, which had a screw adapt- In the tu^
ed to it at the lower extremity, by means of which it could potash ami
be opened, the lower part was found to contain potash, P0'^*"4*0'
which had all the properties of the pure alkali, and in the
upper part there was a quantity of potassium. Water
poured into the tube produced a violent heat and inflamma-
tion ; but no smell of ammonia. *

This result was so unexpected and so extraordinary, that
I at first supposed there was some source of errour. I had
calculated upon procuring nitrogen as the only aeriform
product ; I obtained an elastic fluid, which gave much more
diminution by detonation with oxigen, than that produced
from ammonia by electricity.

I now made the experiment, by heating the entire fusi- Gas from the
ble substance from six grains of potassium, which had ab- whole or the
sorbed twelve cubical inches of ammonia, in the iron tube, stance heated
in the manner before described. The heat was gradually
raised to whiteness, and the gas collected in two portions.
The whole quantity generated, making the usual corrections
for temperature and pressure, and the portion of hidrogen
originally in the tube, and the residuum, would have been
fourteen cubical inches and a half at the mean degree of the
barometer and thermometer. Of these, nearly a cubical
inch was ammonia, and the remainder a gas, of which the
portion destructible by detonation with oxigen was to the
indestructible portion, as 2*7 to 1.

The lower part of the tube, where the heat had been Solid results,
intense, was found surrounded with potash in a vitreous
form ; the upper part contained a considerable quantity of
potassium^

la

254 action or POTASSIUM on ammonia.

More than on« *n another similar experiment, made expressly for trie
third of the purposes of ascertain": the quantity of potassium recovered,
Jived. Um rG" tne sailie elastic products were evolved. The tube was
sneered to cool, the stop-cock being open in contact with
mercury, it was rilled with mercury, and the mercury dis-
placed by water ; when two cubical inches and three quar-
ters of hidrogen gas were generated, which proved, that
at least two grains and a half of potassium had been re-
vived.
Calculation of Now, if a calculation be made upon the products in these
t results. operations, considering them as nitrogen and hidrogen, and
taking the common standard of temperature and pressure, it
will be found, that, by the decomposition of 11 cubical
inches of ammonia equal to 2*05 grains, there are generated
3*6 cubical inches of nitrogen equal to 1*06 grains, and 9*9
cubical inches of hidrogen, which, added to that disengaged
in the first operation equal to about 6*1 cubical inches, are
together equal to -382 of a grain ; and the oxigen added to
3#5 grains of potassium would be *6 of a grain, and the whole
amount is 2*04 grains; and 2*05 — 2*04 ~ *01. But the
same quantity of ammonia, decomposed by electricity,
would have given 5'5 cubical inches of nitrogen equal to
1*6 grain, and only 14 cubical inches of hidrogen * equal
to '33, and allowing the separation of oxigen in this pro-
cess in water, it cannot be estimated at more than *11 or
•12.
Nitrogen lost So that, if the analysis of ammonia by electricity at all
and oxigen approaches towards accuracy ; in the process just described,
pK>duoed°.Se there is a considerable loss of nitrogen, and a production of

oxigen and inflammable u.as.
Nitrogen gene* ^nd in the, action of water upon the residuum, in the ex-
^ater employ- periment Paoe 252> tliere i8 an apparent generation of nitro-
«d. gen.

How can these extraordinary results be explained?
Suppositions The decomposition and composition of nitrogen seem
this.Xi)lam proved, allowing the correctness of the data ; and one of its
elements appears to be oxigen ; but what is its other ele-
mentary matter?

* See Phil. Trans. 1808, p. 40, or Journal, vol. xx, p. 328.

Is

ACTION OF POTASSIUM ON AMMONIA. JTjJ

Is the gas, that appears to possess the properties of hidro-
gen, a new species of inflammable aeriform substance ?

Or has nitrogen a metallic bas'13, which alloys with the iron
or platina ?

Or is water alike the ponderable matter of nitrogen, hi-
drogen, and oxigen ?

Or is nitrogen a compound of hidrogen with a larger pro-
portion of oxigen than exists in water ?

These important questions, the two first of which seem
the least likely to be answered in the affirmative, from the
correspondence between the weight of the ammonia decom-
posed and the products, supposing them to be known sub-
stances, I shall use every effort to solve by new labours, and
I hope soon to be able to communicate the results of farther
experiments on the subject to the Society.

As the inquiry now stands, it is however sufficiently de- Ammonia de-
monstrative, that the opinion, which I had ventured to form composed in
respecting the decomposition of ammonia in this experi- merit, and pot-
ment, is correct; and that M. M. Gay Lussac's and The- ^"^ J,
nard's idea of the decomposition of the potassium, and their hidrogen and
theory of its being compounded of hidrogen and potash, are potab *
unfounded.

For a considerable part of the potassium is recovered un-
altered, and in the entire decomposition of the fusible sub-
stance, there is only a small excess of hidrogen above that
existing in the ammonia acted upon.

The mere phenomena of the process likewise, if minutely
examined, prove the same thing.

After the first slight effervescence, owing to the water ab-
sorbed by the potash formed upon the potassium during its
exposure to the air, the operation proceeds with the greatest
tranquillity. No elastic fluid is given off from the potassium ; q

it often appears covered with the olive coloured substance,
and, if it were evolving hidrogen, this must pass through the
fluid ; but even to the end of the Operation, no such ap-
pearance occurs.

The crystallized and spongy substance, formed in the
first part of the process, I am inclined to consider as a com-
bination of ammonia and potassium, for it emits a smell of

ammonia

£56 ACTION OF POTASSIUM ON AMMONIA.

ammonia when exposed to air, and is considerably lighter
than potassium.

Potassium does j at first thought, that a solid compound of hiuWen and
not a^suib hi- ... . .

drogen, bir is potassium might be generated in the first part of this opera*
soluble in it tjon . Dut experiments on the immediate action of potassium
and hidrogen did not favour this opinion. Potassium, as
1 ventured to conclude in the Bakerian Lecture for 1807*,

is

Hidrogen said * ^- ^- ^ay Litssac and Thenard seem to be of a different opinion,
to be absorbed In the Moniteur, to which I have so often referred, it is related, thaf
by potassium, these distinguished chemists, by exposing hidrogen to potassium at
a high temperature, found that the hidrogen was absorbed, and that it
formed a compound with the potassium of a light gray colour, from
which hidrogen was capable of being obtained by the action of water
or mercury.
Not in Mr. After a number of trials, I have not been able to witness this result.

Davy's expeti- In an experiment which I made in the presence of Mr. Pepys, and
ments. which I have often repeated, and twice before a numerous assembly^

in retorts of plate glass, four grains of potassium were heated in four-
teen cubical inches of pure hidrogen. At first, white fumes arose and
precipitated themselves in the neck of the retort. When a consider-
able film of the precipitate had collected, its colour appeared a bright
gray, and after the first two or three minutes, it ceased to be formed.

The bottom of the retort was heated to redness, when the potassium
began to sublime and condense on the sides.

The process was stopped, and the retort suffered to cool. The ab-
sorption was not equal to a quarter of a cubical inch.' YVken the re-
tort was broken, the gas, in passing into the atmosphere, produced an
explosion with most vivid light, arid white fumes. The petassium re-
maining in the retort, and that which had sublimed, seemed unaltered
in their properties.

The grayish substance inflamed by the action of water, but did not

seem to be combined with mercury. I am inclined to attribute its

, formation to the agency of moisture suspended in the hidrogen, and to

consider it as a triple compound of potassium, oxigen, and hidrogen.

Potassium When potassium is heated in a gas containing hidrogen, and from

heated in hi- ^ to \ 0f coramon air> it is formed in greater quantities, and a crust

rogen. ofJit covers t|ie nieta]> and in the process there is an absorption both of

hidrogen and oxigen. It is likewise produced in experiments on

the generation of potassium by exposing potash to ignited iron, at the

time (I believe) that common air is admitted, during the cooling of

the tube.

It is nonconducting, inflames spontaneously in air, and produces pot-
ash and aqueous vapour by its combustion.

When

ACTION OF POTASSIUM ON AMMONIA. Qjf

Is very soluble in hidrogen; but, under common circum-
stances, hidrogen does not seem to be absorbable by pot-
assium.

When potassium is heated in hidrogen in a flint glas"s retort, or
even for a great length of time in a green glass retort, there is an *b- Hidrogan ab-
sorption of the gasj but this is independent of the presence of pot- sorbed by the
assium, and is owing to the action of the metallic oxides in the glass ox|des in the

iL vj glass,

upon the hidrogen.

If a solid compound of hidrogen and potassium could be formed, we
might expect its existence in the experiment with the gun barrel, in
which potassium is exposed to hidrogen at almost every temperature}
but the metal formed in this process, when proper precautions are
taken to exclude carbonaceous matters, is uniform in its properties, and
generates, for equal quantities, equal proportions of hidrogen by the
action of Mater. ,,

The general phenomena of this operation show indeed, that the so-
lution of potassium in hidrogen is intimately connected with the gene-
ral principle of the decomposition; and confirm my first idea of the ac-
tion of the two bodies.

Hidrogen dissolves a large quantity of potassium by heat, but the *
greater portion is precipitated on cooling. The attractions which de-
termine the chemical change seem to be that of iron for exigen, of irort
for potassium, and of hidrogen for potassium ; and in experiments, in
which a very intehse heat is used for the production of potassium by
iron, I have often found, that the gas which comes over, though it has
passed through a tube cooled by ice, inflames spontaneously in the
atmosphere, and burns with a most brilliant light, which is purple at
the edges, and throws off a dense vapour containing potash.

Sodium appears to be almost insoluble in hidrogen, and this seem*! Sodium neatlr
to be one reason why it cannot be obtained, except in very minute insoluble in
quantities, in the experiment with the gun barrel. hidrogen.

Sodium, though scarcely capable of being dissolved in hidrogen
alone, seems to be soluble in the compound of hidrogen aud potassium.
liy exposing mixtures of potash aud soda to iguited iron I have ob-
tained some very curious alloys ; which, whether the potassium or the Curious alloys,
sodium was in excess, were fluid at common temperatures. The com-
pound containing an excess of potassium was even light than pot-
assium (probably from ita fluidity). AW these alloys were in the
highest degree inflammable. When a globule of the fluid alloy was
touched by a globule of mercury, they combined with a heat that
singed the paper upon which the experiment was made, and formed,
vhen cool, a solid so hird, as not to be cut by a knife.

(To be continued in our next. J
Vol, XXIII.—Avgust, 1809- S On-

358 production or ACID and alkali from water,

II.

On the Production of an Acid and an Alkali from pure
Water by Galvanism, In a Letter from Mr. Charles
Sylvester. ,

To Mr. NICHOLSON.
SIR,

Soda and mu- J[y \s now a ]on^ time since I had the pleasure of com-

natic acid pro- ,7 , ....

duced from mumcating any thing to your valuable periodical work, al-

water by gal- though I was under a promise to send you something de-
cisive on the subject of the production of s«*da and muriatic
acid, from pure water, by galvanism. I should not at pre-
sent have ventured to have offered any thing on this sub-
ject, knowing, that the tide of opinion must have gone with
the decisions of Mr. Davy, who has said, that the acid and
alkali are produced from foreign matter in the water, or in
the vessels employed; had not the truth and consequent
reasonings of my experiments been strongly supported by
many recent facts, brought forward by Mr. D. himself.
Mr. Davy's All the experiments, in which Mr. Davy has produced the
experiments apparent base of an alkali, an earth, or even acid, are no-
thing more than degrees of the same process, by which the
alkali is produced when pure water is exposed to the gal-
vanic influence; and it is equally evident, that all the

made on ox- k0(j;es ]ie has, in these experiments, operated upon, are
ides of hidio- . , „ , . , T . , . , • t .' *•

gCn# oxides of hidrogen. 1 have not the least hesitation in say-

Acid andalkali mg? that the acid and alkali can be produced, from pure
abundance. water, in such abundance as not to admit a doubt of their

Electrical being derived from the water, or the apparatus. The im-

ajrencr in che- „ , , , • ,

mical pro- portance of the electrical agency in chemical processes ap-

-esses. pears principally to consist in hidrogen and oxigen being,

furnishod in their nascent and pure form ; for it will be re-
collected, that in all experiments, in which the alkalis and
the earths have appeared to be decomposed, the presence
of water has always been essential to the changes pro-
duced.
Water with It is therefore probable, that water with different por-

nxigm forms t-U>ns- of oxi ^eu forms acid products; and with hidrogen*,

fcCm*! with

PRODUCflON Of ACItt AND ALKALI FROM WATER. £59

alkalis, earths, and metals. In the experiment, where pure h'lrogen, al-
water is exposed to the galvanic influence, separated into &n j'jj^, '*
two portions by some moist conductor, the oxigen is pre-
sented iri its nascent form, and an acid is produced, from
that substance combining with the water ; and at the
point where the hidrogen is presented, an alkali is formed,
by a similar fixation of hidrogen. In the pretended de«
composition of potash, the alkali combines with an extra
dose of hidrogen, forming the metallic globulus. And
when a metal was said to be produced from ammonia, form-
ing an alloy with potassium remarkable for its little specific
gravity, the effect could only be attributed to that metal
combining with a still greater portion of hidrogen.

The electrical doctrine of Mr. Davy is so replete with Mr Davy's

truth and consistency* that I am every day more pleased doctrine true

... . ,, iL : . , , . . and consistent,

with it. It would seem, that we nave only two kinds of ui.lvtwokind*

simple matter ; one something like oxigen, possessing the of simPle mat*
effects of negative electricity in the greatest degree; the
other a general inflammable substance Of the nature of hi-
drogen, endowed with positive electricity: that each of
these bodies has a constant repulsion between their homo-
geneous particles, and hence is permanently elastic ; that
equal portious of these bodies combined would constituted
body of the greatest possible density, from the attraction
being at a maximum : and that, as oue of them predomi-
nates, the attraction becomes less. Hence it appears, that n0 ^j a
the particles of simple matter are repellent of each other, s'niple body,
and that no solid body can be considered a simple body.

A friend of mine intends soon to favour you with a more
extensive essay on thi* subject.

If you think the above observations will at all interest

the readers of your work, their insertion in your next will

much oblige,

Sir,

Your humble servant,

Derby, June 23, CHARLES SYLVESTER.

1809.

This letter came too late for insertion last month. It
seems proper to notice, that Mr. Davy states the decompo*

S 2 lition

$60 DECOMPOSITION OF BORACIC ACID*

sttion of potash &c, where no water was present. With re-
gard to theories, there must always be great difficulty when
inductions are made and generalized beyond the support
afforded by the facts. Specific facts duly arranged in sup-
port of each other are,the great desiderata of science. We
possess many, the happy acquisition of our own time, but
we are in waut of many more.

W. N.

III.

Account of the Decomposition and Reco?nposition of Boracic
Acid, By Messrs. Gay Lussac and Thenard *.

tlon°of b?racic ^-^^ tne 2*st °** June last we announced in a note read at
**id announc- the Institute, and we published in the Bulletin de la So*
e ' - ciete Philomatique for July, that by treating the fluoric and

boracic acids with the metal of potash we obtained results,
which could only be explained by admitting these acids to
be compounds of a combustible substance and oxi«-en.
However, asweliad not recomposed them, we added, that we
did not give this composition as completely demonstrated.
Since that time we have continued and varied our researches,
and are now able to assert, that the composition of the
boracic acid is no longer problematical. In fact, we can de-
compose this acid and recompose it at pleasure.

Method in To decompose it, we put equal parts of the metal and

which it was , lt . .c , , . . , . a

decomposed. vei7 Plire an" wel1 v,trmecl boracic acid into a copper tube,
to which a curved glass tube is fitted. The tube of copper
is placed in a small furnace, and the extremity of the glass
tube in a jar filled with: mercury. The apparatus being
thus arranged, the copper tube is heated gradually, till it is
slightly red hot. In this state it is kept for some minutes.
The operation being" 'then finished, it is cooled, and the

* Journal de Physique for November, l808,Vol LXVII, p, 393. Mr.
Daly's experiments on the' boracic acid will appear in the course of the
paper, of which the commencement is given in our present number.
See also Jo»rnal, Vol. XX, p. Q5\. and Vol. XXI, p.

matters

DECOMPOSITION OF BORACIC ACID. g(Jl

matter taken out. The following are the phenomena ob-
served in this experiment.

When the temperature is about 150° [302" F.], the mix- Phenomena
Jure on a sudden grows highly red, as may be seen in a °^7imenu *
striking manner by using a glass tube. There is even 50
much heat produced, that the glass tube partly melts, and
sometimes breaks, and the air of the vessels is almost al?
ways expelled with force. From the beginning of the
experiment to the end, nothing is disengaged but atmo-
spheric air, and a few bubbles of hidrogen gas, not an-
swering to a fiftieth part of what the metal employed would
give out by means of water. All the metal constantly dis-
appears in decomposing part of the boracic acid; jyid the
two substances are converted by their reciprocal action into
an olive gray matter, which is a mixture of potash and the
radical of the boracic acid. This mixture is extracted from
the tube by pouring in water, and heating it gently; and
the boracic radical is separated by repeated washing with
warm or cold water. Before this washing it is advisable tq
saturate the alkali contained in the mixture with muriatic
acid : for it appears, that the boracic radical can become
oxided, and then dissolve in the alkali, .to which it gives a, ,

very deep colour. What does not dissolve is the radical it-
self, which possesses the following properties.

It is of a greenish brown colour, fixed, and insoluble in Properties af
water. It has no taste ; and no action on infusion of litmus the bfse <*f*
or sirup of violets. Mixed with oximurate of potash, or ni-
trate of potash," and projected into a red hot crucible, a
vivid combustion ensues, one of the products of which is the
boracic acid. When it is treated with nitric acid, a great
effervescence takes place, even in the cold : and when the
fluid is evaporated, a great deal of the boracic acid is ob-
tained. But of all the phenomena produced by the bora-
cic radical in its contact with different substances, the
most curious and mpst important are those it exhibits with
oxigen.

On projecting 3 decig. [A\ grs.] of boracic radical into a -j^is ba?e
silver crucible scarcely at a dull red heat ; and covering the heated in oxi-
crucible with ajar holding about a litre [a wine quart], till- gen **S>
*d wish oxigen gas, and placed over mercury ; a combus*

tion

2&8 PFXOMPOSITION OF BORACIC ACID.

tion of the most instantaneous kind t;;kes place, and the
mercury rises with such rapidity half way up the jar, as to
raise it forcibly. In this experiment however, the combus-*
first oxided, tion of the boracic radical is far from complete. What
prevents this is, that the radical is at once converted entirely
into the state of a black oxide, the existence of which we
then converted think we have perceived ; and the external parts of this ox-
acid. C 2CC *^e P**8'11^ afterwards to the state of boracic acid, they
meit, and thus defend the interior parts from the contact of
the oxigen. Accordingly to burn them completely it is
necessary, to wash them, and place them afr sh in contact
with oxigen gas, still at a cherry red heat , but then they
burn with less violence, and absorb less oxigen, than the
first time, because they are already oxid d : and s+ill the
external parts, passing to the state of boracic acid, which
melts, prevent the combustion of the interior parts ; so that
to convert tliein all into boracic acid, they must be subject-*
ed to a great number of successive combinations, and as
many washings.
Oxigtn fixed, In all these combustions a fixalion of oxigen constantly
but do gas takes place, without any gas being disengaged ; and they
all afford products so acid, that, in treating these products
with boiling water, boracic acid is obtained after suitable
evaporation and refrigeration, a specimen of which we pre-
sent to the Institute.
Bums less vi- Las ly, the boracic radical comports itself in air precisely
jjion au-.° m" as ^n ox,£eT1» witn tn^s difference only, that the combustion,

is less vivid.
The base a From these experiments it follows, that the boracic acid

«0™buj,t'bl« is composed of oxigen and a combustible substance. JKvery
»etaiiic. ' thing convinces us, that this substance, for which we pro-
pose the name of bore, is of a peculiar nature, and ought to
be ranked with phosphorus, carbon, and sulphur : and we
presume, that, to acquire the state of boracic acid, it de-
mands a large quantity of oxigen ; but, before attaining
this state, it becomes a black oxide,

Note, by the Authors.
yermertnals Several chemists have made experiments pn the decompo-
sition,

INFLUENCE OF GALVANISM ON MINERALS. QQ3

tfition of boracic acid, whence they have deduced different to decompose

boracic acid,
consequences.

Fabroni asserted, that this acid was only a modification of
the muriatic. See Fourcroy's Chemistry, art. Boracic
Acid.

In the Annales de Chimie, vol. XXXV, p. 202, we find a
long series of experiments on the phenomena exhibited by
boracic acid on treating it with oximuriatic acid. These Supposed to
experiments are by Crejl, who inferred from them, that bonm l
carbon was one of the elements of this acid,

Lastly, Mr. Davy, subjecting moistened boracic acid to
the Voltaic pile, observed traces* of a black combustible
matter at the negative pole; but he says, that being occu-
pied in researches upon the alkalis, he was unable to follow
up this observation. See Mr. Davy's paper, which arrived
in France two months ago, and an abstract of which was in-
serted in the Bulletin de la Socitte Philomatique for the month
of November.

Thus hitherto the principles ef the boracic acid were not
known. It is true, we had announced to the Institute,
that this acid contained oxigen, and consequently a combus-
tible substance; but, as we had not recomposed it, we did
not consider its nature as determined.

IV.

On the Influence of Galvanic Electricity on the Transition
of Minerals; read at the Meeting of the Mathematical
and Physical Class of the Institute, the 13th of July,
1807; by Mr, GuYTONf.

o.

'N examining five years ago a native oxide of antimony Native oxide
found in the province of Gallicia, which had been sent me ot antimony
by Mr. Angulo", inspector general of the mines of Andalu- phu^™1"

* Mr. Davy's own expressions are : <c 1 find, that a dark coloured com-
" *bustible matter is evolved at the negative surface." S?e Journal, vol.
XX, p. 351.

f Annales ds Chimie, vol.LXIJI, p. 113.

sia,

254* INFLUENCE OF GALVANISM ON MINERALS.

sia, I was led to consider this mineral as a transition from
the state of a sulphuret to that of almost a pure oxide,
which conM have been effected only by the decomposition
of water, determined 'by a subterranean electricity precisely
similar to that we obtain in Volta's apparatus. •

This shown bv The external appearance of this mineral, which still evi-
its appearance dently exhibits the structure of native crystallized sulphuret
of antimony, and even in some parts the remains of a me-
tallic lustre, leaves no doubt, that its entire mass was origin-
ally a sulphuret of antimony, the particles of which had un-
dergone the slow and successive action pf some agent, that
had altered their composition, without disturbing their re-
spective arrangement, precisely as we see in petrified wood,
that retains its organization.
The principle The proofs on which I grounded this explanation, and

applicable to t]ie applications I have made of this principle to- the forrna-
other fossils. . , . „ ., , . , ,

tion of other fossils, as the pyrites termed hepatic, gray

copper ore, &c, have been detailed in a paper inserted in
the Journal of the Polytechnic School, for July, 1802., p.
308.
Mr. Davy's Mr. Davy's views on the same subject, given at the end

ideas similar. cf ]^s excellent Bakerian lecture read to the Royal Society
on the ooth of November, 1806, where he speaks of the
slow and silent operations of natural electricity even on the
mineral system*, inspired rne with the idea of endeavouring
to corroborate the inferences drawn from my former results,
by performing the experiments with the more powerful ap-
paratus, which we at present possess.
_ . I^lessrs. Hachette and Clement were so good as to assist

confirm the me in this undertaking. We formed a battery of 64 plates
fact- of copper and zinc, 15 cent, [near ti inches] long by 10

cent, [near 4 inches] broad, affording a surface of go'OO cent,
or about 1260 French inches square.
Apparatus. This battery was arranged in Mr. van Marum's manner,

that is, distributed in four piles, the first two of which were
placed in a plate of copper with its edges turned up, and
Supported by an insulator. The pasteboards placed between
pairs of metal were wetted with a strong solution of soda.
Sulphuret of A piece of sulphuret of antimony was placed in a small

* S^.'c Journal, vol. XIX, p. 62.

glass

INFLUENCE OF GALVANISM ON MINERALS. 265

glass two thirds full of distilled water, and a communication antimony ex-

grata established between the water and the two poles of the p0*i€ °

buttery by means of two slips of platina,

As soon as the bubbles began toannounce the decomposi- Sulphuretted

hidvoeea
tion of the water, a slight smell of sulphuretted hidrogen evolved.

was perceptible. In two hours this smell was very strong.,

the water had assumed a yellow tint, and the surface of the

sulphuret of antimony appeared of a deeper yellow, and as

it were iridescent.

The slips of platina from the two poles were first fixed silver taraisfe*
at some distance from the sulphuret; afterward they were ed by il*
brought near enough to touch it, apd the acceleration of the
disengagement of bubbles showed, that the activity of the
frattery had not slackened.

After the expiration of four hours, the smell of sulphu-
retted hidrogen was perceptible at a distance. A slip of
silver, well cleaned, being placed on the edge of the glass
without touching the water, was in a few minutes covered
with a deep black coating. A drop of the water in the glass Acetate of
immediately formed a white, precipitate in a solution of ace- lead P^-'P1**-
tate of lead.

That part of the slip of platina, which was connected The platina
with the negative pole and immersed in the water, was tarnished.
black : and that which communicated with the positive
pole had a slight yellow incrustation.

The battery having lost almost the whole of its activity The sulphuret
at the expiration of eight hours, we attempted to take the covered Ith
piece of sulphuret out of the water; but the motion sepa- jer"™ P°W"
rating part of the yellow powder that covered it, to collect
this we were obliged t© throw the whole upon a filter.

This powder, dried in the air, exhibited the same reddish resemblir.sr the
yellow tint as the native oxide of the province of Gallicia; native oxide,
and the fragment still retained evident traces of it on several
poiuts of its surface, when scarcely any remains of metallic
lustre were distinguishable.

Hence we may presume to give this product of our imi- , ,.ff .
• tation of the processes of nature as differing from the mo- onlv from the
dels she presents us only because the portion decomposed <,lffL'ren(!e.of
had not reached the same depth, and acquired the same
consistency ; iu other words, because the result #f an opera-
tion

*26$ INFLUENCE OF GALVANISM ON MINERALS*

tion of a few hoars cannot be perfectly similar to that of
another, the duration of which depends on a uniform suc-
cession of agents, and the slowness of which prevents ail
possibility of its being- disturbed.
Nothing but If now we consider, that no one of the substances, which
frtdwcould0" we may reasonably presume to exist in the bowels of the
have wrought Earth, acts iu a similar manner, or produces the same chan-
1 e ange. ^g ^ su|pnuret 0j* antimony when once formed, as I have
shown in the paper printed in the Journal of the Polytech-
nic: school, there appears to me no doubt, that the transiti-
on of the sulphuret of antimony of the province of Gallicia
to the state of native oxide (iu which it loses more than 0*17
of sulphur, and acquires 0*18 of OX i gen) results directly
from the decomposition of water by galvanic electricity. If
jt be strictly possible for the same effect to be produced by
a diiferent cause, it is certain, that the instances arc much
more rare, than is commonly supposed; and that the greater
number appears to belong to this class only because we con-
found the remote with the immediate cause, the process
with the chemical action, the form of the agent with the na-
ture, and, if I may be allowed the expression, the haudle
with the tool. But when the effect is characterised, as in
this particular case, by circumstances that imprint on it the
seal of a djstinctcause, and excludesany other known cause,
we have not a probability only, the certainty of the cause is
ecmal to the certainty of the effect.
Farther prov- We have since sought for new proofs of this conclusion,
ed> extending our experiments to other minerals, where the

signs of a transition of this kind were most manifest,
on sulphuret ^ulphuret of iron, poor in metal, hard, compact, mid of
of iron, great lustre, merited attention in this point of view more

particularly, because the pyrites of Berezoff, which is found
in the same state of alteration, in its primitive state resists
the action of the most powerful solvents, yielding only to
the nitric acid and the nitro-muriatic.

On a pyrites of this kind, and the gray silver ore (crys-
ore. t'dWnedfahterzJi we endeavoured to produce analogous al-

terations.
These exposed Bting exposed in distilled water to the action of the same
in water to a Igt&rjfi and communications established in a similar

battery, were

*' manner.

INFLUENCE OF GALYANlSM ON MINERALS. 2^7

manner, the smell of sulphuretted hidrogen was perceived, acted upon in
and the water rendered turbid ; the slips of platinawere co- nesrimi ar man"
loured, as in the former experiment, black on the negative
sides, and brownish yellow on the positive ; the water, which
was strongly acid, precipitated acetate of lead ; and the frag*
ments of the sulphurets were left in a state of division, al-
most pulverulent, and covered with pellicles of a dull colour
and without lustre.

The sulphuret of iron in particular exhibited a very The su] pnuret
striking alteration on its surface. Having attached the con<- of iron inflame
ductors before water was put into the glass, the sulphuret6 *
was vividly inflamed; which astonished us the more because
in a preceding expeiiment a fragment of transparent na-*
tive sulphur did not exhibit the least sign of inflammation,
when touched with the platina exciter undera jar rilled with
oxigen gas, though the battery was powerful enough to bum
the iron wire.

It even appeared to us, in the last experiment, that the
inflammation of the sulphuret took place instantaneously
after it had been covered with water; but the effect was so
rapid, that we dare not assert this as a certainty.

We purpose to pursue these experiments, and in the These experi,

mean time I think I may conclude, that those of which I rinientV0 M
- . , . ., ' pursued.

have just given an account, while they confirm my expla-
nation of the transition of brilliant crystallized sulphuret
of antimony to the state of an earthy yellow oxide, without
losing jts configuration, afford a new mean for interrogating
nature respecting the composition of bodies, the propor-
tions of their component parts, and the succession of chan-
ges effected in their combinations. The desulphuration of
ores is one of the most important points in metallurgy ; and
if, in the present state of our knowledge, we can scarcely,
discern any possibility of availing ourselves of this mean in
processes in the large way, those of assaying cannot fail to
'(thrive more certain results from its application.

£68

FORMATION OK BASALTES;.

On Artificial Sandstones, that have undergone a regular Con-
traction in the Fire; by Mr. Alluau*.

Composition
pi the stone.

Artificial sand \_>N examining with Mr. Leopold Cbevaillers the scoria
^one separate prcKjucecj u, the operation of parting bell metal, winch was
performed under his direction at Limoges, I found masses
of artificial sandstone, which by a regular contraction had
divided itself into prisms, precisely resembling the basaltic
columns, that exist in all volcanic countries.

These sandstones, which served as a cupel to the melting
furnace, are composed of a fine-grained sand, the remains
of granites; the other component parts of which had been
decomposed. To separate them, and obtain the purest si~
liceous grains, they were carefully washed and decanted,
f hey were afterward mixed with water loaded with clay, to
impart to them the body requisite for their use; and a little,
charcoal powder was added, which, diminishing the points
of contact between the siliceous particles and the metallic
oxides, rendered them less vitrescible, and thus prolonged
the duration of the cupel of the furnace.

To form it, a stratum of this mixture 15 to 20 cent. [6 or
8 inches] thick was placed on the floor of the furnace, and
strongly beaten down as it was gradually dried by a gentle
heat. After being used a certain time, it was necessary to
renew the whole stratum, and all the sandstones arising from
it had experienced the same contraction.

The upper part of these prismatic sandstones is covered
with a scorified metallic stratum 4 or 5 cent, [about ]§ or 2
inches] thick, that serves to hold together all the prisms,
which are notwithstanding easily separable. The degree of
heat has been more intense near this stratum, than in the
inferior part : accordingly the sandstone there is harder and
more compact, being difficult to penetrate; while the
other extremity of the prism is easily crumbled by the fin-
gers. 'The fire however has been sufficiently violent through-

Mannef in
which it was
ttwaied.

Its texture.

* Abridged from the Journal de Physique, vol. LXV, p. 229.

cut

FORMATION OF BASALTE*. %6$

Gut the whole thickness of the mass, to vitrify the metallic
Fragments disseminated through the sand.

These prisms extend to the length of 15 cent. [5*9 inch.] Figur*.
and from 1 to 2 or even 3 [0^9, to 0-/3, or 1*18 of an inch]
in diameter. They are parallel to each other, and have their
Axis, constantly perpendicular to the metallic stratum that
covers them. Though thenumber of their sides is not con-
stant, they are most frequently six. Their edges are sharp,
and pretty straight. Their faces are not strictly planes, but
a little concave ; and, what is remarkable, they appear to
have been more powerfully heated than the interior of the .
prism, a circumstance I conceive to be ascribed to the last
molecules of caloric, which have escaped as through so ma-
ny channels by the clefts or intervals, that were formed be-
tween the adjacent faces of the prisms.

When these sandstones have not been so strongly heated, In some case*
VL r ■'. * .,..'.'. ,\i the charcoal

the aggregation and prismatic division is not so well charac- arranged in oa-

terised. Then too the charcoal, deprived of the air neces- rallcl strati,

sary for its combustion, has arranged itself in longitudinal

zones parallel with the axis of the prism, and so as to leave

between them intervals of 2 or 3 millim. [0*787 or 1*18 of a

line]. This singular phenomenon appears to me occasioned

by the caloric, which, absorbed by the metallic stratum,

taking the shortest course to reach it, and finding itself

stopped in its progress by the particles of charcoal equally

disseminated through the mass of sand, pushed them aside

to the right ai/d left by imperceptible degrees to open itself

apassage, and has thus dispersed them in little parallel strata

or threads, as if they had yielded to the laws of affinity,

which always tend to bring together homogeneal particles,

when suspended by a fluid in a suitable state of rest.

If we invert one of these masses of sandstone, it is a very Thi sandstone
good representation of the bottom of a basaltic stratum. In sake™
short it is impossible to have a more perfect model of its
mechanical division*.

Naturalists have already remarked clays, that have under-. more than any
gone a regular contraction in the tire : but, beside that silex observei/v

* The piece I preserve in my collection is about 4 dec: [15 | inches
long, J and 2 dec. [7 inches and three quarters] broad,

forms

£70 frORMATTON OP BASAITES.

forms more than tiine tenths of the mass of this sand&tone
of Mr. Chevaillers, this effect had not been observed in such
a constant manner on such large blocks, as Dolomieu said m
speaking of the configuration of basaltes. An effect so fre-
quently repeated must have its causes.

Reflections on the configuration of basaltes.

Bas-altes first At a time when men were ignorant of the first principles

supposed a , , ■ ° r . '

crystallization, of crystallography, and but few crystals were known, it was

difficult certainly, to avoid confounding with them solids
that exhibited some external appearance of their regularity.
Thus Cronstedt,Wallerius, and other celebrated naturalists
thought basaltic prisms were the direct products of crystal**
lization.
Rome de Lisle Rome de Lisle at first adopted the mistake of his prede-
nnstake. cessors: but he had scarcely raised the veil, that enveloped

the mechanism of cvystallization, when he sought for an-
other cause of the prismatic division of basaltes, and then
the happy idea of a contraction offered itself to his mind.
Hauy* But since the genius of Haiiy has developed the theory

of crystallization in such a learned manner, may we not
be astonished still to find naturalists, who are desirous of as-
similating basaltic columns with the productions of regular
aggregation ?
Objection to Setting aside therefore every idea of the crystallization of
being^formed3 ^saltes- * sbal1 confine myself to the refutation of a slight
by cooling, objection of its partizans to the numerous proofs of its
contraction, and I shall attempt to follow its mechanism, in
examining the laws to which bodies are subjected in cooling,
from their re- They admit, that the cooling of the basaltes must have
gulanty. occasioned divisions, that would naturally give rise to some

forms; but they add, that these forms, resulting from
chance, and a thousand different accidents, could only be
very irregular, and not produce vast columns, as remark-
able for their regularity as for the uniform arrangement that
characterises their extensive masses,
fcut they But why should these forms depend on accidents guided

ought to be by the }land of chance ? 1 can conceive no reason for this ;
e*U af* since, if the cause of the contraction be constant, and if

the manner in which it. Operates be always the same, ought

I19t

JCfcMATlON OF BASALTE*. 27l

not their results to bear the stamp of this uniformity of cir-
cumstances ? Do not the cracks of clay dried by a scorching
sun sometimes exhibit polygons nearly, regular? Do not the
cracks in the glaze of pottery, which superficially examined
appear destitute of symmetry, resemble on closer inspec-
tion a kind of mosaic issuing from the hand of a single. ar-
tist?

Mr. Patrin even mentions a piece of ancient enamel in Regular cr*ck$
the collection of Mr. Dolomieu, the surface of which exhi- )>0mdc»vstaUi-
bits throughout hexagonal figures, representing in miniature zation.
a horizontal section of a basaltic causeway. But who can
conceive with him, that these hexagons are the effect of crys-
tallization? Is it not evident, that the metallic base, on
which the enamel rests, being capable of greater dilatation,
may under various circumstances have occasioned cracks*
the unusual regularity of which gives at first sight an erro-
neous idea of their causes?

The basaltic prisms then are the result of a regular con- The cooling of
traction, and the hypothesis of Dolomieu, which ascribes it i^tcTbv °^
to a refrigeration accelerated by the contact of a body that something
quickly imbibes caloric, agrees perfectly with the division of JjSort^we
the sandstone of Mr. Chevaillers, the surface of which is co-
vered wifh a scorified metallic stratum serving as a conduc-
tor to the caloric.

If geologists be not agreed on the formation of basaltes, Caloric aa^
they cannot refuse to admit, that caloric performs one of formation.
the principal parts in it; whether it act alone, or in concert
with other solvent gasses, known or unknown to naturalists:
and the latter, as they are extricated, may furnish analogous
results.

When a body is strongly heated, if the action of caloric Effects of *

come to cease suddenly, the body experiences the most in- sudden cessa-

J . • , tion of its

tense degree or heat at the instant when the caloric escapes, agency.

In fact, the caloric, rushing rapidly toward the body that
absorbs it in proportion to the strength of its affinity, ac-
cumulates on the parts which it traverses as a powder does a
sieve, and sets in motion the particles of the body, which al»
most at the same instant are briskly separated and left to the
attraction of cohesion, that tends to unite them. Spheres
©f attraction are then established between the particles of

caloric

272 FORMATION OF BASALTES.

caloric that are flying off, and those of the substance itce}?,
\\ inch tend 10 unite.
Met 1 ad - ^ t',ls bUOStailCe oe & good conductor of heat, and the
allycoul-jd attractive sower of its particles equal the expansive power
of the caloric, it will return to its natural state wilhont
ige of fornl. Such is a metal in fusion^ which is left to
cool gradualljT.
Sd frlni cast ^' lllK'er tne saine circumstances, the caloric, rapidly ab*.
ma. sorbed, is separated in succeftive strata, this substance will

separate into planes, which will be perpendicular to the di-
rection the caloric takes to escape. Such is the case witli
cast iron in fusion, the surface of which is wetted to separate
thin cakes from it: a cause analogous to what may have di-
vided basaltes into leaves, or thin strata, either perpendi-
cular to the axes of the prisms, or around a globular uw\ss.
Tempering of If, the motion of the caloric being uniform, the attrai>
-tcei- tion of cohesion do not equal the expansile power, the par-

ticles of the substance will remain dilated; and then, if it
be a good conductor of heat, they will maintain their situa-
tion without experiencing any division. Such is the effect
of tempering steel, where the cohesive power of the parti-
cles of iron is broken by the interposition of carbon. But
fjuartz broken if the substance.be not a good conductor of heat, it will
fall to powder ; as quartz strongly heated and immersed in
water. The first of these circumstances has perhaps nevi*r
Occurred in volcanic productions, but the other must have
been very frequent.
Prismatic di- To obtain prismatic divisions, let us suppose a basaltic
tisions. mass still in its pasty state covering a considerable plain ;

and which, yielding to the laws of gravity, adheres strongly
to the base that supports it. Then, if the expansive forte
of the igneous or aqueous gasses happen to cease in conse-
quence of their sudden or accelerated extrication, the par-
ticles, losing their fluid state, will tend to approach each
other, yielding to the laws of gravitation, and also obeying
the attraction of cohesion that they exert toward each other ;
and jhey cannot contract, but by following the diagonal di-
rection resulting from these two powers. But the extent Of
this mass, its gravity, and the inequality of surfaces, op-
posing a general contraction like that which is experienced

by

ETHER FROM OXIMURIATIC ACID ALOffE. QJ3

by a cake of clay exposed to the fire on a support, there will
necessarily he a vibration, and cracks that will determine
spheres of attraction, round which the particles will agglo-
nitrate; and the centres will be so much more numerous,
and the radii less, as the attractive force is more consider-
able.

VI.

Observations on the Oxigenized Muriatic Acid. By Mr,
Joseph Mojon, Professor of Pharmaceutic Chemistry in
the Medical School of the Imperial University of Genoa, ,

- #c.*

N making oxigenized muriatic add, I have several times Oximumtic
had occasion to observe, after having emptied the receiver, acifi acquire*
into which I had distilled the acid, and left it a few hours ether:
exposed to the light, that the little portion of acid, which
commonly adheres to the irsidj of the receiver, lost entirely
its peculiar suffocating smell, and acquired an aromatic
odour perfectly analogous to that of muriatic ether. 1 re-
marked besides, that the oxigenized muriatic acid, though
retained in bottles well stopped, and luted so that the gas
cannot exhale, yet, if it remain some time exposed to the
action of the sun, not only ceases to fume, but also ac-
quires an ethereal smell, similar to that of muriatic alcohol
or ether.

This transmutation of oxigenized into simple muriatic changed into

acid, without the excess of oxigen being able to escape, as munaticacid

i t i 11 • -i-i Without any

also the ethereal smell it acquires by simple exposure to oxigen escap

light, led ine more than once to suspect, that the oxigen in iuS

this case, instead of being extricated in the form of gas*

entered into fresh combinations, and formed ether.

To convince myself whether ether were really formed, I Ether obtained

took a bottle filled with oxigenized muriatic acid, which from some*

had been left exposed to light almost two years, and had

* Annoles de Chrmie, Vol. LXIV. p. 264.

Vol. XXIil.— -August, i809. T acquired

sr*

F.THLR FROM OXIMURIATIC ACID ALONE.

Farther expe
rimems pro-
mised.

acquired the ethereal smell. I have mentioned, I saturated
it witk magnesia ; and distilled the whole in a glass retort
with a very gentle heat, till I had obtained a few ounces of
a fluid, which I rectified afresh in a small retort over a lamp.
This afforded me a perfectly limpid, colourless liquor, of a
very penetrating ethereal smell, and a taste resembling that
of muriatic ether diluted with water. It did not change
the colour of infusion of mallow flowers; and it did not
take fire at the flame of a candle, being still very dilute."

The small quantity of liquor obtained by this process not
allowing me to proceed to a fresh rectification, to deprive it
entirely of the superabundant water it contained, 1 mean to
make new trials with a larger quantity of sicid.

From the observations I have thus briefly given, and
which no doubt deserve to be repeated &nd confirmed by
farther experiments, I am far from pretending to explain by
vague hypotheses the formation of acohol, or of ether, by
oximuriatic acid, and to point out whence it derives its com-
Perhaps ethrr ponent parts. We may suppose, however, that a portion of
formed in the h . fovme^ at tne t;me 0f distilling the oximuriatic
acid, and that the potent and suffocating smell of this acid
prevents that of the ether from being perceived. In fact
the celebrated Giobert of Turin, in distilling oximuriatic
acid sixteen years ago, observed a volatile oil similar to that
which Mr. Westrumb had discovered some time before
him. Mr. Giobert tells us, that this oil is of a yellowish
as oleum vini brown colour, very clear, and analogous to the oleum vini ;
but that it is difficult tp determine its precise quantity,
since when once separated it dissolves anew very readily in
the aqueous vapours, that fall into the receiver. This
chemist imagined he might estimate the quantity of oil ob-
tained from a mixture of a pound of sulphuric acid with-
eighteen ounces of muriate of soda at 30 or 35 grains.

found to be.

VIL

Conversion op malt spirit into vine oar, §7^

VII.

Extract of a Letter from Mr. Resal, Apothecary at Re-
rnirementy to Mr. Cad :r, Apothecary to the Emperor, ini
the Conversion of Malt Spirit into Vinegar, and on tht
Red Colour of Oil of liempseed *.

I

TAKE the liberty of imparting to you an observation Malt spirit
respecting the article of Mr. Hebert of Berlin, wiio.se pro- converted into
cess you could not verify without it. I communicated it to
Mr. Parmentiera twelvemonth ago, with several other notes,
part of which was inserted in the month of May, 1 806. One
of these was on the vinegar of brandy, which chance threw
in my way. I had mixed some malt spirit [alcoolde bierre)
vrith an equal quantity of water, and added to it some
beech charcoal. Bein£ set aside and forgotten, I wTas sur-
prised at the end of a twelvemonth to find it converted into
a very strong vinegar, and the unpleasant taste of the beer
still subsisting.

With your permission I will add an observation respecting
the property of liquids to absorb different solar rays.

It is known, that various substances absorb this or that Oil of hemp-
luminous ray, but I do not believe that any one has men- seed grows red

*vi •» >* i ,. id the sun.

tioned the property, that oil ot nempseed, cannabis sativa

E.j has to absorb the red rays when they are direct only, and
to appear of a fine blood-red colour ; so that, being lighter
than rape or linseed oil, as it returns to the upper part of
the vessel it appears equally red, without changing the
colour of the oil it floats on. Its use in the arts, since it
offers more resistance to the air than linseed oil, and doea
not skin [ne se crispe pas] like it; and its mixture with
oils for the lamp being very common from its low price,
while it yields a thick smoke ; require a method of detect-
ing it. This that I have mentioned perhaps would answer,
and even show the effect of the solar rays on different sub-
stances.

* Annates de Chimie, vol. LXIV, p. 961.

T 2 Remarks

«?6

CORRECTION OF LONGITUDES IN THE WEST INDIES,

VIII.

Remarks on some Points of Hydrography, by Mr. Leblanc,
Officer in the French Ravy*<

Errour of Ion- JL Hfc ejulf of Florida, or new Bahama Channel, is greatly

rida.

Corrected.

gitude in the .

Gulf of Flo- frequented by ships ot all nations, that trade to or cruise in

the Gulf of Mexico ; yet the latitudes and longitudes of
the principal points in it have not been fixed. They are
not mentioned in the Tables inserted in our Connoissance
des Temps, or in the English collection entitled " Tables
requisite &c." Accordingly we are obliged to have recourse
to the most modern charts. French navigators use the Ge-
neral Chart of the Atlantic Ocean published inl791, and re-
vised and corrected in 1792. I think I can show, that there
exists an errour in longitude of 52' with respect to all the
points of the gulf. I was led to notice this on the following
occasion.

On the 25th of January, i907, in the afternoon, on board
the Foudroyant, we saw waves and breakers on the North of
the Great Bahama. At 4 o'clock we set, at a small distance,
Lena Key N 80° E, and that of Azena N 45° E by com-
pass. The longitude given by our time-keepers No. 40
and 76, reduced to (hat hour, was only 80° 17 30", while
that by the chart was nearly 82° 15'. Whence it follows,
that the whole course of the gulf is too far west about 5C2'
of a degree f , a considerable errour in those latitudes. The
going and state of the tvvo timekeepers had been carefully
observed during our long stay at the Havannah. Their er-
rburs were almost nothing after we had been at sea eight
days, when we had soundings abreast of Cape Henry. The
results given by the observations taken with the reflecting
circle gave us no reason to suspect any thing incorrect in
the longitudes : and when we entered Brest the absolute
errour of No. 40 was only 7' of a degree after a voyage of
thirty-five days.

Green Key is one of the priucipal marks of the Old Ba-

Old Bahama
channel.

* Journal de Physique, vol. LXV, p. 55.

t I give the difference as in the original, not knowing where the
errour is.

hums

SPONTANEOUS IGNITION OF CHARCOAL. g^7

hama Channel. The English call it Chesterfield. There
is a small errour in the latitude of this Key, as given in our
Connoissance des Temps. In our voyage I ascertained it to
be 22° 7', instead of 21° 55'. The want of tolerable charts
of this dangerous part, and the necessity of comparing the
ship's place on the chart with sure data, render this observa-
tion interesting for those who sail without a pilot on board.
As to the longitude, it was agreeable to what I obtained
by the timekeepers. This key must not be confounded
with another of the same name on the south of the Great
Bank of Bahama, and almost in the same latitude.

The accuracy of both of the observations here given I
have verified by comparison with two Spanish charts pub-
lished in 1779 under the ministry of Mr, Langara, and de-
rived from the Hydrographer's Office at the Havannah.

I know not where the latitude and longitude of San Sal- San Salvador
vador, one of the principal cities of Brazil, in the Bay of
All Saints, are to be found. When we anchored in that
bay, Mr. Fonsera, Captain in the Portuguese navy, and
superintendant of that harbour, told me, that its latitude
was 13°. and its longitude 42° 25'. An English work, in the
hands of all the navigators of that country, gives them 12°
4&' and 41° 5'. So considerable a difference led me, to pay
as much attention tQ the subject as our short stay would
permit; and I had an opportunity of finding both by lunar
observations and the timekeepers, that its true longitude is
about 41° 5'. The latitude of point St. Antony I ascer-
tained by several observations to be 12° 59*8'. The time of
high water is twenty minutes after three, mean time. The Variation of
variation of the needle there in 1806 was 10° 20' E. the needle.

IX.

On the Spontaneous Ignition of Charcoal : by B. G. Sage,
Member of the Institute, Founder and Director of the
first School of Mines*.

,R. de Caussigni appears to have been the first who f harco&l fired
observed, that charcoal was capable of being set on fire by in grinding,
tjie pressure of millstones. I

* Journal de Pbvsique, vol. LXV, p. -423.

Mr.

f78 SPONTANEOUS IGNITION OF CHARCOAL.

Infine powder Mr. Robin, commissary of the powder mills of Essonne,
igmte> s^qn- j^ given an account in the Annaies de Chimie, No. 35,
p. 93, of the spontaneous inflammation of charcoal from the
black berry bearing alder, that took place the <23d of May,
1801, in the box of the bolter, inlo which it had been sifted.
This charcoal, made two days be ore, had l»een ground in
the mill without showing any signs of ignition. The coarse
powder, that remained in the bolter, experienced no altera-
tion. The light undulating flame, unextihguishable by
water, that appealed on the surface of the sifted charcoal,
was of the nature of inflammable gas, which is equally un-
extinguishable.

Moisture pro- The moisture of the atmosphere, of which fresh made
saotes this. , , . , . , , . , .

charcoal 19 very greedy, appears to me to have concurred in

the developement of the inflammable gas, and the com'-»us-»

tion of tne charcoal.

In heaps heats It has been observed, that charcoal powdered and laid

$ rong y* in large heaps heats strongly.

and takes fire. Alder charcoal has been seen to take fire in the ware-
houses, in which it has been stored.

About thirty years ago I saw the roof of one of the low
wings of the Mint set on fire by the spontaneous combustion
of a large quantity of charcoal, that had been laid in the
garrets.

Fired in Mr. Malet, commissary of gunpowder at Pontailler, near

pounding. Dijon, has seen charcoal take fire under the pestle. He
also found, that when pieces of saltpetre and brimstone were
put into the charcoal mortar, the explpsion took place be-
tween the fifth and sixth strokes of the pestle. The weight
of the pestles is 80 pounds each, half of this belonging to
tKe box of rounded bell metal, in which they terminate.
The pestles are raised only one foot, and make 45 strokes

jp a minute.
Jnpredients ft* Jn consequence of the precaution now taken, to pound
*ruonupodwder m the charroa', brimstone, and saltpetre separately, no explo-
jatejy. sions take place ; and time is gained in the fabrication, since

the pasu- is made in eight hours, that formerly required four

and twenty.
^Manufacture. Every wooden mortar contains twenty pounds of the

mixture, to which two pounds of water are added gradually,

■ Thr

EXPLOSION OF GUNPOWDER. 279

The paste is first corned : it is then glazed, that is the corns
are rounded, by subjecting them to the rotatory motion of a
barrel, through which an axis passes: and lastly it is dried
jn the sun, or in a kind of stove.

Experience has shown, that brimstone is not essential to Sulphur use-
the preparation of gunpowder; but that which is made J^nsaW* ***
without it falls to powder in the air, and will not bear car-
riage. There is reason to believe, that the brimstone forms
a coat on the surface of the powder, and prevents the char-
coal from attracting the moisture of the air.

The goodness of the powder depends on the excellence Goodness of

of the charcoal ; and there is but one mode of obtaining; this cnarcoal im*

. '■ & portant.

in perfection, which is distillation in close vessels,, as prac-
tised by the English.

The charcoal of our powder manufactories is at present
prepared in pots, where the wood receives the immediate
action of the air, which occasions the charcoal to undergo a
particular alteration.

X.

Theory of the Detonation and Explosion of Gunpowder.
By the same *.

JL HESE two phenomena, which take place simultaneous- Cause of the .
ly, arise from different causes. The detonation is the noise, detonation of
that is produced by the combustion of two parts of inflam- §unP0W er*
mable and one of oxigen gas.

The explosion, or discharge, is produced by the water of and its expla-
the nitre, and that which results from the decomposition of S10n-
the two gasses, which, being expanded by the fire, occupies
fourteen thousand times the space it did before; and acts
in the same manner as compressed air, to which its elasticity
is restored, and the explosive effect of which is produced
without detonation.

The inflammation of gunpowder by means of a spa; k jts ignition,
arises from the ignition of the nitre and brimstone.

• Ibid. p. 425.]

The

280

SULPHATES OF LIME, BARYTES, AND LEAD.

Inflammable

gas.

Foulness in
gun barrels.

The inflammable gas is produced by the decomposition of
the charcoal*; and the ox'gen gas arises from part of the
nitre, which is decomposed by the lire.

After the explosion of gunpowder, we find the inside of
the gunbarrel coated with a mixture of alkaline sulphuret
and charcoal not decomposed. This alkaline mixture at-
tracts the mpisture of the air, and forms a greasy coating
tvithm the barrel. If it be loaded in this state, part of the
powder adheres to the sides of the barrel ; and on discharg-
ing the piece, it catches, and produces what is termed
hanging fire. The barrel of a fowling piece therefore should
never be used a second day without cleaning,

Mr. Thomp-
son's analysis
confirmed by
Mr. Berthier

Component
parts of

gypsum.

Charcoal of
hard woods
best.

XI.

On the Sulphates of Lime, Bavytcs, and Lead.

i

N our last number, p. 174, we gave an analysis of two
of these salts by Mr. James Thomson, who was led to the
inquiry by the want of agreement between chemists re-
specting the proportions of the principles of the sulphate of
barytes. A similar reason had led Mr. Berthier, mine en-
gineer, to an investigation, which he has inserted in tbe
Journal des Mines, for April, 1807, that has but lately
reached this country. His analysis corroborates that of Mr.
Thomson, after whose paper it would be superfluous to give
Mr. Berthier's, I shall therefore simply quote the results
he obtained.

" From the experiments I have above described it fol-
lows :

M 1. That pure common gypsum, in whatever state of
mechanical division it may be, contains 21 or 22 per cent of
pure water.

* In France charcoal of alder, poplar, willow, &c. is always used for
making gunpowder. The intensity of the fire produced by su h char-
coal is iess than of that f.om harder wood. The former, being more
porous, would require mare cure in charring than the latter; and they
cannot be said to b« in the state of chare aa', unless the, h?v • bee 1 dis-
tilled r for when prepared by smothering the fire, there is always a por-
tion reduced to the sute of ashes [braise],

V 2. Tha$

FUSION OP BARYTES. 281

M 2. That the anhydrous sulphate of lime, whether n a- sulphate of
tural or artificial, and the nonanbydrous sulphate calcined, lime>
contain the same proportions of lime and sulphuric acid ;
namely, 042 or 043 of lime, and 0*58 or 0*57 of acid, near-
ly as determined by Bergman.

H 3. That the sulphate of bavytes is composed of at least sulphate of

barvtes
0-33 sulphuric acid, and at most 0*67 of barytes, J »

" 4. That the mean proportions of these two salts are: mean of both
0-425 of lime, and 0*575 of acid, for the sulphate of lime, se»
and o4>u7> of barytes, and 0335 of acid, for the sulphate of
barytes.

" 5. And lastly, that in pure calcined sulphate of lead sulphate of
there are 0-69 of metal, 0-2(3 of sulphuric acid, -and 005 of ,
pxigen."

XII.

Extract from a Letter of Mr. Geiilen to Mr. Descotils,

on the Igneous Fusion of Barytes**

Ji-T appears to me, that the French chemists are yet un*- igneous fusion
acquainted with the fusibijity of pure barytes by fire, which of baryte*
Mr. Bucholz discovered, and described in 1800, in the 2d
number of his Beitraege zur Erweiterung and Berichtigung
des Chimie.

If pure barytes be heated in a platina or silver crucible, it succeeds the
liquefies in its water of crystallization. After this water is aqueous.
evaporated, it filters into fusion at a bright cherry red heat,
and- flows like an oil. On cooling, it becomes a gray mass,
radiated in its fracture, which, when powdered, redissolves
in water, heating more strongly than lime, and recrystal-
lizts in cooling.

Mr. Bucholz, having h'therto prepared his pure barytes Does rot take
paly in Pelletier's method, did not know by experience, Place Wlth ba-
that barytes did not melt when it has been prepared by the by decompo-
jlecomposition of the nitrate by tire; which it might have suioncf the
been expected- to do, but which 1 have never- seen take

* Annaks de Chemie, Vol.LXlV. p. 168.

place,

ggg FUSION OF BARYTES,

place, even with the strongest heat, Mr. Bucholz and I have,
made some experiments; to ascertain the cause of this;
but we have not yet attained our object. Neither an excess
of carbonic acid, nor the solution of part of the sub-
stance of the crucible, appears to be the occasion of this
dilference. since, on dissolving the residuum of the decom-
position of the nitrate in water, very little insoluble matter
remains in proportion to the quantity of barytes ; and on
adding this insoluble matter to pure barytes in much larger
proportion the latter is not prevented from entering into
fusion.
fr-rhap* pre- We know not whether the previous crystallization of

irious cry-tal- karytes fce necessary to the fusion, and consequently whe-

IiyitiCMj neces- J J . . - . . l J

s^ry. ther water do not act some part in it. This might be solved,

by decomposing the nitrate in a crucible of some material

not acted upon either* by the nitrate or barytes. We made

our experiment in a. silver crucible, but obtained no decisive

result, on account of the large quantity of silver, which the

nitrate detached from the crucible by cohesion. As we have

not a crucible of gold, or of platina, we cannot pursue our

experiment. These observations, if inserted in your AnnaU*

may perhaps tend to an elucidation of the subject.

Note by Mr. Descoi'ds.

Tropfmkms of f }ie French chemists have long known the igneous fusion

Shesulphit^ of barytes, and it was with barytes thus fused, that Mr.

determined Thenard determined the proportions of sulphate of barytes,

r-t* ^ wn:ch ke gave in his Memoir on Antimony, published in

1800. It was likewise with fused barytes, that Mr.Berthollet

has since determined the proportions of the principles of the

same salt. As to the difference in fusibility of crystallized

barytes and that which is obtained from the decomposition

of the nitrate, Mr. Beithollet will make known the cause in

a ^aper, which will be inserted in the 2d volume of the Me-

tnoires dyArcueil. His experiments relating to barytes were

already finished, when I received Mr. Gehlen's letter; and

they had given occasion to a series of researches, that are

Water neces- now concluded. In p/Ir. Berthottet's paper it will appear,

'°thl5 that Water is the cause of the fusibility of barytes, as the

two celebrated chemists of Erfurt have suspected; and that

it

• SUGAR FROM THE ROSEBAY, ggg

it is likewise the cause of the difference of the proportions
of the principles of sulphate of barytes given by the che-
mists, who have attempted at different times to determiue
its composition.

XIII.

ffote on a Species of Manna, or concrete Sugar, produced by
the Rhododendron Ponticum*.

Few years ago Messrs, Fourcroy andVauquelin remark- Concrete su-
ed, that a concrete sugar, or manna, exuded from the re- »arontlieroseY
ceptacle of the flowers of the pontic dwarf rosebay.

Mr. Bosc has lately observed it afresh, and presented to described.
the Institute some grains of this substance collected by him
from the receptacle of the fruit, several of which were up-
ward of £ mill. [0*79 of aline] in diameter. Their taste and
appearance do not differ perceptibly from the purest sugar-
candy; but it is necessary to be on our guard against this
appearance, on account of the deleterious properties sus-
pected in the plant. Mr. Deyeux has even found, that they
leave an acerb smatch on the palate.

The manna of the rosebay, according to Mr. Bosc, isdis- Reasons why
solved during the night by the moisture of the atmosphere, seldom seen«
melted in the day by the heat of the sun, and does not ex-
ude from plants that vegetate vigorously. These are the
reasons why it is so seldom seen. Plants growing in pots,
and sheltered from the dew as well as from the sun, are most
likely to furnish it. The grains above mentioned were col-
lected from a plant, in which, all these circumstances united.

Mr. Bosc intends, if possible, to collect a sufficient quan-
tity to analyse.

* Annales de Chimie, vol. LXIII, p. 102.

XIV.

£$4 0N MANURES.

XIV.

An Essay on Manures. By Arthur Young, F. It, £.
( Concluded from p. 1 Q6J

7. Yard and Stable Dung.

Thing u5u.il!y JL T has been a common notion, till very lately, both with

eotleUtfd in termers and writers on agriculture, that dung is to be aeeu-.

mulated on liills or receptacles for a longer or shorter time,

till fermentation and putrefaction have brought it, after few

or many months, and few or many operations of turning or

mixing, to a certain state, in which it is ready and proper for

applying to land.

But it is some- But there is another system of management, which of late

time* used has attracted a good deal of attention: and this is, to use it
iresh : . .

fresh as made, if this method be right, no instructions for

the management of dunghills are necessary, since we ought

to have no dunghills.

and this i<s Hasssenfratz observes, "The management of the farmers

referable, ac- if m p\t^YC}y \s highly advantageous, in continually carrying

ablest che> " their dung to their land, rather than leaving it to be ex-

(PMfts, c< hausted in their farm yard, in order to be carried out at

" a fixed period. By applying the dung quite fresh to the

*f land, its first fermentation is employed iu heating the

" soil. The little alkali it contains, instead of being dis-

" solved in the farm yard, and carried off by rain, remains

" in the land, and improves it, if alkali be useful to vege-

" tation. The straw, yet entire, better divides the soil ; it*

*f fermentation proceeds less rapidly, and is less advauced

*.' when the seed is sown; and consequently the dung is in

". a better state for furnishing a great quantity of carbonic

•4 acid, which hitherto appears to be, with water, the prin-

" ciple aliment of plants."

Dr. Darwin asks a very interesting question. " Do the

s " recrements of vegetable and' animal bodies, buried a few

** inches beneath the soil, undergo the same decomposition,

" as when laid on heaps in farm yards ?" He conceives they

ON MANURES.

Btt

Ao9 and odds: " Though this is accomplished more slowly,
*4 yet it is attended with less loss of carbonic acid, of vola-
4' tile alkali, of hidrogen, and of the fluid matter of heat ;
" all which are emitted in great quantity during the rapid
•' fermentations of large heaps of manure, and are wasted
" in the atmosphere, or on unprolific ground. By using
" dung in a less decomposed state, though it will require
" some time before it will be perfectly decomposed and re-
«' duced to carbonic earth, it will in the end totally decay,
*' and give the same quantity of nutriment to the roots,
" but more gradually applied."

The testimonies of Kirwan, Sennebier, and Dr. Pearson,
are equally in favour of carrying dung fresh to the field.

What is still more' to the purpose, the theory of these and the prac-
able chemists is supported by the authority of many of the tice of the best
most skilful and judicious farmers founded on extensive ex-
vperirnents.

As dung is a compound of animal and vegetable matters, Nature of
but chiefly {he latter, it must be resolvable into the princi- dung,
pies of which they are composed.

These principles, thus separated by decomposition, will ^ pr0.iert^^
be ready again to enter into the composition of the growing
vegetables. The grand property of dung therefore is, to
yield immediate food to plants. Farther, it opens the soil,
if this be strong ; it attracts moisture ; and by the fermenta-
tion, which it excites in the soil, promotes the decomposition
of whatever vegetable particles may be already in the land.
Its effects have powerful progressive influence; for the pro-
duction of a great crop of leaf, root and stalk, by its shade
and fermentation leaves the land in better order to produce
succeeding crops.

The circumstances to be considered in the receptacles of Collecting,
yard and stable dung are few but important.

The first object to be attended to is to spread a layer of
earth over the surface of the yard. Peat is the best for this
purpose, with a portion of rnarle, or chalk. In want of this,
turf, rich mould, scourings of ditches, and some marles, or
chalk ; but not so much of either as to prevent the penetra-
tion of the fluids, which should enter sufficiently, to give a
black colour to the whole. There is no necessity for remov-
ing

£8$ dN MAftUAfcs.

i rng this every time the dung is removed. As there are ntf

advantages from fermentation in the mass til! carried On \0
the land, no attention should be paid to prevent treading
and pressing the mass. But as it is beneficial to have the
whole as equal as possible, it is very useful, that the stable
dung should be spread over the surface, and not left, to ac-
cumulate at the door* The same observation is applicable
to the riddance of the fat bullock stalls, and the bogsties.
As heavy rains will at times, in spite of every precaution,
cause some water to run from the yard, this should be re-
ceived into a covered reservoir, and pumped up On heaps of
earth prepared to receive it. In summer weeds of every
kind, that do not propagate from the root, should be early
collected and spread over the surface, as well as leaves in au-
tumn ; and the foddering with straw, if any, and the soiling
off green food, should both be upon it for all loose cattle.

Preparation. From what has been said it is obvious, that dung requires

no preparation; but if the richness or quantity of the dung,
or state of the weather, excite too much fermentation, or
th*s be apprehended, scatter every now and then over the
surface some of the same earth with which the yard was
bedded, but not in layers.

State in which As soon as circumstances of crops and convenience

aFP •* / will permit, the dung should be carried to the land; In

a business of any extent this cannot be done exactly when
the absorption of animal matter is enough to secure a due
fermentation in the soil, but must be directed by other cir-
cumstances. The farmer however is not to lose sight of those
principles, which govern the operation.

Application. All dung should be applied to hoeing crops, to leys, or to
grass land, and never to white corn. This is more essential
with fresh long dung, than with short; as there will be ma-
ny more seeds of weeds in it, several sorts of which are de-
stroyed by a strong fermentation. The proper crops for
which to apply yard and stable dung are turnips, cabbages*
potatoes, beans, and tares for soiling; and the seasons for
putting in thes« crops are spring, midsummer, and Septem-
ber. But the farmer is not confined to carry on his dung
at the time of sowing or planting: it is, on the contrary,
much better, especially with long dung, to have it previously

deposited

ON MAHUKi *%f

deposited in the land. The dung made in the depth of win-
ter may be spread in March or April for potatoes: the next
made, and what is not wanted for potatoes, may be taken
out in succession through April, May, and June, as conve-
nience suits, for turnips and cabbages: that made in July
and August will be ready for tares: and what is produced
in September, October, and part of November, is ready for
beans. The best time for manuring grass is immediately al-
ter hay is cleared from the field.

It is proper to remark, that the use of the skim coulter is Skim cuuite*.
essential to ploughing in long dung. By means of this ad-
mirable addition to any common plough, every atom may be
buried*.

8. The Sheep/old.
The immediate application of dung and urine to all soils, Folding sheep-
and of treading too loose ones, is well know to be' productive
of great benefit. Every one knows, sheep's dung and urine
are so far from wanting fermentation previous to their being
applied, that the sooner the seed is sown after folding, the
greater is the effect : and this tends to confirrri the princi-
ples laid down in the preceding section.

9. Pigeon's Dung.
This manure is esteemed by farmers to be hot and power- Pjgecns **•§■
ful. Forty or fifty bushels per acre are commonly applied. t

While in the house it does not run into those stages of fer-
mentation, that reduce a body to mucilage ; and yet has an
extraordinary effect when spread. This is another argument
in favour of fresh dung.

10. Pond and Ricer Mud.

The quality of this must be affected by. various circitm- potld *nd tlv€*
T , • • t \ , , mud.

stances. In proportion as it is resorted to by, cattle and wa*

terfowl, and receives the washing of towns, houses, farm \

yards, or privies, the mud must be good. In other cases

the mud may be tried experimentally in small quantities,

or chemically analyzed. It generally pays well, but seldom

wr never very considerably.

• See Journal, p. 52, on the utility of burying dung deep.

II. Sea

288 OS MANURES.

11. Sea Weeds .*
Seaweed*. Wherever these are to be had, they are used with uniform

success. The best and most durable sort is cut From rocks
at low water. One loud used fresh is more service than twp*
that have been left in a heap to ferment. This is the case
with nine substances out of ten.

12. Pond and River Weeds.

£ond and river Great advantage has been found from cutting these weeds

weeds. just l3efore tne |ast ploughing for turnips, and spreading

them as a manure for that crop. Some value them load

for load equal to dung, and have imagined the following bar*

ley superior to that after dunging for turnips.

13. Hemp and Flax JJ^ater.
Hemp and flax In Yorkshire they observe, that the grass grows doubly
water- , where flax is grassed. Mr. Billingsley carted flax water

on his land, and found it superior to animal urine.
Where there are convenient pouds on a farm, one at least
should be half filled in summer with green weeds for the
putrid water, which would soon be the result*

14. Burnt Vegetables,
Burned vege- In some parts of Lincolnshire it is usual, to spread evenly
over land,just before sowing turnip seed,from three to 4 tuns
of straw per acre, and set fire to it. A similar practice pre-
vails in the Pyrenees. It is said to be superior to common
dunging. In Cambridgeshire and other places very stout
oat stubble, reaped high, is burned as a preparation for
wheat, both cleaning and improving the land.

15. Ploughing in Green Crops.

Ploughing in This husbandry has been practised for ages, though many
gieeu crop?, have found little advantage from it. The benefit certainly
depends on the crop being completely buried. The only
way of proceeding is, to roll down the crop with a barley
roller, and add a skimcoulter to the plough, going in the
same direction as the roller, to plough six inches deep.
There should be no other successive tillage than scuffling

* See Journal, p. 79.

shallow

ON MANURES. Qgg

Shallow on the surface. It usually answers better for a surri-
mer's sowing, as of turnips, or early winter tares, than for
late autumnal sowings.

General Remark.

On all arable farms the dung of the favm yard may ma- General re«
nure from a sixth to a fourth of it; by a proper course of mar '
crops and layers a certain portion maybe pared and burned ;
and at least one tenth may be manured by ploughing in
green vegetables. By these three exertions a good manager
may manure more than one third of his arable land every
year, which, with a right application of calcareous manures,
will keep any land in heart, and regularly in a state of im-
provement.

The preceding manures are usually to be procured on
most farms. Under the second head, or such as are to be
purchased, we have in the first class, or animal manures,

1 1 $gkj Soil.
This is the best of all manures, and, if dry, the cheapest} Night soil.
It answers on all soils, and for all crops; but the most pro-
fitable application of it is on grass lands, spread after clear-
ing away the hay; though it may be used in all" seasons. It
is very durable in effect. The common quantity used is
about 200 bushels an acre. In the state of powder it is ex-
cellent for delivering by drill cups with turnip seed.

2. Bones.

These do best on strong soils, and their duration exceeds Bones, and j
that of all other manures. The effect has been seen for
above thirty years. For potatoes they are excellent. Five
or six loads of fifty bushels each are commonly employed
on an acre, after they have been broken and boiled for the
grease.

The refuse dust of bone manufacturers is also good. bonedust.

3. Sheep's Trotters.

These are a powerful manure, and usually sold by the Sheep's trot-
quarter with feltmongers cuttings. Four or five quarters ters#
an acre are a common dressing, but eight have been spread.

Vol. XXIII,— Aug, isoy, U They

tQO ON MANURES.

They should be ploughed in not less than 6 inches with a
skim coulter.

4. Hair,
Hair* Hog's hair is sold in great cities from Is. to Is. 6d. per

bushel, pretty well squeezed down. From 16 to 25 bushels
an acre are commonly used.

5. Feathers.
Feather*. These are a powerful manure. Twenty-five bushels an

acre have been spread with much success : but land, which
unmanured yielded but 28 bushels of white wheat, with ten
bushels of feathers produced 43.

6. Fish.
Fish. Every sort of refuse fish is one of the most effective ma-

nures that can be carried into our fields.

7. Graves*
Grates. These appear to produce remarkable effects in turnip

crops on poor sandy soils.

8. Woollen Rags.
Woollen rags. These do best on dry and sandy lands. From five to
twelve hundred weight an acre, chopped small, are used.

Refuse of lea- 9> Curriers Shavings and Furriers Clippings

do best on dry soils. Thirty bushels an acre are a common
dressing.

1Q. Horn Shavings.

These are applicable to all soils, but do best in wet sea-
sons. The coarser sorts are cheaper, but inferior in effect,
though more durable.

Nature and properties of animal substances.
Nature Sc pro- All animal substances will fertilize the soil being resolved

perties of am- jnt0 their first principles, but this takes place much sooner
ma! substan- . . r . r . TT . . r .

ccs, with some, than with others. Urine begins to act imme-

diately, bones will last twenty years. AH of them should
be laid on the field as soon as may be after collecting.
Night soilj dry and in powder, is the only one properly ap-
plicable-

ON MANtREl. 291

plicable as a top dressing ; the rest should be ploughed in
as sOon as spread.

In the second class Mr. Young includes

1. Wood Ashes,

Mr. Hassenfratz having questioned whether alkalis Alkalis act on
were a manure, Mr. Young made many experiments on the ^,1J ^ Jld
subject, which convinced him, that pearlayh was in a vevy o.ution in wa»
powerful degree; and that it also had the property of act- ter'
ing on charcoal by mere mixture and solution in water.

Woodashes, wherever tried, have proved a valuab t- n,a- Woodashe*.
11 11 re. Mr. Young has used them on gravel and loams, both
dry and wet, and never without good effect. The spring is
the proper season, and succeeding rain of much importance*
Forty bushels an acre the common quantity.

2. Peat Ashes.

The value of these usually depends on the blackness and peat ashes,
density of the peat that is burned. Those of tne Newbury
peat are most celebrated, and ten or twelve bushels an acre
are a common quantity, while in other countries from twen-
ty to forty are usually applied. According to Mr. Davy
their component parts are

Oxide of iron • • • • * * 48

Gypsum » * • 32

Muriate of sulphur and of potash • • 20

100

Some uncommonly ferruginous peat ashes are used with
great success on the chalk hills of Dunstable.

3. Coal Ashes.

All sorts of ashes are found most effective when spread coal ashes.
on clover, sainfoin, or other seeds in the spring. They are
also good on grass lands, and are by many used on green
wheat* The quantity from fifty to two hundred bushels an
acre. The effect of fifty or sixty bushels on dry chalk lands
is considerable. They answer best on dry, sound, rich
loams; but on clays, and wet gravels or loams, they make a

U 9 poor

292 ©N MANURES.

poor return. Coarse ashes and cinders are better than those!
that are finely sifted.

4. SooL
Soot. This is a very powerful manure on most soils; but least

upon strong or wet clay. Twenty bushels an acre are the
common quantity applied on green wheat or clover in the
spring.

5. Peat Dust.

Peat dust. From its abounding in hidrogen this should operate as a

strong manure. Commonly too it contains much iron.
Having a great attraction for humidity, it is very advantage-
ous on dry sandy soils. Mr. Farey asserts it to be the best
possible dressing for onions.

6. Potash Waste.
Potash waste. The alkali having been extracted, this is not a powerful
manure, but does good in low meadows, and on grass lands
in general. Ten loads an acre, or 350 bushels, are a com-
mon quantity.

7. Sugar -bakers Waste,

Sugar bakers Some say this is a powerful manure.

waste.

8. Tanners Bark.

Tanners bark. The tanning principle is probably in all cases hostile to
vegetation. If this bark be ufeful any where, it should be
on calcareous soils. Sometimes it appears to have dimi-
nished a crop of corn very considerably.

9. Malt Dust.
Malt dust. Eighty bushels an acre have exceeded dung on clay land

for wheat. From twenty to forty bushels are commonly
used, and with success on various soils.

10. Rape Cake.
Rape cake. About half a tun an acre is an excellent manure, but

since the price has risen less is used. Mr. Coke, by dril-
ling it in powder with turnip seed, makes a tun do for five or
six acres.

Of

FORMATION OF THE WINTER LEAF BUD. g^J

Of the fossil manures lime was included in the first divi-
sion, and coal ashes were classed with those of wood and
peat, so that only two remain.

1. Salt.
Little is known of this at present. In too large a quantity Salt.
it is injurious. It is certainly beneficial when properly ap-
plied. Perhaps it is best when mixed with dung or compost.

, 2. Gypsum,

Many persons assert; that this is no manure ; others, that
it is almost uniformly advantageous. It is said, to act as an
immediate manure to grass, and afterward in an equal de-
gree to grain: to continue in force for several succeeding
crops : to produce an increase of vegetation on stiff clay
soil, but not sufficient to pay the expense: to be beneficial
to flax on poor dry sandy land : to be particularly adapted
to clover in all dry soils, or even on wet soils in a dry season:
aud to have no effect in the vicinity of the sea.

Of Composts.

These Mr. Young considers in the same light with dung- Composts,
hills: he is of opinion, that the materials composing them
would produce at least equal if not superior effect when ap-
plied to the land directly.

XV.

On the Formation of the Winter Leaf Bud, and of Leaves.
By Mrs. Agnes Ibbetson,

To Mr. NICHOLSON.
SIR,

JL OUR obliging notice of my former papers has embol- Use f th b d
dened me, to trouble you again. There is no part of a plant not yet known,
or tree more various in its formation, and in its conse-
quences more astonishing, than the gemma, or bud. In spite

of

394

Method in
which leaves
are formed.

This apparent
©n disserting
▼ery early
buds.

Bud« of three
Juncf.

FORMATION OF THE WINTER LEAF BUD.

of the abilities of a Malpighi, a Grew, and many others, its
real use is not yet per haps known. So defective were our mag-
nifying glasses at that time, so impossible was it to render an
opake Object luminous and clear, that we cannot wonder
they did not attempt to search farther into the formation of
the bud : for there is hardly any study, that requires the ob-
jects being »o much magnified, and opake specimens so
clearly delineated. What follows 1 offer as the result of
many years study; I offer it with the greatest diffidence, but
with the most thorough conviction of its truth: nor have I
trusted wholly to my own sight, many have seen the speci-
mens on which I first founded my opinion, and drawn from
them the same conclusions; which, though from their no-
velty they may surprise, will on farther examination in very
young buds and leaves soon give conviction.

This opinion is, " That leaves are formed or woven by the
" vessels or cotton, that is generally supposed by botanists
" placed there to defend the bud from the severities of
M winter. That these vessels are a continuation of those
" of the bark and inner bark in the stem of the plant.
*' That these vessels compose the various interlacing
" branches of the leaf, which are soon rilled up by the con-
«' centrated and thickened juices of the inner bark, which
«' form the pabulum of the leaf."

The truth of this assertion is eas'ly seen by dissecting ve-
ry early buds, where except two or three scales, nothing but
the^e vessels will be found. What then could be the use of
them ? — to put them within the bud to keep the outside warm
is against nature, for it is against reason. 1 shall begin with
the anatomy of the bud from its rirst appearance; which
will explain the whole process, as far as constant attention
could give me an insight into it. The gemma or bud grows
on the extremity of the young branches. It is a sma'l round
or pointed body ; and is fixed on the young shoot, and along
the branches on a sort of bracket. There are three sorts.
The leaf bud, the flower bud ; and the leaf and flower bud.
It is the leaf bud alone 1 mean here to dissect: for their na-
tures are totally different, as are the purposes for which they
are intended. As 1 look on the leaf bud to be formed

almost

FORMATION OF THE WINTER LEAF BUD.

295

almost wholly of the bark and inner bark, so the flower bud
is a composition of every part and juice of the tree.

The leaf bud is generally smaller than the other two; in The leaf bud.
its first state it consists of two or three scales, enclosing a
parcel of vessels, which have the appearance of a coarse
kind of cotton, very moist ; but when drawn out, and placed
in the solar microscope, they show themselves to be merely
the vessels of the bark and inner bark elongated and curling
up in various forms. They are generally of three sorts, like
the bark, &c. First three or four short thick ones that ap-
pear to grow from the larger vessels of the inner bark, and
through which the thickened juice flows, but with this dif-
ference, that the holes are not there. Then there are two
smaller sized vessels, that exactly resemble the smaller ves-
sels fff the bark. The former I have ever found to be the
midrib of the leaves; the latter the interlacing of the smal-
ler vessels : and I have so often taken a leaf and dissected it
to compare it with the vessels which I the next winter found
in the leaf bud of the same tree, that I cannot but feel the
most thorough conviction, that I have in the bud traced its ori-
gin; though certaiuly much enlarged in the full grown leaf.
The pabulum of the leaf, or that which lies between the
vessels, is (as I have before said,) composed of that thick
juice which runs in the bark or inner bark of the tree, and
is to be found in no other part, It differs essentially from
the sap, and may be called the blood of the tree, as it pos-
sesses its peculiar virtues, is gum in one, resin in another,
oil in a third, according to the nature of the plant. Whe-
ther it flows both forward and retrograde I have not yet
been able to discover; indeed, finding the subject in the
Jiands of a gentleman of such abilities as Mr. Knight, I j^t Knight,
waited his decision : but that the greatest part is taken up
in forming the leaves I feel the most perfect conviction.
The pabulum of the leaf, after the vessels are arranged and
crossed, grows over in bladders, making alternate layers with
the smaller pipes, and'with the branches of the leaf. But
I have found, and shall give, many specimens before this part
of the process is begun.

I know not any tree that gives a more convincing proof Formation of
of the manner of forming leaves in the bud than the horse- the leaf of the

chestnut :hgrsecbestnut-

jg6 FORMATION OF THE WINTER LEAF BUD.

chestnut : but it should be taken in November or Decem-
ber. Several different midribs may be taken at once from
the same leaf bud, with an innumerable number of silken
vessels extremely tine, fastened, or growing up each side the
midrib. When these have interlaced each other sufficiently,
the , abulum will begin to grow over them, in small blad-
ders full of a water) juice. The next process is the larger
vessels cross ng over them, and then another row of blad-
ders; this continuing till the leaf is at its proper thickness.
The leaves thus formed are very small, but when once their
shape is completed, they then continue growing all together.
A drawing will so much better explain -this than any de-
scription, that I shall beg leave to refer to the sketch of the
several specimens of beginning or half formed leaves taken
out of the buds of various trees.
Mode of ar Yv'hen the leaves are so far completed, the rolling and

ranging the folding begins. Ivach t ee has its peculiar mode of Strang?
bud.0* *n» *ts ^eavtir-, in the bud, as Linneus beautifully exempli-

fies, some doable theii leases, abd h ii roll them round one
midnb ; s-ome round several, each of which has its own mid-
dle vessel ; some plait, some fold the leal. The variety is
prodigious ; but it must not be supposed, that once is suf-
ficient to complete the process', 1 have had the most thorough
conviction, that it is repeated several times, immersed all the
while in the glulinous liquor, that runs in the bark, and
forms the pabulum. During this arrangement, the pressure
of the leaves is very great ; and it is this and the rolling,
that completes thtm ; for if a leaf is taken from the bud,
before this process, ii will be like u piece of cloth before it
is dressed; that is, with all the ends and knots to it; thus
the back of the leaf wiil be obscured by the ends of
vessel, w ich are at last a I rubbed off, the hairs excepted,
which remain to many plants.
yonmtion of The next process is the forming the edges of the leaves,

theedgeof the the most curious and the most beautiful of all. The bud,
leaf

if opened, will appear full of that glutinous liquor, and the

le-ives folded according to the order to which they belong.
Take out one of. them, and tiie edges, folded as it is, wiil
exhibit a perfect double row of buboies lollow ng the scol-
lop of the leaf's edge, and appearing as ii set with brilliants,

J hardly

FORMATION OF THE WINTER LEAF BTJD. gC^

% hardly know a more admirable spectacle in the microscope;
it requires but trifling powers to show it well.

The last process, and completion of the leaf, is the form- Formation of
ing of the pores. Whether it is, that the young leaf being the Pore*«
thicker and more hairy than it is afterward, the pores are ob-
scured and hidden, or that the upper net grows last, I can-*
not say ; but in the many hundred forming leaves I have ex-^
posed to the solar microscope, £ have never once been able to
view the pores, as I have often done after the leaves had com-
pletely quitted the bud. I must not forget to mention, that tv0 s0;ts ^
there are two sorts of pores in the leaf; the large ones are them,
those which receive the dew drops and rain, the smaller are
those which appear in the day to give out the oxigen, and at
night to inhale the carbonic gas. I mentioned, that I sus-
pected these smaller pores of yielding a sort of insensible
perspiration ; as 1 find, when out of doors, a scurf only to
be seen with a microscope ; and under a glass this seems to
rise as water, to bedew the glass. But to place an object in Unnatural si-

an unnatural situation, in order to judge of its secretions, is tuations may

, . . . . occasion un-

sometbmghke putting a human being into a warm bath, to natural' secre*

judge how fast the blood flows. We know not what un- tions.

natural secretions we may .cause in that confined air, or how

much it may alter the nature of the plant, as I shall show at

a future ti > e with respect to melons and grapes. |

The two cuticles of leaves differ in most plants: for in Upper and mv.

the under one I have hardly ever found the large pores into <ler cuticle«

which t e dew or rain enters ; and but little oxigen is given

out also from the under part of most leaves ; while this part

ha*s a number of very small apertures, formed 1 suppose for

the reception of the carbonic gas.

I cannot but notice here how strange is thecontradictoryac- Contradiction

count of the leaves now generally received. They are sup- J^|.ieieceiv

posed to persp:re 17 fines more than a man : water must

therefore be yielded from each pore. They at the same tii»e

give out oxigen, end receive carbonic gas. Is tins credible,

pr is it not contradictory ? That they give out oxigen in the

day, and inhale carbonic gas in the night* I am convinced,

and I think it requires but the simple experiment of

keeping a plant in the window, and examining it with a

microscope 8 or 10 timet in a day, to convince a person, that

there

f98

FORMATION OF THE WINTER LEAF BUD.

there is no perspiration worthy being so called. But I re*
turn to my subject.
Sendee oft he ^~m'e tne upper andunder cuticles are growing, the edge

Tw© «orts of

.•djeofthe

of the leaf is completing ; the bubbles generally divide, and

partly dry up, and horny points appear in their stead. When
this is complete, the leaves burst from the bud ; but there
are few that will not show for a long time the manner of their
formation; the planes for more than a month remain coveiv
ed with the ends of vessels, some attached to the leaf, some
loose: and most leaves have a bunch of vessels fastened at
the outside to the corner of each side rib.

The vessels of the leaves (I mean those confined with-
in the midribs and side ribs of the leaf) are of two sorts;
the spiral and nourishing vessels. The spiral vessel is that
corkscrew wire, that surrounds the two last rows of the sap
vessels (as I shall show when I describe the division into which
the stem should, / conceive be separated). The nourishing
vessels are the only part formed of the wood, and convey the
sap necessary for the support of the leaf, and run on each
side of the spiral ones; which are generally divided into
little bundles of 3, 5, or 7 sets. It is impossible for any de-
lineation to be more exact, than that given in the Phil.Trans.
by Mr. Knight, of the entrance of these vessels into the midt
rih of the leaf. That these spirals vessels are the cause of
motion in leaves, and that they are perfectly solid and inca-
pable of carrying moisture, I hope to prove in my next letter.
Many leaves have a number of hairs fastened to the under
cuticle of the leaf, aud some to the upper. On the latter
they appear designed to divide the rain drop to the size. of the
pore it is fitted for, and those at the back of the leaf seem
intended to guard it from moisture, that the wet might
not prevent the entrance of the carbonic gas at night;
which it probably would do, without this precaution,
by resting on the apertures. But it is watching nature in
Why leare* ner natural state, that her laws are to be understood. , When
ulm/iTtVthe tne w*na* hlows with violence, the leaves turn their backs to
*aa. the wind; and when the sun shines, they present their

face to it : guarding by the first means the oxigen from dis-
persing) and in the latter case procuring a greater quantity,

Motive -tes-
te is.

Use of the
hairs on leaves

from the heat -of the sun shining on the leaves.

WThen the
leaves

FORMATION OF THE WINTER LEAF BUD.

299

leaves are very young, they are pressed together, their backs
exposed to the heat; probably to dry them, and clear the
pores for the reception of the carbonic gas; and as young
leaves give out hardly any oxigen, the shade in which the
other side is immersed is of little consequence.

To prove, that in formingtheleaf I have given it no features, D . . -
but what it really possesses, I shall finish by showing all the the leaf,
parts of a full grown leaf. The colour of leaves is not to be
found in their substance, but in the liquid with which it is
filled. The darkest green leaf that can be taken, has a per-
fect white cuticle, both above and below it. In this cuticle
are the pores. It is rather a thicker net below than above;
but not enough to account for the difference of the tints;
but the under one lies not near so close to the pabulum of
the leaf as the upper one; which may account for the co-
lour not piercing so much through. When these two nets
are taken off, the pabulum of rhe leaf appears. It is form-
ed of little bladders, rilled with a dark green. liquid, and in-
terlaced with vessels. Take this off, and a bed of larger
vessels presents itself; then a collection of bladders,
which is followed by the larger lines of the leaf; and then
a bed of bladders repeated, which the under cuticle covers.
Though the bladders differ in size and colour in different
leaves, and in thickness also, yet the general arrangement is
the same. I mean not however to include either the Jirs,
the grasses, or those grassy leaves of early spring, the iris,
crocus, snowdrop, &c, which are all of a different nature,
as I shall show hereafter.

I cannot quit the subject without adverting to the differ- Different sorts
ent sor.s of hairs, that are found on the back and face of the
leaf. 1 have before mentioned some on the former part, in-
tended to preserve the dryness; but on the face of the leaf
there appear often many tilled with moisture, as a kind ©f
reservoir for the cuticle, and these ar.e replete or not, ac-
cording to the dryness of the atmosphere.

There is also an innumerable multitude of things, that Microscopic
are truly parasite plants, that grow on leaves, forming groves parasitical
and orchards for the various tribes of insects, that live and ^ a" *
bretd under them. As I do not wish to mix the different sub-
jects, I shall conclude this letter, but mean to trouble you

with

500 CANAL IN THE SPINAL MARROW.

with (mother on the division of the stem of plants, frith*
out which i cannot well explain the discoveries I think
1 have made with respect to the motion and general fornif
ation of plants, or the eifect that grafting and budding of
every kind have on trees; a study which is now occupying
every moment of my time, and from which 1 hope to draw
many useful hints.

The mistake made by my directing my letters to be sent
to Mr. I. has led you into an errour. It is Mrs. Agnes Ib^
betson, who has the honour of being your correspondent.
Dear Sir,

Your obliged servant,
Bcttcvcv, June 8. A. IBBETSON.

Explanation of the Figures.

Ixpfcrration Plate VII, figs. 1, 2, 3, 4. Commencement of the growth
*' ie ^ a e* of leaves, exhibited in different stages. a,a,et,«, the midrib,
by by by the young vessels appearing like cotton, c, c, the
spiral nerves. «?, the smaller vessels crossing each other.

Fig. 4. The formation of the pabulum* e, e, the fine
vessels growing up each side of the midrib. fy the pabu-
lum. x

Fig. 5. Leaf-bud of the limetree.

Fig. 6. Leaf-bud of the horse chestnut about January.

Figs. 7, 8, and, 9, with some others, belong to two papers,
vrhieh will appear next month.

XVT.

A Letter on a Canal in the Medulla Spinalis of some Quadru-
peds. In a Letter from Mr. William Sewell, to Eve-
rard Home, Esq. E.R.S,*

SIR,

Canal in the A.CCORDTNG to your request, I send you an account
sninalmarrow jj tne facts I have ascertained, respecting a canal I disco-

-* rhilos. Trans, for 1809, Part I. p. 146.

vered

Mc*v>U-or»- /'//// './• . A mrnal I'ollMl'-'l. 8./>. •'< t v

CANAL IN THE SPINAL MARROW. 30l

veTed in the year 1803, in the medulla spinalis of the horse,
bullock, sheep, hog, and dog ; and should it appear to you
deserving of being laid before the Royal Society, I shall feel
myself particularly obliged, by having such an honour coni-
fer red upon me.

Upon tracing the sixth ventricle of the brain, which cor- communicat-

responds to the fourth in the human subject, to its appa- «»g with one*

r . , ', theventneles

rent termination, the calamus scnptonus, I perceived the ofthe brain>

appearance of a cana}, continuing by a direct course into
the centre of the spinal marrow. To ascertain with ac-
curacy whether such structure existed throughout its whole
length, I made sections of the spinal marrow at different
distances from the brain, and found that each divided por-
tion exhibited an orifice with a diameter sufficient to admit
a large sized pin ; from which a small quantity of trans-
parent colourless fluid issued, like that contained in the and containing
ventricles of the brain. The canal is lined by a membrane a fluid-
resembling the tunica arachnoidea, and is situate above
the fissure of the medulla, being separated by a medullary
layer : it is most easily distinguished where the large nerves
are given off in the bend of the neck and sacrum, imper-
ceptibly terminating in the cauda equina.

Having satisfactorily ascertained its existence through the A continuate

whole length of the spinal marrow, my next object was to tube the whole

■i . . lip • length of the

discover whether it was a continued tube from one extremity spinal mareow,

to the other : this was most decidedly proved, by dividing

the spinal marrow through the middle, and pouring mer- .

curyinto the orifice where the canal was cut across, it passed

in a small stream with equal facility towards the brain (into

which it entered), or in a contrary direction to where the

spinal marrow terminates.

By many similar experiments, I have since proved, that a The fluid has

free communication of the limpid fluid, which the canal a free comn\u*

. . , t A, . iii „ nication with

contains, is kept up between the bram and whole extent of the brain.

spinal marrow. I have consulted the most celebrated au-
thors on comparative anatomy, but do not find any such
structure of those parts described ; and as it is not known to
you, I may presume, that it has not been before taken
notice of. I have the honour to be,

Sir, your obedient faithful servant,
Veterinary College, Nov. 26, 1808. WM, SEWELL.

302 ALTERATION OF FLESH BY AfR AND \VAT*R.

XVII.

Note on the Alteration, that Air and Water produce in Flesh*
by Mr. C. L. Berthollet*.

Beef boiled in A Boiled some beef, renewing the water from time to time,
•water repeat- \\\\ the water no longer afforded a precipitate with tannin,
edly, exposed »•'••'• • 1

to the action I then suspended it in a glass cylinder filled with atmo-

c* air> spheric air, which rested on a plate filled with water. After a

few days the oxigen was found to he converted into carbo-
nic acid : the interior of the cylinder was rilled with a putrid

and again boil- sme^ : tne Deef» subjected to ebullition, again afforded a

«d. pretty copious precipitate with tannin: the boiling was re-

peated, till tannin ceased to render the water turbid: and
the beef, having almost entirely lost its smell, was replaced
in the same apparatus.

This done re- ' The operation was repeated several times, and the fol-

peatediy. lowing were the results.

Results. The alteration of the atmospherie air, and the emission of

the putrid smell, gradually slackened : the quantity of ge-
latine formed progressively diminished : the water on
which the vessel rested gave but slight indications of am-
monia throughout the whole process : when I terminated it,
no putrid smell was perceptible, but a smell resembling
that of cheese : and in fact the animal substance, which
scarcely retained any fibrous appearance, had not only the
smell, but precisely the taste of old cheese.

Beef and I distilled separately equal weights of beef and Gruyere

cheese sepa- cheese, employing; two glass bodies, each of which commu-
lately distilled. •,.,?• i rr.i

nicated with a tube opening under water. 1 he operation

was conducted so as to decompose the two substances as far

as possible, and retain all the ammonia, that was evolved.

Less ammonia On comparing the quantities of ammonia, that afforded by

from the t^e cheese was to that of the beef nearly as 19 to -24:

whence it appears, that a distinguishing characteristic of

the caseous substance is to contain less nitrogen than

flesh.

* Journal de Physique, Vol. LXV, p". 466.

If

ALTERATION OF FLESH BY AIR AND WATER. ?,YJ

If any inference may be drawn from experiments so in* Conclusion,
complete as the preceding, it would appear :

1. That the gelatine obtainable from an animal sub- Gelatine not
stance does not exist completely formed in. it; but that, wholly formed

i i • , i i i ill • c In animai *««>•

when this substance has been exhausted by the action ot stances.
water, more may be formed by the action of the air, the
oxigen of which combines with the carbon, while a portion
of the substance, that was before solid, becomes gelati-
nous, as a solid part of a vegetable becomes solid by the ac-
tion of the air.

It must be remarked however, that the property of pre- Tannin affects

cipitatinor with tannin belongs to substances, that have very ditferent sub*

r & ° * stances.

different qualities in other respects. 1 have found, that the

decoction of Gray ere cheese formed a copious precipitate

with tannin.

2. That nitrogen enters into the composition of the pu- Putrid gas*
trid gas, forming no doubt with hidrogen a combination

less stable than ammonia, or perhaps taking an intermediate
state; but, when its proportion is diminished to a certain
degree, it is more strongly retained by the substance, and
ceases to produce putrid gas. This substance, which \i
characterized by the putrid smell, appears to be rather a
very evaporable compound, that unites with all gasses, like *
other elastic vapours, than a permanent gas.

3. Since the caseous part has less nitrogen than most Caseous oat*
other animal substances, we may conjecture, that this part ter*
becomes more and more animalized during life, acquiring a

greater proportion of nitrogen and hidrogen ; which may be
explained by the more intimate combination of the oxigen
and hidrogen, that enter into its composition, and by the
separation of carbon in the act of respiration ; so that the
last term of chemical action during life is the production of Uree.
uree, agreeably to the opinion of Mr. Fourcroy*.

* Syst. des Connoiss. Chim. torn. 10, p. 165 j or English ed. Vol. Xj
p* 231.

XVIIL

POTASH IN SCHIST*

XVIII.

Analysis of a Schist in the Environs of Cherbourg, tak&ii
from the Excavations made in Bonaparte Harbour. Bij
Mr. Bertiiieu, Mine Engineer**

the rook de- V^ONSIDEREt) separately, and in small masses, this
rock has all the characters of the primitive formation. It
is of a dirty green colour, and has the greasiness and lustre
of* talc, though in a very slight degree. Its texture is slaty,
and a multitude of little grains of crystalline quartz, dis-
seminated between its lamina?, are visible to the naked eye.
Some have a laminated fracture, and are probably feldspar:
we may unquestionably however consider it as of interme-
diate formation from its situation. In fact Mr. Descotils
has observed, that it contains blocks of granite, frequently
pretty large and rounded; and that it alternates with an-
cient breccias well characterized, talky and argillaceous
schists, &c. ,

It would have been impossible to separate the quartz
mixed with it, whatever pains were taken. Besides, the
person who sent it to the laboratory desired, that it should
be analysed as it was.

Analysis* Five grammes [77 gi*s.] were fused with double their

weight of caustic potash, dissolved in pure muriatic acid,
evaporated to dryness, and the silex separated. The liquor
being filtered, and tested with sulphuric acid and sulphur-
etted hidrogen, gave no precipitate. Hidrosulphuret of am-
monia formed in it a black precipitate. Being filtered, ox-
alate of ammonia, afterward poured into'the liquor, scarcely
rendered it turbid ; and potash precipitated a small quan-
tity of magnesia. The sulphurets having been redissolved
in nitrornuriatic acid, the whole was precipitated afresh by
saturated carbonate of potash. Nothing remained in the
liquor, which proved the absence of manganese. Lastly the
alumine and iron were separated by caustic potash.

* Journal des Mines, vol. XXI, p. 315.

The

POTASH IN SCHIST. ' SO£

The results of the different operations wero

Silex i 68

Alumiue* 15

Oxide of iron • • • • $

Magnesia • 2

Lime (at most) 1

91

consequently there was a loss of 9 per cent. I knew in- Great deficiea*
deed, that tiie whole of the silex was not collected; but ^
what might be supposed to have been left was fur fiom an-
swering to this deficiency.

Accordingly I took one hundred decig. of the substance Water expel|
reduced to powder, and calcined them Strongly in a platina !-*•
crucible. They lost 3 dec, and were slightly agglutinated.
Six still remained to be accounted for, and, suspecting the
presence of an alkali, I sought for it after Mr. Davy's me-
thod.

5 grs. were fused in a silver crucible with 10 of boracic Second analy-
acid. The whole was diluted in water; muriatic acid was SIS*
added in excess ; it was evaporated to dryness ; an excess of
acid was added afresh ; and the silex was separated by filtra-
tion. The liquor, when sufficiently evaporated, deposited a
great deal of boracic acid, which was removed. The whole
was then precipitated by carbonate of ammonia, boiled, and
filtered. The liquor, rendered again acid, and evaporated
to a pellicle, deposited boracic acid, which was removed:
and, the evaporation being continued, the residuum was cal-
cined, to drive off the ammoniacal salts. What remained
still contained boracic acid; and, whatever precautions were
taken, it was impossible to separate it by evaporation. Hence Not -^
this method, though very convenient for detecting the pre- adapted to as*
sence of an alkali, appears to me not well calculated for ^^L ^
finding its proportion. Into the liquor, reduced to a fe*W alkali,
grammes, muriate of platina was poured, which occasioned
a considerable precipitate, that was found to be the triple
muriate of platina and potash, as will be related in the third
analysis, that was made of the same schist.

Vol. XXIII.— Aug. 180Q. X ThU

30$ POTASH IN SCHIST.

This was ur^levtakcn for the purpose of finding the quail*
tity of the potash, the presence of which was certain, and
of the silex, which had not been obtained with certainty.
Third analysis. 10 gram. [154 grs.] of the fossil were kept a long time at
a red heat with five times their weight of caustic barytes.
The mixture having grown pasty, it was diluted with water
and pure muriatic acid. Being* evaporated to dryness, the
silex was collected. It weighed 7*05 gr. It was fused again
with potash, and diluted in water and a little sulphuric acid.
There was a residuum of 0*4 of a gr., to which muriate of
silver gave a violet colour. It was heated red hot with car-
bonate of potash, and washed with distilled water. The
liquor contained sulphuric acid. Great part of the residuum
dissolved in muriatic acid. It contained barytes and silver*
The 0*4 of a gr. therefore consisted of barytes, muriate of
silver, and a little silex; so that we may reckon the whole of
the silex at 7*1 gr.

The barytes was precipitated from the muriatic solution
by sulphuric acid ; the earths, and oxide of iron, by carbo-
nate of ammonia. The filtered liquor having been evapo-
rated to dryness, a residuum was obtained, which, being cal-
cined with sulphuric acid, was reduced to 0*65 of a gr. It
was redissolved in a very small quantity of water, and con-
centrated muriate of platina was added to the solution. A
precipitate took place, which was collected. The superna-
tant liquor, decomposed by hidrosulphuret of ammonia,
filtered, and evaporated afresh, left a residuum of 0"2 of a
gr., consisting entirely of lime and magnesia. The least
trace of soda was not to be found. There remained then
0*45 of sulphate of potash, containing about 0*25 of alkali.
Method of cis- I satisfied myself, that the basis of this sulphate was pot-
tinguishing ^ ^y a very convenient method, which Mr. Descotils has

Ihe tnsule of , , .- t i • i • ••

platina with made public, and which serves immediately to distinguish

potash from tj,e triple muriate of platina and potash from that of platina
that with am- . _ . . , ...* . . „A •,.

raon'ia. and ammonia. It consists in boiliugthe precipitate m nitro-

muriatic acid. If it be the ammoniacal salt, it is decom-
posed, the ammonia is burned, and the platina dissolved.
On the contrary, if it be the trisule with potash, it remains
untouched; unless the quantity of the liquor be too great,

in

fcURrFCATION OF ALUM. S07

in which case it dissolves, but reappears entirely by evapo-
ration.

From the experiments that have been described it appears, Component

i i i i • i i x • Part °f tn$

that the schist analysed contains schi;t.

Silex .....71

Alumine. • • • 15

Oxide of iron 5

Magnesia • 2

Lime (at most) . • • • 0'5

Potash 2*5

Water... 3

99
Loss • • • • 1

100

tt is possible, that the potash found in this schist comes The potash
from the feldspar, which I suspect to be in it. It would be Jjj^be j£
interesting to ascertain, whether the alkali be inherent in
the rock, by the analyses of a more homogeneous fragment.

XIX.

Method of rendering common Alum as good for Dyeing as
Roman Alum; by Mr. Seguin, Corresponding Member of
the Institute*,

JL O the means that have been suggested for improving Method of

common alum, by freeing it from the iron it contains, Mr. purifying

. alum.

Seguin has added a new one, founded on the different so-
lubility of pure alum and alum contaminated with iron.
He dissolves sixteen parts of common alum in twenty-four
parts of water ; crystallizes ; and thus obtains fourteen parts
of alum equal to the Roman, and two nearly equal to that
of Liege.

This process might be employed in the manufacture of May be adopt-

the alum, so as to obtain at first an alum worth one third more ed in thc nu*

. . . mtfjctur...

than in its impure state.

* Sonmni's Bibliotheque Physico-^conomique, August 1807, p 132.
X 2 SCIENTIFIC

$08 SCIENTIFIC NEWS.

SCIENTIFIC NEWS.

French National Institute,

tute. JLVJlR. Delambre, perpetual secretary, has given an ana-

lysis of the labours of the mathematical division of the class
of mathematical and physical sciences for the year 1807, of
which the following is a brief account.

New construe- Mr. Burckhardt has proposed a mode of constructing
tio-iortele- ... .. , , - r . ... , , . &

scopes, telescopes, whieh he conceives will render their use more

easy and convenient, than any yet adopted. IJis smaller
mirror is plane, like Newton's, but placed perpendicular to
the axis of the large concave mirror, and at half its focal
distance. In this place the section of the reflected cone of
light is a circle, the diameter of which is just half that of
the large mirror. Accordingly the small mirror intercept*
a fourth of the direct rays, but Mr. Burckhardt compen-
sates this loss, by increasing the dimensions of the large
mirror a little. The cone thus intercepted takes an in-
verted direction; and the rays, instead of proceeding to
their focus behind the small mirror, unite at an equal' dis-
tance in front of it, passing through an aperture in tne cen-
tre of the large mirror. The telescope, thus reduced to
half its length, will have four times as much light as a com-
mon reflecting telescope of the same length. Many ob-
jections were made to this construction, which Mr. B. an-
swered, and it was agreed, that one should be made for
trial.
^ lorda's circle. The astronomers, who have lately measured the meridian
f line between Dunkirk and Barcelona, have .employed Bor-
da's circle to determine the time for correcting their clocks.
They presume, that in an interval of four or six minutes,
during which four or six observations maybe taken, the al-
titude of the sun or a star increases with sufficient uni-
formity in proportion to the interval, so that a mean be-
tween the observations may be taken, and employed safely
as a sing-le observation.
Formulae for Mr. Delambre and Mr. Burckhardt give several useful
altitudes. formulae for taking altitudes of the stars, and likewise the

moon 9

i

SCIENTIFIC NEWS. 309

moon, with precision. Mr. B. likewise proposes a new me-
thod of determining the moon's node.

Mr. Biot, before his first journey into Spain, had deter- Refraction of
mined by nice experiments the refracting power of the air gpj^m°ot af.
and of gasses, which he found to differ very little from what f cteri by

Mr. Delambre had inferred from his astronomical obser- a(iUL,ous va"

pour.
yations combined with those of Mr. Piazzi. It is well

known, that refraction varies with the state and temperature
of the atmosphere; and astronomers have long applied two
corrections, one from the height of the barometer, the other
from that of the thermometer. Since the introduction of
the hygrometer, it has been questioned, whether this ought
not to be employed for a third correction. During near a
month, that Mr. Delambre spent in the steeple of Bois-
commun, at a time when severe frosts more than once suc-
ceeded very damp mists, he endeavoured to ascertain, whe-
ther the variation of the hygrometer were attended with any ( .
change in terrestrial refraction, and found not the least in-
dication of such a change. Mr. Laplace had made the im-
portant remark, that the refractive powers of air and the ■
vapour of water, at equal degrees of elasticity, differed very
little; but the question was of sufficient importance in
astronomy, to be brought to the test of direct experiments.
This Mr. Biot has undertaken. He first ascertained the
effect of vapour alone. By means of potash lie. dried the
warm air included in his prism, while that without was load-
ed with all the natural moisture of the atmosphere. The
pressure of these two airs, indicated by a barometer within,
and another without, was not the same ; the difference being
equal to the tension of the atmospheric vapour. The devi-
ation of the luminous ray in the prism then gave the refrac-
tion produced by the vapour ; and this never differed from
what would have been produced by air alone at a similar
temperature more than xa few tenths of a second. The
mean was O'lo". Hence Mr. Biot infers, that the refrac-
tion produced by vapour in the atmosphere may safely be
neglected in astronomy.

[Certain observations by some of the members of the .

Asiatic Society at Calcutta however lead to a different
conclusion.]

Mr.

310 SCIENTIFIC NEWS.

Nebula in Mr. Messier has given a beautiful delineation of the ne*r

Orion. bu]a jn Orion, to which he has added that of Legentil,and

another much more difficult to perceive, which he himself
discovered in 1773.

Violent storms. He has likewise collected all the particulars of the thun-
der storm, that burst over Paris on the 21st of October,
1807 ; and the not less extraordinary gale of wind, that oc-
curred the next day. Jn the observations he has registered
•for fifty }ears he f-inds nothing similar to it. The church
of Moutivillers was struck by lightning during a storm
equally violent, that took place on the 3d of November
following.

Cornet. On the 21st of October Mr. Pons discovered the comet

at Marseilles. It was then austral, near the horizon, and
set soon after the sun. It was seen a few days after by dif-
ferent astronomers in France and Germany, and at Madrid.
Mr. Burekhardt has calculated its orbit.

Other comets. Mr. Burekhardt has found in the archives of the Impe-
rial Observatory some unpublished observations^ of the
comet of 1701, seen at Pau by Father Pallu. He suspects
it is the same as was seen at sea in February following.
Having found an important observation of the comet of
1672, he has calculated its elements afresh, and finds its
perihelion distance greater than was before assigned ; whence
he infers, that it could not be the same with that of J 805,
which some had supposed.

Tables of Ju- Mr. Bouvard has accomplished a more important and

turn and Sa" more genera% u^ul task> corrections of the tables of
Jupiter and Saturn ; and Mr. Delambre has availed himself
of these in the ecliptic tables of Jupiter's satellites, which hq
has entirely reconstructed, and will shortly publish.

Adhesion of The only paper in physico-mathematics mentioned is
Count Rumford's, printed in our Journal, Vol. XV, p. 52,
from his communication.

Measure on Beside the Memoirs of the Institute, the second volume

the meridian. 0f the "Base of the Decimal System of Measures" has
been published. It contains the remainder of the obser-
vations of all kinds, and the calculation of the triangles
from Dunkirk to Barcelona; the heights of the signals
, above the surface of the two seas; the azimuths aud the

latitude*

SCIENTIFIC NEWS. ^ll

latitudes of the five principal stations. The third and last
volume is in the press.

Mr. Berthoud, who died in August 1807, had published Treatise on
a few days before his death a supplement to his treatise on ime eei)ers>
Timekeepers, with an account of his researches from 1752
to 1807.

Mr. Betancourt presented to the class a model of a lock Lock for
on the same principle as that invented by Mr. Huddleston. camUl*
[See Journal, Vol. IV, p. 236.] He has likewise given a
mathematical discussion of the principles, on which it ought
to be constructed, so as to be manageable by the strength
of one man.

* Mr. Lancret has considerably extended Mr. Monge's Evolute*.
theory of evolutes.

Mr. Mains, of the corps of engineers, has deduced from a Propagation of
uniform and general analysis the various circumstances of^S111*
the propagation of light, and a solution of the fundamental
problems of optics. By a theory entirely new, founded on
the properties of the intersections of a series of right lines,
drawn, according to a constant law, to all the .points of a
^iven surface, Mr. Malus has determined the course of re-
fracted and reflected rays; the intensity of light, in all
cases, at any given distance from the luminous point ; and
the place, form, and magnitude of images. He shows,
that in certain, cases,, and with certain surfaces, reflection
and refraction produce images, that are erect in one of their
dimensions, and inverted in the other, a circumstance never
before noticed*.

The propagation and reflection of sound have some re- Propagation

* The plane mirror, or common looking-glass, in fact shows objects
erect in the perpendicular, and inverted wilh respect to right and left.
But this is not what the reporter means, though he does not inform us,
what the construction of the mirror of Mr. Malus is. It would be found
however, that a mirror, which is a section of a concave cylinder, will l *u- °i
represent the horizontal dimension of an object the reverse of what a
plane mirror v>ould do, without affecting the perpendicular ; in other
words, the spectator would see the image of himself, or anv other object
in it, exactly in the same position, as if he stood facing the object, that
occasioned the image : and this no doubt is the mirror alluded to, which
is of a kind, that 1 do not recoliect to have seen mentioned. C.

semblance

31*2 SCIENTIFIC NEWS.

and reft cvio- &«mt>lanre to those of li^ht, but their theory is attended
ooun . wjt|1 morp difficu|ty. As the velocity of sound is very small,

it might be questioned how far it depended on a simple law.
Messrs. Lagrange and Euler, who first treated this problem,
s«.pp- s d ir in a particular case to depend only on its dis-
tance mm the centre of mot on. M . Poreson has just de-
monstrated generally, in a very Ingenious manner, that the
lav is alwa.. the same: that the movement is propagated
by spherical undulations with the same velocity in every
di e< n • bni that the vibration of panicles situate at the
same mom nt in the sonorous wave are made with unequal
rapidity, according to a law depending on the nature of
the prim.- r\ a^ital'ion ; and consequently, that the intensity
of the sound, which depends on the velocity of these vibra-
tions, is too* found to be different in different parts of the
sonorous wave. The velocity in a given radius decreases in
the ratio of the di tame; whence it follows, if the intensity
be propoj io a to the square of the velocity, it must de-
crease in ihe proportion of the sQuaie of th distance.

Only iwo determinate roots of the, general equation had
been found, but the formulae of Mr. Poisson comprise an
inn. ite number, by wh ch may be verified all the theorems
he has obta'ned n the general case, to which he first paid
attention. He afterward considers the case where there are
several causes of a simultaneous vibration* and without
affecting the generality qf the root, he decompose* it so,
that the different parts answer to the different centres;
ivhich leads him to give in a novel and irgenious manner the
theory of the reflexion of sound, and production of echoes;
/ and to show what would take place between opposite and

parallel planes. By a similar method he explains whjit
must occur in the far ifftpre diffcult case, where the mass of
air set in motion is inclt^ed in an ellipsoid, tie demon-
strates, that the sound, which originates in one of the foci,
is reflected toward the other, maki.^g the angle of reflection
equal to that of incidence, and following the same laws as
light. The-e results are conformable with what we have
learned by experience of elliptical faults, but it was very
difficult to demonstrate them mathematically, which Mr,
pci^on has done in a new and ingenious manner.

It

SCIENTIFIC NEWS* , 313

Tt has long been remarked, that the observed velocity of Velocity «f
Sound is superior to what is deduced from algebraical cal- sound*
culations. It may be conceived, tha" the density and tem«?
perature of the air have some influence in this; but Mr,
Poisson demonstrates, that they are insufficient to explain
the observations. Having examined successively the causes
supposed by Newton and other geometricians, he finds
them incompatible with the results of sound, philosophy.
Mr. Laplace attributes the acceleration of sound to the
change of temperature experienced by the particles of air
in their condensation and dilatation, which cannot take
place without a successive evolution and absorption of heat. -
Calculation applied to this hypothesis, or rather incontes-
table fact, shows, from experiments made by the Academy
of Sciences in 1738, that a dilatation or condensation of ,^-T
produces a change of temperature equal to a degree of the
centesimal thermometer [1*8 Fah.].

The labours of the physical division of the class have
been analysed by Mr. Cuvier, perpetual secretary.

In 1804 the class had awarded a prize to Doctors Her- »,., . -
holdt and Rafn, of Copenhagen, for a paper on the winter animals.
sleep of animals; and, in 1807, another to Dr. Saissy, of
Lyons. Prof, Prunelle, of Montpellier, has since sent a
paper, that may rank with the best on the subject. Still
however, notwithstanding their researches, and those of
Spallanzani, MangHi, and Carlisle, we are ignorant of the
causes, by which certain animals are 'disposed to this sleep,
and not o'thers ; as well as of th > e that enable them to en-
sure this suspension of thei.- fu icti< n .

Mr. Geonroy-Saint-Hilaire, Prof, at the Museum of Na- Comparatiye
tural History, elected to s- c< e d *r-e ' te Mr. Broussonnet,
presented tothe class some fragments of a great work, which
he has undertaken on comparative osteology. His object
is to investigate more minutely the analogies between the
corresponding parts of various animals with vertebra?. In
fact those parts of organs, that are always found more or less
similar in number and position, notwithstanding their dif-
ference in size and use, and contradictorine^ to all apparent
final causes, must necessarily depend, on efficient and form-
ative causes. As these must be connected with the primary

' means

314

SCIENTIFIC NEWS.

jneans employed by nature, if we may flatter ourselves with
ever throwing any light on the origin of organized bodies,
the most obscure and mysterious point of natural history,
it seems to us the first sparks must be derived from these
analogies of structure.

Mechanism of ^Ir* P»Wf«l> Prof- of anatomy at the Medical School,

Tespi.atjon in presented three papers. In the first he treated on the me-

fohes* chanism of respiration in fishes, and pointed out some in-

teresting singularities. Those that from having their
mouths sometimes affixed to stones, or buried in mud or
sand, cannot always use them for taking in water, are pro-?
vided with apertures for admitting the water on dilating the
cavity of the mouth, and these apertures are fnrnished with
valves internally, to prevent the water from returning by
them, so that it has no exit but by the gills.

Cirp.n of ta*te The second was on the smell and taste of fishes. Mr. D.

jnfepet supposes, that the tongue, from the dryness and hardness

of its integuments, and the constant passage of water over
it, must be insensible to flavours ; and that the pituitary
membrane, not being exposed to the impulse of elastic va-
pour, cannot be the seat of sm.ell like ours. This mem-?
brane therefore he conceives to be the organ of taste.

Kept'Jes, The third is a comparison, of the various vital and animal

functions in the order of reptiles termed batrachian, which
justifies its division into two families.

Crocodiles. Several other papers on reptiles have been produced,

particularly on crocodiles, of which Mr. Ouvier has shown
no less than twelve distinct species exist in the old and new
world.

The same naturalist has endeavoured to remove by dis-r
section the doubts entertained respecting 6ome reptiles of a
singular form, which truly deserve the name of amphibia^
because they breathe both with gills and lungs. One of
these is the siren lacertina, another the proteus anguinus*,
and a third the proteus pisciformis. The two former of these
at least have the skeleton too firmly ossified, and too different
from those of any other reptile of their native abodes, and
besides their organs are too perfect, to admit of their being

Amphibia.

• See Journal, Vol. XVIII, p. 9t.

considered

SCIENTIFIC NEWS; 3\$

considered as tadpole;-, that have a change to undergo.
The last inhabits the lake of Mexico, where if is used as Axolotl.
food, and resembles a water lizard, except in bavins: i>ills.
It is called there dxofail, and was brought over by Hum-
boldt.

Mr. Biot, while employed in measuring an arc of the Air-bladders ojf
meridian at the Balearic Islands, thinks he has observed, fislie^
thai part of the intestines of fishes caught by a hook and
line at great depths, and drawn up suddenly, issue out of
their mouths, which he attributes to the expansion of the •
air-bladder. He has likewise examined the nature of the
air in this bladder, and found it to vary from pure nitrogen
to a mixture of this gas with 0*87 oxigen, but he dis-
covered no hidrogen. It appeared to him, that, the deeper
the fish lived under water, the more oxigen the air cq;j- • l

tained.

Mr. Jurine is extending his new method of classing; in- Entomology,
sects*, which is found to be more natural than could have
been expected, to the diptera.

Mr. Dupuytren, head of the anatomical department of Nerves of the

the Medical School, has shown, that the concurrence of'un^n ces

, p i i «i n sary ul breath-

the nerves or the lungs in the act ot respiration is neces- ing.

sary to the conversion of the venous blood into arterial.

The science of botany lms been sedulously pursued. Mr.
de Labillardiere has finished his Flora of New Holland.
Mr.Dupetit-Thouars continues his researches on the growth ~ t. .
of vegetables. He still thinks, that the trunk of trees has getablesu
the principle of its increase in the buds ; and that the fibres
composing the annual layers of wood are in some sort the
roots of the buds, while the little medullary thread ter-
minating each bud performs the functions of cotyledons.
He has endeavoured to answer objections, and brought for-
ward many interesting facts. Among these is the germina-
tion of the lecythis. The evolution of the seed of this tree,
which is dicotyledonous, cannot be referred to either of the
three modes hitherto adopted. Its cotyledon is interior,
and serves as a base to the pith, which Mr. D.T. thinks a
proof of the justice of his opinion. The cuttings of the

* See Journal, Vol XV I II. p. 218.

willow,

£I§ SCIENTIFIC NEWS.

willow, that take root though deprived of their buds, seen*
to furnish a strong objection to it; but he has found, that
in this case little subsidiary buds are unfolded opposite
points that were occupied by the stipules of the leaves.
Carbon T>f There is uo subject of more general importance in the

Pimts* vegetable economy than the origin of the carbon of plants.

Mr. Crell, the celebrated chemist of Helmstadt, has thj$
year communicated to the class some experiments, that
seem to give a very high notion of the power of vegetation.
He asserts, that he has made plants grow and produce seed
in pure sand, watering them only with distilled water, and
4 supplying them with a given quantity of air, in which the
carbonic acid must be almost as nothing in proportion to
the carbon produced. It is to be observed however, that,
though the plants were covered with a glass, he could not
pre. cut the access of the external air through the sand.

fVitosophtcal Messrs. Laplace, C. L. Berthollet, Biot, Gay Lussac,

ani chemical von Humboldt,Thenard, Decandolle, Cpllet-Descotils, and

^ y ° J T~ A. B. Berthollet, have formed a society under the name of

philosophical and Chemical at the village of Arcueil, near

Paris, which meets once a fortnight, and published the first.

vol. of its Memoirs in I8O7.

Berlin Society. At the Royal Academy of Sciences at Berlin, the sixth of
August last, a paper on the resistance of the air was read by
Mr. Bufa ; one on the. advantages and disadvantages of
national prejudices by Mr. Klein; and a fragment on the
great cataracts of the river Oronoko by Mr. von Humboldt.
The following prize subject is proposed for 1810. " To

Prize question. " giveacomplete theory of the hydraulic ram, paying regard
*' to the adhesion of water *."

Dr. Gauss has sent to the Koyal Society of Gottingen the
following observations of two of the new planets.

1*/. Observations of Pallas.

Apparent right Apparent declina

ascens. tion.

70° 16' 31" 190 59' 13" S.

70 42 39 19 20 44

70 $6 44 19 1 8 -

71 39 2 18 5 0
* For a descriytion of hs. mechanism, and soma remarks on it, see

Jou/aal, vol, XIV, p. 98.

2c*. Obscr-

/

Observations
of Pallas.

1»06.

Feb. 14.
It).
17.

Mean time.
lours.

8 11' 16"
7 32 28
6 52, 38

20.

7 49 35

SCIENTIFIC NEWS.

"2d. Observations of Juno.

SI7

1806. Meantime. Apparent right Apparent declin.

hrs. ascens.

Feb. 17. 9 42' 0" 173° 46' 45" 0° 28' 32" N. 0f Juno*

20. 10 49 47 G 54 18

10 59 2 173 15 57

13 12 18 173 15 15

The following observations of Juno were made at Gottingen.

180C. Meantime. Apparent right as- Apt. declin.

hrs. cension.

March 10 9 53' 56-3" K>9° 46' 54*5" 3° 41' 50\5"

11. 10 32 22*7 169 34 18 3 51 5&5

Dr. Gauss has likewise sent new elements of the orbit of
Ceres, deduced from the last opposition observed by prof.
Pasquieh, which the doctor means to render more correct,
when he has observations of this opposition on which he can
better rely*

Epoch of the longitude, meri-
dian of Seeberg 108° 19' 34*7"

Diurnal tropical motion •••• 770" 85' 84,.,

r Elements m

Annual... 78 9 23 Ceres.

. Aphelion, 1806 326 37 59

Annual motion .....4- 2 i«g

Ascending node, 1806 80 53 23

Annual motion + 1*5

Inclination of the orbit, 1806* 10 37 34

Annual diminution 0*4

Eccentricity, 1806 0-0783486

Annual diminution 0*0000058

Log. of the greater semiaxis* • 0*4420728

To the observations of Vesta, given in our Journal, vol.
XVIII, p. 75> we can now add the following.

1807. Meantime. Appartnt right as- Apparent declin.

hrs. cension.

April 1. 9 50' 183° 28' 12° 5' N.

5. 11 17 2*784" 182 33 10*§2 1% 24 19*1" *2S*5*m

6. 11 12 16-02*2 182 20 47*91 12 27 54*4

The

tl8

SCIENTIFIC NEWS.

The first of these is by Dr. Olbers, the other two frorri
the observatory of Gottingen.

Dr. Gauss has determined its elements in the following
manner.

Elements of

Vesta.

Mathematical
part of Hrm-
fcoldt & B>»n-
fclahd's travels.

Statistical ac-
count of
Mex.co.

Epoch of the mean longitude at Bremen, March 29, 1807i
at 1 2 o'clock, mean time. ........ 193* 8' 4-6"*

Longitude of its perihelion ........ 249 7 41

aphelion 69 57 52

ascending node on

the ecliptic '••••• 103 8 36

Inclination of its orbit 7 5 49'5 f

Diurnal tropical motion* • • • 0 16 18*9i

Logarithm of the mean distance •••• 0-3728428

Eccentricity 0*097505

Greatest distance from the sun 25*625

Least • 21-514

Period of its revolution 1321 days, 12 hour?.

The fourth part of von Humboldt and Bonpland's Tra-
vels will contain in two 4to. vols, the astronomical observa-
tions, trigonometrical operations, and barometrical mea-
sures. Mr. von H. has thought it would be most satisfactory
to give the whole of the original observations themselves,
that it may be seen what degree of confidence the result?
deduced from them deserve. The calculations have been
made by Mr. Jabbo Oltmanns from the best tables. 'The
magnetical observations, with an examination of them and
of those of Cook, Vancouver, and other able astronomers^
by Biot, will occupy the 2d. vol. As such a number of
figures must be a long while printing, the latitudes and
longitudes of various places, deduced from astronomical ob-
servations, have been published in a separate tract in Latin.

In the third part of their travels, consisting of a statisti-
cal Essay on the Kingdom of New Spain, they estimate the
present population of Mexico at more than six millions,

*[n the Magazin Encvclopedique it is 192° 9' 54",
t Ibid. 7° 8' LA'.

They

scnsNnfric news. 3I9

They likewise give the following comparative table of births

and deaths. births, deaths.

In France HO 100 Table of mo*

In England 120 100 tallty in va-
in Sweden 130 100 rioui places.

In Finland l60 100

In the Russian Empire 166 100

In Western Prussia * 1 80 100

In the government of Tobolsk •• 210 100
In several parts of the high plains

of Mexico 230 100

In the state'of New Jersey, North

America 300 100

Famine however not unfrequently interferes, to check the Famine.
population of Mexico. In 1784 no less than 300000 died
for want. The mortality among the miners does not ap- Miners not tin*
pear to be greater than in other classes. The heat of most heattb^r.
of these mines is very considerable. At the bottom of that mines.
of Valenciana, at the depth of 513 met. [560 yards] the
centigrade thermometer was at 34° [93*2° -E ah r.], while in
the open air in winter it is only 4° or 5° above 0 [from 39/2*,
to 41° F.].

On the 22d of August last Mr. Andreoli and Mr. Brios- . . ,t. +

0 /Vscent with, a

chi went up with a balloon at Padua. When the mercury balloon to *
had fallen to 15 inches [about the height of frf miles] Mr. Sr^t,l>eis^
B. began to feel an extraordinary palpitation of the heart,
without any painful sensation in breathing* When the
mercury was down to 12 [4t\ miles] he was overpowered with
a pleasing sleep, that soon became a real lethargy. The
balloon continued ascending, and when the mercury was
about 9 inches [near 6 miles] Mr. A. perceived himself swol-
len all over, and could not move his left hand. When the
mercury had fallen to 8*5 [about 6 miles and a quarter high]
the balloon burst with a loud explosion, began to descend
rapidly with much noise, and Mr. B. awoke. It fell about
12 miles from Padua, without any injury being' received by
the aerial travellers.

The scheme of bishop Wilkins I understand Iras been pur- Artificial
sued with some success at Vienna. A watchmaker of the wi"Ss-
name of Degen is reported to have ascended above the
trees in the Prater with artificial wings, taken his flight in
various directions, and alighted on the ground with as much
ease as a bird. Meteorolo*

METEOROLOGICAL JOURNAL,

For JULY, 1800,

Kept by ROBERT BANCKS,Mathematical Instrument Maker,
in the Strand, London.

THERMOMETER.

BAROME-
TER*

WEA'

r/HER.

JUNE

- Jc

Day of

<

S

"to OJ

O w

9 A. M.

Day.

Night.

o>

Oi

I ~

j-5

26

57

58

65

51

30-42

Fair

Cloudy

27

58

59

67

52

30 22

Ditto

Fair

28

57

56

62

50

30-08

Rain

Cloudy

2.9

56

57

61

51

3001

Ditto

Rain

30

57

56

62

54

2995

Ditto

Fair

JULY

1

' 56

63

67

58

29'83

Fair

Ditto

2

63

58

02

51

2979

Rain *

Rain

3

53

51

63

49

29*53

Ditto

Ditto

4

49

52

55

49

29'4S

Dittof

Cloudy

|

52

53

55

53

29'52

Ditto

Ditto

6

53

58

60

57

2970

DittoJ

Ditto

7

62

61

65

60

29'8 1

Ditto

Dittoj]

-'*

6l

59

66

52

C9 s?

Ditto

Rain

9

53

52

56

5 2

29S8

Ditto §

Cloudy

10

52

53

57

50

29-88

Ditto

Fail-

11

53

54

64

58

30 03

Fair

Ditto

12

61

65

68

62

30-09

Ditto

Ditto

13

62

62

68

55

30-09

Ditto

Ditto

14

62

62

69

60

30-18

Ditto

Ditto

15

63

63

68

60

30-09

Ditto

Ditto

16

63

64

72

59

30*00

Ditto

Ditto

17

62

59

67

53

2976

Ditto

Ditto

IS

58

55

60

50

29 90

Ditto

Ditto

19

56

62

65

57

30-03

Ditto

Ditto

20

60

62

66

55

30*12

Ditto

Ditto

21

60

6l

65

55

30*20

Ditto

Ditto

22

6i

62

63

56

30-05

Ditto

Ditto

23

59 '

61

69

60

29-89

Ditto

Ditto

24

60

61

69

60'

29-86

Ditto

Cloudy

25

62

65

74

61

29-78

Ditto

Dittotf

* A.M. at 1 P.M. thunder and lightning the thermometer retiring 2*«

t Hail, thunder and lightning at 2 P.M. the thermometer retiring 4°.

% Rain the whole day.

|} At 11, lightning, thunder, and heavy rain.

§ Rain the whole day.

% Heavy rain, thunder, ajftd lightning in the night.

A

JOURNAL

OF

NATURAL PHILOSOPHY, CHEMISTRY,

AND

THE ARTS.

SUPPLEMENT TO VOL. XXUL

ARTICLE I.

The Bakerian Lecture. An Account of some New analy-
tical Researches on the Nature of certain Bodies, Sfc.
By Humphry Davy, Esq. Sec. R. S. F. R. S. Ed. and
M. R. I. A.

(Continued from Page Z57.)

3. Analytical Experiments on Sulphur.

J. HAVE referred, on a former occasion*, to the experi- Sulphur seem.
ments of Mr. Clayfield and of Mr. Berthollet jun., which h^ocST**
seemed to show that sulphur, in its common form, con-
tained hidrogen. In considering the analytical powers of
the voltaic apparatus, it occurred to me, that though
sulphur, from its being a nonconductor, could not be ex-
pected to yield its elements to the electrical attractions and
repulsions of the opposite surfaces, yat that the intense heat
connected with the contact of these surfaces might pos-
sibly effect some alteration in it, and tend (o separate any
elastic matter it might contain.

On this idea some experiments were instituted in 1807. A Experiments t«
eurved glass tube, having a platina wire hermetically sealed ascerUm * **•
in its upper extremity, was filled with sulphur. [See our
last Number, PI. VII, Fig. 4.] The sulphur was melted

* Bakerian Lecture, 1808, p. 16; or Journal, Vol. xx, p. 302.
Vol. XXIII. No. 105, — Supplement. Y ©ver

$2$ ANALYTICAL EXPERIMENTS ON SULPIlLMt*

over a spirit lamp ; and a proper connection being made
with the voltaic apparatus of one hundred plates of six
inches, in great activity, a contact was made in the sulphur
by means of another platina wire. A most brilliant spark,
which appeared orange coloured through the sulphur, was
produced, and a minute portion of elastic fluid rose to the
upper extremity of the tube. By a continuation of the
Sulphuretted process for nearly an hour, a globule equal to about the
hidrogen pro- tenth of ah inch in diameter was obtained, which, when

examined, was found to be sulphuretted hidrogen.
But the sulphur This result perfectly coincided with those which have
tained water. oeen just mentioned; but as the sulphur that I had used
was merely in its common state, and as the ingenious ex-
periments of Dr. Thompson have shown, that sulphur in
certain forms may contain water, I did not venture, at that
time, to form any conclusion upon the subject.
The experi- In the summer of the present year, I repeated the ex-

ment repeated pgrinient with every precaution. The sulphur that I era-

with pure sul- r J A

phur. ployed was Sicilian sulphur, that had been recently sub-

limed in a retort filled with nitrogen gas, and that had been
kept hot till the moment that it was used. The power ap-
plied was that of the battery of five hundred double platei
of six inches, highly charged. In this case the action was
most intense, the heat strong, and the light extremely
brilliant; the sulphur soon entered into ebullition, elastic
matter was formed in great quantities, much of which was
permanent; and the sulphur, from being of a pure yellow,
became of a deep red brown tint.

Sulphuretted The gas, as m the former instance, proved to be sulpha.

hidrogen pro- netted hidrogen. The platina wires were considerably

part of the sul- acted upon ; the sulphur, at its point of contact with

phur acidified? fl,em had obtained the power of reddening moistened

Large quantity »

«volved. limtus paper.

I endeavoured to ascertain the quantity of sulphuretted
hidrogen evolved in this way from a given quantity of sul-
phur, and for this purpose, I electrized a quantity equal to
about two hundred grains in an apparatus of the kind I
have just described, and when the upper part of the tube
was full of gas, I suffered it to pass into the atmosphere J
fro as to enable me to repeat the process.

When

ANAtYTlCAt EXPERIMENTS ON StJLPHtni; 323

When I operated in this way, there seemed to be no
limit to the generation of elastic fluid, and in about two
hours a quantity had been evolved, which amounted to more
than five times the volume of the sulphur employed. From
the circumstances of the experiment, the last portion only
could be examined, and this proved to be sulphuretted
hidrogen. Towards the end of the process, the sulphur
became extremely difficult of fusion, and almost opaque^
and when cooled and broken, was found of a dirty brown:
colour.

The. experiments upon the union of sulphur and potas- Sulphur and

sinm, which I laid before the Society last year, prove that potf smn? . ..
7 , j j i r evolve sulphu-

these bodies act upon each other with great energy, and retted hidrogen.

that sulphuretted hidrogen is evolved in the process, with

intense heat and light. v

In heating potassium in Contact with Compound in- Potassium heat*
flammable substances, such as resin, wax, camphor, and ?<* with com-
iixed oils, in close vessels out of the contact of the air, I flammables,
found, that a violent inflammation was occasioned; that
hidrocarbonate was evolved ; and that when the compound
Was not in great excess, a substance was formed, sponta- p horUg
neously inflammable at common temperatures, the com-
bustible materials of which were charcoal and potassium.

Here was a strong analogy between the action of these Analogies,
bodies and sulphur on potassium. Their physical pro-
perties likewise resemble those of sulphur ; for they agree
in being nonconductors, whether fluid or solid^ in being
transparent when fluid, and semitransparent when solid j
and highly refractive; their affections by electricity are
likewise similar to those of sulphur; for the oily bodies
give out hidrocarbonate by the agency of the voltaic spark,
and become brown, as if from the deposition of carbonace-
ous matter.

But the resinous and oily substances are compounds of a Hidrogen cer-
small quantity of hidrogen and oxigen, with a large quan-tainly exists in
tity of a carbonaceous basis. The existence of hidrogen in S *
Sulphur is fully proved, and we have no ri^ht to consider a
substance, which can be produced from it in such large
quantities, merely as an accidental ingredient.

Y 2 Th*

324 ANALYTICAL EXPERIMENTS ON SULPHU1.

Attempt to as- The oily substances in combustion produce two or three
certain whether f jmes their weight of carbonic acid and some water. I
sulphur form '*»•**

water by burn- endeavoured to ascertain, whether water was formed in the

tag in dry combustion of sulphur in oxigen gas, dried by exposure to

potash ; but in this case sulphureous acid is produced in
much larger quantities than sulphuric acid, and this last
product is condensed with great difficulty. In cases, how-
ever, in which I have obtained, by applying artificial cold,
a deposition of acid in the form of a film of dew in glass
retorts out of the contact of the atmosphere, in which sul-
phur had been burned in oxigen gas hygrometrically dry, it
has appeared to me less tenacious and lighter than the com-
mon sulphuric acid of commerce, which in the most con-
centrated form in which I have seen it, namely, at 1*855,
gave abundance of hidrogen as well as sulphur at the
negative surface in the voltaic circuit, and hence evidently
contained water.
Reddening of The reddening of the litmus paper, by sulphur that had
the litmus been acted on by voltaic electricity, might be ascribed to its
sulphuretted containing some of the sulphuretted hidrogen formed in the
fttdrogen. process ; but even the production of this gas, as will be

immediately seen, is an evidence of the existence of oxigen
in sulphur.
Fotassiumhcat- la my early experiments on potassium, procured by elec-
edin«*J- tricity, I heated small globules of potassium in large quan-

hidrogen. titie* of sulphuretted hidrogen, and I found that sulphuret

of potash was formed; but this might be owing to the
water dissolved in the gas, and I ventured to draw no con-
clusion till I had tried the experiment in an unobjectionable
manner.
Perfectly dried, * heated four grains of potassium in a retort of the capa-
city of twenty cubical inches ; it had been filled after the
usual processes of exhaustion with sulphuretted hidrogen,
dried by means of muriate of lime that had been heated to
whiteness; as soon as the potassium fused, white fumes
took fire were copiously emitted, and the potassium soon took fire,

and burnt with a most brilliant flame, yellow in the centre
and red towards the circumference *.

. The

* In the Moniteur, May 27, 1808, in" the account of M. M.

pay-Lussac and Thenard's experiments, it is mentioned, that

potassium

ANALYTICAL EXPERIMENTS ON SULPHUR. 325

The diminution of the volume of the elastic matter, in leading hidro-
this operation, did not equal more than two cubical inches gtn sas>
and a half, A very small quantity of the residual gas
only was absorbable by water. The nonabsorbable gas
was hidrogen, holding a minute quantity of sulphur in so-
lution.

A yellow sublimate lined the upper part of the retort, and sulphur

which proved to be sulnlrtir. The solid matter formed was eUvJmed~

1 ' Solid matter.

red at the surface like sulphuret of potash, but in the in-
terior it was dark gray, like sulphuret of potassium. The
piece of the retort containing it was introduced into a jar
inverted over mercury, and acted upon by a small quantity
of dense muriatic acid, diluted with an equal weight of
water, when there were disengaged two cubical inches and
a quarter of gas, which proved to be sulphuretted hidrogen.

In another experiment, in which eight grains of potas- Experiment
sium were heated in a retort of the capacity of twenty repeated,
cubical inches, containing about nineteen cubical inches of
sulphuretted hidrogen, and a cubical inch of phosphuretted
hidrogen, which was introduced for the purpose of absorb-
ing the oxigen of the small quantity of common air ad-
mitted by the stop-cock, the inflammation took place as
before ; there was a similar precipitation of sulphur on the
sides of the retort; the mass formed in the place of the
potassium was orange externally, and of a dark gray colour
internally, as in the last instance ; and when acted on by a
little water holding muriatic acid in solution, there were
evolved from it five cubical inches only of sulphuretted
hidrogen.

Both these experiments concur in proving the existence of Principle in
a principle in sulphuretted hidrogen, capable of destroying htdrogerfpr©-
partially the inflammability of potassium, and of producing during the
upon it all the elfects of oxigen ; for had the potassium com.^j^°
bined merely with pure combustible matter, it ought, as
will be seen distinctly from what follows, to have evolved
by the action of the acid a volume of sulphuretted

potassium absorbs the sulphur and a part of the hidrogen of sul-
phuretted hidrogen ; but the phenomenon of inflammation is no$
mentioned, nor are the results described,

hidrogen,

336

Sulphur heated
n hidrogen.

Oxigen in sul-
phur

accounts for its
intense ignition
with potassium.

Farther con-
firmed.

ANALYTICAL EXPERIMENTS ON SULPHUR.

hidrogen, at least equal to that of the hidrogen, which at*
equal weight of un combined potassium would have pro-
duced by its operation upon water.

Sulphuretted hidrogen, as has been long known to che-
mists, may be formed by heating sulphur strongly in hidro-
gen gas. I heated four grains of sulphur in a glass retort,
containing about twenty cubical iuches of hidrogen, by
means of a spirit lamp, and pushed the heat nearly to red-
ness. There was no perceptible change of volume in the
gas after the process ; the sulphur that had sublimed was
unaltered in its properties, and about three cubical inches
of an elastic fluid absorbable by water were formed : the
solution reddened litmus, and had all the properties of a
solution of pure sulphuretted hidrogen. Now if we sup-
pose sulphuretted hidrogen to be constituted by sulphur
dissolved in its unaltered state in hidrogen, and allow the
existence of oxigen in this gas ; its existence must likewise
be allowed in sulphur, for we have no right to assume,
that sulphur in sulphuretted hidrogen is combined with more
oxigen than in its common form : it is well known, that,
when electrical sparks are passed through sulphuretted
hidrogen, a considerable portion of sulphur is separated,
without any alteration in the volume of the gas. This ex-
periment I have made more than once, and I found that the
sulphur obtained, in fusibility, combustibility, and other
sensible properties, did not perceptibly differ from common
sublimed sulphur.

According to these ideas, the intense ignition produced
by the action of sulphur, on potassium and sodium, must
not be ascribed merely to the affinity of the metal of the
alkalis for its basis, but may be attributed likewise to the
agency of the oxigen that it contains.

The minute examination of the circumstancei of the
action of potassium and sulphur likewise confirms these
opinions.

When two grains of potassium and one of sulphur were
heated gently in a green glass tube filled with hidrogen,
and connected with a pneumatic apparatus, there was a
most intense ignition produced by the action of the two
bodies, and one eiglith of a cubical inch of gas was dis-
engaged

ANALYTICAL EXPERIMENTS ON SULPHUR. 327

engaged, which was sulphuretted hidrogen. The compound
was exposed in a mercurial apparatus to the aotion of liquid
muriatic acid; when a cubical inch and a quarter of aeri-
form matter was produced, which proved to be pure sul-
. phuretted hidrogen.

The same experiment was repeated,, except that four
grains of sulphur were employed instead of one. In this
case, a quarter of a cubical inch of gas was disengaged
during the process of combination ; and when the com-
pound was acted upon by muriatic acid, only three quarters .
of a cubical inch of sulphuretted hidrogen were obtained.

Now, sulphuret of potash produces sulphuretted hidro-
gen by the action of an acid ; and jf the sulphur had not
contained oxigen, the hidrogen evolved by the action of
the potassium in both these experiments ought to have
equalled at least two cubical inches, and the whole quantity
of sulphuretted hidrogen ought to have been more : ancl
that so much less sulphuretted hidrogen was evolved in the
second experiment, can only be ascribed to the larger
quantity of oxigen furnished to the potassium by the larger
quantity of the sulphur.

I have made several experiments of this kind with similar Several expert-
results. Whenever equal quantities of potassium were *\e£ts. m*d®
combined with unequal quantities of sulphur, and exposed results,
afterward to the action of muriatic acid, the largest
quantity of sulphuretted hidrogen was furnished by the
product containing the smallest proportion of 'sulphur; and
in no case was the quantity of gas equal in volume to the
quantity of hidrogen, which would have been produced by
the mere action of potassium upon water.

From the general tcnour of these various facts, it will Composition of
not be, I trust, unreasonable to assume, that sulphur, insuIPhur*
its common state, is a compound of small quantities of
oxigen and hidrogen with a large quantity of a basis, that
produces the acids of sulphur in* combustion, and which,
on account of its strong attractions for other bodies, it will
probably be very difficult to obtain in its pure form.

In metallic combinations even, it still probably retains
Jts oxigen and part of its hidrogen. Metallic sulphurets
can only be partially decomposed by heat, and the smajl

quantity

328

Phospohjus
analogous to
sulphur.

Acted on by
the pile,

«vo!ved pb«s-
phuretted hi-
drogen,

potassium heat-
ed in phos-
phuretted hi-
drogen.

ANALYTICAL .EXPERIMENTS ON PHOSPHORUS.

quantity of sulphur evolved from them in this case when
perfectly dry and out of the contact of air, as I found in
an experiment on the sulphuret of copper and iron, exists
in its common state, and acts upon potassium, and is
affected by electricity, in the same manner as native sul-
phur,

4. Analytical Experiments on Phosphorus.

The same analogies apply to phosphorus as to sulphur,
and I have made a similar series of experiments on this in,
flammable substance.

Common electrical sparks, passed through phosphorus,
did not evolve from it any permanent gas ; but when it was
acted upon by the voltaic electricity of the battery of five
hundred plates in the same manner as sulphur, gas was pro,
duced in considerable quantities, and the phosphorus became
of a deep red brown colour, like phosphorus that has been
inflamed and extinguished under water. The gas examined
proved to be phosphurctted hidrogen, and in one experU
inent, continued for some hours, a quantity estimated to be
nearly equal to four times the volume of the phosphorus
employed was given off. The light of the voltaic spark in
the phosphorus was at first a brilliant yellow, but as the
colour of the phosphorus changed, it appeared orange,

I heated three grains of potassium in sixteen cubical inches
of phosphurctted hidrogen; as soon as it was fused, the
retort became filled with white fumes, and a reddish sub-
stance precipitated upon the sides and upper part of it.
The heat was applied for some minutes. No inflammation
took place*. When the retort was cool, the absorption
was found to be less than a cubical inch. The potassium
externally was of a deep brown colour, internally it was of
a dull lead colour. The residual gas had lost its property
of spoutaneous inflammation, but seemed still to contain a
small quantity of phosphorus in solution.

* It ij stated, in the account before referred to of M. M. Gay-
Lussac and Thenard's experiments, that potassium inflames in
phosphuretted hidrogen. My experiments upon this gas have been
often repeated. I have never perceived any luminous appearance ;
bit I have always operated in daylight.

6 Th«

ANALYTICAL EXPERIMENTS ON PHOSPHORUS ^21)

The phosphuret acted upon over mercury by solution of
tnuriatic acid evolved only one cubical inch and three quar-
ters of phosphuretted bid ro gen.

From this experiment there is great reason to suppose, Phosphuretted

that phosphuretted hidrogen contains a minute proportion J". gei? con""
r * b ft tains oxigen.

of oxigen, and consequently that phosphorus likewise may
contain it; but the action of potassium on phosphorus
itself furnishes perhaps more direct evidences of the cir-
cumstance.

One grain of potassium and one grain of phosphorus Phosphorus
were fused together in a proper apparatus. They combined p""^ J* "
with the production of the most vivid light and intense
ignition. During the process one tenth of a cubical inch of
phosphuretted hidrogen was evolved. The phosphuret
formed, exposed to the action of diluted muriatic acid over
mercury, produced exactly three tenths of a cubical inch
of phosphuretted hidrogen.

In a second experiment, one grain of potassium was Experiment re-
fused with three grains of phosphorus ; in this case nearly IJCal" '
a quarter of a cubical inch of phosphuretted hidrogen was
generated during the ignition. But from the compound ex-
posed to muriatic acid, only one tenth of a cubical inch
could be procured.

Now it is not easy to refer the deficiency of phosphuretted Phosphor
hidrogen in the second case to any other cause, than to theC0ntiUns0Xlsen*
supply of oxigen to the potassium from the phosphorus :
and the quantity of phosphuretted hidrogen evolved in the
first case is much less than could be expected, if both
potassium and phosphorus consisted merely of pure com-
bustible matter.

The phosphoric acid, formed by the combustion of phos- Phosphoric acid
phorus, though a crystalline solid, may still contain water. may COIlUil"
The hidrogen evolved from phosphorus by electricity proves
indeed, that this must be the case; and though the quantity
of hidrogen and oxigen in phosphorus may be exceedingly
small, yet they may be sufficient to give it peculiar charac.
ters ; and till the basis is obtained free, we shall have no
knowledge of the properties of the pure phosphoric ele-
ment,

5. On

•N THE CARBONACEOUS PJII\CIP£E.

Plumbago,
rh^rcoal, and

diamond,

consist princi-
pally or the
same dement,

butvith che-
mical difi'er-
encies. . '

Plumbago
acted upon by
the pile m

>iiCUO.

TTeated with

ium in

kidrojren jras.

5. On the States of the carbonaceous Principle in Plumbago^
Charcoal, and the Diamond.

The accurate researches of Messrs. Allen and Pepys have
distinctly proved, that plumbago, charcoal, and the diamond
produce very nearly the same quantities of carbonic acid,
and absorb very nearly the same quantities of oxigen ic
combustion.

Hence it is evident, that they must consist principally of
the same kind of elementary matter; but minute researches
upon their chemical relations, .when examined by new ana-
lytical methods, will, I am inclined to believe, show, that
the great difference in their physical properties does not
merely depend upon the differences of the mechanical, ar-
rangement of their parts, but likewise upou differences in
their intimate chemical nature.

I endeavoured to discover, whether any elastic matter
could be obtained from plumbago very intensely ignited by
the Voltaic battery in a Torricellian vacuum: but though
ihc highest power of the battery of five hundred was em-
ployed, and though the heat was such, as in another ex-
periment instantly melted platina wire of -^th of an inch
in diameter, yet no appearance of change took place upon
the plumbago. Its characters remained wholly unaltered,
and no permanent elastic fluid was formed.

I heated one grain of plumbago, with twice its weight of
potassium, in a plate glass tube connected with a proper
apparatus, and I heated an equal quantity of potassium
.alone in a tube of the same kind, for an equal length of
time, namely, eight minutes. Both tubes were filled with
hidrogen : no gas was evolved in cither case. There was no
ignition in the tube containing the plumbago, but it seemed
gradually to combine with the potassium. The two results
were exposed to the action of water ; the result from the
plumbago acted upon that fluid with as much energy as the
other result, and the two volumes of elastic fluids were 1*8
cubical inch and 1*9 cubical inch; and both gave the
same diminution by detonation with oxigen, as pure hi-
drogen. Two grains of potassium, by acting upon water,
would have produced two cubical inches and one eighth

WukotorirlldlotJoional Tt I WP 9,

ON THE CARBONACEOUS PRINCIPLE. 331

of hidrogen gas; the deficiency in the result, in which

potassium alone was used, must bo ascribed to the loss of a

small quantity of metal, which must have been carried off

in solution in the hidrogen, and perhaps, likewise, to the

action of the minute quantity of metallic oxides in the plate

glass. The difference in the quantity of hidrogen given oft*

in the two results is however too slight, to asciibe it to the

existence of oxigen in the plumbago.

- I repeated this experiment several times with like re* The expeii-

sults, and in two or three instances examined the compound ment repeated.

formed. It was infusible at a red heat, had the lustre of

plumbago. It inilamed spontaneously, when exposed to

air, generated potash, and left a black powdery residuum,

It effervesced most violently in water, and produced a gas,

which burnt like pure hidrogen.

When small pieces of charcoal from the willow, that had Charcoal acted

been intensely ignited, were acted upon by Voltaic, clectri-u^onby the
J w 7 i j . piie in vacuo.

city in a 1 orricellian vacuum, every precaution being taken
to exclude moisture from the mercury and the charcoal, the
results were very diiiercnt from those occurring in the case
of plumbago.

When plumbago was used, after the first spark, whiclj.
generally passed through a distance of about one eighth of
an inch, there was no continuation of light, without a con..
tact or an approach to the same distance; but from the
charcoal a ilame seemed to issue of a most brilliant purple, A , fl
and formed, as it were, a conducting chain of light of nearly formed,
an inch in length, at the same time that elastic matter was d i rt«
rapidly formed, some of which was permanent. After ter evolved,
niany unsuccessful trials, I at length succeeded in collecting «

the quantity of elastic fluid given out by half a grain of
charcoal; the process had been continued nearly half an
hour. The quantity of gas amounted to nearly an eighth
of a cubical inch ; it was iuiiammable by the electric spark
with oxigen gas, and four measures of it absorbed three
measures of oxigen, and produced one measure and a half
of carbonic acid. The charcoal in this experiment had be-
come harder at the point, and its lustre, where it had been
heated to whiteness, approached to that of plumbago.

J heated two grains of potassium together with two grains charcoal heat-

of

83% ON THE CARBONACEOUS PRINCIPLE.

cd with potas- of charcoal, for five minutes ; and to estimate the effects of
fiium. fjjg metallic oxides and potash in the green glass tube, I

made a comparative experiment, as in the case of plumbago ;
but there was no proof of any oxigen being furnished to
the potassium from the charcoal in the process, for the
compound acted upon water with great energy, and produced
a quantity of inflammable gas, only inferior by one twelfth
to that produced by the potassium, which had not been
combined with charcoal, and which gave the same diminu-
tion by detonation with oxigen; and the slight difference
may be well ascribed to the influence of foreign matters iu
the charcoal . There was no ignition in the process, and
no gas was evolved. 4

Compound pro- The compound produced in other experiments of this
kind was examined. It is a conductor of electricity, is of
a dense black, inflames spontaneously, and burns with a
deep red light in the atmosphere*.
Diamond could The nonconducting uature of the diamond, anditsinfwsi-
not be acted on bility, rendered it impossible to act upon it by voltaic
electricity ; and the only new agents which seemed to offer
any means of decomposing it, were the metals of the
alkalis.
Heated with When a diamond is heated in a green glass tube with po-

potassium, tassium, there is no elastic fluid given out, and no intensity
of action ; but the diamond soon blackens, and scales
seem to detach themselves from it, aud these scales, when
examined in the magnifier, are gray externally, and of the
colour of plumbago internally, as if they consisted of
plumbago covered by the gray oxide of potassium.
i:iWdrogen gas. In heating together three grains of diamonds in powder,
and two grains of potassium, for an hour, in a small retort
of pltte glass filled with hidrogen, and making the compa-
rative trial with two grains of potassium heated in a similar
apparatus, without any diamonds, I found, that the pot-
assium which had been heated with the diamonds produced,
by its action upon water, one cubical inch and T35 of in-

* In the Bakerian Lecture for 1807, I have mentioned the de-
composition of carbonic acid by potassium, which takes place with
inflammation. If the potassium is in excess in this experiment, the
same pvrophorus as that described above is formed.

flammable

. ON THE CARBONACEOUS PRINCIPLE. 333

flammable air, and that which had been exposed to heat
alone, all other circumstances being similar, evolved nearly
one cubical inch and fa both of which were pure hi-
drogen.

in another experiment of a similar kind, in which frag- A similar eat
ments of diamonds were used in the quantity of four grains, Penment*
the potassium became extremely black from its action upon
them during an exposure to heat for three hours, and the
diamonds were covered with a grayish crust, and when acted
upon by water and dried, were found to have lost about
^•y of a grain in weight. The matter separated by washing,
and examined, appeared as a fine powder of a dense black
colour. When a surface of platina wire was covered with
it, and made to touch another wire in the Voltaic circuit,
a brilliant spark with combustion occurred. It burnt, when
heated to redness in a green glass tube filled with oxigen gas,
and produced carbonic acid by its combustion.

These general results seem to show, that in plumbago the Piumbaj^
carbonaceous element exists merely in combination with
iron, and in a form which may be regarded as approaching
to that of a metal in its nature, being conducting in a high
degree, opaque, and possessing considerable lustre.

Charcoal appears to contain a minute quantity of hidro- Charcoal.
gen in combination. Possibly likewise, the alkalis and
earths produced during its combustion exist in it not fully
combined with oxigen ; and according to these ideas, it is
a very compounded substance, though in the main it con-
sists of the pure carbonaceous element.

The experiments on the diamond render it extremely Diamond,
likely, that it contains oxigen; but the quantity must be
exceedingly minute, though probably sufficient to render the
compound nonconducting: and if the carbonaceous element
in charcoal and the diamond be considered as united to still-
less foreign matter in quantity, than in plumbago, which
contains about ~z of iron, the results of their combustion,
as examined independently of hygrometrical tests, will not
differ perceptibly.

Whoever considers the difference between iron and steel, Minute differ-
in which there does not exist more than ^ of plumbago, c™**^ c°™"
or the difference between the amalgam of ammonium and greatly alter

< mercury,

334 0N TIIE STEM 0F TnriES'

external ap- mercury, in which the quantity of new matter is hot more
pcarance. ^aii i-oVff> or ^iat Dctvveen tne metals and their suboxides,

some of [which contain less than _~ of oxigen, will not be
disposed to question the principle, that minute differences
in chemical composition may produce great differences in
external and physical characters.

(To be continued in our next.)

II.

On the Stem of Tfecs ; with an Attempt to discover the
Cause of Motion in Plants. By Mrs. Agnes Ibbetson.

To Mr. NICHOLSON.

SIR,

Method ofdi- JL HE manner in which Linnaeus divided the stem of trceS
•f trees16 StCm wasmaturally suggested by its appearance to the eye, little
aided by glasses : cortex, the rind ; liber, the bark ; lignum,
the wood ; and medulla, the pith. But at this time, that
our magnifiers are so perfected; nature points out a more
regular division, and one marked not only by the form,
but by the difference of the juices, with which the parts are
swelled. Indeed so different are the purposes to be effected,
and so clear are the divisions nature has made ; that, when
seen much magnified, they appear to me' directly to strike
the mind, and convince the reason ; provided the study is
pursued in a manner, that will enable the person, by a
view of the different parts properly prepared, to judge
sanely on the subject. The vegetable cuttings sold with the
solir microscope will do very well for superficial learners,
but no person can understand the nature of plants, or ex-
pect to profit from knowledge so obtained, who does not
cut his own specimens, and generally from fresh plants.
/ It is laborious and troublesome, and requires great care ;
but I have never a moment repented the time so expended,
as from dried cuttings much of the real nature and all the
To judge from motion escape. Still both are to be consulted; and the
both dried and proper method is perhaps to compare them together. I
fresh cuttings. r * , \ x • * i_ u .1 u ■

copy from no book, every experiment has been made by

myself, and carefully repeated a number of times : I may

perhapt

Qtf THE STEM OF TREES, 233

perhaps be accused of presumption, in venturing to in*
trodtsce so many new ideas; and depending thus on mi/self
only; but I recount merely what I have seen in a. -very
good solar microscope ; if my deductions are false, I detail
my reasons ; and every reader may judge for himself. It is
to the great magnifying powers I am indebted; and every
one (with the same instrument) may prove the truth of
what I advance.

I shall divide the stem of trees into 6 parts; 1st the rind; Division -of tfee
2nd the bark and inner bark; 3d the wood; 4th the spiralstem*
nerves; 5th the nerves or circle of life; 6th the pith.
The rind is I conceive merely an outward covering to the
free, to preserve its moisture, that the sun may not evapo-
rate its juices. It is true, that the same is continued
under ground ; but it may be as useful there to prevent the
entrance of the dust and earth, and pressure of stones, or
the injury of insects. It is composed of rows of cylinders
with a single line to divide them, and they are filled with a
clear and pellucid liquor. There are seldom more than four or
five layers of vessels ; but it is in general so covered with
parasite plants, and powdered lichens, that its thickness is
often more than doubled ; and it is not fit for examination,
till divested of all extraneous matter. It is the rind Division of -tire
thickened that forms much of the armature of plants. Itrmd*
^appears by no means necessary to plants, as there are a
number in which the bark serves as a covering instead of a
rind ; it is not therefore essential to them. Though to trees
it must be so reckoned.

2d The bark and inner bark, though certainly very dif- Divisions of the
ferent as to form, are the same in juice ; and being so nearly bark*
allied, I shall treat them as one. They are truly of the
first consequence in the tree. They are the origin of the
leaves; the lengthened vessels of the bark and inner bark,
forming the interlacing vessels of the leaf, while the juice
concentrated and thickened produces the pabulum of the
leaf, as I endeavoured to show in my last paper. The
juice of the bark is I conceive the blood of the tree. It is
here alone are produced the gums, the resins, the oil, the
milk, in short all that truly belongs to the tree; gives taste
to it ; all I conceive that makes one plant different from

another;

336 OS THE STEM Or TREES.

another; and its virtues, if I may so express myself. The
bark is generally green, the inner bark white, yellow, or
green. The former consists of vessels crossing each other;
the latter of bundles of vessels of two sizes, the large ones
being formed in a very peculiar manner. They consist of
broad cylinders, having a bottom with a hole in it, through
which the liquid passes, though not with perfect ease. On
exposing several pieces of the inner bark to the solar
Extraordinary microscope, the moment I turned the light on the specimen,
liquid ^ the juice of which had before proceeded up the pipes rather
slowly, it was suddenly propelled forward with a force
truly astonishing. When I increased the heat and light by
pointing the full focus of the rays on the vessels, the power
of the heat was too strong, and broke through the side divi-
sions, inundating the specimen : but when I merely kept up
a proper degree of light and heat, it was curious to observe
the liquid pass from pipe to pipe, in one regular and easy
flow ; making a little stop as it issued through the straitened
apertures at the bottom of the vessels. I have often stood
more than an hour watching the current, (which passes
however much slower than the sap does) nor could I per-
ceive, that it required (while the heat and light were on it)
any additional expedient to hasten it; but in the night,
when both are wanting, the pressure Mr. Knight mentions
from the bastard grain is (I should suppose) very likely to
assist or quicken its flow ; and as at night it is pressed
against the cylinders, it is at this time (I should conceive)
it would have its effect. This part is however formed in the
, wood only; but the contraction at the bottom of the large
vessels of the inner bark, it is probable may serve the same
purpose, that of forcing the liquid forward, by lessening
the apertures, and giving therefore more impetus to the
Curious forma- current. The vessels are also of great thickness in pro-
vessels in the portion to their size ; and have on them a peculiar circular
bark. thing resembling a cullender full of very diminutive holes,

so small that no liquid could pass them; but in viewing the
th^t'3 °fd'r ^ick juice, that runs through these pipes, I observed many
bubbles of air, which, as the heat increased or diminished
their size, accelerated or retarded the flow of the liquid.
Might not these apertures be designed for the entrance of

air

ON TflE STEM OF THEE3» 337

air to promote this purpose ? The thickness of these vessels
is such, as almost to conceal the darkness of the liquid
that runs through them. To see their forms well, it is some-
times necessary to clear out their contents, which is best
done by placing the specimens in a basket fastened down
in a ruuning stream, or boiling them thoroughly, and then
throwing them into green wax perfectly melted. "When
this succeeds, it makes excellent specimens for the
cabinet.

Though half fearful to give an opinion absolutely con-
tradictory to oue whose abilities I so much respect as
MirbeVs, yet 1 must think he is mistaken, when he says :
11 y a des plantes qui ont les m£mes sues dans toutes leur par-
ties." I never could find this; and though the potent Liquids peculiar
smell of the liquid belonging to the bark will often extend l0 each part*
to other parts of the plant, it generally vanishes if kept
separate for a day, or grows so faint in comparison with
the real liquid, as to prove it is not an ingredient. Nor can
I understand why he should suppose, that the tubes or
cylinders of the inner bark are merely vacancies of the
ordinary vessels; for they are exactly the same, and occupy
the same place ; their peculiar shape and office attend them
every where ; and there are no vessels like them in any
other part of the tree or shrub. I hav€ mentioned only
the vessels of the inner bark, because their form is unusual;
but the vessels of the bark are more simple and smaller,
and divided by aline or two, running longitudinally between
them. How ihe gums, resins, oils, milk, &c. are formed^
I am not chymist sufficient to give any clear idea concern-
ing; but the labours of Dr. Thomson seem more to eluci-
date this subject, than those of any other author 1 am
acquainted with. Nothing can be more admirable than the
manner in which he accounts for sugar in plants ; it is ex-
emplified each day in those that are out of health..
Mirbel has also a very valuable paper on the subject.

3d I now turn to the wood of the stem. This is marked Formation
by nature with such strong lines, it is hardly possible to and "se of th<5
mistake its parts. Place the stem of any plant in a colour-
ed liquor, and every vessel which conveys the sap from the
earth to the top of the tree will be marked and tinged.

Vol. XXIII.— Supplement. 2 Th«

338

Two different
Stripes in the
wood.

/LeatheTlike
strings of the
bastard grain.

ON THE STEM OF TREES.

The sap is the nourishment those vessels convey ; it is a
thin waterish liquor, which is probably the juices of the
earth, medicated into this form, as most suitable to the life
it is to support. I suppose it is different in each different
soil ; but though I have often tried " by separating the
wood from the rest of the stem, and then macerating it, to
draw forth the liquor from the same tree in different soils,"
I never could perceive there was the change one should
naturally expect.

On dissecting the wood ; two different kinds of stripes
present themselves, some circular, an additional one being
each year added, which timber merchants call the silver
grain; and another from the circumference to the centre, at
least from the first line of the wood to the pith, which they
call the bastard grain. The first is the yearly stripe, and 1
had an opportunity in a large wood that was felled of ob-
serving the truth, not only of one stripe being added each
year, but that the stripe was large or small, according to
the exposure of the tree, and the favourableness of the
season. The wood had been planted at two different times,
one part 88 years, and the other 56 ; and each tree was
exactly marked according to its age, except three or four
which gave not the number of stripes specified, and were
afterward proved to have been planted instead of others,
that had been broken and cut down. In exposed situations
the west side was much narrower in several of the trees ;
and in the forwarder trees the N. and N. E. was the most
crowded, I mean, that in measuring the diameter of the
wood, it was less on one side of the circumference, than on
the other. In several trees there was sometimes only a half
circle; and in three different oaks, a rotten part having
caused the line of life to leave its situation, part of the pith
had followed it, and it had formed two piths, with many rows
of wood between. The bastard stripe consists I think of
two lines, or strings, with a little scale between them ; and
they appear from their extreme susceptibility to be formed
of the same leatherlike substance as the spiral vessels.
Mr. Knight is of opinion, that they are scales only, and he
is too exact an observer to be contradicted lightly ; but as he
mentions their pressing close (which they certainly do) to

the

ON THE STEM OF TREES.

339

the cylinders at night and in cold weather, they would
equally have the effect required ; that of supplying by their
pressure the zoant of the sun's rays. The wood vessels
are far more simply made than those of the bark ; they are
very narrow cylinders; and the last two rows next to
the circle of life are sap vessels covered by the spiral ones.
The horse chesnut has three or four rows, and they appear
to be in quantity according to the size of the leaves. It is
indeed difficult to ascertain them exactly even in the solar
microscope, as it is in unwinding them alone they can be
knozvn; and their extreme fineness confuses. This has Spiral vessels
however caused the spiral vessels to be taken for sap vessels. n sap
It was a great pleasure to me to find, that neither Mr.
Knight nor Mirbel was of this opinion. I believe there can
be no doubt, that they are solid strings, and hold no liquid.
When wood is very aged, it grows so compact, that it is dif-
ficult without preparation to see the open mouths of the
vessels. The wood should then be cut in thin slices, and All cut with
laid in a very dry place ; and it is wonderful how this !WJlJ!Lv£32w
stretch the upper end of the cylinders; but fresh cut speci-
mens, if examined directly, will almost always be suf-
ficiently visible. If much magnified, and cut longitudinally,
it is truly wonderful to see the effect of light and heat on the
wood vessels ; how immediately on turning the light on the
glass, the flow of sap is accelerated, and with what perfect
ease it runs up vessels so diminutive, that to measure them
is almost impossible. Is it not most wonderful to consider
the force necessary to carry up this sap, when the vessels
are formed of a substance so thin, so transparent, that it
would appear impossible to confine a liquid within it; and
yet that, without being worn out by friction, it will bear
this force exerted against it, for eighty years together,
without showing any signs of decay, a term which many
trees will sustain ? This indeed proclaims its author, and
should make the atheist fall down and worship. A few of
the wood vessels are separated, and run with the spiral
vessels as nourishing vessels to each leaf, as I have shown
in my last ; but this diverts but little of the sap from its
chief current, which flows on; its last purpose being to
form the stamen, and the curious powder that apertains

Z°- to

340 ON THE STEM OF TRXEi.

to it; and afterward to lend its principal aid to the forma,
tion of the fruit and seed. For it is this last, that is the
grand and finishing work of nature, to which all the rest
tends but as a means to the great accomplishment of pro-
ducing new vegetable lives.
The spiral ye»- The spiral vessels aro a quantity of solid strings coiled
#cIs> up into a spiral form. I cannot but suppose them of a lea-

therlike substance, and to be found rolled round the last
few rows of sap vessels. In this manner they run up the
stems of trees and plants of every kind (with a few excep-
tions) and thence into every leaf and flower. They are
singly too small for the naked eye; they run into every fibre
of the leaf, and are fastened at the edges, by which means,
crossing like a spider's web in every direction through the
Tessels, they can draw the leaves in any way that is neces-
sary to them. In the larger vessels they are in sets of ten
or twelve, but in the smaller only three or four to each ves-
sel. In the cabbage leaf and in the burdock they are in
bundles almost as thick as a packthread; but in smaller
leaves they are properly proportioned. The more sensitive
the leaf, the more they are coiled up. These are (I truly
believe) the cause.

The cause of The spiral vessels are ( I truly believe) the cause of mo-
motion in leaves ...» t j At. ^ ^

and flowers. tton in plants. 1 do not mean to say, that there is no mo-
tion in plants but what arises from them; but I am fully
persuaded, that the greatest part of the motion in leaves
and flowers proceeds from the management of this spiral
wire. I shall now detail my reasons for this persuasion.
Spiral vessels 1st. The spiral vessels are not to be found in any plants,

leaves dut do to wn,fn mot"lon is unnecessary. They are never found in
not turn. any of the firs, in any of the water plants that spread their

leaves on the top of the water, in any of the sea weeds, or
in any of the lichens; I think too they are not found in the
scolopendrums, or in the lemnas; though at first I took
the line of life, that runs into the leaf to form the flower,
for one. The grasses also, having no cause for turning
their leaves, are wholly without them.

<id. If a plant in a window, having all its leaves with

their backs turned from the light, is moved, and placed so

a* to turn them to the sun, they will in a few hours regain

> their

ON I HE &TBM OP TREE*.

341

their former position ; reverse it, and it will now want dou-
ble the time to bring them right; change the order a third
time, and though the plant will not in any manner have
suiFered, yet the leaves will be long regaining their pristine
force. Few can move after the third or fourth regression ;
and why? because the spiral, like elastic vessels, were so.
relaxed by the operation, as to have lost all power of coil-
ing into their usual form.

3d. I have observed that those leaves, that have the most Most motion ia
motion, have also the most of these spiral vessels, and have^J tested.
them most twisted. This is particularly seen in the populus
iremula; the leaf stalk, though small, is full of them, and
so hard twisted, that I have known the stalk to measure a
quarter of an inch difference in length between the middle
of the day and a cold evening. This could arise only from
the untwisting of the spiral wire; and few plants have more
motion, indeed it has far more than can fairly be attributed
to its long leaf stalk.

4th. I took a vine leaf, and without separating it from Leaves neither
its parent plant, I merely divided the spiral vessels, without *" r" nor .™?vc
touching the nourishing ones; it never from that moment wires be cut.
either turned, or contracted; and when placed with its back
to the light, it remained in this position, though it was long
before it decayed. Both electricity and galvanism draw up
these leaves, as if they were leather: but it is the spiral
fibres, not the cuticles ; for after I took from a leaf all the
6piral wire, the leaf did not contract at all. Bonnet was Bonnet's coo-
convinced, that all the motion of plants might be given bjrtri:vance*
the means of -threads, but microscopes were not so perfect
then as to give him the delight of knowing, that he had,
guessed the operations of nature. He made an artificial
leaf and flower, that would move by the contrivance of
threads that passed through all the larger vessels, and by
this means they effected every movement common to either.
But his were plain threads, not a spiral wire, the elastic
power of which is well known to every person : nor had
he an idea, that such vessels existed, but thought it was the
contraction and elongation of tha upper and under cuticle
of the leaf; but this is certainly not the case, «as I have ,
proved abose, that it ha* ?io such powers. There arc in-
sects

342 ON THB StIM OP TEJ5FJ.

Insects contract sects in the cnrrant, and many other leaves, that show the
wire. p0wer 0f ^e ejasr ;c wjre? as mucJi as any thing yet men-
Honed. Nature has taught them, to draw up these spiral
vessels, to make themselves nests, in which to deposit their
eggs and young ; and any one may see in what manner it is
done, and how the leaf is shortened.

Heat contracts 5^« I tools, sl quantity of these spiral vessels from a cab-

the spiral wire, bage leaf, and plaeed them on a long netting needle in my
solar microscope, that the motion might be extremely visi-
ble, and made my assistant hold a candle to the other end
of the needle. As the heat approached it, the vessels were
agitated inexpressibly, and appeared wreathing like a worm,
till with one effort they flung themselves off the needle.
The fresh water conferva, and the dodder tribe, are the
only plants without leaves, that have the spiral vessels, that
I am acquainted with. The former is almost formed of it;
and the sensitive plants have scarce more motion than the
common green conferva. I have seen it draw itself up,
then turn with a sudden motion, and surround a pin, coiling
up it like a worm; and it will continue to move thus for

Strength of more than an hour after it is taken from the water. In the

lv v^akPiartsot *ea^ s*em °^ ^e §erai"um cordifolium the spiral vessels are
vegetables. so very tough, and so very tightly coiled, that I have by
great care drawn up the leaf by their means ; but this is dif-
ficult to be done. Some may imagine, that these spiral wires
are too delicate to turn the leaf or flower ; but can any one
say this, w ho is in the constant habit of dissecting plants ?
or who ha? seen the extreme delicacy of flowers, and yet the
force they will exert, or the tenderness of the young shoot-
ing plant, and yet the strength with which it will force its
way through brick and mortar, and even through solid
stones? The works of man are effected by using strong ma-
terials, when powerful ends are in view ; but the works of
God are performed in a more wonderful manner, the most
delicate means produce the greatest ends. Look on the
_^. vegetable cuttings; it is ihe aggregate of such pieces which

forms our ships, and which stands the united attacks of
winds and waves. View the metals, as they first grow or
shoot into crystallization in the Arbor Diana? or the leaden
tree; who would recoguize the destructive bomb, or the

hardened

ON THE STEM OF TREES. 343

hardened coin ? But the mind that is accustomed to see them

in their first delicate forms produce great effects, will not

doubt what the Almighty power may fit them for.

In detailing the arguments that tend to prove, that the Argument from
» » t Rater's hygro-

spiral wire is the cause of motion in plants, 1 must suggest meter, that the

one, which will at least clear it from all improbability. To sPir»l wire y th*
' 7 , , , ,. , motive organ.

those to whom the energy, strength, delicacy, and suscep-
tibility of Captain Kater's hygrometer is known, it will
offer a certain proof of the possibility of such an existing
power; since that little instrument is acted upon by the
power moisture has of untwisting the awn of a grass brought
from India. Now if the most trifling change of moisture
can untwist one sort of vegetable fibre, and by this means
manage an instrument, why should not a quantity of simi-
larly formed fibres or spiral wires produce the same effect
on leaves and flowers? Captain Kater's hygrometer moves
very sensibly if a finger is placed within half an inch of the
fibre: now the most sensiti?e plant we have will not move
but with the touch: though I doubt not in its natural soil
and climate it is more sensible : but in the sensitive plants
there is a peculiarity in the joint, which helps to produce
that regularity of movement which is the most curious cir-
cumstance in its formation ; this I hope to explain in my
next. My only doubt is, I confess, whether the power
that governs the spiral wire is light, heat, or moisture? I
am rather inclined to think it is moisture ; though of course
light and heat must have very great influence, as no change
of either can happen, without its increasing or diminishing
the moisture of the atmosphere.

I fear I have tired the reader ; but I have not produced Flowers,
half the proofs I might bring forward to show, u that if
the spiral vessels are the origin of motion in both leaves and
flowers," flowers may be made to change their position with
every variation of light and heat, even more than leaves;
and in the acacia I have made the leaves and flowers droop
in the middle of the day, by holding a wet napkin sus-
pended over them after I had completely shaded them; and
by carrying flowers into an ice house.* they will distinctly
prove what part is affected.

The

344

ON THE STEM OF TREES.

Circle of life
overlooked.

Is the life or
principal part
Of the stem.

Circle of life. The next part is the small circle of vessels situate between
the wood and the pith, or rather between the spiral vessels
and the pith ; which plays so very conspicuous a part in the
history of the beginning seed, as I hope to have proved in
my first letter; and which I have ventured to call the circle
of life. I gave before the strongest proof I could, that a
plant cannot exist a day without it ; and that, if taken away
at a very early age, it will not (like every other part) grow
again: but when older it will certainly renew itself. It is
very curious, that every botanical anatomist has drawn these
lines without giving them a name, or otherwise noticing
them; they attributed all their powers to the pith, which,
from the scanty term of its existence, and its being perpe-
tually impeded in its progress, to make way for the flower
bud, can evidently have little power. : But it was probably
their extreme delicacy that caused them to be overlooked
by all but Hill, whose admirable treatise on the woods it is
quite wonderful should be disregarded. The circle of life
consists of rows of little cylinders, that have their own pe-
culiar juice, generally of an austere quality. From this
part all branches take their rise, and all wood threads grow.
They run up (see PI. IX, Fig. 10 and 11) into all flower
buds, but never approach the leaf bud. When they enter
the former, they make their way distinctly to each separate
flower, forming the pistil, and after depositing in each seed
the line which is the first origin of life, they are afterward
impregnated, or gain the power of giving life, by the juice
of the stamen, which runs through the same string into the
seed,
Is the first part That in this part resides the principal vitality of the
that dies. plant, I think I proved in my former letter; but I must

add, that it is the first part that dies, when a branch is cut
from a tree, or a tree torn up. In watching the fruit after
a sudden frost, if taken soon enough, it is this line alone,
that will appear to be burnt. In a few hours after, the rest
of the pistil (at least the pointal and style) wiH be turned a
reddish black ; but after the first sign it never recovers. But
in wood, if this line gets injured (either by the decay of the
bud or other means) the circle will undulate into a thousand
forms, to regain a wholesome situation in which to pursue
its course. I have many curious specimens of decayed

wood

ON THE STEM OF T&EES. 345

wood rotted in this manner, that would explain this subject The circle of
most evidently, and I have many drawings taken from other -m decayed
specimens, but too large to trouble Mr. Nicholson with ; wood,
but which I may at a future time make public.

I was once fortunate enough to see a tree cut down, that Mr. Forsyth's
had been managed according to Mr. Forsyth's excellent me- new wood-
thod ; and procuring some specimens of it, the new wood had
begun to form in the middle, where the pith should have come,
but wood grew instead; and the circle of life, making a
large circuit, left a place in the new part for the pith. I
shall give a sketch from some of my drawings, as it may
better explain the nature of the circle of life, which after a
certain course returned to the place in the new wood, it
would have occupied in the old; as if it did not venture on
the fresh formed wood, till it was solid and secure. In the
rotten wood these vessels may be always traced by their
turning blacky or darkened', and in an infant plant (if the
seed is boiled for dissection) by their dark colour; though
often quite white when alive. I have now before me an
Anson's apricot tree, which has the extraordinary property
of losing one of its branches every year (I believe it is com- -
mon to the species). In dissecting it I find near eight inches Plants can gW&
dead, all but a small piece of the bark and inner bark, near tlying.
which has given liquid enough to form a new Jiush of leaves ,
apparently since the wood has been entirely dead (for the
wood is totally void of moisture, and must have been with-
out life some time). This shows whence the leaves pro-
teed, and thaj the only nourishment they got was from the
carbonic acid gas they absorbed. It is true they appeared
languishing and ill ; still they showed fresh leaves. But it Circle of life
is most curious to see the struggle the circle of life has made maintain itself.
to maintain its existence in the injured part, and when I cut
it, it was wholly in the bark: but I never found any but
delicate fruit trees able to support such stagnations in the
wood, it kills our forest trees ; or at least the limb that has
it; though they have many other complaints, quite as bad
as this palsy. I never see a defective limb or branch, with- '
out endeavouring to find its cause of decay by dissecting it.
The cherry tree is very subject to this complaint, but I know
no tree that better, shows the line of life, though of the

same

same colour as the pith, it is so very clear in its undu-
lations.
Curious growth But of all the plants which prove the powers of the cir-
tans. C P<>a feP c*c °^ ^e> noQe perhaps equal the grass called poa reptans.
It grew in a pieca of swampy rubbish ground at the bottom
of my garden. I had often measured seycn or eight yards
in length in the winter, perfectly dead; and yet in June,
or the end of May, perceived life beginning to show itself
at the farthest end from the stalk. Surprised at this, I the
next spring chose two, much alike, dissected one of them
the whole way, and found a collection of little vessels, which
in thickness was not larger than a veryjfe thread. It had
got half way the length of the grass, which was about three
yards. Having merely opened the cover, I laid it down
again, and the little vessels continued growing, till they got
to the end of the length of grass. They then made a stop,
and I perceived the grass began to thicken ; and at the end
nearest the roots, the dead part became inflated with juice,
lost by degrees its dead appearance, got thickened about the
joints within; and at last shot forth fresh leaves aud fresh
roots , from every joint. I have since watched it with the
greatest care, and find it is the circle of life, that runs thus,
protected by the dead scale. When it is stopped by the
cover ceasing, it waits till the season permits the rest to
Dead vegetable grow. But it should teach more than this; it will show,

revived may & tnat *ne ^eac* raatter ma,Y De inflated with a living juice ,
and live again, provided the life at bottom is not extinguished;
and I have since seen this in many things, as in thehydrangia,
where the stalks apparently die down, and are inflated again,
or at least a part of them ; and I doubt not a gardener must

Cause of the know many instances. The extreme delicacy of the circle
ou pith. q£ life is the cause of the double pith ; the parts around it
get injured, it starts on this account from its place, and gets
farther into the wood ; and if it has gone very far, instead of
returning the pith begins to form near it, till two complete
piths appear with the circle of life surrounding each on one
side; or if any wood is formed between they will each com.
plete its circle of life. I could givean innumerable number
of additional proofs of the right these vessels have to be
called the circle of life, or propagation, did I not fear to

disgust

ON THE STEM OF TREES. 347

disgust and tire my reader; but I may at a future time give
the rest.

The pith, which I shall now turn to, I esteem merely as Pith.
a source of moisture to the rest of the plant when wanted :
it stops with every flower bud, and begins again to grow as
soon as the bud is past : it decreases as the strength and size
of the tree increases; it is the only part of the tree, that
has no vessels to contain liquor, for it is a net only, not a
bundle of cylinders. It has been said, that it is composed
of a great variety of figures, but this is a mistake : take it
out extremely thin, and most piths will be found of one
figure only. There are, however, a few different sorts;
the net of the dogwood is very curious, and the pith of the
juglans, and a few others differ in form. The size of the
pith will form a tolerable division between the tree and
shrub.

I have but little to say of the root, except that I look Growth of the
upon it to be wholly formed of the rind, much thickened, root*
and perhaps a very little of the bark, but to be without
inner bark, to have a quantity of wood, no spiral vessels,
and hardly any pith. I searched in vain for the larger
vessels of the inner bark, till it struck me, that the want
of it was the reason of there never being a leaf on a
root. In Devon this is a trial more easily made than in
any other place ; and I have repeatedly been assured, that
roots were found with leaves, but it always turned out
to be a branch zohich crossed the root ; and I always found
it so, on dissecting it, to try the truth of the assertion.

1 shall now close my letter with endeavouring to prove Each part of

the truth of an observation made lone ago by that excellent est.^m haf

° D ' each its parti-

observer Linnaeus, and since so absolutely denied by many: cular partoftha
I mean, M that each part of the stem has, when it arrives ower*
near the flower stalk, its peculiar juice" for the formation
of each part of the flower; that the bark produces the
calyx of the flower; the inner bark the corolla; the wood
the stamen; the circle of life the pistil : an 1 that they all
join in forming the fruit and seed. Willdenouw says, that,
without having recourse to the plant, or to dissection, it is
at once possible to show the folly of supposing, that each
particular part of the plant should produce only one part of

the

Each part of the flower, and he directly adduces the syngencsian cfass,
*aeh \tT artt wnicn contains the very plants, that (if he had dissected
cular part of the them ) would have proved the mistake of his argument. But
as all my opinions are formed on dissection alone, I have no
theory to carry on, if I deduce from what I see in the mi-
croscope a false conclusion. I am very ready on convic-
tion to give up the point; but as I reason from no other
(fata than dissection, I would ask him these simple questions:
why, if the nourishment of each part of the stem is not
confined to each different part of the flower, does the whole
arrangement of the stalk alter, the moment it gets to the
flower stalk? why are there particular vessels, to confine
and carry the juice to each peculiar part, if it was not of
consequence, that this juice should touch no other places?
for what purpose is the curious and artificial management in
the bottom ajid top of a seed vessel, which enables the
dissecter to say, u there are live divisions of little vessels
proceeding from the wood, I know therefore (though I do
not see it) that this must be a pent andrian flower ; here is
but one middle vessel proceeding from the circle of life (for
the pith stops,) it is therefore of the order pentandria mo-
nogynia: here are five divisions of little vessels proceeding
from the inner bark, it must therefore have Jive petals ?
'This is a simple way of showing the truth, and may dis-
gust, but it is truth, and should not do so ; I ardently wish
to convince; because I am convinced myself. Cut above
or below the seed vessel of a lily, a violet, a tulip, and
conviction will I think certainly follow. Why in cutting
below or above the seed vessel of a syngenesian flower, can
you directly tell whether it is superflua, aequalis, or se-
gregata? Look at the bottom of the seed vessel of the
sonchus; every pin hole of the vessel of the male is carried
up by corresponding vessels in the outward cuticle of the
seed : this I have proved in the solar microscope, (diminu-
tive as it is) it is thus carried up till it meets and joins the
'ligature of the males; and the female liquor is protruded
through the inside of the seed, and is perhaps one of the
. strongest. proofs of the impregnation of the female. In the
syngenesian class (".see Plate IX) the delicacy of the vessels,
which may be supposed too small for a liquid to flow through,

must

ON THE STEM Of TRIES. 349

must nrit impede the belief that it does so, when we con-
sider the circulation of blood in the diminutiTe animal that
torments the body of the flea and louse. I have seen the
liquor run up with the utmost celerity through the upper
cuticle of a very small seed of the syngenesian order, till
it met the male anil continued its course. It must be under-
stood, that the juice from the corolla flows in the rest of the
cuticle, and the largest vessels are those for the male liquor.
The production of these little floscules, and the curious ar-
rangement for the vessels, and for the nourishment of each *i
separate part, is so wonderful, that I hardly know an
object that has given me more delight than the contrivance
manifested in them, or a sight more formed to strike with
wonder, when seen in the microscope : and how wholly is
this beautiful order of arrangement counteracted by a
double flower; that is by finding none of these peculiar
vessels, but a general confusion, that seems to make a mix-
ture of the whole ! I never permit myself to form any
opinion what the thing is to be, before I have dissected it :
my opinions are wholly taken from what I do see, which
on this subject I have here given. The person who doubts
need only dissect a lily, a violet, or any flower, below the
seed vessel or above it, and, I fancy, he will be satisfied.

In detailing the reasons I had to believe that the circle of The line of life
life formed the pistil, and that it is the life of the plant, or *™** ^^
rather may be better compared to the spinal marrow and the flowers.
brain of the animal frame, I forgot one of the strongest
proofs, which is, " that, though the circle of life never
runs into any other leaf, it is to be found in all those
leaves that have the jiower either on the middle or on the
side of the leaf, &c. I first to my great astonishment
perceived it in the butcher's broom, where it leads directly
up to the flower: then in scolopendrums, and afterward
ii\ the xylophyllas, &c. Besides that there is vastly, more
wood than in any other kind of leaves, as every one will
feel on breaking them, the circle of life may easily be
traced, as leading from one flower to the other. But I
shall detain the reader no longer than to say, that these ideas
and discoveries are not the hasty productions of momentary
-examination, but the result of many years of study; I may

2 say

350 ON TttE STEM °* TREES«

The line of life say intense study: though till now I have not had the
feme's that bear couraSe to ,ay the result before the public, till I found, that
the flowers. my discoveries were likely to be superseded and published
from the study of others : as I discovered, six years ago,
the second organ in plants, which was so well explained in
a paper in your excellent Journal, though rather too ob»
scure. I have not mentioned the sensitive plants, because
I have not yet completed my study of them; but I must
observe, they so intirely confirm my idea, that u the motion
of plants is caused almost wholly by the spiral nerves,"
that when I lay them before the public, they will I hope
eradicate every remaining doubt that may be left in the
mind : and that they are only more or less sensitive, as the
length to which they are fastened is more or less extended.

Dear Sir,

Your obliged Servant,

A. IBBETSON.
Belleveu, June 12th.

Explanation of the Figures.

Plate VII f, Fig. 7. Divisions of the wood in the stem of
trees ; «, the rind ; b, the bark ; c, the inner bark ; d, the
wood; e, the spiral nerves; /, the line of life; g, the
pith ; h, h, the silver grain; o, o, o, the bastard grain.

Fig. 8. Cylinders of the inner bark.

Fig. 9. Cylinders of the wood.

Plate IX. Fig. 10. Part of a branch showing the manner
in which the line of life, cc9 enters into the flower bud, a,
and passes by the leaf buds bb ; also the manner in which it
runs to avoid an injured part

Fig. 11. A flower bud, showing the line of life, cc,
running up to each flower, a, «, «, cr, a, a, a, and the pith
terminating at b.

Fig. 12. A seed vessel of the class syngenesia; o, the
calyx, 6, female florets, c, male and female florets.

Fig. 13. Section just above the seed vessel of the dian-
thus. «, the calyx proceeding from the bark; b, the co-
rolla, from the inner bark ; c, c, c, c, c, ten stamens from
the wood; d, the seed vessel; e, the pistil from the circle
of life.

III. On

ON THE SITPP09ED PERSPIRATION OP PLANTS. g^|

III.

On the supposed Perspiration of Plants* By Mrs.
Agnes Ibbetson.

To Mr. NICHOLSON,
SIR,

t\ FRIEND has suggested to me, that, to avoid all mis- Moisture mis-
takes, I should have described the various kinds of moisture, ta|ceri.for P^F-

7 , ' spiration should

that might be taken for the perspiration of plants; lest the be described.

subject, from their appearance, should be given up as

a dream of the author's, without a fair and candid trial.

It is certainly worth it, for great must be its influence on Perspiration as-

the atmosphere, and immense the calculation of the water znoxmoxxs

necessary to afford such a perspiration, if we take into

account also the quantity wanted for their growth. But,

I may say, if leaves exude, in proportion to their surface,

as much moisture as a healthy man, they must often drop

water in the driest days; which I never could perceive they

did. But if (as is insisted on) they yield 17 times as much

as a robust subject, every tree must be a shower bath, and

we could not sit under one without a complete wetting*.

Of the various appearances of moisture, which the solar Different kinds

microscope so completely elucidates, I shall first mention of apparent
r ; 7 moisture on

the honey dew, though there are few not acquainted with plants.

its appearance. Beside this, there are three others, one
the bladder iu which a small insect infolds its larva; another
sort in which au insect lays her eggs ; and the third is the
sickness of a plant ; for there are few plants, that do not
give out a sort of sugar when ill. After these I must men-
tion the egg of some insect. It is found on the proteas,
and one or two other plants. I have preserved the eggs
till the animals showed themselves. The next is the cryp-
togamia found on the pea, the sun flower leaf, the mimulus,
and a few others; of these I have given a sketch, just
as I took them from the solar microscope, that every one
may judge whether this looks like the perspiration of a

* This does not follow,* unless some cause were present, to' con-
dense the aqueous vapour perspired. C.

plant.

3jCZ OS THE SUPPOSED PERSPIRATION OF PLANTS.

plant*. I have also seen the beginning of the hairs of the

leaf taken for it.

J*o perspiration Jft the three or four years that I have been (as lorn? as
Visible with a .. ' , , . , * , ,. . ..

*ery high mag- tne leaves last) endeavouring to discover perspiration, it

aifyingpower. appears to me impossible I should not have found it, if it
did exist : but I have sought it with microscopes that mag-
nified .so extremely, as to preveut my being deceived by
other objects. I regret indeed the little use made of au
instrument now carried to a degree of perfection, which
must daily bring new wonders to our admiring senses. With
respect to perspiration, it \s so little shown, though the
smallest hairs of the leaf are enlarged to the size of a ruler,
and the water is seen running up as the rarefaction of the
air forces it from the increased vrarmth of the glass. Nay,
the pores of the leaf are so enlarged, that an object five
times as small could be seen and examined: why then should
I not see moisture, if it existed?

In my former papers (.which were written a long time
since,) I did not mention (because I was not fully aware of
it) the very defective manner made use of to try the quantity
of perspiration given by plants, and to evince its existence,
till the desire of studying the effect of various degrees of
heat on plants, made me a constant attendant on the hot-
Heat increases house, green house, hot walls, and glasses, &c. I then
m£a planu^on ^oun{^? *nat any increase of heat helped greatly to increase
leaves, the number of cryptogamian plants on those leaves, on which

mturaUecre-0" tne^ were no* a* a^ inclined to grow ; and that, beside this,
tions. they produced secretions unknown to the plant in its na-

Themelon. tural situation. The melon gives a very curious one, found
on the edge of the leaf of the plant every morning : but,
instead of covering the plant from all air, leave £1 a little by
raising the glass, and the moisture intirely ceases. It is the
The cucumber. sarae5 though not so much, with the cucumber. There is
not the smallest appearance of moisture without the plant
is first rendered ill, to study its secretions. It is objected
to me, that I left the plant so long (being three hours) that

* See Plate IX, Figs. 15, and 1C, the cryptogamian plant on the
mimulus, or monkey flower : tig. 17, those on the pea, which are
recumbent: fig. 18, those on the sunflower. They seldom appear
on young leaves, or on any leaf, till the plant is near flowering.

the

ON THE SUPPOSED PERSPIRATION OF PLANTS. 353

the moisture under the glass had evaporated. Itmight perhaps

have given a little more in a shorter time, and the hygrometer

would have marked a trifle more moisture; but it is forced

from the plant, and, so far from giving it naturally, I have

every reason to believe, that it acts as heat does, and tears

its way through the cuticle, as animals in an air pump will

sometimes have the blood forced through the pores of the

skin.

It is certain, that a plant cannot exist without air, and We cannot
, , . . ... n . . t i • i . J "dge of the

that it languishes in a confined air. in this state how im- secretions of a

possible 10 judge of its secretions. I cannot help being Plant in C0Ii"
persuaded, that excellent botanist Mirbel had many doubts Mirbel.
of its existence. The clear and simple account he gives of
the production of the gasses and juices of plants is such,
that but for one line, it would be the most perfect thing I
ever saw : I hope I may be excused translating the few
lines. " It is certain, that the carbonic acid gas, pro-
duced and renewed without ceasing by combustion, is dis-
solved in water, which the atmosphere holds suspended in
vapour; and which passes through the thin cuticle of the
leaves, and penetrates the albumen, and gains the nourish-
ing vessels. This absorption takes place when the sap and
other fluids (at first dilated by the heat of the day,) become
condensed by the cold of the night, and fall towards the
lower extremities of the tree ; for then the liquids take less
room, a sort of vacuum takes place in the higher parts ;
and the vapours flowing around enter the leaves by the
pores, as we see water force itself Into the pipe of a
pump by the help of the piston, that produces a vacuum.
But as soon as the sun appears above the horizon, these
same fluids, joined to those the roots have pumped up from
the earth, drawn by heat, are carried into the leaves, and
escape by the pores, and it is then that the water and tw-
ionic acid gas enforced by light are decomposed, and the
torrent of oxigen flows from the leaves."

Now if the water escapes through the pores, how can it Water cannot
be there to be decomposed by the light, and to give out its j^.^omposed
oxigen ? Setting aside therefore this line, it is the clearest through th«
account of vegetation, and the most just, I had ever thepores*
pleasure of reading. But certain it is, that, if plants per-

Vol. XXIII. — Supplement. 2 A spired.

154 KtTMERICAL TABLE OF ELECTIVE ATTRACTIONS.

spired, they could not give out oxigen. However, thouglr
the appearance of perspiration has invariably proved either
a cryptogamian plant; the bubbles which hold the per-
fumed liquor of leaves, and which are to be found in all
leaves that are scented; the eggs of insects; the edges of
A trifling per- the pores, &c. ; I do not deny, that there may be a very
«puation. trifling degree of insensible perspiration: for I think that

sort of scurf, or jelly, found on the leaves, arises from it;
but this is trifling, and scarcely worth mentioning.
The vine per- Of the innumerable quantity of plants I have examined,
spires from its f},ere [s but onCj that in my opinion really does perspire ;
and that not on the leaf, but the stalk. This is the vine.
When the vine is extremely full of juice, a bubble appears
on the stalk, which, magnified, is not a plant; but really
issues from the vine as the proper juice of it, for I can
see no stalk. With the same truth I should have mentioned it,
if I had found hundreds; for to attain truth is my aim, and
I am really attached to no system whatever. Mine are
merely desultory discoveries, not mine indeed, but those of
the solar microscope, to which I transfer all the honour,
if there is any. As to the sickness of a plant, any person
may perceive, when a plant has been gathered an hour or
two, how damp and moist it grows; it is the same when
placed under a glass, it droops and grows clammy.

I am, Sir,
Your obliged Servant,

AGNES IBBETSONT.
Belleveu 1§th June.

IV.

A numerical Table of elective Attractions ; with Remark*
on the Sequences of double Decompositions. By Thomas
Youxg, M.D. For. Sec. R.S.*

numerical tobies ATTEMPTS have been made, by several chemists, to
•f elective at- obtain a series of numbers, capable of representing the mu-
tractions.

* Philos. Trans, for 1809, Part I, p. 148. F r a Memoria

Technica of the double elective attractions, communicated by the

learned author, see Journal, Vol. XXil, p. 304.

tuaj

NUMERICAL TABLE OF ELECTIVE ATTRACTIONS. 355

tual attractive forces of the component parts of different
salts; but these attempts have hitherto been confined within
narrow limits, and have indeed been so hastily abandoned,
that some very important consequences, which necessarily
follow from the general principle of a numerical represen-
tation, appear to have been entirely overlooked, ft is not
impossible, that then* m;iy be some cases, in which the pre-
sence of a fourth substance, beside the two ingredients of
the salt, and the medium in which they are dissolved, may
influence the precise force of their mutual attraction, either
by affecting the solubility of the salt, or by some other un-
known means, so that the number, naturally appropriate
to the combination, may no longer correspond to its affec-
tions ; but there is reason to think, that such cases are
rare; and when they occur, they may easily be noticed as
exceptions to the general r. les. It appears therefore, that
nearly all the phenomena of the mutual actions of a hundred
different salts may be correctly represented by a hundred
numbers, while, in the usual manner of relating every case as
a different experiment, above two thousand separate articles
would be required.

Having been engaged in the collection of a few of the prin- Asetiesof num-
cipal facts relating to chemistry and pharmacy, I was induced s^resri„g ve'rjn"
to attempt the investigation of a series ofN these numbers; generally.
and I have succeeded, not without some difficulty, in obtain-
ing such as appear to agree sufficiently well with all the cases
of double decompositions which are fully established, the
exceptions not exceeding twenty, out of about twelve hun-
dred cases enumerated by Fourcroy. The same numbers
agree in general with the order of simple elective attrac-
tions, as usually laid down by chemical authors; but it was
of so much less importance to accommodate them to these,
that I have not been very solicitous to avoid a few inconsis-
tencies in this respect; especially as many of the bases of Common tables
.1 . , ,. i i - i x. , • of simp'e elefl-

the calculation remain uncertain, and as the common tables tive attractions

of simple elective attractions are certainly imperfect, if they imperfect.
are considered as indicating the order of the independ nt
attractive forces of the substances concerned. Although it
cannot be expected, that these numbers should be accurate
measures of the forces which they represent, yet they may
2A2 be

,%.jf> SEttEaiCAL TABLE OF ELECTIVE JIT TRACT tO*S.

be supposed to be tolerable approximations to such mea-
sures; at least if any two of them are nearly in the tna«
proportion, it is probable, that the rest cannot deviate very-
far from it: thus, if the attractive force of the phosphoric
acid for potash is about eight tenths of that of the sulfuric
acid for barita, that of the phosphoric acid for barita must
be about wine tenths as great ; but they are calculated only
to agree with a certain number of phenomena, and will
probably require many alterations, as well as additions,
when all other similar phenomena shall have been accurately
investigated.
The facts may There is, however, amethod of representing the facts, which
r^^e^nted- have served as the bases of the determination, independently
kf jra&eus. of any hypothesis, and without being liable to the contingent
necessity of any future alteration, in order to make room for
the introduction of the affections of other substances ; and this
method enables us also to compare, upon general principles,
amalti tilde of scattered phenomena, and to reject many which
have been mentioned as probable, though doubtful, with the
omission of a very few only, which have been stated as ascer-
tained. This arrangement simply depends on the supposition,
that the attractive force, which tends to unite any two sub.
stances, may always be represented by a certain constant
quantity.
There most he From this principle it may he inferred, in the first place,
tbe^^teat *^a* tn€re k*118* De a sequence in the simple elective attrae-
tractions. tions. For example, there must be an errour in the common

Enwurs in the ^a^]es cf eiectfre attractions, in which magnesia stands abovt
~» tables. .

ammonia wnder the sulfuric acid, and below it under the

phosphoric, and the phosphoric acid stands above the sulfuric
under magnesia, and below it under ammonia : since such an
arrangement implies, that the order of the attractive forces is
this; phosphate of magnesia, sulfate of magnesia, suifateof
arf monia, phosphate of ammonia, and again phosphate of
magnesia; which forms a circle, and not a sequence. We
mast therefore either place magnesia above ammonia under
ihe phosphoric acid, or the phosphoric acid below the sulfu-
ric under magnesia; or we roust abandon the principle of a
Buiaerical representation io this particular case, •

In

KUMEKICAL TABLE OF ELECTIVE ATTBACTiOSS. 357

In the second place, there mast be an agreement between The simple and
the simple and double elective attractions. Thus,i£ the fluoric tionsiaust
acid stands above the nitric under barita, and below it under agree,
lime, theiluateof barita cannot decompose the nitrate of lime,
since the previous attractions of these two salts are respec-
tively greater, than the div client attractions of the nitrate of
barita and the fluate of lime. Probably, therefore, we ought
to place the fluoric acid below the nitric under barita; and
we may suppose, that, when the fluoric acid has appeared to
forma precipitate with the nitrate of barita, there has been
some fallacy in the experiment.

The third proposition is somewhat less obvious, but per- A continued
haps of greater utility :' there must be a continued sequence 0^T 0» double
in the order of double elective attractions ; that is, between attractions,
any two acids, we may place the different bases in such an
order, that any two salts, resulting from their union, shall
always decompose each other, unless each acid be united to
the base nearest to it : for example, sulfuric acid, barita, po-
tass, soda, ammonia, strontia, magnesia, glycina, alumina,
zirconia, lime, phosphoric acid. The sulfate of potass de-
composes the phosphate of barita, because the difference of
the attractions of barita for the sulfuric and phosphoric
acids is greater than the difference of the similar attractions
of potass ; and in the same manner the difference of the at- v
tractions of potass is greater than that of the attractions of
soda ; consequently the difference of the attractions of ba-
rita must be much greater than that of the attractions of
soda, and the sulfate of soda must decompose the.phosphate
of barita: and in the same manner it may be shown, that
each base must preserve its relations of priority or posteri-
ority to every other in the series. It is also obvious, that,
for similar reasons, the acids may be arranged in a conti-
nued sequence between the different bases; and when all
the decompositions of a certain number of salts have been
investigated, we may form two corresponding tables, one
of the sequences of the bases with the acids, and another
of those of the acids with the different bases ; and if either Correction of
or both of the tables are imperfect, their deficiencies may ^ursmk u"
often be supplied, and their errours corrected, by a re-
peated comparison with each other.

In

358 NUMERICAL TABLE OF ELECTIVE ATTRACTIONS.

Tables formed In forming fables of this kind from the cases collected by
lected by Four- Fourcroy, I have been obliged to reject some facts, which
troy. were evidently contradictory to others, and these I have not

thought it necessary to mention ; a few, which are positively
related, and which are only inconsistent with the principle of
numerical representation, I have mentioned in notes but many
others, which have been stated as merely probable, I have
omitted without any notice. In the table of simple elective
attractions, I have retained the usual order of the different
substances; inserting again in parentheses such of them as
require to be transposed, in order to avoid inconsequences
in the simple attractions : I have attached to each combina-
tion marked with an asterisk the number deduced from the
double decomposition, as expressive of its attractive force ;
and where the number is inconsistent with the corrected or-
der of the simple elective attractions, I have also enclosed
it in a parenthesis. Such an apparent inconsistency may
perhaps in some cases be unavoidable, as it is possible, that
the different proportions of the masses, concerned in the
operations of pimple and compound decomposition, may
sometimes cause a real difference in the comparative magni-
tude of the attractive forces. Those numbers, to which no
asterisk is affixed, are merely inserted by interpolation, and
they can only be so far employed for determining the mutual
actions of the salts to which they belong, as the results
which they indicate would follow from the comparison of
any other numbers, intermediate to the nearest of those,
which are more correctly determined. I have not been able
to obtain a sufficient number of facts relating to the metal-
lic salts, to enable me to comprehend many of them in the
tables.
Divisions of at- It has been usual to distinguish the attractions, which pro-
duce the double decompositions of salts, into necessary and
superfluous attractions ; but the distinction is neither very ac-
curate, nor very important : they might be still farther divided
accordingly as two, three, or the whole of the four ingre-
dients concerned arc capable of simply .decomposing the salt
in which theyare not contained; and if two, accordingly as
they are previously united or separate: such divisions would
however merely tend to divert the attention from the natural
operation of the joint forces csneerned.

5 It

NUMERICAL TABLE OE ELECTITE ATTRACTION. 359

It appears to be not improbable, that the attractive force Expression of
e x v, • 1.x • i. a the attractive

of any two substances might, in many cases, be expressed force 0f two

by the quotient of two numbers appropriate to the sub-su^^c66-
stances, or rather by the excess of that quotient above
unity; thus the attractive force of many of the acids for
the three principal alkalis might probably be correctly re-
presented in this manner; and where the order of attrac-
tions is different, perhaps the addition of a second, or of a
second and third quotient, derived from a different series of
numbers, would aiford an accurate determination of the
relative force of attraction, which would always be the
weaker, as the two substances concerned stood nearer to
each other in these orders of nnmbers ; so that, by affixing,
to each simple substance, two, three, or at most four num.
bers only, its attractive powers might be expressed in the
shortest and most general manner.

I have thought it necessary to make some alterations in the Chemical or-
orthography generally adopted by chemists, not from a want ograp iy*
of deference to their individual authority, but because it ap-
pears to me, that there are certain rules of etymology, which
no modern author has a right to set aside. According to the
orthography universally established throughout the language,
without any material exceptions, our mode of writing Greek
words is always borrowed from the Romans, whose alphabet
we have adopted : thus the Greek vowel T, when alone, is
always expressed in Latin and English by Y, and the Greek
dipthong or by U, the Romans having no such dipthong as
OU or OY. The French have sometimes deviated from
this rule, and if it were excusable for any, it would be for
them, since their u and ou are pronounced exactly as the T
and OT of the Greeks probably were : but we have no such
excuse. Thus the French have used the term ac<nistiquey
which some English authors have converted into u acoustics;'*
our anatomists, however, speak, much more correctly, of
the cc acustic" nerve. Instead of glucine, we ought cer-
tainly, for a similar reason, to write glycine; or glycina, if
the names of the earths are to end in a. Barytes, as a sin-
gle Greek word, means weight, and must be pronounced
barytes ; but as the name of a stone, accented on the se-
cond syllable, it must be written barites ; and the pure earth
may properly be called barita. Yttria I have altered ta
Itria, because no Latin word begins with a Y.

360

TABLES OF ELECTIVE ATTRACTION!.

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TABLES OF ELECTITE ATTRACTIONS.

361

Nitric
Acid.

Barita

Potass

Soda

Strontia

Lime

Nitric and Muriatic Acids.

Potass

Soda

Ammonia

Magnesia.

Glycina

Barita Potass

Potass Soda

Soda Ammonia

Ammonia Magnesia

Magnesia Glycina

Glycina Alumina

Alumina Zirconia

Zirconia Barita

Strontia (9) Strontia

Lime Lime

Fluoric Sulfurouj

(7) A triple salt is formed. (8) Fourcroy says, that the muriate of zirconia decom-
poses the phosphates of barita and strontia. (9) According to Fourcroy 's account,
the filiate of strontia decomposes the muriates of ammonia, and of all the bases jelow it;
but he says in another part of the same volume, that the fluate of strontia is an unknown
salt, (10) According to Fourcroy's account of these combinations, barita should stand
immediately below ammonia in both of these columns. (11) With heat, the carbonate
•f lime decomposes the muriate of ammonia.

Magnesia (7) Alumina
Ammonia (7) Zirconia (8)
Glycina Barita

Alumina Strontia

Zirconia Lime

Murjatic Phosphoric

Barita (10)

Potass

Potass

Soda

Soda

Barita (10)

Ammonia

Ammonia (7 J 1)

Magnesia

Magnesia (7)

Glycina*

Strontia

Alumina

Lime

Zirconia

Glycina

Strontia

Alumina

Lima

Zirconia

BORACIC

Carbonic

Barita

Lime

Lime

Barita

Potass

Potass

Soda

Soda

Strontia

Strontia

Magnesia

Magnesia

Ammonia

Ammonia

Glycina

Glycina

Alumina

Alumina

Zirconia

Zirconia

Fluoric

Sulfurous

Phosphoric Acid.

Barita

Potass

Barita

Lime

Soda

Lime

Potass

Barita

Potass

Soda

Lime (13)

Soda

Strontia

Strontia

Strontia

Ammonia(l

.2) Ammonia

Magnesia

Magnesia

Magnesia

Glycina ?

Glycina

Glycina

Alumina

Alumina

Alumina

Zirconia

Zirconia

Zirconia

rs Boracic

Carbonic

(phosphorous)

(12) According to Fourcroy, the phosphate of ammonia decomposes the borate of
magnesia. (13) Fourcroy says, that the carbonate of lime decomposes the phosphates
#f potash and of soda.

Fluoric Acid.

Lime

Lime

Potass

Potass

Barita

Soda

Soda

Strontia

Lime

Magnesia

Potass

Barita

Ammonia

Soda

Strontia

Glycina

Ammonia

Ammonia (14)

Alumina

Magnesia

Magnesia

Zirconia

Glycina

Glycina

Strontia

Alumina

Alumina

Barita

Zirconia

Zirconia

Sulfurous

Boracic

Carbonic

(14) According to Fourcroy, the carbonate of

ammonia decomposes the fluates of

rita and strontia.

Sulfurous Acid.

Boracic Acid.

Barita

Potass

Lime

Zirconia

Potass

Strontia

Soda

Strontia

Alumina

Soda

Potass

Barita (15)

Barita

Glycina

Lime

Soda

Strontia

Zirconia

Ammouia

Barita

Ammonia

Ammonia

Alumina

Magnesia

Strontia

Magnesia

Lime

Glycina

Strontia

Magnesia

Lime

Magnesia

Magnesia

Soda

Ammonia

Glycina

G.ycina

Ammonia

Potass

Glycina

Alumina

Alumina

Soda

Barita

Alumina

Zirconia

Zirconia

Potass

Lime

Zirconia

Boracic

Carbonic

(Njtrous)

(Phosphorous?)

Carbonic

(15 ^Fourcroy says, that the sulfite of barita decomposes the carbonate of ammonia.

Table

362

TABLE! OF ELECTIVE ATTRACTIONS,

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NUMERICAL TABLE OF ELECTIVE ATTRACTIONS.

363

Numerical Table of elective Attractions*

Bartta.

Sulfuric acid 1000*

Oxalic 950

Succinic 930
Fluoric

Phosphoric 906*

Mucic 900

Nitric 849*

Muriatic 840*

Suberic 800
Citric

Tartaric 760

Arsenic 733f

(Citric) 730

La<tic 729

(Fluoric) 706*

Benzoic 597

Acetic 594

Boracic (515)*

Sulfurous 592*

Nitrous 450

Carbonic 420*

Prussic 400

Strontia.
Sulfuric acid 903*

Phosphoric 827*

Oxalic 825

Tartaric 757
Fluoric

Nitric 754*

Muriatic 748*

(Succinic) 740

(Fluoric) 703*
Succinic

Citric? 618

Lactic 603

Sulfurous 527*
Acetic

Arsenic (733f)

Boracic 513*

(Acetic) 480

Nitrous? 430

Carbonic 419*

Potass. Soda.
Sulfuric acid

894* 885*
Nitric 812* 804*
Muriatic 804* 797*
Phosphoric

801*795*
Suberic? 74-5 740
Fluoric 671* 666*
Oxalic 650 615
Tartaric 616 611
Arsenic 614 609
Succinic 612 607
Citric 610 605
Lactic 609 604
Benzoic 608 603
Sulfurous 488*484*
Acetic 486 482
Mucic 484 480
Boracic 482* 479*
Nitrous 440 437
Carbonic 306* 304*
Prussic 300 298

Lime.

Oxalic acid

Sulfuric

Tartaric

Succinic

Phosphoric

Mucic

Nitric

Muriatic

Suberic

Fluoric

Arsenic

Lactic

Citric

Malic

Benzoic

Acetic

Boracic

Sulfurous

(Acetic)

Nitrous

Carbonic

Prussic

960

868*

867

866

865*

860

741*

736*

735

732
731

700
590

537*
516*
470
425
423*
290

Magnesia.

Oxalic acid 820
Phosphoric

Sulfuric 810*

(Phosphoric) 736*
Fluoric

Arsenic 733

Mucic 732*

Succinic 732£

Nitric 732*

Muriatic 728 *

Suberic? 700

(Fluoric) 620*

Tartaric 618

Citric 615

Malic ? 600 ?

Lactic 575

Benzoic 560
Acetic

Boracic 459*

Sulfurous 439*

(Acetic) 430

Nitrous 410

Carbonic 366*

Prussic 280

Ammonia.
Sulfuric acid 808*

Nitric 731*

Muriatic 729*

Phosphoric 728*

Suberic ? 720

Fluoric 613*

Oxalic 611

Tartaric 609

Arsenic 607

Succinic 605

Citric 603

Lactic 601

Benzoic 599

Sulfurous 433

Acetic ■ 432

Mucic 431*

Boracic 430*

Nitrous 400

Carbonic 339

Prussic 270

Glycina?
Sulfuric acid
Nitric
Muriatic
Oxalic
Arsenic
Suberic?
Fluoric
Tartaric
Succinic
Mucic
Citric
Phosphoric
Lactic
Benzoic
Acetic
Boracic
Sulfurous
Nitrous
Carbonic
Prussic

Alumina. Zirconia?

718*

642*

639*

600

580

535

534*

520

510

425

415

400

395

388*

355*

340

325*

260

709*

634*

632*

594

575

530

529*

515

505

420

410

(648)* (642)*
410 405

395

391

385*

351*

336

323*

258

700*
626*
625*
588
570
525
524*
510
500
415
405
(636)*
400
390
387
382*
347*
332
321*
25$

Acid*.

36*

NUMERICAL TABLE OF ELECTIVE ATTRACT!©!!*,

Acids.

ScLfCRIC.

KlTSW

MUKIATIC.

Phosphoetc.

Barita

1000*

Barita

849*

Barita

$ to •

Barita 000?

Strontia

903*

Potass

812*

Potass

804*

Strontia 827*

Potass

894*

Soda

804*

Soda

797*

Lime (865) *

Soda

885*

Strontia

754*

Strontia

748*

Potass 801*

lime

868*

Lime

741*

Lime

736*

Soda 795*

ftlagnesfa

810*

Magnesia

732*

Ammonia 729*

Ammonia (728)*

-Ammonia

808*

Ammonia

731*

Magnesia 728*

Magnesia 736*

Glycina

718»

Glycina

642*

Glycina

639*

Glycina 648*

Jtria

712

Alumina

634*

Alumina

632*

Alumina 642*

Alnmina

709*

Zirconia

626*

Zirconia

625*.

Zirconia 636*

Zirconia

700*

Fluoric.

Oxalic. Tartaric,

Arsenic. Tunstic.

lime

734*

Lime

960

867

Lime

733| Lime

Barila

706*

Barita

950

760'

Barita

733f Barita

Strontia

703*

Strontia

825

757

Strontia

733| Strontia

Mlagne&ia (620)*

Magnesia

820

618

Magnesia

733 Magnesia

Potass

671*

Potass

650

610

Potass

6 1 4 Potass

Soda

666*

Soda

645

611

Soda

609 Soda

-Ammonia

613*

Ammonia

611

609

Ammonia

607 Ammonia

Glycina

534*

Glycina?

600

520

Glycina

580 Glycina

Alumina

529*

Alumina

594

515

Alumina

575 Alumina

Zirconia

524*

Zirconia?

588

510

Zirconia

570 Zirconia

Stxcnnc.

Suberic.

Camphoric.

Citric.

$arita

930

Barita

800

Lime

Lime 731

lime

866

Potass

745

Potass

Barita 730

Strontia ?

740

Soda

740

Soda

Strontia 618

^Magnesia)

732*

Lime

735

Barita

Magnesia 615

Potass

612

Ammonia

720

Ammonia

Potass 610

Soda

607

Magnesia

700

Glycina

.?

Soda 605

Ammonia

605

Glycina?

535?

Alumina

Ammonia 603

Magnesia

Alumina

530

Zirconia

L?

Glycina? 415?

Glycina?

510

Zirconia ?

525?

Magnesia

Alumina 410

Alumina

505

Zirconia 405

Zirconia?

500

Lactic.

Benzoic.

SULFLHOUS.

Acetic.

Barita

729

White oxid of

Barita

592 *

Barita 594

Potass

609

arsenic

Lime

516 *

Potass 486

Soda

604

Potass

608'

Potass

488 *

Soda 482

Strontia

603

Soda

603

Soda

484 *

Strontia 480

Lime

(732)

Ammonia

5P9

■Strontia

(527) *

Lime 470

Ammonia

601

Barita

597

Magnesia 439 *

Ammonia 432

Magnesia

575

Lime

590

Ammonia 433 *

Magnesia 430

Metallic oxids

Magnesia

560

Glycina

355 *

Metallic oxids

Glycina

410

Glycina?

400?

Alumina

351 *

Glycina 395

Alumina

405

Alumina

395

Zirconia

347 *

Alumina 391

Sfcrconia

400

Zirconia ?

390?

Zirconia 387

Mucic ?

CTntBucai. table op blectite attractions.

sss

Mucici

\

BORACIC.

Nitrous i

}

pHGSFR©Rai.V&

Santa

mo

Lime

537 *

Barita

450

Lime

JLime

8.60

Barita

515 *

Potass

440

Barita

Potass

484

Strontia

513 *

Soda

437

Strontia

Soda

480

Magnesia (459) *

Strontia

430

Potass

Ammonia

431

■Potass

482 *

Lime

425

Soda

Glycina

425

Soda

479 *

Magnesia

410

Magnesia?

Alumina

420

Ammonia

430 *

Ammonia

400

Ammonia

Zircoaia

415

Glycina

388 *

Glycina

340

Glycina

-Alumina

385 *

Alumina

336

Alumina

Zirconia

.382 *

Zirconia

332

Zirccmia

Carbonic.

Prcussic

Barita

420 *

Barita

400

Strontia

419 *

Strontia

Lime

(423) *

Potass

300

Potass ?

306 *

Soda

298

Soda

304 *

Lime

290

Magnesia

(366) •

Magnesia

280

Ammonia

339 *

Ammonia

270

Glycina

325 *

Glycina?

260

Alumina

323 *

Alumina ?

258

Zirconia

321 *

Zirconia ?

25.6

Experiments on Sulphur and its Decomposition ; by Mr.
Curaubau, Professor of Chemistry applicable to tht
Aris9 and Member of several learned Societies *..

W HEN bodies we attempt to decompose have expcri- Bodies sup
encedno alteration from the chemical agents^ to the action of Posed siniPk'
which they have been subjected, we are obliged to clasa
them as simple bodies. The idea of simple substances, how-
ever, though there must be such, is but little reconcilable
with the different phenomena of decomposition and re-
eomposition, which nature is incessantly producing before
our eyes, and I have never considered as simple all that are
generally deemed so. On the contrary I have always thought, None in the
that the substances constituting the mineral kingdom, of ™meraI Mf\g~
whatever kind, are compounds ; and that the principles of

* Journal de Physique, July, 1S08, p 12. Mr. Davy's decom-
position of sulphur by the Voltaic pile is given at p. 321, of our
present number,

whiflfc

3G6 DECOMPOSITION OP SULPHUR.

which they arc composed are the same, as those that enter
into the composition of substances, that belong to, the vege-
table and animal kingdoms. But let me not be mistaken.
In which the The state in which we are acquainted with certain principles
elementary -s v ^ from tjle great condensation they must expe-
matters are J ° .

greatly con- rience, before they enter into the composition of the mine-
densed. raj kingdom. Accordingly the compounds of those that

result from a union of these principles must differ, in pro-
portion as they recede from the former state, or approach
In the vege- the latter. This in fact we observe in the vegetable king-
thevare fess'so dom. ^he essential oils, for example, must be considered
as compounds, in which the principles are very near the
gaseous state; while the elements that constitute the resins
and fixed oils are in a state of the greatest condensation,
with respect to the kingdom to which they belong. But
this greatest condensation of the principles, that form the
different compounds of the vegetable kingdom, is far re-
moved from the first degree of condensation of the elements
JmJestructibi- that constitute the substances of the mineral kingdom. Ac-
hty of mineral corcjjngly the indestructibility of the latter seems connected
with the difficulty of causing principles to retrograde towards
a state of less condensation, that have the very opposite
tendency

What I have just said of the different degrees of conden-
sation, in which the principles that constitute all natural
bodies exist, I advanced ten years ago in the first paper I
had the honour to present to the Institute on the composi-
tion of alkalis: and I have seen with pleasure, that Mr.
Berthollet, in adopting this opinion in his Chemical Statics,
has taken it out of the rank of hypotheses.
This property, As to the indestructibility of mineral substances, to
©wing to the wnicn j ascribe the difficulty of causing the principles that
finity of their constitute them to retrograde toward a state of less conden-

pnnciijles, sation, this too is an opinion, which appears to me to

merits conside- 7 r ri

Mtion. merit all the attention of chemists. In fact, what power,

except that of the mutual attraction of the principles that
compose all the substances of the mineral kingdom, can
enable them to resist the eminently dilatable action of ca-
loric? Thus fire, to effect the decomposition of mineral

substances,

DECOMPOSITION OF SULPHUR. 267

substances, must be employed as an auxiliary, and not as
an immediate agent.

The decomposition of sulphur, which constitutes the Decomposition,
« ,. .,. * , , m ai c ,, of sulphur, as

object of this paper, will furnish au a])phcation of the of other bodies,

principle I have just laid down. However, before we at. {J™^^*
tempt the decomposition of a substance, it is requisite, to
have some notion of its composition, that may indicate the
nature of the experiments to be made. With respect to
sulphur for instance, I had observed, that sulphuric acid
strongly saturated with nitrous gas gave a blue colour to
water acidulated with it. From the appearance of this
colour I inferred, that carbon must be one of the component
parts of sulphur: and then considering the property this
substance has to dissolve in oils, I suspected, that sulphur
might be a compound of carbon and hidrogen. These con-
jectures were very far from a demonstration; but from
these I could proceed as data, either to attack the princi-
ples themselves, or to combine them with a third principle,
which by its union with them would form a compound al-
ready known.

Nitrogen, for example, appeared to me well adapted Nitrogen
to give rise to the compound I should wish to obtain, if
hidrogen and carbon were component parts of sulphur.

In fact, from a combination of these two principles with should produce
v . . with it some-

nitrogen must not a compound be produced analogous to t^m(T i^g the

the prussic radical? and would not this product, the ele- prussic radical,
meats of which are known, indicate those of sulphur?

To verify how far my conjectures were well founded, I ^ve^thiT1 *°
made the following experiment.

I subjected to calcination in an iron tube four parts °^c^|™nd<suu"
animal charcoal with two parts of sulphate of potash, the phate of potash
whole being intimately mixed. I heated this mixture to a me '
cherry red, and having suffered it to cool to three fourths,
I threw it into a large quantity of water. and lixiviated.

When I had filtered the liquor, it was of a green colour, The hxivium
inclining to blue according to the light in which it was
viewed. It had but a slight smetf of hidrosulphuret. Its
taste, though different from that of the prussic radical, pro-
duced on the palate a sensation resembling that; by which
this radical is characterised,

I tried

368

BECOMPOSltlON Or ST LPIIUK.

not precipitated I tried After war 3 whether acids would rSrecijiitate sulphur
y aci s> from it, but even the oximuriatic scarcely rendered it fur*

bid. They only evolved from it a peculiar smell, insup-
portabiy fetid. However as the nature of the solution in-
dicated the presence of sulphur, I was willing to ascertain,
but blue with whether it contained any. With ihis view 1 let fall into it
sulphate of a j^ drops of a solution of sulphate of iron at a maximum
of oxidation, which immediately occasioned a black pre-
cipitate, that was speedily changed to blue by an additional
quantity of the solution of the sulphate.

From these different experiments, and particularly from

the property of the solution, I no longer doubted, that the

sulphur had entered into combination with the nitrogent

and formed a compound analogous to the prussic radical.

Having afterward examined, what action sulphuric acid

The sulphur
had formed a
compound
tttfalognus to
tho ; i ussic ra-
dical.
Sulphuric acid

with nitrous sa.tura.ted with nitrous eas would have on this solution, I

gas precipitated ° '

sulphur. remarked, that this acid produced a copious yellow preci-

pitate in it, which to the eye had all the appearance of
sulphur, and emitted a similar smell when thrown on live
coals. This solution, like those before examined with
acids, contained the prussic radical ; and the precipitate
here mentioned was nothing but this radical, which at the
moment of its formation might be converted into Prussian
blue by combining it with a few drops of solution of sul-
phate of iron.

This" substance"'. This compound then clearly indicates a substance ana-

analogous to
the prussic ra-
dical.

Its fixedness.

Is carbon or
Kidrogtn pre-

logous to the prussic radical, but differing from it in being
more fixed, since the strongest acids do not separate it
from its solution, while all of them readily decompose the
prussiate of potash. Were this the only property, that
characterised the radical of wrhich I am speaking, it would
bo sutlicient, to distinguish it from the prussic.

With regard to the great degree of fixedness of this new
radical, it may be ascribed to the hidrogen, the condensa-
tion of which appears to be as strong in this compound, as
it is in sulphur; a condensation however, which nitrogen,
can diminish in forming ammonia with the hidrogeu by the
decomposition of prussiate of iron.

As to the question, whether carbon or hidrogen be the
predominent principle in sulphur, it is obvious, that the

process

DECOMPOSITION OF SULrHUlt. 369

process I employed to decompose it affords little means of dominant in
.. ,. . J . , , . , sulphur?

finding the proportions of the two principles.

There is one observation however, that may throw some Probably hi-
light on this question. I have remarked, that the solutions dr0Sen-
of sulphuretted nitrogen of potash [azote sidf are de potasse~\
all contain an excess of carbon, which they let fall, if the
liquor remain exposed to the open air : whence I have in*
ferred, that the nitrogen did not find in t\\^ sulphur the pro-
portion of carbon necessary for the formation of the
prussic radical.

In the next paper I shall have the honour of commu- Future re-
peating to the Institute I shall make known the elements sees"
of phosphorus, and of iron. I shall likewise notice in it
the alkaline rnetals, in which it is said there is no carbon.

VI.

Experiments in Continuation of those on the Decomposition
of Sulphur; by the Same*.

JlAAVING been informed, that the experiments related in Experiments
my paper on the decomposition ofsulphur have not ap- ^"^ inieon*
peared sufficiently decisive, to authorize the conclusion I
have drawn from them, I am impatient to make known
fresh facts, that may serve to coniirm the results I ob-
tained.

Exp. 1. Instead of lixiviating the residuum of the cal- Principles of
* . i * i » i i /• ,i sulphur com-

cination of animal charcoal and sulphate of potash, as was bined with

mentioned in my paper on sulphur, let it be intimately nitrogen form

mixed with one fifth of sulphur, very dry and well Ievi- radical.^1

gated; and heat the mixture, either in a gunbarrel or in a

stone retort. If the gasses produced in this operation be

collected, it will be found, that a great deal of ammoniacal

gas is evolved from the commencement of the experiment,

to which will succeed hidrogen gas, and carburetted hi-

drogen gas. When nothing more is given out, extinguish

the fire, and, as soon as the vessel is cold, lixiviate, the

matter it contains in about ten times its weight of water;

* Journal de Physique, August 1808, p. 117.
Vol. XXIIL— Suppllmi.nx. ^U and

370

DECOMPOSITION OF SULPHUR.

Remarkable
phenomena

amounted for.

and then filter. This lixivium differs from the former in
being of a deeper colour, which announces, that carbon is
dissolved in it in a larger proportion. It differs from it
likewise in containing but little of the prussic radical,
However, if it remain a few months in contact with the
air, it will acquire more and more the property of preci-
pitating the solution of sulphate of iron of a blue colour;
which shows, that the principles of sulphur combined with
nitrogen are capable of forming the prussic radical.

But what is particularly remarkable in this experiment
is the hidrogen produced during the operation; also the
carbon, which is dissolved in a large quantity in the lixi-
vium ; and lastly the almost total destruction of the prussic
radical.

In the first place the hidrogen disengaged from a mix-
ture, which gave out none previous to the addition of the
sulphur, must necessarily be a product of the latter sub-
stance. In the second place, the carbon dissolved in the
lixivium must likewise have belonged to the sulphur, since
this is the only substance added to the mixture. And lastly
the almost total destruction of the prussic radical is ex-
plicable by the presence of hidrogen in the sulphur, which,
combining with the nitrogen, produces ammonia, that soon
escapes from the mixture by iss volatility.
3d experiment. Exp. 2. Solution of azotized sulphuret of potash acidu-
lated with sulphuric acid, when mixed with a sufficient
quantity of sulphate of iron at a maximum of oxidation,
yields from a fourth to a third more prussian blue, than the
same solution would give if acidulated with sulphuric acid
saturated with nitrous gas.

Such a difference in the results could not fail to engage
my attention, since, from the hypothesis of the disoxige-
nation of nitrous gas, this, instead of diminishing the pro-
portion of prussian blue, on the contrary should have in-
creased it. I judged from this, that the explanation, which
had been given of the phenomenon in question, was not
accurate; and that it must result from some other cause,
than that on which it had been said to depend.

To ascertain how far this conjecture Mas well founded,

I rnada

Not justly ex
plained.

bECOttPOSlTION OF SULPHUR. 371

I made several experiments, among which the following
appeared to me the most conclusive.

Exp. 3. The solution of azotized sulphuret of potash 3d experiment,
strongly acidulated with sulphuric acid saturated with ni-
trous gas yields a copious precipitate of sulphur, while all
the other acids scarcely throw down any.

Several chemists, to explain this truly remarkable pro- Explained
perty of nitrous gas, have supposed, that this gas was de-
composed; and that its oxigen, by combining with the
hidrogen that holds the sulphur in solution, favours the pre*
cipitation of the sulphur.

Yet if it. were true, that oxigen had the property of pre- erroneously,
cipitating sulphur from its solution, why does not the oxi-
muriatic acid act in the same manner as the nitrous gas:
Can oxigen possess two such opposite properties, particu*
larly when it acts in similar circumstances ? This explana-
tion then presents an anomaly far from favourable to the
different hypotheses opposed to the consequences I have
drawn from my experiments. It is proper therefore to
examine the question ii\ another point of view.

In the first place nitrous gas docs not act in the solution accounted for.
of azotized sulphuret of potash by oxigenizing the hidro-
gen of the sulphuret: for this solution, far from contain-
ing a surplus of hidrogen beyond the composition of the
sulphur, is on the contrary deprived of a part of that which
constitutes the sulphur. Accordingly it is by hidrogenizing
the dishidrogenized carbon of the sulphur, that the latter
is precipitated from its solution, which is very different from
the explanation that has been given of this phenomenon.
Thus the nitrous gas acts on the solution of -azotized sul-
phuret of potash only in consequence of the affinity this
gas has for oxigen, and of that which the dishidrogenized
carbon of the sulphur has for hidrogen; an action that
concurs at the same time to decompose the water, and with
which is combined that exerted by the sulphur on' the
oxigen.

* B 2 VIL On

S

372

ON THE CAMERA LUCIDA.

vrr.

On the Came?' a Lucida. In a hotter from Mr,
T. Sheldrake.

To Mr. NICHOLSON,

SIR,

Camera lucida

Defects of the
camera ob-
scura.

Bruce a good
draughtsman.

ATI A VING been much pleased with the description of the
Camera Lucida in your 70th Number, I procured one of
the instruments, and made experiments to ascertain the
extent of its merits when compared with those of the Ca-
mera Obscura. I beg leave to send the result of these ex-
periments, for the information of your readers in general,
and in hopes that they may induce the ingenious inventor
of the Camera Lucida to bring it still nearer to perfec-
tion.

The defects of the camera obscura are, that it is cum-
bersome to carry about and set up for use; that the objects
it reflects are, under some circumstances, deficient in point
of brilliancy, and that the objects are, under some cir-
cumstances, a little distorted from the truth of perspective.
For these defects, the skilful artist, who chooses to make
use of the instrument, will know how to provide a proper
remedy. The drawings that are said to have been made
by Abyssinian Bruce* by the assistance of this instrument,

the

* It was once fashionable to accuse Mr. Bruce of every kind of
breach of veracity: among other things it was said, that he could
not draw, and that the drawings he showed as his own were not
his, but made by another person. Time has done him justice in
many particulars, and if any one still believes that which was said
of his drawings, I may, perhaps, contribute a mite towards doing
him justice on that head.

Between twenty and thirty years ago there was a sale of drawings
at Hutchins's Rooms, King Street, Covent Garden, among them
were maay drawings, some finished, and others only sketches,
which the Auctioneer publicly declared at the sale to have been
nude by a Mr. Bruce, who had been on a public mission to one
of the States of Barbary, and was tfien absent on a journey to
Abyssinia.
My father purchased some of these drawings, so that I had them

several

ON THE CAMERA LTJCIDA. 373

the drawings that were certainly made by Mr. Daniel by Drawings made

means of this instrument, and the drawings which are said > lt'

to be made for different panoramas by the same means,

aflbrd convincing proofs, that it may be of great practical

utility in delineating objects with truth and facility, greatly

superior to what can be practiced even by eminent artists

without its assistance.

The great advantage of the camera obscura is, that it^s advantages.
fixes the objects to be represented upon the surface, so that
when the artist has taken his station, and arranged his in-
strument, he has nothing to do but run his pencil over the
objects which he sees lie under his hand, and, in propor-
tion to his capacity for drawing with correctness aud faci-
lity the objects which lie before him, will his drawings be
masterly, beautiful, aud correct. What advantages has the
camera lucida to oppose to the disadvantages of the ca-
mera obscura, or to put in competition with the advan-
tages which the latter instrument is known to possess?

The camera lucida is portable in a very small compass; it Advantages of
represents objects with more brilliancy and distinctness than Iuc ^
the camera obscura; and it represents them either singly or
in combination, with perfect truth and correctness of per-
spective. What disadvantages has it then to counterbalance
these particulars in which it is evidently superior, in a ycry
great degree, to the camera obscura?

This will, perhaps, be best illustrated by referring , to Its disadvan-
the annexed sketch from nature, which I have drawn with ages
the naked eye; which I attempted to draw with the camera
lucida, but could not, and which I have no doubt that I
could have draw n with more correctness, facility, ami ex-
pedition in the camera obscura, than in any other manner.

several years under my eye; they consisted of figures drawn from
nature in the fashionable dress of the time, the sketches drawn
with much truth and spirit, the finished drawings tinted with so
much taste, that I have no doubt the hand that made them Was
equal to any thing that was afterward produced as Bruce's, aud as
they were publicly sold as his before he had acquired any public
reputation, or excited the tongue of envy to injure him, there is
every reason to believe, that they were actually drawn by Mr. Bruce.
These drawings were favourites with me so long as I had access to _ •
tbem ; but my lather's collection was sold after Jais death, and I
know not what became of them.

S74

instanced.

ON TH« CAMERA LUCIOA.

When I had taken my stand, arranged my paper, and
fixed the camera lucida upon it, I had, upon looking into
the eye glass, a distinct view of the whole scene, as perfect
as the instrument would represent it; but a different ar-
rangement was necessary, before I could have a chance of
copying, or, if you please, drawing it: I was to alter the
position of the eye glass, so that I should, in the upper
part of it, sec such of the objects as I was to imitate; and,
in the lower part, a distinct representation of the paper
and pencil with and upon which i was to draw; these two
divisions will admit of different proportions, but, to speak
in general terms, we may say, the upper part contains a
correct view of part of the objects that are to be drawn, the
ower part contains a correct view of the paper on which
hey are to be drawn, and the pencil by which the drawing
is to be made: the operation to be performed is, to look
upon the representation of the objects, and the represen-
tation of the pencil and paper at the same moment, and to
copy exactly upon the lower, what is seen upon the upper
part of the object glass ; this every man will do in propor*
' tion to the power he has of imitating the forms of objects
Difference be- that are placed before him. The essential difference between
tween the two. ^he caDiera obscura and the camera lucida is, thatthe former
fixes upon the paper the whole of the picture at one view,
and the artist has only to pass his pencil over it to render it
permanent, which he has the power to do with more cor-
rectness and expedition, and equal facility, as if he was
drawing without the use of the instrument. The camera
lucida, on the contrary, places before the eye a certain
portion of the objects to be imitated, and a certain portion
of the paper on which the imitation is to be drawn: the
difference between the two operations will be exactly as
the difference between tracing and drawing against the
window, and copving the same drawing if placed before
you upon the table: this is the difference upon a view of
the whole proceeding, but, upon descending to minutia?,
other circumstances bear still more against the camera
lucida.

The circle Fig. 2, PI. X, contains a representation of so much
of the view as can be seen at the same time, with so much

of

The process
farther de-
scribed.

ON THE CAMERA HJCIDA. S75

of the paper on which, and the pencil by which it is to be The proce*

Imitated : of course the draughtsman will copy correctly on s^Jjt*J'<te"

the lower part those objects which he sees in the upper part

of the glass ; bat these objects constitute but a small part

of the whole view; if the remainder is to be attained it

must be with great trouble and difficulty : it is true that by

moving my head to one side, and looking diagonally acros*

the eye glass, I could see objects that were not risible

upon looking directly into it, and thus by moving my head

from one side to the other I could get all the horizontal

lines, and those lines which approach to the horizontal

position upon the paper, so that by this method I could

get all the horizontal lines that were within the range of the

instrument or the drawing: but it was impossible, by any

artifice to do as much with the perpendicular lines, or

those which approach to the perpendicular direction, with-

out altering the position of the glass, and in doing this it

was found impossible to connect the different portions of

the *cene that were viewed upon changing the position of

the glass, with a degree of truth comparable to what may

"be attained by the camera obscura without any trouble

at all.

The reader will perhaps comprehend the difficulty if he
imagines the great tree in the foreground to be divided
horizontally into four or more parts, each of which must
be seen by itself and drawn by itself: the glass must then
be shifted so as to see and draw another portion without
seeing that which had first been drawn, and so on till the
whole was completed. Independent of the trouble and
waste of time that would be necessary to shift the glass,
if it could be done with accuracy, the circumstance of
not being able to see the whole of the scene while one
is drawing it, and of course comparing the effect of the
whole is extremely unpleasant: the instrument must be
removed from the paper before the effect of the drawing
could be seen, and if it should be necessary to correct it,
it is next to impossible to replace it with sufficient accuracy
to avoid making false lines, and of course destroying the
truth of the representation.

I have stated the in conveniences that /have found, in Method of

making *****

37 6 6N THE CAMERA LUCID A.

inconveniences making use of this instrument, and for which I could not

desirable. fm(j a renie(]y . others have, as I am informed, found the

same inconveniences, and not been able to obviate them ;

some, may have been more fortunate; and if they have, they

will render a very acceptable service by pointing out the

means of removing these defects : but, if they should do

so, I believe it will still be impossible to produce a view,

of any magnitude, by means of the camera lucida, with as

much ease, expedition, and in as masterly a manner as an

able artist can, if he pleases, draw in the camera obscura.

Tbis opinion I must entertain, till I see drawings as masterly

Mr. Daniel's in point of execution as Mr. Daniel's views in India, made

views. by means of the camera lucida; I mention Mr. Daniel's

Tiews on this occasion, because I have been credibly in,

formed, that they were all drawn in the camera obscura,

and, as they are well known, they form a good public

standard of comparison.

Aninstrument It appears then, that a perfect instrument to be used as

still desirable. a delineator is still a desideratum, and will be obtained,

when the separate advantages of the camera obscura and the

camera lucida can be united in the same instrument, and not

be diminished by any of the inconveniences to which each

of them is at present subject.

I am, Sir,

Your most obliged Servant,

T SHELDRAKE.

50, Strand, m

July 6th, 1809,

References to the Drawing.

Fig. 1. Sketch from nature as it may be seen and drawn
immediately in the camera obscura.

Fig. 2. Part of the same view as seen in the camera lucida ;
the upper half contains a portion of the horizontal lines in
the view as reflected in the glass : the lower half shows the
pencil imitating the same lines upon the paper, it is obvious
that by looking diagonally into the glass the view may be
extended so as to take in a portion of those lines which
cannot be seen when looking directly into the glass.

Fig. 3. Fart of the tree seen in the upper half reflected

in

REMARKS ON BARROW'S EUCLID. 37%

in the glass, the pencil copying the same parts upon the
paper in the lower half. It is evident that no more of
this object can be copied at one time than can be seen by
looking directly into the glass, of course the whole tree
cannot be seen at once, and cannot be copied without
shifting the instrument several times, so as to take it by
separate pieces, which cannot be seen at one time, conse-
quently there is great danger of losing the truth of the
whole, while one is employed on each part.

REMARK by VV. N.
IT is certainly the intention and instruction of the inventor Method of
of the camera lucida, that the traciug should be made upon ca^'^iucida
that part of the paper where the picture and the point of
the pencil can both be seen coincident, and not that a copy-
should be taken in the manner described by Mr. Sheldrake.
This requires an attention to the small stop, which regulates
the quantities of light which enter the pupil from the prism,
and from the paper in the same direction; but I have not
found it difficult to manage the position of the eye, which
is the principal circumstance — and this will perhaps be as
easily acquired by a few trials, as by any minute descrip-
tion of the process, which may be derived from Dr. Wol-
laston's paper in the 17th Vol. of our Journal, p. 1.

VIIL

Remarks on some of the Definitions and Axioms in Barrow* $
Euclid. In a Letter from "William Saint, Esq.

To Mr. NICHOLSON.

SIR, Cromer in Norfolk,

August 4th, 1809.

IN reading over, a few days since, the 7th book of the Remarks oa
English edition of Dr. Barrow's Euclid, several objections S^J8
occurred to me against some of the definitions and axioms,
which I noted down. On reviewing these objections, I

must

Submitted to
the reader.

J'J'g REMARKS ON BARROW'S EUCf.IB»

must confess, that, to me, they appeared to hate soma
weight ; I resolved therefore to send them to you, accom-
panied with such remarks (for I dare not aspire to call
them notes critical and geometrical) as appeared most ap-
plicable.

These objections and remarks, Sir, are submitted to yon,
and (should you deem them worthy of insertion in your
widely circulated Journal) to your geometrical readers, with
the greatest humility.

I am, Sir,

Your obliged and constant reader,

W. SAINT,

Of the Royal Military Academy, WoofakA*

Definition 6\
Definition 6. u An even number is that which may be divided into two*
equal parts."

Definition 7.

Definition?. c< But an odd number is that which cannot be divided
into two equal parts; or that which diffcreth from an even
number by unity."

Remarks. Against these definitions it has been objected, that they

are deficient in the word integral ; which, it has been thought
by some, should have been inserted between the words
H equal parts" in each definition: for, it has been urged,
any odd number is divisible into two equal parts ; as 5, for
instance may be divided into two equal parts 2| and °L\.
To this objection however these definitions are not liable,
for number is defined to be " a multitude composed of
units," and part to be " a number of a number:" there-
fore a part also must be u composed of units," and hence
the objection is obviated.

Definition 8.
Definition 8. Ci A number evenly even is that which an even number
measureth by an even number."

Definition

REMARKS ON BARROW'S EUCLID. 379

Definition 9.
" But a number evenly odd is that which an even number Definition 9.
measureth by an odd number."

There appears to be something erroneous in these defini- Remarks
tions, since the same number may be found to apply to
both of them; for instance, the number 40 is evenly even,
because the even number 4 measures it by the even number
10; it is also evenly odd, because the even number 8
measures it by the odd number 5. These definitions would
perhaps be less exceptionable, if expressed thus : Definition 8.
A number evenly even is that which may be divided into two
equal parts, having each part an even number. Definition 9.
But a number evenly odd is that which may be divided into
two equal parts, having each part an odd number.
Definition 15.
<c One number is said to multiply another, when the Definition 15.
number multiplied is so often added to itself, as there are
units in the number multiplying, and another number is
produced.

This definition appears to be improperly expressed: for Remarks.
if, for instance, it were required to multiply the number
3 by the number 2, it is necessary, to obtain the product
according to the definition, to add the number 3 to itself
so often as there are units in the number 2, that is to say
twice to itself; now the number 3 added once to itself gives
6, and added tziice to itself gives 9; thus 9 would be ob-
tained for the product of 3 multiplied by 2, which is evi-
dently erroneous. Perhaps this definition would be better
thus : one number is said to be multiplied by another, when
it is taken or repeated as many times as there are. units in
that other. To those, however, who may be disposed to
contend, that the words " taken or repeated" do not suf-
ficiently define the operation intended; and who may farther
insist, that multiplication is only a continued addition,
Euclid's definition may perhaps be preferred, if the words
less one be inserted after the word mult/plying.
Definition 23.
u One number is said to measure another by a third num. Definition S3,
ber, which, when it either multiplies, or is multiplied by
the measuring number, produces the number measured."

Tins '

380 3t EM ARES OS BARROW'S ECCJATJ.

Remarks. This definition seems to be objectionable on this ground,

that it defines a number A, to measure another number By
by a third number C, when either C multiplied by A, or A
multiplied by C, produces the number 13. Now the possi-
bility, that Cx A can be equal to AxC forms the subject
of the 16th proposition of the very book to which this de-
finition is prefixed* To say the least, therefore, this de-
finition iS out of order: and as Euclid does not appear to
have made any use of it, till after the 16th proposition, so
certainly it ought not to have been given till the truth of the
proposition virtually implied in it had been demonstrated;
that is to say, till it had been proved, that C multiplied by
A is equal to A multiplied by C, to which proposition it
might have formed a corollary.

Axiom 7.

Axiom 7. u If one number, multiplying another, produce a third,

the multiplier shall measure the product by the multiplied;
and the multiplied shall measure the same by the multi-
plier."

Remarks. The first part of this axiom is admissible, since it only

implies, that, if any number, A, be first multiplied by any
other number, B, and then divided by the same number,
B, the quotient will be A, — a truth which is evident from
the opposite effects of multiplication and division. The
latter part of this axiom appears to be objectionable, for it
does not, like the former part, first suppose an operation
to be performed upon a number A, and then the effect of
that operation to be done away, or withdrawn by another
operation of a directly opposite nature; for though by this
latter part it is required to multiply A by B as before, yet
it is not required afterward to divide by B, but by A : and
though it may be an obvious truth, that A first multiplied
by B. and then divided by B, will give A; yet it is by no
means so obvious, that A multiplied by B, and then di-
vided by A, will give B, for here the operations of multi-
plication and division are by different numbers. By the
former part of this axiom, if B be first multiplied by A,
and then divided by A, the result will be 13; and if the
latter part of it wtre self evident , namely, that A multi-
plied

REMARKS ON BARROW'S EUCLID. ggj

plied by B, and then divided by A, would give B also, it

... BxA AxB . .

would be — - — ~ — - — , or BxA=AxB: hence it ap-
A A v

pears, that the latter part of this axiom virtually implies the
truth of the 10th proposition, and is therefore objection-
able on the same grounds as the 23d definition.

Axiom 8.
" If one number measure another, that number by Axiom 8.
which it mcasureth shall measure the same by the units
that are in the number measuring, that is, by the number
itself that measures."

A A

This axiom implies, that if — - = C, then -T= B. Now Remarks.

this is really more of a proposition than an axiom. By
the former part of the last axiom it may indeed be inferred,

that, since ~-=C, Amustbe=Cx B; because — - — =C;

but, as it has before been shown, it by no means follows because

— -r — =C, that therefore - a, =B. This axiom therefore

is objectionable upon the same grounds with the last,

Axiom 9.

u If a number measuring another, multiply that by Axiom 9.
which it measureth, or be multiplied by it, it produceth
the number which it measureth.

This axiom implies, that, if a number A measures another Remarks,
number B by a third number C, then A multiplied by C, or
C multiplied by A, gives the same product B; that is to
say, this axiom implies the truth of the 16th proposition,
and is therefore objectionable on the grounds before stated.

Proposition 16.
As there has been frequent occasion to refer to this pro- Proposition 16
position in the preceding remarks, it may not be improper "as eng^edtuo
to observe here, that it is one of ihose which has engaged mnny eminent
the attention of several eminent mathematicians of the pre-
sent day, and among others the celebrated Legendre, who,
in his u Essai sur la Theorie des Nombres" has given a

demonstration

mathematici-
ans.

382

REMARKS ON B ARROW'S EUCLI&.

demonstration of the same; from which it may be con-
cluded, that Mr. Legendre himself did not consider Euclid's
demonstration of this proposition as perfectly satisfactory.
Indeed it must be confessed, that in Euclid's demonstra-
tion, as given by Dr. Barrow at least, there is an air of
obscurity, which renders it difficult to be understood. For
the satisfaction of such of your readers as may not be in
possession of an edition of Euclid containing the 7th book,
it may be proper here to give both the enumeration and
demonstration of this proposition, as they are found in
Dr. Barrow.

Proposition.

a

Fioposition 16. " If two numbers, A, B, mutually B 4 A3

multiplying themselves produce any num- A3 B 4

bers AB, BA; the numbers produced, AB 12 BA 12
AB and B A, shall be equal the one to the other."

Euclid's de-
monstration.

JReinarks.

Demonstration.

For because AB=AxB (a) therefore d 15 clef. 7
shall 1 be as often in A, as B in A B, (b) b 15 7

and by consequence alternately 1 shall be as c 4 ax. 7
often in B as A in AB, But because BA=BxA, (a)
therefore shall 1 be as often in B, as A in B A ; therefore
as often as 1 is in A B, so often is 1 in B A ; and (c) so
AB=BA. W.W. D.

With respect to this demonstration it must be observed,
that the attentive student meets with a difficulty in the very
beginning; for why does it follow, because AB=Ax B,
that 1 shall be as often in A as B in AB? That AB=Ax B
is an identical proposition, and implies no more than that
A multiplied by B is equal to A multiplied by B, from which
no inference can be drawn. The next step of the demon-
stration, namely, " And by consequence alternately 1 shall
be as often in B as A in AB, is deduced from the preceding
by virtue of the 15th proposition, which proves, that, if
1 be contained in B as often as D'is contained in E, then 1
is contained in D as often as B is contained in E. The de-
monstration proceeds with, u but because BA=BxA,
therefore shall 1 be as often in B, as A in BA." Now this

i*

REMARKS «» BARROW'S EUCLIB. g£)

is objectionable upon the same principle as the first step of
the demonstration. The next step is in these words:
" Therefore as often as 1 is in AB, so often is 1 in BA."
But this does not appear to be the most natural and obvious
inference from what has been previously attempted to be
proved ; for, if it had been satisfactorily shown, that 1 is
contained as often in B as A in A B, and that 1 is contained
as often in B as A in BA, the natural inference it appears
would be, that A is contained in AB as often as A is con-
tained in BA, and so finally AB=BA.

From the objections here stated the following demon*
atration is easily derived, which is submitted to the conside-
ration of the lovers of geometrical accuracy with the
greatest humility, as seeming to afford a more satisfactory
proof of the proposition thau the one above given.

In this demonstration it may be proper to observe, that,
to avoid any ambiguity, the sign of multiplication, or x >
should be read by the words multiplied by. It has been
thought better also, instead of referring to the proposition,
definition, or axiom, on which any of the steps in the
process depend, to insert these at length.

Demonstration.
Since by Axiom 5 u unity measures every number by New demo* -
the units that are in it, that is, by the same number," straUon-
therefore 1" measures A, A times; and since by the first part
of Axiom 7, "If one number multiplying another pro-
duces a third, the multiplier shall measure the product by
the multiplied ;" therefore B shall measure AxB, A times;
hence I shall be as often in A, as B in A x B : but by Pro-
position 15, if 1 measures A as often as B measures AxB,
then 1 shall measure B as often as A measures AxB,
or 1 shall be as often in B, as A in AxB: Again by
Axiom 5, as above quoted, 1 measures B, B times, and by
Axiom 7, A measures Bx A, B times, therefore 1 shall be
as often in Bas A in Bx A; but it was shown above, that 1
shall be as often in B as A in A x B ; therefore, as often as
A is inBxA, so often is A in AxB: but by Axiom 4
u Those numbers, of which the same number, or equal
numbers, are the same parts, are equal amongst them-
selves ;M therefore B x A is equal to Ax B. W. "W. D.

IX, Account

384-

EINGIBERie ACI15.

Acid from
ginger.

Process for
obtaining it.

Its properties.

IX.

Account ofaNcic Acid, obtained from Ginger,
from a Correspondent.

In a Letter

To Mr. NICHOLSON.

SIR,

Its combination
with magnesia.

Its difference
from other
acids.

JOY the following process an acid (which I consider as
new, and would propose calling the zingiberic) was ob-
tained from ginger.

One ounce of the best white ginger was infused during
two or three days, in six ounces of nitrous acid ; after
which rather more than an equal quantity of water was
added, and the- whole was kept at the heat of 212° adding
water to supply the loss by evaporation, till the nitrous
smell had disappeared. Carbonate of lead wras then added
to saturation, and the solution filtered. The lead was in
the next place precipitated by sulphuric acid, and a second
filtration was made.

By evaporating the filtered liquor, an acid, similar in
appearance to short white pieces of raw silk, was obtained,
which oxidates zinc and iron, and dissolves potash, soda,
ammonia, barytes, strontian, lime, magnesia, and the
oxides of zinc, iron, lead, and copper.

The only farther account I can at present give of its
salts is, that the (perhaps super-) zingiberate of magnesia
has a taste intermediate between that of acetitc of lead, and
triple supersulphate of alumine.

The zingiberic acid differs from the sulphuric, sulphurous,
carbonic, oxalic, tartarous, citric, mucoids, succinic, and
camphoric acids, in forming a soluble salt with barvtes and
lime;

From the nitric, nitrous, muriatic, acetic, acetous, se-
bacic, malic, and prussic, by remaining in the solid form
at 212°;

From the benzoic and suberic, by its greater solubility;

And it docs not, like gallic acid, precipitate copper of a
brown colour.

A CORRESPONDENT.

1

E X.

A.

ACID, boracic, decomposition of, 260

Acid, new, obtained from ginger, 384

Acid, nitric, its action on cork, 149

Acid, oxigenized muriatic, 275

Acids, table of the sequences of, with
different bases, 360

Acton, Mr. his experiments on the ger-
mination of seeds, 214

Adanson, on the rapid vegetation of
plants in warm climates, 8

Aerostation, 319

Agricultural improvements, 51

Air, expansion of, when moist, 182

Alcyonia, description of, 40, 4G

Allen, Mr. 330

Alluau, M. on artificial sand stones
that have undergone a regular con-
traction in the fire, 268

Altitudes, new formula for taking, 308

Alum, purification of, 307

Alyon, M. 145

Ammonia, how operated on. by potas-
sium, 242

Amphibia, 314

Analysis of calaguala root, 141 — Of
the smut of wheat, 146— Of oriental
turquoise, 158 — Of fossil horns, 159
— Of the sulphate of barytes, &c.
174, 280— Of kaneelstein, 23 I— Of
.. a schist in the environs of Cherbourg,
304— Of sulphur, 321,365,369— Of
phosphorus, 328— Of plumbago, 530

(■*— Of charcoal, 331— Of the diamond,
332
Andreoli, M. 319
Angulo, M. 263
Aris, Mr. on the advantages of paring

and burning land, 194
Arcucil, philosophical and chemical so-
ciety of, 316
. Vol. XXIII

Armstead, Mr. 61
Ashes used as mam
Atkinson, Mr. 61
Atmospheric refraction, 309
Attractions, elective, numerical table
of, 354

B.

Bailey, Mr. on paring and burning, 193
Bakerian lecture, 241, 322
Bald, Mr. his description of the mine-
ral strata of Clackmannanshire, 157
Balloon, 319

Baradelle, Mr. his capillary pen, 236
Barlow, Mr. P. his investigation of a
problem in the doctrine of permuta-
tions, 203
Barrow's Euclid, remarks on, 377
Bartley, Mr. on the advantages of ad-
mitting the air to the roots of pUnts,
15
Barytes, analyzed, 174, 280
Basal tes, formation of, 268
Bats, varieties of, 106
Beavers, propagation of in North Bri-
tain and Ireland, recommended, 27
—Peculiarity in the claw of, 254
Bees poisoned by the effluvia of the

rhus vernix, 234
Benson, Mr. 60
Bergman, on the relative proportions of

the composition of soils, 121
Berlin society, S16

Berthier, M. on the sulphates of lime,
barytes, and lead, 2 80— His analysi
of a schist in the environs of Cher-
bourg, 304
Berthollet, M. on backening muriata
of silver, 156— On the sulphate of
barytes, 174*— On the fusibility of
b baryU*,

t N D E X.

barytes, 282— On the alteration that
air and water produce in flesh, 502

BerthoIIet, jun. M. on th« reciprocal
action of sulphur and chafcoal, 71

Berthoud, M. his treatise on time-keep-
ers, 311

Bertrand, M. on the method of fabri-
cating artificial stone, employed in
the vicinity of Dunkirk, 154

Beryl of Bavaria, 159

Berzelius, M. on the amalgam of am-
monia, 243

Betancourt, M. his lock for canals, 311

Bierkander, M. on the root worm, 105

Bior, M. on the refraction of the at-
mosphere, 309— On the air bladder
of fishes, 315

Black on the sulphate of barytes, X74

Blanchard, Rev. J. his table of the rain
that fell at various places in the year
1808, 197

Bond, Wm. Esq. on the culture of
hemp, and other useful information
relative to improvements in Canada,
18 — Description of his machine for
breaking hemp, 25— On breeding
rabbits, 23— Hares, £6— The gua-
naco, 27 — The beaver, ib.

Bonnet on the perspiration of plants,
169

Bonpland's " Travels," 318

Boracic acid, see Acid

Borda's circle, 308

Bosc, M. on the sugar of the rose bay,
283

Bouillon- Lagrange on the suberic acid,
149

Botillay, M. on the preparation of sul-
phuric ether, 201

Bournon's " System of Mineralogy,"
157

Bouvard, M. his tables of Jupiter and
Saturn, 310

Boys, Mr. his method of paring and
burning land, 195

Braconnot, M. his analysis of fossil
horns, 159

Bradley, Dr. his method of taking
transit observations, 139

Brand's description of th« amber jf03S«3

84
Brioschi, M. 319
Brooks, Rev. J. 60
Broussonnet, M. 313
Brugnatelli on suberic acid, 149, 156
Bucholz, M. on the Bavarian beryl, 159
— His analysis of sulphate of barytes,
175, 281
Buds of trees, their formation, 293
Buffon's Works, Index to, 236
Burckhardt, M. his new mode of con-
structing telescopes, 308— His for-
mulae for altitudes, »'£.— On comets,
310
Burja, M. on the resistance of air, 316
Burning soil, to increase fertility, 187
Butler, J. Esq. his improvement of
- waste lands, 98

C.

Cabbages, culture of, on a new plan>

55
Cadet, M. 275

Calaguala root, analysis of, 141
Camera lucida, 372
Campbell, Mr. P. 59
Canada, improvements in, 18-
Capillary pen, 236
Carter, Dr. M. P. 76
Carbon of plants, origin of, 72, 316
Carbonaceous principle in plumbago-,

charcoal, and diamond, 330
Carlisle-, Mr. 313
Caussigni, M. De, on the spontaneous

ignition of charcoal, 277
Ceres, elements of her orbit, 317
Chaptal, M. on the decomposition of

water by vegetables and animals, 8
Charcoal and hidrogen, analogy be-
tween, 71
Charcoal, spontaneous ignition of, 277

—Analytical experiments on, 331, 33S
Chenevix on sulphate of barytes, 174
Chevaillers, M. 268
Chevreul, M. on the action of nitric

acid on cork, 149

Clackmannan, .

INDEX.

Clackmannan, description of the mi-
neral strata of, 166, 157

Clarke, Dr. his meteorological tables for
the year 1808, 198

Clayneld's analysis of sulphate of bary-
tes, 175

Clayton, George, Esq. 59

Cleall, Mr. his description of a machine
for beating out hemp and flax seed,
likely to be useful for Canada, 16

Clegg, Mr- his apparatus for making
carburettcd hidrogen gas from pit coal,
and lighting manufactories with it, 85

Clement on sulphate of barytes, 174

Close, Rev. Mr. 14

Coal district of Kilkenny, 237

Coal gas, apparatus for making, 85

Collet-Descotils, 516

Composts, see Manures

Constellation recently named, 235

Corals of the Baltic, 39

Cordier, M. on the lunar rainbow, 231

Cornet on the smut in wheat, 146

Cork, action of nitric acid on, 149

Costaing, M. his account of a peculi-
arity in the formation of the beaver's
claw, 234

Cotton tree introduced into France, 234

Crell, M. on boracic acid, 263 — On the
origin of carbon in plants, 31t>

Creve, Mr. his mode of recovering sour
wine, 235
^ Crocodiles, species of, 514

Curaudau, M. his experiments on sul-
phur, and its decomposition, 365, 369

Curtis, Mr. S. his account of an exten-
sive orchard planted at Bradwell in
Essex, 75

Curwen, J. C. Esq. his improvements
in the culture of vegetables, 51

Cuvier, M. his analysis of the labours
of the Class of Physics, 313— His cal-
culation of the species of crocodiles,
£14

D.

palton, Mr. on paring and burning
lan$, 194

Darwin, Dr. on manures, 189, 284

Davis, Mr. Thomas, on the management
of marsh lands, irrigation, &c. 77

Davy, H. Esq. on soils, 121 — His ac-
count of some new analytical re-
searches on the nature of certain bo-
dies, particularly the alkalis, phos-
phorus, sulphur, carbonaceous mat-
ter, and the acids hitherto undecom-
pounded j with some general obser-
vations on chemical theory, 241, 322
—His experiments in galvanism, 258
—On boracic acid, 263— On the de-
composition of sulphur by the Vol-
taic pile, 365

Decandolle, M. 316

Dclambre, M. his analysis of the labours
of the mathematical class, 508

Delametherie, M. on the electric fluid,
69

Demours, M. his Index to the Memoirs
of the French Academy, 236

Descotils, M. on the igneous fusion of
barytes, 282

Desormes on sulphate of barytes, 174

Deyeux, M. on the reciprocal action of
charcoal and hidrogen, 71— On the
sugar of the rose bay, 283

Diamond, the, analytical experiments
on, 532, 333

Divers, Northern, natural history of
the, 81

Dolomieu, M. 271

Donati on the characters of the alcyonia,
40, 48

Dow, Mr. 158

Dupetit-Thouars, M. 315

Dublin Society, proceedings in, 236

Du Hamel, see Hamel

Dumeril, M. on the respiration of
fishes, 314

Dundonald, Lord, on manures, 121,
188

Dupuytren, M. on the nerves of the
lungs, 315

E.

Edgeworth, R. L. Esq. on the construc-
tion of theatres, 129

b 2 Edinburgh x

INDEX.

Edinburgh, insects near, 157— Plants

near, 158
Edmonson, Mr. 61
Eels found in a subterraneous pool, 157
Eid^forth, Mr. 61
Elder pith, properties of, 155
Elective attractions, 354
Electricity, experiments in, 62
Ellerton, Rev. E. 60
Ellis, Mr. D. on the nature of sponges,

42— On the germination of seeds, 2 1 5
Ember-goose, natural history of the, 81
Embryo of plants, 161
Entomology, new classification of, 315
Ermann, M. on the electric fluid, 69
Erskine, Mr. 157
Espaliers, see Fruit trees
Ether, improved method of preparing,

201 — Obtained from oximuriatic acid

alone, 273
Evaporation of the earth, and free access

of air to the roots of plants, essential

to vegetation, 13, 55
Euclid, remarks on some of the defini-
tions and axioms in Barrow's edition

of, 377
Euler on light and sound, 312
Exter, Mr. on the advantages of paring

and burning, 194

F.

Fabbroni on the properties of vegetable
ashes, used as manure, 189— Onbo-
racicacid, 263
Eairhead, Mr. T. 76
Fay, M. Du, on electricity, 68
Fern root,, examination of, 145
Fir, American and European, compared,

236
Fires, plan for preventing or suppress-
ing, 137
Fishes, restoration of, 314
Fite, Ran. H. De, on geology, 158
Fleming, Mr. his Flora of Linlithgow,

157
Flesh, alteration produced in by air and
water, 302

Flora of Linlithgow, 157

Fonsera, M. his correction of some West
India longitudes, 277

Food of plants, 5

Fordyce, Dr. on the proportion of cat-,
careous matter in good soil, 121

Forsyth, on the culture of espaliers, 4

Fossil horns, analysis of, 159 ,

Fossils, S3

Foster, Mr. J. L. 236

Fourcroy, M. on the analogy between
charcoal and hidrogen, 71 — On the
chemical nature of the smut in wheat,
146— On the sulphate of barytes, 174
On ashes, as manure, 188— HrS the-
ory of the formation of ether, 201—
His discovery of a concrete manna or
sugar on the rose bay, 28S— On the
alteration of flesh by air and water,
SOS— On elective attractions, 355

Foust on the single-starred corals of tha
Baltic, 39

Franklen, J. Esq. on the use cf vraic
as a manure, 72

Franklin, Dr. his electrical experi-
ments, 63

French National Institute, proceedings
in, 308

Fruit trees, new method of training, \

Fruits preserved without sugar, 89

O.

Gale, Mr. H. R. 60

Galvanism, 258, 26a

Gardner, Mr. 60

Gas light from coal, 85

Gauss, Dr. on the new planets, 515

Gay-Lussac, M. on the action of potas-
sium on ammonia, 243, et stq — On
the decomposition and recompositioa
of boracic acid, 260

Gehlen, M. on the igneous fusion of
barytes, 281

Geoffroy St. Hilaire on comparative
osteology, 313

Geology, 158, 237.

Germination of seeds, 214

Gib -on

INDEX.

Gibson, Mr. C. 60

Ginger, acid obtained frcm, 034

Giobert, M. on soils, 121— On the
volatile oil obtained by distilling oxi-
muriatic acid, 274

Girod-Chantrans on the smut in wheat,
146

Glass, electrical experiments on, consi-
dered as a Leyden phial, and on
coated panes, 62

Gmelin, on bats, 106

Gough, J. Esq. his experiments on the
expansion of moist air raised to the
boiling temperature, 182

Grap >s, method of hastening the ma-
turity of, 116

Griffith, Mr. R. jun. 238

Guanaco, the, or camel sheep of South
America, might be introduced into
Canada with advantage, 27

Gucttard, M. on fossils, Sfl

Gunpowder, observations on the manu-
facture of, 278 — Theory of its deto-
nation and explosion, 279
Guyton, M. on the influence of gal-
vanic electricity on the transition of
minerals, 263
Gypsum, component parts of, 280

H.

Hachette, M. 264

Hamel, Bu, on the perspiration of
plants, 169

Hares, breeding of, 26

Harrison, Mr. 60

Hassenfratz on the manures of Picardy,
284, 291

Hazel-nut, pollen of, examined, 155

Hemp, culture of, in Canada, 18

Herholdr, Dr. on the winter bleep of
certain animals, 313

Hesketh, Robert, Esq. 59

Hibernation of animals, 313

Higgins, Mr. his catalogue of Irish mi-
nerals, 236

Home, Ev. Esq. 300

Horrebow's account of the lorn of Ice-
land, supposed to be the ember goose,
94

Horns, see Fossil

Huddlestone, Mr. his canal lock, 311

Humboldt, M. on the separation of ox-

igen from plants, 9 — On the cataracts

of the Oroonoko, 316— His travels,

318
Husbandry, improvements in, 52
Hydrogen and charcoal, 71
Hygrometer, a very sensible one, descriW

ed, 207, 211

1.

Ibbetson, Mrs. A. on the impregnation
of the seed, and first shooting of the
nerve of life, in the embryo of plants,
161 — On the supposed perspiration of
plants, 169, 351— on the formation
of the winter leaf-bud, and of leaves,
293— On the stem of trees, with an
attempt to discover the cause of mo-
tion in plants, 304

Ingenhousi:, Dr. on the chemical af-«
finity between oxigen and light, 9

Insects near Edinburgh, 157

Irrigation, 77

J.

Jersey, Agricultural economy of, 72

J. G. on the method of taking transit
' observations, 139

Joergensen, Mr. U. his metallic ther-
mometer, 234

John, Dr. his analysis of turquoise, li8
—On a new metal, 159

J. S. K. on t 'e want of tables of the
proportions f the constituent prin-
ciples of salts, -id on the luminous
smoke from lead si. Ming houses, 232

Juno, observations of, t-17

J urine, M. De, mistaken in supposing
that bats have no occasion for eyes,
112 — His new methqd of classing
insects, 315
Jusaeu, M. 145

Kaneelstein, analysis of, 231

5 Kater,

INDEX.

Kater, Lieut H. his description of a

very sensible hygrometer, 207, 211
Kirwan, M. on the sulphate of barytes,

174 — On paring and burning, 188—

On manures, 285
Klaproth, M. on the potash in mica,

158— On the sulphate ofbarytes, 174
Klein, M. on national prejudices, SI 6
Knight, Thomas A. Esq. on a new

method of training fruit trees, 1 — On

the circulation of sap, 295, 298
Knorr, Mr. 47
Knott, Mr. 60
Koehler, Counsellor, his collection of

$ld coins, 235

L.

Labillardiere, M.315

Labour, contrivances for diminishing,
21

Lacepede, M. his new species of sala-
mander, 235

Lagrange on light and sound, 312

Lampadius, Professor, his analysis of
kaneelstein, 231

Lancret, M.311

Langley on the management of fruit
trees, 4

Laplace, on the velocity of sound, 313

Latham, Dr. on the varieties of b*ts,
1©6

Lead, sulphate of, analyzed, 280

Leaves of trees, their formation, 293

Leblanc, M. his remarks on some points
of hydrography, 276

Libes, M. his electrical experiments, 64

Light, propagation of, 311

Lightfoot, Mr. 157

Lime, sulphate of, analysed, 280

Link, M. letter from, on several che-
mical subjects, addressed to M. Vogel,
1D5

Linlithgow, see Flora.

Ljung, M. his discovery of a new spe-
cies of mouse, 235

Longitudes in the West Indies correct-
ed, 276

Luc, M. De, on geology, 158

Lugt, M. his electrical experiments, 62:

M.

MachcII, Mr. T. GO .

Maclean, Rev. Mr. his description of a
sea snake, 158

Malet, M. on the combustion of char*
coal from pressure, 278

Malt spirit converted into vinegar, 275

Malus, M. on the propagation of light,
311

Mangili, M. 313

Manures, 12, 52—57, 72, 120, 187, 284

MarsilH, Count, on the alcyonia, 40—
On sponges, 41

Marsh lands, management of, 77

Marshall, Mr. J. P. 60

Marsham, Mr. on the wireworm, 105

Marum, M. Van, 264

Meridian, measurement on the, 310

Messier, M. his delineation of the Ne-
bula in Orion, 310

Metal, another new one, 235

Metallic theimometer, 234

Meteoric stones recently fallen, 233

Meteorological Journal, for April, 80
—May, 160— June, 240— .July, 320

Meteorological tables for the year 1808,
198

Mexico, statistical account of, 318

Mica, potash contained in, 158

Mineralogy of Clackmannanshire, 156.5,
157

Minerals, Iiish, catalogue of, 236

Mirbel on the supposed perspiration of
plants, 353

Mirror of a new kind, 311

M. K. on preventing and suppressing
fires, 137

Mojon, M. on the oxigenized muriatic
acid, 273

Montagu, G. Esq. his account of the
larger and lesser species of horseshoe
bats, proving them to be distinct; to-
gether with a description of vesperti.
lio barbastellus, taken in the South
of Devonshire, 106

M o»t«£ u,

INDEX.

Montana, Colonel, on the immer, or
ember goose, and northern diver, 85

Monge's theory of evolutes, 811

IVlons, Van, on electricity, 62

Mortality, table of, in various places,
318

Motion in plants, 334

Mouse, a new species of, 235

Muriate of silver not blackened without
light, 156

N.

Neill, P. Esq. on the natural history of

the divers, 8 1
New, Dr. J. on the identity of the base

of charcoal with hidrogen or its base,

71

O.

Oenothera Biennis, crystals contained in

its root, 156
Olbers, Dr. on the new planets, 318
Orchards, management of, 75
Orthography, chemical, 359
Osteology, comparative, 313

Pallas, observations of, 316

Paper produced from mountain flax, 234

Paring and burning lands, 187

Parkinson's " Organic Remains," extract

from on the dissimilarity between the

creatures of the present and former

world, and on the fossil alcyonia, 33

Parmentier on the smut in wheat, 146

Patrin, M. on the formation of basaltes,

271
Pearson, Dr. on manures, and the mode

of applying them, 285
Pelletier, M. his method of fusing ba-

rytes, 281
Pen, capillary, recently invented, 236
Pennant's " British Zoology,1' 106
Penny, Mr. 60

Pepys, Mr. his eudiometer, 223
Permutations, problem in, 203

Peron, M. his account of a voyage of
discovery from the year 1800 to
1804, 235

Perspiration of plants, 351

Peysonell, M. on sponges, 42

Phosphorus, analytical experiments on*
328

Piazzi, M. 309

Pine timber of Upper Canada, 27

Plants, food of, 5 — their carbon pro-
duced from water, 72 — Their growth,
161 — Supposed perspiration, 169,351
—Attempts to discover the cause of
their morion, 334

Plants near Edinburgh, 158

Plumbago, analytical experiments on,
330, 333

Poisson, M. on the propagation of light
and reflection of sound, 312

Polypody root, examination of, 145

Pons, M. his observations of the comet
of 1807, 310

Ponsonby, Miles, Esq. 59

Pontin, M.on the amalgam of ammonia,
' 243

Pontoppidan's " History of Norway,'' 84

Potash in mica, 158 — In schist, 304

Potassium, action of, on ammonia, 242

Potato, remarks on its uses, 28, 52

Priestley, Dr. on the properties of vege-
table ashes as manure, 189

Primrose tree, on the crystals contained
in its root, 156

Proust, M. his discovery of a new in-
flammable mixture, 70

Prunelle, Professor, on' the winter sleep
of certain animals, 313

R

Rabbits, breeding orf\ important on ac-
count of their fur, 23

Rafn, Dr. on the stupor of certain
animals in winter, 313

Rain, table of, for the year 1808, 197

Rainbow, the lunar, observations on,
231

Refraction,

INDEX.

on of &« atmosphere, 309

Re^al, M. on the conversion of malt
spirits into vinegar, 275

Bhododendron ponticum, the, produces
a concrete sugar, 283

Richard, M. 14 S

Richter's analysis of barytes, 175

Board, M. on the composition of sul-
phate of barytes, 175

Robin, M. his account of the sponta-
neous inflammation of charcoal, '278

Rondelet, M. 8

Rose Bay, see Sugar.

Saddington, Mr. Thomas, his new
and cheap method of preserving fruits
without sugar, 89

Sage, B. G. on the spontaneous ignition
of charcoal, 277 — On the detonation
and explosion of gunpowder, 279

Saint, W. Esq. on some of the defini-
tions and axioms in Barrow's Euclid,
077

Salamander, new species of, 235

Sandstones, artificial, 2G8

Saussurc, M. on fertilization, 7, 10

Scheuchzer, on fossils, 35

Schist of Cherbourg, analysis of, 304

Schr.eber on bats, 106

Scientific News, 156, 233, 308

Sea snake, recent appearance of one,
158

Sea weed, -used as manure, 72

Seeds of plants, impregnation and
growth of, 161— Germination of,
214
Seguin, M. his method of rendering
common alum as good for dyeing as
Roman alum, 307

Senebicr, M. on the effects of water on
vegetation, 9— On the powers of vi-
triolated tartar in promoting vegeta-
tion, 188 — On manures, 2b j
Sequences of double decompositions,

354— Table of, 360
Sewell, Mr. W. on a canal in the spinal
marrow of some quadmpcds, 300

Shaw, Dr. on the greater and lesser

bat, 107
Sheldrake, Mr. T. on the camera lucida,

372
Sibbald, Sir R. 84
Sigaud de la Fond, M. his electrical

phenomena, 64
Simpson, Mr. on paring and burning,

196
Skrimshire, Mr. on the uses to which
the fecula of potatoes are applicable,
33
Smith, Dr. 157
Smoke, luminous, of smelting houses,.

232
Smut in wheat, analysis of, 146
Soils, composition of, 10
Solander, Dr. 42
Sound, how it may be increased, 135— •

Reflections of, 312
Spallanzani, M. 313
Spinal marrow of quadrupeds, 300
Sponges, characters of, 41
Staller, Mr. 61
Stem of trees, 334
Stewart, Mr. on the insects found near

Edinburgh, 157
Stone, artificial, manufacture of, 154
Suberic acid, 149, 156
Sue, Professor, his Index to Buffon,

236
Sugar from the rose bay, 283
Sulphates of lime, barytes, and lead,

analyzed, 174, 280
Sulphur, analytical experiments on,

321, 365, 369
Sulphuric ether, see Ether.
Sunderland, Mr. 60
Sylvester, Mr. on the production of aa
acid and an alkali from pure water by
Galvanism, 258

T.

Tart, Mr. T. 61

Telescopes, new construction of, 308

Theatres, remarks on the construction

of, 129.
Thenard, M. on the sulphate of barytes,

174, 282— On the agency of potassium

and

INDEX.

and ammonia, 243, et seq. — On the

decomposition and recomposition of

boracic acid, 260
Thermometer for the pocket, 234
Thomson, Mr. on the analysis of the

sulphate of barytes, &c. 174, 280
Threshing machine for hemp and flax,

16
Towashend, Rev. Joseph, on the food

of plants, 5
Transit observations, method of taking,

139
Trees, stem of, 334
Tuke, Mr. his mode of paring and

burning lands, 191
Turquoise, oriental, analysis of, 158

V.

Van Mons, see Mons.

Van Uslar on the oxigen of plants, 9

Vavasour, Colonel, on paring and
burning soils, 195

Vauquelin, M. on the reciprocal action
of charcoal and hidrogen, 71— On ca-
laguala root, 141 — On the chemical
nature of the smut in wheat, 146—
His theory of the formation of ether,
201 — On a concrete sugar found on
the rose bay, 283

Vegetables, improved culture of, 51—
Growth of, 315

Vesta, observations of, 317 — Elements
of her orbit, 318

Vogel, M. 155

Volkmann on fossils, 35

Vraic used as manure, 72

Voyage of discovery, 235

W.

WagstafFe, Mr. on reclaiming waste
[ands, 95

Walford, T. Esq. on an insect that
destroys the wheat, supposed to be
the wireworm, 102

Walker, Mr. E. on taking transit ob-
servations, 139

Walker, Mr. P 157

Wallace's " History of Orkney," 84

Walsh, Mr. his description of the fossil

alcoynia, 47
Waste lands, reclaimed, 95 — Improved,

98
Water, a vehicle for the food of plants, 8

—Origin of the carbon or pabulum of

plants, 72
Wedge, Mr. his experiment on paring

and burning land, 191
Wernerian Society, 156
Wheat, diseases of, 146
Wilkes, Mr. his method of paring and

burning' land, 190
Wilkinson, Dr. on paring and burning

193
Williams, J. Esq. his method of hasten-
ing the maturation of grapes, 116
Wine, acid, sweetened by charcoal,

335
Wings, artificial, 319
Winter leaf bud, its formation, 293
Wireworm, observations on the, 102
Withering on the sulphate of barytes,

174
W.N. on the method of taking transit

observations, 14C — On the luminous

smoke from lead smelting houses, 233

—On the camera lucida, 577
Woollen rags, useful for manure, 12
Wright, Mr. on the beneficial effects of

paring and burning land, 195

Yalden, Mr. 158 ,

Yorker, Mr. J. 60

Young, Arthur, Esq. certificate from,
on Mr. Curwen's improvements in
agriculture, 61— On manures, 120,
187, 284

Young, Dr. T. his numerical table of
elective attractions j with remarks ou
the sequences of double decomp o«-
tion, 354

END OF THE TWENTY-THIRD VOLUME.

ERRATA.

Page Line

16Q 10 \ 'rom bottom for A* Ibbetson> Esq- read Mrs. Agnes Ibbetso*.
215 7 for preserved read pursued.

220 22 for as in seeds read as well as in seeds.

228 6 from bottom for determined read diminished.

350 5 from bottom read Fig. 13. Section just above the seed vessel, a, a, the
calyx, b> b, the corolla, c, c, c, c, four stamens, d, the pistil.
Fig. 14. Bottom of the seed vessel of the dianthus a, the calyx, &c.

Stratford, Printer, Crown Court, Temple Bar.