t spatket te retirhi ez Ems Ths teased sit BEEP Sia erases ees Pheneteteinetes See ree cee ooo ces Pees cee vptindel en ee eibsiwes) ; ; Hine Hi pate hiesececse' eaneieee, seh iit i faite {itt fete Ht ey hse ete are th 34 tests: ese Sra bes ory Soret sr or etetets sett Sosreeersr = Se =f Sarenelat ete. Tiitstisstarss ys hare my Benes jristted He ttteats eyhess intake 2: taseti iy i pac Fi ath Tin Te 4 . tt — Sr e= ene te beos he be te yteks i i oe tit Wistert tit aati 5 + * Bese: He i st hit s eer arecness watt ky ? be de tt re psasenre ss Shere be ait * : by ot ete s eH RH He Si ti Hi > it i} Seite arith + f ’ satis * i ve . iit 8 aH ; Hint etsy erect il tai + MY aiteyesy Sitar it tf fadteasaegnat i tasit is Hea aaa rf) 2 Bt ties! aN BOE ae yy + pest ; 4 sf 5 ‘a p a " , ee =a ace P A JOURNAL NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. CHEMISTRY, AND THE ARTS. VOL. XXXII. Fllustrated with Engravings. BY WILLIAM NICHOLSON. SSS a Be Ee LONDON : PRINTED BY W. STRATFORD, CROWN COURT, TEMPLE BAR; FOR W. NICHOLSON, No. 18, BLOOMSBURY SQUARE; Ups oe “AND SOLD BY J. STRATFORD, No. 112, Hotzorw Hix. 1812. PREFACE. HE Authors of Original Papers and Communications in the a present Volume are Mrs. A. Ibbetson ; Analyticus; A. H. Z.; J. Bostock, M. D. Vice Pres. of the Lit. and Phil. Soc. of Liver- pool; T.S. Traill, M.D. Sec. to the same Society; T, B.; G. Pearson, M. D. F.R.S. &c.; L. Howard, Esq.; Right Hon. W. J. Lord Gray; Mr. E. Lydiatt, Prof. of Mechanics, &c.; Benja- min Count of Rumford, F.R. SS. L.and E. M. RIA, &c.; D. E. F.; Mr. J. Gough; Mr. J. Murray; J. Nowell, Esq.; J. A. De Luc, Esq. F. R. S.; J. Farey, sen. Esq. and E.G. ; Of Foreign Works, M. J. Fabbroni, Cor. Mem. of the French Institute; M. D’Arcet; M. Schrader; Mr. Laugier; D. J. Carra- dori; M. Vauquelin; Dr. Wienhold; M. Bucholz; Prof. Cu- raudau; Prof. Klaproth; M. Sonnini; M. ‘thenard; M Braun; A. S. Duportal, M. D.; M. T. Pelletier; M. Chevreul; M. Robi- net; Prof. J. B. Vitalis; M. Leschenault; M. J.C. Delamétherie; M. H. Flaugergues; and Prof. H. Braconnot. And of British Memoirs abridged or extracted, A. Marcet, M.D. F.R.S.; &c. W. T. Brande, F. R.S.; H. W. Way, Esq. ; Mr. E. Smith; F. Fortune, Fsq. Mr. P. Sleavin; N. Nugent, M. D. Hon. Mem. of the Geol. Soc.; J. Davy, Esq.; S. Tillard, Esq. Capt. R. N.; J. Stephens, Esq.; W. Jones, Esq.; Mr. C. Waistell; Mr.'T. Dickson, Mr. J. Fuller; C. H. Parry, M. D. ¥. R.S.; T. A. Knight, Esq. F. R.S. Prof. Hort. 8. &c.; and Mr. J. Maher, F. H.S. The Engravings consist of 1. Dissections of Plants of the Class Cryptogamia, delineated from Nature, by Mrs. A. Ibbetson, in two Plates. 2. Mr. E. Lydiatt’s Smicrologometer, for ascertain- ing the Tenacity of Metals, and Strength of Threads of Silk, Cot- ton, Linen, &c. 3. A Dissection of a Flower, in a 4to. Plate: and 4. A Branch of Laburnum, with a Section considerably mag- nified; all delineated from Nature by Mrs. Agnes Ibbetson. 5. Closure and draining Bricks, by J. Stephens, ksq. _ 6. Method of constructing a temporary Rick for securing Corn in wet Weather, by W. Jones, Esq. 7. An improved Dibble for planting Acorns in Bushes, by Mr. C. Waistell. 8. A Potato, with the Method of taking Sets from it for preventing the Curl, by Mr. T. Dickson. 9. Diagram illustrative of Electric Attractions and Repulsions, by J.C. Delamétherie. 10. Diagram illustrating the Law of Evapos ration, by Honoré Flaugergues. 11. Different Modes of construct- ing the en of a Gun, soas to make it throw the Shot close, or scattering, a Correspondent. 12. An improved Scari by Mr. J de Puller. : ; ae TABLE TABLE OF CONTENTS... TO THIS THIRTY-SECOND VOLUME. MAY, 1812. Engravings of the following Subjects: Dissections of Plants of the Class Cryp- togamia, delineated from Nature by Mrs. A. [bbetson, in two Plates. I. On the Fructification of the Plants of the Class Cryptogamia. Jn a Letter from Mrs. Agnes Ibbetson | - . - - } If. Trigonometrical Formule for Sines and Cosines. Ina Letter from a Cor respondent - - - af tesiop 13 III. Inquiry concerning the Means of studying the Modern Analysis. In a Letter from a Correspondent ~ 1 - - - ae ki IV. Experiments to prove, whether Water be produced in the Combination of Muriatic Acid Gas and Ammoniacal Gas. By John Bostock, M. D., Vice Pres. of the Lit. and Phil. Soc. of Liverpool, and Thomas Stewart Trail, M. D., Secretary to the Society. Read before the Literary and Philosophi- cal Society of Liverpool, and communicated by Dr. Bostock = - 18 V. Questions respecting a Passage in Mrs. Ibbetson’s Account of the Water Lily. In a Letter from a Correspondent - - | ee VI. The Stater ef Philip, the Father of Alexander; with Remarks on the Purity or Standard of Gold. By Mr. J. Fabbroni, of Florence, corresponding Member of the French Institute - - - 23 VII. A Rejoinder toa Paper published in the Philosophical Journal, by Dr. - Marcet, on the Animal Fluids. By George Pearson, M.D. F.R.S., &c. 37 VIII. Meteorological Journal, by Luke Howard, Esq. - 50 TX. A chemical Account of an Aluminous Chalybeate Spring in the Isle of Wight. By Alexander Marcet, M.D., F.R.S., one of the Physicians to Guy’s Hospital, and Member of the Geological Society - 52 X. Experiments to ascertain the State in which Spirit exists in fermented Li- quors: with a Table exhibiting the relative Proportion of pure Alcohol con- tained in several Kinds of Wine, and some other Liquors, By William Tho- mas Brande, Esq. F.R.S. - - - - 7H 6B XI. Meteorological Table for 1811. In a Letter from the Right Hon, W. J. Lord Gray ¢. - - - : 73 XII. On Extract and the Saponaceous Principle. By Mr. Schrader, were - lin - - - - - - : XIII. An Examination of the Chromate of Iron of the Uralian Mountains, i Siberia. By Mr. Laugier - oe - - 7B Scientific News - és a = = 80 JUNE, CON TEN TF S&S. ¥ JUNE, 1812. An Engraving of Mr E. Lydiatt’s Smicrologometer, for ascertaining theTe- . -nacity of Metals, and Strength of Threads of Silk, Cotton, Linen, &c. I. A Description of the Smicrologometer for ascertaining the Tenacity of Me- tals, Silk, Cotton, and Linen Threads, &c. invented by Mr. E. Lydiatt, Professor of Mechanics, and Lecturer on Metallurgy and Manufactures, &c. i = oe 7 Fe = 81 J. A Chemical Account of an Aluminous Chalybeate Spring in the Isle of “Wight. By Alexander Marcet, M.D. F.R.S. one of the Physicians to Guy’s Hospital, and Member of the Geological Society - 85 Il. Account of some new Experiments on Wood and Charcoal. By Benj. Count of Rumford, F. R. SS. L. and E.M. R.1L. A. &e. - 100 IV. Inquiries concerning the Heat developed in Combustion, with a Description of a new Calorimeter. By the same - - - 105 VY. Remarks- on the Experiment of Dr. Bostock and Dr. Trail. Ina Letter from a Correspondent - = = - 125 VI. Method-of preparing a cheap and durable Stucco, or Plaster, for outside or inside Walls. By H.W. Way, Esq. of Bridport Harbour - 126 VII. Manufacture of Cloth and Cordage from Nettles. By Mr. Edward Smith : 132 VIII. Account of Herrings cured in the Dutch Mode on board British Vessels. By Francis Fortune, Esq. ee = - - 184 TX. Method of Curing Herrings. By Mr. Sleavin — - - 137 X. Letter on the Structure of the Water Lily, in Answer to a Correspondent. By Mrs. Agnes Ibbetson » - Ke - isi XI. On the Irritability of the Sowthistle and other Plants, with farther Obser- vations on the Irritability of Vegetables. By D.J. Carradori _ 138 XI. Chemical Examination of some Vegetable Substances. By Mr. Vau- quelin - = - - oe =“ 143 XML. Of the Efficacy of Plumbago against Tetters. By Dr. Wienhold 148 XIV. Meteorological Journal, by Luke Howard, Esq. “ " 150 XV. Experiments on Camphoric Acid. By Mr. Bucholz - 151 XVI. Inquiry concerning the Means of knowing the Proportions of Acid and Potash, that enter into the Composition of Sulphate of Alumine and of Sul- phate, Nitrate, and Muriate of Potash. By Mr. Curaudau, Prof. of Che- #nistry applicable to the Arts, and Member of various Literary Societies 153 XVII. Analyses of Minerals, By Martin Henry Klaproth, Ph. D. 160 Scientific News - - - -, wi Sh LOS ; JULY, | vi CONTENTS. JULY, 1812. Engravings of the following Subjects: 1. Dissections of a Flower, in a 4te Plate: and 2. A Branch of Laburnum, with a Section considerably magni- fied; all delineated from Nature by Mrs. Agnes Ibbetson. ¥. On the Dissection of Flowers. Ina Letter from Mrs. Agnes Ibbetson . 169 If. Remarks on the Perforations made in nape by Bisel Batteries. In 2 Letter from Mr. John Gough = - 176 III. On some Preparations of Gold lately employed maachieinel By A. S. Duportal, M.D., &c., and Th. Pelletier, Apothecary 179 IV. Experiments on the Existence of Water in Muriate of Ammonia donrped by the Combination of Muriatic Acid and Ammoniacal Gasses. By M John Murray, Lecturer on Chemistry, Edinburgh = - - 185 VY. Meteorological Journal, by Luke Howard, Esq. - 198 VI. Account of the Pitch Lake of the Island of a cin Nicholas iy gent, M.D., Hon. Mem. of the Geol. Soc. 200 VII. Chemical Experiments on Indigo. By M. Chevreul ~ “ee 1) VIII. On the Action of Muriatic Acid on Sugar, and the Nature of its Prin- ciples. Ina Letter from John Nowell, Esq. - - 216 IX. On the eee Motion of ie Electric Spark. - a Letter — J.A. De Luc, Esq. F.R.S 226 X. Remarks on an Artificial Stony Substance. By F.R.Curaudau _ 230 Scientific News. EL oh s . if 299 AUGUST, CONTENTS. val AUGUST, 1812. Engravings of the following Subjects, 1. Closure and draining Bricks, by J. Stephens, Esq. 2. Method of constructing a temporary Rick for securing Corn in wet Weather, by W. Jones, Esq. 3. Animproved Dibble for plant- ing Acorns in Bushes, by Mr. C. Waistell. I. Ona gaseous compound of carbonic Oxide and Chlorine. By John Davy, Esq. Communicated by Sir Humphry Davy, Knt., LL.D. Sec. R.S. 241 II. A Narrative of the Eruption of a Volcano in the Sea off the Island of St. Michael, by S.Tillard, Esq. Captain in the Royal Navy. Communicated by the Right Hon. Sir Joseph Banks, Bart. K. B. P. R.S. * 247 III. New Method of making Bricks, so as to form cheaper and firmer Buildings, and useful underground Drains: by John Stephens, Esq. of Reading, in Berkshire - - - - - - - - - - 25 52 IV. A temporary Rick, to secure Corn in Sheaves in the Fields till quite dry ; also Clover, Pease, and Beans: by William Jones, Esq. of Foxdown-Hill, near Wellington, Somersetshire - oe - - ao ae ape V. Improvement in the Acorn Dibble; by Mr. Charles Waistell of High ~ Holborn - - - - - - - - - - - 267 VI. On the apparent Streaks of Light, left sometimes by falling or shooting Stars; and on their apparent rectilinear Courses in the Atmosphere. In a ~ Letter from John Farey, sen. Esq. - - - - 269 VIL. te Galvanic Phenomena. In a Letter from J. A. aS} - is < fa 3 - = De Luc, Esq. ° ha! 271 VIIf. Explanation of a hydrostatical Phenomenon observed by Franklin: by Robinet = - - - - - = - - - = 284 IX. On the Nature of Sheep’s Dung, and its use in dyeing Cotton the Red that 3 called India or Adrianople; by J. B. Vitalis, Professor of Chemistry at ouen - - ~ - - - - - i - : 288 X. Meteorological Journal aL ahedn Ravy ee Ae - - : 294 x XI. An Account of ** The Sulphur,” or “ Souffriére” of the Island of Mont- serrat: by Nicholas Nugent, Esq. M. D., Hon. Member of the Geological Society - = - : : - - 296 XII. Account of various Specimens of Natural History brought from the Island 3 of Java, Madura, Bali, &c.; by Mr. Leschenault - - 00 XII. Analyses of Minerals: by Martin Henry Klaproth, Ph. D., &c. 304 Scientific News a es ; “ - 312 # SUPPLEMENT Vili CONTENTS. SUPPLEMENT TO VOL. XXXII. Engravings of the following Subjects: 1. A Potato, with the Methods of tak- ing Sets from it for preventing the Curl, by Mr. 'T. Dickson: 2. Diagram illustrative of Electric Attractions and Repulsions, by J. C. Delamétherie. 3. Diagram illustrating the Law of Evaporation, by Honoré Flaugergues. 4. Different Modes of constructing the Breech of a Gun, so as to make it throw the Shot close, or scattering, by a Correspondent. 5. An improved Scarrificator, by Mr. John Fuller. I. Observations on the Disease in the Potato, generally called the Curl; point- ing out the most probable Method of preventing it; with an Account of the Results of a few Experiments made on the Subject. By Mr. Thomas Dick- son, Leith Walk, Edinburgh. - - - - - - - 321 I. Electric Attractions and Repulsions are not explained in a satisfactory Man- ner in the Hypothesis of Two Fluids. By J.C. Delamétherie - $28 Tif. Memoir on the Proportion the Evaporation of Water bears to the Humidity of the Air. By Honoré Flaugergues - = - - 330 TY. Remarks on the Construction of Fowlingpieces, pointing out Methods by which they may be made to throw Shot very close, and the contrary. Ina Letter from a Correspondent - - - = ~ 338 V. Description of an improved Scarificator: by Mr. John Fuller, No. 14, Hatton-Garden - = - - eM he ame cer pen VI. On a Case of nervous Affection cured by Pressure of the Carotids; with some physlological Remarks. By C. H. Parry, M.D. F.R.S - = 345 VII. A concise View of the Theory respecting Vegetation, lately advanced jm the Philosophical ‘Transactions, illustrated in the Culture of the Melon. By T. A. Knight, Esq. F. R. S. - : - - 350 VIII. Some-Remarks on pruning and draining standard Apple and Pear Trees. By Mr. Jolin Maher, F.H,S.- = = .4- - - = 5 355 XI. On the Advantages of employing Vegetable Matter as Manure in a fresh. State. By T. A. Knight, Esq. F. R.S. Pres, HS. - P. iin) SH X. Abstract of a Paper on the tanning Substances formed by the Action of Nitric Acid on several Vegetable Matters. By Mr. Chevreul - 360 XI. Chemical Examination of the Husks of Walnuts. By Mr. Henry Braconnot, Prof. of Natural History,-&c. - - - - - ae ee XII. Analyses of Minerals. By Martin Henry Klaproth, Ph. D., && 379 Index ot he arr ia titate - - - = 385 A JOURNAL JOURNAL ‘NATURAL PHILOSOPHY, CHEMISTRY, \ AND THE ARTS. . MAY, 1812. ARTICLE I. . On the Fructification of the Plants of the Class Cryptogamia. In a Leiter from Mrs. AGNES [BBETSON. : To Mr. NICHOLSON. SIR, } ly my last letter I showed the dissection of fresh-water Difference of plants, endeavouring in a particular manner to mark the ee ae effect produced in different vegetables by the more or less peas ‘water which surrounded them in their growing state; and proving, that those large divided air vessels are to be found in fresh-water plants alone; the vessels decreasing as the ditch, in which they were in the habit of growing, approach- ed more to boggy or wet ground instead of water. This is truly exemplified in what I have called the half-water plants: there are however a few exceptions to this rule; _ and, since I last wrote, one has occurred to me in the arum, which, though long removed to tolerably high ground, still retains its immense air vessels, But in comparing fresh~ Marine plants. water plants with marine plants, the alteration and transition ‘is excessive. Instead of large bladders of air, circular wood Vou. XXXII, No. 146.—May 1812. B. vessels Difficulties of the study of the cryptoga- Mie. “Few masters FRUCTIFICATION OF THE CRYPTOGAMLE, vessels, and the strongly marked vital line, I find an ex- tremely compressed formation, so delicate and fine, that it is very difficult to comprehend its uses and capabilities. But before I enter on the subject of the cryptogamian plants, I must say a few words in vindication of an under- taking, that may appear to many (considering the number of learned men that. have written.on the subject) so little necessary. Linnzeus might be said to select all the difficul- ties of botany, and unite them in one class. Yet though the various genera differ so much from each ‘other, they are certainly most properly. arranged,'since they carry strong marks of internal resemblance ; of which, I doubt not, that great master had a perfect knowledges": The very difficulties of the study appear to have constituted part of the-charm, which has tempted such numbers to seek for, and try to understand this class of plants... Hence we find so many masters, who have dedicated their whole lives to the pere fecting the knowledge of one single genus of the cryptoga- ‘mian plants. This being the case, will it not be construed into extreme vanity in me, to select such asubject? Yet the plan I. have formed cannot be complete without it; and there is certainly one part, that has not yet been touched : neither Gmelin, Dillenius, nor Stackhouse has dissected have dissected the interior of these plants. No master has proceeded fare c ryptogamian. plants, ther than selecting and describing them, and giving their - habitats: all which is so admirably shown in that incompara- ble work, ‘the joint Jabours of Dr. Smith and Mr. Sowerby. This part therefore, “the dissection of thei interior of plants,” i may-venture.to appropriate ; and should: I, in the review 1.mean to take of the whole class, contradict the assertions of any of the great men I have before mentioned ; it will, i -hope, be consider ed, that I only venture to do it from pos sessing more powerful means of magnifying than they did, _renderivg the objects clear sand Juminoéus; which constant _study. has taught me the means of doing with effect. importance of the line of life in indenti- fying plants. Ifthe vital part of a plant was productive of no other consequence than, that of marking its existence, I should not so continually have pressed it on the notice and atten- tion of the, public : but it is the centre from which every other line sae ial take its rise, it is the point which must cer- oh Stet vi ’ . tify FRUCTIFICATION OF THE CRYPTOGAMIA. Bee tify the identity of every other part. Thus, by tracing the Stamen and vital line, the seed, the bud, the flower, the radiéle, are Sata all ascertained and proved. ‘The interior vessel of the ~ pistil is formed by this line alone, which, being a cylinder, conveys the mixed juices to the seeds. 1 have shown this before in all other plants, but it is to the cryptogamia T trust for completing the proof of all [have before advanced on this subject: Its admirable conformity in the direction of its vessels ; its agreeing in all points of the fructification, not only with each genus of this class, but with all others ; establishes (in my opinion) the truth of both in an eminent degree. I have said also, that the wood conveyed the pecu= liar juice for the formation of the pollen: and I trust the 24th-class will exemplify the truth of the fact; for in the interior of these plants, and by the direction of those two vessels, will’botanists be alone able to discriminate and iden tify the stamen and pistil of these diminutive vegetabtes, To prove this I shall first show the formation of marine plants; and then endeavour to explain the fructification of the cryptogamia in general, and mark, by the direction of the vessels, which is the stamen and pistil of each plant. v Though the marine plants, (such as the fuct and ulva), Interior for- have the appearance of stems, yet in the greatest part of pot oie these plants it is appearance only. When subjected to the — strongest magnifiers, placing a thin cutting of each ima solar microscope, they present exactly the same picture, exe cept that the stalk is thicker and more compressed than that which is properly named leaves. As the sea weeds are al- ‘most without vessels, (at least have only two or three ina large surface) they have of course no liquid of the nature of sap to diffuse into different parts of the plant. This i8 proved by one part drying and dying, though the adjoining part is immersed in water ; the former not benéfitting by this, as it has no. vessels, that can convey the moisture: whicli, I suppose, is given merely by pores at the surface, and passes not from ote bléb to the other. | - The faci might be prdperly divided into thin and thick Division of the- fadi: The 1st; ag the'dalsé, the palmatus, co¢cineus, and fc! all of this kind, consists of that transparent dnd almost ins Structure of HSVle skin doubted ¢ which, mm all commdn leaves) thakes a the thin fuc ite Be part Formation of the interior of the thick fuci. Only two ves« sels in the fuci. Rules for find- ing the ves- sels, and the stamen and pistil. * Mistalse-cor- rected, FRUCTIFICATION GF THE CRYPTOGAMIA. part.of the cuticle ofeach side... But, what is most extra~ ordinary, this skin, instead of being without, is in the in- terior ; and,.if you lay the dulse {or any other of this kind). on a glass, and. serape it very carefully on both sides with a knife, you will find all the exterior rubbed off, and nothing will remain but the almost invisible skin. This roughness I take to be the bark, it is most regularly placed in diamonds, (see Plate I, fig. 1, dulse unscraped) ; and an- swers well to the same matter, either within or without the transparent skin, in almost all the cryptogamian plants of every different genus. We trace it in the roughness at the exterior of the lichen, under the clear skin in the thick fuci, and so on to most of the class. But in the thicker fuci the transparent skin is on the exterior; and when it is taken off, and also the thin rough bark, the consistence of the matter underneath differs greatly from that .of the thin fucus.. It is so glutinous, so capable of distention, that, if drawn out or pressed, after being laid in fresh water, it may be reduced to what appears its original formation ; that is into cylinders or strings, formed as at fig. 2. They cannot properly be called-vessels, for they certainly appear not to convey any liquid; but to be a glutinous mass, in this shape. On examination of all the different fuci I could procure, I could find only these two vessels in each plant ; ist. The line of life which passes to the pistil, and afterward ties the seeds together: 2d. The wood vessels, which run directly to the male, and convey not only its peculiar juice, but the spiral wire that produces its motion. _To make this plain, to enable any person to discover immediately both the vessels, and the stamen and pistil, I shall give this easy rule: When the line of life appears in the interior of a plant alone, and no wood vessels: are found, it is certain, that the male is,in,a different plant.. When both line. of life, and wood vessels, are found joined together, you may be sure to find, the fruotification inthe same flower. And when both vessels are found, but separate, it is, always a sign, that the stamen, and. pistil-are'in different, parts. of, the same plant. This law,holds good in all the. cryptogamian resale nor have I even fonndit vary... 1. ’ I must.now apologize for a mistake “i have helt in 1 my former 212 ‘ - FRUCTIFICATION OF THE CRYPTOGAMIA. former letter, in saying, that the spiral wire was found only” if the conferva of all this class of plants. But I had so often” sought it in all the sea weeds, and in the lichens, without discovering the smallest traces of it; that I felt convinced it. _was not there.~ As itis found in the male plant only, few would undertake the labour that is necessary to find it. In the mosses however it abounds, and in the woody part of ‘Motion the:sign whic the lichens also} and particularly distinguishes the male distingpishes. plant, whether single or joined to the female, by its néver- ceasing motion. So violent is it often, that itis with great difficulty that it can be confined sufficiently for inspection, especially when first taken from within the flower. ‘This alone makes a very distinguishing mark of the male in all the cryptogamia, for the female is quite inert. When its size has permitted me to take out the spiral wire, it leaves the rest of-the plant perfectly quiet.’ I have therefore’ in various cases absolutely ascertained, that it is this’ ce which is the cause of motion in all plants. That the fructification should have been continually mis- taken by those, who had no other rule but mere guess to which they-could apply for the discovery, cannot appear astonishing to any one; since, not knowing the interior for- mation, they could neither appeal to its analogy, with respect to other plants ; nor to any means except the appearance and figure. But, as T have long been accustomed to be led up, - to the female by a peculiar line; I:sought this in all the the stamen. Why the fruc- tification has _been mis- taken, cryptogamia, and directly found it. It was not indeed Search of the quite-so easy to discover in the male plant; but remember- ing, that the wood in all other plants formed the stamen ; and that I had every reason to be convinced, as there was a peculiar juice for the formation of the pollen, there must be some vessel to convey this : this idea excited my diligence ‘in seeking it, and I soon succeeded; and not only found the wood vessel meandering from male to male, but disco- vered, that in this class ite: spiral vessels always accompa- nied it as in every other plant. It is of extreme consequenée to trace these lines in the cryptogamic; since without them it is impossible, that any person can be assured, that the male and female, if separate, belong to the same plant ; whereas the running of the wood vessels from part to part will line jeading to . the ma.e. Fructification ef the fuci. FRUCTIFICATION OF TRE CRYPTOGAMIA. will quickly ascertain, whether it is the original or a para- site plant: if no wood vessel leads to it, it should be cons demned at once. | | I shall now turn to the Eaehnesipa of the cryptogamiz ; 3 beginning with the sea weeds, but leaving out the conferva ; which of itself would nearly occupy a rari The fructifi- cation of the fuci in general is excmplified in a spécimen of Fucus serratus the fucus serratus; which | shall just describe. A jellylike described. General ana- logy between the marine and other plants. Vesicles the © male of the fuci. mass, with seeds bearing granules, and external papilla. Though the apparent anomaly, that prevails in the fructifi- cation of the fucus genus, is acknowledged by, all, yet this variety is more in appearance, than, ip reality, as. I shall prove ina future letter. Whatever may be the difference in the formation of the marine plants, and, in their means of receiving nourishment ; in all the general lines of their frue- tification they differ, not from all other plants. The line of life composes the female plant invariably, and is always to be known by its direction ; and the seeds are, tied by the same line, Hence it,is easy to discover it; since, wherever a. branch is going to shoot (in the thick fuci especially) if we seek the line from which the bud proceeds, it will dircetly point ont the line of life, or vital mark. The wood,,vessels are always to be traced to the male plant, whether carrying gap or no sap: for these are those peculiar juices already mentioned, of a more oily nature and whally destined to the formation of the pollen. Fig, 3. is the tubercle of the fucus serratus; CC is the line of life leading to it: fig. 4 isa circle under the tubercle, which, has rays proceeding from it, to which the seeds are always attached, and to which, let. them appear ever, so much scattered, they are invariably fixed, As to the male plant, it is certainly the pencilled vesicles on the frond, as it is also in the vesiculosus and many others. When miuch magnified, they are very cu- rious; in the first itis pitcher shaped, from out of which tubercle the powder proceeds. In the vesiculosus it is a sort. of ring, in which the powder is formed, and worked into the hairs. In both the wood vessels meander from male to male, and the hairs (if prevented sticking on the frond) move much when, breathed on, and. when shaking out, the powder, sie its filaments. See fig. 5, e¢ male, F the wood FRUCTIRICATION., QF FRE, CRYPTOGAMI A, , % ‘ecod vessel leading to it... The stamens are said to. be per- manent ; but this is certainly. not the case, since it is ‘only once a year the powder is eet in the hairs: but as the old ones remain a long time aiter they. have performed their office, before they decay and fall off; it gives them the ap- pearance of perpstnts i ) The: Ulve. ichough 1 at first intended to give a marie - plant, yet Fructification being. so. thoroughly acquainted with the. ulva crassata; I a ite preferred showing its dissection. It is formed of a mem- branaceous frond,.with minute thick set tufts of branched filaments jointed, and beaded ; the female being the ball ; and the top, which: is. perforated, constituting the pistil, (see fig. 8). Under the tufts, G, fig. 7, the seeds are im- bedded in regular order, each holding by the line of life ; see GG the. pointed filament, which proceeds from the pistil, and the wood vessels of which run up round it, and | serve as a cuticle to it; showing themselves also on each | ‘side of the capsule and ‘its stem as seen at HH, fig. 8. When the plant is first taken out of the water, and gently dried, if its pollen is ripe, and the hairs stick not on the frond; when breathed on they move more than the males of the fuci. I have’seen them rising and falling with a con- stant succession of motions, which gave to the plant an ap-- pearance of life difficult to describe; but if too wet, or too dry, they move not. I found much of this ulva in a pond at Bellevue, near Exeter. The ulva pruniformis much agrees with this; there are certainly two sorts; one re- sembling in its fructification the lemna, and the other the crassula ; but, as | got it twice only, and then rather in. a dry, decayed state, I was fearful of making some mistake, if I should attempt to review it. The Musci. It is very painful to me, to be obliged to contradict those, Fructification whose superiority I so gratefully acknowledge; as every of mosses. botanist must the uncommon labours of a_ Dillenius, a Michelli, or a Gmelin: yet I cannot but differ from them Tespecting, the fructification, which I would thus describe. The 8 FRUCTIFICATION OF THE CRYPTOGAMIE. The flower of the moss standing on a long stalk, and having its male and female in the same flower, being a capsule ona - _ peduncle, sheathed at the base, with its seed vessel in the interior, the pistil standing up in the middle; the veil ins Fringes the vesting the fringes, which are troly the male part of the pret i plant, and keeping them close, till the powder of the pollen is ripe, then both veil and lid fall off, the fringe spreads, and as soon as the drop appears on the pointal,- the inner fringe draws ever it. Then by breathing on it (when under a strong magnifier) any person can convince themselves, : that these hairs are the males, since they throw ont the pol- len from every spray, till the top is covered with its powder, But as the ianer fringe stands up in a pinnacle, the powder generally falls under onthe stigma, by which means it is not so conspicuous, and is sedn dissolved by the liquid of the pistil, and thence carried to impregnate the seeds. The outer fringe has from 4 to 32 teeth, which are either re- flected, straight or twisted, triangular, spear shaped, blunt, or sharp ;, while the inner fringe ismuch finer, either closely ~ adhering to the outward, or joined to it by threads from its inner sides 5 but which ever way it is formed, it has powder, - which works cut from the interior of the fringes. Many have between the hairs little balls on foot stalks, out of which proceeds the powder ; others a sort of division up the hairs, which, when moved, gives out the dust, so that the muper fringe always appears variously jagged. Nature seems to have formed the lid to keep the fringe together, and prevent the hairs throwing out the powder, ere the seeds are ready to receive impregnation, or the liquid of the pojntal to dis- solve'the pollen. It is these beautiful provisions of nature, that should be so closely watched. Who can behold all the exquisite contrivance displayed in the formation of these fringes, and not be convinced, that they were intended for some important purpose? Never issuch perfect mechanism - | seen without it is designed to produce some great effect. The sight directly excites my mind to discover the use ; nor do [ allow myself to pass on to another subject, till I have - studied hard to, find out the cause. Description of | The seeds are numerous aud spherical, and all tied toge- MP aa ther by a line, which is the line of life, ‘The wood vessels constantly \ FRUCTIFICATION OF THE CRYPTOGAMIA. 9 _ Gonstantly lead up to the capsule, in which they form stripes. That which used to be called the male is a cryptogamian plant, found in all these diminutive vegetables, and taken - - generally for the stamen of the mosses, filices, lichens, and others: for, as it grows always, and has the appearance of powder, the mistake was very natural to those who knew no law, by which a parasite plant could be distinguished from the identical plant on examination. Fig. 9 is the capsule ; T, its interior: fig. 10, is a more highly magnified view of the outer fringe, K, and the inner fringe, L: figs. 11 and 19 are the pitcher-shaped leaves. “Most mosses, when they first shoot, require much water ; and there being a quantity of spiral wire in the leaves, they easily draw into this shape, and for some time retain water in each leaf by the contra¢- tion the moisture occasions. ‘That it is the spiral wire, that ' passes up the capsule in the wood vessels, is plainly shown in the stripe that accompanies this part, and is more strongly evinced in the figure of the tortula subulata. When the upper’ case stops some way below the seed vessel, i, the stripe leaves the outer case and runs up the under, in _ the shape of a corkscrew, to form both fringes. “See Sowerby’s admirable print, which is very exact. Vol..16, p-110?. Both fringes move, and both must concur in the office of the male, since the spiral is worked to and fro from the outward to the inner vessel repeatedly ; and is seen in the microscope to contract and dilate at the bottom of the capsule, as I have marked at NN, fig. 9. In the poly- tricha, that which is supposed to be the male plant has cer- tainly not only stamens, but a pistil, and is of itselfa com- _ pletely distinct plant ; the middle of which opens, and shows the pointal, while the teeth around unclose at the edges, and discover the pollen. In all that I am acquainted with thisis the case, but I know only four ; vit is not often I could find the plant called the male, and then they were peffectly di- vided, having their own stem and root. 4 | As to the mosses that have no apparent fringes, there may Seme mosses be some having the male flower in a different plant: but, if aoe Be Lage I may be allowed to say what I have often experienced in ferent plant. many cases, when the fringes are not to be found in the usual place, I seek it in the lid-or veil, where I seldom miss i finding ! V0 Fructification ef the ferns. ‘ sible to understand the whole mana FRUCTIFIGATION OF THE CRYPTOGAMLE. finding it. They are so delicate, that. the, smallest touch, breaks them. I do net. however, deny, that there may be some, gymnostoma thus unsupplied; nature possesses. so, much variety of form, but then. it is not generally shown in, these points: there is a strict conformity .in all that cons cers the fructification of plants, that teaches us to expect, a change less in. these matters than in, any, other parts, Be- sides, they might be-bent or broken. 1, think 1 have. dis- seeted the g. visidissimaum,, and if it was the plant. (and it concurred in every other point) it has a very narrow rim of, inflected teeth, which grew dark as. the powder ripened. The polytrichum commune is very curiously, formed at the bottom of the capsule ; the manner in which the spiral is Jaced displays a mechanism most wonderful ; if it was + Pgh gement. ‘The Filices::' The general structure of the i sghtrabien of the ferng is. as follows, The scale or calyx as not often found. Ht springs out of the leaf, opening on one side, and ia different from the covers The wood vessel and line oflife, forming, together, run up to each set of flowers, which are dispersed in-parallel limes oblique to the midrib, commonly i in one rew on each side of it, but sometimes the row is double. Under the cover, usually supported on little foot stalks, are the flowers, eucompassed by an elastic ring, which is really. the male part of the plant. When the seeds are ripe, the impregnating cord springs and moves with every change of temperature, till it has shaken out all the powder to be found in it, The capsules then burst, the seeds disperse. from the force of the confined membrane within the seed vessel, which, having the seeds fastened to it, and being coiled up in a.manner adverse to its form, (as the spiral wire within it grows stronger) it struggles to get free, which it does at last by bursting the capsule, and throwing off the seeds to a distance; in the same manner ag it does in the spirting cucumber, and in many other plants of that. kind. That the elastic line that covers the apparent basket is really the male part of the plant, 1s easily proved. Let any one place the cyathea fragilis. under a strong magnifier about the FRUCTIFICATION, OF THE CRYPTOGAMIM, . ii die time the male powder is ripe. After observing the cap- sules to be covered on one side with a white shining mix- ture, they will soon, see this turn to a. pale green, from the powder which falls on it from, the handle or elastic rings | The manner in which the pollen 4s, given out.is as curious as any part; for the, ring contracts and dilates alternately, till it has yielded all its dat. Nor is there the least, fear of taking the pollen for the seeds, the one, being brown, the other almost white. In the month of September this me- chanism is very ‘plain in the asplenium scolopendrum ; I have seen the. male so difficult. to confine from the eternal Great agita- motion of the cord, that without a pair of pincers it was i impossible to fasten it within the field of the microscope, ‘ Sometimes the fructification of this powder isin spikes, and then. the flowers are contained within a case, as in theequi- setum sylvaticum, There the male and female haye been per= fectly guessed; the capsule, which, holds, the seeds, being. the pistil; while, the « agitated part attached to itis the stamen, and which may really be said to, fly. from the glass, I have seen them, when first thrown on the paper, move about hke a worm, and if a drop of water is placed near them, the fila- ments, gather ronnd the capsule, as if to defend it ; beating the anthers against ity, till it is, completely covered with pow- der, It has 4 filaments to each female. Thus then we, may lay down three rules, for discovering Rules for dis- the male plant: .ist, the leading up of the wood vessel to covering the the part either with or without; the line of life, as the male sa is or is not joined to the pistil, 2d, the constant motion of the ‘filaments and anthers, when giving out, their powder; which agitation belongs only. to the male, for the female is per- fectly inert. 3d, the stamens being almest constantly in ‘the shape of hairs, which, will lead a student at once to exa- ‘mine every, thing in the cryptogamize that bears this ‘appearance. The fructification of the filicesis seen in Pl. II. Fig. 1, 00, the. joint wood vessel and line of life leading up to th fruc- ‘tification, in the leaf of the scolopendrum vulgare: fig. 2, .P, the capsule with the pointal ; Q, the elastic line or sta- men: fig. 3,/ the seeds tied by the line of life. The fructification of the equisetum sylvaticum,*palustre, and “ arvensis, 13 Supposed males of cer- tain mosses. FRUCTEFICATION OF THE CRYPTOGAMIZE. arvensis, for they exactly resemble each other: fig. 9 the’ target carrying the flowers: fig. 10, an interior view of the same cut through the middle: fig. 11, the pistil and capsule’ bearing its seed, with 4 stamens attached to it by their fila ments, one of which is shown still more'magnified at fig. 12. I was proceeding to the agarics, but my letter already ap-" pears so long, that 1 shall leave these for my next commu- nication, and join to them the lichens, jungermannie, and marchantiz. $ I am, sir, - Your obliged ‘servant, ! Cowley Cot. ae AGNES IBBETSON. March the 8th, 1812. — P.S. Ithink it right, however, to add the three males of the mosses, which [ have found, dissected, and exposed to very greit'magnifying powers. Sce fig. 7, which, hke’a number of others, proved merely a collection of leaves: fig. 8, which showed a sort of pistil in the middle concealed and covered by the stamen: and figs. 5 atid 6, which ap- peared the male of a polytrichum, but were certainly a complete flower with both stamen and pistil,. ‘The per- fection and exactness of Mr. Sowerby’s drawings no one would venture to contradict, and IT mean not in any manner to do so, I have too many opportunities to admire the per- fect likeness of each object. All that I would wish to sug- gest is, that the plants taken for males in the mosses are plants of the same genus, and having both male and female, _ which by dissection may be found. ‘Fo prove this, there are many arguments, most strong and powerful. That na- ture should have formed all this beautiful apparatus for } nothing ; that these exact and regular fringes, thus ex- quisitely formed; should be made to bend over the seed ves- sel at a certain time, and rub out a powder: that the veil should remain, without any reason, a stipulated time, then quit it, for as little apparent cause ; is not like her general arrangements. But, on the contrary, that nature should have placed all this spiral wire in the fringes, that its mo- tion, might rub out the pollen from the teeth : that the veil should remain on, to keep the’males from moving, till the - | ‘ seed HORMULE FOR SINES AND COSINES. : 13 > seed is fit to receive impregnation; that it should then fall off, and the fringe bend over the pointal, to mix the pollen. ~ with the juice of the pistil ; and, to prevent the powder of the stamen from being lost in the seeds, that a thick curtain should be drawn between, to give time for the melting of the powder in the sweet juices of the pistil; all this is exactly conformable to the process in every other flower, and analogous to the proceedings of every otler plant. But this is not all: that in all the rest of the cryptogamize the males should be distinguished for excessive motion, and yet in the mosses alone be different, is not to be credited. Besides, when.the supposed.male flower is found; it is often not one to ten thousand females; and consideriag, that much powder must be lost in attaining the pistil, nature would have provided a quantity, as it tages in every other ¢ase 1 am acquainted with, where the male flower is sepa- rated from the female. These are all strong reasons for believing, that the male plant has been generally mistaken, But there is another source of errour admirably suited to Source of ex- mislead. There isa species of animalcule, which lays its light Eecaceesl green eggs very often in some species of mosses; and gene- malcules rally chooses the upper leaves, whence they open to the ent stalk, These are so like pollen, that it is only keeping ORree ‘them till they hatch, that can prove what they are. I have been twice so deceived, I have added a dissection, at fig. 4, of the stem of the moss, to show the manner in which the spiral wire runs from leaf to leaf at z; and to-show the ball, round which it winds at Sy #4 leaf, thus running ~y the midrib, de Il. Trigonometrical Formule for Sines and Cosines. Ina Lei- _ ter from a Correspondent, To W. NICHOLSON, Esq. “SIR, From your favourable reception of the Trigonometrical ; Formule, which I had the honour of communicating, and t which 14. FORMUL® FOR StNES AND ‘COSENES. which appeared in your Number for February last, I have been en- couraged once more to trouble you with a few miscellaneous results, indeed, yet curious. By the common sciisalioniebsecal resolutions - sines nie cosines . we have: If 7 =: 3°1415 &e. 1 Sin. Arce yaoc (tem *) (a— iB) (: — Ga) fl— * &e. saat (0 ais) Sin. A. aca aa Feeney Ane 7 ERIE Waar Au i ay aaa x ea 2 ype &e m on F m Let now A = — >. And... = = —* sin. (= -) x ; n j in ” ; n>. (2n)*. (3n)*. (4n)*. &e. ve Tih act Oe Si. in. = ee {n* — m*) (20% m*) (Sait m4 Ula Al: t&e. us ™ n. Nn. Qn. 2 te 3n Sn, &e.. (n—~m) (n+ m) (2m — m) (2n + m) (Gn— m) (3n + m). &e. 31g | Again Cos. A= (a = 1— —J0-= aie? &e. () *(G) #3). _ (n— 2m) (n+ 2 m)(3n— 2m) (8n-+2 m)(5%— 2th) (5n4-2m). &e. Te Plea ghee Pages TBH a ee oe g me ae In 413 let —- =i. .. sin. — w = 1, and we get n n 6-. me 2.2. AVG 656-28". &e. Fr 8 ale a PS iret oie hee? tr a a - &u. pression. This way of deducing it 1s however far shorter and more . Which is Wallis’s ex- direct than the usual way (see Woodhouse’s Trigonometry, where,» however, he does not seem to have bestowed much ‘attention on this part of his subject). m 1 Lis. HOR 1 i In fit let = a a “sin. = WE? and the form becomes w= PVs & 4.4.8. B-12.12.16.16..&c, VO Ole 1 wie i138 .15., 17. &e. FORMULA FOR /SINES. AND ‘COSINES. | i3 My er ANS | Bu Le Gh reaeee eae | | : Let ie = gi te sin. ge bemg = 5 form 31% becomes oh i: 6.6612.12, 18.18.9494. &c, (3) . 5. 67.41. 13.17.19.: 23. 1.25. &e. 1 ; Let - = ne and form si} becomes uf $ ofS 3.0846 6, G. 9. 125.1%. &e. ( . 2 Oe as aif «OREO. AE DD. ee. tS a In the same way by making ™ Coa La Ber we) Owecmnd? 1 OO AR iy? _ S(W5—1) |. 10. 10. 20, 90. 90. 30. 40. 40. &e. |, ml cer 2 $n 219. 21.29. 31.39.41 0&e. (4) And . _ Set — =], 20-20 «40. 40 - 60. 60, &e, ome 5 VS- V5 "19. 21.39. 41.59. 01. ke. © $ f . m . . - and so on, whenever sin. — % can be found in algebraic terms, as if pe, ad nr *. Lae bra eg ™m ae te Let us now take form Jol, and for = write 7 Now 1 1 ae 1 : COS. — See HD » andthe form Becomes & /2 ‘COS. © tine Bet Ale hee sl 2a Lo. OU a 20's OO. Sanne — '9.6.10.14.18. 22.26.30. &c.- 5 Me, Gia Gs VT AG na Ie eee bb by 7.9 dt Ae eke TEP Ae expression due (if I eeprDe rightly) to Euler. | Ta form iE ¢ Sat m write 5 m, and it becomes coain. Pie = (am) (tem) (an—m) (On m) fe. Fs A Tani SRR eS ane et Bee a Le : si n= 3." "2 C08. & being = 2248-10-14, 16. 905924 Ko slg f SS TSTOD Og 1S 1s COTE Me we Pee) we get AF, SSID 16 FORMULZ FOR SINES AND COSINES: 4 5— ; 2 r= 1.9.11. 19491229 .31.89.41. 49. &e. ae | 7, Cap NE SR NEN a eo a eam SA Ma NAMES | NS f + §.5.15.15.95.25.35.85.45.45. &e, (3) In the same way as Euler’s theorem, A eine A x sitt: 2s e “~ ’ pA @A + : sin. 3 A— &c. is deduced, we may obtain the following cos. 2 A + cos, 4A + cos.6 A + &¢. always = — — cos. A + cos.3 A +cos.5 A + &e. to infinity, always = 0 ware? ‘ee Sho 25 and .*. cos. A — cos. 2 A + cos. 3A— &e. = | 5 as may also be had by differencing Euler's series. Again, if e = 2°7182818 &e. we find cos A= $cos. 2A+ 4c08.3 A — ~ £08. wat &e. 2.cos. = me , . heh 12 a set ara 2QA+} $ COS. 3 At COs. sub &e.h vand 2,sin.— =e 2 , Again — sin. A + 5 sino AA ~ sin-3 At Bes (k). Pr aA A” | 1 And “6 ae — mcos.A- —>Z ie A + mo cos. 3 A + qe 0% 4A+ &a ; () 4 2 few 2 2 erent: ; (et Rp pent? * (sin. . A) iy fier a ' 1 2 3 + sna ur anid fy Caml These last theorems are so easy of deduction, that I have omitted their demonstrations fog the sake of keeping within the compass of a letter. I am, Sir, Your most obedient humble servant, | March the 29d, 1812, ‘ -ANALYTICUS. 2 STUDY OF THE MODERN ANALYSIS. amr Boutre: baler the Means oy Wiitoend the Mudern ee lysis. An a a letter from a Correspondent. RY To W. NICHOLSON, Esq. mtb, * s YS, As the object of your excellent Jouynal is the diffusion of What books, scientific knowledge among all classes, I am sure you will eae not deem the present queries out of place; and if you will the modern have the goodness to reply to them either by private come eee aeer munication, or through the medium of your publication, you will confer an ae not, merely on the individual who addresses you, but upon many others in the same. Cite cumstances as myself... The object of my. inquiry is this:——What elementaty, works should be perused by a person, who wishes to become acquainted with what is usually termed « the. modern _ anulysis” ? That one who resides ina Mathematical Univers _ sity should put this question may appear strange ; but itis well known by-many, who, like myself, -have devoted-a-con- siderable portion of time to the study of mathematics ac- cording to the system adopted in this university,—that £0 little attention is paid to the modern language of science, that the most admired works of the foreign Mathematicians ate’ a dead letteteven to many of those, who are sufficiently familiar with the works‘of Newton and the ablest English philosophérs.—Suppose: then bvhat a person is toletably ac- quainted with: pure: Geometry, and with the fiuxional Cale culus, what'tourse of reading should he pursue, in order to qualify himself for the pee of La Place’s Mécanique Céleste ? As these pen Oed are aa oo to you by one who is an enthusiast in mathematical studies, but who knows of ne other means of getting satisfactory information upon the subject of his’ inquiry, than ‘that whichhé has nate ns “2B early Feply, would be: sereetni Seeeptebtc! “A. H. as “ . Vor. aah eek 181 3. oats C ; Answer. 18 Works recom: mended forthe *> - study of the modern ana- lysis, Mr. Murray's attempt to prove the exe: modern analysis. EXISTENCE OF WATER IN MURIATIC Gas, Answer. - With ‘respect to the books my “correspondent inquires after, I would recommend, as ihe first and principal, the Traité.du Calcul Différentiel et Intégr al of Lacroix ; which, with the qualifications he mentiens himself, as possessing, will be sufficient to give him a very complete notion of most ofthe branches of the modern analysis. Ue should, how- ever, read with great attention, before he begins to look into. the Mécanique Céleste of La Place, the ‘Traité de. Mécanique Elémentaire of Francteur, which is an excellent introduction to that work, and the /H2canique Analytique of La Grange, which is a work of the first rank im this de- partment of science.. If to these he joins the Théorie des Fonctions . Analytiques, and Legons sur le Calcul: des Fonctions, by. Lu Grange, he wiil be able to proceed, with great ease, in any undertaking of this kind, that he may) wish to engage in; these being, as I conceive, all the. most necessary and. useful performances, that have hitherto ap- peared on the. subject of what is more peculiarly. called the \ wi e* * ee Pen Din adie t ae EA IV. Saad Of a cetes. Experiment to proves Nohetlior Water be produced’ in the “Combination of Muriatic Acid Gas and Ammoniacal Ges. By Jowy Bosrocx, M. D., Vice Pres. of the Lit. and Phil, Soc. of “Liverpool, and Tuomas Stewart TRAILL, M, Des: Secretary to the Society. Read before the -" Literary and Philosophical Society of Liverpool, and com= | municated by Dr. Bosrocx. pitscaee Po Me. NICHOLSON. © Tu SIR, ~ 2 Fé Iw your Journal for February, Mr. Murray has related an experiment, which he performed on the mixture of mu- istence of way tiatic and ‘ammoniacal gasses, the object of which was te ter in muriatic. GAse ge Nic ‘whether, when the perch were added together in the a ‘EXISTENCE OF WATER IN MURIATIC. GAS. 19 the state of perfect dryness, the muriate of ammonia, formed by their mixture, contained water. A very obvious quan tity of water was expelled ftom the salt, and it was argued, that this water must have formed a constituent part of the inuriatic gas, for it is now agreed, that pure ammonia con- sists entirely of hidrogen and azote; and from the terms of the experiment it is wappeedds that all moisture was retnuved from both the gasses, and exttiided from every part of the apparatus. {n your Journal for March, a correspondent, The moisture who signs himself A. B. C., undertakes to set aside the in- pinche eee me féfence from the above experiment. This he does; not by have been at- showing’ that either of the gasses, or any part of the appa+ ch or pi ratus, contained water, nor by denying the existence of water phere. in the result of the process as conducted by Mr. Murray, (for these points appear to be admitted) but by attempting to prove, that the muriate of ammohia had attracted mois ture from the atmosphere, while it was transferred from the vessel in whichit was originally formed, into the oné'to which the heat was applied ; and to prove this he relatés an experi- ment, in which newly formed muriate of ammonia attracted water, simply by being “ removed ae the iby al “s into a a dry tube." 4 this time particularly interesting, as ee a part of the pe con controversy respecting the constitution of muriatic acid. From these considerations Dr. Traill made a proposal, to which Ivery willingly assented, that weshould in conjunction repeat w ‘the experiments of Mr. Murray and the correspon dent ; that, we should especially attend to every circum stance, by : which moisture might be excluded ; that the muriate of: ammonia formed Bcc be heated, without being at all exposed to the ait; and that the quantity of moisture, which it acquired from exposure to the atmosphere, should be accurately ascertained.’ Before we entered upon the process we resolved, that, provided no circumstance occurs red tointerrupt or defeat the experiments, the results, what+ ever they were, should be communicated to your J ournal. Every circumstance as to the cleaning and drying the dif- Preparation of ferent parts of the apparatus, and the providing of the the murlawe © necessary substancea, bein “8 attended tu, we commenced our et j 2 - operations \ EXISTENCE OF WATER iN MURIATIC GAS. operations. by,the preparation of the muriatie* gas, Two ounces of muriate,of ammonia, in coarse. powder, and which had, been, kept heated for two days, were mixed with § drachms by measure,of sulphurié, o¢id, sof, the specific gra- vity of 1:85, inya tubulated retort. The gas soon began to form, , without the assistance of heat; and, after a consider- able quantity. had escaped, ‘we received a portion of it over mercurye; The gas was perfectly transparent and colourless, - 10. thoisture-was perceived within the jar, and move was. visi« blein any part of thejretort ; it was indeed obseryed, that some,partioles of the .murjate of ammonia, ;, which had lodged on the lower part of the neck of the vessel, remained perfectly dry at the end of the process. A quantity of mu- riate oflime, perfectly dry and pulveruient, was introduced through the mercury into the muriatic gas, and in n this state it? ee tect for 48 hours. . Preparation of g4 The ammoniacal gas. was.prepared by intiodtitiae intoa the: ati miOnia~ peters equal witiebia of newly burned quick lime and muri- cal gas. Mixture of the. gasses, ‘ Miuriate of” ammonia @ formed, and, ate. of ammonia, in the same state with that used above. By means-of alamp gas was expelled, and after a sufficient quantity, had escaped, a portion was received over mercury. - When ihe jar was become cold, a littlé dew was perceived on the upper part, which was: very “carefully removed. by ’ bibulous paper, introduced.on the end cf a wire. A consi» -derable lamp: of dry. quick: hme was then placed imthe gas; and was suffered to remaia for 48 hours. oP y! ooAt theeod of this time we resumed our operations. | Upoa the closest inspection we:céuld not perceive the least mots- ture.in either of the gasses, or appearance of it in the jars; _ the hime and the muriate of lime were withdrawn, and it was observed, that,ithe latter was to all appearance as dry as when it was-first: introduced. A fiask, furnished. with a ground stopper.and: bent tube, bad 13 cubic inches of am- moniacal gas introdueed:iito’ it.over mercury, and, to this was added 6 cubic inches of muriatic eas In suecessive por- tions. . The flask was then entiely filled with ammomacal gas, and the apparatus was left at rest for about av hour; , it was coated;, more especially at its lower part, with a fine ’ frost work of muriate of ammonia. The stopper _and-tube “= were. then. introduced, and the flask was turned: over, but so 0 Jutoge 2 that EXISTENCE OF pie 5 IN MURIATIC GAS» 2) oO .UET STi es. ee that the end of the tube was pee below tig ane of the mercury, so as to exclude all’ communication with the at-/ mosphere.. The flask was then embedded in a charcoal without hav- “furnace, and gradually heated, until it Was s6fttned.”” Tis Hilary! at process continued about an hout, when the Inuriate of Am- with the at- monia was all sublimed , into, the weck-of the flask, or into aC. the commencement of the tube. When the salt was, about the same half sublimed, a dew was observed to form at the upper part "°S*!: _of .the' curvature of the tubé,, about an inch ‘from K dew the stopper. . This dew increased, so that at.one peniod at igure, -oceupied a zone all round, the tube .of:about.an inch — “in width, and some globules of water, were formed of about the size of a small, pin’s head. Towards the end.of the ex- periment, as the heat increased, the dew was diminished ; but when the tube was removed from the mercury.a similar deposition of moisture was observed at;the end,’ where it, had and moisture -been- immersed in the metal. Before it was taken from the pees 4 -mercuvial bath the tube had its aperture luted with.wax,,in order to exclude all communication; with, the atmosphere, «mbich was. farther ensured, by a globule‘of mercury; being vlodged in. the curvature of the tube ;, and, .as. soon'as it was become cool, the flask was opened,.a part of the salt scraped Part of the , from the neck,, and weighed as quickly.as possibly. The eee be quantity collected was 2°7, BTSy) andnot. ‘more than a minute quickly, .dould have elapsed between, its being removed from the ves~ ViewD zsel,' and its: weight .being, ascertained. It remained in;the i abi ab oscale for 15 minutes; but although we thought that the index and it gained of ‘the. balance rather, inclined, to that side,” no. increase »of A ee v weight. could. he pasitively asserted to'haye taken, place. In weight by ex- ~ order, that.a judgment. may be: formed | of the delicacy.of the eats to the instrument, we found it to turn. with. rg of a graing when lig «each side was. ee 500 SFAIG9ds Ao pated w8at wttla ya shufsaay [—~ mle amy, Silly): ifn ¥Vtey bey 0 Tk oY etatisl 20)? to catego odt Yous nial i aridlnas visas revign mimes tayupoit tod doviw cottso We BOSTOCKA *\Knot’ s-hole Bank; riba dod poi OT a? f, af may ty § 2 Fd an acd Mareh the 26th 51 3'v922 i bog luttsbnow ylout wd af He gti I daprio2 a diaud vies big Dagiide doum we mf by sisi SAD VAL f preg RS Tie 8 Vv 4, AV Ambiguity in Mrs..lbbet- , sTRUCTURE OF THE WATER LILY. V. Questions respecting a Passage in Mrs. Ippetson’s Account of the Water Lily. Ina Letier from a Correspondent, To W. NICHOLSON, Esq. SIR, In the last number of your very excellent publication, son's account. there is a paper ‘of Mrs. Ibbetson’s, in continuation of her of the water lily. Questions tespecting it. valuable discoveries in the minute anatomy of plants, in which T would, though with the greatest deference, point out an ambiguity, in my opinion of considerable importance, The passage I allude to is in the description of the structure _ of the water lily, page 243, where, after referring to * a. a, of fig. 1, Pl. VII,” for a view of the air vessels, she’ ‘says, that, lest the pith * should not be sufficient to prevent in- sects from entering into it, and choking up the air vessel, as soon as the plant sinks in the water, a quantity of hairs, which are placed in circles in the interior, rise, and, meet- ing in the centre, not only aid to keep out the water, but run through every insect, that ventures to approach.” ‘Mrs. Ibbetson then goes on to add, “ I have often caught insects threaded on the hairs, but they are soon washed off. © ~~ Now a question or two naturally arise on reading this ob- servation.—Ist, how do insects get into or even near the air vessels ? or, 2ndly,; how can the water come at them, to wash them off, when’ these vessels gre so entirely internal 2 1 doubt not that these questions can be most satisfactorily answered ; bur, certainly, Mrs. Ibbetson did not show her usual perspicuity in this passage. . Your insertion of this, or an answer to it, if possible i in your next, will very much oblige me.—I conclude by sin= cerely thanking the lady, who is the occasion of this letter, for the high gratification, which her frequent communica> tions have afforded—and with hopes, that she will persevere in her truly wonderful and interesting discoveries. I an, sir, Your much mat? and very humble servant, Poole, April the 4th, 1812 T. B. VI. STATER OF PHILIP OF MACEDONe 23 Vi. The Stater of Philip, she Father.of-Alexanders or Remarks on. the Purity or Standard uf Gold: By Mr..J. Fassrent, of Florence, Corresponding Member of the French Instituie*. . ia Fr ie Narurauists, perhaps on the Me iakes of. Pliny Native gold’ (1), are almost unanimous in the assertion, that native toe to gold is never found perfectly pure, or free from. all alloy; ~~ particularly of silver; and that the finest is scarcely from 0°875 to 0°917, thatis from 21 to 22 carats, The gold dust Gold dust from brought from Africa is commonly within these limits. I “sale have seen some at 0°927, or 22 carats and a quarter?; and lately there has been some at 0°958, or 23 carats, brought from Morocco to the mint at Florence. ay hace the carat is divided into eighth.) ' / Itis probable, that in the early ages money was coined fal Arieient coine a porn gold, in the state in which it was found ; for there thee eeite _ could be no inducement to incur the trouble and expense of . refining it. The t most ancient gold coin hanes is suyiposed to be that Most ancient of Battus IV, cast or struck at Cyrené, in Africa, i in the asa time of Pisistratus. Its fineness does not appear to be ‘known... ,Of all the Grecian. coins found in our cabinets of Oldest Greek, medals the most ancient: are the beautiful pieces of Philip, 5 are of father of Alexander... This enterprising man, who from his eis infancy looked forward to ascend the throne ef Macedon and become master of Greece, had the cood fortune to find some rich gold mines, which he, knew. hats to. work to great His mines. advantage. | . Mount , Pangzeus furnished him, annually to the amount of 4300000. F lorence liri, [€218760]. Hence = he derived the most powerful instrument of. the success of his political designs and military talents, . Whether the gold of Philip noclegnret any wishin Speiations before it-was * Aan. de Chim., “vol. LXXIL, Pp. 25.) -. The figures. refer to notes by Mr. @ Arcet at. the end of the paper. " t This gold is found chiefly in the country of Bambouck. sent 94 sratiR OF PHILIP ‘OF “MACEDON: sent to the mint, is not known; but there is reason to be lieve, that it was employed’ in the state in which it was found*,. Assay of his Patin’ assay eda old etater of this king, ahd found it 93 Nasir carats and a half fine, or 0°979 : ‘and, as it cannot be sup- posed, “that hismintmen would’ havé ‘thought of purifying gold, to add afterward no more than a forty-eighth of alloy, we may presume, that the g gold was ab native of this fine= “ness. CMTE of Addition of “"- Df alloy avid tel added 'to | saul with a bad design, \o iiaehioet with the erroneons idéa of defraying the expense of seated it is.a'remedy that has degenerated into fraud, sand has'no gra Jimits. If alloy have béen added with the desigiy of render- ing the coin harder, it is a wseless “idea. ’ Neither ‘of these Philip used his fnotiyés could) have induced Philip to adopt the : ‘practice, gold native. beeausd the source of his gold:was abundant, and he was désirous. of appearing: genérouss:so that he »would have coined his money of pure gold, af he hadithbdught it neces- sary to. refine,it; or he would) have added ‘more alloy; if ' policy had suggested to him, not to employ it in the virgin ptate,.as it came’ from ‘the. mite |(2). 1t would sappear therefore, that nature furmshed him with gold at 23 carats * and half, or 0°979, as it is in his coin; unless there were an ervour in the assay of Patin, whines deserves therefore to be verified, 2 TE Vy iene Astarcr ately The Mkodien F dabeatadnd) a very case vnidithetital ed ticians digging the! foundations: of:a house near Arrezzo, ‘ found a stater of Philip in’ very good preservation, No sooner was he informed of the wish to examine the weight and chemical composition of his antique, than he readily sacrificed it to the gratification of this curiosity, « » « Described. |The obverse of this piece, like that of most of Philip’s coins, bears the head of Apollo; and the reverse, a'chariot with two horses walking, ’ The name is ‘in the exergue, “On similar staters under the legs of the horses appears a mono- grata, or some type, to denote the mint where the piece was struck. On this stater it is a place the Sea of Treezene, eae ay Wi * Pliny hints, that gold was Found in the bowels of the earth “suf. , ficiently pure, to be meltcd without any preparation, Fourteen STATER OF PHILIP .OF ‘MACEDON. 25 _ Bourteen staters of Philipare.preserved inthe rich cabinet Fourteen in of the Floreuce gallery. Eleven resemble that of Arrezzo sal - is on‘ both sides, but they have different. mint-marks ; one only having the ‘samevaswthat found near Arrezzo.. The Their weigtt. weight of two ofthese. staters, «perfectly resembling each other in external appearance, is. precisely .176 Florence grains! [1336 grs Eng.:}/; This. is_ precisely the. weight, of a another stater, the mint-mark of which is formed by ajJlarge | KK,,and a small. 05) of one’that has a thunderbolt ; one with larvase;. and one with an earjof corn, the gmark | of the Leon- tiie: « This:being the. weight, of the. six largest. staters that ddve come .down to.us,.there.\is reason to presume, that 1. it “was thé weight prescribed for this Gweek coin*, Hence. it Weight of the wmay’ bevinferred,: that. the drachma was equivalent, to 88 ‘se hase ‘Flor. grs. [66:8 grs.E.]...(De Romé-de-Lisle gives. 4-461. gr. [68°9 grs}] for the gréat attic Thad for some'time the keeping of the rich collect ién Collection at of natural histery belonging ‘to our first. king, who was Florence. very fond of these things, and COIR, versed in natural philosophy. spe ithe _ In it were many specimens, of mineralized gold and ae Speciméns of native gold gold, among: which I obseryed two well formed crystals Of in golds. one cubical, the other a tetraed ral prisia surmounted Two singujar by.a a. four-sided, pyramid, It would | be gratifying to know igs what, substances | united to the gold. determined t these diffe- rent figures, naturally formed i in, the bowels of the Earth, “Pe altogether different from those prod uced i in rour hue ofes. by, cooling 3 after, fusion. The: cube. is very, pales, ‘the _prism, is of a a deeper. regloni: but, these two crystals, which r found ‘by ‘chance t in selecting a gteat many native 2 grains, peg unique in-the Solleetion, so that} bits is impossible tothink : ots af pete 6 “them, i an “examination, that would spoil Aegan <0 ~ “gheir figures, ” \qilild te oh Gq dparperh 10 ous ‘but rem emmanka able specimen. from. Boat EP- Specimen riched the same telleehon Te was given by the Prince of from Brazil, Brazil, af Badajor; ‘to the late’ King of ‘Etniria, then infant of Spain*anid Hereditary’ prihte’of Parma. '’Thé weight of this piecé 18 abdut *r4 ibs. [12 1bs, 9 oz. “troy}*, beside a weighing 12 small fragment of the same, the nature of which, through Ibs, 9 oz. the kindness of the king’s apothecary, John Ulnci, I was , enabled to éRainine’ ‘By. Pa petldetGh and’ partibe’; without part of it exe “neglecting te test its solution in‘nitroma riatic acid by ‘gul- amined ‘phaté of itdn;"and’ nédtral salts with base of potash. By | “alt these trials: Twas Gb rivineed: > that i is'very ‘pure gold’ of was perfectly Of earats, if the’ Whole ‘inides Be"hiotogenedis, without: dhy pure. portion of inferiér’ fetal; 08 bev we Sh geal 29 we: bo person bias evet! déubiteds' tht “véty’ toarse gold ig “90 silt ao¥9 BroWsqima Sis i9! * Pliny ihforms us, that pieces ra i pdenads weight were cal- ghee. Byatt the paid « in_his time palacras.and palacranas; others,say, F that small pieces were termed ‘palas, whencé perhaps our paglictte, and the French paillettes. * Vou. XXXIL—May, 1812. D found Pliny’s testi- monye STATER OF PHILIP OF MACEDON « found in minerals containing it, 1 am now certain, tliat nae ture likewise presents us with wt of the greatest. fineness, and even perfectly pure. This is what I purposed to show by this new fact, in writing 1 this little essay, as o pe esent to the lovers of mineralogy and antiquities, ned > Notes on the preceding Paper by Mr. D'Ancet, Verifier of Assays at the Mint of France. fie (1) Pliny says, book 33, that there is'no gold more pute than that obtaimued from the sands of rivers ; ‘and that all - gold obeained by arrugize has no occasion: to be melted; being pure native gold. But Pliny says in the same book, that Midi is more malleable and heavier than gold, which 4 is a mistake, and proves, that the gold considered | by Pliny ¢ as “pure was an alloy. He says also farther on, that all gold i 1s mixed with silver : : and that the freest from silver known is “the gold of Albicrare in Gaul, which contained but a thirty sixth* : whence it follows, ‘that the. testimony of Pliny t to this point is of no reais and | at we must ids to. ex- Analysis of an ancient coin af Philip. Ait fried ‘coin with the ber of Phin: which’ proves, ‘that 1 in his reign coins were made of alloys, the composition’ of which was native, or at Teast unknown 5 for this piéee contained Silver. cece ee enere sen netoonrns 368... 7 ley Gold PP ostPOpoeelosreosuviecgeei | ,184. ise aig, Copper. papegareny cera oneet 448. hs 4 Seto! gay Fe “1000, ‘ aie is not -nbebsen that sick acalecem: “of t the noe Te yd “quired - -such -or_ so complex. an alloy, at,a time, when the methods of analysis or assay were but. approximations ; and when they were unquestionably far from. the accuracy, that _may be obtained even by. employing only. the touchstone,. ‘touchneedles, and prepared acid, used at. presents. The art of ase. saying among’ the ancients t 5: (3), The art of assaying was as.far as possible. from: napfect in those remote Noelia ‘Under the penne even eine fine-- “#8 He speaks of other ge containing -¥ tenth ‘ int icy 916 an eighth part. Cc. re ‘rs wi ibe. ‘ n kh AS ‘STATER OF PHILIP OF MACEDON. 835 ness of gold and of silver was judged by the colour it rr 1M very imper the fire, and that of its streak on the touchstone. fect. | These. methods, though practised by experienced men, can give only very inaccurate résults, and which may be va- ried by a number of circumstances ; as strong cleaning by aqua fortis, a complication in the alley, a difference in the alloy, &c. ; Archimedes would not hare applied the laws of specifie gravity to ascertain the falsificatiou of the crown of Hiero, if he. could have done it by a better method, and particus larly by a method known and ‘commonly practised. Et is well known too, that, under the triumvirate of Mark ‘Antony, every street in Rome erected a statue to Marius Gratianus, who had invented and introduced one of these Approximative methods, that have been mentioned: and this denotes the infancy of a useful art, the first steps of which are highly encouraged, because they are Se as as conducive to the public” welfare. (4) By employing alkaline sulphurets the solution of gold Sulphurets, may be effected: metallic a a only, must. be under- stood here, — eat ill ' (3) Mr. de Robilant, in his account of the processes ém- Italian mints. ploye ed in the mint of Turin, says, that ceméntation is the process of refining commonly employed at Venice, Genoa, and Florenee, weber civ are coined: of owes pure bi golds inj. 83 4, ; (6) As Mrs Fabroni says, it is not easy to explain the Process of grounds of the’ process described by Agatharchides, or of incweces ana that which appears to be still practised at Lyons. These processes should be repeated, attending to their progress with care,-and applying to them ‘the means of modern chea mical analysis, particularly the pneumatochemical appara- tus, The nature of the gas that traverses the fluid silver should be ascertained, why it forms under such a pressure, why it. does not flow back through the ‘pores of the cru- cible,. &e. § Thesex periment related by Mr. Batreni anes not appear to me sufficiently conclusive, to decide the question. (7) Reaumur says, Mémoires de VAc. des Sciences, An. Ararat 0. us 3718, p. 87, that Jo or Suite: e $6 STATER OF PHILIP OF MACEDON: The gold of the river Céze is at’ 18 car. '8 ers’ ‘Rhonee*«+ 20° . ine Die 8 : Rhine: + © 21°25 . Arriége’. + 22°25. Lumps of na- He further abserves, that, the fineness varies in the same piel sendin piece of native gold. He says, that ‘the piece of 56 marks, which was seen at the Academy, was ip.one place 28 carats and half, in another 23 carats, and in another 22, The piece of 63 marks belonging to father Feuillée was: at its upper part 22 carats 2 grs; a little lower, 91 carats, 2 gre 5 and at two inches from the bottom only 17 carats and half, (Reaumur’s grain is a twelfth of a carat, a division used ip Germany.) Wicklow gold.’ Mr. G. A. Deluc Sic in the Journal ae lei yol. LIT, p, 205, that pieces of gold, found im the county — of Wicklow, in. Ireland, contained a ninth. of aheis hich of silver, without any other alloy. » eee ‘My father, -having been appointed to assay. the piece of academy. native gold belonging to the academy, during the time: of the revolution, made two assays of it, both of which were ' 28 car. .26 thirty-seconds. . This Gomes! very near to ‘pure gold; and proves, that. gold is found in, nature alley at very variable quantities of silvers © | 94) 40 /> ; a Pure native = Mr.:Fabbroni is the first voltilitendublsialahe that gold a is found also quite pure. This 1s an important observa $ * but it doesnot seem to me to oyerturn the general principle, that native goldis.a natural alloy of gold and ‘silver : ‘a prin- ciple established by’ a great number of oo anid | to which only one exception is yet known. ; Presence of ~ [t is desirable, that the presenée of lead’ anband we sought pa poy for in ancient coins or medals : as this would be the most seught, eeitdin method of ascertaining, whether the ancients refined on golds or stabbed it as natare i sand it heme a ON THE. ANIMAL FLUIDS. 37 Vii. 4 Rejoinder to a Paper published in the Philosophical Journal, by Dr. Marcut, on the Animal Fluids. By Georce Pearson, MD. F.R.S., & ce. , To W. NICHOLSON, Esq. + 1SIRs By a severe accident I have been prevented from writing the paper, which I proposed in the communication honour- ably inserted im your Journal for February last. Meanwhile an ‘answer hasbeen published by Dr. Marcet*. ; » Before [I redeem my pledge of offering some remarks on Reply to Dr. Dr. Marcet’s Memoir, the subject of my former communi- Marcet. cation, I feel myself called upon by what I consider to be , the true interests! of science, to reply to his intervening .an- swer. This gentieman cannot. be more averse from polemi- caliwriting than’ J am, nor have move powerful motives of private-advantage by being otherwise employed: but unless, L.were toravail myself of the plea of a celebrated: philoso~ pher, who asserted, that his regard for truth was so great, that he would not part with it, lest it should be ill treated by mankind, I have no ‘option consistent with public duty. The feelings of either party must however regulate their future conduct. For myself I can only promise, that I shall not considers it as a nae of honour to contend for the last word: -.In the: answer, which ‘bas rise addressed to me, Tne Whether the Marcet has set forth evidence from his memoir, still. under alia examination, to maintain, that soda in an uncombined state, or potash, _ and not potash, exists in the animal fluids, as [trust I have macpmbineds legitimately, proved .according to facts hitherto discovered. As my honourable Opponent has not contravened the most decisive parts of: the evidence in support of my allegations, Team spated the pains of again displaying it ; so. thas I have only'to Rreripeey agrees eens he brings Armani jnstis thisegs -fi2atc a NSee the Philos. Meant for March laste silage al .o fication. 38 Figure of crys- tuls not a deci- sive proof. Acctic acld said to have formediacetate of soda. Filnid of spina bifida, 7 ON THE ANIMAL FLUIDS. fication. In my remarks perhaps I cannot entirely avoid repetition of objections already produced. - ¢ The first kind of proof, that soda and not potash is pre- sent, again asserted by my adversary, 18 from the figure of ctystals. I have to remark in addition to my former obser- vations, that their forms alone, rarely or never, even when - perceivable with the unassisted organ of vision, do singly denote unequivocal properties : ‘and when sot perceivable without the medium: of glasses, ‘we know from past experi- ence the figures are to be considered ag still more equivocal, I might say deceptive. If these cry stalling forms are’ now admitted as justly distinguishing properties of certain ‘sub- stances, it is in cousequence of repeated observation on larger quantities by direct vision, ‘* quae sint oculis subjecta fidelibns’’; but even then not without concomitant other well ascertained properties. Secondly, great dependence seems ‘to be placed on the. acetate produced by combining acetic acid with ‘the saline: matter afforded by incineration. This was said to ‘be acetate. of soda, which dissolved in alcohol, “ while potash was. found in the residue left undissolved by the alcohol”. ‘fal have searched the pages of the memoir under examination, again and again, for the evidence in support of this allegas tion; but, here and on many other occasions, 1s avmere ase seriian, except a partial support from the serum of the blood, as will be seen hereafter. For Ist, with regard to the saline matter of the fluid of the spina bifida, 1 fiud these words, * the alcoholic’solution being decanted off and evaporated to dryness, a residue supposed to consist of acetate of soda was obtained.” Here no mention is made either of ‘an éx- periment to prove whether the acetate was that of soda or _ of potash, but it was supposed to be acetate of soda. As to the undissolved matter'containing potash, there is not even Fluid of hy- é@rocephalus iulernus. that can find a ‘word’ written, This taps ney been Supposed, | f 2, With regard to the: stones “Buid dx citi that of hydrocephahis joternnsy;we are: rold,.¢ithe abalysis -wag conduetediia the same manner asin the: former’+-of course the existence of soda in the alcohol, and of potash undiss solved, is not proved, but here also supposed.” 3- In ON THE ‘ANIMAL FLUIDS. 39 nay In the. examination of affier anthait fluids, viz. of Other Auids. ascites, of hydrothorax, and hydrops pericardii, as well as subsequently of the hydrocele, of the hydatids, of the thy- roid gland, and of a tumour of the chest, no such experi- iment as that of compounding an acetate is mentioned. 4. In the experiments however on the saline matter of the Serum of f the bl tat ded, which pore, sernm of the blood, an acetate was compounded, w ich Experiment dissolved’ In alechol; the words of the author being, -** the with acetic alcoholic residue, contrary to my expectations, exhibited aN ioe traces of potash, both by means of tartaric acid, and oximu- wiate of platina.” This, as far as I can find, is the sole experiment with acetic acid and alcohol, related by the author to. determine the kind of alkali present, although the assertion is made of the animal fluids generally. But, although the assertion be not proved, it may be worth while to consider what, or whether any thing is proved by these -experiments. They prove, that notdsh was present, be- What is prov. cause there was a precipitate with tartaric acid, but nothing natu _more-—there 3 is no proof, that it was in the state of muriate, _ag asserted. It perhaps will be said, that these experiments - _ prove, , that this se aleoholic residue” contains also acetate of _ soda; “ for the same residue, treated with nitric acid, was almost. entirely resolved into rhomboidal crystals, among -which I was unable, to detect any distinct prisms,” Now I ‘have already expressed my want of confidence in the figure ,ef.minute crystals singly as evidence, especially seen _ through glasses ; and here I presume is a decisive instance of _ their fallacy ; for the potash being proved tobe present, and, “as already said by Dr. Marcet, Uhited to muriatic acid, it _ must have afforded cubes, if reliance can be placed on - forms ; ; but. no such cubes were seen. A farther objection occurs to. my mind in this experiment, I apprehend, that it i& quite as likely to be true, that alcohol will dissolve a small proportion of muriate of soda, as according to Dr. Marcet it. does of muriate of potash. This being the case, the “alco- holic residue’ ought to have afforded cubes of muriate of _ soda as well as, of muriate of potash. The process under, _ éxamination requires farther ‘animad version on the remain= _ ig part of it: ** Potash was easily ‘discoverable in the resis je insoluble in alcohol, which residue had’ now lost its sa deliquescent 40 Anotiter point Bot satisfac- tory. Acetate of soda deliques- cent, and so- Tuble in alco- hol. ON THE ANIMAL FLUIDS. deliquescent quality.” That potash. was present ina com- bined state j admit may be inferred, but I. say ‘confidently there ig,no proof, ‘that it was united. to muriati¢ acid. It is not however incumbent on, me, bat on. the Affirner, to show with what it is combined. I think it right to notice another unsatisfactory part of the process helote me, It is said,.a coacentrated solution of the saline mass in question did not distinctly indicate potash, by oximuriate of platina, but did by tartaric acid, Subsequently however we are told, that the dissoluble, as well as the indisscluble residue, of the ace- tous compound in alcohol readily denoted the presence of potash to the oximuriate of platina as well as to tartaric acid, To me I own this account only shows, that the quantities employed, were too minute for distinct observation of facts. How all ambiguity mht have been removed I have taken the liberty, of proposing in commenting on this process in my, former communication, to your Journal, ps 1ol. On that. occasion I expressed my doubt, whether or not the acetate of soda be dissoluble in alcohol, but I referred to the authority of experiment. Here, my learned friend exultingly construes these phrases of doubt,. two palpable errours, and trium phs—* a hit, a hit, my Lord, a very pal- pable hit,’ ’-No, there is no errour in this case, ‘Dr. M., according to the English meaning of the terms used. To make. the most of these asserted errours I am also charged, with no less than three times repeating them; asif the pro- priety of writing was absolutely limited to the number of times an assertion should be delivered. At this time. how- ever, without, the slightest uneasy emotion, I say, that acetate of soda is a deliquescent salt, and dissoluble i in alco-. - hol; for I have performed the necessary experiment, not. indeed with “half a erain and a watch glass,” but with 50 grains. The truth is, I had not leisure, little as was ree guired, when I wrote. my, communication, to make the ex- periment ; but as, on inquiry of a friend: most, likely, to be informed, I found he was ignorant; as.on, just looking into. two valuable. books, Aikin’s Dictionary. and, Thompson’ ry Elementary work, one said the acetate. of soda. Was @ pers manent and the.other a. deliquescent salt; and: asin: my; collection, of specimens, there was a REAR crystallized salt ON THE ANIMAL FLUIDS« 43 salt labelled by an- assistant acetate of soda; I theught it best to leave the matter as doubtful, although I own I in- clined to the contrary opinion of that which is I now believe the truth. Dr. M. may call this a palpable errour, if he pleases—he will hurt nobody but himself by the phrase. The main proof is hereby not affected ; for the fact now ascertajned against my doubtful Opinion is only a collateral evidence on either side. ae 5. Another source of evidence against me is that potash Proof of coms combined.“ was proved by the tests oximuriatic of platina, ie #7 as and tartaric acid.” The just inference has been already. proposed ; but 1 will now remark that this experiment does not prove, that soda was or was not present. ; _ As to any other proofs they have been already minutely examined in my. former communication, or have been an- ‘swered in this: but I entreat the indulgence. of. being Other insuffi- allowed to make two or three farther remarks, 1. On the Bee sens fluid of the spina bifida, of the thorax, and of the pericar- dium, the tartaric acid was not employed at all. Of these fluids the analy sis in general was. very partial. 2, Of the alkaline matter of the hydrocephalus fluid the examination must be unsatisfactory by the tests, on account of the im- practicability of entirely separating the two alkalies from one another i in such minute quantities as were obtained; and, if the separation were not effected, as the two fixed alkalies are affirmed to exist, the test, tartaric acid, must have produced soda-tartrate-of potash ; consequently the ine ference of the adverse party cannot be just. Having, as briefly as seemed proper, commented on the opposing evidence, and set forth in a different light my own, I must pay due respect to the other parts of the inge- pious Answerer’s papers : If it. shall appear, that the vc tee ay ee in the fesults Farther ree of the i inquiries by the two parties, worth particular notice, aarAENt is with respect » to the alkaline matter, I submit to the world, whether or not Dr. M. could with prudence have published; his:memoir without a reference to his predeces8or, as‘he observes he ¢ould have done with propriety ; and ‘espeé- cially as he says he was directed particularly to the alkaline iiptegaation; by my papers Dr, M. complains, that he ‘is at x 42 Whether ‘sub- stances be more dis- tinguishable im large badies, or in small, ‘ON THE ANIMAL FLUIDS. at a Joss to understand my meaning, and is much embarrassed by my obscure and inaccurate manner of writing. I am grieved, that my learned friend should experience these dif- ficulties; but as I have not heard similar complaints from others, I may perhaps not indecorously venture to say, that I suspect his claim to judgment of propriety | and perspi- cuity in English is somewhat doubtful. My ingenious Opponent cannot agree with me, that aut stahces and properties of ‘substances are discoverable by operating upon large masses, which cannot be effected with . smaller quantities, I really thought the proposition so ob- viously true, that illustration was needless. Heaps of illus strative examples in nature occur to my mind, while 1am _ writing, both in the department of chemistry and physi- ology. If arsenous acid, muriate of soda, or sulphuric acid, be dissolved in the proportion of one part to 100 equal parts of water, they will be discoverable by well known re- agents; but if the proportion of water be increased more ‘and more, the indication of their presence will become less and less distinct, and at last they will be no longer perceiv- able, although it is known they exist: or if I take certain ‘fractional designated parts of any given weight ef these sub- stances, they will elude manifestation by any means hitherto known. On this principle of division and diffusion the most deleterious poisons become innoxious by the minute-. ness of the quantity applied to the human constitution. Herticte atmospheric air containing fen miasmata, plague contagion, or small pox matter, are applied with impunity. “A pound of blood of a glandered horse transfused into a Healthful horse will not excite disease, but as much blood as can be transfused from two glandered horses into.one horse will excite the disease of glanders. Sugar, alkali*, &c. may exist in tke blaod, but not be discoverable by any _ known reagent on account of the small proportion of them “owes as ¥ cercluded, to’tlre smal) proportion of alkali to the blood. existing in veh bluod at any given time, as I waiatens reason, %, In Dr. Ralle’s werk on diabetes I have wellsked ‘an experiment, in which potash was taken in such quantity, that the urine became so impregnated as to afforda precipitate of super-tartrate with tartaric ecid, at the same time the blood did not indicate a trace of alkali; and ON THE ANIMAL FLUIDS.” 43 and not on account of an hypothetical new ‘channel, a sort” of northwest passagé from the ‘stomach to the urmary blad- der, In thecaseof waters the proportion is so minute of» various impregnating substancess that, unless very large bulks be used, they must escape detections» The great mas- térs have accordingly used such large quantities. Margraf, (Qpuscules chymiques, v. II,. p. 8) did’ not’ evaporate 100 drops of snow or rain water 1n a watch giass capsule like some modern microscopic chemists, but he operated upoa 100 quart mezsures of snow water, in which he was able to > find only 60 grains of carbonate of lime, a few grains of - cgpriate of soda, and traces of nitrous acid. : “Thad the advantage of making my snivchile efforts to pera form several chemical exercises ander that _great master, professor Black... Among other precepts, treasured in the tablet of my memory for more than 30 years, was that of employing large bulks of mineral waters; and of all other things, ia which there was a probability of minute propor- tions being present. The: reasons of ‘Dr. Black for not "practising according to this rule ia the insiance of the ana- lysis mentioned 1 cannot pretend to assign; but it seems — probable, that he was in possession of only a small quantity of the material. As to the magnitude of the masses of mate ter required, it is-impossibly to specify them ; but it is ob= vious, that analysis must’ fail to develope substauces on ace count of the’ minute proportion to‘other things with which mixed not being susceptible of being made evident to the. senses} and ini consequence, by a due larger proportion they may be'rendered sensible. Hence perhaps, it is that we are ignorant of many of the properties of light, calorific, electricity, of infectious,’ and contagious*substances, &e. It i argued against me, that *‘ the chemical properties, which belong to a particle of matter, belong to the whole moun- taiii of the “same substance.” “Lrae—but T know nothing of properties of substances but by’ ineans' of the external or- gains o of sense, {this is indeed an axiom) | ‘and unless the par= - ticle be'of a age magnitude, my are of s sense cannot in- fori Wie of its properties. ~My honourable adversary talks of the advantage of a smal] Advantages of - gcale of operation in the points of economy and convenience, of operating ami Granted—~ 44 ON THE ANIMAL. FLUIDS. , denied in some Granteds-but these are minor considerations indeed to the. sespects, but admitted oubers. acquirement of knowledge. When Dr. Marcet also speaks of the advantage in point. of accuracy, I protest against it for reasons above explained, It is farther represented, that “‘ there is a degree. of neatness gained. by reducing the scale of operations”. I own 1 have difficulty to conceive a just sense in which this. term may be used on this occasion, | Does it mean the avoiding extraneous things occurring in operations? if so, I cannot.separate it from accuracy ; and as it is seldom, practicable to operate without meeting with some extraneous matter or dirt, it appears to me, that many» of those old chemists, who are reproached. for mentioning. ‘ Dye Qurdewerat 2 9/07 re ie Soe aapoae ap yyy: it ' [wish Tcould ‘more’ frequently be jocular, as so many ~ @ecti?rences are experienced in common life’ to make ne sad, Hence I would rather live with Horace, than with the ‘mélancholy moralist Jaquez.' Some allowance too should be made for the differing natures of individuals from the ements being so differently mixed up. Ie Oty Oke ve ¢¢ Nature hath fram’d strange ‘fellows i in her time, tr Some being of such vinegar aspect, Toutes oy ot Bal That they'll not show their teeth in way of: nibs ‘Sioa ‘Though’ Nestor. swear the jést_be laughable”) o> pasa ON THE ANIMAL ELUIDS. Ay _ The foregoing pages:of rejoinder will, l.trust, save me the Substances trouble of many intended remarkson Dr. Marcet’s paper; saree ids. independently of its relation to the questions at-issues A few comments only J shall now beg to be allowed to deliver. 1. The animal matters in the fluids examined are stated The animal _. to be of two kinds’: viz. coagulable or albuminous matter, inatter in the: and what the ‘anther calls: muco-extractive. Ido not at all ae a object to the experiments, but appeal to competent judges, ate whether it is not unjust to make this distinction,, The ‘evi+ dence of the .coagulable, matter.is from the visible coagular tion by caloritic, and some reagents, but if there be not a due proportion, of it to, the water in which itis dissolved, such evidence isnot; obtainable, This may. be easily, proved, and as I apprehend I have shown in, my published: papers; by a kind, of synthetic’ experiment, For example: se- rum of blood, or any other known coagulable fluid, may be’ so diluted with water, as to afford no clear, proof ef \its pre- ° sence by. coagulation on applying calorific, although; such ~ an effect. may be reasonably inferred on probable . grounds from, the disturbance of transparency, or-cloudinegs. » And, as far as LI. have, found .by. experimerit, coagulable matter so. diffused, on being,collected by evaporation ‘to dryness,’ is scarcely coagulable.. by calorific ; so that: the whole of any ; given quantity of, animal , coagulable fluid by ‘such treate 9 9 foo oe ament was yendered,; uncoagulable.. According to my ‘trials a too, there always remained;,on coagulating serum and-other analogous fluids,,.a small proportion of animal matter dis- solved in the watery part, which differed in no respect from the matter left on evaporating water containing a certain wy small and uncoagulable proportion, of serum added to the water, as, above stated, But. these dilute solutions, which appear, uncoagulable, denote the, presence of aaimal matter to, the test of tannin. , It was probably this property, and the animal matter afforded by evaporation, which induced some. chemists to conclude, that a different kind of animal substance from: coagulable,, such as gelatinable, existed in the serum of blood... Hence I conclude, that the two grains of. what Dr. Marcet calls. muco-extractéve matter, afforded by. 500 grains. of serum, after separating 44 grains of albu« men or coagulable matter, is this matter rendered uncoagus doe by dissolution.,.And hence too J-eonclude, that the animal 48 ON THE ANIMAL FLUIDS. animal matter, in the other animal fluids, which he exe amined; was of one ‘kind only, viz. coagulable matter, but not demonstrable by’ its most distinguishing property on account of digsolation in a large proportion of water. Ammonia not 2. Ammonia is not mentioned among: the impregnating mentioned: —_ inoredients:' ‘This is to me not surprising, for it is ev idently “From my experiments in so small a proportion as to be un- discoverable’ in the quantities employed. If I could not find by estimation half a grain weight of it in 7 or 8000 grains of animal matter, it was not Rabie to be rendered evi- dent in 7 or 800 grains. - Sulphate of 3. Sulphate oppotash: That a sillier? exists I perceiv ed eee evidence, and have accordingly inserted it’ among the saline matters in my published papets; but that it is sulphate of potash I apprehend will’ not ' be: alowed to have been shown by Dr. Mareet. © 0 Phosphate of - 4. Phosphates of lime, of: tron, wills of magnesia, are enu- lime, iron, and erated in ‘the memoir before me.” Of phosphate of lime ee _ there is: goodvevidence, as I have set forth, and coincide m my results with those of the author: as well as that there’ is probably sulphate of magnesia > also, that’ there is iroh’s but Lwas not able ito infer, chatit‘was in’ a state of phos- phate, [ only imserted: it'in my results aan oxide, | °°" The colouring. Although it is ‘not essentially connected, ‘T take this ¢ op- Boa: “oe portumity a referring to a process, ‘which ‘T offer’as evidence not iron. against: ‘the: common” opinion, that’ the colour of ‘the bléod ig owmng~to irons (I have mentioned ‘it in’ ‘my ‘lectutés during several past years, and it was’ published’ in the Eain- burgh Medical and Surgical Journal, vol./VIT, p- 184, “for January, 18110 ‘Teollected 110 grains of the’ ted! part in @ dried state, by repeated aBNitioneefr om ‘about: yooo0 grains, or upwards of twentyounces’ of) blood: - BY’ burning | in 4 platina crucible, it: affordéd;’ in weight,’ two- grains ahd a half of ashalf-fused’ browt tasteless “substance: By boiling in muriatie acid’a part was: dissolved. "This S6lution wis mot styptic to the taste; it ‘becaine’. blackish» ‘ott additig tincture‘ of gall nut,and°on adding prussiate’ bi patish, it ‘afforded a> deep blue’ coloured! precipitate, ‘which did” not yield by ignitidbh, or ‘calcination, above half a grain “of reddish: brown powder, “Is it thei’ probable, “that | twenty ounces of, blood'should derive their tolotit fori half a prain of ON THE ANIMAL FLUIDS. 49 of oxide of iron? I think proper to speak of this result at this time beeause it was published anonymously, and bes cause subsequently to its publication I find it has been mentioned by other persons without acknowledgement, or at least without knowledge of this fact. oT 5. I found also idiedtiods of caronate of limeand of Ses and ¢ar- silica, not enumerated by Dr. Marcet. Future experiments sper ingl must furnish unequivocal evidence. 6. Muriate of potash asserted by the author, instead of Muriate of potash united toanimal matter, or to some other destructible Pots substance, as J have inferred. On this question perhaps roore than necessary has been already said in the present and former papers. 7. Subcarbonate of soda, asserted by the author, has been Siticarhorate the subject of discussion at the same time as the last men- ° soda. tioned ingredient. : 8, ‘Muriate of soda, Both parties agree in this being the Muriate of chief saline impregnation, aun, It may be right to notice, that T have employed the term Self-coagula- ‘self-coagulable lymph, instead of the usual one coagulable ble lymph. dymph because the serum, another fluid of the blood, is also cougulable, but not of itself without a certain tempera- ture, or certain substances being mixed with it. The de- posit spoken of by Dr. Marcet is not, I tlink, as he sup- ‘poses, what I mean by the term self-coagulable lymph. Although, if the cause of truth require it, another com- Conclusion. munication may be offered; it will be most agreeable. to me, that it be not found necessary. Considering the er- roneous inferences, with which the writings of chemistry by men of the' greatest celebrity abound ; I shall on that ace count endeavour to find. a source of consolation, if time show, that I] am the erring party. I hope too, that this controversial discussion may serve to promulgate knowledge, by inducing some persons to attend to the subject, who might not other wise have known the original papers. 1f with these reflections my respectable adversary can be satisfied, the controversy will now be terminated. *© Claudite j jam rivos pueri: sat prata biberurtt”. George Strect, Hanover Square, G;. PB. April the 17th, 1812. 45} 2.4 Vou. XX XII.—Mary, 18 ] 2. E Vill. 50 Vill. METEOROLOGICAL JOURNAL. © PRESSURE, TEMPERATURE. 1812. |Wind| Max. Min. Med. | Max.} Min.[ Med. |Evap. —_———S 3d Mo. Marcu6'S Wi 29°88} 29°84} 29°S60] 56 | 41 | 48°5 “IN WI 29°87 |. 29°66 | 29°765] 57 | 35 | 46°0 SiN WI] 30°19] 29°87] 30°030} 50 | 31 | 40°53 o|N FE} 30°26] 30°19] 30°225| 46 | 33 | 39°5 10IN E| 30°26] 30°20 | 30°230) 44 | 30 | 37°0. 11/N- E} 30°20} 30°20} 30°200] 46 | 33 | 39°5 12iN W| 30°20} 29°96 | 30°080| 44 | 34 | 39°0 13|N E} 29°99] 29°96 | 29°975| 45 | 34 | 39°5 141N E] 29:99| 29°87 | 29°930] 44 | 26 | 35:0 | 15|N E| 29°87 | 29°76 |.29°815| 42 | 31 | 3675 16\N E| 29°77] 29°75} 29°760| 35 | 31 | 33°0 17|IN E} 29°75| 29°66 }29°705} 36 | 29 | 32°5 18|N E| 29°66] 29°40 | 29°530] 39 | 26 | 32°5 19] E | 29°40| 29°30] 29°350} 39 | 29 | 34-0 20/8 W] 29°24] 29°10] 29°170] 50 | 40 | 45-0 21/8 E) 29°54] 29°24] 29°390) 54 | 39 | 46°5 QQIN E| 29°74] 29°541 29°640) 53 | 39 | 46°0 23/S E} 29°74] 20°27 | 29°505| 42 | 40 | 41-0 241N W} 29°64| 29°27 | 29'455| 40 | 32-1 36°0 25|N E} 30.27] 29°64) 29°955| 42 | 24 4 33:0 | — 2961S FE} 30°35} 30°17] 30°260} 46 | 30 | 3s‘0 | — 271 El 30°20] 29°46] 29-830) 51 | 41 | 46:0 | °3610°16 28| S | 29°42) 29°25} 29°335). 53 | 49 | 51:0 | — . ella ae red |} Beso 4 | 29/8 W] 29°48] 29°36 | 29°420] 58 } 48 | 53°0 | — [0°46 30/8 W| 29°78} 29°48 | 29°630) 59 | 40 | 49°5 | °3010°12 31) E | 29°53} 29°48] 29°505| 47 | 40 | 43°5 | —J0°10 4th Mo, , e 7 Aprit 1\Var.| 29°64] 29°59] 29°615} 58 | 41 | 49°5 | °18 D) 29-70] 29°58 | 29°640] —. | —-}| —— | — 3 29°68} 29°58} 29°630] 55 | 43 | 49:0. | °17 [0°26 , ~. 1 30°35} 29°10} 29°739} 59 | 24 1 41°5 [1°91 [2°80 N.B. The observations in each line of the Table apply to a period of twenty- four how's, begivping at g A.M, on the day indicated in the first column. A dash denetes, that the result is included in the next following obseyyation. ae NOTES: METEOROLOGICAL JOURNAL. \ NOTES. Third Month.—9g. A shower of hail p. m. 11. Hoar frost. 15. Frosty morning. 16. Wind very strong from N. E. all day. 17. Cold wind. 20. Snow in the morning, followed by rain. 22. Very wet night: high wind. 25, Snow: the barometer rising rapidly. 26. a.m. Very fine: barometer still rising. 27. a.m. Cloudy; a considerable depression of the barometer, with appearances indicating thunder. Late at night a shower of hail, with lightning. 28. Stormy, with showers. 29. a.m. Windy. At2h.30m. p.m., the temperature without being 54°, I found the vapour point in a room as high as 1°. In an hour after this it began to rain steadily, and there fell near half an inch depth. 30. Much wind, at intervals changing toE. $1. Stormy from E. and S. E.: cloudy: about 9. p. m. an extensive appearance of light in the clouds to the W. with rapid coruscations passing thibugh them, in the manner of an aurora borealis. This phenomenon was’ apparently not more elevated than the clouds which then overspread the sky, and was certainly not produced by the reflection of a light situate below them: jt continued 20 or 30 minutes. Pisenes eer RESULTS. Prevailing winds easterly. Barometer: highest observation 30°35 inches; lowest 29°10 inches; : ‘Mean of the period 29°739 inches. Thermometer: highest observation 59°; lowest 24°; Mean of the period 41°5°. Evaporation 1°91 inches. Rain, &c. 2’80 inches. ~ This, as well as the preceding lunar period, has been un- -aynally productive of rain; the two afforded six inches and - a half in fifty-nine days. : Lonpon, L. HOWARD. — Fourth Month, 29,1812. ; inn Eg IX. 51 ALUMINOUS CHALYBEATE SPRING IN I, OF WIGHT. ion iS Ns. a A chemical Account of an Aluminous Chalybeate. Spring. in the Isle of Wight. By Avexanprer Marcer, M. D., F.R.S., one of the Physicians. to Guy's Hospital, and Member of the Geological Society*. Analysis of "Tue accurate analysis of a Mineral Water,.although at- —— w* tended with considerable difficulty and labour, must be al- lowed, in a general point of view, to be an object of so little importance, that unless there be some interesting medical question to investigate, or some new analytical methods to point out in the course of the inquiry, it may be questioned whether researches of this kind are worth the time and at- tention which they require, or deserve to be placed amongst the records of natural science. Importance of Having thought it necessary, in the present essay, to con- an ai fine myself to the natural and chemical history of the spring in question, without any digression upon its medicinal qua- lities, and being well aware, that chemical details are consi- dered by pag leh merely as collateral subjects, some apo- logy may berequired for the length of this communication. But if the relation which the ‘jet te of mineral waters bears to geological and mineralogical inquiries, and the peculiari- ties of composition, for which this spring is remarkable, entitle the subject to the attention of this society, I hope, that the general views and investigations which I have oc casionally introduced respecting the analysis of mineral waters, and the composition of several salts counected with this inquiry, will be deemed a sufficient excuse for having thus expanded an account, from which they were almost inseparable, Inducements It is about two years since my attention was directed to to the analysis: this chalybeate spring by Dr. Saunders, to whom, in conse- | quence of his valuable treatise on mineral waters, inquiries of this kind are frequently referred. Having been requested by him, and soon afterward by the discoverer of the spring, Mr. Waterworth, surgeon, of Newport, to examiue this water, I * Transactions of the Geological Society, vol. I, p 215, ' 900n ALUMINOUS CHALYBEATE SPRING IN I. OF WIGHT. $2 ; soon’ perceived by a few preliminary experiments, that ite principal ingredients were sulphate of irdn and sulphate of alumine, aud that it possessed a degree of strength far more considerable than any mineral water of the same kind that ever came to my knowledge. This last circumstance, and the probability that. this spring might some day atcract public notice from its medi cinal properties, induced me to undertake the present analysis, which, after many interruptions, I have at length ‘brought to a conclusion. Sect. I. Situation and Natural History of the Spring. This spring is situate on the south-west coast of the Isle Situation and of Wight, about two miles to the westward of Niton*, iP ce Sey of the spring. one of Mikese romantic spots for which that coast is so re- markable. : . In its present state it may be said to be of difficult access, for there is no carriage road, nor even any regular foot path along the cliff leading to it, and the walk would appear amen iet arduous to those unaccustomed to pedestrian ex- ‘cursions. But it would be practicable, and probably not very expensive, to render this path equally easy and agree- able. It was in walking along the shore, a few years ago, that Mr. Waterworth’s attention was accidentally directed to this spring, which he traced to its present source, by observing black stains formed by rivulets flowing from that spot. With regard to the mineralogical history of that district, Mineralogy of I have been favoured through the kindness of my friend the district. Dr. Berger, who visited the spot very lately, with so much more accurate an account of it than I should, from my own observation, have been able to offer, that 1 shall make no apology for transcribing it in his own words. _ The aluminous chalytisate spring”, says Dr. Berger, “© issues from the cliif on the 5.S. W. coast of the Isle of ** Wight, below St. Catharine’s seamark, in the parish of Chale. The bearing of the Needles from the spot is ®@ On an Estate belonging to Michael Hoy, Esq. «NW. 54 Situation and natural history of the spring. ‘a nw a“ n n n Lal * n nn if’ ALUMINOUS CHALYBEATE SPRING IN I. OF WIGHT. N.'W. while that of Rockenend, not far distant, is S. Ey by S. «© The elevation of this spot, as far as I could ascertain it by the barometer, is one hundred and thirty feet above the level of the sea. Its distance from the shore may be about one hundred and fifty yards. “© The wateris received into a basin formed in the rock ‘for this purpose, and flows, as I was informed, at the rate of two or three hogsheads ina day. . Itstemperature I found to be 51°, that of the atmosphere being 48°; and it may be worth while to observe, that this tempera ture corresponds with that of several springs of pure wae ter which I have met with in the island. « The lower part of the cliff is rather encumbered with masses of rock, or portions of soil, which have fallen from the upper strata. Immediately above these, the spring issues from a bed of loose quartzose sandstone containing oxide of iron, This sand, in which vestiges of vegetable matter are discoverable*, alternates with @ purplish argillaceous slate of a fine grain, disposed in thin layers, with a few specks of silvery mica, interspersed through the mass, Black stains or impressions of vege- hice are seen on the natural joints of thisrock. Above this lies. a stratum, several fathoms in thickness, of a blueish calcareous marl, with specks of mica, which has an earthy aud friable texture, and contains imbedded nodules or kidneys of sulphuret of iron. Many of these nodules have undergouea partial! decomposition, to whieh, no doubt, the existence of the principal ingredients of the spring is to be ascribed. The upper strata of the cliff are composed of a caleareous freestone, alternating with a coarse shelly limestone, accompanied by nodules or layers of chcré or flint. * On being sprinkled on a heated shovel, this sand scintillates as undergoing a partial combustion. When submitted to chemical analysis, it yields a quantity of iron, but no lime, nor alumine, nor any other earthy matter soluble in an acid. . Close to the sprivg this sand contains some traces, of sulphuric acid, but not at a distance from it: it is evident therefore, that the sand rock is not the medium through which the spring is impregnated. 66 As ALUMINOUS CHALYBEATE SPRING IN I. OF WIGHT. 55 ‘© As the same arrangement of rocks here observed pre- Perhaps simi- «t yails in several other parts of the Isle of Wight, and even Mp ilk shes «© along the coast of Hampshire, it is not bable, tha etn along the c p , it is not improbable, that hood other springs of a similar nature might be discovered. «* May not Alum Bay, which lies to the north of the Nee- dles, have derived its name froma circumstance of this ‘6 kind? : * On the road from Shorwell to Chale, the soil consists of Other chaly- ‘* a ferruginous sandstone, and chalybeate iridescent waters °° ¥at#"- ** are to be seen in several places. To the east of Fresh- ** water bay, not far from the place where the cliffs of chalk *« hegin to make their appearance, there isa rivulet, the taste ‘* of which strongly indicates the presence of iron. At © Blackgang Chine, alittle tothe N. W. of the aluminous ** chalybeate, is another ferruginous stream running to ‘‘ the sea. The rock there is a sort of decomposed iron- 46-stone under the form of balls. The sound compact “< ironstone, having the appearance of flat pebbles worn ‘6 by the rolling of the sea, occurs not unfrequently along * the shore, Lay n ”~ n Sect. 21. General Qualities and specific Gravity of the Water. . a, The water issues from the sand rock above described General qua- perfectly transparent, and it continues so for any length of sare the time, provided it be collected immediately, and preserved ip perfectly closed vessels; but if allowed to remain in con- tact with the air, or even if corked up after a temporary exposure to it, reddish flakes are soon deposited, which partly subside, and partly adhere to the inside of the vessel. 6. It has nosmell, except that which is common to alk -chalybeates, and this it possesses but in a very slight degree. c. Its taste is intensely chalybeate, and, beside a con- _ siderable degree of astringency and harshness, it has the _ peculiar kind of sweetness, which sulphate of iron and sulphate of alumine are known to possess. d, Its specific gravity somewhat varies in different speci- ‘mens. In three different trials I obtained the following results: s lat 1 56 Experiments on it with va» vious tests, ALUMINOUS CHALYBEATE SPRING IN 1. OF WIGHT. ist SPCMIMEN #0 ceric ceveceseece+ 1008'S od SPECIMEN e eocensecvercese +s 10072 3d SPECIMEN> ee essies ssevveece 10069 8022°4 which gives a mean specific gravity of -+1007°5 Sect. II. Preliminary Experiments on the effects of Re- agents. A. ‘Paper stained with litmus was distinctly reddened by the water. B. Paper stained with Brazil-wood was changed to a deep purple. C. When agitated‘in contact with the air, or repeatedly ‘poured from one vessel into another, the water became ture bid, and on standing deposited reddish flakes. D. On applying heat toa portion of the water just un- corked, and boiling it quzckly, till it was reduced tu one half or even one third of its original bulk, no precipitation whatever took place; but on continuing the evaporation, a white feathery crystalline substance appeared on the surface of the fluid, and on pushing the process still further, a sae line matter of a pale yellowish green colour appeared, which continued to increase till the whole was.reduced to a ‘dry yellowish mass. ‘These were the phenomena observed with water recently uncorked ; but when, previous to the evaporation, it had been for some time exposed to the air, or when the evaporation was conducted very slowly, an ap- pearance of reddish flakes was the first circumstance ob- served. E. The mineral acids produced no obvious Chanige in the water. F. _Oxalic acid produced a slight yellowish tinge; but no immediate precipitation or turbidness. G. Oxalate of ammonia, in small quantity, likewise produced a yellow colour, without precipitate: but on ad- ding more of this test a white precipitate appeared. H,. Prussiate of potash and infusion of galls produced abundant precipitates, the one blue, and the other black ar dark purple; and the colour of these precipitates was much paler ALUMINOUS CHALYBEATE SPRING IN. J.. OF WIGHT. paler when the water had not previously been exposed to the atmosphere. {. Alkaline solutions produced copious greenish: floccu- lent precipitates, which became darker on standing in the air. -K. Nitrate of silver occasioned a dense, white, but not considerable precipitate. L. Both muriate and nitrate of barytes occasioned co- pious white precipitates. M. Apiece of marble being, boiled for some. time ina few ounces of the water, the marble was found to have un- dergone no sensible loss of weight by this operation; but its surface had acquired a faint ye a tinge. N. A quantity ofthe water being evaporated to dryness, aud aconsiderable degree of heat applied to the dry residue, a solution of this in water had.the same effect of reddening litmus as before. ‘Seer. IV. Inferences arising from these Liffects. 1, From experiment A, connected with experiments C, H, I, M and N, and from the circumstance of taste, and other general properties, it appeared highly probable, that the water contained sulphate of iron, and perhaps also sul- phate of alumine, without any uncombined acid*. 9. From experiments C and D, it appeared evident that jron and lime were contained in the water, and that their wine was not carbonic acidf. ~ The experiments D and E concurred to show, that mtn hitatet did not contain any sensible quantity of care bonates. “4, The experiments F and G afforded additional evi- ‘dence of the presence of iron, and, while they showed the existence of lime in the water, seemed to indicate, that the quantity of this earth was not considerable. * Solutions of sulphate of iron, and sulphate of alumine, though made from these salts in their crystallized state, have, like acids, the power of imparting a red colour to litmus. + The reddish flakes mentioned in C and D, and in Sect. ih. @, are aa ‘foundto be sub-sulphate of iren. 3. It 57 Inferences from theses 58 Gaseous con- tents of the water. Quantity of solid ingredi-* ALUMINOUS CHALYBEATE SPRING IN I, OF WiGHT. ' § It appeared probable from experiment K, that the water contained a small quantity of muriaticacid. —~ 6. The change produced in experiment B,-on the infu- sion of Brazil-wood, appeared at first ambiguows; it could not be owing to the prevalence of an alkali or carbonated earth, since the water turned litmus red, and siacethe pre- sence of carbonated earths had been disproved by other re~ sults. But having found by comparative trials, that solu- tions of sulphate of iron changed paper stained with iniusions of Brazil-wood to a black, or at least intensely dark vicict colour, and that solutions of alum turned it crimson; and observing that a mixture of these solutions produced a dark purple hue, the appearance in question was easily explained. 7. The result of experiment L indicated the presence of sulphuric acid, 8. Upon the whole, and from a review of the foregoing experiments, the substances which, at this early stage of the analysis, the water appeared most likely to contain, were sulphate of iron, sulphate of alumine, sulphate of lime, aud a small quantity of muriatic salts, Some sulphate of mag- nesia, and some alkaline sulphates, might possibly. be con- tained in the water, though their presence could not be satisfactorily ascertained by these preliminary experiments. Sect. V. Gaseous contents of the Water. A quantity of the water measuring ten cubic inches, be- ing boiled briskly over mercury, the gas given out, together. with the air contained in the apparatus, was received in a graduated tube; on admitting caustic alkali into the tube, one tenth of a cubic inch of gas was absorbed. It appears _ therefore, that one hundred cubic inches of the water contain one cubic inch of carbonic acid gas, which is equivalent to about three tenths of a cubic inch to each pint,. The water was uncorked at the moment of being examined, but I had not an opportunity of ascertaining the quantity of gas. Sect. VI. Evaporation of the Water, and Estimation of the Quantity of solid Ingredients. ) 1. Sixteen ounces of the water by measure, being evapo- rated down to a soft mass over alamp, and afterward desic- cated ALUMINOUS CHALYBEATE SPRING IN I- OF WIGHT. 59 cated in a drying apparatus at the heat of 180°*, the solid ents left by mass weighed eighty-six grains. During the evaporation &v4portion, the same appearances were observed as have been already related (in Sect. ILI, D,) a d the dry saline mass assumed 2 pale greenish colour. On standing in the air, it slightly deliguesced’, and its colour became somewhat darker. This saline mass, though slowly evaporated, never assumed a » distinct crystalline appearance. . @, ~Lhave stated before (Sect. IL, d.) that some differ- ence prevailed in the specific grayity of the several specimens of the water which were examined. A similar want of uni- formity was observed in regard te the quantity of solid in= gredients, as will appear from the following statementf. Grains. The Ist specimen yielded -+---+++ 86° Do vcvecsevesecevssevvcces Ee Miers dso wie ate wields otisidice e's) OHIO PEPER a Sh esa wie e*o! alan ge Uwiels e 0 OOS PT SUCEMG o's cs tails obedees! BO°8 Oth sescecccescescsesecess 772 “With secccscccvccecccseasess S4° bs SUA fe Se wcccsandecase) FR In the pint of sixteen ounces. cee ' ) 644 These eight results therefore give 80°5 ers dried at 180°, as the average quantity of solid ingredients in each pint of .the water. * This is the heat I have usually employed for desiccation, because it is that which is obtained by the water-bath which I use, and ca» : scarcely be raised higher by that apparatus. By a heat of 180° how- ever, I generally mean some intermediate point between 170° and 180°, for it is impossible to regulate the temperature with perfect accuracy. + In the first of these trials, a whole pint was evaporated; but in the subsequent ones, the quantity of water was diminished to eight, 6ix, and sometimes only four ounces, all of which, for the sake of uniformity, I have reduced in the table to the common standard of the pint. } This specimen I brought myself from the spring; the others were sent me in sealed bottles from the Isle of Wight. SEcT. — Different me thods of ana- dys. Methois em- ployed. gst method. 24 method. ALUMINOUS CHA, YBEATE SPRING IN I. OF WIGHT. Stcr. VIL Of. the different Methods of Analysis applicable to the present Inquiry. In analysing a mineral water, two modes. of proceeding oveur from the very first. We may: either evaporate the water first, and apply our reagents to the solid residue; or operate at once upon the water itseif. The former plan is in general found expedient when the quantity of the solid contents of the water is small; but when, as in the present instance, the impregnation is considerable, it muy be more convenient to adopt the litter method. But at all events, as’ the redissolution of the solid residue, when the first mode of proceeding is resorted to, generally requires the in- troduction of an aeid, which may modify or complicate the process, it is always desirable, that both methods should be tried in succession, in order to obtain comparative results. We may also, if necessary, precipitate from tne same portion of the water the several ingredients which it contains, by applying to it im succession their respective reagents ; or, ifour supply be considerable, we may use, a fresh por- tion of it for each successive operation, a mode of proceed- ing which is generally preferable. No difficulty being ex- perienced during the present inquiry in regard to the supply of water, a variety of methods was tried, with the details of which I shall not trouble the Society: but m order to con- vey a general idea of them, and if hopes that a suminary yeview of this kind may atford’some assistance to chemical jnquirers not yet accustomed to researches of this na- ture, I shall briefly enumerate the different plans which presented themselves at’ ‘this period of the analysis, and it will be seen afterward how these plans were gradually modi- fied, ist method. To precipitate in succession from a known quantity. of the water, the iron by prussiate of potash—the lime by oxalate of ammonia—the alumine and magnesia by caustic potash, which, by boiling, redissolves the alumine and leaves the magnesia untouched. Qd method. ‘fo precipitate the iron and eurths by sub- carbonate of ammonia. ‘To evaporate the remaining clear solution to dryness, and. apply a red heat. ‘To: redissolve this _ALUMINOUS CHALYBEATE 8PRING IN I. OF WIGHT. this saline residue, and evaporate the solution slowly, in order to‘discover any fixed alkaline sulphate or muriate which may exist in the water. To boil in caustic pot- ash the precipitate containing the iron and earths, in order to separate the alwmine and silica. To dissolve the remain- ing mass (supposed to contain iron, hime, and magnesia) in nitric acid, evaporate to dryness, and apply a red heat, in order to render the peroxide of iron thus formed inso- luale in acid. To add to the mass, minutely pulverized, nitric or acetic acid, as either of these acids will only dis- solve the dime and magnesia, which may be separately ob- tained by their respective reagents. And lastly, to ascers tain the quantity of oxide of iron, supposed to have beeu left untouched by the acid. 3d method. ‘fo precipitate from another portion of water ‘the irons lime, alumine, and silica, by asolution of neutral carbonate of ammonia, which reagent retains the magnesia “in.solution. To boil the precipitate in caustic potash, which takes up the alumine and silica. To redissolve in muriatic acid the residue not taken up by potash, whick consistsef lime and iron—separate the iron by pure ammo- nia, and the dime by oxalate of ammonia*. Precipitate the magnesiat from the clear solution by an alkaline phos- phate. 61 5d method. Ath method, To evaporate to dryness a known quantity 4th method. ofthe water, and to boil the residue in caustic potash, which will dissolve the alumine and silica, both of which may be " precipitated again by muriate of ammoniaf. Treat the re- - sidue, insoluble in petash and supposed to contain tron, . lime and magnesia, in the manngr pointed out in the 2d method. * It is necessary to precipitate the iron before the lime, whenever any considerable quantity of sulphate or muriate of iron is present. For oxalate of ammonia acts npon solutions of iron, as will be fully explained under the head of sulphate of lime. + The magnesia might be equally, and perhaps more conveniently separated, by boiling a known quantity of the solid residue ia the neu- tral carbonate of ammonia, instead of applying this reagent to the water itself, ft The mode in which the silica may be separated from the alumine will be detailed ina subsequent part of this paper. : ~— St dg 5:h method. Sth method, 7th methed. Prussiate of potash does hot ascertain the quantity of iron, r ALUMINOUS CHALYBEATE SPRING IN t. OF WIGHT. 5th method. After having obtained by the preceding methods a knowledge of the proportions of iron and earthy substances, and formed an estimate of the nature and quans tities of acids with which they are united, to ascertain ina direct manner the quantities of acids by their respective reagents, with a view to obtain a confirmation of the pre- ceding results. 6th method. To boil a known quantity of the water in succinate of ammonia, till all the iron and a/umine are pre- cipitated—edulcorate, precipitate and separate the alumine from the iron by boiling in caustic potash. From the clear concentrated fluid, to separate the lime by oxalate of am- monia, and the magnesia by pure ammonia; to evaporate the remaining clear fluid to dryness, and to apply a red heat, in order to burn or volatilize any remaining portions of the tests used in the processes above described. To redissolve the residue in order to ascertain by subsequent evaporation the presence and quantity of sulphate and muriate of soda*. © 7th method. To boil a known quantity of residue of the water in alcohol, in order to ascertain what salts it may con- tain, which are soluble in this menstruum. Although I found it expedient, before advancing farther in the examination of the water, and in order to regulate my steps in the progress of the inquiry, thus to trace the various plans which seemed adapted to the purpose, yet I apprehend it would be superfluous to detail here in regular succession all the trials, which arose from these different me- thods. I shall therefore confine myself to such as belong more immediately to my object ; and in relating them, shall consider singly, and under separate heads, the various ingre- dients of the water, stating, as I proceed, the proportions in which they were ultimately obtained. Secr. VIIL. Sulphate of iron. The. presence of iron, m the state of sulphate, having been abundantly proved by the preliminary experiments, the next step was, to ascertain the proportion of this salt ina given quantity of the water. The first reagent which I tried _ ¥* This process is liable fo an objection, which will be hereafter fully stated, namely, that muriate of soda is decomposed by sulphate of ammonia at a high temperature. for ALUMINOUS CHALYBEATE SPRING IN I, OF WIGHT. 63 for this purpose was prussiate of potash; but after many _ trials (which afforded uncertain and discordant results, I _ convinced inyself, that this test, however useful for detecting the presence of iron, is quite inappropriate when our object _ Isto ascertain the quantity of that substance*. Fifty grains of residuet dried at the temperature of be- Residuum of tween 170 and 180, (as described in sect. VI,) and there- Saet O _- fore equal to ten ounces of the water, were boiled in suce potash, cessive solutions of the potash, so as to saturate all the acid contained in that residue, and to dissolve the alumine. The remaining solid residue, which had passed first to a dark green, and some hours afterward to a dark brown or nearly black colour, was dissolved in nitric acid, and the solution treated with evaporated to dryness, after which a red_ heat was applied, Bittic acid in order to bring the iron to a state of peroxide, and thus render it insoluble in the same acid. The mass being now treated with nitric acid, in order to separate the lime and magnesia supposed to be mixed with the oxide of iron, and the whole being thrown into a filter, the clear solution was found still to contain a good deal of iron. This last solution was, like the former, evapaiated to dryness, and to the resi- * Prassiate of potash, as a precipitant of iron, is liable to the fol- Objections 1 to lowing objections :— prussiate of ist. Itis apt, although apparently well peciiiesit and crystallized, potash. to precipitate certain earthy substances, and in particular alumine; this I found distinctly to happen in two experiments, in which the mixture was heated. edly. If the solutions be used cold, and if the metal be not highly ‘exidatéd, some of the Prussian blue unavoidably passes through the filters; or . no filters be used, it sepsifee but slowly and imper- fectly. sdly. If the solutions be heated, the prussiate of potash is itself decomposed, and yields a quantity of oxide of iron, which vitiates the results. y + By the word residue, thus generally used, is alvays meant the resi- due of the water under examination, dried at the temperature of be- tween 170° and 180°. And in comparing a quantity of residue with « corresponding portion of the water, the average proportion of 80°5 grs for each pint (sect. VI, 2) is alvays assumed as the standard of com- parison. due, 64 and with acetic, \ and the itom seduced, Residuum treated with earbonate of ammonia, ALUMINOUS 'CITALYBEATE SPRING IN I. OF WIGHT. due, again heated. to redness, acetic*, instead of nitric acid, was this time added, and the solution filtered. The filtered fluid still contained a quautity of iron, which, however, from subsequent examination appeared very inconsiderable. The oxide of. iron left in the filter being roasted with wax and heated to redness, in order to bring it to a uniform state of oxidation, weighed 6°8 grains. 2. With a view to repeat and vary the last Gaile bat another portiou of residue, also weighing 50 grains, was thrown inte a solution of neutral carbonate of ammonia, the quantity of the latter bemg more than sufficient to sa- turate any acid present, and to dissolve the magnesia sus pected to exist in that residue. A’ considerable efferves- ‘cence took place. ‘The mixture, after this, was gently the filtered matter treated with potash, State of the xide. heated and filtered. The residue left in the filter was ofa .pale yellowish brown colour. The clear solution deposited a small quantity of precipitate similar to the residue left in the filter, to which residue this precipitate was added. ‘The contents of the filter were then treated with potash, in the manner before described — VU, 13), im orderto — * The acetic acid, as well as the AE. is said to be pincinatira of Biss solving any iron, which has been peroxidated by the process just de- setibed. In this instance a few particles of oxide were taken up by the acid: but it is probeble, that if, instead of heating the residue té redness only afew minutes, the oxide had continued exposed to arcd heat for half an hour or anore, the whole of it would have become ins soluble. + Tt may be asked, in aoe state of dxidafion the iron is afterthis operation? lt has generally been supposed to be reduced to the state of protoxide in consequence of the affinity of the combustible matter for . oxigen; but in an experiment, which ] made some years. ago to ascer- tain this point, (the particulars of which may be scen in my account of the Brighton chalybeate) this process appeared to bring the iron to the state of peroxide; for 100 parts of iron gave 147°6 parts of oxide, pro- portions which are now considered as constituting the red oxide of iron. And as a confirmation of this, I obser ve, that Dr.Thomson, in his value ‘abie paper on the oxides of iron, published in the twenty-seventh yo- lume of Nicholson’ s Journal, states (p. 379) that some of the red oxide being mixed with oil ana heated to, redness, till it became black and magnetic, no. diminution. of weight took place. Indeed I have always obtained by this process) n not a black, but a brown oxide, which in cooling passes ‘toa ved brown colour, somewhat varying in shade, but mostly resetmbling powdered cinnamon, and being more or less magnetic. rate /°ALUMINOUS (CHALYBEATE SPRING IN I, OF WIGHT: 65. fate the alumine, after which the residue, now supposed to -contdin»nothing but: carbonate of lime and iron, was treated — with-dilute-muriatic acid, which dissolved:it with efferves- dissolved in scence, . From this solution the lime was precipitated by muyatic acid, oxalate. i ammonia, ad the remaining liquor; now con- Precipitated by taining nothing but muriate of iron, was treated with cdr- i seg woh bonate of ammonia, so as to precipitate the whole of the and the iron irons, which, in‘subsiding, assumed a: pale reddish colour. by caftouite ‘Thes clear fiuid -being’ decanted off, and the precipitate of ammonia, ‘carefully washed, dried, and ultimately heated to redness with: a little wax in aplatina crncible, weighed 7-2 grs. bb) SyvIt will .be observed, that between this and the former Difference of result there was a difference of 0:4 grs in the quantity of °*"'*- oxide of iron contained in 50 grs of residue. But when it is considered, that in the first of these analyses a small -quantity-of iron was positively detected in the acetic solu- tion, which, from the best estimate I could make, would have brought the quantity of iron very near that obtained in. the sevond:process, it will readily be.admitted, that the coincidence was. such as.to authorise me to consider the last result as sufficiently accurate*. A. If'therefore we consider 7°2 grs of peroxide. of i iron, as Proportion of the quantity of this metal contained.in. 50 gts of. the. resi- ses aie Fi q due, which corresponds to 11°59 grs of the oxide for 80°5 grs of residue {that is for each pint of the water according to the average before established, sect. VII, 2), we shall be able so infer the quantity of sulphate of iron contained jin the water, 6. In order to do ‘this, however, it was necessary ‘to ase Proportion of certain by a comparative experiment the proportion of bse ide, which a known quantity of sulphate of iron yields by & process similar to that which I have just described. For phate of iron. fe atin als MstsHip ow! ai 7 “* * In one experiment in which the iron was precipitated from a simi- Jar quantity of residueyby prussiate of potash, and the prussiate of irom ‘roasted: with wax, the; quantity of oxide obtained amounted to 11 gre, from, which I infer, either, that,a portion of the oxide of irgn, always contained in prussiate of potash; must have been precipitated with the Prassian.blue, or, that the prussiate of iron was not completely de- composed in the process in question, or thet, some earthy substance ~ was precipitated along with the iron. * inoN te XXXI1—May, 1812. | F this | 66 STATE AND QUANTITY OF SPERIT IN FERMENTED LIQUORS. this purpose,’ 50 grs of » transparabt crystallized: green sul- phate of iron were dissolved im water, and treated withiear- _ bonate of ammonia as long as aby precipitate’ appeared. : This precipitate,*after being’ carefully separated, edulcoe rated, dried, und ultimately heated to redness with wax ima .. platina crucible, weighed exactly 14ers, It ‘appeared in the form of a red brown magnetic powder®,:0 0) Proportion of 106, Since therefore 50 grs. of crystallized green statphinte suPHEHLES 9 of iron gave 14gys of this oxide, the 7-2 grs ef oxide: ob- te _ tained from 50 grs of residue, would represent 25°7:greof green sulphate of iron ; and 11°59 gr8of oxide,(which is the quantity contained imvan English pint of the: ni ag 8 alle Oa 41°4 gts of that salt. 28 Be 430"; Ba i . : ( To be, concluded i in our next. .) Eperiments to ascertain the State’ in’ which sioereectdi 4 in “fermented Liquors: with a Table’ exhibiting the velative _ Proportion ‘of pure Alcohol contained im several Kinds of * Wine and some other coe efit srs Fe a ee ps R. ape Yoo qian oes . a wa ck) at ehingarnaiTs cogil sy 6H) 19 Sect. I. le has Deen’ a ediiadale received ‘opinion,, a the alcohol. obtained by. the distillation of wine does: not exist ready formed in the liquor: but that it is principally a « Product « of the operation, arising out of a new arrangement of i ‘its ultimate “elements. pet wo erat ; The proofs. wbich haye been brought forward. in. “support proof, Of this, ‘theory. are, chiefly, founded _ on, the researches of * This result, which was obtained in two diitérent trials, with the variation of otily 0°1 gt. Corresponds exactly with the proportions given by Mr: Kirwan, in his Treatise on ‘Mineral Waters’ (table iv)),‘in which 98 gts aretthe quantity of oxide ‘stated-to exist in 100 grs of _ green'sulphate. ) Bat}: in order to establish the perfect coicidenée df ‘these! Febwlts, 11 would-be necessary to- know the process’ which’ Mr. ‘Kitwan followed’ The iron in his experiment ‘is ‘stated te te ee obtained inf the' state-of black-oxidel’)/) © 9G 88s + Phil. Trae for 18h} p. 297 SOULE OSA AME Hote AEG. Saw iim A ; ‘ i fi sa Y te os ts ns P i * Fabroni , ~ when of the best quality, no spirit can be added, aseven SPATE AND. QUANTITY OF SPIRIT IN FERMENTED LIQUORS. 67 Pabronit, who attempted to separate alrohol by saturating the wine with dry subcarbonate of potash, but did not succeed, althongh by the ‘same means he could detect very minute portions of alcohol, which had been purposely added. ' To obtain satisfactory results from many of the following Brandy com- experiments, it became necessary to employ wines to which Monly alded to wies. little or no spirit had been added; for very considerable addition:of brandy is made to most of the common wines, even before they are imported into this country. I therefore: wecasionally used Burgundy, Hermitage, Cote Roti, Cham- Good French _ pagne, Frontignac, and some other French wines; to which, an the smallest proportion impairs the delicacy of their flavour, and is consequently readily detected by those who are accustomed to taste them. For these, and for the cppor- tunity. of examining. many of the scarce wines enumerated’ in the table annexed to this paper, I am indebted to the liberality of the Right Honourable Sir Joseph Banks. Dr. Baillie, who took considerable interest in this investi- Port procured gation, . was also. kind enough to procure for me some port aetna wine, sent from Portugal for the ex press purpose of ascer- taining how long it would remain sound, ,without any addi- _ tion whatever of spirit having been made to it. _ Lastly, Lemployed raisin wine, which had been fermented Raisin Wine. without the addition of spirit. . At avery early per riod of the’ ‘present inquiry, I ascertained Insufficiency of by, the following experiments, that the separation of the prsenrer alcohol by means, of subcarbonate of potash was interfered separate the with, and often wholly prevented by some of the other in- #!cohol. gredients of the wine. A pint of port wine was put into a retort placed in a sand Port wine dis- heat, and eight fluid ounces were distilled over, which, by tiled, and ‘the saturation with dry subcarbonate of potash, afforded about _— thr fluid. ounces of tolerably pure spirit floating on the hl el . I repeated this distillation precisely under the same cir- but it could cumstances, and mixed the distilled liquor with the resi. "°t when mixe duum in the retort, conceiving, that, if the spirit were "stk iopag product, I now should have no difficulty in separating it ah * Ann. de Chim..vol. KKK, p. 303. ‘igitcen , Fe@ from 65 STATE AND QUANTITY OF SPIRIT IN FERMENTED LIQUoHe from the wine by the addition of subearbonate of potash + but, although every precaution’ was taken, no “spirit sepa- ted; a portion of the subcarbonate, in combination” with some of the ingredients of the wine, formed a gelatinous» compound, and thus prevented the appearance of the alcohol. Fabroni's ex. It has bee remarked by Fabrohi, in the Memoir above periments did quoted, that one hundredth’ part of alcoliol”’ purposely sar vee added to wine may be separated by subcarbonate of potash} author. but several repetitions of the experiment have not enabled me to verify this result: when however 2 considerable addition of alcohol has been made to the wine, a part of it may be again obtained by saturation with the subcarbonate. The neces- sary addition of spirit to port wine, for this ie a will-be seen by the following experiments. aiid Subcarbonate | Four ounces of dry and warm subearbonate of potash were of potash add- ydded’ to eight fluid ounces of port wine, which was pre- ed to Port, e j ie hae sii ; _ viously ascertained to ‘afford by distillization 20 per cent of alcohol (by measure) of the specific gravity of 0°825 at 60°. and the alco. In twenty-four hours the mixture had separated into two ae distinct portions; at the bottom of the vessel was a: strong extract, &c. solution of the subcarboniate, upon which floated a gelati- “nous substanée, of such consistency as to prevent the escape of the liquor beneath when the vessel was’ inverted, and which appeared to contain the alcohol of the wine; with the principal part of the extract, tan, and colouring matter, some of the subcarborate, and a portion of waters but as these : or "experiments relate chiefly to the spirit’ contained in™ wine, - the other ingredients wete not mintitely examined. si One part ofal. ‘Te seven Auid ounces of the same wine, I added one fluid eee cei to ounce of ‘alcohol (specific gravity 0°825),"and the same nope wild be quantity of the subcarbonate of potash as in the Jast experi~ separated. ment; but after twenty-four honts had elapsed, no distinct | separation of the aleohol had taken place, ” One part of “When two uid ounces of alcohol were added to six fluid alcohol to = apenas ounces of the wine, and the mixture allowed’ to remain Uris part separated, disturbed for the same length of time as in the former ex- periments, a stratum of i impure alcéhol, of about & a quarter of an inch int thickness, separated on’ the ‘surface.’ i Fae of" The addition of three fluid ounces of the alcohol to by leié ine: fluid ounces of thé wine; fortned: ‘@ mixture’ from which a Sev wor quantity STATE AND ah ode el OF SPIRIT IN FERMENTED LIQUORS. 69 quantity of spirit readily separated on the surface, when the subearbonate was added, and the gelatinous compound sunk nearly to the bottom of the vessel, there being below it a strong solution of the subearbonate. When in these experiments: Madeira and Sherry were €M- Madeira and ployed instead of Port wine, the results were nearly similar. Sherry. It was suggested to me by_ Dr. Wollaston, that, if the Picvious sepa. wine were previously deprived of its acid, the subsequent ie a a separation of the alcohol, by means of potash, might be less difference. interfered. with. I therefore added, to eight eae ounces of port wine, a sufficient quantity of carbonate of lime to sa- turate the acid, and separated the insoluble compounds prod uced by means of a filter, The addition of potash ren- dered the filtered liquor turbid, some soluble salt of lime, probably the malate, having passed through the paper; but the separation of alcohol was as a dinidnat as in the experis ments just related.. evita is ‘commonly Saints that the addition of lime water ta Lime water. wine not only forms insoluble compounds with the acids, bree =o ee but also with the colouring matter, and that these ingredis and colouring ents.may be thus separated without heat; but on repeating | ein bina these experiments, they did not succeed, nor could I i any mode of perfectly separating the acids, and the extracte ive and colouring matter (excepting by distillation), which did not interfere with the alcohol. Af the spirit afforded by the distillation of wine were a Whether diffe pindvet and not an educt, I conceived, that by performing Saat ees the. distillation at different temperatures, different propor- a lintinn tients tions of spirit should be obtained, the spirit. The following are the experiments made to ascertain this pulok. ; . Four ounces, of dried muriate of Jime were dissolved in Port distilled eight fluid ounces of the port wine employed in the former * ast experiments: by. this addition, the boiling point of the wine, which | was 190°. Fahrenheit, was raised to 2008. The solu- tion was pyt into a retort placed in a sand heat, and was kept boiling ‘until four fluid ounces had passed over into the receiver, the specific gravity of which was 0°96316 at 6e? Fahrenheit.* The 9 iIt was supposed that in this experiment a small! portion of muriate of 7%) STATE AND QUANTITY OF SPIRIT IN FERMENTED LIQUORS. 190°, The experiments was = repeated. with, eight fluid ounces of the wine without any. addition, and, the same quantity was distilled over, as in the last experiment: its specific Bieo _at 60° Fahrenheit, was 0° 96311, soa in aWatdrbathy Eight fluid ounces of the wine were distilled in a water bath; when four fluid ounces had passed over, the heat wags. withdrawn. The specific, gravity of the liquor in the re- ceiver was 096320 at 60° Fahrenheit, . and at 180°. ‘The same quantity of the wine, as ‘In the last experiment, was distilled at a temperature not exceeding 180° ’Fahren- heit. This temperature was kept up from four to five hovurs, for five successive days, at the end of which ‘period, four ounces having - passed into the receiver, its specific ‘gravity at 60° was Rerenned to be 0° 96314. No difference It may be concluded, from these results, that the pies ee in portion of alcohol is not influenced by the temperature at which wine is distilled, the variation of the specific” gravities in the above experiments being even less than might’ have : been expected, when the delicacy of the operation by — salsa dass they are » ascertaived 1 is cons: ‘dered. Attempt to sev _ Thave repeatedly endeavoured to separate the spirit from cen wine, by subjec tine it to low temperatures, | ‘with a view to freeze the.aqueous part; bat when the temperature i is suffi- ciently reduced, the whole of the wine forms a spongy cake ng of ice. ” Thesamewith af a ane of o one fluid ounce or alcohol with three of SABRES of water, 1 dissolved the residuary matter, afforded by evapo- rating four fluid. ounces of Port wine, and attempted ‘to separate the alcohol from this artificial mixture by freezing 3 -but a “spongy cake of ice was sim as in ‘the last: ey -, Inent, But wine may When the temperature i ig more © gradually: reduced, ‘and pale when large quantities of wine are operated upons, the sep a- reezing, ration of alcohol:sueceeds to a certain extent, ‘and ‘the pors tion which first freezes i is principally, if not entirel HY water ; i henge in some countr ies this method 1s employed to feuider wine. strong. Ly wii ibe. ; ‘ * ‘ pier od Date 2a) arte: be gy Sep ert i¢ of lithe etatl have passed over into the Hecites butithe distilled, tinsian, did not afford the slightest traces of ity to the tests of oxalate of ammonia and nitrate of silver. 4 } SECT STANE/AND QUANTITY OF SPIRIT IN FERMENTED LIQUORS, ra ) Seer. Ii. Having ascettained,' that, alcohol..exists. im Relative pro- wine ready: formed; and. that: it is not produced during dis- Sei of al- tillation, I employed’ this process to discoyer= the relative pcos ik proportion of alcohol contained in different winess) “6 <~. In the following experiments, the: wine:was ‘distilled: j ig this diastirrcs glass! ‘retorts, and the escape of any uncondensed | vapour ducting the _ was ‘prevented by employing sufficiently capacious receivers, sis advan: well Juted, and kept cold.during the experiment, ..... saa Bya proper management of the heat towards theend tg : the process, I could distil.over nearly the whole - of ae Pee ee, _ wine without burning, the, vesiduary matter : thus, from a pint of Port wine, of. Madeira, of Sherry, &c., £ distilled off from-fifteen fluid ounces, to fifteen fluid ounces -and 4 half aah from the same a tie of Malaga, and other Inorder te ascertain tea “propor sl fs aitohol with pre- cisiony pure water was added to the distilled wine, so as nearly-to make up the eriginal measure of the wine, a very small allowance being made. for the space occupied by the Fitna vedients of the wine, and for the inevitable lose duri pe experiments : thus, five fluid drachms and a half of d distitted water were added to fifteen fluid ounces and of port wine, and in pi casea ee nearly the same proportions were, observed. This, mixture of the distilled wine and water, _was immediately transferred into a well stopped phial, and having been ‘thoroughly : agitated, was allowed to remain at rest for some “hours ; its “specific gravity ‘(at the temperature of 60° Fahrenheit), was ‘then very carefully ascertained, by weighing it in a bottle holding exactly one thousand grains of distilled water at the above temperature, pst the proportion of alcohol per cent, by measure, was ted by a reference to Mr. Gilpin’s tables*, the spe- ciffe gravity of the standard alcohol being 0°82500 at 60°. As | the most convenient, mode of exhibiting the results of these numerous experiments, I have thrown them into the form of 4 tablé;:in the first colimn the wine is specified ; the second captain its specific” gravity after distillation, as St. 0 * Phil. Trans» 1794 above STATE AND QUANTITY OF SPIRIT IN FERMENTED Liquors. above described and ‘the »third:exhibits: the proportion of _the pure spirity which every hundred parts of the wine con« tain. - I have also inberted: porter, ale, cider *,~brandy;-and some other ‘spirituous: liquors, for the convenience of com- _ paring their strength with that of the wines.» how Proportian of alcohol in va- rious ferment- ed liquors, (Bae sa 0089 a0! > Propertion of Al. Wine. Specific Gravity af- cohol, per Cent, _ he ~*~ ter Distillation.’ = by Measure.” Port cee veeewecaw! iy O-O761 1498 bie 2140 — F Ditto evesedoes . coe 0-97539 © GUati 4 »'99-30° : Pitta 22’. PH... se Puss ‘097480 "> * 9gRO) rot Ditto ee vocsause ee ad 0'97400. TP aaaee Fre cs oaks yo Raa ‘Ditto Legeseeseeee” * 0°973.46 is 994-99 Ditto ee é eceves vee bee 9°97200 ey oe 1s ft 95-83) ho Madeira «+. +6208 9997810 jog g Ditto -- ses. eeeeee) 0-97616 9140: Ditto Pa reeeqeegee ~ -*0°97380 5 93°93 Ditto seeeesesseee 0197389 Barge” Sherry eessesesee OO791S 7 >) 9 FerOg” Ditto +++-+e2es+0e) 097863 18-79 Ditto seeceesecees '0°07765 eee ny ane Ditto -o-esreeeed® < 6-97700. °°. Saggegg! Claret... eecccceee ‘ 0°98440 Berns, "32-91" Ditto s+++ee+-.-.. 0'98820 1408 Das cee eer ctor 098092 16°32" Calcavella +yseeee5. | 0°97920 78°10" Lisbon +++++++2+ 0°07846 ~~ | 1 8Q4" Malaga eeyese+e+s 0°98000 17°26 Bucellas+.+++++++2 0°97890, 18°4Q- Red Madeira. --« 0°97899 18°40" Malmsey Madeira 0°98090, 16-40% Marsala .+-+esesses 0°97196 25°87 PUTS ois chen cles cine 0:98000 17°26 | Red Champagne «+ 0°98608 ag ee ea White Champagne . 0798450 +. * 12-80" Burgundy «-+0+.- kk 0-98300 7 14"53 sh ’ hy” ye »f Ditto -.sseccccece 0°98540 : 11°95 Be it , rr 45 MENTE Ses * The proportion of spirit, which may be obtained from these three Iiquors, is subject to considerable. variation in different samples : the number given for each, in the table, is therefore the mean of several experiments, as it did nat seem necessary to’specify them separately. White METEOROLOGICAL TABLE.’ 73 sunwine lugbon syasienSieinn Ga fee Proportioh of “Al- a _ Wine. |, , a ecige Gravity af cohol, per Cent, - “— sete tet Distillation. by. Measure. ey white Hermitage-’ “ ~ 0°97990 Oi oied vb ‘ Proportion of ‘Red rennteayel 222 093495 eee | s. veo et Hock ++++e++++6." 0:98290 aay ee t Ditto tvevees. éVPi ~~ °0°98873 © ; -S°BS “Vin de Grave+eees 0°98450 ' (1980 Frontignac: ee ee ee 0°98452 ¢ ir 19°79- Cote Roti --++++e2 = 9°98495 12°32 sion ‘eocceoere ‘0°08005" / ry Na (17-26 oe Cape Madeira *-#4° ~ O-o7928 ag Cape Muschat ---- = 097913 | Constantiae.---+++ 097770 |. 19°75- Tent Suto veweees o - 098399 Sd 13-90 at a eC8eees ere errs “O98 176" . : 15°52 oy in eae ; 98200; | 15°98 ~ Nice ve ceceseeese 0°9082963 (1463, | Sevinrerrte eseerunyey gyreeen zs mw Wine «weve ~ 097905 . set ¢ Gtape Wine «+--«« 097925 8 89 lpeedr ' “2 Currant Wine -«-+- 097006 = = |) 20°55 -, Gooseberry Wine ++! 098550 =“ 41°84 se Bilder Wine. seccee— -0°98760 Ee 9°87 MAGEE oo cocoa ot - 0°98760 | 9.87 C Perty'++++rcecseve. »0°98760 © 9°87 =. = Brown Stout -csees 099116 “ 6:80 gel : Alevsesesseseeees 098873 8B - Brandy oes 08 oe oe et 0°93544 ' : ~53°39° : % Rum: soeeeecesese - 093404 ~~ . 53:68 © %., meee eeseceee 0:99855 \ e81-60""~, Meteralagial Table for 1811. Ina tale rom TT igh =< - Hon, W. J. Lorp Gray.» | na | BF Mfo. WALA N NICHOLSON, Esq. aah : oa. ee Tue inlogea Table i ig id ae of ‘last year’ 8 , observa. Metcorologie tions at Gordon Castle, the residence of the Duke of Gor- cal table. don ; which, if you choose, you may publish. Tt ees | a ere were ty 4 ical science 8 osph ¥ ‘publicly, diffused. ain, sir, ~ METEOROLOGYCAL 148 It would facilitate the _ ient humble servan obed a f romotion of meteorolo P Teen - eile ny - @f the science. very much, if registers of the state of the atm Your most more generally kept, and the results more ae Tmprovement m "78946 Paleo Jie UBIpLIaUt 3Y3 JO “AA BY 03 []e pue “pura *g ou, EN og A CEP ent it ts : > ~ ye fS aie ot |* Pe ne ion. ;SreoX outs | ot a GC 2s or StS) 2 < he: to's : A. 66 le a Seay _ on on eset “| 9086 1) L8-98 © | o-F8) 8F.65 | Maquiasag| Ps oF g ~|,086 | | s8-FF | o¢.c74 14.60 | saquiaacnl] Boss feu: (| 21-0 78.69 "| $1.67 | 99.66 |i s1aqoaO] | SS 4. G6 || - §6.6¢ — | 0-19] 26.6% Aaquazdag) - ee oo £0-% 1G.09 -| 01-99] ¢4.63 |. ysnZny Se 2 SS 60-3 || .S¢-19 | 06-2¢ | 86.66 “Ain ce €2.0 86.65 | $6.79 | £8.66 aun 2 63 r9-§ 89-95 | 06-09 | 08.6% “APTN >ock Me 16 2] £66 4 < 08-8F =| O66F) 14.68] ~ sudy ee rRree 9-0 | 06-8 —'| $6.0r | 96.62 "yoi8yY Z26eb >? | S90 |} Shee | doe] 78.65 | -*Aaenigag! SOS ee PE-1 4 90-8 | #O-BS] 64.65] “Kaenueg] _ et < oot ‘wy]) ‘ua, ‘uayy | ‘moreg | mas ti ery Stay uvayr| fo ayfay upayg | eo cg a eT oo Ee ee le 1a | i b ‘SAVd 3° UTEWON =| B | args ‘uyW | 4y S10 Suusz0jg rs > 3 © ee 7 we 1 & : “= ©: > @ 4 5: b = "Pof OO 99g ay2 aa0gP ag § Lo apanzwy : unmnsg ‘ny ‘sung fo ar — Apunog ‘p18¥Q uopsoyg yn sday caisrSay ays wosf payenszxa *990 7 qwrdtojosoaipy ON VRCETABLE EXTRACT. 75 ESE LO me aR On Extract auth the Saponaceous Principle; by Mr... | Giada seer of Berlin.* Arrer quoting the works ‘of! Rose,’ Hetmbstaedt, Writers on’the Trommsdorf, Foarcroy, and ‘Vauqueliut, ‘all of whom suiting have examined these two matters, the author adds: If oxidation be the principal characteristic of extract, Peruvian bark cinchona is the substance that, should be. preferred for — a obtaining. it. Accordingly. L exhausted some. cinchona (china fusca et officinalis) by alcohol, till the menstruum ae vie was po longer coloured. The. tincture obtained bad | no 2!cohol, action on solution of. gelatine, but it reddened litmus paper, and precipitated sulphate of iron green... , Having subjected the tineture to distillation, water was poured on the residuum ; when a sediment fornjeth which was sepurated. “The'cinchona exhausted by alcohol was treated with cold cold water, water. Litmas paper and sulphate of iron were not per- “ceptibly affected’ ‘by the impression; but it precipitated gelatine. This aqueous solution was evaporated and re= dissolved several times, and each time the precipitate that formed. was collected. Lastly, this extract was purified from, cinchonate of lime by alcohol, and mixed with the aleoholic tincture... The cinchona, that had been treated auccemivele by and boiling obiptadd and ‘cold water, was boiled in water, . The brown been spt decoction was likewise evaporated and: redissolved several times, taking care to separate the flocculent ‘matter that subsided) "This sediment afforded a ‘brown dowders having distinetly the smell of extract of cineliona; which was little soluble in boilitig water, or in alcohol, ‘but formed a. * Aan. de Chim, vol, LXXI, P. "290, Abridged fiom Gehlen’s Journal by Mr. Vogel. + See also a paper on vegetable “astiingents, by Dr: Bostock, Journal, vol. XXIV, p 204, 941, in which the existence of extract gs a separate principle is rendered very questionable. Dr. Henry “however remarks, Elements of Chemistry, vol. Hl, p. 181, that Dr. Bostock did not examine the extract from saffrun. C. a re 76 ON VEGETABLE. BXTRACT. red hquor with caustic lixivium. When no more sediment formed, the liquor was added fo the two assis obtained by ulcchol and cold water. : 4 wf The cout More than a hundred. evaporations dnd solutions were yltsac duo its made by the help of a water-bath. Thus the pulverulent gaa matter was reduced to a small quantity, and the colour of the liquid became deeper. By repeated solutions almost the whole was converted into powder. Of four ounces of cinchona, that bad furnished the extract, 15 grains [?] of residuum were left, on which pure alcchol would not act. — Action of ex- The infusions of cinchona then contained extract, which sande’ & io precipitated 1 iron of a green colour ; a property that extract loses, when it reaches the nad Hat ‘of oxidation, Gelatine precipitates the’ extract of cinchona’ but in part, and {the supernatant liquid comports itself in the same manner as infusion of cinchona. andtin. | Solution of tin “precipitates the: infusion of cinchona, but the supernatant liquid has still the same properties; or oo for it forma-a green precipitate with iron, and, when boiled some time, the extract becomes oxided, and falls down in aflocculent sediment. Tin therefore precipitates the ex- tract only in part; and the same takes place with lime water, or with a solution of alum. a Insoluble in Pure alcohol does not dissolve extract ; and its action ‘is gelatine, alcohol. still: farther diminished by the oxidation of the latter. Distillea When cinchona, or its extract, is ‘distilled with’ water, icant the product reddens litmus, without rendering the solution of ivon turbid. But if extract of cinchona be ‘distilled, till it becomes’ thick, ‘the distilled product ‘precipitates sulphate of iron green, and. sinha itself like-the sub- stance of coffee. © ; Attempt to To obtain the saponaceous animales the roots of gentian sonra *° and of soap-wort were treated with alcohol. The alcoholic principle from tincture ef gentian was evaporated and redissolved in water. "ie of Rin resinous substance was deposited. The filtered liquor the matte? —_ reddened infusion of litmus powerfully, but did not pro- ebtained. = dunce a green with solution of iron, Neither muriate of tin, lime-water, nor gelatine, ren- dered the liquor turbid. The liquid pide nag by weak alcohol, and afterward diluted ° CON VEGETABLE° EXTRACT.” = 4 “5 - diluted with water, containing the “saponaceous principle, was evaporated and redissolved 40 or 50 times. on a water- bath. Each time a brown powder, insoluble in water or alcohols. was.throws down. . The mother water of the: infusion of gentian was oxided by oxigen Bas, and’ by ‘oximuriatic acid. The €x- tract from gentian therefore.is less greedy of oxigen than ~ that from cinchona, but nevertheless it becomes oxided. ‘Though the infusion of gentian differs from that of cin- chona in not acting on tin or lime, still we cannot say, that it contains a saponaceous principle. If extract be insoluble both in pure alcohol and in ether ; : and the saponaceous principle, or the substance so called, enjoy the same properties 3. what are the characteristics of the latter ? The root of auvait was treated in the same manner. poop of sins The infusion comported itself with gelatine and the other wort weated in reagents, like that of gentian. . einige ah The saponaceous principle and extract, having the same The same with properties, it should be called ite agreeably to the extract, French chemists, extract. - The matter in coffee announced as a new substance by Principle in Chenevix*, and by Payssé as a new acidt, does not differ ‘id the perceptibly from the extract just described. “Extract then is an immediate principle of vegetables, exist- Properties of ing under various modifications. [t combines with several me- ©“? tallic oxides, particularly those of tin and iron, and pro- duces a green colour with the latter. It unites also with lime, and with alumine. It always contains nitrogen. When concentrated it exhibits a transparent mass, more or less brown, which attracts the moisture of the air. Very frequetitly it contains free acetic acid, muriates, and a saccharine matter. — In. living vegetables it appears to. be colourless; but oxigen imparts vo it a black colour. This appears pro- bable from the’ sap of trees, wee is white when it first flows from them. It is very probable, that tannin isa modification of extract. Tannin probs- ® See Journal, vol. II, p.214: + bid. vol. XVII, p. 196. ; It 78 . ANALYSIS OF CHROMATE OF BRON. bly a modifica It possesses all its properties, sah in addition that of com- hon oF tt bining with, glue, General con. . Thus it follows, 1, That the saponaceous principle, which clusions. has been svid to have been found in several vegetables, tions not.exist; itis nothing but extract. _ @,.That extract bina the property. of reddening the blue Soin of litmus, 8, That this substance is ible only in water and-di- luted alechol; neither pure alcohol nor ether having any action on it when well dried. ‘ 4, That when it is diluted with a great dead of water, if it be boiled 1n contact with air it absorbs oxigen, and falls down in a powder insoluble beth in water and in alcohol. XIII. An Examination of the Chromaté of Iron of the Uralian : Mountains, in Siberia: by Mr. Lausier*. saa hits year 4 Mr. Pontier discovered in the department Ghromateof .of the. Var, near the mansion house of la Cassade,.a mineral, yon re in which Mr, Tassaert first ascertained to be a compound of chromic acid, and oxide of von... Mr. Vauquehin. confirmed this analysis; and beside a difference in the proportions announced the presence of alumine and silex. Mr. Meder has since found in Siberia, in the Wralian Mountains, a substance much resembling the mineral of the Var. The examination of this substance, a specimen of which was presented to the author by Mr. Steinacher, of the Socicty of Apothecaries at Paris, is the subject of the present paper, in which the results of the author’s ana- lysis are compared with those of Mr. Vauquelin. Though the Siberian mineral pretty closely resembles 1 m bbs of appearance that from the Var, there is reason to conjecture, . on examining it with attention, that the metal in it is more pure: its fracture, instead of being eranular, is foliated ; its metallic lustre i is more vivid; and in general it is less and in Siberia. * Ann, ie Chim. vol. LX XVIIT, p. 70. pion from the Ann. ihe Muséum, @ Hist, Net wolw VE, p- 325406 4 3 er mixed i ANALYSIS OF CHROMATE OF TRON. =9 taixed with earthy matters.. On some parts of its surface the specimen exhibits green spots, which may be known: for oxide of crome. Its specific gravity supports the opinion of its greater purity.» That of the specimen is 4°0579, while that of the mineral of the Var-is only 4:0326, . This differ- ence in the gravity) indicates of course a. difference, iu’ the proportions of the metallic matter contained. in hong | tne varieties, and this the analysis proves.. ; From the experiments related in the paper, which are too Component long to be inserted here, it. follows, that. the Pibexiee area eile - mineral. contains, in 100 partss ix ie ral, Oxide of Chrome€ececessesseecee SF. ITON eosccecvvcvcvese 34 Alumine ccovecesooccevvccrvsel | Silex eocvcecccercccscesscccce ] —=—— 99. These results differ a little in the proportions from the ana of the following obtained from the mineral. of the Var by Mr. French, oVeBESli +s i. , oldies abit ar ee er Fe Ses) : shi Oxide of iron. cree reese e cere oS4 ft. Mis: tela Alu mine: oie. Glee ariae So 800.0 ie QO" Silexescscveveiscece seccsseeses B ——— EE LE i tela -99- Does chrome exist in the state of acid, or in that of oxide, Tyey are proe in the mineral called chromate of iron? Mr. Godon de ar vin | Saint-Mesmin, ina paper on.the artificial combinations of hut com.” -chromi¢ acid, is inclined to think, that it is in the state pounds of the oxides of irom of oxide, Me.) Vauquelin, ia his. report on that paper, ang of chrome. Appears, disposed to adopt. the samejopinion.. Mr. Laugier — agrees in it, and. supports it. by, the following reflection... No ‘direct experiment proves, that chrome is in the acid state in the native chromates of iron; and we have so much the less reason to think it, as slightly calcining the green oxide of chrome with caustic potash is sufficient, to convert it almost immediately into an acid: it is quite as probable therefore, that chrome is in the state of oxide in the minerals of the Var 80 ANALYSIS OF CHROMATE OF IRON, Var and of Siberia, as in that of acid; and quite as rational to consider them as compounds of the oxides of iron and of chrome, as chromates of iron. °° >» f V1 The Siberian Since I have finished the examination of thin aint} ag adds the author, I have learned, ‘that Mr. Lowitz has Lowitz. analysed the same'subtance. I know not what are precisely — the proportions of the principles found by him: but, to judge by the note on the subject inserted in the Journal de Physique, the results he obtatned nearly agree with mine; since it says, that he found in the Siberian mineral more than half its weight of oxide of chrome, iron, alumine, and a little silex. SCIENTIFIC NEWS. mie Tue Jacksonian Prize of the Royal College of tial ip in London, for the year 1811, has been adjudged Mr. Joseph Hodgson, of Buecklersbury, London, for his dissertation on the diseases of Arteries and: Veins; com- prising the pathology and. treatment of Amrarionn and wounded Arteries. :, bs eT TTF - hh pre Ye 2 tH?S Dies 425 The Sm SORRY ‘Game #4 Pips oye ing wim od ni ¢* , anon , Yi Eee Eo brane eq 8 i (a mani Prrigit mt 4 ‘be $Y $n vf ¢ 4 {4 + . " aor ho teh; omnis? Mr. Dyaiaee $s pupsel ‘is abigiony to” be U defered: itn nert mionth, the plates for both ninibers of the’ Journal® forsthe ‘present month’ ihe been’ ‘some tinte in ea when tt was ‘received: a, Oe iq taomlis¢x Joep avsl oc2 4 low bre +: gor to esleme iatetaia yiit daiti} OF waees st oudf agi chix boy tp % , ee oie * Sis 2 ee > SRie ne fi OMI au? sat = A JOURNAL OF NATURAL PHILOSOPHY, CHEMISTRY, AND THE ARTS. JUNE, 1812. ARTICLE I. A Description of the Smicrologometer for ascertaining the ' Tenacity of Metals, Silk, Cotton, and Linen Threads, & ce invented by Mr. E. Lypiart, Professor of Mechanics, and Lecturer on Metallurgy and Manufactures, 5c. Te W. NICHOLSON, Esq. Sir, - & In the course of much practice in the application of metals Tenacity of to the purposes of delicate machinery, I have frequently a fl found it necessary to ascertain their comparative tenacity ; known, and also of alloys, in different proportions of combination. To do this, I have adopted the process employed by and sought by Muschenbroeck and other foretgu experimenters on this oLweahe subject; that is, by drawing the metals, to be subjected to from wires. experiment, into wires of a given thickness, and then sus- ‘pending them vertically by one extremity, while weights were attached to the other; which weights were increased by fractional additions, till a separation of the particles took place. ‘The results obtained, however, by these experiments, I The results not never found satisfactorily correct, on account of the im- Satisfactory. possibilily of increasing the weight attached by sufficiently Vol. XXXII. No. 147.—June 1812. G small 82 INSTRUMENT FOR MEASURING TENACITY: small proportions, as not in most instances to exceed ‘tia was absolutely necessary to effect the required purpose, The spring I began therefore to consider, that the employment of a ee, spring might be more effectual for my purpose than weights. I according tried a common spring steelyard, which, however, I found objectionable, from the difficulty of noting the breaking point precisely on the graduated slide, by’ reason of its being instantantaneously carried back by the recoil of the spring: an objection affectmg the accuracy of the experiment as materially as that above stated against . the weights. A screw come After a little farther consideration on the subject, I con-. bined withthe, . ete : ; ; derieche. CyOee method of combining a screw with the spring, in a tuak, way which I have found effectually to give a force capable of being approximated to the required point by the most uniform and gradual increments; constituting thereby an experimental accuracy, which [ believe impossible to be obtained from weights however applied. In this arrangement, by the rotary motion of the screw, an index is moved round a quadrantal scale, graduated with ibs. and their decimal patts; and this index remaining stationary at the breaking point, an accurate indication of the quantity of force is obtained, and can be noted at . pleasure. | The principle This contrivance being considered capable of an extensive s of extensive and useful application, is the reason I solicit its publicity pe as through the medium of your Scientific Journal. _ The whole of the Smicrologometer is represented in the annexed drawing, which I hope will be rendered viliiile cai by a short explanation. The apparatus = Fig 1, Plate Ill, isa perspective view.—AA a piece of sane wood of any required lengthand thickness, at one extremity i of which is screwed the Rinse plate BB. On this are fixed the two standards CC ; and into these is pivotted the endless. screw d, furnished with the nut e, which, on turning the serew by the micrometer head f, moves backward and for- ward at pleasure. This nut hasa slider g attached to it under the screw, and passing through a hole in the standard C, in which it slides freely as the nut is mia an immovable round piece » INSTRUMENT FOR MEASURING TENACITY. 83 piece of brass passing through a hole in the lower extremi- The apparatus ty of the nut, and having its ends secured in the standards ‘¢*tibed. C C, is intended to steady the motion. G the tube contain- ing the spiral spring represented fig. 2. Down the middle of this spring passes. the rod or slide, fig. 3. a is a button of brass of the same diameter as the interior of the tube G, - and screwed on the end of the slide, so that, when in its proper situation, it may rest on the extremity of the spring. 6, fig. 3, a reund piece of brass, which screws in and closes the end of the tube after the spring is in; it has a perfora- tion in the middle, through which the extremity c of the slide freely passes, and is connected to the slider g of the nut e, fig. 1. | By this arrangement it will be seen, that as the tube G, containing the spring, is attached to the movable nut e, and freely supported by the end of the brass plate B B, which is turnedup at a right engle for this purpose, it must move al- together backward or forward ‘as the nut is moved ; but if the wire # have one end coiled round the pin k, which is made to turn for this purpose in a piece of brass screwed into the end of the tube, and the other round a similar pin /, which is in serted in a brass slider, that moves horizontally, through the standard o for the purpose of adjusting its length; and, . while in this position, if the screw f be turned so as to ,move the nut.back, the slide will be drawn out, and the tube held in its original position by the wire 7; which will _- acquire a tension equal to the resisting power of the spring, / as compressed between the round piece of brass 5 and the _ button afig. 3. If the screw continue to be turned slowly, the tension of the wire will consequently increase, till the cohesive attraction of its particles be overcome by the ex- paasive force of the spring. ‘This expansive force, being the measure of tenacity in the wire, will be indicated by the index m, consisting of a smalk brass quadrant and pointer as at fig. 4, fixed on the quad-, rantal scale nnn, round which it moves as the screw turns, in consequence of teeth on the edge, which work in the threads of the screw. The index moving in this way 18 not influenced by the recoil of the tube, when the wire breaks, but remains at the degree it. has been carried to on i G 2 es the “e } / 84 Applicable to threads or cords of any kind: and to stringed INSTRUMENT FOR MEASURING TENACITY. the scale, till the screw is turned the contrary way to bring it back to the zero. Figs 5, 6,7, &c. represent such parts as may not perhaps be quite intelligible in the perspective view of the instrument: namely the screw and nut, stand- ards, &c., all of which, I hope, will be understood, without a more diffuse description. The application of the smicrologometer to ascertain the tenacity of metals being understood, it will be easy to con ceive, that it may be nee employed in the same way, to determine the strength of silk, cotton, or linen threads, &c., affording thereby means of calculating with facility the force any combination of them will sustain in cordage, cloth, &c. It will likewise be found a desideratum to those manu- instruments of faciurers of stringed musical instruments, who wish to ap= 4 Music. Mode of ap- plication to these. Experiments with the in- strument pro mised, proximate to perfection on scientific principles. It being now determined by experiment, that the trans-. mission of clear and continuous sounds from piano fortes, harps, &c., depends very much on the due proportion of their component parts, and more particularly those to which the wires or strings are immediately attached ; it becomes in consequence necessary, that the exact tension, ef strings producing different sounds should be known as correctly as their lengths, in order, that. such proportions may be given as will exactly support the aggregate tension without impeding the vibrations by unnecessary quantities, of metal or wood. . To adapt the smicrologometer to this purpose, nothing is necessary, but to affix a monochord scale with a movable bridge on the top of the piece of wood A A: when you have an instrument that will determine at once the length and tension of any string, or wire, to the highest degree of accu- racy, that is capable of practical application. Satisfied that every invention. and discovery, Sadat the prospect of opening a shorter and less intricate avenue to truth, comes with a fair claim to approbation from all who are interested in the advancement of science; I shall not. hesitate to lay before the public, in some future paper, the results of a number of experiments made to ascertain, more correctly than has hitherto been done, the relative tenacity of the different. metals, and their alloys: accompanied with gu ; such Fi \ ALUMINOUS CHALYBEATE SPRING IN I. OF WIGHT 85 such practical observations on their general properties, as may serve to show the importance of a more particular at tention to this subject, than has hitherto been thought ne- cessary in practical mechanics. E. LYDIATT. London, April the 15th, 1812. Il. A Chemical Account of an Aluminous Chalybeate Spring in the Isle of Wight. By ALexanpeR Marcet, M. D. F. &. S. one of the Physicians to Guy’s Hospital, and Member of the Rrlecieat Society. es ( Concluded from p. 66.) SEor. IX. Sulphate of A lumine. 1. Fiery grains of residue ¢ were boiled in two successive Residue treat- lixivia of caustic petash (as in sect VIII, 1), soas to take up eae a all the alumine present; the residue was separated and well washed, and the washings were added to the alkaline solu- tion. The clear liquor had a brownish colour, and on being tried with moriatic acid and prussiate of potash, a blue tinge was produced, which appeared to have arisen - from a few particles of oxide of iron, which were suspended in the lixivium rather than actually dissolved; for the solu- tion being left at rest for some time, these particles sub- sided. 2. To the clear alkaline solution muriate of ammonia and precipitate was added, till no farther precipitate took place; the pre- “ Late denis cipitate was edulcorated and collected in a filter. it was > These fifty grains had been previously boiled in neutral carbonate - . of ammonia, in order to separate the magnesia, as will be detailed hereafter. The previous intervention of a carbonated alkali renders the subsequent application of caustic potash for the separation of the alumine more unexceptionable, as a solution of*caustic potash ~might redissolve a small portion of the lime, if it were not previously carbonated, white 86 Another por- tion, Crystals of glum obfained by adding potash, ALUMINOUS CHALYBEATE SPRING IN I. OF WI@HT. white and gelatinous.. Caustic potash being added to the clear fluid, ammonia was disengaged, showing that it con- tained an excess of muriate of ammonia; and acetic acid being added to another portion of the same liquor, no tur- bidness appeared, both circumstances showing, that all the alumine was precipitated. This precipitate Being dissolved in muriatic acid, in order to separate a minute portion of silica, which it contained*, and being again precipitated by succinate of ammonia with excess of ammonia, formed a gelatinous mass, which being edulcorated, dried, and ulti- mately heated to redness, weighed 2°4 grains. 8. Another portion of residue, weighing thirty grains, being treated in a manner exactly similar to that just de- scribed; with this exception, that the redissolution of the alumine in muriatic acid and its subsequent precipitation by succinate of ammonia, were omitted ; the gelatinous pre- cipitate, heated to redness, weighed 1:4 grain +, which afforded as close a coincidence with the former result as may be well expected in processes of this kind. . Having never been able to obtain, by the mere evapo- ration of the water, any appearance of crystals resembling alum, I was desirous for the sake of obtaining farther evi- dence on the subject, to bring the sulphate of alumine to a crystallized state, by artificially supplying what I con- ceived to be wanting for the completion of that process. For this purpose, having dissolved about thirty grains of residue in distilled water, I added to the filtered solution two or three drops of a solution of carbonate of potash, and evaporated it very slowly; crystals were thus obtained, dispersed in the saline mass, which, though of a size scarcely exceeding that of a pin’ s head, had a distinct octohedral * The particulars of the manner in bcs the silica is cgupoakecl iby the intervention of muriatic acid, will be detailed under the head Silica, im another part of this paper. + The real weight was1:6 grain, but 0-2 ofagrain were deducted, on account of the quantity of silica known, by other experiments, to have been present, as will be seen under the head Silica. It may be pro- per to mention, that the gelatinous precipitate, during its gradual desiccation, shrunk into small fragments resembling coarsely pul- verized glue, an appearance which is well known to characterize alumine. = ¥ form ALUMINOUS CAALYBEATE SPRING IN I. OF WIGHT, 8F form, and, when separated and chemically examined, had all the properties of alum. 5. With regard to the proportion of sulphate of alumine, Proportion of contained in the water, it will be seen, that by connecting a of together the results of the experiments just related (1, 2,3), eighty grains of residue, or a pint of the water, yield 3-8 grains of alumine heated to redness, which, according to the proportion of twelve parts of iginted alumine in one hun- _dred parts of crystallized alum*, would be equivalent to 81.6 grains of the alum in each pint of the water$. Secor. X. Sulphate of Lime. 1. Some of the former experiments (sect. III, d and g) Examination had shown, beyond all doubt, the presence of selenite; and for sulphate of indeed, from the general composition of the water, lime a could scarcely be supposed to exist in it in any other form of combination, To ascertain the revisit of this substance, a variety of methods was used, the principal results of which I shall cursorily relate. 2. It would have ae in vain, in this instance, to have applied, without any previous step, oxalate of ammonia, the usual test of lime, in order to obtain an accurate esti- ‘mate of the quantity of lime present in the water; for as oxalic acid also acts upon iron, some ambiguity would ne- eessarily have occurred. Indeed that oxalate of ammonia did not, in this case, react upon the lime in the manner that it usually does, had been noticed, (sect. ITI, f, g) in eome of the preliminary experimentsf, 3, It * These are the proportions stated by Mr. Kirwan, and which I - ebtained myself on a former occasion (See the Analysis of the Brighton Chalybeate) { It is scarcely necessary again to observe, that the sulphate of alumine contained in the water does not appear to exist there in the state of alum; but it is perhaps better to express the quantity of alumine by the quantity of alum which it would form, as the crystallized state of the salt affords a much more precise standard of comparison. + By adding a considerable quantity of oxalate of ammonia, and Iron precipi- concentrating the solutions by heat, the whole of the lime appeared tated with lime ~ ta DY Oxalate of to be precipitated, together with a portion of iron; but ia wer © icons, ‘ ; ain 88 ALUMINGUS CHALYBEATE SPRING IN I. OF WIGHT, Proportion of 3. It was therefore necessary to separate the iron previoas Fe aa of to the precipitation of the lime. This was doue in one instance by prussiate of potash, and in another by succinate of ammonia. [I shall not trouble the society with a detail of these operations. It will be sufficient to state, that the two, most unexceptionable experiments indicated the one. 8 grains, and the other 8-3 grains of oxalate of lime, dried at 160°, for each pint of the water, making an average of 8°15 grains of oxalate of lime, or 10°17 grains of ee of lime dried at 160°; or 7°94 grains of Hie same salt dried at a red heat®, Sect. ' pbtain the oxalate of lime pure, it was necessary tc calcine the pre- Cipitate so as to drive off the oxalic acid, to redissolve the residue in muriatic acid, and to precipitate the lime again by oxalate of ammo- nia. The small quantity of iron present did not then interfere, and this process, however circuiteus, proved tolerably accurate. I was drawn by this part of the subject into an experimental inquiry vespecting the action of oxalate of ammonia on solutions of iron, and the unfitness of this test for the pyecipitation of lime when iron is present, the principal results of. which'I shall state summarily. 1. If to a strong solution of sulphate of iron a small quantity of sulphate of lime be added, and then a little oxalate of ammonia, no precipitate or cloudiness appears; while the same quantities of sul- phate of lime and oxalate of ammonia, added to a bulk of water 6 to that of the solution of iron, instantly form a precipitate. . If oxalate of ammonia be added to a solution of sulphate of i iron, a one yellow colour is produced; and presently after this a copious white precipitate appears, which, in subsiding, assumes a pale lemon colour. If, at the moment the cloud is forming, the vessel be scratch- ed with any pointed instrument, white lines appear, as in the pre- cipitation of magnesia from carbonic acid by phosphoric acid. 3. This precipitate being washed, and gently heated over a lamp, assumes a bright cinnamon colour, and becomes magnetic, in conse- quence, no doubt, cf the carbonization of the oxalic acid; and these changes take place at 2 heat much inferior to ignition. 4. Lfasolution of potash be added to the washed precipitate, previous j to the application of heat, a strong smell of ammonia arises, and the oxide passes to a dark grayish colour, showing that the precipitate is u triple salt of oxalic acid, iron, and ammonia. ; * J avail myself, in forming these varions estimates, of the pr opers tious given by Dr. Henry, in his valuable ‘Analysis of several varieties of Sea Salt (published in the Philusop: ical Transactions for 1910, page 114), where he states that 109 grains of iguited sulphate of lime (which ALUMINOUS CHALYBEATE SPRING IN I. OF WIGHT.. 89 Secr. XI. Inferences obtained frum: the application of ‘ Alcohol. 1. Having ascertained (sect. III, k), that a small quantity Examination bal is : : for muriates by of muriatic acid was present in the water, it became de- .i.ono1. sirable, before proceeding any farther, to discover, by the agency of alcohol, which has the well known property of dissolving the earthy muriates, with what bases this acid was combined. With this view, 20 grains of residue were digested in successive quantities of alcohol of great purity, and the solution filtered. The residue, by this operation, acquired a lighter colour and a more pulverulent appear ance. Part of this residue being treated with muriatic acid and oxalate of ammonia, oxalate of lime was precipitated ; and another portion being treated with neutral carbonate of ammonia and phosphate of soda, some magnesia was pre- cipitated in the form of triple phosphate, circumstances which confirmed the presence of lime in the form of selenite, and that of magnesia, inthe form of eviptats or Epsom salt. 2. The alcoholic solution being Sudip deited to dryness, a yellowish deliquescent residue was obtained, which, being dried at 160°, weighed 0°9 of agrain. Water being added to this residué, a small portion of it remained undissolved, The filtered watery solution was yellowish, though per- fectly transparent, and, being examined by the usual reagents, appeared to contain iron, sulphuric acid, and mu- riatic acid, with imponderable vestiges of lime and mag- nesia, without any trace of lumine. . 3. From these circumstances it was inferred, that the Results, only deliquescent salts ielded by the residue, in ascertain- able quantities, were sulphate of iron, and muriate of iron, both of which had probably been formed ia consequence of some new orders of attraction taking place during the pro= cess of evaporation to which the water had been subjected*. 2 Sect. ‘ (which he finds to be equal to 128 grs. dried at 160°), give 102'5 grs. of oxalate of lime dried at 160°, corresponded to 124 grs. of sulphate of lime dried at the same temperature. [See Journ. vol. X XVI. p. 278. ] * Namely, the reo sulphate from the yperoxigenation of the iron, and the muriate from the decomposition of muriate Of seda, ag: will be explained hereafter. 90 ALUMINOUS CHALYBEATE SPRING IN I. OF WIGHT. Sect. XII. Sulphate of Magnesia. Examination 1, The presence of magnesia * was acertained beyond alt for magnesia. doubt, in the following manner: 50 grains of residue minutely pulverized were. boiled in a solution of neutral carbonate of ammonia, so as to de- compose all the sulphate of iron and earthy salts, and dissolve all the magnesia which might be presentt. This process was, of course, attended with considerable effer- vescence, and when this had ‘subsided, the liquor was filtered. The clear solution deposited on standing a brownish sediment, which was separated, and proved to be oxide of iron. The residue left in the filter had passed from a greenish-yellow to a pale brown colour. Sodiestion of 2. Phosphate of ammonia being added to the clear ammoniaco- “solution, a precipitate appeared, having all the characters Ee aie: of the ammoniaco-magnesian phosphate; and in particular; ' that of forming white stripes on the inside of thé vessel when scratched with a pointed instrument. This preci pitate, dried at a temperature of about 120°, weighed 1°9 grajnj], and being made red hot in a platina crucible, was Proportion of reduced to exactly | gr. = 0°385 of a grain of pure magnesia sulphate of | = 2:26 grains of crystallized sulphate of magnesia in 50 menor ~ grains of residue, or 3°69 grains in a pint of watert. The } magnesian * The presence of this earth in the form of sulphate bad already been proved by the application of alcohol, (sect. XI, 1). + It is scarcely necessary again to state here the well known fact, that carbonate of ammonia, when fully saturated with carbonic acid, bas the pewer of dissolying magnesia. }} In a subsequent experiment, in which the water itself, instead of the residue, was treated in the same manner with neutral carbonate of ammonia, the quantity of magnesia appeared somewhat greater ; but the difference wl not amount to more than one tenth of a grain. Peseentiin a t It will be iccensary here to state ahs grounds of this compu. which magne- tation, which will afford me an opportunity of relating some general sia and phos- results concerning the proportions in which magnesia and phosphoric phoric acid acid combine. fomnBio. By dissolving 112 grains of the purest magnesia (perfectly free from carbonic acid and water) in muriatic acid, and precipitating it by a mixture of phosphate of ammonia, and neutral carbonate of ammonia, I] abtained 658 grains of the triple phosphate dried by exposure for near forty-eight hours to a temperature which never ex- ceeded ALUMINOUS CHALYBEATE SPRING IN I. OF WICHT. 91 magnesian phosphate became slightly brownish during the vealéjnation, owing to the presence of a few Peles of iron, the quantity of which was too minute to be ascertained. Secr. XIII. Precipitation of the sulphuric and muriatic Acids, with a view to ascertain their quantity. Before. drawing any: ultimate conclusion respecting the Examination contents of the water and the proportions of its ingredients, ofthe quantity : ie of the acids. I found it necessary to ascertain the quantities of sulphuric and muniatie acids which it contained, in order to enable “me to try how far these quantities might coincide with the conclusions obtained by the separation of the basis, and also to assist me, as will be seen hereafter, in forming cer- tain inferences with regard to the alkaline salts. For this ‘purpose I made the following experiments, 1. To ceeded 120°, a degree of heat under which this salt appears to retain the whole of its ammonia. These 65:8 grains of triple salt, being exposed for half an hour to a strong red heat in a platina crucible, were reduced to 30‘Sgrains. The salt appeared then in the form of a friable cake or loose aggregate, a fragment of which, on being urged by the blowpipe, ran into a white opaque vitreous globule, without any farther diminu- tion of weight. In its friable state it was readily dissolved by muriatic acid; in its vitrified form it required heat and trituration. This salt ‘was nenfedtly tasteless, and showed no attraction for water. With regard to the proportions of acid and base to be inferred from this experiment, -it is obvious, that, if 30°8 grains of phosphate of magnesia contain 31°82 grains of earth, the remainder, viz. 18°98 grains, represents the proportion of phosphoric acid; which is equivalent to 38:37 grains of magnesia in 100 of uote kate. In another experiment conducted in a similar manner, the magnesia amounted to 3$ 7 grains, so that, by taking the mean between these two very nearly similar results, we have the following proportions, viz. Magnesia . 9$8'5 Phosphoric acid 61.5 We may infer therefore, that one grain of phosphate of magnesia, the quantity yielded by twenty grains of residue, indicated 0-385 of pure magnesia; and if, according to the statements of Kirwan and Wenzel (which very nearly agree) one hundred grains of crystallized sulphate of magnesia contain seventeen grains of magnesia, 2-26 grains of that salt will be the quantity corresponding to 0:385 of a grain of magnesia. And I have the satisfaction ef observing, that the pre. . portions t in 100 grains of ignited phosphate of magnesia, ‘ 92 ALUMINOUS CHALYBEATE SPRING IN f. OF WIGHT. Sulphuricacid. 1. To four ounces of the water was added nitrate of barytes till the whole of the sulphuric acid was precipitated ; the sulphate of barytes thusobtained being carefully edulcorated; and heated to redness in a platina crueible, weighed 18°5 grains, which correspoud to 74 grains of sulphate of barytes yak 2 pint of the water. } Muriatic acid. &, Four ounces of the water were a prea with mtrate of a as long as any precipitate appeared, and the muriate of silver thus obtained, being well edulcorated, and after- wards bought to a state of ineipient fasion by the heat of an Argand lamp, weighed 2°05, which is equivalent to 82 grains of luna cornea, or four grains of muriate of soda*, in each pint of the waterf, Secr. XIV. Sulphate and Muriate of Soda. Examimatiog 3. The mode in whieh I first attempted to ascertain the oer presence of alkaline salts in the water was that alluded to : in a former part of this paper, which consisted in precipi- tating the iron aud the earths by subcarbonate of ammenia, evaporating the elear solution to dryness, heating the dry mass to redness, with a view to drive off the sulphates and muriates of ammonia, redissolving the residue ta water, and evaporating again very slowly in order te obtain crystals. But the saline mass yielded by this process did not crystallize regularly, and, on being examined by reagents, was found - to contain only sulphate of soda, with minute quantities of sulphates of alumine and magnesia, whieh had escaped the © action of the carbonate of ammonia. | Portion, obtained by Dr. Henry, of one hundred grains of ammoniaco- magnestan phosphate dried at 9o°, for one hundred and eleven grains of crystallized sulphate of magnesia, would have led te a very similar result. (Sce Dr. Henry’s ‘Analysis of several varieties of Salt,’ in Phifos Tyans. for 1810, page 113.) [Journ. vol. xxvi, p. 277.] * J have found by direct experiments, that one hundred grains of pure «variate of soda heated to redness, and decomposed by nitrate of silver, yield 241°6 grains of luna cornea heated to fusion, _ + The saine experiment was tried three times upon diffcrent speci- sacns of the water, and L here give the average. The smallest quantity of lana corne2 obtained was two grains, and the largest 2°5 grains, a difference too great to erise from mere inaccuraey. From this and several other circumstances I have reason to suspect, that the water is sabicet to occasional variations in the proportions, as well as in the aggregate quantity of its solid contents. ALUMINOUS CHALYBEATE SPRING IN 1. OF WIGHT. 9S 2. In hopes of obtaining more satisfactory results, 1 had Treatment recourse to the following process: five ounces of the water pipe rag were boiled with a solution of succinate of ammonia till the whole of the iron and alumine were precipitated*. The lime was precipitated: by oxalate of ammonia, and the mag- nesia by ammonia. The solution was then concentrated over a lamp, and gradually evaporated to dryness ina platina crucible. A white pungent smell arose, and on ratsing the heat to redness, these fumes took fire and burnt with a blue flame, till the whole was fused and reduced toa fixed saline mass mixed witha black coaly matter. Distilled water was poured upon this mass, and the solution filtered. This clear solution being now evaporated and dried at a gentle heat, so as to obtain the saltsin a crystallized state, the mass weighed 6°3 grainst, which would give 20 grains of alkaline, salts in a pint of the water. The centre of this mass exhi- bited no distinct crystallization, though. from its appearance and disposition to effloresce, it evidently. contained sulphate of soda; but the circumference was strewed with numerous and perfectly regular crystals of muriate of sodat. , 3. This ’ * This is a long operation, because the iron dees not combine with > the succinic acid at a low degree of oxigenation, so that the mixture must be long digested with access of air, or repeatedly boiled aud al- Jowed to stand in the air for some hours during the intervals, before the “process can be completely effected. This operation necessarily requires one or two days, but is remarkably accurate as to the precipi- tation of both the iron and alumine. + This was the combined result of two separate experiments tried on three and two ounces of the water, the first of which Ne 3°5 grains, : and the other 9°8 grains of alkaline salts. ¢ This result shows the compatibility of muriate of soda with sul- Muriate of ‘phate of iron, the latter being in excess, which has been questioned soda comprti- by some chemists. Being desirous of obtaining a confirmation of this ble with sul- by a direct experiment, I mixed together solutions of two parts of phate of inom. _ sulphate of iron and one part of muriate of soda. ‘fhe mixture be- came yellowish, and on applying heat reddish flakes subsided. On separating these by filtration, and repeating this process two or three times, I nevertheless obtained by evaporation distinct crystals of muriate of soda, partly cubic, partly octohedral, deposited in the - centre of a saline yellowish mass, without any appearance of efflor- escence or of any thing reseinbling sulphate of soda. Therefore mx- riate of soda is compatible with sulphate of iron, although these two Halts 94 Properties of the saline mass, ALUMINOUS CHALYBEATE SPRING IN f. OF WIGHT. 3. This saline mass being dissolved in water, the bstiition had the following properties: a, It was neither acid nor alkaline. Bs b. Its most obvious taste was that of muriate of soda. c. It formed copious precipitates with nitrate of barytes, nitrate of silver, and nitrate of lime. d. Oximuriate of platina, oxalate ofammonia, and prus- _ siate of potash, produced no precipitate whatever. Perhaps mu- riate of soda enly present. Proof of the action of sul- phate of am- mMonia on mu- riate of soda,” Proportions of the sulphate and muriate determined in- directly. . Therefore the only salts contained in this solution were: sulphate of soda, and muriate of soda. 4. Asto the preportions of these two salts, it soil have been easy to ascertain them by precipitating their acids. But _- itoccurred to me, that the sulphate of ammonia formed in the. solution by the ammoniacal salts, which had been introduced: for the precipitation of the earths, had probably reacted upon the muriate of soda when urged by heat, so as to de- compose it partially, and form the sulphate of soda obtained by the process just described ; so that muriate of soda might: perhaps in fact ie the only alkaline salt contained in the water. 5. Iu order to ascertain this, another portion of the chalybeate having been treated in the way just described with succinate of ammonia, the residue was gradually desiccated, and then heated to redness ina platina crucible, which was at-first. kept closed, in order to retard the escape of the sulphate of ammonia, and thus promote its action on the muriate of soda. ‘The remaining mass, being dissolved and very slowly crystallized, assumed the form of clusters’ of regular prismatic efflorescent crystals of sulphate of soda, among which scarcely any vestige of muriate of soda could. be discovered, 6. The decomposition of munate of soda by the above process being thus well established, it became necessary to determine the proportions of sulphate and muriate of soda by -some salts evidently exert some degree of action on each other, as appeared frum the change of colour and the formation of reddish flakes, which I suppose to be subsulphate of iron. I may take this opportunity of | mentioning, that by an analogous exper iment on sulphate of iron and, muriate of alumine, and by the assistance cf alcohol, I satisfied myself~ that thise twe salts could not exist together. ALUMINOUS CHALYBEATE SPRING IN I, OF WIGHT. 95 some les$ direct method; and the expedient which appeared the most appropriate was that of inferring the point in ques- tion from a reference to the quantities of acids as estimated in the preceding section, Thusasit was obvious that, what- ever the case might-be with regard to sulphate of soda, the presence of muriate of soda in the water was unquestionable; and as the whole quantity of muriatic acid discovered in the water (§ XIII, 2), corresponded to a quantity of muriate of soda which fell far short of the sum total of alkaline salts, I naturally inferred, that the whole of the muriatic acid was united with soda, and that the water must also contain a quantity of sulphate of soda sufficient to complete the 20 grains of alkaline salts, which the experiments just related had shown to exist in each pint of the water. 7. Since therefore the whole of the muriate of soda, as was before computed (§XIII, 2), amounted only to 4 grains ina pint, the quantity of crystallized sulphate of soda con- ‘tained in each pint of the water will be 16 grains. Sxet. XV. Comparison of the quantities of Acid actually obtained from the water by precipitation, with the quan- _ tities inferred from the precipitation of the basis. 1. It appears evident, from all that precedes, that the Quantities of only acids contained in the water are the sulphuric and mu- acid obtained riatic. The whole of the muriatic acid having been shown pie ak a to exist in the form of muriate of soda, nothing farther re- with thatin- bee Bt rd : ‘ é 4 ferred from mains to be said on this head. But it will be curious to ing pases. examine how far the total amount of sulphuric acid, obtained from a portion of the water, would coincide with that which might be inferred from the quantities of bases, with which it wascombined. This inquiry will give rise to the statement of certain results respecting the proportions of acid and base in some of the salts concerned, and the precipitates obtained from their decomposition, which, from their general impott in chemical analysis, appear to deserve some attention. 2. It was ascertained by a direct experiment (§ XIII, 1) that the whole of the sulphuric acid, contained in a pint of the water, formed, when precipitated by a barytic salt, a quantity of sulphate of barytes, which, after being ignited, weighed 74 grains. I shai} 06 ALUMINOUS CHALYBEATE SPRING IN I. OF WIGHT. I shall now recapitulate the several sulphates discovered in | the water, and from the quantities of each compute the _ quantities of barytic sulphate, which would result from.their * suifmae eh decomposition. ah. ncaa: Sulphates contained in a pint of the Water. _ ; Sulph. of baryt. ignited, Sulphate of iron (§VIII, 6) 41°4 ors. crystallized = 31°8 grs.# Sulph. of alumive (§ TX, 5,) 3°8 grs.ign. alumine = 17-7 do. f- Sulph. of lime (§ X, 3) 10°17 grs. dried at 160° = 13-9 do. t Sulph. of magnesia (§ XII, 2) 3°63 grs. crystal. = 4-0 do. |{ Sulph. of soda (§ XIV, 7) 16-0 grs, crystallized = 11°6 do. § Total amount of the sulphate of barytes+eesssee. -79-0 ers. a * These proportions were deduced from the following experiment: 50 grains of crystallized green sulphate of iron were dissolved in w ater, and nitrate of barytes was added as long as any precipitate took place. The sulphate of barytes, after being carefully edulcorated and heated to redness in a platina crucible, ee 33.5 2 ~ Therefore 50:83:52: 41°4 +318. Cae Nae Proportions of | + It may be recollected that 3°8 grs. of ignited alumine antl ac- poate cio cording to the proportion before stated (Sect IX, 5,) correspond to. z aidataet 31°6 of crystallized alum, I found by a direct experiment, that 100 grs. of regular octohedral crystals of alum formed by gradual deposition from a staturated solution of common alum, being dissolved in water and precipitated by muriate of barytes, produced $8"2 grs. of ignited sulphate of barytes; so that the 31'6 grs. of alum would correspond to 27'8 grs. of the barytic sulphate. This, how ever, could not be an . accurate estimate of the real quantity of sulphuric acid, since the sulphate of alumine does not exist in the water in the state of alum, With a view to learn the proportious of acid and base in pure sulphate of alumine, I made the following attempt. A quantity of alumine (which had been prepared oo precipitation from alum, redissolution in muriatic acid, and second precipitation by carbonate of ammonia, and appeared to contain no impurity except a vestige of muriatic acid), was dissolved in sulphuric acid, and the solution evaporated to siccity. When reduced to the consistence of a thick sirup, and allowed to cool, the saline mass congealed into a hard whitish deliquescent cake, capable of being pulverized. -This was redissolved and reevaporated four successive times, and the Jast time was made redhot, in order to expel the excess of sulphuric acid, which always appeared to prevail. By this’ last operation a portion of the salt was decomposed and ren- dered insoluble i in water, in spite of which the remainder still exhibited ch a of acidity. The clear solution of nes mass being divided into — two 4 ( LE <= ’ ' ALUMINOUS CMALYBEATE SPRING IN I. OF WIGHT. 97 3. It appears therefore, that the aggregate of the analy- Difference be- tween the suj- tical results would indicate 79 grs. of ignited sulphate of hate df i barytes, instead of the 74 grs. obtained by a single direct * ry tescaleulated operation. This difference 1 apprehend to be in a great 44 obtained, _ degree owing to my estimate of the proportion of acid in sulphate of alumine being overrated, from the circumstance of not having been able to obtain a neutral sulphate of alu- mine in the experiment just related from which that estimate was deduced. Sect. XVI. Silica. Examination ‘1. During the various solutions of the residue in acid, I for silex. had repeatedly observed, that, beside the selenite, (the solution of which was attended with some difficulty, and re- two equal portions, one of which was precipitated by succinate of am- monia, and the other by nitrate of barytes, yielded 4:5 grs. of ignited alumine, for 21 grs. of ignited sulphate of barytes. From which it may be inferred, that the 3'8 grs. of ignited alumine, found in a pint of the water, were combined with a quantity of acid equal to 17°7 grs. of ignited sulphate of barytes. But it is assumed in this computation, — that the artificial sulphate of alumine subjected to analysis, was in the same state of combination as that which exists in the water, a sup- pssition which may not be strictly accurate. { The quantity of sulphate of barytes, produced by the precipitation Beowowien or ef a given quantity of sulphate of lime, was ascertained in the following iobate ‘of manner; some pulverized crystals of native selenite, apparently per- barytes to sul-| fectly pute, were dissolved in water and afterwards slowly precipitated Phate of lime. by evaporation.. The object of this previous operation was to obtain the sulphate of lime in a-state more fit for subsequent redissolution. Fifteen grains of this selenitic residue, dried at a red heat, were dis- solved in water, slightly acidulated by muriatic acid, in order to super- sede the necessity of using large quantity of water; and the solution, after being neutralize’ by pure ammonia, was precipitated by muriate _ of barytes. The sulphate of barytes, thus obtained, weighed, after _ careful edulcoration and ignition in a platina crucible, 296-75 grs. which are equivalent to 175°6 grs. of hati of barytes for 100 grs. of ignited sulphate of lime. || Accorcing to Dr. Henry 100 grs. of crystallized sulphate of mag- ' mesia give 111 grs. of ignited sulphate of barytes. See Philos. Trans. 1810, p. 114. [Joum. vol. xxvi, p. 278.] § These proportions were deduced from the following experiment: 40 gus. of crystallized sulphate of soda, being dissolved in water and precipitated by nitrate of barytes, thé sulphate of barytea; well, edub, ‘corated and ignited, weighed 29°1 grse G Vol. XXXII.—June 1812. H quired 98 _ ALUMINOUS CHALYBEATE SPRING IN I. OF WIGHT. | quired a considerable quantity of water) there always re= mained a small proportion of earthy matter, which resisted all solvents, caustic potash excepted. This insoluble matter, _I had thought from some of the first trials, amounted to about 1 gr. in 100 of the residue; but from some subsequent experinients in which the silica was separated by caustic potash, there appeared to be reason to suppose, that. this estimate was rather overrated, I shall relate the process, to which, after various trials, I gave the preference. Silex dissolved 2. 50 grains of residue being boiled with very dilute ; Sane muriatic acid, a white flocculent substance remained une cipitated by -dissolved, upon which neither acid nor water could make re gaa any impression. This substance, being separated and boiled — in a solution of caustic potash, readily redissolved with the exception of a few particles.of highly oxidated iron, which subsided. Muriate of ammonia * being added to the clear ‘alkaline solution in sufficient quantity to saturate the whole of the potash with muriatic acid, the white flocculent sub- stance reappeared, which after being well washed, and heated to redness, weighed between 0°3 and 0°4 of a gr. This sub- stance when heated with alkali ran into a vitreous globule, and muriatic acid being poured upon this, the alkali was dissolved, and the earthy matter remained untouched. It was therefore silica, the quantity of which may be estimated at 0-7 of a gr. in a pint of watert. et ea ‘ . - On * This precipitant, whieh was, I believe, frst proposed by Mr. Cheuevix, is much more appropriate than acids, because if an excess of acid be incautiously added, the precipitate is redissolved: while with muriate of ammonia an excess of the test is attended with no in- convenience. ; ; Another exa: + The presence of aniiain was also shown, and its quantity attempted minationfor tg be ascertained by the following process. A portion of residue was ate boiled in caustic potash: this dissolved not only the silica, but also the alumine; both these earths were precipitated from the alkaline - solutions by muriate of ammonia, and separated; muriatic acid being now added, both the silica and alumine were, reJissolved.(for silica, ~ just precipitated from its solution, and not desiccated, is soluble in - acid); and this solution being evaporated to dryness on a water-bath, * by which means the silica parts with its. acid and becomes insoluble, the muriate of alumiue was washed off by distilled water, and the silica remained wndissolved. This method, though affording a very i useful :” ALUMINOUS CHALYBEATE SPRING IN 1. OF WiGHT. | 99 ae | Secr. XVII. Conclusion. On reviewing and connecting together all the forer-oing Ingredtente in results, it appears thaf'each pint, or sixteen-ounce measure pe his st of the aluminous chalybeate, contains the following in- gredients: 2 Of carbonic acid gas three tenths ofa cubicinch. @Rains Sulphate of iron, in the state of crystallized green sulphate Core rece eceeressserseccepeerereceneo Als Sulphate of alumine, a quantity which, if brought to the state of creuealued alum, would amount to +--+ 31°6 Sulphate of lime, dried at 160°, cccseeceeesecceses 10°] Sulphate of magnesia, or Epsom salt, crystallized -- 3°6 Sulphate of soda, or Glauber’s salt, crystallized....0. 16°0 Muriate of soda, or common Salt, crystallized e--se.+. 4°0 MEMITTaU is erealals’e Uleleiateteie ost eave ible wiersleie «ee aieistasd alsa tee Q'7 \ 107°4 I am not acquainted with any chalybeate or aluminous It is analogous spring, iu the chemical history of mineral waters, which Ab deat can be compared, in regard to strength, with that just green, but the described. The Hartfell water, and that of the Horley- ee green spaw near Halifax, both of which appear to be ana- logous to this in their chemical composition, and were con- sidered as the strongest impregnations of the kind, are stated by Dr. Garnett to contain, the one only about 14 grs. and _» the other 40 ers, of saline matter in each pint. No doubt therefore can be entertained, that the water, . which 1s the subject of this essay, will be found to possess in -a yery eminent degree the medical properties, which are known to belong to the saline substances it contains, Indeed there appears to be in this spring rather a redundance than -a deficiency of power; and it is probable, that in many in- stances it will be found expedient to drink the water in a- diluted + useful means of discrimination, must obviously be liable to inaccuracy > as to proportions, when Very minute portions of silica are to be sepa- : rated from considerable quantities of alminé. This however was the - process to which I trusted on a previous occasion (1X, g,) to free the alumine from the silica which was mixed with it. H2 100 Various kinds of wood pro- cured for dry- “ing. Exposed to a moderate heat in a stove, 3.053. of weight. fieated again. ON WOOD AND CHARCOAL. diluted state; wiles in others, when it may be dctbobile te take in a small compass large doses of these saline stb-= stances, it will be preferred in ite native undiminished strength. ——— Ii, Account of some new Eperiments on Wood and Charcoal: i Bens: Counr or Rumrorn, J. R. SS. L. and E. M. R. I. A. &e.* Havinc had occasion to dry several kinds of wood, to ascertain how much water was contained in them, I procured a piece of each kind six inches long and half an inch thick, and planed off some pretty thin shavings, which 1 kept to dry for eight days in a room, the temperature of which was constantly about 60° F. : The wood had been previously drying two or three years in a joiner’s wor kshop. Of each kind of shavings I took 10 gr. [154°5 grs.] which I placed ona china plate in a kind of stove made of sheet iron; and heated them moderately by,a small fire under the stove for twelve hours, after which they were | suffered to cool gradually during twelve hours more. The stove, being surrounded with brick-work, was still hot twelve hours after the fire had been extinguished. On taking out the china plates in succession, and weighing the shavings anew, their weight was found to be diminished about one tenth, some a little more, others a little less. When the shavings were put into the stove, their weight was 10 gr, when taken out it was about 9. Their colour was not perceptibly altered, and they had no appearance of having been exposed to a strong heat. Desirous of knowing how fer the drying of wood might be carried, I replaced them ail in the stove, which I heated as before, neither more nor less, for twelve hours, ' and afterward left to cool slowly. for twelve hours. re ae ® Read at the meeting of the first class of the French Institute, Dec. the 30th, 1811. This, as well as the following, is translated from the original, transmitted by the Count, and not yet published in Fiance. ON WOOD AND CHARCOAL. 101 On taking ovt the shavings the next day, they had all Change of changed colour more ox less: from a yellowish white they colour, had become light brown, dark brown, more or less yellow, and some of a fine purple. Their weight, which was at first 10 grs. was now found Weight after to be ' the second ie heating. Oak oscvceceee 7G Elm eccovecee-QGI8 Beech «+ecesss8'5Y Maple «-..++--8'4} Ash oec0esceas 9°40 Birch ceccceees AQ : Service eaceoee 8°40 Cherry ¢+eeeee+8'60 Linden oceee+++7°86 (after ha- ving been in the open air twenty~ four hours) «++ +8°06 Male fire +0coe+e8°46 ‘Female firs +ee++8.66 Ww ishing to know whether the wood might not be ree Attempt to duced to charcoal by continuing the moderate heat of the ‘aigl ® Rosen y a moderate stove a long time, 1 took half the linden shavings, which heat, weighed 4:08 gr.; placed them in a china saucer, sup- ported by a cylindrical earthen vessel three inches in diameter, and four inches high; put this on an earthen plate, and covered it by a glass jar, 3ix inches in diameter, and eight inches high. On the earthen plate was a layer of ashes, about an inch deep, serving to close the meuth of the jar slightly. This little apparatus being placed in the stove, it was heated a third time for twelve hours; and then left twelve | hours without fire, to cool gradually. . On taking ont the apparatus J found, that the wood was Results, become perfectly black; and that the glass jar was yellow- ish, and its transparency diminished, - On weighing the shavings, which retained their original Loss ofweight. | figure completely, I was surprised to find, that they weighed only 2°21 grs. As they were the remains of 5¢r. _\ of wood; and as, from the experiments of Messrs. Gay- Lussac and Thenard, I had expected to find in this wood at _ least fifty per cent of charcoal; I did not think it possible, ” to reduce the weight of the shavings to less than 2°5 grey - Warticularly with the moderate heat I employed. To * 102 Heated a fourth time. -Results, Heated a fifth time. State of the wood, Heated twice more. Charcoal may be dissipated by a heat be- low combusti- on. ON wood AND CHARCOAL. To-clear up my doubts, I replaced the apparatus in the stove, and heated it again as befure for twelve hours, and afterward left it in the stove twelve hours to cool. On taking out the apparatus I fonnd, that the shavings weighed only 1°5 gr. The jar was less transparent, and of a blackish yellow colour throughout; but particularly in its upper part, above the level of the brim of the saucer, in which the shavings were. These Ses were still of a perfect black. a Having heated the apparatus again for twelve hours, and then left it to cool, I was surprised on taking it out of the stove the next day to find, that the jar had again become clear and transparent. Not the least trace of the yellow coating, with which its inner surface had been co- vered, now remained. On examining the wood 1 found, that this also had changed its colour. It had assumed a blueish hue, pretty deep, but very different from the decided black it had before. Its weight was 1:02 gr, I put it twice more into the stove, and each time its weight was diminished, so that the 5 gr. of wood were reduced at last to 0°27 of a gr, or about a twentieth of the original weight. I am persuaded, that I sisut have diminished it still more, if I had continued the experiment longer: but it has been tried Jong enough to establish this remarkable fact, that charcoal can be dissipated by a heat much-less than has been considered necessary to burn it. Experiment with common charcoal. A second ex- periment. It may be supposed, that I was very desirous of knowing whether the same thing would occur to charcoal already formed by the usual process. Accordingly I took a piece of charcoal from my kitchen, heated it to a strong- red heat, and, while it was still red, put it into a marble mortar, and powdered it. Having passed it through a sieve, - 1 took 4°03 gr. of the powder, placed it in the saucer, © heated it in the stove twelve hours, and then left it twelve hours to cool. On taking it out it weighed but 3°81 gr. As this powdered charcoal was nothing but a collection of small bits of charcoal, which were in contact with the air ouly by a very small surface compared with that of the hsavings, J ON WOOD AND CHARCOAL. 103 _ shavings, I made another experiment, the result of which was more striking and more satisfactory. Having enclosed in a cloth a quantity of powdered Charcoal in scharcoal, that had been pased through a sieve, I beat it Be cavinged, | strongly in a place where the air was still; and when the air yore " appeared to be well loaded with the fine dust of the charcoal, I placed on the ground a white china saucer, qintted the place, and left the dust to settle. ‘The saucer was covered with it} so as to appear of a very dark gray. . Before all the dust had settled, 1 wrote some letters on the saucer with the point of my finger, and these letters were _ afterward covered with a still finer dust. I imagined it possible, that the part covered by a very fine dust might be found whitened, while that covered with a stratum of coarser charcoal powder would be found perhaps still black. The result of the experiment showed, that this precaution The whole dis- was not necessary. All the charcoal powder disappeared com- ie. in a pletely in the stove, and the saucer came out perfectly white, » Another saucer, which had been blackened a little by rub- a¢ which lamp- _ bing it with lampblack, and placed in the stove by the side black did nor. of that blackened with charcoal dust, came out of the stove’ as black as it went in. As soon as I saw, that the linden shavings converted into charcoal might be dissipated by the moderate heat of the stove, I suspected, that they had been | _ consumed slowly by a silent and invisible combustion; and ~ that the prodnct of this combustion could be nothing but carbonic acid gas. _ To clear up this point I made the following experiment. Having procured a stock of very dry birch shavings, in Experiment to _ ribands shoiit a twentieth of a line thick, near half an inch So oe ~ broad, and six inches lony, I dried them for eight days in a converted into room heated by a stove, where the temperature was about oe acid _ 60° F.; the shavings being laid ona table, at a distance from the stove. Of these shavings thus dried, I took 10 gr., which I placed on a china plate, and heated in the stove, in the manner already described, for 24 hours. "When taken out of, the stove, they weighed but 7-7gr., and had acquired a deep brown colour inclining to purple. They were still wood however, Sorneenene tene arene eee ee 104 Results. ON WOOD AND CHARCOAL. however, for, though deeply browned, they burned with a very fine flame. Of these brown shavings I made three par cels, each weigh ing 2°3 gr. The first was placed in the stove on a white china plate, supported by a tile, but not covered. The second was put into it in a similar manner, except that it was covered with a glass jar, six inches in diameter, and six inches high. The third parcel was put into a glass vessel, six inches high, but only an inch and a quarter in diameter. This nar- row vessel was put into a glass three inches in diameter, and seven inches high ; which, being slightly closed with its glass cover, was also placed in the stave on a tile. As the door of the stoye (which is double, the better to confine thé heat) does not shut so close as tu prevent the free passage of air; and as the china plates, on which two of the. parcels were placed, were flat ; every circumstance was fa- vourable-for the free transmission of the carbonic acid gas arising from the decomposition of these two parcels by slow. combustion, and there was nothing to prevert the progress of this operation., But the third parcel being enclosed ina narrow vessel, as this gas is much heavier than atmospherié air, the first portion of this gas arising from a commence. ment of combustion of the wood could not fail to descend in . the vessel toward its bottom, gradually expel the air, and at _ i length fill the vessel campletely : and as this sort of inunda- tion by carboni¢ acid gas could not fail to stop the com- bustion, I expected to find that this parcel of shavings would | be preserved, at least in part, even though both the others should be entirely consumed. The stove having been heated in the oe manner, I found the next Gar, that the results of the experiment had been such as I anticipated, The two parcels of shavings placed on the china plates had disappeared entirely; nothing at all remaining, except a very small quantity of ashes, of a } white colour inclining 4 little ta yellow. ' The yellow ashes in the plate that was not vane witha glass jar were deranged and dispersed by the wind, eccasioned by opening the door of the stove too suddenly: but those in the other plate, being protected ie the glass, were found all togethers . ON THE HBAT DEVELOPED IN COMBUSTION. ‘105 - together. As they still retained their original figure of sha. vings, though reduced to a very small bulk, this appeared to _ me a demonstrative proof, that the shavings, whence they arose, had not been burned by a common fire. For this rea- son, and also on account of their extraordinary colour, ap- proaching very near that of the wood in its natural state, I preserved them, to show them to the class. They weighed only 0:04 of agr.; and as the shavings, of which they were the remains, weighed 2°987 gr. on coming out of the hands of the joiner, these ashes make only one and one third per cent of the weight of the wood. The third parcel of shavings, which had been placed in a - marrow glass vessel, had not disappeared, but the wood was converted into perfect charcoal. I have the honour to pre- sent it to the class, in the same vessel in which it was charred. As the three parcels of shavings were of the same wood, Reasonings on and equal in weight ; as they were exposed together to the them, ' same degree of heat, and for the same time ; and as the two portions, that were placed so as to facilitate the escape of the carbonic acid gas arising from their decomposition, disap- peared entirely ; while the third, which was so circumstanced that the escape of this gas was impossible, did not disappear ; it seems to me, that there can be no doubt of the cause of the phenomena that presented themselves: and it is certainly Charcoal ese a curious fact, that charcoal, which has hitherto been cons fixed than usu- sidered as one of the most fixed substances known, can unite sie a a itself to oxigen, and form with it carbonic acid gas, at a teme perature much below that, at which it burns visibly. \ \ IV. _ Inquiries concerning the Heat developed in Combustion, with a Description of a new Calorimeter; by the Same*. Avrremprs have been long ago made to measure the Results of ex. heat, that is developed in the combustion of inflammable periments on ‘ substances ;-heat from combustion di C3 * Read at the meeting of the fifth class of the French Institute, Feb. i aii the 24th, 1812. . ~106 Unsuccessful attempts of the author. Simple ani ac. curate method discovered. The apparatus described. A ealnrisneiee! - Worm of 3 new form. ON THE HEAT DEVELOPED {N COMBUSTION. substances; but the results of the experiments have been so contradictory, and the methods employed so little calcula- ted to inspire confidence, that the uodertabine is justly con- sidered as very little adyanced. I had attempted it at three different times within these twenty years, but without success. After having made a creat number of experiments with the most scrupulous care, with apparatus on which I had long reflected, and afterward caused to be executed by skilful workmen, I had found nothing however that appeared to me sufficiently decisive to deserve to be made public. A large apparatus in copper. more than twelve feet long, which I had made at Munich fifteen years ago; and another scarcely less expensive made at Paris four years ago, which I have still in my laboratory 5” aitest the desire Lhave long entertained of finding the means. of elucidating a question, that has always appeared to me of — great importance, both with regard to the sciences, and tu the arts. ee At length, however, I have the satisfaction of announcing to the class, that, after all my fruitless attempts, I have dis- covered a very simple method of measuring the heat mani- fested in combustion, and this even with auch epicrokey as leaves nothing to be desired. ; Tkat the class may be the better able to judge of my method of operating, and the reliance that may be placed on the results of my experiments, | place my apparatus before Ten ; ; . The principal part of this apparatus is a kind of prismatic receiver, eight inches long, four inches and a half broad, and four inches three quarters high*, formed of very thin sheets of copper. This receiver, which well deserves the name, already celebrated, of calorimeter, is furnished with a long neck, near one of its extremities, three quarters of an inch im diameter, and three inches high, intended to receive and support a mercurial thermometer of a particular shape. The receiver has also another neck, an inch in diameter and the same in height, situate in the centre of its upper part, and closed by a cork. | i yi Within this receiver, two lines above its flat bottom, is a particular kind of worm, receiving all the products of the combustion * French measure. ON THE HEAT DEVELOPED IN COMBUSTION. 107 combustion of the inflamable substances burned in the ex- periments; and transmitting the heat manifested in this combustion to a considerable body of water, which is in rune receiver. This worm, which is made of thin copper, occupies and covers the whole bottom of the receiver, yet without touching ‘either its bottom or its sides. It is a flat tube, an inch and half broad at one end, and an inch at the other; and half an inch thick throughout. It is bent horizontally, so as to pass three times from one end of the receiver to the other; and is --supported in its place, two lines above the bottom of the re- “ceiver, by several little feet. The aperture, that forms the mouth of the worm, is a cir- cular hole in its bottom, near its broadest end. Into this hole is soldered a perpendicular tube, an inch in Jength and an inch in diameter, reaching within the worm to the height of a quarter of an inch above its bottom. This tube passes through a circular hole in.the bottom of the receiver, to which also it is soldered. Its lower aperture is seven lines below the bottom of the receiver; and through this the products of the combustion enter into the worm. The other extremity of the worm passes horizontally through the perpendicular end of the receiver, opposite to that near which the products of the combustion enter the worm. The worm, before it passes through the end of the receiver, is fashioned into the shape of a round pipe, half an inch in diameter; and an inch in length of this pipe is seen without the receiver. This piece is made to fit tight into another similar tube, belonging to the worm of another receiver, ; _ which 1 call the secondary receiver ; the purpose of which Secondary tee is to receive the heat, that might still be found in the °: products of combustion, after they have passed through the _ worm of the principal receiver. To support these two receivers in the air, so as not to touch Mode of sup- the table that supports them, each of them is fixed ina frame Pots them. of dry linden wood, made of rods an inch square. Round the bottom of each receiver is a copper rim, three lines deep, which is fastened by a row of very small nails to the wooden frame. The body of the receiver itself enters about a line inte the frame, to which it is very accurately fitted. ” The 168 ON THE HEAT PEVEECFEP IN COMBUSTION. Flatness of the The flat form of the worm is deal to the perfection worm esse~ of the apparatus; as 1s evident, when its Putpers is con< ue sidered. All the products of the combustion being elastic fluids, and consequently substances incapable of communicating their heat, but by proceeding particle. after particle to deposit it on the suface of the cold and fixed body intended toa receive it, it was indispensable so to construct the apparatus, that the hot fluids should of negessity be spread bencath and against a large flat surface, placed horizontally, and always cold. Before I employed horizontal worms made of flat tubes, i had more than once tried those of the common form: but they uever answered my purpose otherwise than so imperfectly, that I could never make any account of the ‘This shape ad- eXpertments, in which they were ‘employed. There is na tamtageous for danht but the shape I have adopted for the worm of my acommoan still. calorimeter would be very advantageous for every kind of apparatus for distillation. Shape of the One thing very important in the construction of my thermameter. apparatus is the shape of the thermometer, which I employ to measure the temperature of the water in the receiver. This thermometer, which I made myself; ; and which, after having undergone every kind of trjal, has always appeared good; 1s a mercurial thermometer, divided according to Fahrenheit’s scale. It is one of four, all similar, that I employed, at Munich, in the winter of 1802, in my ex- experiments on the refrigeration of liquids enclosed ia vessels, The reservoir of this thermometer is cylindrical, about two lines in diameter only, and four inches high: and as ihe water in my ealorimeter is four inches deep, this thermometer always indicates the mean” temperature of the fluid, whatever may be the temperature of its different strata. fo measure In. my various suai tiries concerning heat, I have had the heat of 2 Agia the bulb frequent opportunities of seeing the importanee of: this. of the thermo- precaution; aod I cannot conceive how any one can - ypeter should tend form S2Pect to avoid great mistakes in measuring the tempera- extend rom hotiom to top, ture of liquids. heated ar cooled, if we da: not attend ta thise \ ON THE HEAT DEVELOPED IN COMBUSTION. 109 this, For my own part, I confess, I pay little regard to ‘the experiments of which I am told, when Iknow they | are so negligently made; and assurediv I shall never waste my time, in attempting to build theories on their results, In using the apparatus I have described, several pre- Complete cautions are necessary. In the first place it is obvious, that, rena ig when the object is to ascertain the quantity of heat de- veloped in the combustion of any inflammable substance, it is indispensably necessary, so to arrange matters that the combustion shali be complete. 1 have thought, that it might be so considered, whenever the substance burned Jeaves no residuum, and burns with aclear flame, without smoke or smell. ‘The least smell, particularly that peculiar to the in= Smell of the flammable substance bnrned, is a certain indication, that ey ha the combustion is imperfect. it is impentece. I had: long sought, before I was able to find to my satisfaction, a mode of burning very volatile liquids, such as alcohol and ether: but 1 have at length discovered it, as will soon appear. I have frequently succeeded in burning highly .rectified sulphuric ether, without the least smell of ether being diffused through the room; and it was in these instances alone, that I Bie as the experi~ ments as accurate. » As to wood I have found a very simple method of Method of burning it completely, without the least’ appearance of sabes liga smoke or smell. 1 got a joiner to plane me shavings about half an inch wide, a tenth of a line thick, and six inches long: and holding these in the hand or with pliers, elevated at an angle of 45° or thereabout, and with the edges perpendicular, they burned like a match, with a very eka? flame. ~ . The slip of wood that burns being very thin, and placed between two flat flames, which press on it closely, it is exposed to the action of so strong a heat, that it burns perfectly and entirely. If the shavings employed be too thick, a portion of the — charcoal of the wood remains; particularly if it be oak, or any other wood of slow and dificult combustion: and in this case the experiments are defective. But if the shavings be ¥ “ | ’ ~, 110 ON THE HEAT DEVELOPED IN COMBUSTION. be sufficiently thin, and well dried; T have found, that any kind of wood may be burned completely. 5 Management In burning candles, wax tapers, or fat oils in lamps, of candles and A . ; lamps. the only precautions necessary are so to arrange the wick, * as to yield no smokes to place the flame properly in the aperture of the worm; and to surround the apparatus on all sides by screens, to prevent the flame from cae deranged by the wind. : ) : Source of er- In these experiments there is one source of errour, too “splice ee obvious to escape the most superficial observer, and to receiver, which it.was important to attend. While the calorimeter is warmed by the heat developed in the combustion of the inflammable substance, which is burning at the aperture of the worm, it is continually cooled by the ambient air, that surrounds it on all sides. It would be possible, no doubt, by calculations founded on a knowledge of the law of refrigeration. of the receiver, which might be found by separate experiments, to ascertain the quantity of the effect produced by the refrigeration in question ; and this even with a certain degree of precision: but it would have been impossible by this method, or by any other known, to calculate the effects of another cause of errour,. less obvious perhaps, but certainly more weighty, than that of the refrigeration of the external surface of the. receiver. and from the The nitrogen, high. is mixed with the oxigen of the Ditrogen Carri- edie kt. atmospheric air, 1s necessarily carried into the worm with the proper products of the combustion; and without 2 precaution, which it occurred to me to employ to prevent the effects of this cause of errour, by making a compen- sation for them, all the SHPE ee would have been of no value. Fortunately the method I employed to obviate the effects of this cause of errour was: sufficient, to prevent at the same time those, that might have arisen “from the cooling of the outer surface of the receiver. ' Method of ob: “As the receiver is cooled, whether by the atmospheric viating both. gir in contact with its external surface, or by the nitrogen and other gasses traversing the worm with the products of combustion, only so far as the worm is hotter than the surrounding | -ON THE HEAT DEVELOPED 1N COMBUSTION. lil surrounding air; while on the contrary it is heated by these elastic fluids, whenever it is at a lower temperature than they are: by arranging matters so, that the temperature of the water in the receiver shall be a certain number of degrees, 5° for instance, below the temperature of the air at the be- ginning of the experiment; and putting an end to the experiment, as soon as the water in the receiver has ‘ac- quired a temperature precisely the same number of degrees higher than the air; the receiver will be heated by the air during half the time of continuance of the experiment, and cooled by it during the other half: so that the calorific and frigorific effects of the air on the apparatus will coun- terbalance each other, and produce no perceptible effect on the results of the experiments; consequently they will require no correction. : When we are making experiments:to elucidate natural Better to avoid phenomena, it is always more satisfactory to avoid errours, ° ee or to compensate them, than to trust to calculation for eran ts by _ appreciating their effects. "calculation. As the law of the variation of the specific heat of water 4 sma range at different temperatures is not known, and as we have of the thermo but an imperfect knowledge of the true measure of the sania Sain intervals of temperature marked by the divisions of our thermometers, to prevent the effects, that our uncertainty on these points would have on the subject of inquiry, I took care to make my experiments in a room, where the temperature varied very little, and to confine them to a few degrees of elevation of the temperature of the water in the receiver. It is true, I made some experiments in a room where Other experi ‘the air was much colder, and in which I employed ice ™ents. _ instead of water to fill the receiver; but these experiments were for a particular purpose, and are not classed with the others.. Besides, they never afforded such uniform and ¢a- tisfactory results, as those made-under other circumstances. _ It has been fully proved, not only by the results of my Freezing of a- experiments, but by the experiments of others also, that queous capeur _ the vapour of water in contact with ice frequently freezes, _while this same ice is melting by the hieat, or thot its thaw appears fully established. To 112 ON THE HEAT DEVELOPED IN COMBUSTION. Experimentto To give an ides of the reliance that may be placed on vo? oe the the results of the experiments made with the new appa- perfection of Be 9 satay tke apparatus, ratus I have just described, I will introduce here the particulars of an experiment, made purposely to discover its degree of perfection. | Having filled two receivers, properly connected with each other, with water at the temperature of the air of the room, 55° F., [ burned a wax taper under the mouth of | the principal’ receiver, so that all the products of the combustion passed through the worm of the secondary re- ceiver, after having traversed that’ of the principal. Each. of the receivers contained 2371 gr. [$6621°5 grs.] of water. The following are the results of the experiment. "Fime of the observation; |§ Temperature of the water — in the principal in the secondary Hours Min. Sec. receiver. , receiver. CRS ; tegen ert 55° 49 42 65 55 (56 15 FO. 55 10 2 52 75 555 QO.” . Bo: 80 55% 16-34 | 85 he 23 64 90 55> | 27 56 31 40. 95 564 39 ~=—- 85 100 562 47. 40 105 56$ The secondary From the results of this experiment it appears, that the receiver not water in the secondary receiver did not begin to be heated ice olin: perceptibly, till that in the principal receiver had been heated ments as uns 15° or 20° and, as I had intended from the beginning never necessary. = tg continue an experiment longer than was necessary to raise the temperature of the water in the principal receiver 10° or 12° F.; it may be supposed, that, as soon as I found by this experiment how little heat remained in the products of com- bustion after they had passed through the worm of the prin- tipal receiver, 1 relinquished my original design of operating _with the two receivers jomed together, As it was evident, - from.the above results, that the second receiver could never be 7 ON THE HEAT DEVELOPED IN COMBUSTION, 1138 be sensibly affected ; or indicate any thing except the confi- dence I might place in the indicatiéns of the first, I resolved to dispense with the trouble of using it. It may be seen by the description I have given of this ap- The apparatus paratus, that it may be used very conveniently for ascertains @PPlicuble to ascertain the ing the specific heat of gasses; as well as that made appa- specific heat of rent in the condensation oF vapours ; and generally in all re- &4Sses. searches, where the quantity of heat communicated by an elastic fluid in cooling is to be measured. And as it would be extremely easy, by very simple means, to separate coms pletely the products of the vapours condensed in the worm from the gasses, that pass through it without being cone densed, I cannot avoid hoping, that this apparatus will be- come useful as an instrument to be employed in chemical analyses. This however would only be an extension of the method already employed with so much success by Mr. de Saussure, and by Messrs. Gay-Lussac and Thenard. As soon as my apparatus was finished, I was eager to see Experiments what quantity of heat I should find in the combustion of °°, ie wax, and in that of olive oil, that I might afterward compare voisier's. the results of my experiments with those of Mr. Lavoisier’s : and, as I have the most implicit reliance on every thing pub- lished by that excellent man, I sincerely wished to find in this comparison a proof of the accuracy of my method, and at the same time a confirmation of the estimates of Mr. Lavoisier. Sect. I. Experiments made with white wax. The air of the room being at the temperature of 61° F., Combustion of 2781 grammes of water, of the temperature of 56° F., were White wax. put into the receiver of the calorimeter, (including the quan- tity of this liquor that represents the specific-heat of the in- strument) ; and, a lighted wax taper having been. properly placed at the entrance of the worm, the calorimeter was heated for 13 min. 26 sec. ; when, the thermometer announe- ‘ing that the water had acquired the temperature of 66° F., the taper was extinguished. As.I took care to weigh the taper before it was lighted, [ found by weighing it at the end of the experimen, that 1°63gr. of wax had been burned. Vor. XXXII—June, 1812. I Te 114 Quantity of water heated 180° by it. Quantity of ice melted. Two other ex- ON THE HEAT DEVELOPED IN COMBUSTION. fo express the results of this experiment so as to render them obvious, and at the same time easy to be compared with the results of other similar experiments, we will see how much water of the temperature of melting ice would have been made to boil, at the mean pressure of the atmosphere, by the heat made apparent in the combustion of the 1°63gr. of wax burned. The distance on Fahrenheit’s scale belive the temper- ature of melting ice and boiling water being 180°, if the burn ing of 1°63gr. of wax were requisite to raise the temperature of the water in the calorimeter 10°, the burning of 29°34er. would have been necessary, to raise it 180°: and, if 29°34er. of wax could furnish by combustion sufficient heat to raise the temperature of 278lgr. 180°, a gramme of this inflam- mable substance must furnish enough, to heat 94°785er. of water to the same point. Consequently one pound of white wax, or wax taper, should furnish in burning sufficient heat, to raise 94-785lbs. of water fromthe temperature of melting ice to the boiling point. To find how many pounds ef ice this quantity of heat would melt, we have only to add to the number of pounds of water at the temperature of melting ice it would cause to boil the third part of this number, Sad the sum’ en ex- press the weight of the ice in pounds. This, then, for white wax 1S+«++e+Q4‘785 + 31°5905 _* == 126.380lbs. of ice melted for one potind of the wax burned. | Before | compare the result of this experiment with that periments with of an experiment made with the same substance by Mr. La- Wax. voisier, L will give an account of 1wo other experiments I ‘ ‘made with wax, as the reader will undoubtedly be struck with the uniformity of their results. This is so remarkable, that I should scarcely venture to publish them, had I not proofs, that all my experiments were actually made and minuted down, before [ began my calculation of their results; and ‘were ‘Lmot:assured, that any person, who will follow my method, using the same apparatus, will find the same results fon repeating-my experimentss § 0 (40. 113 ON THE HEAT DEVELOPED IN COMBUSTION. As the mode of operating in making these experiments must now be well known, I may suppress the particulars in Tabulated res Sults. ° ’ a a a ey reer ener ener eenemeeme manera E8L-Sol | LES-F6 8¢ Te) GLAG GO-E1 Sit BL Li6 | € 809-931 | 936-¥6 8S 6.59 IS C.F1 o4 Ge 6 [2 ge4-4 3 8E-Oot | CSL.r6 ol9 099 09S Ol 1sLG | 6 SI 69-1 Lf Sq] sq] ‘Qed ‘Saq|aqey ‘Saq|ayeg Soq}:aqeyq ‘Soq *‘SOWUIBIG|'I9G “UTA]’ somurescy "parjeut | ,0¢ 1 pareay “ev dxe oui jo} “Suu ‘ain ‘pa *Zu1uIng ‘pauing | *ydxs 91 JO sqjfiojem Jo sqyjayi JO sinypus ayr re]-2q oy2 ae ‘esoduray s2i\-3¥aY Jayem] ur pedojd xem oy sypNsoy ~erodwiay, j1ajvm 9y3 Jo “sadway |jo uonrasyy jo Ayyueng| -wa ours, lo AUN PI|jo "on "72 fo 1ysram punod auo hg ‘payau aq pjnom yoy? aor fo 40 “81 parnay ag pynom wy; sajna fo hyyuvnb ays Surnoys ‘xvm ajym fo Surusng ay} uo syuasursadxa sasyg fo synsarz ‘. } / I will begin with three experiments made with white wax and to render them more easy to compare, I will give them what follows without inconyenience, and give only the results together in a tabular form. of the experiments. If Qe 116 ON THE HEAT DEVELOPED IN COMBUSTION, Khchiv of thé If we take the mean term between the results of these ex- three experi- periments, we shall find, that the quantity of heat developed oo in the combustion of wax is such, that one pound of this sub- stance is sufficient, to raise 94'G82ibs of water from the tem- perature of melting ice to the boiling point; and conse- quently, that it should melt 126°242lbs of ice. Recults of ‘Lae According tothe experiments of Mr. Lavoisier, the heat Yoisiers. developed in the combustion of one pound of white wax was i sufficient to melt 133°166lbs of ice. The difference ‘Tbe difference between the resalts of our experiments with sinall : this substance is not very great; and, if those of Mr. Lavoi- sier were made at a time, when the temperature of the air was ‘only 2 few degrees higher than that of melting ice (which E have no means of ascertaining), the quantity of nitrogen, that bat greatin tmust have entered into the calorimeter with the oxigen em- : Seen of nicyed to support the combustion, would have been so great 6 as to account sufficiently for the difference. But the very ercat difference between the results of eur experiments made vith olive oil proves, that one.or other of our processes must have been defective. ‘ Resul: of the The mean result of several experiments made with olive Sea a oa oil gave me for the measure of the quantity of heat developed: in the combustion of one pound of this substance 99°439lbs of water heated 180° F; or 12¢lbs of ice melted, neglecting the fraction. and of Layoie *n the experiments of Mr. Lavoisier more than 148lbs of SA18. ice were melted by the heat, that appeared to result from the combustion of one pound of this oil. Yhelattersus- It is true, that this result was considered by that eminent ae a philosopher himself as too great to be capable of explanation; ; und he added, with that modesty which rendered him so en- geging and so respectable: «* We shall probably find our- selves under the uecessity of making corrections, perhups pretty considerable ones, in most of the results I have given: but [ did not think this a sufficient reason, to delay affording their assistance to those, who might intend to pursue the . same object.” Rape oil puri. As it appears very probable, that all the fat oils, when per- ae bynes fectly pure, are composed of the same principles, I was curi+ pared with ous to see whether rape o3!, purified by sulphuric acid, would olive vil, er 223 rol wal re, tii RARE not ON THE HEAT DEVELOPED IN. COMBUSTION. “J a) fom not afford more heat in its combustion than olive oil, when burned in its natural state. ‘The result of three experiments - showed me, that rape oil thus purified does in fact yield _ more heat than olive oil. The difference is indeed pretty considerable, and more than I could have suspected. i & The combust. of 11b of purified rape’oil gave 93°073 of water heated 180°. olive oil gave 90°439. Chemists may tell us, whether the quantity of incombus« tible matter separated from rape oil in purifying it be suf- ficient, or not, to account for this difference. On comparing the results of the experiments made with Comparison of © white wax and those with the purified oil, it appears, that ie ok equal weights of these substances afford nearly equal quan- tities of heat in their combustion: and as in fact this ought to be the case, from the quantities of combustible matter they contain, the result tends to strengthen our confidence in this method of measuring the heat developed in combus- tion. | | It was with the combustion of 11b of white wax 94-682lbs of water heated 180°, 1b of purified oil 93°073|bs, As the object I had chiefly in view in this series .of Combustion of experiments was to ascertain the quantities of heat de- Scheele veloped in the combustion of pure hidrogen and carbon, ject of re- ‘in order to render this method useful in some chemical S¢4tche analyses, I examined particularly those inflammable sub- stances, that had been analysed with most care, Several. attempts have been made to ascertain these... b q : A ; e 5 This has been interesting questions by direct experiments, in burning attempted puie hidrogen, or pure hidrogen and carbon; but the results directly. of these researches have varied so much, that they cannot be relied on. i EVE OE ‘ According to Crawford, the heat developed in the com- iidceaen Vas bustion of one pound of hidrogen gas is sufficient to ed higher by raise the temperature of 410|bs. of water 180° F. But the pees tae estimation of Mr; Lavoisier is much lower. According to : ave him this heat would raise only 221-69 Ibs of water the same number of degrees. On 118 ON THE HEAT DEVELOPED IN COMBUSTION. carbon the On the other hand Mr. Lavoisier estimates the quantity i serge of heat developed in the combustion of charcoal much Perhips both higher than Dr. Crawford. I have many reasons to rate this too believe, that they both estimate it too high: and, if this « high, : - opinion be confirmed, we must estimate the heat de- hidrogen too veloped in the combustion of hidrogen a little higher even low. than Crawford has done, to be able to account for that manifested in my experiments. Pracales: From several experiments, which I made five years ago, cording to the jt appeared to me, that one pound of charcoal, dried as author, much as possible before it was weighed by heating it red hot in a crucible, was not capable of raising more than from 52 to 54 Ibs. of water from the temperature a melting ice t6 a boiling heat. Crawford, and Aen aie to Crawford this heat should suffice to boil Lavoisier. 57°606 lbs, ; and according to Lavoisier, 72°375 Ibs. We shall see how these estimates agree with the results of my experiments. Results, from AS the experiments made with wax yielded very uniform: wax compared results, and as the analysis ef this substance has been made with those cal- ealated fom With great care, I shall examine how the quantities of - its component hidrogen and carbon in this substance agree with the quan- Pats tity of heat, that it afforded me in combastina According to the analysis of Messrs. Gay-Lussac and Thenard, a pound of this substance contain Carbomisce s+ erty one anes see 9e0°8170 Free hidrogen sieigieimioiw'y © o.0le 090i LOD If we adopt the calculations of Dr. Crawford, both for the heat furnished by the hidrogen, and that furnished by the carbon, we shall have for the heat-that should be fur- nished by the combustion Ibs of water according to Of 0°1191 lb. cf nidrogen, after the ratio of 410 raised from Crawford, ibs. of water Saeed from 32° to 212° by 32° to 212° burning 1 Ib. of hidrogen «++seeee..---: -- 48°831 Of 0°3179 |b of carbon, after the ratio of 57-666. lbs, of water raised from 32° to 212” by burn- ing Lb. of carbon «ccccscccacnvecccceyen 47°116 Total of the heat, that ought to be furnished by the quantity of combustible matter (hi; ———. ~ drogen and carbon) in 1 lb of white wax «+++ 95°947 Ibs Quantity ON THE HEAT DEVELOPED IN COMBUSTION.» 119 Quantity of heat furnished. by 1 |b. of white tuthe author’s wax, during its combustion, according to my experiments, experiments Bre withered Male eee tals oblsian ees Q4°682 lbs _If we adopt the calculations of Mr. Lavoisier for the heat furnished by carbon and hidrogen in their combustion, we shall have for the heat that ought fo, be furnished by the burning Of 0°8179 Ib. of carbon, after the ratio of tou avcliee, 72°375 \bs. of water heated 180° by-1 Ib.-++* 59°195 1b; Of 071191 |b. of hidrogen, after the ratio of 221°69 lbs. of water heated 180° by:1 lb. +--+ 26°403 Total of the heat that cught to be furnished by the combustible matter in 1 Ib. of white wax ips NOES a eoeesessecserrsecee § 85°598 lbs From the results of these calculations it appears, that Crawfords ~ the estimations of Dr. Crawford agree much better with pea the experiments than those of Mr. Lavoisier. Let us see how the results of the experiments made with Comparison of fat oils agree with the estimations of these gentlemen. fat oils. areata to the analysis of Messrs. Pape and Thenard a pound of olive oil contains Carbon ++eseseseeeeseeeeesO0°7721Ib Results, Free hidrogen eeeees++-+++000°1208 According to the calculations of Mr. Lavoisier we have, according to For 0°7721 |b. of carbon - -55°881 lbs. of water heated 180° L@voisier, 0°1208 lb. of hidrogen 26-780 Total 82°661 According to the calculations of Dr. Crawford it is to Crawford, For 0°7721 |b. of carbon + +44°478 Ibs. of water heated 180° 0°1208 lb. of hidrogen 49°528 Total 94-006 ’ According to the experiments 1 lb. of purified rape oil to experiment, furnished heat sufficient to raise 93-073 lbs. of water 180°; and 1 Ib. of olive oi] enough to heat 90°439 Ibs. From all these comparisons it follows, that the estima~ Crawford’s still tions of Dr. Crawford agree much better than those of nearest. | Mr. Lavoisier with the results of my experiments. ~ : ; SeEcr. SS ee ut Difficulties in constructed, 120 ON THE HEAT DEVELOPED IN COMBUSTION. Sect. II. Experiments made with spirit of wine, alcohel, and sulphuric ether. As the component parts of these inflammable liquids may Experiments be considered as well ascertained by the results of the excel- with infam- Jent investigation of Mr. de Saussure*, I undertook to exa- mable liquids. ne them for the second time, in order to discover what quantities of heat are developed in their combustion. 1 had begun this undertaking five years ago; but, after having made a considerable number of experiments, I desisted from it, on account of the great difficulties that occurred. As soon, however, as I had found means of rendering my appa- ratus more perfect, I formed the project of recommencing it. Before I enter into the-particulars of my experiments, I must say a few words respecting the difficulties that occurred them, to me, even after I had my new apparatus ; and of the means l-employed to surmount them. I even found myself exposed to dangers, which it is necessary for me to mention as a caution to those, who may undertake the same inquiry. | and even dan- a ; f : ger. When I made the experiments with highly rectified alco- hol, and more particularly with ether, 1 found it very difficult to prevent a portion of these volatile liquids from esca ping in the state of vapour from the bulk of them remaining in the lamp. I procured a small Jamp, resembling in shape a small round snuffbox, with a nozzle rising from the centre of the circular plate, which closed it atop ; and.on this plate was fixed asmall pan, to hold cold water, for keeping the nozzle cool, and preventing the heat from being communicated to the body of the lamp. But this precaution was not suficient, when I burned ether, as I found to my cost: for though the pan was twice the diameter of the lamp, and filled with very cold water, the water was so heated in a few minutes, that an explosion took place from vapour of ether kindling in the air with a flame that rose to the ceiling. Indeed it was near Evaporation of the liquid. Attempt to prevent it, Dangerous ex- plosion, z setting the house on fire. Warned by this accident I procured a new lamp, much smaller than the former, being only an inch in diameter and Another lamp and three quarters of an inch deep ; and its nozzle, which was only two lines in diameter, was three quarters of an inch ® See Journal, vol. xxi, pgs. 222, 250, 321. | high. % ON, THE HEAT DEVELOPED IN COMBUSTION. 121 high. To keep this smalk lamp cool while burning, it was placed in a small pan, and kept constantly immersed in a mixture of water and pounded ice to within a quafter of an inch of the extremity of the nozzle. These precautions were This prevents sufficient to prevent any explosion, though not the evapora- a CuPRESTOns tion either of the ether or of the alcohol. This fact I learned ee ifsc, from observing, that, as often as I made two consecutive ex- periments without filling the lamp afresh, the alcohol con- ‘stantly appeared weaker in the second experiment than in the first. The cause of this phenomenon was not difficult to disco- ver. The most volatile, and consequently the most combus- tible parts of this liquid, being diffused in vapour in the in- terior of the lamp, found means of escaping through the nozzle with the part of the liquid that traversed the match, leaving the alcohol, that remained in the lamp, perceptibly weakened. To remedy this fa Morfection T constructed a third lamp, A third lamp - which I now submit to the inspection of the class. It is made St tas of copper, and has the shape of a small cylindrical vase, an inch and half in diameter, and three inches high, swelling outa little atop, and closed hermetically by a copper stopple, which, being ground with emery, fits tight into the neck of the vase. Through the centre of this stopple passes a small perpendicular hole, which can be shut completely, or left a little open, as may be required, by means of ‘a small screw carrying a copper collar. A small tube, about an eighth of an inch 1 in diameter and two inches and half long, Nroreede horizontally from the side of the vase very near the bottom. At the distance of an inch and four lines from the vase this tube is bent ata right angle, rising upwards perpendicularly to form the nozzle of the lamp. This little tube is every where very thin, except at its upper extremity, where it is made thicker, to admit of being shaped so as to fit tight into a very small cylindrical extin- guisher, 5lines high by 3°5 in diameter; intended to close the nozzle hermetically without touching or deranging the wick, the moment the lamp ceases to burn; and to keep it constantly closed, when the lamp is not lighted. Without 122 Caution. Apology for minuteness, Spirit employ- ed in the ex. periments, ON THE BEAT DEVELOPED IN COMBUST{ON. Without this precaution ; in experiments made with ih ’ so large a quantity of this volatile liquid would evaporate through the nozzle of the Jamp while weighiag, that it would be impossible to ascertain the quantity burned. The nozzle of the lamp is steadied by two pieces of wire, proceeding from it horizontally, and soldered to the body of the lamp. To keep this lamp constantly cold, as well as the liquid it contains, it is placed ina small pan, and covered completely, except the extremity of its nozzle and that of its neck, with a mixture of pounded ice and water. When the lamp is weighed, it is taken out of the pan, and well wiped with a dry cloth. before it is put into the scale. When the lamp is kindled, the operator must not forget, after it has burned two or three minutes, to open the screw that closes its stopple a little, though but very (ttle, other- wise it might go out. As the little horizontal tube, by whieh the liquid that is burned passes from the reservoir of the lamp to its nozzle, is always filled with liquid, so that it can have no communica- tion with the vapour diffused in the upper part of the reser- voir, this vapour cannot escape by the nozzle of the lamp, as it did before I thought of this method of preventing ite If { have been very minute in my description of this lamp, it was because I thought it necessary to spare tnose, who might be disposed to repeat my experiments or make similar ones, all the difficulties I had to surmount, before lL found the means of having under command the combustion of bed volatile inflammable hquids. As the apparatus [ have employed has now been Sid it will be easy to follow the steps of my experiments, and to appreciate their results. I will endeavour to describe them clearly, but also as briefly as possible. Having procured a stock of spirit of wine of the shops, and of alcohol of ‘different'degrees of purity, I ascertained with the greatest care their specific gravities at the temperature of 60° F.; taking that of water at the same temperature as 100000. I chose this temperature, that I might afterward the more easily ascertain the quantities of water, that each ~ ought to contain, according to the tables constructed from the experiments of Mr. Lowitz. ON THE HEAT DEVELOPED IN COMBUSTION. ~ The following table will show the specific gravity of each, 2nd the qnantity of pure alcohol of Lowitz and of water cons tained in it. ; Baus Composition. Liquid. ‘S56 | d Pure alcohol 5 4 a oe fowgs Water. Alechol of 42° : 817624 0°9179 0°0821 Alcohol of the shops| 847140 0°8057 0°1943 Spirit of wine of 33° 853240 0°7788 0°2212 The following are the resuits of the experiments made to ascertain the quantities of heat, Weyl these liquids fur- nished in burning. In three experiments made with the spirit of wine the quantities of heat manifested were, in the Ist, 53-260 2d, “8\°727 3d, 52°604 The mean result is 52°604 Ibs*. Ibs of water raised from the temperature of melting ice to that of ebullition. i238 Results with the weakest spirits As a pound of this liquid contained but 0°7788 of the : alcohol considered by Lowitz as pure; the other part, = 0°2212, being only water, which does not burn; to find how much water would be raised from the temperature of.inelting ice to that of ebullition by a pound of the pure alcohol of Lowitz, we have only to divide the quantity, that. is the measure of the mean heat developed in the ex- periments with the spirit of wine by the fraction, that ex- presses the quantity of alcohol in a pound of this liquid. 4 ee, saat! 6 : pera 7°545 lbs, the measure of the heat developed in the combustion of one pound of pure alcohol of Lowitz, according to the mean result of the ex- periments made with spirit of wine. In two exper!ments made with the alcohol of the shops, the mean result was $4°218 Ibs: and, as this contained Th us we have * As the mean of the three preceding numbers would be 59°530, “there is evidently some mistake; and the last number of the three being the same with the mean given, it is probable, ene of these is an érrour of the transcriber. But, as the nuraber 52604 is employed as the mean jn the calculation in the next paragraph, it may be pre- suited, that the result of the third experiment should have beea $2 825. > C. \ : 0°8057lb with the next: 124 with the stromgest, Mean for pure alcokol : compared with its com- ponent parts. The caleula- tion from: Crawford, aud the xe= ON THE HEAT DEVELOPED IN COMBUSTION. 0°8057 Ib. of pure alcohol, we have for the measure of the heat developed in the combustion of 1b of pure alcohol 54°218 O°3''57 Of three experiments made with the alcohol at 42° the mean result was 61°952 lbs. of water heated 180° F. by the heat developed in the combustion of one pound of this hguid. Hence tb of pure alcohol should furnish heat enough in 619052 _ 09179 = 67°294 lbs of water heated 180° F. burning to raise 67°57 Ibs of water 180° F.; for 6F57*. Taking the mean between the results of these eight ex- periments with three alcoholic liquors, we shall have for the meesure of the heat developed in the combustion of one yound of pure alcohol of. Lowitz 67°47} Ibs of water raised from the temperature of melting ice to that of ebullition. It will be extremely interesting, no doubt, to know whe- ther this quantity of heat agree with the quantities of com- bustible matter (carbon and hidrogen) in alcohol. We wilt see. According to the analysis of Mr. de Saussure, Ib of the alcohol of Lowitz contains Carbon ecoeccesteccccese O°4989 Free hidrogen o+e-sceesse O°1018 Water eccesscscsrecceeee 04700 1° Now according to the calculations of Dr, Crawford we shall have for the measure. of the heat Sectoid: in the combustion of 0°4282 tb of carbon «+--+ 24:°067 lbs of enc veut 180° F. 6°1018 |b of hidrogen e- 41°738 Total ---+ 66°405 The experzments gave us 67°477 If the mean result were as given above, which I-have no means of knowing, as the results of thesexperiments are omitted, this should be 67-493. C. + If the correction in the preceding note were to be made, this should be 67'444. €. . t ON DRYING MURIATIC GAS. 125 - Itis rare in a research of such delicacy to find the re- sult of the ex. sults of experiment agree so perfectly with those of calcu Perimelt very : nearly agree. lation. -In the conclusion of this paper I shall have the honour Farther ‘ef giving ihe class an account of the results of a consider- ©*Pcrments able number of experiments, which I have just made to as- certain the quantities of heat developed in the combustion of sulphuric ether, naphtha, suet, and several kinds of With other : 5 : substances wood ; as well as that manifested in the condensation of the ‘ vapours of water, of alcohol, and of ether. . These experiments are all finished, and I have made promised. considerable progress in the paper, in which I purpose to give an account of them here. 1 flatter myself, that the class will do me the honour to listen to it with its usual indulgence, at an early meeting*. | FO a ca Vs Remurks on the Experiment of Dr. Bostock and D;. Trait. Ina Letter from a Correspondent. To W. NICHOLSON, Esq. SIR, "Tue experiments of Drs. Bostock and Traill cannot, I Experiment of think, be considered as decisive in proving, that water is ie ee produced in the combination of dry mumatic and ammo- notdecisive, niacal gas. The mode adopted in drying the ammoniacal gas by these gentlemen is not effective. A lump of quick- a lumpof lime lime iatroduced into a jar of this gas would not absorb ie the whole of the combined moisture. Lime is not sé greedy muriatic gas. of moisture as some other substances, and in a mass would be disposed to take up but little: had it been introduced Hot lime ip immediately from the fire in the state of powder, it might Powder Detter; have been more effectual. To deprive gas of the moisture it contains, the best method has been found to be to pass 4 This the Count has promised to transmit for insertion in the Journal, as soon as he can find an opportunity, iz 126 CHEAP AND DURABLE STUCCO. but hot muri- it repeatedly through muriate of lime in coarse powder ateoflimebest- yreyiously heated; or to agitate it for some time in contact with this salt in a dry vessel. If Drs. Bostock and Traill will take the trouble of re- peating their experiment with this precaution, they will, I believe, find the result to be as A. B. C. has stated it.. I am, Sir, Your most humble servant, BristTor, D> E.-E. 1ith of May, 1812. VI. Method of preparing a cheap and durable Stucco, or Plaster, for outside or inside Walls: by H. W. Ways; Esq. of Bridport Harbour*. SIR, Stucco for In consequence of your expressing an “opinion, that 3 Leaegngt : general knowledge of my method of preparing a stucco, mathe or plaster, for outside walls of houses much exposed to sea’ breezes or bad weather, would be of service to the public, T have enclosed an account of the process; and I will with. pleasure furnish any farther particulars of this business for the Society of Arts, or permit any gentleman to examine it, who may wish for more information on the subject. You know the situation of my house, which is greatly exposed to the spray of the sea and bad weather; and I can truly add, that by means of this stucco it is perfectly free from damp, and the plaster remains compact and durable. .. | remain, Sir, Your obedient humble servant. Brrpporr Hargour, EC RW AY | Oct. 12, 1819. * Trans. of the Soc. of Arts, vol. KXIX, p: 72. “ ‘The silver medal was voted to Mr. Way; «and specimens of his stucco, and of the sand from which it was made, are preserved in the Society’s-repository. To f ! CHEAP AND DURABLE sTwucco. To make a strong Stucco, or Mortar. Three parts Bridport Harbour sand to one of lime, both finely sifted and mixed with lime-water; if used as stucco, the first coat to be laid on half the thickness of a crowns piece; let it remain two days, then with a painter’s brush wash it over with strong lime water, and lay on the second coat of the same thickness. 1805, March 25.—Measured a coal half-bushel of Bea- mister lime*, and put it into a hogshead of water, to make the lime-water.— Measured two coal half-bushels more of the lime, slaked and sifted it, it then measured three half- - bushels, to which were added nine. coal half-bushels of Bridport Harbour sand well sifted; I saw it well mixed up with lime-water, and thoroughly worked together; the next day saw it turned, and again mixed up, that it might be well incorporated together. -97th.—This morning had a fine coat of it laid on the west end of my large storehouse at Bridport harbour. , 127 Methed of making it. 20th.—Had it ane with lime-water, and a second. coat laid on. Cost. ] $s 4d, One sack and a quarter of lime, at 2s. 6d. = Bae ‘Two men and one boy two days each, fetching and mixing up materials, and laying on; men Qs. 3d. per day, boy 10d. per day, and one pint of ale each per day, 12d. - - - 11 102 ‘s : 15 0 ee N. B.—I suppose the expense swathieh over than under-rated. May 11—This day Thomas Everett measured and exa- mined the work, found it hard and sound, 247 square yards, a little done to the house, suppose the whole to be twenty- five yards square. T wenty-five square yards at 73d, per square yard, would be 15s. 14d. * This appears, from a subsequent part of the paper, to be chalk lime. C. “as ie June Expense, 128 Its durability. Farther ac- count of the stucco, Charge for it. CHEAP AND DURABLE STUCCO. June 13, 1806.—Examined the work, which was perfect- Jy sound and free from cracks, nothing having ever peeled off from it. The situation exposed to the weather in the greatest degree. N. B. —The coal half-bushel above mentioned holds ex- acily thirteen gallons wine-measare. H. B. WAY. Str, I was favoured with yours of the 18th instant, and I now enclose the mason’s certificate of the quantity of stucco done with the composition I gave him the particulars of ; in ad- dition to which it may be necessary to mention, that the coal half-bushel, with which the ingredients of the composition were measured, (according to the account formerly given), contains exactly thirteen gallons of water, wine measure, and would hold exactly 1 cwt. 1 qr. 7 lb. net of the sand used. The weight of the lime I do not know; and my being able to ascertain exactly the weight of the sand arose from my waggon being employed to carry what was used at Yeovil, and East Coker, from hence; and for what I sent to Yeovil I was paid 1s. 9d. per cwt. From the sand here succeeding so well; Thomas Everett would not be prevailed on to engage to do any of that sort of work with hill or river sand, to be got on this shore. "The work he did for me was all by the day; what he did at Yeovil and East Coker he agreed for at eight pence per yard, of mine feet superficial measure for labour only for the two coats, at four pence per square yard for one coat, all the materials being brought to the spot at his employer’s expense, and who also found scaffolding and scaffold ropes. This, J think, is considerably hiseer than by my calculation of the expense of what I had first done he ought to have.charged ; but its being done at a distance of twenty miles from where he lives, and in the most busy time of the year for masons work, 1 suppose must account for it in the first instance ; and having once made that price, he would not now work under: but, I believe, for a considerable building, © and with sufficient notice, and being allowed 6d. per mile in lieu of wages and travelling expenses for himself and CHEAP AND DURABLE STUCCO. and an assistant, out and home, he would go to any part of the kiagdom, on being paid Sd. per yard for the work: It has been the general received opinion here, that plaster Séa sand not made with sea sand, unless well washed in fresh water, would always be damp; but, on the contrary, I find from what has been done in my dining-parlour and passage, it has been always quite dry, although the whole of the sand with wiich it has been done hes been thrown up by the sea, and must have been always at spring’ tides covered with sea water: indeed it sometimes happens, that, for months together, there is none to be collected on our shores at this place, that Everett thinks fine enough for the purpose; and as I am now and then applied to for getting it, | have lately, when my horses were at leisure, got a small quantity collected and hauled in for my own use, or, in case of its being wanted, I charge 2d. per cwt. for it; where it is deposited. As I design at some future time to make some alteration in the passage done with the stucco in April 1806, I had four pieces taken off, which I tied up sepa- rately, each in a piece of brown paper, and had them packed in a box, with a layer of sand between each piece, and at the bottom and top of the box, and directed it for you, and sent it with some goods I shipped on Saturday last to my friend Netlam Giles, Esq. No. 2, New Inn, St. Clement’s. I have requested of him, that he will have the goodnes on its arrival to forward it to you. The vessel it goes by is the sloop Mary Ann, John Anning, -master, bound to Dounes Wharf, Hermitage, Wapping. It is possible, that the pieces of stucco sent may imbibe some of the. saline particles of the sand it was packed upin; but this did not occur to me at the time or they should have been packed in saw-dust; as they were perfectly dry prrdness of when packed, so much so as, when struck upon with the the stucco. knuckle, to give a sound similar to what an earthen vessel would doif dry end not cracked. Should there be any farther information requisite, on your letting me know, it shall immediately be sent you. It had almost escaped me stone jime ape to say, that the small quantity of six yards, done last poetoanee October with stone lime for trial, was ‘done from your Vor. XXXIL—June 1812. K intimating I ————— 130 Account of stucco work - done. CHEAP AND DURABLE STUCCO. intimating to me, when I had the pleasure of seeing you it Dorsetshire, that store lime was likely to answer; but it would I think look better if white washed; the difference in point of expense is materially in favour of the stone lime. The cost of my waggon-load of it at the kiln, about a mile hence, would be only 10s, whereas abouc the same quan- tity of chalk lime at the kiln, full eight miles from hence, ~ would cost 1/, 4s., and I cannot get any chalk-lime nearer. I have only now to add, that I am, very respectfully, Sir, Your obedient fale servant, Bripeorr Harsour, H. B. WAY. April 22d 1811. . Certificate. I hereby certify, that Mr. H. B. Way, merchant, of Brid- port Harbour, in the county of Dorset, in the month of March 1805, gave me the necessary directions for making a strong cheap stucco or plaster, which was composed of. one part chalk lime, and three-equal parts of fine sand, collected on the seashore, near Bridport Harbour, the whole of which was mixed up to a proper consistence with a strong lime water; and I] have since that time done the annexed work with the said composition. For Mr. H. B. Way, at Bridport Harbour. Yds. Yds. flat _ Msr. 1805. March.—On the outside of a warehouse wall, part rough stone and part brick «+eesseees 25 1806. April.— On the inside walls of ‘a passage in his dwelling-house, on rough stone. «esseeeees 10. Oct. & Nov.—On the asi rough stone walls of - © two cellars. Uh AIRS SD RR Sf, lo Saat aa 224. One coat on the ceilings of the said cellars «+++ 228 N. B. The first coat on the ceilings was common hair mortar 0 1807. April & May.—The whole of the outside of hisdwelling-house, rough stone walls «++eeees 335 s EUEA® AND DURABLE STUCCO. August.—On one side wall of the diniug-room in Yds. Yde. brick; this stucco was rubbed down quite smooth, sin and has since been painted with oil colours.-.-.. 4g 1810. Oct. 10.—On a rough stone wall of a ware- house directly fronting the sea, and not two hun- dred yards from it, with common stone lime, such as is ased for manure in this quarter, by way of TPIBE. ca esc crec veces ccvccecccceecccessucnern 6 ~—— 323 1811. April.—At Mr. H. B. Way’s request, I have this day carefully examined the whole of the above work, and I find it sound and good, and by his directions, four pieces of the stucco were taken off from the passage wall, (which was laid on April 1806), and paeked in the same sort of sand as is used in the composition, and sent by him directed for the Secretary of the Society of Arts, Manufac- ~ tures, and Commerce, London.-+++ vs+eseseeeee For Peter Daniel, Esq. of Yeovil, Somersetshire. , 1808. May & June.—On the outside brick-walls of his dwelling-house there. ++++seesseeseeeeee 430 1810. May & June.—On the outside brick-walls ‘of other eine fentes theresecercccccccsserrs 480 —— 910 For W. Hellyer, Esq. of East Coker, near Yeovil. 1809. June.—On the outside brick and rough stone walls of his dwelling-house, at that place. «« 1040 For the Rev. Joseph Fawcett, of Yeovil. 1810. June.—On the outside rough stone walls of his dwelling-house there -+-see-ssccsseccee Q1¢- N. B. Mr. Faweett’s house being built the year “before, with a view to being stuccoed, the walls = were left rough. Yds. 2983 I hereby certify, that the whole of the foregoimg two thou_ ~ sand nine hundred and eighty-three square yards of stucco, were done with the before-mentioned composition, by me and my men under my directions ; and I-verily believe it is K @ | the 131 Cordage and cloth from nettles. Introduction of a new sub- stance of pro- CLOTH AND CORDAGE FROM NETTLES. the cheapest stucco known, and that it will prove very dura- ble, both without doors and witbin, and ‘that it has given etitire satisfaction to the gentlemen who have tried it; and I am now engaged, if I can, the ensuing summer, to stucco the. outside of one house at Bridport, and another at Yeovil, also the inside of a cottage for labourers that I have just built for Mr. H. B. Way, at Bridport harbour. ‘ THOMAS EVERETT. Stone Mason, Bricklayer, and Plasterer. Shipton George, near Bridport, Dorset, April 22, 1811. ; Witness, James BuDDEN. VEE ’ Manufacture of Cloth and. Cordage from Nettles, by Mr. EpwWarp 5 sees Iw page 109 of the 28th volume of the Sociéty’s transac- tionst will be seen a communication from Mr. E. Smith, of Brentwood, on manufacturing a variety of articles from the fibres of the common nettle, for which he has received their silver medal. He has since, with) great attention and laudable industry, extended his experiments on this subject, and, during the last session, produced to the society speci- mens of cloth and cordage made from the nettle, which ap- pear to possess great str cnet and durability: The society have, Te pee session, voted ,to him their silver Isis medal. The following communication was received from him, and specimens of the cordage and cloth, made by him from nettles, are preserved in the Society’s repository. Esrcemep Frienp, . ' I received thy kind favour of the 23d instant, by the con- tents of which Iam much obliged ; and being impressed by ductive labour, the consideration of the vast importance the introduction of ri, * Trans. of Soc. of Arts, vol. K XIX, p, 81. + See Journal, vo XXIK, p. 161. anew \ ‘ CLOTH .AND CORDAGE FROM NETTLES... 133 a ag substance of productive labour would be of to the com- munity of this manufacturing country, particularly as atford- ing a new source of industry to the increased numerous poor of both sexes, in truth, so operated on my mind, as to create .a great unwillingness to suffer any exertions consonant with my limited powers, from total disadvantages, to he dormant. I am, therefore, very desirous by unremitted endeavours to be instrumental in disseminating the knowledge of, and the means of bringing into use, so valuable a spontaneous pro- duction as the common nettle substance, under the sanction and through the medium of the enlightened Society of Arts Xc. These considerations, aided by the hope of obtaining their farther approbation, have stimulated me to persevere in my attempts to contribute all in my power towards the ad- vancement of so desirable and beneficial an object; in the expectation, that when all the different fabrics, which that Fabrics from substance is capable of being converted into, are produced, the nettle. ‘it may have a greater tendeacy towards encouraging others to embark in a manufactory thereof, than volumes written on the subject. With these sentiments [ am induced to trouble thee farther, in requesting thou will be so kind to favour me by laying before the Society the different specimens of manu- factory from the nettle substance, which J have at present in readiness, and which will be sent to thee by the Brentwood coach, which inns at the Blue Boar, Aldgate, and I expect will be delivered soon after the receipt of this. The cordage Cordage. ' Nos. 1 & 2 is affirmed by the cord-spinner to be of equal strength to that made from hemp. The cloth No, 1 is rough ’ from the loom; No. 2, the same fabric half bleached; and Cloth; No. 3, which I ordered to be huckaback, also is only half ‘bleached for want of sufficient time for the process. The This injured quality of the cloth hath suffered throughout, by the negli- Te gence or willfuiuess of the manufacturer, end is principally ; owing to the raw material having been only passed through such heckles asare used for the coarse part of the hemp ma-+ - nufactory;—other necessary operations were omitted, in con- sequence of my instructions not being attended to by the person into whose care it was entrusted, He resides in the country, at a great distance, and his capability and integrity proved greatly inferior to the opinions [ had entest=) { 134 DUTCH. MODE OF CURING HERRINGS. him; and it now appears his practice is confined to the coars- er part of the hemp manufactory. Jt was my intention to have produced with the above a pair of stockings, manufac- tured on the principle of cotton, and also a specimen of fine cloth on the same principle, with a view to show the great extent of contrast; but, on application to a cotton spinner, I found the quantity of material [ had in a state of prepar- ation suitable was not sufficient for the operations of card- ing; in consequence I am obliged to postpone my designs till I am enabled to prepare a sufficiency. Greatly desirous of contributing to the accomplishment of the object in view, and sensibly how much the sanction and approbation of the Society would tend to promote it, I hope they will consider my continued exertions worthy their farther attention. An- ticipating their approbation, [ remain, Very respectfully, Thy assured Friend, - EDWARD SMITH. | Brentwood, the a6th of 3d Month, 1811. VIII. \ Account of Herrings cured in the Dutch mode on board British . Vessels; by Francis Fortune, Esq.* a In the deep sea (which is the principal fishery for her- Fishing for ; herrings rings) the nets are cast from the busses by sunset, and they drive by them alone expecting the shoals, the approach of which is generally indicated by small quantities of,fish ; and \ their arrival by immense flights of sea fowl. The best fishing » js with the wind off shore, for, when it blows in a contrary direction, the shoals are broken and dispersed, and the fishery ‘ is seldom successful while it continues in that point. Management Immediately after the nets are hauled in, (which is often of them when performed with considerable difficulty, by means of a wind- ~ caught. * Abstracted from the Traus. of the Soc. of Arts, vol. xxix, p. 157. The gold medal, being the premium offered, class 165, for curing British y, white herrings in the Dutch method, was adjudged to the author. - 3 ¢ lass. a ‘PUTCH MODE OF CURING HERRINGS. 135. lass when they are full) the crew begin to gyp the fish, that — is, to cut out the gill, which is followed by the float or swim, and divide the large jugular or spiral vein with a kuife at the same time, ‘endeavouring to waste as little of the blood as possible ;—at this work the men are so expert, that some will gyp fifty ina minute. Immediately after they are gypped, they are put into bar- Salting, -rels, commencing with a layer of salt at the bottom, then a ‘tier of fish, each side by side, back downwards, the tail of one touching the head of the other, next a layer of salt, and so alternately until the barrel is filled :—they are thus left, and the blood which issues {rem the fish, by dissolving the salt, forms a pickle infinitely superior to any other that can be made. The herrings thus drained of their blood occupy less space, and the whole consequently sinks about one third down the barrel, but this sinking is at an end in about three or four days. | yaaea! When these operations are being performed, the sea is often Peeeuneas runping mountains high; and it is not therefore to be sup- against loss of pickle from posed, that the barrels are so well coopered as not soinetimes Jeaking, to allow the pickle to leak out; and in order to preserve the fish from being speiled,« which would otherwise happen in such cases, some of the gills avd entrails are always put by in barrels with salt, in the same manner as the herrings, and yield a pickle of the same quality; with this pickle , those barrels which have leaked are replenished, and the fish sustains no injury. Every operation is performed in the Fishkept in shade, into which the fish are immediately conveyed on their "te Shade, being lvauled on board. Each day’s fishing is kept separate cach day's see with ‘the greatest care. The salt used is mixed, and of three parate. . different sorts, viz. English, St. Ubes, and Alicant, and Salt used. each barrel marked with the day of the month on it on which it was filled. The advantages of gypping the herrings are, that the Advantages of blood, which issues in consequence of tie, operation from &YPping- the fish, yields a natural pickle, and improves the flavour ; whereas, if left in the fish, it becomes coagulated at the back-bone, and forms the first cause of decay. The mixture of blood and salt operated upon by the extreme heat of the rie weather during the summer ai al produces a fermenta- tion 136 Difference in their value, DUTCH MODE OF CURING HERRINGS. tion which nearly parboils the herrings, and removes the coarse and raw flavour so often complained of. The gyp- | ping is likewise often performed on shore, observing the same precautions; the only difference 1s, that they are seldom in that case of sogood a cglour. Gypped herrings are never of so fine a quality as when kept in their own original pickle; their value consists in their softness and flavour; it is this mode of curing herrings that used to be the pride of the Dutch, and this is the kind which supplied their home cons sumption, and were so much esteemed by all classes of peo- ple in Holland. | In order, as far as it is possible, to give a proof of the correctness of the above assertion, I shall state a fact for the information of the Seciety. During the last year I em- ployed a number of Dutch fishermnen, prisoners, and others, with Englishmen, in gypping and curing herrings; and at one time my agent at Yarmouth was offered £4 per barrel, for all the herrings he had cured there, by a Dutch captain, in order to their being taken to Holland, while ungypped herrings. were worth only ‘36s. per barrel. The herrings now under the consideration of your Society are part of the quantity for which this offer was made. Should the Society, after due consideration, think proper to adjudge me their gold medal, it will afford me much sa- tisfaction, and convince me, that my exertions have, in, some degree, been beneficial to the community. Tam, Sir, Your most obedient servant, FRANCIS FORTUNE. No. 9, Lower Thames Street,’ Feb, the 26th, 1811. sp. Bi ‘ | “ee. STRUCTURE OF THE WATER LILY. 137 1X. | | Method of Curing Herrings: by Mr. Sunavin®. vi HEN the herrings are taken and alive, break their gills with your finger and thumb conipletely from the back- ee “bone, which will in course cause the fish to bleed: then throw hevrugs, them into the liquor prepared as follows: viz. to three quarts of salt water, put five pounds of common salt, and two pounds of bay sult, and when dissolved, let the whole be boiled. One peck of common sa!t, and half a peck of bay salt, put between the different layers of herrings, will be sufficient for one barrel. Let the herrings remein in this liquor for three weeks, they must then be taken cut and “gypped, and a fresh liquor made with one gallon of salt water, the gypping of the fish, one peck of common salt, and a quarter of a peck of bay salt, and when dissolved, some of thespare fish mustbe put in to it to make the liquor rich, and the whole be boiled for an hour, ut so slow as that it may not burn; then let it cool and «train it off. The fish must be repacked in clean barre .. the last mentioned liquor put to them, and be careful that the fish be covered and kept close. | P. SLEAVIN. No. 7, Little Brook Street, ee Road, April the Oth, 1811. a ny, / x. . / Letter on the Structure of the Water Lin answer to a Correspondent. By Mrs. Acnes [BBETson.- ‘SIR, Sere ‘ Tue gentleman, who did me the honour to notice my ¢ : : : : tructure of letter on water plants, in your last number, p. 22, is per- the water lily, * Abstracted from the Traus. of the Soc. of Arts, vol. XKIX, p. 162. Mr. Sleavin cured only erght barrels, of thirty-two gallons each, of herrings caught off the Isle of Man. Nothing is said of their quality, except Mr. Sleavin’s assertion, that he has no doubt they are equal to the Lutch, or better. ‘The silver medal of the Society was ».ted to him. fectly 138 IRRITABILITY OF VEGETABLES. fectly right: the mistake of my amenuansis, who inserted ~ ‘washed off” instead of» ‘rubbed off,” has caused an apparent confusion in the description. No water can enter the air vessels, except when the adjoining parts are much - torn. Movion of the ‘The motion of the hairin the air cylinder is caused by baits. a pin, whith, entering the widest end of the hair, runs through the side of the air vessel into the next water vessel, The water rising contracts the spiral, pushes the pm, and the hair, which remained before parallel to the side of the vessel, now starts up horizontally; and, as the whole ewwcle of hairs rises, each in the same manner and at the same time, meeting with their. points, if any insect has placed itself in the way, it will be crushed or run through (as I have often seen it) by the sudden motion of the hairs. The plast the No insect certainly can get into the air cylinders, but by na Gagan: the dilapidations of some of the adjoining vessels; but this. must often happen, as these plants are the food of many of ‘and perhaps of the diminutive slug kind; and J doubt whether the ciearia a lemnz (which is the only species I have found on the hairs) do nat also feed on it. I am, Sir, . Your obliged servant, ' AGNES IBBETSON. XE. On the Irritability of the Sowthistle, and other Plants, with farther observations on the Erritability of Vegetables: by D. J. Carnapori*, PR ae | Initability me HE lettuce is not the only plant that possesses a plants. striking degree of irritability during the period of flowering, the prickly sowthistle fsonchus asper) has this faculty Shown in the at the same season. Jn fact it transmits and gives outa gana res milky fluid, hke the lettuce, when it ts irritated, oF pune- * Abridged from the Journ. de Phys. vol. LXVII, p. 405. + Experiments on the Irritability of the Lettuce, Mem. of the Italian Society of Sciences, vol. Xil. aa tured IRRITABILITY OF VEGETABLES. _ 139 tured, at that time; though not so quickly as the lettuce, or with the same facility and force. It requires a stronger irritation, or a more powerful and complex stimulus, to excite the flow of the milky liquid in’ this plant; and does not obey the slightest touch like the lettuce, which, as soon as it is touched, however gently, throws out a portion ofits proper or milky juice. _ This exudation is never performed with the same fied and more stri-~ -as in the lettuce, from which it is sometimes spirted out kingly, a, Ele into the air to some distance; but simply flows out, however powerful the irritation, Neither is it obtainable from the leaves that embrace the stalk, as in the lettuce, but from the calices alone, and chiefly from the circum- ferences of the little leaves that compose these. The sowthistle, like the lettuce, does not lose this faculty Not destroyed when immersed in water; and the plant, if pulled out of Ra an the ground, or a single branch of it, will retain it some time. I have not had time to extend‘my observations to the Found in the _ “other species of the lettuce and sowthistle, to find whether, P¢™#"P- - either while flowering or at any other time, they gave signs of a sensible degree of irritability in any part by a similar exudation, though this is probable, IT have found it in the bark of the fruit when green, or in the pericarps of these plants. . I could not obtain the customary exudation from the Other parts leaves, the stalks, the parts that support the organs of void of it. fructification, or any other part, in whatever way I irritated them, except from the green capsules containing the seeds: and the irritation was always produced by a needle, row excited. or rubbing; never by any method capable of tearing or injuring the surface of the capsules*. * There are motions in plants not owing to irritability, but the Pye mullein simple effects of the elasticity of certain parts, as in the great mullein made to shed (verbascum sinuatum). lf a shock, or commotion, be given to the its flowers.- - stalk of this plant, the flowers will fall off; not immediately, nor all ‘at once, but a little while after, and successively. This is owing to the elasticity of the calices, which are kept in a state of forced dis- tension to hold the monopetalous flower, which is not attached to them; and as the shock causes them to contract, by calling inte action their natural elasticity, this co aaa gradually expels the flower. : hile ’ 1 find 146 F¥ffect of saline impregnations on the irrita- bility: ef acids: and of oxim u- matic and other gasses. ' Oxigen does mot act asa stimulus to vegetables. e IRRITABILITY OF VEGETABLES. I put some small lettuce plants, while.in flower, with their roots, to vegetate in water, to which was added in some of ‘the vessels a small portion of muriate of soda, in others of nitrate of potash, and kept them thus in the open air some days, If any portion of these salts were absorbed from the water, they did not appear to increase the irrita- bility of the plants, for the exudation diminished 10 quantity. I mixed acids also in water, in such proportion as to be barely sensible to the taste, and particularly nitric and oximuriatic acid in various proportions, and then placed several small plants of lettuce in full flower in the vessels, with similar effect. Ifa larger quantity of acid were added to the water, it appeared to injure the plants, and their irritability likewise decreased more quickly. I apphed this kind of stimulus to the surface of plants, to see if it would act externally. On immersing a branch of lettuce in a jar filled with oximuriatic acid gas, and taking it out in a few seconds, it exhibited the usual idan when stimulated: but when it was kept longer in the gas, it was evidently injured, and its irritability greatly decreased. Nitrous and sulphureous vapours were still more injurious. ; It appears then that these stimuli, which are so sala vaunted as inceasing the irritability of animals, are not’ appropriate to the irritability of vegetables*. * Those facts, that are admitted as proofs of the stimulant action of certain substances or principles in the vegetable economy, do not appear to me decisive. It is generally supposed, that oxigen is a powerful stimulus to vegetables, beeause it has been observed to accelerate the germi- nation of seeds; this effect being ascribed. to its stimulating their vascular system, and. rendering their circulation more active. But as it appears from the observations of Mr. de Saussure the younger, that the oxigen entering into germination is neither absorbed nor assimilated in this process, but employed in forming carbonic acid, -I conceive it does not act as a stimulus,. but merely serves tu carry off from the germinating seed the carbon; an elemeut which, as is shown in some of my observations respecting the action of light on germinating seeds, inserted in the Opuscoli scelti of Milan, seems injurious to the developement of the embryo; and of which nature seems ut that time disposed to free herself, as noxious or superfluous, This appears to be’the reason why oxigen accelerates g ermination. { immersed 2 F.], 1 put a plant of lettuce in full flower; taking it from a which fetid exhalations rose, and kept them i: it twenty- _ heat, and diminished by cold. Vegetables in fact slacken in the shade: and kept it there some hours, with its root only IRRITABILITY OF VEGETABLES. 14] I immersed lettuce plants in some stagnant water, from Lettuce im- mersed in stage nant water s four hours. Having taken them out, a:d repeatedly ex- amined the state of their irritability by stimel, 1 found they had lost it entirely, The vessels containing the proper juice of the plants were so deprived of irritability, that they did not emit their flu:d, even though wounds were made in the plants for the purpose. It seems there- fore, that putrid exhalations, or putrid matter combined with water, deprive these plants, as well as animals, of their irritablity. Having taken a lettuce plant, when Reanmut’s ther- ©*Posed toa mometer was at 25° in the shade [88°25° F.], I immersed ? it in water at 50° [144°5° F.]; a degree of heat Thad found not to injure the organic texture of vegetables. In this hot fluid there was a spontaneons exudation from the plant; and at the slightest touch it gave out its juice more freely than in air at the same temperature. I then im-and low tem mersed it for a moment in water at 4° [41° F.J; and, after nie waiting for a few seconds, that it might have become : sensible of the effect, I irritated it afresh; when I found it required a much stronger irritation. The irritability of vegetables appears to be increased by Irritability of vegetabies in= creased by heat in the exercise of their functions, if they do not suspend it and diminish- entirely, during the cold weather; and the spring, which © >y cel¢. brings with it warmth, restores to the vegetable economy its accustomed energy. By thisit appears their sleeping irrita- bility is awakened, and their life revived; so that the state, in which vegetables pass the winter, may be compared with the torpor, or lethargy, that many animals undergo during that season. Cold benumbs animais, because as is well known, it deadens their irritability; and this it does by its direct action on-the muscular fibre, which is the seat of ivritability, independent of sensation and circulation, as _ Spallanzani has shown. Into a deep well, where the thermometer ¥ was at 12° [59° A moderate temperature : does not afiect Kitchen garden, where the thermometer stood at 26° [90°5° F-.] it. 72 142 Light has no effect on the irritability, 1 Sa IRRITABILITY OF VEGETABLES. in the water. Having taken it out, I found by repeated trials, that the exudation followed irritation, as it appeared to me, nearly as before; so that I could not find any percep- tible difference in its.irritability after it had been exposed to this caol temperature. Thus the irritability of vegetables does not appear to suffer by a sudden transition fepcin a high to a moderate tempera- ture, or to be diminished in proportion to it: though the preceding experiment shows, that, when their irritability has been heightened by a very hot atmosphere, and they are placed for an instant in a cold one, it is perceptibly dimi-. uished. , Light is well known to act as ¢ stimulus-on plants: but I did not find greater marks of irritability in the lettuce or sow- thistle when surrounded by sunshine, than when in the shade. I tried the effects of the solar light concentrated by-a lens on these two plants; but it did not produce any irritation, Y.ife and irrita- ' bility extin- guisted toge- ther. Irritability strongest in the morning. This irritabi- lity probably common to al] plants, so as to cause the exudation of the usual fluid, though it scorched them, when sufficiently intense. I pulled up some whole plants of lettuce and sowthistle, and also stripped off some branches, and left them to wither on a table in my room in summer. About ten hours after 1 7 irritated them where the effect wonld be most visible, and obtained some slight marks of irritation. 1 then placed the stalks of one or two of these plants in water ; and after some time I found they recovered from their appsrent death, and began to vegetate afresh. A little time after I attempted to irritate some others, that were still more withered; but they exhibited no exudation. I then put them in water like the former, but they never recovered. Thus in plants life and irritability appear to become extinct together. I tried to irritate plants of lettuce and sowthistle, growing in the same ground, at various hours of the day and night ; and [ found their exudation most energetic 1D the morning, » when the sun had risen, and their flowers were fully ex- panded. The property, that lettuce, sowthistle, and spurge ips. of giving outa milky fluid, or their peculiar jnice, when any of their more succulent parts are irritated, appears to me, to render the existence of irritability in plants unquestionable. It “- os esbanag OF A VEGETABLE EXCRESCENCE. tei is tie, that we perceive this irritability only at a certain age, and notin ell plants that have a peculiar juice. Bet are “we to presume, that, if this property donot manifest itself at every age, and in every plant, but only when it is extremely exalted, and in those plants that are perhaps mest endued with it, other plants are destitute of it?, On the contrary we may reasonably infer, that those vessels, which exhibit a great deal of irritability at a certain period, and in certain plants, possess at other times, and in other plants, a sufficient quan- 143 tity for the circulation of the fluids, though no excess of at’ ‘to be rendered sensible. But if it be reasonable to suppose, that the vessels con- taining the peculiar juice are endued with this irritability, and that it is by this property the juice is compelled to cir- culate in them; who will venture to assert, that the vessels _ of other systems are destitute of it, and that the circulation ef their respective fluids arises from a different cause, or is occasioned by some other power ? — xii. ‘Chemical Examination of some Vegetable Sudstances; by Mr. V avquetin*. Sect, 1. Chemical Examination of a vegetable excrescence from Madagascar, sent to the Isle of France by Mr. Cha- peller, and thence to Europe by Mr. Jannet. q "ns substance is as white as a cake of starch; it is _ perforated in all directions: by an immense quantity o and te ali their vessels. f Vegetabie ex- crescence from holes formed by little insects; it has neither smell nor taste ; Madagascar _ it diffuses in burning the smell of burned bread, inclining a little to that of touchwood. 4. Treated with a very large quantity of nitric acid, it far- nished a little oxalic acid, but no muric; consequently it contains no gum. 2. Water has no action on it: but if it- remains a long a ® Ann, de Chim, vol. ixxii, p. 297. time described. 144 Result, Gum-resin from Mada- gascar. Analysed, ANALYSIS OF A GUM-RESIN FROM MADAGASCAR. | 5 / time in this liquid, at a temperature sufficiently high, a — portion of the animal matter, which appears to be contained in it, undergoes putrefaction, and imparts to the water a fetid smel}, analogous to that of caal:fiowers ; which appears to indicate the presence of sulphur. The portion that remains still enjoys all its properties: 3. Acetous acid, boiled with this substance, takes from it some matter, which appears to be of an anima! nature; for it is precipitated by galls, but not by alkalis. What is not. dissolved by the vinegar possesses the same properties as be- fure, or at least nearly so. 3. Ten grammes [15445 grs] of this matter, subjected to distillation, yielded an empyreumatic oil, mixed with an acid liquor, which diffused an ammoniacal smell, when potash was mixed with it.’ ‘The coal, when burned, left 1 dec. f1 BA gr.] of yellowish ashes, containing a little phosphate of lime, some carbonate of lime, and a trace of oxide of iron. i This matter having the appearance of starch, or at least | seeming to contain some, a principal object of all the expe- riménis made with it was to discover this; but not the least trace of it could be detected. From this examination it seems to result, that the sub stance is a mixture of unorganized woody matter, and of vegeto-animal matter, which, having been superabundant in ihe vegetable, were expelled to its exterior, and there formed an excrescence. | ( Sec7. If. Analysis of a gum-resin, sent in the year 13 from — Madagascar to the Isle of France, by Mr. Chapeliter, and thence to the Hluseum of Natural History by Mr. Victor Jannet, in November, 1808. This’ owm-resin is of a greenish Ves colour. It burns swelling up, and emitting a thick smoke, with a ‘smell not very pleasant; and leaves ashes containing carbonate of lime. : rt a ae Alcohol, assisted by a gentle heat, dissolves a great part of it; ieaving a residuum greasy to the feel, which alcohol attacks only. when boiling, and tke greater part of which separates / ANALYSIS OF A GUM-RESIN FROM MADAGASCAR. 145 separates immediately on cooling. The matter that thus_ falls down in cooling exhibits all the properties of lac. It weight is six hundredths of the resin. The portion of the resin, one tenth, on which the alcohol had no action, was treated with caustic potash dissolved in water. This had not much more action on it than alcohol ; léavimg it in the form of a brown powder, soft to the touch, and still weighing near one tenth. This substance, insoluble botlx in alcohol and potash, was distilled with a gentle heat. At first it gave outa little water; and then vapours arose, which condensed into an oil, and a liquid of a taste somewhat aromatic, without being disagreeable, having a great resemblance to the pro- duct of gums. Ag None ‘of the products of this distillation, mixed with _ quicklime or with potash, yielded the least trace of ammo- nia. The coal in the retort was easy of incineration, and left a decigramme of yellowish ashes, containing some lime, and a little oxide of iron. The alcoholic solution of the resin hada brown colour and a peculiar taste. Being evaporated to dryness in a retort, the alcohol that came over contained nothing aro- matic. ) : The resin was BeedG in water, to which it communicated _ a slight taste. Thus purified. it had a yellowish brown co- Jour. It retains water pretty strongly, for it is difficult to dry, and remains soft a pretty long time. Thus it appears, that the substance which we have called Component a. gum-resin’ contains, in 10 grammes, ee ee 1, Lac cossccccccscrrecccvesceccecs o'6 2, Residuum, containing a little more lac and vegetable matter--+-++++++++ 1:0 3, Remains for the weight of the resin -- 8°4 / a 10. This is I believe the first time, that lac has been found One piant mixed with other resins; and this fact confirms us in the cay te pg opinion, that the same vegetable may form several kinds of and different resins, as well as different trees produce the same resin. fee es Vor. XXXII, JUNE, 1812. ~ L SEcrT. Root of sweet rush. Treated with alcohol, with water, and dilute ni- tric acld acid. TIncinerated. ANALYSIS OF SQUINANTH. Seer. IIL. Analysis of the root of camel's hay, andropogon : schenanthus, L., sent from the Isle of France by Mr. Jan- net, in 1808. This root has a yellowish colour, and in smell resembles Virginian snakeroot. Twenty grammes [308:91 grs] were infused in didshier: which was renewed, till it no longer acquired any colour. The filtered alcoholic solutions had a fine golden hue. Subjected to distillation, alcohol came over, the first pore tions of which had no foreign smell; but as the liquor in the retort became less spirituous, and required more heat to keep up the ebullition, the weaker spirit that came over had a perceptible smell, a little resembling that of the root. The matter remaining in the retort became turbid, and was decanted boiling hot into acapsule. On cooling it let fall a brown coil. = The supernatant liquid had a yellow colour; and a very — little taste, slightly saline, and a little aromatic. ‘The oily sediment was thick, smooth to the touch, had an acrid, burning taste, like an essential oil, and in smell greatly reseeabied myrrh. The 20 er. of the root, after being exhausted by. leah were boiled in water. The needed an after being concen- trated, had a yellow colour, and very little tasce; it did not 7 precipitate sulphate of iron or gelatine ; it was not rendered turbid by alcohol or infusion of galls; it reddened infusion of litmus’ pretty strongly, but, as the liquor was in small quantity, the nature of the acid could not be ascertained: thus the alcohol had left the water scarcely any thing to cise solve. } . After the root had been boiled in water, it was infused in diluted nitric acid. Thisinfusion gave with ammonia a very slight preeipitate, which resembled oxalate of lime ; but there was too little of it, {o be certain ofits nature. 20 gr. [808-91 ers} being incinerated left a red residuum * weighing 8 dec. f12- 36 ers]. ‘This residuum dissolved in mu- riatie acid with a very slight effervescence. The solution had a fine yellow colour, and gave with ammonia a bulky pre- cipitate of a deep brown colour. Treated with caustic pot eis 4 as fs t+ “ . « 3 Y * s* a ash, ANALYSIS OF RAVENTSARA. 147 ash, this precipitate afforded a little alumine; but the alka- line liquor did not give the least trace of phosphoric acid. The ammoniacal liquor, from which the oxide of iron had been separated, yielded a little lime to oxalic acid. The re- siduum left by the caustic potash was oxide of iron. Thus this root contaiis, si 1, A resinous matter of a deep brown red, with an acrid Substances taste, and a smell exactly similar to that of myrrh. In fact Pana we believe it is nothing but resin of myrrh, 2, A colouring matter soluble in water. 3, A free acid. 4, A calcareous salt, the species of which we could net ’ ascertain. 5, Oxide of iron in pretty large quantity, the state of come bination of which in the plant we do not know. 6, A large quantity of woody matter. The most interesting result of this analysis is the presence Myrrh may be in the andropogon schcenanthus of a resinous matter, alto- formed in se- . e hye : cial Tell veral eles gether similar to the resin of common myrrh ; it ditfers only by being little less solid, but if it were mixed, as in myrrh, with a certain quantity of gummy matter, I have no doubt it would resemble it perfectly, Hence we may infer, that myrrh ‘is formed in several vegetables; for, though we are unac-= quainted here with the tree from which the myrrh of the shops is derived, it is probably not the andropogon schcenauthus. Secr. IV. Analysis of the aromatic leaves of the raventsara, agathophyllum ravensara L, sent by Mr. Tuousn. ‘I digested. 15 gr [231°68 grs] of these leaves in alcohol at Leaves of ra 36° [0'837], to which they gave a fine green colour. I re- ventsara treat ed with alee- | peated the digestion, till the alcohol acquired no colour as ho), sisted by heat. The solutions, when mixed, were of a fine green, On cooling : asmall quantity of flocculent matter separated, which I found to be wax. The alcohol, freed from this matter, was distilled ina retort. The spirit that came over hada very pleasant smell and taste. - The remainder was rendered turbid by a little green vee getable resin. When this was separated by filtration, the aad was of & fine brown yellow. Qn standing a small a Le quantity 148° MEDICINAL USE OF PLUMBAGO. quantity of brown matter was deposited ; after which a few - drops of oil collected on the surface having the taste and smell of oil of cloves. Yieldcd anoil. The liquor, evaporated spontaneously in the open -air, yielded a pretty considerable quantity more of this brown oil, and a clear liquor, as thick as a sirup, which had the taste of oil of cloves mixed with bitterness.. The leaves I boiled in water the leaves exhausted by alcohol, but they pase in wa- only imparted to it a slight yellow colour, and the property p of faintly reddening infusion of litmus, and being copiously precipitated by alcohol. This decoction was not affected by infusion of galls, solution of sulphate of iron, or gélatine, - and incinera- After the leaves had been drained, 1 incinerated them, an@ “tps from the 15 gr. [231°68 grs] employed obtained 7 dec. [10°81 gers] of car bonate of lime, mixed with a little phosphate of ~ the same earth. As it is to be presumed, that this lime was combined with oxalic acid in the leaves, I digested 8 gr. [12°36 grs] in nitrie acid diluted with a great deal of water ; but the acid liquor yielded a very little precipitate when saturated _with am- monia. The oilsimilar The oil we obtained from the rayentsara exhibited abso- tothatof — Jutely all the properties of the essential oil of cloves ; its eee colour, smell taste, and specific gravity, which is a hittle greater than that of water. It differed only by being a little more consistent, which was probably owing to the leaves being old, so that the oil had been thickened, and in some sort re- sinified, by time. hii Different From this analysis we may infer, that vowetabite of differ- ee may __ ent species are capable of forming an essential oil of the same orm the same ole" 4 nature, j Theleavesa Lhese leaves might be employed for Gaivedie purposes ee gel for instead of cloves, using them only in larger quantity. CLOVES» os : : *» XU. i Efficacy of Plumbago against Tetters Wy Dr. area: ; HOED™, Plumbago iene Oisa natural compound of nine pafts. carbon i employed as with about one of jrout, forming the carburet of iron ofthe — a medicine, *Auwade Chim. vol. LK XVJ, p. 198 + Carbon 96, iron 4. c chemists, . ‘ ne. MEDICINAL USE OF PLUMBAGO. 149 chemists.. No one seems to have thought of introducing it into the materia medica, unless in the polar’regions, where the people not only rub themselves with it daily, but employ it against cutaneous eruptions. This fact, added to its known property of exciting animal electricity, and conducting it like metals, induced Dr. Wienhold to make trial of it: and in the General Medical. Annals of Altenburg, for May, 1809, he published his observations and remarks on it; from which ;, herpetic dis. he affirms, that he can recommend it by experietice against eases, all tetterous eruptions ; as, whether simple or complicated, they yield to its internal and external application, provided it be joined with medicines appropriate to their different com- plications ; as iron, muriate of lime, and dulcamara, in scro- fulous; aconite and guaiacum in arthritic; mercury in si- phylitic; and sulphur in psoric tetters. In the latter, which neither sulphur alone nor black lead Graphitic ethi- -alone would cure, he has always been speedily successful; on °P°: - giving the patient daily a drachm of graphitic ethiops, made by triturating together equal parts of sulphur and plumbago. We shall not here enter into all the modes of administer- ing this remedy, which the author has varied according to the cases; the formulz he has given for their preparation ; and his remarks on their mode of acting ; which may be seen in No. 85 of the Bibliotheque médicale, we shall only add, that, Plumbago dif- for want of English black lead, being obliged to use that of fers in quality. Passau, he found, that it was less efficacious, required to be F given in a larger dose, and, not being reducible to so fine a _ powder, did not. sit so easy on the stomach. It is indeed _ well known, that the plumbago of Passau, though it does not contain pyrites like that of Spain, is much more !eaded with foreign matter. To those who may be inclined to try this remedy however, we believe we may point out as preferable, on acconnt of its purity and the fineness of its grain, that which is found in the valley of Lucerne, or of Pellis, in the circle of Pignerol, in the department of the Po, where it forms a vein two feet thick by. three broad, according to the de- scription given by Mr. Bonvoisin in the Mem. of the Ac. of Turin, 1805, ps 182. % : XIV. 150 XIV. METEOROLOGICAL JOURNAL. EE 1812. |Wind| Max. 4th Mo, APRIL E |} 30°10 S 30°18 S 36°10 E 30°02 N I} 30°15 N El 30°15 N E| 30°01 11} W | 29°98 12\N EE} 30.05 13|IN El 30°05 14\N FE} $0°05 15|N E} 29°91 16} N 29°73 17 NI 297S3 18} N | 30°09 19/Var.}| 30:09 20)N WI 30°15 QIN FE} 30°15 29| N 30°01 93) — | —— 94, W | 29°94 2515 Wi 29°86 .26|Var.| 29°65 27IN EK 29°64 28|N E} 29°76 29|N E| 29°80 30\Var.| 30°02 5th Mo. May 1} E | 30°02 QIN E| 29°92 S\Var.| 29°75 Min. PRESSURE. TEMPERATURE. . nn ee | eee fl | ee | | | 4 29°60 30°10 29°93 29°88 30°02 30°01 29°98 29°89 29°89 30°05 29°91 29°73 29°64 29°64 29°83 30°02 30°00 30°07, 29°97 29°86 29°56 29°55 29°59 29°64 29°76 29°80 29°92 29.73 29°70! 30°18 | 29°55 29°850 30°140 30°015 99950 30°085 30-080 ae 29°935 29°970 30°050 29°980 29°820) 29°685 29'735 29°960 30°055 50:075 30°110 29°990 29°900 29°710 29°600 29°615 29°700 29'780 29°860 29°970 29°825 29°725 29°902| 59 | 25 | 43°57 13°34 [1°24 53 56 538 50 49 43 47 44 52 51 51 53 49 48 51 50 58 58 54 52 52" 54 49 52 51 52 a8 59 54 56 36 35 42 45°5 45°5 47°75 43°5 37°0 38°0 41°5 40°5 42°0 42.0 41°5 41°5 38°0 38°0 40°0 41°5 440 47°53 42:0 420 440 40°5 4ls5 48°0 47.5 47.5 | 50°0 51°0 48°0 | 44:0 — > suit ad 25 ala Geet 43 e ‘s7) 98 | -69| 4710 — 6 ol ot as 27 | *39 55| 4 ————- | - N.B. The observations jn each line of the Table apply to a period of twenty- four hours, begivvyng at 9 A.M. on the day indicated i the fice connaie A ae denotes, that the result is included in the next following observation. NOTES. METEOROLOGICAL JOURNAL, 135i NOTES. ‘Fourth Month, 4. Cloudy a.m, Clear evening. 5. Mach dew: barometer unsteady: heavy clouds through the day: a shower about sunset. 6. Much dew: gray sky, and the air nearly calm. 7. Lightly cloudy: little wind. 8. Cloudy a.m.: a shower p.m. 9. Brisk wind: cloudy. 10. Hoar frost. 11. Cloudy. 16. Slight showers. 17. Little hail. 20. a few large drops. 23, 24. Occasional slight showers of hail, &c. 25, 26. Gentle showers of rain set not warm. 27. Misty morving: much dew: swallows appear. 28, 29. Cloudy: windy. Fifth Month. 1, 2. Cloudy: the cuckow heard. 3. About 1 p.m. a few drops of rain, attended with the smell of electricity in the air: the wind, which in the morning had been brisk at N. E., died away, the canopy of the sky rose: the evening was calm, and dew fell. \ =e <- RESULTS. Prevailing winds N. E. Barometer: highest observation 30:18 inches; lowest 29'55 inches; Mean of the period 29902 inches. Thermometer: highest observation 59°; lowest 25°; Meanof the period 43°57°. Evaporation 3°34 inches. Rain 1°24 inches. PLAIstTow. L. HOWARD. Fefth Month, 24, 1812. XV. Experiments on Camphoric Acid; by Mr. Bucuowz*. \)orrrurt imagined he had shown by experiment, Camphoric that the camphoric acid, described by Bouillon-Lagrange, acid distinct * Journ. de Phys. vol. LXX. p. 347. Translated from Gehlen’s Journal by Mr. Vogel. was 152 PROPERTIES OP CAMPHORIC ACID. from the ben- was similar to benzoic acid. Bucholz has lately resumed rs the subject. and shown, that the camphoric-is a peculiar acid. The following properties sufficiently distinguish them. iu crystallizae 14, The camphoric acid is erystallizable by slow refriger- tion, ation. The crystals, as Bouillon-Lagrange observed: greatly resemble plumose muriate of ammonia. The benzoic acid, on the contrary, under the same circum- stances crystallizes in small needles, or in ribandlike lamine. tastes 2..The taste of erent acid is very sour, wed leaves a bitterness behind ; while that of the benzoic i is sweet, sac- charine, little acid, pungent, and excites coughing. _ solubility in 3. Camphorie acid dissplves at 15° R, [65 75° F.] in 100 WPARETS parts of water, and at a boiling heat in ten or eleven, Benzoic acid requires 24 parts of boiling water, and 200 at 15° [65°75° F.] and inalcohol, 4. One part of alcohol at the common temperature ) dissolves 1:06 of camphoric acid; and 92 parts of boiling alcohol dissolve 146, or even more. Benzoic acid requires its own weight of boiling alcohol, and twice as much cold. phenomena of §, Camphoric acid is capable of being sublimed as well. sublimation gadehe benzoic, but the appearances are very different. In the first place it sublimes more difficultly : a great quantity is decomposed: an empyreumatic oil is produced with a smell of navew, an acid liquor, and a_ great deal of coal: and the sublimate has not a crystalline form. The benzoic ‘acid sublimes in crystals, and yields no aqueous vapour, very little oil, and much less coal than the camphoric. The camphoric acid when sublimed has a pungent and {Properties of ; 3 eqs slightly acid taste. OQu-acecount pf the oil it dissolves more acid, ‘ 5 . . aie slowly in water. This solution reddens litmus paper. and action ou 6. The camphoric acid comports itself rey eREOT bases; with respect to the salifiable bases, The camphorate of lime exhibits a Ae diteeies particularly " a lime, from the benzoate of lime.» ; A hundred parts of camphoric acid require for cheat per- fect neutralization 56 parts of carbonate of lime; while the suine quantity of benzoic acid requires 14 parts, The cam phorate of lime crystallizes diteuttly 3 in rounded heaps Te COMPOSITION OF SULPHATES, 133. heaps; the benzoate, in shining stellar lamine: The came -phorate of lime has a slightly saline bitter taste, leaving a calcareous taste behind: the bonzoate is sweet, and a little * earthy. The camphorate of Bee exposed to heat furnishes an aromatic oil, resembling that of rosemary in smell; n crystallized substance passes over; and the camphorate iis not melt. If the benzoate of lime be treated in the same manner, crystals of benzoic acid pass over into the receiver, with an empyrcumatic oil having a sme!l of balsam of Peru; and the benzoate remaining jn the retort becomes perfectly fluid. The camphorate of lime dissolves in five parts of water at ' a common temperature; while the benzoate requires twenty parts. . : XVI. Inquiry concerning the Means of Knowing the Proportions of Acid and Potash, that enter into the Composition of Sulphate of Alumine, and of Sulphate, Nitraie, and Muriate _, of Potash: by Mr. Curaupav, Prof. of Chemistry applicable to the Arts and Member of various Literary Societies*. In undertaking the present inquiry I had no intention Products me _of verifying the experiments of those celebrated chemists, !@"g* alum E a . , Manufacto _who. have endeavoured to ascertain the quantities of acid yariance 8 and base, that enter into the compesition of sulphate of the admitted potash; I was merely desirous of knowing why the annual: AE ome “f : results of the alum manufactory, that I have established at Vaugirard, were very far from agreeing either with the quantity of acid, or that of potash, which different analyses indicate as contained in sulphate of potash and in alum. - For instance, when, instead of 31 parts of acid, the quan- tity designated as entering into the composition of 100 parts Be alia, AS or 44 are required; and, instead of ten parts and half of pats fifteen and half are required for. ® Journ. de Phys, vol, LXVII, Pp. 5 Read to the Imperial . Institute, April the 4th, 1808. 100 154 COMPOSITION OF SULPHATES. 100 parts of alum; such an increase in the quantity of materials could not fail to engage my attention, and lead me toscek the cause of so great a difference between the | results of analysis aud those of a manufactory on 2 large | | seale. At first I suspected, that the surplus of acid and potash I employed entered into the composition of the An insulubte Insoluble sulphate of alumine, which, I have remarked, sulphate of is sometimes formed. _ Indeed [ was long induced to en- zluptine some- Gomes. Fovencst bere this opinion, . a at than suppose, that the quantity of acid and of potash entering into the composition of #lumine were more considerable, than had been fixed by different analyses, on'the accuracy of which I had li depended. Desirable to However, admitting the hypothesis of the constant for- prevent tls. mation of an insoluble sulphate of alumine, I could not remain indifferent to the loss of this substance: on the contrary, it was an object with me to find the means of preventing the alum from passing to this state of insolu- bility. Accordingly, as soon as I was certain, that all: the acid and potash employed entered into the composition of the alum I manufactured, I was convinced, that my former observations had been just. Attempt to But as I was not satisfied with beng merely Snaneped ascertain the. of what was in fayour of my Bcertattenas it remained for proportions of 5 ; é ; potashandacid Me to ascertain by direct experiments, and particularly io alum. sach as could easily be repeated, how much acid and potash enter into the composition of alum. I wished also to learn, whether the quantities of acid and base in the sulphate of potash were such, as are generally admitted. Lastly, that my experiments might not be suspected of the least maccuracy, it became necessary, that I should Pore suiphate Prepare some very pure sulphate of alumine; a, circum- of alumime stance that enabled me to obtain this sulphate very eran: regularly crystallized, a state in which it had not yet been ‘known, since its concentrated solution yields only lamellar, micaceous crystals, always of an irregular figure. I have had the honour of showing crystals of this sulpbate of aluming to several members of the class, particularly to Mr, Hlaiy, who was very desirous.of adding a Bpeeiace of this sulphate to his valuable collection. Io COMPOSITION. OF SULPHATES. 155 In a paper, which I shall have the honour of communi- eating to the class, I shall,make known the physical pro- perties of this saline substance, as well as the means and conditions requisite, to promote its crystallization. When I had at my disposal a certain quantity of this This sulphate sulphate, it was easy for me to find with precision the cat in ana- proportions of potash and acid, that enter into all the salts ae -with base of potash. I satisfied myseif also, that this sulphate of alumine is a very powerful and certain test for -ascertaining the quantity of potash contained in vegetables, either before or after incineration. On this subject: I have undertaken several experiments, that will complete another inquiry, which I shall have the honour of submitting to the class. To return to the analysis, or rather the synthesis, that constitutes the subject of the present paper: the following “are the experiments I have made, to determine the re- spective quantities of acid and base, that enter into the composition of alum, and of the sulphate, nitrate, and muriate of potash. Exp. 1. In 850 gr. [13129 grs*] of solution.of sulphate Quantity of _of alumine at 34° [sp. gr. 1°307], the temperature being Eyes oe -10° [59° F.], 1 dissolved by the assistance of heat 100 gr. of weight of sul- su!phate of potash. After the liquid was cooled, I obtained ilps Of "pot- from it 502 gr. of very pure alum. On evaporating the mother water 1 obtained 18 gr. of alum; and a second “evaporation and crystallization produced 4 gr. more. The remaining. liquor yielding ‘no more crystals, 1 mixed it with 25 gr. of a solution of sulphate of alumine similar to that above, in order to find whether I had obtained all the alum, that 100 gr. of sulphate of potash could produce. The mixture having occasioned only a slight precipitate of : alum, 1. concluded, that the whole of the sulphate of potash had entered into the composition of the 524 gr. of alum obtained. Exp. 2. On the supposition, that sulphate of potash Quantity pro- _ contains 62 per cent of potash, | saturated 62 gr. of potash, duced, wih # 1 * The proportions being all that is of importance, it would be ‘superfluous to reduce the rest of the quantities: but this is given, to mark the quantity operated on. C. purified ‘ 156” COMPOSITION OF SULPHATES. given weight of purified with alcohol, with 48 gr. of sulphuric acid at 66° potash and offs». or. 1°848]. I then mixed this sulphate with 850 gr. sulphuric acid, ~ , : : ° of solution of sulphate of alumine at 34°, and conducted the rest of the process as in the preceding experiment. But what was my surprise, when, on adding together all the alum produced, I found but 408 gr., instead of 524, which the former experiment had yielded. The comparative results of these two experiments, which f varied with quantites alternately ‘greater and less of sulphate of potash and sulphate of atumine, demonstrated to me, that the proportions of potash and acid contained in the sutphate of potash were very different from those hitherto laid down. In fact, knowing how much alum is produced by 100 gr. of sulphate of potash, and how much may be obtained with a given quantity of potash saturated afterward with acid, it was easy for me, on comparing the results of these two experiments, to ascertain by cal- . culation the respective proportions of acid and base, that enter into the composition both of sulphate of potash and of alum, Proportions of | For example, since with 100¢gr. of sulphate of potash I obs hig or base tained 524 gr. of alum; and on the other hand, 62 gr. of pots sulphate of potash, ash gave but 408; I necessarily concladed, that the potash » contained in 100 parts of sulphate of potash must make four fifths of its weight. But reflecting, that, on the one hand, this quantity of potash was much greater, than is generally admitted in the sulphate of| potash ; and, on the other, that the acid could not luse two thirds of its weight in this com- Water in bination: | could not but suspect, that the potash contri-~ iP it buted to this Joss in a certain propertion, and hence sought some means of ascertaining the quantity of water it might eontain, Accordingly I made a great number of experi- ments with this view, and with the result of which I have so much the more reason to be satisfied, as the question to be solved is very important; ‘since even at present, while it is allowed, that potash purified by alcohol contains water, the quantity is not agreed on: for Mr. Berthollet, according to recent experiments, admits only 15 per cent, while Mr. Dar- cet finds twice this quantity by his*. . / ..* See Journ, vol, XASVIE, p. 31. -Hen ce COMPOSITION OF SULPHATES. 137 Hence I have presumed, that to make known the result of Attempts te my experiments, though undertaken with other views, might ascertain this. be of some advantage. In fact, finding by synthesis the. quantities of potash ; and of acid entering into the compe- sition of sulphate of potash and having afterward ascertain- ed, how much water they lose respectively inthis combination ; it appears to me, that the question is solved a priori. I must confess, however, that some difficulties occurred at first in ascertaining the quantity of water contained in potash; dif- ficulties schieh havevafforded me an opportunity of knowing, that, interesting as the experiment of- Mr. Berthollet is, the tr eatment of potash with iron filings is not a method sufhici- ently precise to be conclusive. My opinion on the contrary Was, as it still is, that the substances most proper for detect=' ing the water contained in potash ‘should not be oxidable; and that their action should be confined to. the separation of the water contained in the potash. Among the experiments I made, the following appeared to me best to fulfil the con- ditions I kad imposed on myself. Exp. 3. Twenty grammes of potash prepared in ‘lip labo- Experiment. ratory of Mr. Vauquelin were carefully mixed with 160 of very pure silex, which must have been dry, as it was heated for two hours ina forge fire before it was used. The mixture’ was introduced with much caution into a glass tube about 2 cent. [7°87 lines] in diameter. This tube, one of the ex- tremities of which was closed, weighed 72 gr., and with the mixture 252; very good weight, it is true, but this excess I ascribed to moisture attracted by the potash during the tri- turation. This tube I introduced into a small cylinder of sheet iron, to prevent its being. fused by the direct action of the fire. This apparatus was subjected for an hour to the action of a very moderate fire. No sooner did the mixture receive the impression of the heat, than a very large quautity of water. reduced to vapour was suddenly expelled, and con- tinued to be evolved five or six minutes, after which nothing move was extricated. When the tube was cold, I weighed it very carefully, and 97-5 of water found it had lost 5°5gr.. This experiment, which I repeated in in 100 of pots several times, sometimes collecting the water, constantly af. forded me the same results, both with potash of my own pre- paring, and with that from the laboratory of Mr, Vauquelin ; whence 158 COMPOSITION OF SULPHATES. whence I conclude, that in 100 parts of potash purified by Proportions of aleghol there are 27°5 of water; and, setting out with this — me SRE datum, that the potash in 106 parts of Sanpete of potash is 57°71, instead of 52 as assigned by Bergman. — I cannot omit remarking however, that the analysis of — alums by Mr. Vanquelin* demonstrates the presence of sul-- phate of potash in them nearly in the same proportion, as appears from‘ synthesis: a result showing the confidence to bé placed in the analyses of that learned chemist, and leaving” us to regret, that he relied-on Beryman for the She ieee “a of acid and base in the sulphate of potash. Experimentto Exp. 4. Desirous of knowing the proportions of acid and_ ‘find the pro- hase im nitrate of potash, I dissolved by the assistance of heut portions of acid and base in ni- 100 gr of very dry nitrate of potash in 800 of a solution of | A ag of pot- sulphate of alamine at 34 [sp. gr. 1°307.] After the liquor ” was cold, I obtained 376 gr. of alum. The mother water was set to evaporate again, but as it crystallized confusedly added 10¢r. of sulphuric acid at 66° [sp. gr. 1°848], because experience had taught me, that whenever such a solution * contained an acid foreign to the alum, an excess of sulphuric acid was necessary to promote the crystallization of the alum. © In fact, as soon as this mixture was made, a considerable pre- cipitate took place, which, after bemg drained and dried, - weighed 84gr.. Lastly to satisfy myself whether the mother water still contained alum, I added anew 160 gr. of the’so. lution of sulphate of alumine. his addition, increasing the density of the liquid, favoured the precipitation of the small quantity of alum, which it still held in solution. When this last product was drained and dried, it amounted to 2 gr. ; which, with what was obtained before, made 462 gr. of alum. As it had crystallized however in a liquid containing princi- ples foreign to its composition, it became necessary to purify ~ it. With this view I dissolved it, and crystallized afresh. From this process, I obtained only 452 gr. of alum, but cer= tainly very pure. 49:76 potash, This experiment, which I have repeated several times, ~ and 50°24 ni- e P aap erie seid. and with different quantities, always gave me results con- firming the former: whence I conclude, that if 100 gr. of nitrate of potash produce 452 gr. of alum, 49.76 of ~ * See Journal, 4to serics, vol. iy p 318. ° \ potash COMPOSITION OF SULPHATES. 150 potash, and §0°24 of acid, must enter into the composition of 10@ parts of the nitrate. Exp. 5. The object of this, as of the former experiment, Proportions of wus to ascertain, whether the base and acid in muriate of uk - _ potash were in the proportions commonly admitted. For this purpose I employed the means I have just described ; and, as it would be superfluous to repeat the particulars, I shall confine myself to the results. 100 gr. of dry muriate of potash, treated as in the preceding experiment, produced 607 gr. of crude alvin; which, after being refined, left but 592 gr.: a result 65°17 base and proving incontestably, that 100 parts of muriate of potash “4 °° «+ contain 65°17 of base and 34°83 of acid. This experiment, which, like the preceding, was several times repeated, always afforded me similar results. From the experiments that have been described, it General con- fol hake, : clusions, 1. That 100 parts of sulphate of potash contain 57°71 of potash and 42°29 of acid, which, from the state of con- _ centration in-which it exists in this sulphate, are equivalent —, _ to 60 parts at 66° [sp. gr. 1°848]. 2. That to form 100 parts of alum requires 42°77 of sulphuric acid at 66°, instead of 30 or 31, the quantity generally admitted ; 11°01 of potash; and 10°50 of alumine: “a quantity equal to what was found by Vauquelin. 3. That 100 parts.of very pure alum contain 19°08 of sulphate of potash, 30°¢2 of sulphate of alumine, and 50 of ' water of crystallization. 4, That 49-76 parts of potash and 50°24 of acid enter into the composition of nitrate of potash, _ & -That 100 parts of muriate of potash are composed of 65°17 potash, and 34:83 muriatic acid. | 6. That it is certain potash purified with alcohol contains ' more than a fourth of its weight of water, since, from the experiments that have been related, 27°5 per cent may be gbtained from it. 7» Lastly, that by means of sulphate of alumine, with the siinple base and crystallized, we may in future, in the analysis of the substances of either of the three kingdoms, - detect the smallest quantity cf potash contained in either: me a the in 160 Triple sul- aa of lead omCornwalle Sulphuret of | bismuth and SQppere ANALYSES OF MINERALS. the method admitting of great accuracy, since the ‘pro=: duct, from which the proportion is ascertained, weighs in the proportion of 9°08 to one of dry potash. ; ~ XVII. Analyses of Minerals; by Martin Henry K LAPROTH, ° Ph. D. &¢. (Continued from vol. XXXI, p. 382.) Ore of antimony and lead from Nanslo, in Cornwall®. Lead Re MS Ie Antimony aid ws unth oars iepere ee 28°5 Copper cocccceceeeseseess 35 Sulphur «cscwcceracecesees 16 Tronsscsccccncacessceseece | Loss eoeeeevroecsseveseaess 2. 100. Ore of copper and bismuth from Wittichen. Bismuth .cccccevecerscees A724” Copper sesessccccescesess 34°66 Sulphureeccssssccsvecsees 13°58 Tesi ese’ e, 6 oiceaaeivihns. vine spel are 100 Meteorclite of Native iron of a se Seeaselitt from Agrau. Agrau, 4 and Mexico. Native iron eescceseeceess QOS Metallic nickelecsscae eeoeoeesd 3:5 ee 100 Proust analysed a meteorolite from the province of Chaca. Gualamba, in Mexico, sent by Rubin de Celis, and found in it native iron and metallic nickel. * See Journal, vol. IX, p. 145 XX, p. 3395. and XXIV, pp. 295), 251, 321; for a full account of the triple sulphuret of lead, copper, and antimony, from Cornwall, by Mx. Hatchett, Mr: Smithson, and count de Bournon. Ld edt DD Li pupa. Huiaboldt i & , - ANALYSES OF MINERALS. 16] Humboldt brought over a meteorolite from the province Another. of Durango, in Mexico, from which prof. Klaproth obtained ’ Native iron eeoaveeegeeoene8 96°75 Metallic nickel.--+cecssscee 3°95 100 Native iran from the iron-mine of St. John, near Gross- Native iron kansdorf, in Saxony. | pot aaxony. Tron seecessccevecsvscess 95 Lead ooteeseerg ee eerevere 6 Copper soacecsosevesscese 15 ' 100 | Sparry iron stone from Dankerode, in the country of Iron spar fro Ppaiexotadt. a bev Black oxidulated iron ++++++ 57°50 Oxide of manganese’ ----+- 3°50 Calcareous earth ssseeeeses 1°25 Carbonic acid esscccsccees 36 98°25 Sparry ironstone from Bayreuth. | Bayreuth. , - Black oxidulated iron «-«+e+ 58 Oxide of manganese -++-+++« 4°25 ‘Magnesia coceceecsecces 0°75 EiMiewess cemevderecdsesees +@°50 Carbonic acid eeccesessosee 35 98°5 Blue iron earth from Eckartzberg (native Prussian blue Phosphate of of Bergman and some other authors). she 3 Oxidulated iron ccccesccee 475 Phosphoric acid -eeceessse 32 hay Water sevcccacencsovcscee 20 99°5 (To be couch You. XXXIL—J UNE 1912. M ScIENTIFIC & 163 SCIENTIFIC NEWS, SCIENTIFIC NEWS. a Royal Medécal Society of Edinburgh, Prize question. Au membets of the Society are invited to write an Exe perimental Essay on the following subject. ‘© To determine by experiment what substances are ex- ‘* haled by the skin; and the changes, if any, which they <«* produce on the surrounding air”, | The dissertations are to be written in English, Latin, or French, and are to he delivered to the secretary on or be- fore the Ist of December, 1813, (being the year succeeding that in which the subject is proposed). The adjudication will take place inthe last week of February following. To each dissertation shall be prefixed a motto, and this motto is to he written on. the outside of a sealed packet con- taining the name and address of the author. Nodissertation will be received with the author’s name affixed, and all dis+ sertations, except the successful. one, will be.returned, if desired, with the sealed packet unopened. Geological Society, April 3, 1812. Geology of the A notice relative to the geology of the coast of Labrador re sgaaickies by the Rev. Mr. Steinhauer was read. The only accounts, ~_ : which have hitherto been published, concerning this part of | Bs the British dominions are the memoirs of Mr. (afterward sir Roger) Curtis, inserted in the Philosophical Transactions, » ) and Mr. Cartwright’s Journal, Moravian miss The Moravian missionaries in 1772 established in this sions there. country their first settlement, called Nai, in lat. 56°38’; aud subsequently Okkak, in lat, 58° 43’, and Hopedale, i in 55° 36’. In the course of last year they doubled cape Chud- leigh, in lat. 60°20’, and descended on the western side of the same promontory as far as lat. 58° 36". The leisure af the : _ missionaries, when opportunities occur, is employed i in col- lecting materials for a Natural History of the country, , they have kept tables of the thermometrical and barometrical : variations, have procured specimens of most of the native : * ‘ | vegetable SCIENTIFIC NEWS. ! 163. vegetable productions, and have from time to time sent over specimens of such minerals as attracted their riotice: The géneral aspect of this dreary region is that of bare Face of the and barren rock, towering in craggy eminences; and of country. sandy marshes, on which are formed a few pines, brushwood, and aquatic mosses. In several parts of the country the rocks are intersected by chasms, running generally in a right line to a considerable distance, which, when covered with snow, form dangerous pitfalls. The highest mountaius extend along the eastern coast: the elevation of one of them, called Mount Thoresby, has been ascertained by actual measurement to equal 2733 feei, and a few others probably attain the height of 3000 feet. - From the islands near cape Chudleigh the missionaries yinerals, have sent specimens of large-grained pale granite with gar- nets. The island of Ammitok, in lat. 59° 20’, consists en- tirely of a’ crumbling garnet rock, in which hornblende sometimes occurs, The mountains about Nachwak bay - furnish lapis cllaris. On the south of the high land of Kiglapyed, in lat. 57°, the district commences where the Labrador felspar is found; this mineral occurs not only in rolled stones on the shore, but in spots in the rocks in the neighbourhood of Nain, and particularly in the rocks bordering a lagoon about 60 miles inland, in which Nain North river terminates. The- same district also produces the hypersténe or Labrador horn- blende. At Hopedale a findshole occurs, from which have been procured specimens of reddish limestone, of calcareous spar, and of a variety of schiefes spar. . The country to the west of cape Chudleigh, as far as ‘it has been explored, is called the Ungava; and abounds with red jasper, with hematites, and with iron py rites. April the 17th, 1812. An account of the brine springs at Droitwich, by Leonard Brine springs Horner, Esq., Sec. G. S,, was read. at Droitwich. The town of Droitwich has been noted for the manufuc- ture-of salt, during at least a thousand years, but no detailed account has hitherto been published of the natural and che- mical history of the brine springs, from which it ts pro- cured, 164 SCIENTIFIC NEWS. cured. The brine pits are in the centre of the town, being situate in a narrow valley, through which the small river Salwark flows. The prevailing rock about Droitwich isa fine grained calcareo-argillaceous sandstone of a brownish red colour, with occasional spots and patches of a greenish blue. At Doder hill, in the immediate vicinity of the salt pits, the rock appears to be a stratified sandstone of a greenish gray colour, and more indurated than the red rock. It also differs from this last in containing slender veins of gypsum. Stratacovering No new brine pits have been sunk for the last thirty years: at the only particulars therefore concerning the strata covering the salt, which Mr Horner has been able to obtain, are de- rived from Dr. Nash’s History of Worcestershire, and from an inhabitant of Droitwich, who was on the spot when the last pit was sunk. From these authorities it appears, that the depth of from/35 to 45 feet below the surface is oc- cupied by beds of gravel, of red marly clay, and of blue and white stone. ‘To these succeeds a bed of gypsum about 105 feet in thickness, immediately below which is what is River of salt. “galled the ver of salt, which is a stratum of nearly satu- rated brine, 22 inches in depth, lying on a bed of rock salt,. ‘the thickyess of which is unknown, no borings having been Construction “sunk in it to a greater depth than five or six feet. In con- ib structing the pits, the method is to sink a shaft about eight feet square into the gypsum, and then to pierce this bed by ‘a borer four inches in diameter: the borer is known to have passed through the g gypsum by its suddenly dropping 22 — inches, the Beatii of the river of salt, As soon as the borer — is withdrawn, the brine suddenly rushes wp, and overflows Produces at the mouth of the pit. There are only four pitsat pre« sent in all, and the annual quantity of salt which they af-~ ‘ford is about. 1600 tuns. The brine. The brine from all the pits is perfectly limpid, and wher { in a large body has a pale greenish hue, similar to that of | _ sea-water. ‘To the taste it is intensely saline, but without | any degree of bitterness.. The specific gravity differs in the — different pits, probably on account of the greater or less ac= — curacy with which the landsprings are stopped out: that of — Lah saturated brineis equal to 1210°39 (water being 1000): é that SCIENTIFIC NEWS, 165 that of the five pits examined by Mr. Horner was found to vary from 120611 to 1174°715 and on evaporation afforded from 2289°75 grs to 1922°97 grs of entire salt, dried at 190° | Fahr., ina pint. — This salt, from a careful analysis, appears to be composed The «alt. of 96:48 Muriate of soda 1:63 Sulphate of lime 1°82 Sulphate of soda 0°07 Muriate of magnesia 100°00 On comparing the brine of Droitwich with that of Droitwich and Cheshire, as described by Mr. Hollaad in his Agricultural Sure ie ks dante ; vey of Cheshire, and by Dr. Henry in his paper on the sub- peu ject in the Philos, Trans,, it appears, that the strength of the different brines is nearly the same, that the Cheshire brine contains rather a larger proportion of muriate of soda, that - the Droitwich brine is free from carbonate of lime, oxide of iron, and muriate of hme, all of which~-are found in the Cheshire brine; and finally, that the latter is free from the sulphate of soda, which is contained in the former. co NE I a Mr. Sa yaiby author of British Mineralogy, jis jen pub- Delineations _ published a plate representing the meteor-stone, which was iar sata . seen to fall in Yorkshire, on the 13th of December, 1795, accompanied by engravings of part of the one which fell in Scoiland in 1804, and of that which fell in Ireland in 1810, all of which are deposited in his museum. ca cilie: J. B. Fray, member of the legion of honour, and ictal | ef several literary societies, has lately published some not produced experiments which he made, to prove, that animalcules “ 6% of infusion are not produced from the eggs of 5 ih insects floating in the atmosphere. _ Qn the 8th of nivose, 5, [dec. the 28th, 1796], he took on < fines a glass globe, that would hold about six common bottles of filled with dis- ; Baia: ; well rinsed it with distilled water; and then filled ee re it with water, which he had just distilled a second time. Having inverted it on a pneumatic trough, he expelled \ about z 166° SCIENTIFIC NEWS. and a mixture about five sixths of the water by introducing first a portion ef oxigen and hidrosen; stopped close, and placed on a het bed. In 8 weeks a «reen vegetati- on appcared, of oxigen gas, and then three times as much hidrogen gas. He then corked the globe in the trough’ with a cork that fitted it very tight; and tied a piece of wet bladder over the cork as soon as it was taken out. When this bladder was dry he covered it with putty, and tied another pieée of bladder over this. The globe thus prepared he placed in very hot dung, into which it was sunk to the level of the water, and covered it with a frame. On the th of january he removed the trame, and examined the globe. No alters ation was perceptible. On the 24th it was in the same state; but, the heat of the bed having diminished, some fresh hot dung wus added; care being taken, te agitate the globe as little as possible in moving it. On the sth of february the water appeared not ‘perfectly limpid; but no pellicle, or distinct substance of any kind, was perceptible. On the 26th, as soon as the frame was removed, the water appeared greenish. On a closer inspection long vegetations of a beautiful green colour were perceived ramifying in all directions on the bottom and sides of the vessel. Several, that were of a larger size, but less green, were suspended in the water, ave had @ mrucous appearance. Mr. Fray vow removed the globe to the window of his and saon after -animaleules, The organic matter at Jength decom- posed. study. On the tst of march he opened the window, the sun then shining on the globe, and perceived here and there on the summits of the vegetations, little insects, moving about pretty quickly. He counted ninety six, moving in various directions. ‘They were all of the same species; and he soon discovered, that they were of the genus podura. For a few days their number increased, and they were more brisk in their motions: but in about three weeks, or less, their motion had ceased; and they were dead, Their bodies socn chauged colour, ie became of a whitish gray. ila As soon as the sun had acqnired some power, the green mutter gradually grew pale. At length it disappeared entirely, its filaments were decomposed, and all this or ganic and vegetable matier was precipitated to the bottom of the water, where it formed a very white mucons sedi- ment. After some months the surface of the water was A covered _ prisoners on the works. C. a SCIENTIFIC NEWS. 167 covered pretty copiously with an oily matter. On opening the globe a slight smell of mouldive-s was perceived. A drop of the water, with a little of the pellicle swim- Appearance of ming onit, being taken up with the point of a toothpick, HEU pena and examined with the microscope, it exhibited an immense number of globu'es, of various sizes, almost all motionless: in every drop of water however one or two were perceived, - that had a very slow motion. Mr. Fray made several experiments of a similar kind, all of which afforded curious results, and he intended to continue them. eee In the autumn of 1810, Messrs. Thenard and Cluzel Application of were sent to Flushing, to direct such means for preserving 0*imuriatic acid against | the health of the persons exposed to-the dangers of that miasmata, insalubrious. situation, as they might think fit. They ascribe a great deal of benefit to the following practice. In the apartments for the soldiers, as well as those where prisoners were confined, they placed earthen vessels filled with oximuriatic acid greatly diluted with water; and they obliged every man employed on the fortifications, to dip his hands into one of the vessels every morning before he went out to his work. They placed similar vessels in the ditches of stinking mud: so that from these, and the fumigations employed, the workmen were immersed day and night in an atmosphere of oximuriatic acid, As many topical remedies for the itch were presumed A remedy fer to act by means of the oxigen they contained, it had been — supposed, that oximutiatic acid would answer the purpose: _ and it appeared, that many of the prisoners infected with the iech soon experienced the good effects of this immersion of their hands in dilute oximuniatic acid*, One, who had _ the disease all over him in an inveterate degree, that had resisted every) application, requested permission to. wet. rags in the bowls, and rub bis body with them; and by these means was perfectly cured in.a few days, At ‘Carcassone, we are told, upward of four thousand Given inter- nally in putrié - Spanish prisoners being attacked with fevers, “ adynamico- 5° “* From this passage it apeeert that the French employed their ataxic : 368 . SCIENTIFIC NEWS. ataxic in the highest degree, as if they had been inoculated with gangrene,” Dr. Estribaud, finding faumigations with oximuriatie acid of little effect, in places so crowded with the. sick, except as a preservative, administered the acid internally with the greatest success. He mixed six or eight drachms of:the acid with a quart of a mucilaginous decoc- tion; but it is not sald in what dose he administered the medicine. He asserts, that its efficacy might be compared with that of bark in intermittents. and to prevent Weare further told, that the acid has been administered bydiophobia. internally, in the hospital at Bordeaux, to several persons bitten by a mad wolf: and that the hydrophobia was pre- vented by it. SEE Securingcom Mr, Sonnini informs us, on the authority of a German from the wee- Journal, the title of which he does not give, that ifa granary me be swept clean from every grain of corn, so as to leave no food for weevils, and hay be then kept in it for six months, corn may afterward be placed in it safely, without any dan- ger from these destructive insects, ee Remedy Mr. Braun, of Vienna, ‘gives the following as a cheap and against leaf = easy mode of freeing plants from leaf-lice, Mix an ounce ie of flowers of sulphur with a bushel of sawdust, scatter this over the plants infested with these insects, and they wilt soon be freed from them. If they should appear again, the process may be repeated. a Medical and Chemical Lectures. Medical and On Monday, the ist of June, as usual, at No.9, George enemical lec- Street, Hanover Square, the courses of Medical Lectures tare will recommence at eight o’clock, and the Chemical at a quarter after nine. By George Pearson, M. D.. F.R.S., sen. Physician of St. George’s Hospital, of the College of Physicians, &e. A register is kept of the cases of Dr.| Pearson’s patients ia St. George’s Hospital, and a clinical lecture is giver en them ev ery Saturday morning, at nine o'clock. A j A JOURNAL s : OF : NATURAL PHILOSOPHY, CHEMISTRY, AND y THE ARTS. JULY, 1812. 2 ARTICLE IL. On the Dissection of Flowers. In a Letter from Mrs. AGNnes IspeTson. | ! - To Mr. NICHOLSON. | | Sir, I Have long reproached myself with not again bringing this subject before the public, as one of the most important in physiology, and that which must prove most absolutely _ the existence of the line of life. One of the first facts I endeavoured to Show in my early letters, was, that every * Ne flower was formed by a part of the stalk appropriated to it; | and that Linneus was, as usual, most absolutely right, _ when he advanced, that the wood formed the stamen, the inner bark the corolla, and so on to the rest of the division. How staal The present letter should have preceded many you have the mechanisiti received and published, as it will I hope not only explain of plants. how the mechanical work is concealed in a plant, but illus« trate the fact just mentioned; enabling any person (if so: inclined) to follow me in my dissections, and teach them how to seek the mechanism that belongs to each separate part. All vegetable structure is formed in one peculiar manner, that is, cylinder within cylinder; and on this Vor, XXXII.-No. 148.—Junty 1812,, WN curious ' 170 _ ON THE DISSECTION OF FLOWERS, curious construction most of its mechanical contrivance depends. It is strange we should annex such extreme simplicity to the vegetable form, when mineralogy is hourly presenting us with a variety of curious and difficult figures, such as to puzzle the first mathematicians to find a suitable name for their multangular solids; or a more simple de- rivative from which to trace their integral crystallizations. But with respect to botany the time is now come, I hope, when its mechanism will be too well known, nat to show the fallacy of these ideas: ‘for if inanimate mattter requires orcan be resolved into such complex forms, how much mére where motion makes mechanism constantly requisite to supersede volition ;“and make amends for every assistance this would bestow ? : This mechans ach day’s work in dissection more and more proves to ism an import- ant study, me, that the mechanism of botany is an important science ; which would develope to us, if known, the most wonderful proceedings in nature; and give us more exact notions of | | the sort of existence of plants (independant of volition and wholly governed by meckanica! powers) than we now possess, and that the simplicity we talk of so much is merely that found in ali nature; ‘‘ the labour of the means never sur=- passing what the necessity of the end absolutely requires”: — of which however we are not always proper judges; for so various is the motion, so complicated the effect, to be pro= ‘duced, that it is impossible to dissect a single plant, and / not observe some mechanical wonder, that makes one feel bow little is understood of the purpeses, for which it is intended; and most ardently long to attain that knowledge : which to gain is now become the labour of my. life. But it is inthe whole general system of physiology, that that beautiful simplicity is observable, not in the mechanical part. There indeed it is unequalled: and I hope, when I. come to review the whole of the present work, from the immense number of drawings 1 now possess, I shall prove it most exquisite. . All vegetables By means of this curious “construction of cylinder within | Se cylinder, formed of each different sort of matter; the vessels linder. belonging to each circle; and the juices appropriated to . each vessel, can never in the smallest degree interfere with each 5 . ON THE DISSECTION OF FLOWERS, 171 \ each other. Suppose seven or eight glass cylinders placed within cne another, and having ribs of the same matter, which convey the juices of each to thejrnappointed place; would it not be most easily understood, that the liquid thus carried, and the mechanism thus enclosed, can im no manner disturb those in the adjoining circles, though cer- tainly increasing the size of the whole? This is exactly I the case in the vegetable structure: as for example; when the mechanism is to be sought that governs the leaf; draw off the rind of the plant, and in the next matter, (that is on the bark) will be found the whole of what forms and regulates the motion of the leaves. Great care must be taken however not to carry off the balls with the rind; buat, if properly stripped, the whole management of the spiral wire will then be discovered in regular order, with the balls on which it is wound, and the knots by which it is fastened. ' If the mechanism of the flower is desired, the rind 1s first To find the drawn down, and displays the mechanism of the calyx, Boe of _ with the partiai skin that leads up the vessels to its edge, ‘and generally lines it.. When this is thoroughly examined, it must be taken off wita the greatest care; and it will display a green matter of a thicker kind, which is the skin on which the vessels of the corolla repose; this regular cylinder reaches up to the claw of each petal, and gives to it the vessels that are to meander through it, and the juices that inflate them. ‘This, when properly viewed, must be cut off with a lancet, and a yeilow and also a thin white skin will appear next, which hold the vessels of the stamea between them, and convey them either to the filaments orthe co- = rolla; in which they perform the rest of their journey, as in the primula;- or in a skin that forms an additional cuticle to the pistil, as in the malva; or in a cylinder that stands up round the female, as in many flowers. But let it pass where it will, it always has askin appropriated to the stamen alone; till it reaches the part where the corolla ‘branches off; and afterward it has no connexion with the juices of the petals, though lying on them; or with the _ pistil, though enclosing it; as I shall now show by the - dissection of a flower: I chose the peach out of several hun- dreds drawn in the same manner, because it is now in N 2 season, ots e aye ee ON THE DISSECTION OF FLOWERS. season, and I could review my sketch; but all flowers in this respect are the same. | I shall first dissect the flower by removing skin from skin How to dissect as the easiest method of making it thoroughly comprehend- the flower. Explanation of the plate, - ed. I shall in the second place cut the flower down tlie middle; halving the pistil; by which means the interior, with the vessels which run up to each part, must be exactly displiyed: and lastly I shall give you a vegetable cutting of the flower, just where the vessels divide under it, and run, up the bark to form the calyx, the inner bark to form the — corolla, the wood to form the stamen, and the line of life to complete the pistil: and this will, I hope, make the descrip- tion so plain, that I shall not again be obliged to return to the subject. Plate LV, fig. 1, is the bud of the peach. I first remove the scales A A, which generally go on,shooting as long as the severe weather continues. I then with great ease remove the calyx. It is seldom possible to get it off whole, as it must be removed without displacing the corolla; which is difficult todo: but custom soon teaches the way. The calyx, when taken off, is seen at fig. 2: BB are the reservoirs of a glutinous liquid, resembling the juices of the bark, which appear, by varnishing the exterior, to defend it from the attack of vermin; which from its delicacy would otherwise cause it to become a complete victim. This part has no connexion with ‘the nectary, which I shall not at- tempt to point ont in this letter, but keep that part for a se- parate paper, which it well deserves, CC are the vessels which _ : run down till branching offto the bark. Fig. 3 is next taken off. itis a green skin belonging to the inner bark ; which is fastened to the corolla, and conveys the regular vessels DD from the inner bark of the stem to each separate petal. Within these vessels (as I have before observed) are the juices of the inner bark, and the spiral wires which are thus carried up to perform their office of opening and shuiting the flower. Next to this is fig. 4, which is a very thin skin of white; and a very thick one of yellow matter between which are concealed the vessels which convey the juices that form the pollen, and carry it first to the filaments, and thence to _ ‘ the anthers, ‘Thus they are most plainly three separate cye Jinders, capable of being divided, and placed together again ; fig. 4. = \ ON THE DISSECTION OF FLOWERS. fig. 4 laid within fig. 3, and 4 and 8 within fig. 2: the line of life, and pistil alone being taken out, which are seen at fig. 5. When these are replaced the flower is perfect, and has been regularly dissected, as I promised, skin from skin; and be- tween each cylinder the mechanism 1s concealed, that be- longs to each division. | Ofthe many hundreds (i might say thousands) of flowers dissected in this manner, of every class and order, I never yet found one that did not admit of this arrangement.- The gynandria trite is exactly the same with respect to its cys linders, which are always to be taken offin progressive order; ~ All flowers dise sectet nearly the same. and let the stamens appear where they will in the flowers, — their vessels always pass up in this manner, whether after- ward bound to the corolla, the calyx, or the pistil. I shall now show the flower when divided into two halves, and cut perpendicularly down the middie. [I have magnified this much, in order to show how completely the several parts Perpendicular section of the flower through _are appropriated ; and how separate the line of lifeand pistil the middle, are from every other division, till they join thestalk. At fic. 6 are three buds thus cut, without their corollas or ca- lyxes, but having their own peculiar cylinders, which reach up to them. All within the points and the letter E is the pistil belonging to each flower, with the line of life running up to each pistil; which in the stem bounds the pith, till it stops, and then runs wp to form the female. It may be seen dividing the seed at F, and halving the coreu- lum. G is the interior of the flower, HIK are the three cy- linders of the stamen, corolla, and calyx; (at last the skins to which those parts are fastened, and which conveys ihe ves- sels or mechanism up to them;) and Lis the rind. I have not properly proportioned the thickness of the cylinders ; as I feared they would not be seet ; nature requires so thin a ~ skin, to whichit will fasten and adapt such nowerful mechan- ism, and such a quantity of vessels, that st requires a long practice io dissection before we can give credit to our sight in this respect. I have shown several buds starting from the line.of life, at TTT ; and at w wiil be seen how the ves- sels arrange themselves. to exter the different par’s of the » stalk to which they belong. Fig. 7 is now wy last dissection, _ it is a horizontal cutting of the part taken from fig, 6 at M, \ ‘ : - oh tq ‘ CSS» ee a ee eee Rg Se EE ae ee am 174 ‘ON THE DISSECTION OF FLOWERS. to show in a still plainer manner how each cylinder runs up to form its appropriate part; in the flower QO is the bark separated to torm the calyx ; P the inner bark to form the So, carolla; Q the wood to convey the nourishment to the sta- vs Gkies men; and the whole interior between’the poits, belouging to the pistil and seeds at R; the line of life bounding the part as wellas leading up the middle. The stamens are perhaps better marked where there are fewer, I have given two very | good dissections of this sort of cutting of the boitom ofa flower in my third letter (see Jourual, vol. X XIE Pl. 1X, p- 350.) I have said, that it signifies hitle whether the sta- men, when once past the cylinder, proceeds up the ealyx, | corolla, or pistil, since it. has equally its peculiar vessels. Sometimes the stamens are on one side of a flower only ; and then the cylinder, instead of passing m1 equal thickuess all round ; is found large only on one side; this is the case in the cutting of the violet, but it is then even more distinguishable. Often in dissecting, you tind the stem suddenly en larged ; on cutting it through the middle, the pith is found still of the same size, the line of life at the same distance, and the wood not altered; but the part between the rind and bark extremely increases. When this is the case, you may be sure that it is the mechanism belonzing to the leaves, or, that it is a stem that turns op a ball, as in the afenarias, stellarias, and caliuams; but it generally denotes the mechanism of the , leaves, which is seen if the rind is drawn down. If the size appears enlarged in the wood, it 1s always the buds which cause it, and they will be ‘found in numbers starting from the line of life: (as seen at T fig. 6, or at T fig. 8.) Laburnum dis» I shall only add to thisletter a branch of laburnum, Plate sected, V, fie. 1 ; with a section greatly magnified, at fig. 2; in which are shown the flowers just shooting at V; and the line of life passing #2pas usual to form the pistil. As all the other parts are extremely small in proportion, they are not much marked’ in this sketch, which, however, very evidently ‘shows the new wood, which is always generated for the use of the flower. buds within the boundaries of the line of life at SS, and the little line of old wood which runs next the line W. Itis im. possible, not to see how exactly each bud shoots from the line of life, and how wholly separate the bark y is from the rest, ON THE DISSECTION OF FLOWERS. 1743 rest, and how entirely the new wood or albumen x divides it from the wood ; it is only to recollect that these are each of them regular cylinders of different degrees of thickness, ~ having their vessels closely applied on each part, as well as the mechanism appertaining to them, udhesive to every cir- ‘ele; aud it will be easily understeed bow such delicate and complicated machinery ca: be each in its separate cylinder, without interfering or Tain each other. I explained in my last le.ter, that it was by this means, Uniformity, of and by a perfect knowledge of the dissection of plants, that "| I was able to trace the male and female in the cryptoga- pian class. -[ have by the same analogy proved which are the most important lines and vessels to the vegetable king- dom. I did not set up to form a system ; it is dissection alone that has created it for me; I trusted to the strict conformity of nature, and never attempted to make one part agree with the other, but drew the sketch exactly as nature presented itto me. Yet on looking back, I find they all agree; the same conformity is maintained throughout. Is not this the most convincing proof of the exactness and truth of every ‘part? In my next I hope to give a view of the manner in which the bads shoot in annuals from the stalk; as it is really so curious and beautiful, it is well worth a letter to itself. I have also promised one on parasite plants, a very amusing and also important subject: matter presses on me som so at this time ofthe year, I cannot draw quick enough to keep pace with it. T am, SIR, ’ Your obliged servant, i AGNES IBBETSON. I shall add a few lines to mark the constant use of the screw in all plants, it serves a double purpose: first, that of covering and concealing the buds; and next, the easily di- - viding each circle to let them out when ripe. If such a specimen as fig. 91s taken, and the rind and bark stripped off, it will appear as at fig. 10; with the wood separating into threads to let the buds pass and to make a hollow way for . them. It appears to me, that there requires no other proof than 176 PERFORATIONS OF PAPER BY ELECTRICITY. than this to show, that the buds proceed from the interior, and therefore from the line of life, for nothing can be.more different than the appearance of this specimen, and o! the wood in the stem, which is perfectly straiyht, and without any openings, while these appear in such quantities in fig. 3. Al- most every tree in the spring shoots its buds in the same way, but few in such numbers as the laburnum. ee EN I. Remarks on the Perforations made in Paper by Electrical P y An experi- mient in favour of two eleetric fluids stated, Batteries. Ina letter from Mr, Joun Govuen. To Mr. NICHOLSON. SIR, Many philosophers are of opinion, that the phenemena | of electricity and galvanism are caused by ihe cooperation of two distinct kinds of subtile matter; which they denominate the positive and the negative electric fluids. Amongst many other facts and argument in favour of this hypothesis, the. following experiments formerly appeared to me as amount- ing toa proof; because it seemed to be little short of a me- chanical demonstration. If a quire of writing paper be placed betwixt the pomts of two metal reds, which are in con- tact with the opposite sides of it, and the charge of an elec- trical battery be transmitted through the wires, the bundle of paper. will be perforated in the direction of a right line joining their points; and each orifice of the perforation will ‘be surrounded externally by a bur, or prominent rim. The This experi- ment called in question and defended. peculiarity of this experitment consists in the two rings or eles vated borders, which are driven outward in opposite directions by the force of the discharge; and their presenve is supposed to prove the existence of two opposite currents ; which strike the parallel sides of the quire at the same instant, and meet in the middle of the Brera: after perforating the sheets in con= - trary directions. é The preceding experiment happened tobe the subject of couversation ina company, where 1 hdd the pieasure of meet- ing Mr. Webster; who lately gave a course) of lectures at » Kendal ~ Sat 3 e ff PERFORATIONS OF PAPFR BY ELECTRICITY. Kendal in his progress northward to Edinburgh and Glas- gow ‘This gentleman observed, that he had reason to sus+ pect the accuracy of the foregoing statement; for, when he undertook to perforate a slip of card paper by an clectrical discharge, he invaniabiy found but one bur, and this appeared on the side of the card, which was connected with the nega- . tive surface of the battery. In-consequeace of this remark, the gentleman was asked, if the appearance was the same when the discharge was made from the negative to thy posi- tive side of the battery, as well as whe: it passed in the oppo- site direction, namely from the positive to the negative side. To this question Mr. Webster replied ingenuously, that he had always made the experiments in the latter manner; and my predilection for the idea of a double current induced me to obviate, or at least to weaken the objection, by re- marking, that, the positive current being put in motion bes fore the negative fluid, it acquired a preponderance, which enabled it to drive, the paper in the direction of its own course, and consequently te raise a single bur, on the side of the card that was connected with the negative surface of the battery. { moreover observed in addition to the last re- mark; that, if the preceding reply to Mr. Webster's cbjec- ~tion had truth for its foundation, the place of the bur might be removed to the contrary side of the card by inverting the experiment, so as to give a preponderatice to the negative current; which would then drive the paper before it, and 4. ; form an elevated rim on that face of the slip, which was con- ;, ; ate nected with the positive surface of the battery. The want of facts, which is apparent in this discussion, determined me to repeat the experiment with the variations and under the conditions, that had been pigseribed by my- self. For this purpose I procuredseveral slips of card paper; ‘that were cut accurately into the shape of right angled pa- | rallelograms; and all of them had both their faces divided - diagonally, each by two diameters intersecting in the centre i of the plane. Pieces of tinfoil were then reduced to the - figure and size of the triangles, which had the shorter sides of the parallelograms for their bases. One trian: gle rp each side of a slip, was covered in the next place by one of these metallic coatings; the pieces of tinfoil being so disposed as s * 5 / to 177 The method proposed for repeating the experiment, \ 173 PERYORATIONS OF PAPER BY ELECTRICITY. to make their bases coincide with the oposite ends of the card, while their points fell upon the centre of the surface to which they were pasted. This arrangement evidently formed an intereepted conductor; which obliged the electric charge to pass through the card paper in a right line perpendicular to its oposite faces. Perhaps I may be biamed for giving a cir- ' cumstantial descripticn of a very simple contrivance; but minuteness always appears to me absolutely necessary in ner lating the manner .of conducting an experiment. General result. I made the discharge trom ii positive to the negative oe es side of the battery in my first trial; in consequence of current. which two burs were raised at the centre of the card; namely, a small one on the face connected with the positive coating, which seems to have escaped Mr. Webster’s notice, and a second on the opposite side of the paper, to which he directed his attention exclusively. This perforation bere a strict resemblance to the Holes that a punch makes ina plate of metal, or other ductile substance; for I found upon trial, when’ an instrument of this description was driven forcibly through a card placed on a piece of soft wood, or through a plate of lead fixed by nails over a hele, the perforation made by. it was furnished with two burs, like those produced by the stroke of a battery. The pro- minent ring surrrounding the upper orifice, where the operation of the punch began, was small; but the rim on the opposite or under surface of the card or lead was comparatively large. The reason of this difference is too manifest to require an explanation; but the strict analogy » observable in the two experiments with the battery and - punch led me to attribute the perforation in the former case to the action of the positive current alone. When the experiment was inverted, and the discharge made from the r negative to the positive coating of the jars, no alteration was produced; for the minute bur still kept its place upon that side of the card which was connected, with the positive surface of the battery; aud the large bur was — formed on the opposite side of the paper. The existence This result shows the futility of my remarks on Mr. ee negative Webster's objection to a double current; for, if the id is not de- onstrated by: positive current procuced the perforation in my first ex- -periment © MEDICINAL PREPARATIONS OF GOLD. 179 periment, the same cause undoubtedly produced the same the experi- effect in the second case. This conclusion leads to another ™&8% of still greater importance; for, if the perforations in ques- tion are invariably made by the positive current, the experiment under consideration affords no mechanical evidence, demonstrating the existénce of a negative fluid. It will not be improper or superfluous to coaclude the preseut letter by observing, that I made similar trials with _seyeral slips of writing paper, which were pasted together . by their ends and coated with tin-foil iike the cards. The result in this case was always the same; for the less bur was on the side of the bundle which was connected with the positive surface of the battery; and when the slips of paper were separated, the larger bur of each piece pointed to that face of the bundle which communicated with_ the negative coating of the jars. Mipp1LesHaw, JOHN GOUGH. May 15th, 1812. . Til. “On some Preparations of Gold lately employed medicinally : by A. S. Durortat, M. D. &c., and Tu. PELLETIER, . Apothecary*. r Arter having enjoyed some reputation as a medicine, Whe tise ofeold gold had ceased to be administered to the patient, and as a medicine | taken an opposite direction. Lately, however, Dr Chrestien lately revived. of Montpellier, a physician of great reputation and suc- cessful practicet, has revived its use. Ele has employed it in siphylitic and lymphatic affections, and chiefly in Clark’s _mode{. The preparations he uses are metallic gold ina _ , * Abridged from Aun, de Chim. vol. LX XVIII, p. 38. + The gentlemen through whose means Dr. Godden Jones became “acquainted with the virtues of @Husson’s eau medicinale in the F gout.) -C. : % _.{ From a passage in the sequel I imagine Clark is put for Clare ee "and that it means by rubbing on the inside of the cheek, or on the ’ gums C,. ditch eas bi state . » Iso MEDICINAL PREPARATIONS OF GOLD. _ state of minute division, oxide of gold precipitated by potash, the oxide precipitated by tin, and the triple muriate of gold aud soda. ‘These he considers as superior to mercurials. Some experiments by Mr. Vanquelin on the preparations of gold thus introduced into notice, have already been given*, and we shall now present our readers with some remarks on the subject by the gentlemen above mentioned, one of whom enjoyed the advantage of a personal acquaintance with Dr. Chrestien, at Mont- pelher. Gold in pow- The first preparation of gold employed by this physician “der, was the metal in a state of minute division. To obtain this, Tiow prepared ‘ aS : é : by Dr, Chres- he formed an amalgam, by triturativg leaf gold with seven tien, times its weight of mercury in a marble mortar with a glass pestle, and then expelling the mercury by means of a pow= erful lens in the height of summer, or dissolving it out by pure nitrie acid. Another mode Fbe present writers fecommend rather to precipitate a recommended. golytion of muriate of gold by a solution of sulphate of iron at a minimum, filtering, and washing the precipitate with water acidulated by muriatic acid, in order to dissolve out the oxide of iron mingled with the precipitated gold. When the gold is thoroughly dried, it is in the state of a r deep brown powder, theugh in the metallic state; all metals losing their brilliancy by being minutely divided. Solution of To prepare the oxide of gold precipitated by potash, god they direct one part of nitric acid at 40° [sp. gr. 1:396] to be mixed with four of muriatic aeid at 12°[1°089]; and eupelled gold to be heated with eight times its weight of this menstrnum in a matrass with a long, narrow neck, All it boils gently. Wheo no more gold will dissolve at this temperatare, the solution is to be poured off, and evaporated to dryness in anoiber matrass by a gentle fire. The residuum of this evaporation is to be dissolved in dis- tilled water, and filtered, ated The filtered solution is to be treated with potash, to. lash. ‘ separate from it the, oxide of gold: but in this there are ~ creat difficulties, and the whole cannot be thrown down, ~ << without part of ic being reduced to the metallic state. m4 * Journal, vol. KXX, p. 248. The — MEDICINAL PREPARATIONS OF GOLD. . §$si The cause of this is not known ; but the authors ascribe it, T; to the formation of a solubletriple muriate, which takes ‘place. when the potash is poured into the solution of mus riate of gold: 2, to the excess of acid always present in this muriate: 3, to the more or less caustic state of the alkali ~ employed: 4, to the greater or less quantity of this sub- ‘ stance added to the muriate of gold. ‘When a’ solution of caustic potash is poured into a Oxide of gold I Pp g saturated solution of gold by muriatic acid, a yellow oli Wa precipitate is formed*, aan when collected on a filter, does not amount to more than 40 grs of oxide from 72 grs ‘of the metal in the solution. The remaining hquid is of a triple muri a very deep colour, and contains a triple muriate of gold Tate remains ; ¥ y in solution < and potash. A fresh quantity of the caustic alkali will ba. a cause no farther precipitation, unless the liquid be kept more alkali several hours in a gentle heat: but in this case a new and heat throw down precipitate will fall down, extremely bulky, and of a deeper gold apparent» colour than the former, and apparently at a different |¥ im 4 differ ent state of degree of oxidation. Several weeks are necessary to com- oxidation. plete the precipitation; and even at last a certain portion of gold will remain, which must be thrown down by a slip of tin, if we would lose nothing. If the solution of gold be very acid, there will be scarce- Rapemtioat ly any perceptible precipitation: and this might be ex- 2cidity of the J yP } P P solution to be ' pected, as the alkali finds a sufficient quantity of free avoided. acid, to form muriate of potash enough for the production of the triple salt. Indeed no precipitation at all ought to s - take place, when the solution 1s extremely acid: but here experience does not entirely agree with therory, for a very small quantity of oxide of auld is always produced, The causticity of the sets is of great importance; Causticity of 4 . - t} al \ for, if the neutral carbonate be employed, no change will |. ae portar ie _ take place without the assistance of heat. This, expelling Action of the 2 considerable portion of carbonic acid gas, will alter the carbonate, colour of the solution from yellow to greenish. If it be : then filtered, traces of the purple aide of gold will be 4 ai : 5 re ~ found; and it will effervesce with acids, havin its fine pele colour restored, A few drops added to a glass of water will not eolour it; but, if the water be avidulated, ia ® It is necessary to employ heat. _ the / #182 Crvstals pro- duced, Their nature, Carbonate of potash sepa- rates copper from gold. Too much al- kali not to be employed. The oxide to- be washed but lightly. Test of its _ purity, Oxide preci- pitated by fin. Precipitate with metallic tin, i MEDICINAL PREPARATIONS OF GOLD. the colour will instantly appear. The same solution yields by evaporation white, transparent, alkaline crystals, inter- spersed with black spots. These crystals dissolve in water without colouring it; .and on filtering the solution it passes through transparent, leaving a little gold on the filter. The hdclivion of any acid howaren causes its colour to re- appear. What is the chemical nature of the crystals obtained ? Though this was not minutely ascertained for want of time, it appears certain, that they were composed of car- honic and muriatic acid, potash, and geld: but whether - constituting a quadruple salt, a trisule, or two salts, one the’ | triple muriate of gold and potash, the other subcarbenate of potash, the authors cannot say; nor could they form any judzment from the figure of the salt. lt may not be amiss to observe, that, in an impure nitromuriatic solution of gold, saturated carbonate of pot- ash will precipitate the copper, without throwing down the gold, if no heat be employed. As too large a quantity of alkali, added to a solution of muriate of gold, will cause a portion of the precipitated oxide to be redissolved; itis necessary, to'add the alkali | cautiously, boil the solution at every addition of alkali, — end separate the precipitate by filtration, whenever a sensi- | ble quantity appears. ‘ The precipitate must be washed but slightly, it being , partly soluble in water, as Mir. Vauquelin remarked ; and it must be dried in the shade and in a cocl place, otherwise it will be a mixture of oxide and metallic gold. ; Tt may’ be known whether the oxide be pure, by treating | it with. muriatic acid, which in this ease will dissolve it completely ; but, if it be mixed with metallic hy part will remain undissolved. The oxide of gold precipitated by tin, which Dr. Chres- tien also See oraee ae! may be obtained either with metal tin, or with its solution. For the first, slips of tin well cleaned are to be put into an aqueous solution of muriate of gold. These will soon be covered with a layer of pulverulent matter, of a colour more | or less deep; which will be renewed several times, after being removed MEDICINAL PREPARATIONS OF GOLD. 183 removed, When this ceases to be reproduced, ne liquor is to be filtered, and the precipitate washed in distilled water, dried in the shade, and powder red. This is the purple powder of Cassius. If the oxide of anid be precipitated by a solution of tin, it Precipitate is of importance, that the tin beina fixed state of oxidation, ph ale alien otherwise ihe product wili vary both in its nature and quan-. tity. A uniform solution may alw ays be obtained by dissolv Preparation of ing slips of tin in muriatic acid at 12° [1-089], filtering, eva- the saonag dan porating to the point of crystallization, dissolving the crystals in pure water, and filtering again, Part of this solution should immediately be mixed with the liquid muriate of gold ; and the union of the two salts produces a precipitate, which should be increased by adding fresh quantities of the muriate of tin, as long as any thing is thrown down; after which the precipitate is to be washed, dried, and powdered. _ The quantity obtained appears to depend on the quantity of water added to the solutious of goid and tin. The more they are diluted, the more tin is thrown down. One drachm of gold, the solution of which was mixed with ten quarts of water, mixed with a very dilute solution of tin, yielded near five drachms and half of a very fine purple precipitate. _ It does not appear to be a matter of indifference which of Difference be- these two precipitations is used. When metallic tin is em- tween the two ee : precipitates. ployed, the precipitate is brown ; and the gold, if not in the metallic state, 1s nearly approaching it. On, the contrary, the precipitate produced by muriate of tin at a minimum of oxidation is of a deep purple colour; and, though it contains a little metallic gold, has much more of the oxides of gold and of tin; whence, it is obvious, the efficacy of the two ee parations cannot be the saime. The muriate of gold is so greedy of moisture, that it soon Muriate of deliquesces, whence it can be employed only in the liquid eae state; and, as its great causticity renders even this difficult, Dr. Chrestien thought of uniting it with the -muriate of soda; thas producing a triple muriate, less deliquescent, and less caustic. For this purpose a solution of muriate of gold in distilled Triple muriate - water, obtained as described above, is to be employed; and pele and ‘itis particularly important, that this salt has not an excess of acid. 1 184 Management of 'the fire im- portant, Dr.Chrestien’s mode of ems ploying these preparations. This faulty. Instances of the efficacy -orris root, &e. | Beside this he joined the compounds of gold with extracts: ' MEDICINAL PREPARATIONS GF GOLD. | acid. Into this solution is to be poured an aqueous solution of pure decrepiiated muriate of soda, so as to combine aa equal quantity of the dry salt with tie gold dissolved. The two solutions being mixed, the fluid is to be evaporated by a gentle heat in a glass capsule, taking care to stir it well toward the end of the process. When the mass is sufficiently dry, it is to be powdered while hot iu a @lass or stone mortar 3 and the powder is to be kept from moisture, which it attracts in a slight degree. {In this preparation the management of the fire is ak ereat importance: for, 1f the desiccation of the salt be not carried far enough, it will contain too much aeid; and, if it be urged too far, it will be in part decomposed, and mixed with a little aobts x 4 The enlightened physician, who extols the use of these preparations, employs them exterually and internally; but recommends them to be mixed with other substances, lest their action should be too violent, if given alone. Tus for along time be did not give the triple muriate of gold and soda otherwise than mixed with twice its weight of a powder composed of starch, charcoa!, and the lake used by painters. As the alamine of the last however might take up a portion of the muriatic acid, and the chareoal wight revive the gold, Dr, Curesten changed-this powder for that of liquorice root, , of the attenuant plants; sugar-with which he forms lozenges; sirvps, iu which be dissolves them, &c. He mixes them also, with Galen’s cerate, when he wishes to promete suppuration, and with, lard, when he would employ them in frictions on the seles of the feet after the method of Cyrillo. The writers of the present article do not approve the com- bination of the preparations of gold with these different sub stances, as ali vegetable and animal substances, dissolved or not, revive gold fiom its acid solution. They recommend them to be given alone, or dissolved in distilled water: or at least, if they must be mixed, to mix them as short a time as possible before they are used. ek, In this way Dr. Duportal asserts that he has found good effects from them in siphylitic complaints. In a chancre | ae corroding & MEDICINAL PREPARATIONS OF GOLD. 185 corroding one of the corpora cavernosa he found them of of the prepare real advantage : but the most striking instance of their effi- ations of gold. cacy was in a cancerous ulcer, that had destroyed the upper lip, attacked the soft parts of the nose and left cheek, de- stroyed the square bones [os carrés], and rendered the max- illary bone carious. Being called to a consultation with Dr. Payen on this very serious case, in which all the common methods had been tried in vain, Dr. Duportal hoped to op- pose the progress of the disease by the use of Dr. Chrestien’s medicine assisted by attenuant extracts. In consequence the patient was directed daily to rub into the gums the triple muriate of gold and soda ; and to take oxide of gold precipi- tated by potash, with pills composed of tlie extracts of white henbane, hemlock, and sharp-pointed toadflax. The ulcer was daily’ washed with Sydenham’s liquid laudanum, sprinkled over with powder of red bark and camphor, and dressed with a digestive in which oxide of gold was mixed, Under this treatment, which has been continued two months gradually increasing the dose of the substances, the ulcer has assumed a promising appearance; the carrous points have disappeared ; the suppuration furnishes laudable pus in moderate quantity ; the patient daily improves in flesh and strength ; and there is every reason to believe, that this evident melioration will continue, That it cannot be ascribed to the means employed in conjunction with the preparations of gold is evident, for they had been used previous to these without effect. vals 3 Experiments on the Existence of Water in Muriate of Ammonia formed by the Combination of Muriatic Acid and Ammoni< acal Gasses. By Mr. Joun Murray, Lecturer on Che« _mistry, Edinburgh. To Mr. NICHOLSON. STR, ill Have been prevented by different circumstances from haoh Mr. Murray’s bestowing any attention until lately on the objections, whic experiment 186 ON THE WATER IN MURIATE OF AMMONIA. ~ have been made to the experiment in my last communica- tion proving the existence of water in muriatie acid yas. This I have little reason to regret, as the deficiency has Been amply supplied by the cuaeia communication from Dr. a. Bostock and Dr. Traill in the supplement to your last vo- saa a lume. From the care with which their experiment appears to have been conducted, it ust be regarded us nearly deci- sive of the question at issue ; 3 and shiv result coinciding so exactly with that which 1 had stated to be obtained, while it is at variance with that affirmed by Messrs. Davies, [ might probably spare myself the task of taking any notice of the observations of my opponent. As I have executed some ex- periments however, which occurred to me on this.subject, a brief account of the results may not be unacceptable to your chemical readers. Admissions of [t has been admitted, that the experiment which I have EP onen brought forward, if accurate, is conclusive on: the subject of this discussion. It has also been admitted, that when the experiment is performed in the manner I desenbed, the r& sult is that which I stated to be obtained—a sensible and even a considerable portion of water being produced, when the salt formed by the combination of muriatic acid and am- Attempttoob- Moniacal gasses is exposed to heat. But to obviate the con- viate the cOD- clusion from this it has been asserted, that the salt, while it clusion fromit. . : 7 . cpt : is transferring from the vessel in which it is formed ‘to that in which it is heated, absorbs water from the atmosphere, and that this is the source of the water it affords. This explan- ation has been given on the authority of Mr. Davy, who, it it stated, performed the experiment without obtaining water when this source of fallucy was avoided. And Mr. J. Davy, who it seems wus disposed to doubt of the accuracy of my experiment before he knew of this mode of accounting for its result, states, that he was informed of it by his ele : who farther told him, that, if he heated the salt without ex posure to the air, he would obtain no water. He accordingly made the experiment as it is described in your Journal (vol. XXXI,° p. 314), and found no water to be produced ; but when the experiment was made inthe manner I had performed it, “* water in no inconsiderable quantity was evolved :” and thus, it is added, ‘* we have a demonstration, that the water librated ON THE WATER IN MURIATE OF AMMONTAe 187 - librated in Mr. Murray’s experiment was not derived from the muviatic gas, but from the atmosphere.” It might have been expected, that the first step these That muriate geutlemen would have taken, when they assigned this as the aac source of the water obtained, would have been to prove its from the air reality; and to show by experimental evidence, that the salt Ponape _ on which they operated has the power of attracting water from the atmosphere. No such evidence however is given ; but the existence of this property is inferred from the result of an experiment, which may have arisen from causes alto- gether different. Admitting for a moment the accuracy of The experi- i ment of Messrs. Davies ed after exposure to the air, while none is obtained when it not conclusive. is héated without this exposure, is no proof, that the water in the former case has been absorbed from the atmosphere ; for in making the experiment in these two modes, the sole difference is not the admission or exclusion of the air, nor is the sole operation of the air thai of affording moisture; there are other circumstances of difference equally important, and which it is easy to perceive must influence the result. Thus the principal difficulty in the original experiment, so Principal dif- as to render it conclusive, arises from the volatility of the ee oe tie : ginal ¢xXpe- ammoniacal salt, and the inconsiderable interval of temper- riment. . ature between that point at which any water it may contain “can be separated from it by heat, and that. point at which the salt itself will’ pass into vapour. In consequence of this it must require a nice regulation of temperature to obtain the ove effect without the other; and from this very circume stance, even had water not been obtained in the experiment -as I first performed it, it could not have been affirmed, that it did not exist in the salt. Now this difficulty it is obvious ‘phic particu. is much greater, when heat is applied to a thin layer of salt larly maw * Shameea over the whole internal surtace of a retort, than ene te its when it is applied to the same quantity of salt collected in mass at the bottom ofa retort; andit must indeed be nearly impracticable to apply the heat in the former case with such a precise adaptation to the relative volatilities of the water and the salt, as to expel the former without volatilizing the latter. If the heat therefore is kept sufficiently low not to volatilize the salt, and especially if care is taken to keep it O2 still their experiment, the obtaining water when the salt is heat- 188 4 and ought, on their own prin- ciple, to pre- vent the ap- pearance of water. Other objec- tions to their experiment. The cause they assume for the appear- ance of water fallacious, / ON THE WATER IN MURIATE OF AMMONIA. still lower than this, it is possible, that there may b no apparent production of water. If the salt too has any power of absorbing water, inferior even to what, these gentlemen suppose, it is evident, that the portion of it in the upper part and curvature of the neck of the retort must absorb the small portion of water, that may be volatilized by a moderate heat applied to the salt at the bottom, or in the body of the retort; and according therefore to the’ assumption they themselves maintain, no water ought te appear in’ this mode of making thd experiment, evén though the salt may contain it. Farther, if any pressure is present in consequence of the arrangement by which the air is excluded, (and Mr. Davy’s experiment is not suffici- ently described, to enable us to determine whether this were the case or not,) this must retard or prevent the separation of the water. And lastly, when the air is excluded, that agency of it by which it promotes the transition of every sub- stance into vapour by heat, lately so well illustrated by Gay- Lussac*, is prevented from operating; and the same result with regard to the expulsion of water in vapour from any matter containing it cannot be obtained, as when a commu- nication with the atmosphere is preserved. It was to ob- viate some of these circumstances, that I performed the ex- periment in the manner in which it was originally executed. All of them however are neglected by Messrs. Davies, though it is obvious, that their influence must be important; and to account fer the result they are said to have obtained, the supposition is introduced of the salt attracting water from the atmosphere, without any experimental evidence being given, that it has any such power. ) , . I was satisfied prior to any experimental investigation, that the cause thus hypothetically assigned is altogether fallacious. When asoluble substance attracts water from the atmosphere, it continues to attract it, until it becomes humid, and is at - length diseolved, This is the case with potash, muriateof lime, acetate of potash, and indeed every salt known to ab- sorb water from the air; and it follows from the very property itself. The deliquescent substance imbibes water in conse= quence of the strong attraction it has to it; and this attrace tion must continue to operate, until an equilibrium between * Mémoires DArcueil, tom: 1, p. 204. it ’ ON THE WATER IN MURIATE OF AMMONIA. ; 189 \ it and the force of cohesion is attained; and ina soluble sub- stance therefore must continue until it is dissolved. No such property belongs however to muriate of ammonia; every chemist knows, that in an atmosphere in a common state of dryness it 1s not deliquescent, but remains dry for any length of time. There is no reason to believe, that it is ca- pable of absorbing water short of that quantity, which shall produce sensible humidity; and it is altogether an extrava- gant assumption, that it can absorb water with such rapidity, as in a few minutes to imbibe that considerable quantity which it yields when exposed to heat. With regard te any hygrometric effect from the loose pulverulent state of the The salt cans salt, itvis not less extravagant to suppose, that it could "ot act hygroe operate so speedily, or to such an extent as is necessary to RE account for the result of the experiment ; or that it could operate after the salt had been heated, so as to enable it to afford the quantity which even then it yields*. Fortunately the determination of this point is not attended Ty, point edb with any peculiar difficulty. It may be ascertained by ex- sily determin- periment, whether the salt does absorb water or not from the ink air, and whether the water which it yields when heated is derived from this source. ' I first performed the experiment of heating the salt with- Experiment out its having been exposed to the air. In a small retort, described. over dry qnicksilver, | combined in successive portions 25 cubic inches of ammoniacal gas, which had been dried by exposure to lime, with muriatic acid yas, which had been exposed. to muriate of lime, adding at the end an excess of ammoniacal yas to ill the retort. The retort was then turned _over in sach a manner, that the extremity of it) acc was kept under the quicksilver, and an inverted jar idied with | quicksilver was placed over it. The body of tlie retort being _ surrounded with sand, heat was applied by an Argui.d’s icmp \ * After the salt has afforded water by being heated, I had found it __ to afford an additional portion, when it is expuscd to a strouger heat. It is also stattd in ‘your Journal (vol. XX XT, p. 237,) thar water may be-obtained trom the salt successively by heating it repeatedly, if1i is exposed io the atmosphere fora few minutes each time, ane it isuldrd, that in this way I might have obtained water tu the amount ipa J. nounced the discovery of a new gas, a compound as he a supposed of oximuriatic acid and carbonic oxide, by the operation of which he farther supposed the formation of carbonic acid might be accounted for in conformity to his brother's hypothesis; and then he at once admitted what I had uniformly a-serted, and what he and his brother had before as steadily denied, that the carbonic oxide disappears, and that carbonic acid is obtained, when the ammoniacal salt is decomposed by an acid. ‘* Repeating my experi- ment on the exposure of the three passes to light,” he detected, “ after the addition of ammonia, no traces of car- bonic oxide;” and he perceived ‘ an effervescence of the 4¢ ammoniacal salt with nitric acid,’”? which effervescence he farther admits to be owing to carbonic acid*, These are the precise results I had obtained. How then ean Mr. J. Davy venture to. assert, that there are no experiments of mine the accuracy of which has been admitted? or how does he reconcile the admissions he now makes with the former positive assertions by himself and his brother, that, mm the inutual action of these three gasses, the carbonic oxide re- mains uuchanged, and no carbome acid is formed ? Vee tiers There is one mode indeed, by which he throws some effected indie Obscurity oyer this result of the controversy. He main- rectly. tains, that the production of carbonic acid in these experi- ments zs effected in an indirect mode; the oximuriatic acid * Journal, vol, XXX, p. 30, vol. XXXI, p. 312, . - and. ON THE WATER IN MURIATE OF AMMONIA. 4 and the carbonic oxide he supposes combine and form an acid gas, which unites with the ammonia; and when the salt formed by this union is decomposed by an acid, this gas he imagines decomposes water, and forms muriatic 195 and carbonic acids. I have already given my reasons, - which I need not repeat, for considering every thing re- Jating to this gas as at present in the highest degree doubt- fuls and with ‘regard to its supposed agency in decomposing water I also pointed out to him an inconsistency in. his statement, which he calls imaginary, but which is real, and remains still unexplained. While he supposed, by a very circuitous mode of reasoning, that it decomposes: water, I observed to him, that he had not ascertained the fact; and that he had even stated as one of the properties of this gas, that it is “very slowly absorbed by water,” a statement directly at variance with the supposition, that it decomposes water; for the result of this decomposition must be an tstanta- neous reduction of volume by the absorption of the muriatic acid, which is one of its products, and a rapid absorption of the carbonic acid, which is its other product. He has accordingly since stated, that the gas, immediately on coming into contact with water, is decomposed, and con- verted into carbonic and muriatic acid gasses: aud hé adds “in my first notice of the gas [ mentioned its being ap- parently slightly absorbed hy water only among its most obvious qualities, those which made the first impression on me, and led me to consider it as a new substance.” ‘But he forgets to explain how ina result so obvious, and in which there appears to be no room for fallacy, he should first have found, that this gas is very slowly absorbed by water; and afterward, when I had pointed out to him that this was incompatible with his supposition that it decom- poses water, that he should have discovered, that immedi- ately on coming into contact with water it is resolved tnto muriatic and carbonic gasses, pee must be quickly absorbed. Inconsistency~ in his state- ment still une explained. These are points however, on the consideration of which g,,ther she it is not necessary to enter. Whatever importance may be marks on the attached to them as connected with the discussion on the nature of oximuriatic acid, they are of no importance in regard subject. ~ Fi y 2 196 uther res Marks on the subject. ON THE WATER IN MURIATE oF: AMMONIA. regard to the ultimate results of the experiments. » The. question in this point of view is not how carbouie acid is formed, whether directly or indirectly, but whether it is formed at all. Messrs. Davies affirmed, in contradiction to what I stated, that dt és not formed. Mr. J. Davy now admits, that it 2s formed: and he may account as he is able for these opposite assertions: or, to remove the sheht ambiguity which arises from involving the statement of the. fact of the production of carbonic acid with the inquiry as to the manner in which it is produced, let the questian be restricted to the effect on the -carbonic oxide. I had uniformly affirmed, that it disappears. Messrs. Davies asserted, as the results of repeated experiments, that. it remains unchanged*, But Mr. J. Davy now tells us,. that it does disappear, so that no traces of it can be dise covered after the addition of ammonia. On this I shall offer no comment, but rest satisfied with the simple state- ment of the fact; and if Mr. J. Davy after this thinks proper to repeat his assertions on the accuracy of his and his brother’s experiments, and on the inaceuracy of mine, Air H. Davy’s OPO load BF) NOOTY.s hot @ { shall certainly not feel it incumbent on me to take any netice of them. Allow me to add; that I regret having been compelled to make these observations; but I conceive Ishould be wanting in what I owe to myself, did 1 not’ repel assertions so injurious and unwarranted; and I believe I have done so in terms less severe than what the occasion. might justify. | | What farther relates to the general reasening on. this contreversy, I leave altogether to the judgment of your readers. Mr. J. Davy “ confesses himself totally at a loss to understand” how I have shown what he calls the theory of his brother (though: strictly speaking it is entitled to ne.ther of these appellations) to bean hypothesis: he still considers it he informs us as an expression ef facts in all its essential parts, to the exclusion of hypothesis; and I have _ advanced it seems no arguments, that have not been answered. op I had supposed Mr. J. Davy to have been peculiarly | unfortunate in his attempts to answer these arguments; and * Journal, vol, XXVILU, p. 201, vol. XXIX, pp. 42, 985. ad ON THE WATER IN MURIATE OF AMMONIA. 107 had supposed the question, whether this doctrine is a theory or an hypothesis, to have been brought into that. point of view, that it was too obvious to bear any farther discussion. I may be mistaken in this; but still I cannot persuade myself, that there is auy necessity for my entering on any recapitulation ox extension of the arguments I have employed. With many of your readers they may have more weight than with my opponents; and my want of suc¢ess in the latter respect, it is possible, may be owing net so much to deficiency in the argument, as in the per- son‘to whom it is addressed; for one who, like Mr. J. Davy, coyld not distinguish between an inference from a fact, and the expression of the fact itself*; who could confound an insulated fact, which his hypothesis did not. explain, with an ultimate fact of which no explanation was to be expected, and who could call this fact cne of the axioms of the sciencet; can hardly be expected, even with the most candid dispositions, to discriminate very accurately between the nicer limits, by which theory and hypothesis are defined. I shall not attempt therefore to convince this gentleman, but shall leave ‘him in full possession of the belief (if he seriously entertains it) that he has answered al! my arguments, refuted all my experiments, and established his brother’s opinion as a genuine theory. I shall only add, that the late progress of chemical Relation of _ discovery has shown, that there is nothing peculiar in the A alaaiee Sey relation of muriatic acid to water, such as is maintained peculiar. in the common doctrine. The able researches of Gay- Lussac and Thenard and of Berthollet have shown, that all the more powerful acids, the sulphuric, nitric, phos- phoric, and fluoric, contain combined water, from which they cannot be obtained free in an insulated state. ‘Those of your readers, who feel an interest on this subject, wili find a summary of these researches in the supplement to the second edition of iny System of Chemistry, lately published, - [ have the honour to be, : Your most obedient servant, Edinburgh, May 31, 1812. JOHN MURRAY. * Journal, vol. XXIX, pp. 39, 195. t Ibid, vol. XXVILi, pp. 199, 392. Y. 193 | V. a METEOROLOGICAL JOURNAL. ee PRESSURE, TEMPERATURE. 1812. {Wind} Max. Min. Med. | Max./ Min{ Med. Evap.| Rain 5th Mo. May 4\N Ej 29°86] 29°78] 29°820) 63 | 38-].50°5 | — > 5| E } 30°01} 29°86] 29°935! 64 | 40 | 52:0 | — 6} E | 30°01} 29°98 | 29°995| 60 | 42 | 510 | — 7| EK | 29°94] 29°86] 29°900] 58 | 45 | 51°5 | ‘70 8iS “E |] 29°86}: 29:73: 129795) 76 | 51 | 63:5 1 ee 9S WI 29°78] 29°68 | 29°736! 72 |} 53 | 62°5 | 90} — 10} W | 29°82} 29°56 | 29690] 64 | 56 | 66°0 | — | °20 1IIN W) 29°50] 29°54] 29°550] 65 | 49 | 57:0 | —|] -02 121S W] 29°53 4. 29°51 [297520] 65 | 44 )-54-5 7 weet #43 i3| § | 29°56} 29°50] 29°530! 60 | 40 | 50°0 | -44] -15 14) S | 29°75) 29°56] 29°655| 58 | 40 | 49°0 | ed -— 15IN E] 29°95] 29°75 | 29°850| 57 | 43 | 50°0 | 1-10 16} N | 30°00} 29°95 | 29°975| 62 | 45 | 53°5 1°36} 2 I7IN E} 29°95] 29°87] 29 910] 53,4 45 | 49°0 | —]. FIs 181 E. | 29°87] 29°80] 29°835! 63. |. 48 } 55°35 | —# —'e@ 19] E | 29°80} 29°63] 29°715| 66 | 53 |-59°5 | —-# +44 20)8 YW) oo a 65 | 53 | 59:0 — § 21)Var.| 29°94} 29°65} 29'785) G11 45 1 530 | —] °60 291N WL 30°18] 29°98] 30°080] 52 | 35 | 43:5 | — 231 EB | 30°27} 29°98] 30°125] 61 | 40 | 51°5 | °32 24/8 E} 30°27} 30°11] 30°190} 57°} 52 | 5495 1 — 4 25'S WI 30°11} 29°98] 30°045| 62 | 53 | 575 | — 96'S WI 29°98] 29°55] 29°765| 72 | 55 | 63-5 | °43 oO 271 S | 29°59} 29°55] 29°570} 71 | 51 4 61:0 | — 28'S E} 29°69] 29°59 29°640) GO | 54] O15 | —| Th 29,5 W] 29°84] 29°69} 29-765] 72 | 53 | 625 | —1 -2s 30| S | 29°76] 29°74] 29°750] 67 | 52 | 59'S | G5. 311 S | 29°754 29°72} 29°735] 65 | 54] 59°5 | ——} 10) 29°72 | 29835; Go | 46 | 55:0 | 28] 4} * 29°50] 29.810) 76 | 35 | 53°46 June 1/8 W 29°95 50°27 4°08 |2 30]. The observations in each line of the Table apply to a period of twenty-four hours beginning at 9 A.M. on the day findicated in the first column. A dash denotes that the resvit is included in the next following observation, ; e NOTES. METEOROLOGICAL JOURNAL. NOTES. Fifth Month. 4,5,6, Much dew. 7. Windy. 8. Windy: cirro-cumulus and cumulo-stratus: wind S. above: thun- der clouds: the evening twilight was luminous and coloured : the clouds dispersing, and scattered in loose flocks over the rich ground of the western sky, presented a striking appear- ance, 9. Shower very early: Wind S. cirrus, cirro-cum ulus:. evening, much wind. 10. A.m. overcast: a gale from the W, with much cloud: showers: p. m. clear and pleasant ; ‘11. Ashower early: cumulo-stratus prevails. 12. Showers., 13. A thunder shower, with hail, about 3 p.m. 14, Show- ers. 15,17. Cloudy, windy. 18. A.m. small rain: wined N. gentle: p.m. sunshine. 19. A. m. Wind E. pretty. strong: clouds of different kinds, with haze above: p. m. thunder clouds: in the evening came on a violent thunder storm, which lasted several hours; it was chiefly to the S. and W. The appearances were very similar to those of the destructive hail storm, which occurred here in the same month, and on the same day of the month, and nearly at the same time of the day, in 1809: sheets of blue and white lightning came in quick succession, with an almost conti- nual rolling of thunder. We had however no hail (being only on the flank of the storm) but sudden and heavy showers of warm rain; which was of the same amount in the upper as in the lowergauge. Atll, p.m.wind N. E. it still lightned far in the N. 20. A.m. wind W. cloudy.and misty. 23. About noon, during a shower, it thundered to the south- ward. 99, A little thunder to the S. W. about 4 p.m. with - a few drops: wet mght. 31. An electric shower about 9, a.m. Nimbi: windy night. a RESULT. Winds variable. ®arometer: highest observation 30°27 inches; lowest 29°50 inches; Mean of the period 29-810 inches. Thermometer: highest observation 76°; lowest 35°; Mean of the period 55°46°. Evaporation 4:08 inches. Rain 9'36 inches. - -PLatstTow. < L. HOWARD. Sixth Month, 1812, : of | VI. 199 Visit to the pitch lake of Trinidad, Porcelain jas- PCTS The lake de- ‘scribed. PITCH LAKE IN TRINIDAD; VI. Account of the Pitch Lake of the Isead of Trindad.. By Nrcnoxias Nucent, M. D,, THERON HE Geol. Soc.* Berna desirous to visit the celebrated Lake of ma cies previously to my departure from the island of Trinidad, L: embarked with that intention in the month of October, 1807, 10 a small vesse! at Port Spain. After a pleasant sail of about thirty miles down the gulf of Pavia, we arrived at the point la Braye, so called by the French from its characteristic feature. It is a considerable headland, about eighty feet above the level of the sea, and per- haps ‘two miles long and two broad. We landed on the southern side of the point, atthe plantation of Mr. Vessigny: as the boat drew near the shore, [ was struck with the ap- pearance of a rocky bluff or'small promontory of a reddish brown colour, very different from the pitch which I had ex- pected to find on the whole shore. Upon examining this | spet, I found it composed of a substance coresponding to the porcelain jasper of mineralogists, generally ofa red colour, where it had been exposed to the weather, but of light slate blue in the mterior: it 1s avery hard stone with a conchoidal fracture, some degree of lustre, andis perfectly opake, even at the edges: in some places, from the action of the air, it was of a reddish or yellowish brown, and an earthy | appearance. I wished to have devoted more time to the inves tigation of whatin thelanguegeof the Wernerian schoolisterm- ed the geognostic relations of this spot, but my companions were anxious to proceed. We ascended the hill, which was entirely composed of this rock, to the plantation, where we procured a negro guide, who conducted us through a wood about three quarters of a mile. We now perceived a stroog sulphureous and pitchy smell, like that of burning coal, and soon after had a view of thelake, which at first sight appeared to be an expanse of still water, frequently ‘inde ene by clumps of dwarf trees, or islets of rushes and shrubs: but ' | ‘ ) * Trans, of the Geol, Society, vol. I, p. 69. ON PITCH LAKE IN TRINIDADs 20] bn a nearer approach we found it to be in reality an exten- _sive plain of mineral pitch, with frequent crevices and chasms filled with water. The singularity of the scene was altogether so great, that it was some time before I] could re- cover from my strprise so as to investigate it minutely. ‘The surface of the lake is of the colour of ashes, and at this season was not polished or smooth so as to be slippery; the hardness or consistence was such as to bear any weight, and it was not adhesive, though it partially received the impression of the foot; it bore us without any tremulous motion whatever, and several head of cattle were browsing on it in perfect security. In the dry season however the surface is much more yielding, and must be in a state ap- proaching to fluidity, as is shown by pieces of recent wood and other substances being enveloped in it. Even large Branches of _ branches of trees, which were a foot above the ijevel, had in ea ons its some way become enveloped in the bituminous matter. The toped with interstices or chasms are very numerous, ramifying and pitch, joiuing in every direction, and in the wet season being filled i siripid in the with water, present the only obstacle to walking over the surface; these cavities are generally deep in proportion to their width, ‘some being only a few inches in depth, others several feet, and many almost unfathomable: the water in 4lled with them is good and uncontaminated by the pitch ; the people 804 water, of the neighbourhood derive their supply from this source, and refresh themselves by bathing init: fish arecaught in it, and containing _ particularly a very good species of mullet. The arrangement eh of the chasms is very singular, the sides, which of course are formed of the pitch, are invariably shelving from the surface, so as nearly to meet at the bottom, but then they bulge out towards each other with a considerable degree of convexity. This may be supposed to arise from the tendency in the pitch slowly to coalesce, whenever softened by the intensity. of the Sun’s rays. These crevices iare known oc- casionally to close up entirely, and we saw many marks or seams from this cause, How these crevices originate it may not be so easy to explain. One of our party suggested, that the whole mass of pitch might be supported by the water, which made its way through accidental rents, but in the solid state it is of greater specific gravity than water, for Vou. XX XIT— JULY, 1812. : ae several -202 - - PITCH LAKE IN TRINIDAD. Islets inthe several bits thrown into the pools immediately sunk®, The lake. _ lake (L call it so because I think the common name appro- priate enough) contains many islets cevered with long grass and shrubs, which are the haunts of birds of most exqui- site plumage, as the pools are of snipe and plover, Alli- gators are also said to abound here, but it was not our lot to encounter any of these animals. It is not easy to state pre- cisely the extent of this great collection of pitch; the line between it and the neighbouring soil is not always well de- fined, and indeed it appears to form the substratum of the surrounding tract of laid. We may say, however, that it is bounded on the north and west sides by the sea, on the south by the rocky eminence of porcelain jasper, before mentioned, and on the east by the usual argillaceous soil of the country; the main body may perhaps be estimated at three miles in circumference; the depth cannot be ascer- tained, and no subjacent rock or soil can be discovered. Vegetation on Where the bitumen is slightly covered by soil, there are it where there 5 : ‘ oes ; : ina : ; of cassava, plantains, and pine apples ‘ tfashin et. plantations of cassava, pl P p pples, the last of Its extent. which grow with luxuriance, and attain to great perfection. There are three or four French and one English sugar estates in the immediate neighbourhood ; our opinion of the soil did not, however, coincide with that of Mr. Ander- son, who, in the account he gave some years ago, thought The surface of lt’ very fertile. Itas worthy of remark, that the main body the pitch of the pitch, which may properly be called the lake, is situ- eat leks ate higher than the adjoining land, and that you descend neighbouring by a ange slope to the sea, where the pitch is much con- mend, fated by the sand of the beach. During the dry sea- Much sofien- son, as I have before remarked, this pitch is much softened, ed in the dry : season. So that different bodies have been known slowly to sink in it; if a quantity be cut out, the cavity left will be shortly filled up: and I have heard it related, that when the Spa- * Pieces of asphaltum are, I believe, frequently found floating on the Dead Sea in Palestine, but this arises probably from ‘the extraor- dinary speeific gravity of the waters of that lake, which Dr. Marcet found to be 1:211. Mr. Hatchett states the specific gravity of ordi- nary asphaltum to vary from 1'023 to 1:165, but in two varieties of that of Trinidad it was as great as 1:336 and 1:744, which led Mr. Hatchett to form a conjecture, which] shall afterwards notice. niards PITCH LAKE IN TRINIDAD 908 niards undertook formerly to prepare the pitch for economi- cal purposes, and had imprudently erected their cauldrons © on the very lake, they completely sunk in the course of a night, so as to defeat their intentions. Numberless proofs are given of its being at times in this softened state: the negro houses of the vicinage, for instanec, built by driving posts in the earth, frequently are twisted or sunk on one side. in many places it seems to have actually overflown like lava, and presents the wrinkled appearauce which a sluggish substance would exhibit in motion. This substance is generally thought to be the asphaltum The substance of naturalists: in different spots however it presents different Vatics much. appearances. In some parts it is black, with a splintery conchoidal fracture, of considerable specific gravity, with httle or no justre, resembling particular kinds of coal, and so hard as to require a severe blow of the hammer to detach or break it; in ather parts, it isso much softer, as to allow one to cut out a piece in any form with a spade or hatchet, and in the interior is vesicular and oily; this is the charac- ter of by far the greater portion of the whole mass; in one place, it bubbles up in a perfect fluid state, so that you may take it up in acup, and [ am informed, that in one of the neighbouring plantations there is a spot where it is of a bright colour, shining, transparent, and brittle, like bottle glass or resin. The odour in all these instances is I¢ smells of strong and like that of a combination of pitch and sulphur, St!Phur5 No sulphur however is any where to be perceived, but from the strong exhalation of that substance and the affinity which is known to exist between the fluid bitumens and it, much is, no doubt, contained ina state of combination; a bit of melts inthe the pitch held in the candle melts like sealing wax, and poseaie eo burns with a light flame, which is extinguished whenever enson coolings it is removed, and on cooling the bitumen hardens again. From this property it is sufficiently evident, that this sub- stance may be converted to many useful purposes, and ace ‘cordingly it is universally used in the country wherever Usedas pitch. pitch is required ; and the reports of the naval officers who have tried it are favourable to its more general adoption ; ~ itis requisite merely to prepare it with a proportion of oil, tallow, or common tar, to give it a sufficient degree of fluid- P 2 ity. 204 Its importance in this views PITCH LAKE IN TRINIDAD, i ity. In this point of view, this lake is of vast national importance, and more especially to a great maritime power, It is indeed singular, that the attention of government should not have been more forcibly directed to a subject of such magnitude: the attempts that have bitherto been made to render it extensively useful have for the most part been cnly feeble and injudicious, and have consequently proved - abortive. This vast collection of bitumen might in all pro- Not fairly tried, A preservative against worme, bability afford an inexhaustible supply of an essential article of naval stores, and being situate on the margin of the sea could be wrought and shipped with little inconvenience or expense*. It would however be great injustice to Sir Alexander Cochrane not to state explicitly, that he has at various times, during his long and active command on the Leeward Island station, taken considerable pains to insure a proper and fair trial of this mineral production forthe highly important uses of which itis generally belisved to be capa- ble. But whether it has arisen from certain perverse occur- rences, or froin the prejudice of the mechanical superintend- ants of the colonial dock yards, or really, as some have pretended, from an absolute unfitness of the substance in question, the views of the gallant admiral have been inva- riably thwarted, or his exertions rendered altogether fruitless. I was at Antigua in 1809, when a transport arrived laden with this pitch for the use of the dock yard at English Har- bour: it had evidently been hastily collected with little care_ or zeal from the beach, and was of course much contaminated with sand and other foreign substances. The best way would probably be to have it properly prepared on the spot, and brought to the state in which it may be serviceable, — previously to its exportation. I have frequently seen it used to pay the bottoms of small vessels, for which it is particularly well adapted, as it preserves them from the nu- ‘merous tribe of worms so abundant in tropical countriesf. * This island contains also a great quantity of valuable timber, and several piants which yield excellent hemp. + The different kinds ofbitumen have always been found particularly , obnoxious to.the class of insects; there can be little doubt but that they formed ingredients in the Egyptian compound for embalming bodies, and the Arabians are said to avail themselves of them in preserving the- trappings of their horses. Wide Jameson’s Mineralogy. There PITCH LAKE iN TRINIDAD. 905 There seems indeed no reason why it should not, when duly prepared and attenuated, be applicable to all the purposes of the petroleum of Zante, a well known article of commerce in the Adriatic, or that of the district in Burmah, where 400000 hogsheads are said to be collected annually*. . It is observed by captain Mallet, in his Short Topogra- Bitumen phical Sketch of the Island, that ‘* near Cape la Brea (la moesee ” . Braye) a little to the south-west, is a gulf or, vortex, bouring sea. “© which in stormy weather gushes out, raising the water ** five or six feet, and covers the surface for a considerable ‘* distance with petroleum or tar;” and he adds, that ** on ** the east coast, in the Bay of Mayaro, there is another ** sulf or vortex, similar to the former, which in. the inidirthhs of March and June produces a detonation like ** thunder, having some flame with a thick black smoke, which vanishes away immediately; in about twenty-four ‘hours afterward is found along the shore of the bay a «* quantity of bitumen or pitch, about aes or four inches thick, which is employed with success”. Captain Mallet Land swallows likewise quotes Guiilla, as stating in his Description of the &4 bi ges % Orinoco, that about seventy years ago, ‘* a spot of land on pail ach ‘* the western coast of this island, near half way between “‘ the capital and Indian village, sunk) suddenly, and. was «¢ immediately replaced by a small lake of pitch, to the © great terrour of the inhabitants”, I have had no opportunity of ascertaining personally Probably a whether these statements are accurate, ri eaed sufliciently petite rah provable from what is known tooccur in other parts of the world; but Ihave been informed by several persons, that the sea in the neighbourhood of la Braye is occasionally covered with a fluid bitumen, and in the south-eastern part of the island there is certainly a similar collection of this bitumen, though of less extent, and many such detached spots of it are to be met with in the woods: it is even said, that an evident Jine of communication may thus be traced between the two great receptacles. There is every proba- bility, that in all these cases the pitch was onginally fiuid, Gi 6 n / * Vide Aikin’s Dictionary of Chemistry, quoted from Captain Cox in the Asiatic Researches, / an 206 PITCH LAKE IN TRINIDAD. and has since become inspissated by exposure to the air, as happens in the Dead Sea and other parts of the east. Geological in- It is for geologists to explain the origin of this singular quiries diffi- phenomenon, and eacn sect will doubtless give a solution of cult in this f : ‘ country. the difficulty according to tts pecuhar tenets. To frame any very satisfactory hypothesis on the subject, would require a more exact investigation of the neighbouring country, and particularly to the southward and eastward, which 1 had not > an opportunity of visiting. Aud it must be remembered, that geological inquiries are not conducted here with that facility — - which they are in some other parts of the world; the sail is al-, most universally covered with thethickest and most luxuriant vegetation, and the stranger is soon exhausted and overcome ” by the scorching rays of a vertical sun. Immediately to the southward, the face of the country, as seen from la-Braye, is a good deal broken and rugged, which Mr. Anderson attri- butes to some convulsion of nature from subterranean fires, Hot springs in in which idea he is confirmed by haviig found in the neigh- af aris Powe bouring woods several hot springs. He isindeed of opinion, * that this tract has experienced the effects of the volcanic power, which, as he supposes, elevated the great mountains on the main and northern side of the island*. The pro- duction of all bituminous substances has certainly with plau- sibility been: attributed to the action of subterranean fires on beds of coal, being separated in a similar manver as when effected by artificial heat,and thus they may be traced through the various transformations of vegetable matter. I was ace Nocoalknown cordingly particular in my inquires with regard to the exist- to exist here, ence of beds of coal, but could not fearn that there was any certain trace of this substance in the island; and though it may exist at a great depth, I saw no strata that indicate it, A friend indeed gave me specimens of a kind of bituminous shale mixed with sand, which he brought from Point Cedar, about twenty miles distant; and I find Mr. Anderson speaks of the soil near the Pitch-lake containing burnt cinders, but I imagine he may have taken for them the = fragments of the bitumen itself. An examination of this tract of country could not fajl, 1 * Vide 79th vol. Philos. Trans. ; or Ann. Register for 1789. think, PITCH LAKE IN TRINIDAD. 007 think, to be highly gratifying to those who embrace the Huttonian Huttonian theory of the Earth, for they might behold the e'y: numerous branches of one of the largest rivers of the world (the Orinoco) bringing down so amazing a quantity of earthy particles as to discolour the sea in a most remarkable man- ner for many leagues distant*; they might see these earthy particles deposited by the influence of powerful currents on the shores of the gulf of Paria, and particularly on the western side of the island of Trinidad; they might there tind vast collections of bituminous substances, beds of porcelain 2 jasper, and such other bodies, as may readily be supposed to arise from the modified action of heat on such vegetable and ‘earthy materials as the waters are known ey to deposit. They would further perceive no very vague traces of subter- ranean fire, by which these changes may have been effected, and the whole tract elevated above the ordinary level of the general loose soil of the country, as for instance, hot springs, the vortices above mentioned, the frequent occurrence of - earthquakes, and two semivolcanic mounds at Point Icaque, which, though not very near, throw light on the general cha- racter of the country. Without pledging myself to any par- * No scene can be more magnificent than that presented on a near approach to the north-western coast of Trinidad. Thesea is not only changed frem a light green to a’deep brown culour, but has in an extra- ordinary degree, that rippling, confused, and whirling motion, which arises from the violence of contending currents, and which prevail here in so remarkable a manner, particularly at those seasons when the Ori- noco is swollen by periodical rains, that vessels are not unfrequently several days or weeks in stemming them, or perhaps are irresistibly borne before them far out of their destined track. The dark verdure of lofty mountains, covered with impenetrable woods to the very sum- mits, whence, in the most humid of climates, torrents impetuously rush through deep ravines to the sea; three narrow passages into the gulf of Paria, between rugged mountains of brown micaceous schist, on the cavernous sides of which the eddying surge dashes with fury, and where a vessel must necessarily be for some time embayed, with a depth of water scarcely to be fathomed by the lead, present altogether a scene which may well be conceived to have jmpressed the mind of the navi- gator who first beheld it with considerable surprise and awe. Colum- -bus made this land in his third voyage, and gave it the name of the Inferences of Bocas del Drago. “From the wonderful discoloration and turbidity of Columbus. ‘the water, he sagaciously concluded, that a very large river was near, and consequently a great continent, Magnificent scene. ticular Pr eae 208 Similar coun- try in Tatary. PITCH LAKE IN TRINIDAD» ticular system of geology, I confess an explanation similar to this appears to me sufficiently probable, and consonant with the known phenomena of nature. A vast river, like the Orinoco, must for ages have rolled down great quantities of woody and vegetable bodies, which from certain causes, as the influence of currents and eddies, may have been arrested and accumulated in particular places ; they may there have undergone those transformations and chemical changes, whicn various vegetable substances similarly situate have been proved to suffer in other parts of the world. An acci- dental fire, such as is known frequently to occur in the bowels of the Earth, may then have operated in separating and driv- ing of the newly formed bitumen more or less combined with siliceous and argillaceous earths, which forcing its way through the surface, and afterward becoming inspissated by exposure to the air, may have occasioned such scenes as I have ventured to describe. The only other country accu- rately resembling this part of Trinidad of which I recollect to have read, is that which borders on the gulf of Taman in Crim Tartary: from the representation of travellers, springs of naphtha and petroleum equally abound, and they describe volcanic mounds precisely similar to those of Point Icaque. Pallas’s explanation of their origin seems to me very satisfactory, and I think it not improbable, that the River Don and Sea of Azof inay have acted the same part in pro ducing these appearances in the one case, as the Orinoco and gulf of Paria appear to have done in the other*. It may be supposed that the destruction of a forest, or perhaps even a great Savanna on the spot, would be a more obvious mode of accounting for this singular phenomenon; but, as I shall immediately state, all this part of the island is of recent al- luvial formation, and the land all along this coast is daily receiving a considerable accession from thie surrounding water. The Pitch- lake with the circumjacent tract, being now on the margin of the sea, must in like manner have had an origin of no very distant date; besides, according to the above re- presentation of Capt. Mallet, and which has been frequently. corroborated, a fluid bitumen oozes up and rises to. the sure * Vide Universal Mag. for Feb. 1808, Mrs. Guthrie’s Tour in the Tauride, or Voyages de Pallas, ; face PITCH LAKE IN TRINIDAD. face of the water on both sides of the island, not where the sea has encroached on and overwhelmed the ready-formed land, but where it is obviously in a very rapid manner depoe siting and forming a new soil. From acousideration of the great hardness, the specific gravity, and the general external characters‘of the speci- mens submitted a few years ago to the examination of Mr. Hatchett, that gentleman was led to suppose, that a con= siderable part of the aggregate mass at Trinidad was not pure mineral pitch or decsaltatial but rather a porous stone of the argillaceous genus much impregnated with bitumen. ‘Two specimens of the more compact and earthy sort, av- alysed by Mr. Haichett, yielded about 32 and 36: per cent of pure bitumen: the residuum ic the crucible con- sisted of a spongy, friable, and ochraceous stone; and 100 20) Mr. Hatchett’s supposition, Specimens ane alysed by hims parts of it afforded, as far as could be determined by a_ single trial, of silica 60, alumine 10, oxide of iron 10, car- bonaceous matter by estimation 11; not the smallest traces of lime could be discovered, so that the substance has no similarity to the bituminous limestones which have been noticed in different parts of the world*, I have already remarked, that this mineral production differs considerably in different places, The specimens examined by Mr. Hatchett by no means correspond in character with the great mass of the lake, which, in most cases, would doubt- less be found to be infinitely more free from combination with earthy substances; though from the mode of origin which J have assigned to it, this intermixture may be re- garded as more or less unavoidable. The analysis cf the stone after the separation of the bitumen, as Mr. Hatchett very correctly observes, accords with the prevalent soil of the country; and I may add, with the soil daily deposited by the gulf, and with the coinposition of the porgelain jasper, in immediate contact with the bituminous mass. _All the country which [ have visited in Trinidad, is either decidedly primitive ar alluvial. The great northern range _of mountains which runs from east to west, and is connected with the highlands of Paria on the continent by ‘the * Vide Linnean Trans. vol. 8. islands Geology of the island. ~ PITCH LAKE IN TRINIDAD. . islands at the Bocas, consists of gneiss, of mica slate con- taining great masses of quartz, and in many places ap- proaching so much to the nature of talc, as to render the soil quite unctuous by its decomposition, and of compact bluish gray limestone, with frequent veins of white crys- tallized carbonate of lime. From the foot of these mount- ains for mauy leagues to the southward there is little else than a thick, fertile, argillaceons soil, without a stone or a single pebble. Thistract of land. which is low and per- fectly level, is evidently formed by the detritus of the mountains, and by the copious tribute of the waters of the Orinoco,which, being deposited by the influence of currents, gradually accumulates, and in a climate where vegetation is astonishingly rapid, is speedily covered with the nrangrove and other woods. It is accordingly observed, that the leeward side of the island constantly encroaches on’ the gulf, and marine shells are frequently found on the land at a considerable distance from the sea. ‘This is the cha- - racter of Naparima and the greater part of the country I Land formed saw along the coast to la Braye. It is not only in forming by theOrenoko and the river of Amazons. and extending the coast of Trintdad, that the Orinoco exerts its powerful agency; cooperating with its mighty sister flood, the Amazons, it has manifestly formed all that line of coast and vast extent of country, included between the extreme branches of each river. To use the language of a writer in the Philosophical Transactions of Edinburgh, “If you cast your eye upon the map you will observe, “from Cayenne to the bottom of the gulf of Paria, this <¢ immense tract of swamp formed by the sediment of these * rivers, and a similar tract of shallow muddy coast, which “their continued operation will one day, elevate. The «« sediment of the Amazons is carried down thus to leeward «¢ (the westward) by the constant currents which set along “¢ from the southward and the coast of Brazil. That of the © Qrinoco is detained and allowed to settle near its «« mouths by the opposite island of Trinidad, and still more ‘« by the mourtains on the main, which are only separated «from that island by the Bocas del Drago. The coast of ** Guinea has remained, as it were, the great eddy or resting ** place for the washings of great part of South America s¢ for » EXPERIMENTS ON INDIGO. 91} * for ages; and its own comparatively small streams have . §* but modified here and there the grand depos't*.”’ Having been amply gratified with our visit to this sine Political view — gular place, which to the usual magnificence of the West Se i of Indian landscape unites the striking MOV eCca eS of the local scene, we reembarked in our vessel, and stood along the coast on our return. On the way we landed, and visited the plantations of several gentlemen, who received us with hospitality, and made us more fully acquainted with the state of this island: a colony which may with truth be described as fortunate in its situation, fertile in its soil, and rich beyond measure in the productions of nature; pre- senting, in slert, by a rare combination, all which can gratify the curiosity of the naturalist, or the cupidity of the planter; restrained in the developement of its astonishing resources, only by the inadequacy of population, the tedious and ill-defined forms of Spanish justice, and the severe, though we hope transient, pressure of the times. VII. Chemical Experiments on Indigo: by M. Cuevrevutt. Nir. Vauquelin having requested me to examine the pyomination cause of that purple smoke, which arises from indigo exposed of the purple to heat, 1 made some experiments for the purpose, of which paed cia the followiug are the results. Sect. 1. On distilling indigo with a gentle heat, the 4 ction of neat products were; 1, an ammoniacal water: 2, sulphur, unit- onindigo, ed probably with oily hidrogen: 3, a thick oil of a brown colour, containing carbonate and acetate of ammonia: 4, prussiate and hidroguretted suiphuret of ammonia: 5,‘a * Vide Mr. Lochead’s Obser. on the Nat. His. of Guiana, Edin. _ Trans. vol. 4. See Journal, 4to. series, vol. II, p. 352. ‘* Journ. de Phys. vol. LXV, p. 309. Abridged from the paper read to the Institute, july the 13th, 1807. A fuller account is inserted in the Ann. de Chim. vol. LXVI, p. 5, of which the translator has occasionally” availed himself, purple Best mode of: obtaining the purphe maiter. Analysis of in- digo in the humid way. Action of wa- ter on it. Disoxigenated indigo, Green matter, EXPERIMENTS ON INDIGO. purple matter crystallized in small silky tufts at the summit of the retort: 6, a very bulky nitrogenous coal, yielding a prussiate when calcined with potash: 7, some gasses, which I did not examine. The purple matter being the principal ohijert of my re- search, it was necessary to have recourse to some other mode of obtaining it in a state of purity, for that I obtained by distillation was contaminated with the oil, which arose with it. The process that succeeded best with me was heating in a platina or silver crucible;surrounded by a charcoal fire, 5 dec. [7°7 grs] of indigo in fine powder; when the purple matter crystallized in needles in the middie of the crucible. It is necessary that the crucible be kept well closed during the process, and also for some time after it is removed from the furnace, otherwise the indigo would take fire. - i shall describe below the properties of this sublimed mat- ter, which had not wholly escaped the observation of Berg- man ; merely observing here, that it is the indigo separated from all those matters with which it is combined in what is sold by this name. At present I shall proceed to examine the nature of these substances, and the methods of separat- ing them. Sect. Il. Art. 1. Indigo finely powdered was infused for twelve hours in water heated to 90° or 100° F., in a closed glass vessel. The decanted liquor retaining some indigo in ~ suspension, it was filtered ; and the indigo was exhausted by repeated infusion and decoction. a. These liquors being united and distilled eielded an odoriferous water, a little ammoniacal; and I suspect it contained also sulphur. Mean time a greenish powder was precipitated from it, which assumed a blue colour from contact with the air. This substance exhibited all the cha- racters of indigo, whence I infer, that part of the indigo in that of the shops is disoxigenated, and dissolves in water by means of the ammonia. 6. Long after the separation of the disoxigenated indigo, a flocculent precipitate appeared of a peculiar substance, which I shall call green matter ; and which had the follow- ine properties. it is very little soluble in water, unless by the intermedium of an alkali. It then assumes a reddish , colour, EXPERIMENTS ON INDIGO. 913 colour, which acids change to a green by saturating the al- kali. When the solutions are concentrated, the green mat- ter falls down in green flocks. Alcohol dissolves this pre= Cipitate, and forms a red tincture ; but this, when spread out thin, or mixed with water, appears green, as it does when viewed on its surface. c. Alcohol being added to the concentrated liquor 5, from . whieh the green matter had been precipitated, separated a substance, the taste of which was slightly bitter and astrin- gent, and which burnt on the coals, diffusing a smell of empyreumatic vinegar. The alcohol acquired a reddish colour, owing to the combination of green matter with am- monia. Thus the substances separated from the indigo by water were, 1, ammonia: -2, indigo at a minimum of oxidation : 3, agreen matter: 4, a slightly bitter and astringent matter, . of a yellowish brown colour. Of these the 2d and 3d are held in solution by the ammonia. . 100 parts of indigo lost 12 by treatment with water. Art. II. From the indigo exhausted by water alcohol Action of | took up, 1, some green matter: 2, a matter that I call red #9#0!. resin: 3, indigo at a maximum of oxidation. The insolubility of the green matter in the treatment with water (Art. I.) Lascribe to the want of a sufficient quantity of ammonia to dissolve it entirely, and the affinity of the red matter forit. | , The principal difference between the red resin and the green matter is, that the latter is rendered red by alkalis, and that this compound becomes green by the addition of anacid ; while the colour of the former is not changed either by acids or alkalis, only acids produce with ita red floecu- lent precipitate, | In acting twice on the indigo alcohol took up 26 parts from the 88 left by the water. 1 suffered the alcohol to act on it no longer, when it begaa to acquire a viclet tint. » Art. 11. Muriatic acid dissolved 10 parts; 2 of which Action of wna were iron mixed with alamine, 2 carbonate of lime, and 6 M+ acid, probably red matter, that was dissolved iu the acid after be- ing decomposed. The preceding experiment having shown, that the indigo cite, action was Of Ucchol. 214 Indigoes differ. Green matter yariabie. Colouring matter various- ty modified. Purple smoke the pure in- digo sublimed. EXPERIMENTS ON INDIGO. was not completely divested of foreign colouring matter, I treated it again with alcohol, till this liquid became blue. By this treatment it lost 4 parts of red resin, mixed with a little indigo. In these different processes the indigo lost 0°52 of foreign matter, which reduced it to 0°48, from which 0°03 more must be deducted for the silex it still contains. Every sort of indigo does not yield the same results on analysing as,that of Guatimala, on which I operated. In most the green matter changed to a fawn colour; it became very red on the addition of alkalis; but acids did not render this compound green. One specimen, in pretty thick square cakes, of a black blue colour, yielded me no indigo ataminimum. Its ashes contained more iron than that of » Guatimala, and also magnesia. Some indigo, which I was informed came from Bengal, yielded me a twentieth of im- digo at a minimum; and its ashes contained a little sul+ phate of lime. In some indigoes I found traces of phosphate of lime. : . {t is not very common to find the green matter in full possession of its properties: sometimes yellow extractive matter is so predominant, that it is difficult to detect it; and sometimes no vestige of it is to be found. In general I remarked, that these indigoes, which contained most am- monia, contained also more indigo at a minimum, and more green matter, than others. The indigo cf Java afforded me the last in its greatest purity. I consider the colouring matters accompanying indigo as originating from the same substance variously modified. Sect. III. The source of the purple smoke was now easily detected. On heating successively the green mafter, ex- tract, and gum, extracted. by water, and the red resin ex- tracted by alcohol, no purple smoke was perceivable. But trying the same experiment on the indigo separated, by water, on that separated by alcohol, and lastly on that treated successively by water, alcohol, and muriatic acid, a fine purple smoke arose, much deeper coloured than that produced by an equal quantity of indigo not purified. This smoke is not the result of a decomposition of the indigo by heat: for we found by experiment, that it was this ¥ / EXPERIMENTS ON INDIGO. this colouring matter itself volatilized; and that the sub- stance crystallized in silky tufts, obtained by distilling indigo, is indigo in a state of purity. These crystals dis- solve in concentrated sulphuric acid, imparting to it a fine blue colour; and are volatilized anew in a purple smoke, when thrown on a hot body. Indigo, therefore, is volatile, and capable of crystalliza- Purified in- tion; and may be purified either in the dry or in the wet way. The indigo obtained in both ways is perfectly similar, except that the latter always retains some earthy matter : and it is remarkable, that the indigo purified in the wet way is not so blue as it was before, and has a perceptible violet tinge; while indigo not purified, if placed by its side, ap- pears of a dull blue. When pure indigo is thrown into concentrated sulphuric acid, it first produces a yellow, which afterward becomes green, and at length ofa fine blue. In this process the in- digo undergoes some change of composition, that merits examination. This is shown, by its being soluble in a number of menstruums, after it has been precipitated from this solution, which before had no action on it: and, which is more strange, by .its no longer producing the purple smoke, at least in the same circumstances, and appearing to have lost its volatility. _ Hot alcohol dissolves a small portion of indigo, which gives it a fine blue colour ; but as it cools the colouring matter falls down, and after some time scarcely any is re- tained in solution. If however the indigo contain a certain quantity of the red resin, the solution will remain coloured for some months, From the facts adduced it follows : { 1, That pure indigo is purple; igo. Action of sul- phuric acid cn it. Action of alcohol. General pro- 2, That it is volatilized in the form of a purple smoke, syiee of in- crystallizable in needles of the same colour : 3,. This volatization of a highly carbonated substance is remarkable, as it demonstrates, that the volatility of com- pounds does not depend simply on the volatility of their ele- ments, bat also on the affinity, with which the most dilata- ble are united to the most fixed : 4, Indigo ia alittle solublein alcohol. A very 216 Indigo disoxi- dated by sul- phuretted hi- drogen, ACTION OF MURIATIC ACID ON SUGAR. A very interesting observation, for which we are indebted to Mr. Vauquelin, is the disoxidation of indigo by sulphu- retted hidrogen. This experiment proves two curious facts : ist, that in this substance either the whole or at least part of the oxigen exists in some sort separate from the other prin- ciples, since it may be taken away, and restored at pleasure by allowing the sulphuretted hidrogen to evaporate in the open air, without destroying the nature of the colouring matter, In this circuinstance indigo has a resemblance to the metals.. 2dly, that carbon has no concern in the colour- ‘ing of indigo, since this is deprived of colour in circum- Nitric acid de- comvosed On sugar by yield. ing up one of its elements, the oxigen, might furni-h a clew for in. vestigating its composition, Thesame may desaid respect Ing Murlatic acid. Dr Priestley parually exa- mined the ef. ~ fects produced on sugar by mBUrAtic yas. stances 1p which it contains most carbon. Vill. On the Action of Muriatic Acid on Sugar, and the Nature of its Principles: In a Letter from Joun Nowy, Esq. To W. NICHOLSON, Esq, » SIR, Ir is well known, that the nitric acid becomes decomposed with sugar under certain circumstances, and forms a vegeta= ble acid (the oxalic) by yielding to ihe sugar one of its elements. If the composition of the nitric acid was not known, this property evidently would farnish a clew to guide us in the investigation of its elementary principles. Some time ago I was struck with the same idea with respect,to the muriatic acid; and, asics action on sugar had not been ob- served with attention, I set about making experiments on the subject, with a view, if not to change the muriatie acid intoa new substance, at least to satisfy myself of the parti- culars of its action. I was aware, that Dr. Priestley had observed when muri-- atic gas was passed through a solution of sugar it gradually acquired a brown colour and strong smell; but on passing a current of this gas through a moderately strong solution, I was convinced of the extreme slowness of the process, Besides, ACTION OF MURIATIC ACID ON SUGAR. Q17 Besides I did not observe the effects as he describes them, till heating the mixture, when it grew black, and carbon be= came Senasted. On account of thé slowness of the process I substituted The liquid acid the weak liquid muriatic acid of the specific gravity of pa ip 1°050 or 1:080 instead of the < gas, having first satisfied my- gas. self by experiments of the analogy of the réstilts®, In some Oximuriatic former experiments on the action of the oximuriatic gas on nee by sigar assisted by heat, I had obtained the same results, considerable ana drawn the same conclusions, as Mr. Chenevix, though ee on his results and conclusions were at that time unknown to me, it being only lately that I saw them in the last edition of Dr. Thomson’s System of Chemistry. Mr. Chenevix it forms the thinks, that the oxigen of the oximuriatic acid goes to the Malic acid. formation of the malic acid, which is produced during the action; but as the experiments detailed in this paper will prove, that the muriatic acid acts with facility on sugar, ‘we can, scarcely doubt, that, after all the oxigen has been given to the elements of sugar from the oximuriatic acid, the muriatic acid acts on the remaining sugar, being thereby partially decomposed. Vauquelin does not mention the formation of the malicacid Mr.Vauquelin ovetlooked ~ when sugar is acted upon by the oximuriatic gas, but says, 4}. metic ace ‘‘ that the solution pesressed the properties of carainel or when he ex- partially burnt sugar.” I have often been at a loss what Se ae substance to ascribe this French name to, whether toa new oximuriatic product formed during the decomposition of sugar by heat, spanine t or to the fumes of the pyromucous or acetic acid, which are given off plentifully. But, if by caramel is meant par- tially burnt sugar, we may altogether discard this name from our chemical systems, and substitute the old name -ynolasses instead of itt. Under certain circumstances that ® My reason for substituting the weak acid instead of the strong was, that, as the strong acid occupies considerably less bulk, no large quantity of sugar would be dissolved; for, when the sugar is added in large quantity, the acid becomes "diffused through its pores by capillary attraction. There can be no doubt however, that the action of both is perfectly analogous. + “Caramel. Saccharum percoctum. Drogue que les apoticaires préparent pour le rhume, qui consiste particuliérement en du sucte fort cuit.” Encyc. Frang. Vat. et Ang. Lond. 1761. C. ‘ Vou. XXXIIL.—Jury 1812. Q this 918 ACTION OF MURIATIC ACID ON SUGAR. this substance is present is sometimes the case, though we do not raise the heat high; but that the malic acid exists in abundance there cannot be the least doubt, notwithstand- ing the opinion of such an able chemist as Mr. Vauquelin. The acid was ‘The muriatic acid used in all the following experiments ati was pure, It gave no indication of avy foreign ingredients by the usual reagents. Muriatic acid Sect, I. ist. 50 prs of muriatic acid of the spec. grav, helt abt 1°050 were added to 50 grs of loaf sugar at the temperature solves sugar 45° Far. The sugar dissolved without effervescence. The Bidce i taste of the solution was acid, though shehtly saccharine. The original stiffness of the acid was somewhat increased, and its colour changed to that of a yellowish brown. Sa- turated wiih a solution of subcarbonate of soda, and : evaporated at 212°, it gradually acquired the consistence of asirup; and very pungent white vapours were given off, which condensed on the lid that covered the capsule. From their taste and’ smell they appeared to be the pyro- nincous acid. If the 50 grs above had been saturated with soda, the muriate would have weighed 14 grs. 14 grs of muriate of soda were mixed with 50 ers of sugar dissolved in water, and submitted in every respect to the same operation as the solution of sugar in muriatic acid; when exactly the same phenomena presented themselves as in the former case, viz. the mixture acquired a sirupy consistence, and towards the close of the evaporation emitted acetic fumes. Hence it appears, that this change takes place without free murtatic acid being present; of course this avid had no share in the decomposition, _ This change took place exactly the same when a solution of sugar was evapo-= rated rapidly; from which IL infer, that cold muriatic acid has no action on sugar, except as a solvent. Whether it be the water contamed in abundance in the dilute acid, which disselves the sugar, or in some measure the acid itself, it would not be very easy to decide. Vedi Muriatic acid If, instead of saturating the solution cf sugar in muriatic a-sisted by heat has considera. | ees 4 bie eciion oniwixture becomes black, and carbon precipitates. To SuBAr obiain all the products of this apparent decomposition, I made use of the foliowing apparatus. A small retort was” acid with soda, we apply a slight heat for some time, the Deseription of joined. ACTION OF MURIATIC ACID ON sUGAR. 219 joined te a receiver with two necks; into one neck the beak the apparatus of the retort was inserted, into the other a glass tube, which ™ade use of. terminated in a ylass air holder filled with water. The tubes were fitted through corks into their respective necks, and luted perfectly air tight with bees wax, or with resin. By this apparatus I was enabled to ascertain whether any gas, except the air of the vessels, came over during the application of heat, at the same time that the air holder had hot the inconvenience that a common plain tube, ter- minating under the pneumatic sheif, would have had of admitting the water ‘of the trough into the receiver, when ‘impelled to it by the sudden condensation of the aqueous vapour in the retort. -I shall now proceed to give the experiments as the facts presented themseives during the inquiry, being persuaded that this method is the most accurate, as well as the most concise. - Sect. I]. Ist. 100 grs of muriatic acid, spec. grav. 1:089, Heat applied were mixed with 100 grs of loaf sugar. A solution of the ‘o the solution ; , : Meas : of sugar in di- sugar was effected, accompanied by the emission of a slight tute muriatic pungent vapour of muriatic acid. This solution being acid precipi- introduced into the retort, and joined and luted to the eae ia auxiliary apparatus before described, the heat of 180° F. | was applied by means of a water bath for half an hour. After about ten minutes had elapsed, abundance of carbon became deposited, and adhered to the bottom and sides of the retort firmly; till finally the solution became apparently solid from the copious deposition of carbon, During this No gas came change, not the least quantity of gas came over, except the 0%" i pos ‘ air of the vessels, which returned again on suffering the ie - ain apparatus to cool. 2d. The liquid found in the receiver weighed 7 grs; The liquid diss of course a large portion must have adhered to the car- tilled into the bonaceous matter in the retort. But in subsequent ex- Sitel cigs periments, on using a retort that exposed a larger surface mucous acid _of the liquid to evaporation, [ haye known it amount to 70 tae wags or 80 ets, though only exposed to heat the same time. Still, whatever may be the quantity which comes over, it _always consists of two acids, the muriatic and pyromucous, or rather the acetic a little modified. If to this liquid we add carbonate of lead, #n effervescence is the result, mu- Q 2 riate - 990 ACTION, OF MURIATIC ACID ON SUGAR. riate of lead falls down; and by employing a close filter we may separate the insoluble muriate from the acetate, which, passes through the filter. By saturation with soda the oxide is precipitated, and by evaporating the mother water we obtain the-acetate, or at Jeast the apparent acetate, dissoluble in rectified alcohol. The acid, which holds the lead in solution, appears more susceptible of being driven off by heat than the acid of the common acetate; for I have several times observed, that, when a solution of ‘lead in it is concentrated by evaporation, a pungent smell is given off, and a yellow oxide.is precipitated. A partial solus Sd. The residuum in the retort was detached by 1000 tion ofthe sub- grs of water, added in quantities of 100 grs at a time, and — stance 4n the retort effected, C(™@Ploying some agitation. A partial achution of this substance was effected. Baryon not 4th. The substance insoluble being separated by the pure. filter, it appeared to be carbon, heats when heated it gave off gaseous inflammable matter. I have seen some sorts of impure charcoal do the same, under similar cireum- stances*. The solution th. The solution, which passed through the filter, was possessed the of the colour of red wine: its taste was acid, and it reddened eae Ess vegetable blues, The various reagents generally adopted eee malic by our most eminent chemists did not indicate the presence _and citric; neither did the benzeic, suberic, succinic, or A ee nibs camphoric exist in it. The only products, beside muriatic tion of the a- acid and a little undecomposed sugar, were a large quantity cetic likewise detected, ‘or of malic and a trace of the acetic acid. To a known vather the quantity carbonate of lead was added to saturation; the pyromucous: malate and muriate of lead were separated by the filter, and the acetate passed through. ‘The same evidence of the presence of this acid was obtained as in sect. II. The substance left on the filter was of a brown colour. After * The whole weight of this substance when perfectly dry would be about 36 grs. 10 grs, being heated red het for some time, lost in “weight 4 grs. Therefore 36 grs would lose 14:4; so that, if we could take into’ account all the carbonate in the product drawn off 2 by heat, the quantity would probably differ litle from the statement . of Lavoisier, viz. in 100 parts 28 gre. 03: &: fons ane _of any of the following acids, viz. the gallic, oxalic, tartaric, — ACTION OF MURIATIC ACID ON SUGAR. 901 being well washed, a small quantity of dilute sulphuric acid was poured upon it. The mixed sulphate of lead and muriate were separated by the filter. What passed through possessed the original brown colour, and in part the acid taste ; and had the properties of the malic acid, ‘though it was evidently mixed with a small quantity of the ~ muriatic. It is very difficult to separate these two acids from each other, _without resolving the malic into its ultimate elements; the reagents being acted upon by each somewhat alike. In the above case the acetate of lead precipitated both the acids; and the sulphuric acid acted not only upon the malate, but also on the muriate: con- sequently instead of finding the malic acid singly, a mix- ture of the malic acid and muriatic were found. A fact Curious fact: which at first appeared somewhat puzzling to me was, that, on it el the introducing a quantity of this fluid into a retort, and gently aieWied faces distilling, a large quantity of acid was found in the receiver; sited carbon, which, examined nearly by the method just mentioned, abi arte! appeared to be of the nature of the acetous. If we apply'acid as a pro- — -heat a long time to the carbonaceous matter, which is duct. plentifully deposited during the distillation, so as to drive off all the adhering acid; on macerating the dry mass in water we do not find a solution of malic acid, but some- “times, under certain circumstances, something of the remains of sugar*. This curious change is owing to the presence of muriatic acid, as the following comparative experiment will prove. I prepared some tolerably pure malic acid by bruising preparation of the leaves of the semmpervivum tectorum (houseleek) along malic acid with a little water in an earthen mortar. The juicy mix- ee ture thus obtained contained a considerable portion of malate of lime. To remove the lime from the malate, a solution of oxalic acid was added cautiously, and the small excess was removed by lime water. The oxalate of lime yyaise acid dise was separated by a filter, and the liquid evaporated, till :t tilled by itself : : : f i » -, does not depo- became sufficientiy concentrated. About a drachm of it sit cacborsee * By returning the acid product into the retort, and. distilling successively several times, this substance gradualiy disappears alto- gether, and the products are the acetous and muriatic acids and Carbon. ; 4 was 3 . 22% yield pytomu- cous acu’, but does when dis- tilled with mu- riatic acid. * Action of the muriatic acid on sugar something analogous to the action of the nitric ; some element must be fur- nished, ACTION OF MURIATIC ACID GN SUGAR. was introduced into a very small retort, and gradually distilled to dryness; no carbon became deposited, nor was any acid distilled into the receiver, The dry mass was again dissolved im water, and again distilled along with a few drops of muriatic acid; abundance of carbon now precipitated, and acetous acid was the product found in the receiver along with the muniatic. As it wonld be absurd and vague to suppose such de- compositions as the above could foseuly take place without some vev substance being furnished, and as the calonc would have been quite henmlene had not muriatic acid been present, we must of consequence suppose, that this acid is a compound body, capable of furnishing something analogous to that furnished by the nitric acid to sugar in similar situations; for the nitric in fact beside the oxalic forms a portion of malic acid, the quantity of which de- pends on circumstances. In some cases instead of finding oxalic acid I have found nearly the whole product malic acid, at the same time that sometling like carbon was de- posited*, Butifa part of the muniatic acid is furnished, to cause the elements of sugar to be differently arranged, of - course it must be decomposed ; that is, it must be reduced Some part of the murijatic acid must dis- appear and be decomposed. into its primary elements. The following fact 1s analogous : when the nitric acid changes the sugar into the oxalic acid, oxigen is furnished, and the other element, thé azote, is given off in a combination with a smaller portion of oxigen, in the form of nitrous gas. This analogy would lead us to suppose, that to change sugar into the malic acid, at least some part of the muriatic must disappear, and enter along with the gasseous elements into the composition of the pro- ducts, viz. the malic and acetous acids; not indeed in the form of muriatic acid, but in the form of some of its primitive elements, But before we can say much more on this subject, we must obtain positive evidence of its pare tial disappearance, because without such evidence, a nearly similar explanation of the above fact might. be given, as that which Mr. Kind gave when he observed the change, that oil of turpentine underwent when acted upon by mariatic * Ja this case I cannot answer for the purity of the acid. bi 20g nitri¢ of commerce sometimes contains muriatic acid, HAE. ACTION OF MURIATIC ACID ON SUGAR. gas. Butif we obtain such evidence, then it at once follows, that this acid is a compound body; and that its disappear- ance, when made to act upon sugar, is owing to its ultimate decomposition. To ascertain this important point, after adopting several methods, I was led finally to pitch upon the following as the most susceptible of accuracy. The apparatus made use of for this purpose differed from the former only by a substitution of atubulated retort for a common ene. ‘Ssor. Ill. 1st. One hundred grains of muriatic acid of the spec. grav. 1°050 were poured upon 50 ers of dry sugar, previously weighed and introduced into the retort. The apparatus was joined, and found to be perfectly air tight. After the sugar was dissolved, heat was applied to the retort, till about 90 grains of liquid were distilled over into the receiver. After the apparatus had become cool by several hours standing, the 90 grs just mentioned were poured back upon the carbonaceous’ matter in ‘the retort, and again dis- tilled in this manner five times, till finally heat was‘applied to the retort several hours, to drive off all the adhering acid. Care was taken in all this operation not to disjoin the appa- ratus, till it had: been cool for some time, lest some vapour might rush out, and falsify theresults. Noextragas passed over into the air holder, nor had the least sensible quantity of muriatic gas become condensed by its water, for it afforded no muriate with nitrate of silver. ad. The liquid condensed in the receiver weighed 128 grs. Its colour was a reddish brown: its taste extremely acid: its smell] that of aromatic vinegar nearly. 3d. The substance in the retort was tasteless. Water dissolved no part of it, but acquired an acid taste from a number of drops condensed in the neck of the retort*. The ‘whole was thrown upon a filter to separate the carbon, which weighed, after being well washed and dried at 170° or 180° for some time, 18 grs. The liquid, which passed through, weighing 550 grs, gave a precipitate with sulphate of silver weighing 1°375. ) * It contained neither a trace of malic acid nor a vestige of unde- composed sugar. The successive distillations having been with the presence of muriatic acid capable of decomposing both. Ath, 224 ACTION OF MURIATIC ACID ON sUG4R. Proof that the 4th. Ten grains of the original muriatic acid gave a pre- Geaipearn by cipitate with sulohate of silver, which weighed exactly 7 gra comparing the after having been dried perfectly on the vapour bath at 170 weg of mU- ‘or 180 degrees, After this rate 100 grs, the quantity used riate of silver yielded oy the 1 the experiment above, should yield exactly 70 grains dried — original acid at the same heat. 10 grsof the liquid (2d) gave with the with that ; : yielded by the Same solution of sulphate of silver 4:937 grs dried the same same quantity exactly; therefore i28 would have given 63°194 nearly, | ena which, added to the quantity of mariate of silver yielded by posed sugar. the 550 grs of liquid (8d), makes the whole amount of mu-. riate of sjlver 64:569 ; which subtracted from 70 ers, the weight that would have been obtained had we operated on the original acid, leaves for deficiency 5:43!. According to Dr. Marcet 100 grs of dry muriate of silver contain 19°05 of acid: taking this datum, 5:43] wi!| contain 1034, - which is obviously the loss of real acid. Lam at a loss to know, what objections may be brought against this experi- ment: for my part I can at present see none, The greatest care was taken, that no acid vapour might be lost in the various Openings of tie apparatus; and I have reason to believe, that not the least escaped, for the weight of the distilled prodyct, which was 128 grs, compared with the few drops of liquid, that remained in the retort, made up along with the carbon the weight of the substances intro- duced. The muriate of silver in both cases was I think equally dried: both specimens were brqught to the greatest state of dryness, by being exposed to exactly the saine heat, and particular precaution was taken to bring each to the same state directly before being weighed, It gave me not a little uneasiness to obtain results, that would in any respect militate against the prevailing theory of sir Humphrey Davy. The last experiment I repeated several times with the great- est care, and [ always obtained results little auiedcas from the above,. From their constant uniformity I cannot con- clude less, than that a pert af the acid disappears. 'To ex-_ plain the rationale of the above fact I had first recourse to the present prevailing theory. proposed by sir H. Davy, which supposes the muriatic acid to be compounded of ‘hidrogen and chlorine gas; but from facts directly to be de- tailed I found it incapable, at least without bordering too much upon hypothesis. ACTION OF MURIATIC ACID OX SUGAR. 925 | - %n the experiment (sect. II) the new substances produced The wholepro. during the decomposition were a quantity of the pyromu- at ee cous acid and water. I endeavoured’ to ascertain their sition of sugar relative proportions to each other by proceeding on the data OC eee of I think Vauquelin, that the pvromucous acid differs only acid, from the acetic in being conibined with an oil: though Idid not succeed, being persuaded from several facts, that it either differs much from the acetic in composition, or others wise that errour attends the analysis of the acetic acid by Dr. Hiegias. I however saw evidence of ihe production of water to a considerable amount; and I can entertain bat little doubt, that the pyroimucous acid consists of oxigen, ‘hidrogen, and carbon, though we do oot know its absolute composition. To explain the above facts on the basis of sir _ H. Davy’s theory, we must in the first place suppose, that ae bata hidrogen must be furnished to sugar to form the malic acid compound ha- and the pyromucous, and that the other component part of 'teofthe mur : rlatic acid in- muriatic acid, the cnlorine, must be giveu off in the gaseous sufficient to explain the tae 4 ‘ : ” tionale of the for the most delicate test that 1 could apply did not discover above facts. a trace of this gas. I am aware however, that a small quan- tity might adhere along with the muriatic acid insensible to our, most delicate tests, as is certaiiy the case with the or- dinary muriatic acid of commerce; but the quantity, which according to sirH. Davy we should have a right to expect, could not from its magnitude have operated in this manner. Tn the second place it might be supposed, that both these substances were furnished, viz. the chlorine gas and nidre- gen: but this supposition would not in the least tally with / \ < sibeh te eas : . te ‘state of oximuriatic gas. But this expianation is insufficient the known component parts of the water and pyromucous acid, the new products. Sugar is composed of oxigen, hi- drogen, and carbon ; and the products of the decomposition are composed of the same substances, differing ouly in the relative proportions of the?r component parts. Hidrogen or The strictest oxigen indeed might have been furnished, but no other sub- enaleey. hea: stance differing from these was furnished, nor could be fare rally to sup- nished without forming a quaternary compound, which we are Le aelaenl at present not acquainted with*, The excess of ingredients js composed of cin this decom position being only in oxigen and iiidrogen, and arises one hi- * Consisting of oxigen, hidrogen, chlorine, and carbon. as Reasons for making the oximuriatic acid com- pound, ZIGZ4G MOTION OF THE ELECTRIC SPARK. as no gaseous matter whatever escaped, must we not suppose, that both component parts of the muriatic acid which disap-_ peared entered into the composition of the two preducts, water and pyromucous acid? If only one entered, the other would be given off; but this was not the case, for no gas whatever, as I have shown before, was produced ; of conse- quence we may I think conclude, that muriatic acid is com- posed of oxigen and hidrogen. 4 Upon strict analogy we cannot conclude less than that the oximuriatic gas or chlorine gas of Davy is a compound. This when heated along with sugar forms malic acid even in more abundance than the muriatic acid does. The malic acid, when submitted to heat capable of decomposing it into its elementary principles, gives us an acid (the pyromucous), water, a larve portion of carbonic acid, and some carburetted hidrogen. Hence it must be composed like sugar of oxigen, hidrogen, and carbon: consequently the malic acid 1s of known composition. If the chlorine gas was simple we could not obtain bodies the composition of which is known, and in which no such principle is found. Instead of obtaining malie acid, which is a ternary combination, we should have ob- tained of course a quaternary compound, or a direct com= — pound of oxigen, hidrogen, carbon and chlorine; which would have been a body unknown to us, or anew substance. If I van in any degree draw the attention of your more able cor- respondents to this subject, so as to enlarge more upon it, my sole aim will be fully answered. Farnley Wood, near Huddersfield, I. N. June the 10th, 1812. eos iX, On the Zig-zag Motion of the Electric Spark. Ina Letter Jrom I. Av De Luc, Esa. F. B.S. To W. NICHOLSON, Eso. SiR, , sé Papers in the I have found in your No. 144, two papers, on which I shail Journal on e- fectricity. take the liberty of communicating to you some remarks: one ZIGZAG MOTION OF THE ELECTRIC SPARK. 927 one is Art. II, signed J. Puanix, concerning the zig-zag motion of the electric spark; and the other Art. XI, by Dr. Maycock ona the production of electrical excitement by friction, which is the continuation of another in your No, | 131. These papers concerning e/ectricity have strongly ex- cited my attention, as you may suppose from my papers on the_same subject in your Journal. But for the present I shall confine myself to the paper signed J. Pranix, on the zig-zag motion of the electric spark. The author says (p. 243), ‘‘ that this subject seems to Cause of the * “have been withheld entirely from public discussion.” But gie7e pees he immediately mentions the true explanation of this phe- Ht, nomenon in the following manner. * The only account I ‘* have heard in lectures was, that by its own rapidity of . ‘* motion it condensates the ar to such a degree, that it has “* to move, as it were, from a solid to a less dense medium; “‘ which seems to me impossible.” I shall first consider this rejected explanation with respect, not only to its possibility, but to its sufficiency. The electric fluid moves with a great velocity, as we may Capable of judge by the sight; and it is such, that we cannot estimate epee 2 it, comparatively to that of ight; but it is much denser, as -we it, so as to be see by the hole that a strong spark produces in a card which oe side- is opposed to its course ; it may therefore occasion a sufficient compression in the air before it, so that at last it is repulsed ‘sidewise. _ We have an example of the repulsion in the air itself. Example of The instrument called anemometer shows the velocity of the ts in the air. wind, because the air in motion, finding in it an obstacle, is condensed against it, and thus presses it forward; but if it finds less resistance on one side, it escapes and presses the obstacle stdewise. The immediate pressure of air is shown in the ingenious anemometer of Dr. Linn, described in the 65th vol. of the Philos. Transactions, p. 363. ‘This instru- ment consists of a glass siphon, having quicksilver in both its branches, open at their extremities, one of which is bent forward at a right angle. When the siphon is held upright, and the opening of the bent branch is turned towards the wind, the quicksilver is depressed in it, and ascends in the _other, in proportion to the velocity of the current of air. 2 As 225 ‘Lateral press- ure of ar on the sails of a shipe Erroneous hy- poiiesis. Importance of meiteoiclogical pucnomena in setence. Nature of the atmosphere, ZIGZAG MOTION OF THE ELECTRIC SPARK. L As for the lateral pressure of air, when it experiences Jess’. resistance on one side of its course than on the other, we have an example of this effect in the motions of ships; why. do they change their course by the different inclination of their sails? It is because they offer less résistance to the motion of the air, which thus changes its course ; however it presses sidewise, so as to put the sip in a different motion, which is determined by the rudder. This is an example ab- solutely analcgous, only mverse, of the change of ceurse of the electric spark ; this compresses the air, until finding less resistance on one side, it suddenly changes its course. I come to the author’s bypothesis, in which he sets out from this certain faet ; “ that the electric fiuid passes tn a «¢ more direct line according to. the best or the worst conduci- ‘© ing substances presented to it:” but not being sufficiently conversant with meteorological phznomena, he makes an hypothesis, which will give me the opportunity of showing how necessary is their knowledge in every branch of experi- mental philosophy, to avoid arbitrary, and even delusive hy- potheses. ‘* Our atmosphere,” he says, ‘* being a compound ‘of oxigen, &c. presents at once, to the spark, flying from ‘¢ the machine, at least four known gasses; all, I have not “ the smallest doubt, differing in their conducting power, were — “they separately tried.” This therefore remains a mere ' hypothesis, till the tréal has been made; however he thus con- tinues: * This point being ascertained, the phenomenon is “© at once accounted for. The fluid fliés to thé next Best con- 7% ** ducting gas from a worse, as it would from different por- “© tions of matter.” "nae 4 I hope the author will see now, that he has not accounted ‘ for this phenomenon. But, Sir, he himself, or others ef your readers, will I hope take some interest in a short account of | the meterologica’ phenomena, which might have prevented his hypothesis, in the first class of which are the following. I have proved in my work Idees sur la Météorologie,— 1. That it is an errour to cousider the principal mass of the — atmosphere as composed of two distinct fluids, or.gasses, one called oxigen, the other Atdrogen; that atmospheric air is a fluid sui generis, composed, in each particle, of all the ingres dients manifested in its decompositions. —2 That atmospheric air ZIGZAG MOTION OF THE ELECTRIC SPARK. - 999 air isa transformation of the aqueous vapour which constantly ascends in the atmosphere.—3 That rain is produced by the ‘decomposition of that air, which returns to aqueous vapour, | / first in clowds, from which, by their condensation, razn pro- “ceeds, Those among natural philosophers who have not adopted Different hy- this system, being however obliged to explain the production pet ‘of rain, have supposed that the aqueous vapour, ascending in ent with facts. the atmosphere, accumulates -in its upper parts, where it is condensed by the cold of that region. But in the first place it has been found by Mr. pE Saussure, and myself, by hy- groscopical observations, that the more we ascend in the at- mosphere, the less of aqueous vapour is mixed with the air. Besides, from this hypothesis, rain should fall only in the night, when the atmosphere cools after sunset. But the spring of this year has furnished a test to the atmospheric systems. We have had almost incessant rains, with great storms. Where could that enormous quantity of water be ¥ contained, if not in the composition of the air itself >—What could have occasioned these tremendous local storms, ex- cept the decomposition of air in certain extents, toward which the other air was rushing? However this analysis of the constitution of the atmosphere Ancther ob- “is not necessary to show how groundless the author’s hypo- anes ae thesis i is; for it is a known fact, that if such distinct gasses thesis. as oxigen and hidrogen exist in its mass, they are no where separaied in the whole of its extent, from the plain to the top of the highest mountains: consequently the electric spark can ‘no where be attracted on one side more than another, even were it proved that these fluids possess different conducting faculties. Therefore there remains only the explanation which the author rejects, because he was not informed of these facts. _ There is a phenomenon, which shows to the sight the Falling stars. manner in which some fluids, distinct from atmospheric air, “ascending in the atmosphere, follow their course; I mean — “what is called falling stars, when they follow a long track. 4 This is a phosphoric fluid, ascending from some spot of the ‘surface of the Earth. It isinvisible in its ascent, because there is some circumstance required to make it phosphores- z cent, ARTIFICIAL STONY SUBSTANCE. cent, by decomposition ; but when this happens, the light _ disengaged makes it visible the whole way, and this isin a Solidification of water. Composition of an artificial stoae. Action of a Jarge quantity of materials, straight line. The small falling stars are composed of the same fluid, but it has been disturbed in its ascent by the agitation of the air ; its streams have been divided, and their deebieaieai changed. ' If the author has any objection to the whole, or to some part of this answer to his system, I shall be giad to receive it through your Journal ; but he will find, I think, that it in- volves mauy more objects of meleorology than he was aware of; as this is connected with most part of natural phileso- phy, I remain, Sir, your most obedient servant, J.E. DE LUC. Windsor, June the 18th, 1812. = errr Ke Remarks on an artificial stony Substance : by F. R. Cu- RAUDAU*, A Remarkable example of the high degree of solidification that water can acquire in certain combinations is exhibited by the artificial stones, which form the subject of the a sent remark. ‘These stones, more than half the weight of which is water, consist also of sulphuric acid and baked clay reduced to powder, in the proportion of one part of the former and two of the latter. The simple mixture of these three substances affords only a solution of sulphate of alumiune: but, if their mutual action be promoted, heat is soon produced, and its evolution is sometimes so considerable, that the matter seems incandescent. If the quantity of materials amount to 25 or 30 hundred weight, this beautiful phenomenon lasts above an hour. But, what is particularly remarkable, if the matter come to want water at the moment when the mutual action of the # Journ-de Phys. vol. LXVILI, p. 409. substances ft - purposes, that experience would point out? Itis true that ARTIFICIAL STONY SUBSTANCE. 23] substances on each other is most energetic, the mass, though still fluid, acquires suddenly a great degree of solidity ; the heat is even increased in its intensity ; and the matter after- ward passes almost wholly to a state of insolubility. The latter property, acquired by a mixture intended to produce very soluble salts, proves, that the penetration of the earth by the water and acid must have been very great, since the whole mass forms only a stony compound. The stones to which I here allude, though having in ap- 4 stone ‘si- pearance all the properties of those I have just described, ™iar in i : : ° JeaTance t have not the quality of being insoluble. On the contrary bik eeanere I prevent their passing to this state, es then I could not make use of them. But as this compound has all the ex- ternal characters of the hardest stones, except that it is not insoluble, I conceived it wouid not be uninteresting to see an artificial stony substance, which some peculiar properties might render useful. For instance, as it may be softened 4 pplicable to by a heat superior to that of boiling water, might it not be different uses. employed with much advantage for fastening iron or wood in stone, casting statues, moulding vases, and many other substances formed of this stony paste must not be exposed to wet. Another consideration, that has led me to suppose this new Cause of vol- stony compound would not be viewed with indifference, is, canic erupti- that the theory of its formation, and its analogy with the nei stones of solfaterras, render it unnecessary for us to have re- course to the hypothesis of subterranean fires kept up by combustible matters, to explain the eruptions of volcances. In fact, since water alone, by passing instantaneously from the liquid to the solid state, can give rise to the evolution of so very considerable a degree of heat, may it not be the immediate cause.of volcanic eruptions? Is it not like- rao of wise the slow and gradual passage of water to the solid state, Ges that produces the heat kept up at great depths in the intes : _rior of the globe ? Lastly, is not the heat developed in anie anq organic mal and vegetable organization equally Gwing to water ? bodies. SCIENTIFIC 232 Society of Arts, &e. Promiums for . planting forest trees. Premiums for de éciENTIFIC NEWS. SCIENTIFIC NEWS. Society for the Encourag gement of Arts, Be, In the year 1808, the gold medal of the Society of Arts. &c. was adjudged to Dr. Bain, of Curzon-streety for plant- ing 338199 forest trees, at. HefHleton, in Dorsetshire, In 1804 and 1805. These were part of more than eight hun= dred thousand, that he had planted from 1798 to-that time on a heath valued to the tenant at 1s. an acre per annum, 2 poor gravelly soil, on a situation rather elevated, and mucly exposed to the winds from the seacowst. ‘Thus encouraged, and the trees for the most part thriving well, the Dr. has pursued his exertions, adding near three hundred thousand trees more to his plantations, on ground not adapted to the purposes of husbandry. The trees are chiefly larch, pi- naster, and Scotch fir; the last in much the largest pros. portion. ‘The laxunance of bis pinasters im particular show the propriety of planting them as a shelter to other’ trees. The following table shows the size attained by some of the pinasters and larches in twelve years after planting. The pinasters were seedlings of one year old, planted on very poor ground; the lar ae were three years old when planted, and the land of a better quality. CIRCUMFERENCE. | HEIGHT. at the ground |s ft. from grd.j6 ft. from grd, No.| ft. inch.| feet inch. | feet inch. | feet inch. Pinaster. 1| 3 G 3 4 Lo 10. base Q) 2 8 2 0 1 va 17 0 3} 2 5 Li. 800 1 4 18 3 Larch. Ts 0 ) rt) i 7 94 6 9) .Q 6 . 9 1 6 23 9 a) ee) 5 8 1 Shen eo ORS i For these plantations a second goid medal was s adjudged to Dr. Bain this session. The gold medal, being the premium offered in class 3 for raising oaks, w was bajedged to Henry Andrews, Esq., of Wakefield; and, in consequence of the death of Mr. An- drews, the medal was presented to his two daughters. The oaks were planted with other trees, and the following is an account of the whole. In 4 SCIENTIFIC NEWS. 233 In February and March; 1809. In Feb. and March, 1910. Total. Black Italian poplars..500-+.... 1000.......s+. 1500 Hunting:lon willows., 1900,..,.. 1000.......... 2000 BSB. ic ae ss G000...4. 0. BNOOS. occu e's GL TO00 Oaks... ccm. s-+- 19600. ..;.. «10000. 0:3....,..22000 Scotch firss....<.. 45000.....148090.....+...293000 BARC Met kine vis ose, CSOD. 0:0 v6: BOOO.'s ss 9 ches 10800 BBVER fire jn 2 ed 10000. . «6.0 2200004... oo =. 30000 SPMOCE o.05 oliya ees asin LOOOD,. « 52. 200006 5:64 00 os 30000" Alders....0.+++.++ 1800......10000........+.11800 VENPERMROLCR awa nie cine... | OOO coe cea dele cee egos eon? OOO eee 95760 123900 218760 SC oeneenaatie amend s ‘The first plantation was 36 acres, 3 rods, 10 perches; the second, 42 acres, 1 rod. The whole is well fenced with sod walls, five feet high. and three feet and half thick. The gold medal was also adjudged to Wm. Congreve, Premium for Esq., of Aldermaston house, Berkshire, for planting larches. 377520 larches, be*ng the premium offered in class 10. He planted: 108 acres in rows 3 feet asunder, and the plants at } : the same distance: 50 acres with the trees six feet asunder | : each way, except near the outsides, where they were only three feet ; and 32 acres with the trees four feet distant each way, which distance he thinks preferable to any other. It is * his intention to extend his plantations to 500 or 600 acres. Several of the last yeats shoots of a small plantation of larch, made in 1806, exceeded three feet in length, and one — was three feet nine inches. The silver medal was voted to Mr. Henry Cowlishaw, of Second pre: Mansfield, for planting 75000 larches, being the premium ee offered in class 11. The land is on Blidsworth forest, part of Sherwood. The following account is in his own words. ~ The land being chiefly covered with heath from six to yganagement eighteen inches high, I caused a piece of the heath sod to be of the planta ‘pared off with a paring-spade, of a sufficient space to plant tion. the tree in;_and the soil being very thin and near the gravel, I preferred planting the tree without turning over the soil. The season being far advanced, and not having been sooner in possession of the land, I ordered-that the roots of the trees should be made wet with water, and then rubbed over _ Vou, XXXIB—JvuLy 1812. R with 234 Plantation. of larches, SCLENTIFIC NEWS. with soil, which thus adhered to the roots; and in this state they were planted in the proportion of rather more than five thousand trees upon each acre, having planted seventy- five thousand trees upon the land, which is not more than fourteeu acres, allowing for the fences. a The larch trees were two years transplanted, and from eight to fifteen inches high. when planted out. The season proved very favourable, few of the trees died, as one thousand filled up the deficiencies in the autumn of 1808, and the remainder grew well. In the autumn of 1809 they were again filled uy with the same number; and I have this mont¥ supplied all the deficiencies with two thou- sand more, as some had been destroyed by rabbits. - The plantation is now in abealthy growing state ; ae last season ithas much improved, I think the above mode preferable Sia to. destroying the heath, (as I presume it preserves the moisture in the soil during the summer, and affords warmth in the winter), or aes holes by turning up the soil, and begiay what is bad upon the surface. / ; 7 I am justified in these remarks from plantations adjoining -mine, where both modes have been tried, and neither has auswered so well as my method. My plantation is protected by a quick fence, which was planted in 1808, and secured . by good posts and rails ail round; the quicks have grown very well, considering the nature of the soil, which is but barren, and they are likely to become a good fence. ‘ The following is an account of the expences that have at- tended this plantation. . £, 8. .d. Purchase of the land and stamp .........-.. 200 16 0 Seventy-nine thousand larches at £1. per thou- SADC oc ate! -4 sy, sik oveces Oia MRI AMer a ike sok Sasi aie 79 0 O Beste dnd Tals ie tua sacetuicm Rok ls ak aa Sia 30 9 0 Paring, planting, and putting down the fences 38 0 0 (Warrine@eiof trees, SoC... 3 lata Hialwois's so wuniavanie 216 Oo Cleaning the trees first and second year, where the heath in any measure incommodedthem 2 21 0 Expenses of filling up the deficiencies........ 3 0 6 356 12 6 Wernerian ) SCIENTIFIC NEWS. 235 Wernerian Natural History Society. At the meeting on the 28th of March, professor Jameson Mineralogy. _ .read an account of a floetz gypsum formation, which occurs on the banks of the Whitadder, near Kelso. Likewise of a beautiful floetz quartz found in beds in thecoai district of Fifeshire: and of the occurence of basalt, amygdaloid, and trap-tuff, ina coal-formation, newer than the old red sand- stone, and its accompanying porphyry, but probably colder than the general mass of the rocks of the uewest floetz-trap formation.. At the same meeting, Mr. Leach read a Species of pig, description of the pig of Orkney and Shetland, which he is inclined to consider as 2 distinct species. And the Se- Meteorological cretary laid before the meeting a very full and interesting 10M"! thermometrical register and meterological journal, kept on a voyage to Davis Straits and back again, by Mr. John Aitkin, surgeon. At the meeting on the 11th of April, Dr. Macknight mounain of read a mineralogical description of Tinto, a noted mountain Tinto. in Lanarkshire. It appears to be of floetz formation ; probably resting on the gray wacke, which pervades the whole mountainous districts in the south of Scotland. Around the base is found conglomerate, containing rounded masses of gray-wacke, iron clay, flinty slate, splintery horn- stone, quartz. felspar, mica, &c. Wherethe rock becomes {| finer grained, it approaches in some places to gray-wackes and in others to those portions of the old red sand-stone formation, which are conjectured to alternate with the newer members of the transition series. Over the con- giomerate, masses of clay-stone, greenstone, and green- / stone passing into clinkstone. and porphyry-slate, suc- cessively appear, till we reach the summit, which, along with the whole of the upper part, is found to consist of compact felspar, and felspar porphyry. The disposition of the rocks in this mountain is conformable to the idea of secondary deposition, by assuming a finer and more crys talline texture as they ascend; and the occurrence of ciay- stone and felspar in a position corresponding to what is observed on the Eildon Hills, the Pentlands, the Ochills, Papa Stour, Dundee, and in other places, seems to favour the hypothesis of a particular overlying formation, in which these 236 Meteo: ology of Hudson’s Bay. Substances distitled from wood analo- gous to bitus mens, SCIENTIFIC NEWS. these cubstances are prevailing ingredients, extending over a considerable portion of the lower country of Scotland,— In the bed of the Clyde, to the eastward of Tinto, amyg- daloid appears, having nodules of calcedony voated with green earth; also calcspar, and portions of steatite.—To- wards the north, the conglomerate forming the base of Tinto passes into the sandstone of which the whole inferior districts of Lanarkshire are composed. It is to the waste of this rock that we owe the sp!endid scenery of Cora Linn,. and the other celebrated falls of the Clyde, a river which exhibits in its course many charms of nature, and may indeed be said to carry along with it beauty and fertility. At the same meeting, the Secretary communicated a very ‘carious meteorological journal, kept by Governor Graham, during his residence in Hudson’s Bay, Geological Society. — May the Ist. A paper by Dr. Mac Culloch, M.G. Si on bistre and other substances produced in the distillation of wood; and on their analogy with the native bitumens, was read. When wood is submitted to destructive dis- tillation, there 1s obtained, among other products, a black substance resembling common tar. This tar is very ine flammable, and so liquid, that it may be burnt in a lamp, By washing it wita water either hot or cold, or submitting it to the action of lime, or of the mild alkalis, a large portion of acetic acid is separated, and the residue becomes pitchy and tenacious. [It is entirely soluble in caustic alkali, in alcohol, in ether, in acetic acid, and in the mi- neral acids. "The fat oils and the recent essential oils dissolve but little of it, but if the former are made drying, and if the latter have become brown by keeping, they then act more readily and copiously. Coloured oil of turpentine takes up a considerable quantity, but naphtha only ace quires.a scarcely sensible brown colour, by digestion upon it. When carefully distilled at a gentle heat it is decom- posed into an oily matter, at first limpid, and afterward brown, a quantity of acetic acid combined with a little ammonia, and a spungy coal remains in the retort. In this process SCIENTIFIC NEWS, 837 process no inflammable yas is given out; but ata high temperature the oil is more or less decomposed, aud in- flammable gas 1s produced; which, however, does not burn with a flame by any means so bright as the gas trom pit coal. If this destructive distillation is not carved very far, the matter in the returt will be found, when cold. to be solid, brilliant, shining, and possessed of a conchoidal fracture: its taste is burn ng and pungent, and its odour is that of wood smoke. It is fusible and readily inflammable. When kept melted in an open vessel, till it ceases to be fusible, it becomes more and more brilliant, its fracture passes to splintery, and it assumes the perfect appearance of asphaltum. In proportion as it approaches-this state it becomes less and less soluble in alcohol, and at length scarcely gives a stain to this mentruum. Naphtha has no action on it, and in this circumstance alone it differs from asphaltuin. Dr. Mac Culloch then proceeds to an examination of the pifference be- : bitumens, and shows, that the difference between the pro- tw-en bitu- | ducts of recent vegetable matter and of the bitumens, when et veges subjected to distillation, consists in the former yielding matter. | empyreumatic acetic acid, and a black pitchy matter in- soluble in naphtha; while the latter afford ammonia and naphtha, but iittle or no acid. - He then enters into a detailed investigation of the pro- Lignites ex- perties of the very important class of lignites, or those amined, substances such as peat, surturbrand, Bovey coal, &c. in which the traces of vegetable origin are not obliterated. Submerged wood from peat mosses gave a brown oil, smelling of wood tar, and refusing to dissolve in naphtha, A compact pitchy looking peat gave a fetid oil, resembling in odour neither wood tar nor bitumen, and very slightly soluble in naphtha. Bovey brown coal gave an oil resem- bling in odour that of wood tar, but much more soluble‘in naphtha. That portion of the oil which was insoluble in this menstruum had a strong odour of wood smoke. The oil of jet was. almost pesfectly soluble in napntha, and smelled strongly of - but it afforded also empy- reumatic acetic acid, Residuum. Thug 238 SCIENTIFIC NEWS. Wood changed Thus it appears, that there exists a class of fossils of to bitumen by undoubted vegetable origin, which exhibit the gradual water. / Experiments at Sir James Hall. progress from wood to bitumen, and in which this change has been brought about by the action, not of heat, but of water. The experiments however of Sir James Hall seem to show, that heat with compression is also capable of con- verting wood into coal. A critical exammation of this fact was the next object of Dr. M., and he found on heating - wood in close gunbarrels, that a black coaly looking sub- substance was indeed produced, but that it consisted wholly of charcoal, empyreumatic acid, and woed tar; and did not contain the smallest portion of real bitumev: hence the experiments alluded todo by no means prove the possibility of couverting vegetable matter into real coal by mere heat. It appears, however, to Dr. M., that the consolidation of bituminized vegetables into coal is not unlikely to be the effects of sHbted ranean heat. % ~ Bistrethe pitch This paper concludes by showing the identity of the ef wood. Umprovement and uses of it. Mineralogy of &t Dayid’s. meus of rock crystal are procu pitch procured: from the distillation of wood and the pig- ment called bistre ; points out methods of obtaining it in a state better fitted than common bistre for the purposes of the artist; and. also enumerates several other uses, to which this substance may be economically applied. Some notes on the mineralogy of the ueighbourhood uf St. David’s in Pembrokeshire, by Dr. Kidd, Prof. Chem. at Oxford, and Hon. M. G. S., were read. The Country about St. Davids, when viewed from an eminence, presents the appearance of an extensive uneven plain, iterspersed with numerous detached hills or recky summits of an irregular conical shape. The two highest of, these hills are Penberry and Carn-Llidy, the western portion of the latter of which forms the promontory of St. David's head. These hills present no appearance of stratification, and are coinposed of felspar and horublend in various proportions and states of aggregation. They are each surrounded hy maitle shaped strata of slate, elevated at a high angle, and presenting the characters of grauwacke slate: this latter is traversed by verns of warts lig which very fine speci- ut No carbonate of lime appears - | SCEENTIFIC NEWS. = appedrs to be contained either in the unstratified trap, or in the slaty grauwacke, nor did there occur in them, with the exception of one equivocal instance, the smallest trace of any organic remain. May the 15th.—An account of the Island of Teneriffe, by the Hon. Henry Grey Bennet, M. G. S. wasread. The greatest length of this island from north to south is about 70 miles, its greatest breadth does not exceed 80 miles. In the S. W. part of the island is situate the mountain called by the Spaniards el Pico di Tiede, but better known by the name of the Peak of Teneriffe, the height of which, from the mean of several observations, appears'to be about 12500 English feet. The rocks and strata of this island appear to be wholly volcanic. A long chain of mountains passes through theinterior, sloping on the E. W. and N. sides to the sea, but on the S. and S. W. elevated into nearly per- pendicular mountains, which are intersected by deep and -harrow ravines. The lowest bed of the island is porpbyritic lava, composed of horablende and felspar, in its upper part porous, scoriform, and sometimes passing into the state of pumice. Upon this rests a bed of the same substance, as already mentioned, but in structure nearly approaching to greenstone. This is covered by a thick bed of pumice, which itself is overspread with basaltic lava, on which, in many places, rest beds of tufa and volcanic ashes. This basaltic lava decomposes sooner than any of the other rocks, and contains the greatest’ variety of imbedded substances : it is so.netimes divided by a layer of olivine in crystals some ‘inches Jong, and is often intersected by thick veins of por- phyriticslate. Zeolite and chalcedony also occur init. The _ number of small craters and extinct volcanoes is prodigious, They are to be found inall parts of the island ; but none of them have been in activity of late years. The great streams of lava have flowed from the Peak: those of the years 1704 and 1797 (which was the last) are basaltic, This latter flowed so slowly, notwithstanding the steep descent of the moun- tain, that it was several days in advancing three miles. On __ the westerr side of the Peak is an ancient lava, not at all de- composed, several mi ength, and in a perfect state of vitrification resembl iqggpadian. : aR Mr. Vauquelin ¢ n Island of Te nerife, 240 Mineral water of Néris, Mineral water of Argentiéres. Mathematical Repository. SCIENTIFIC NEWSe Mr. Vauquelin has analysed the thermal water of Néris, near Montlugon, in the department of the Allier. Two ounces of the solid matter left by evaporating the water on the spot had been sent to him: but he was not informed of how much water it was the produce. The results of his analysis were. ee Carbonate of soda ..cee.eeeees 33°34 Sulphate of soda ....s.....0-4- 28:68 Muriate of soda eeeeeeoevoeeen ee e8 15°28 Carbonate of lime ....c.ee.2-2 2°80 Silex epee ei Be SRE 8°34 ‘Water Six niaiietata so Saiagic bh eee Animal matter, and loss....0..5 2°54 _ 100° The silex he supposes to have been held in solution by the water; and he thinks it probable, that both this and the animal matter were indebted for their solubility to the pre- sence of the carbonate of soda. He likewise analysed the residuum of the water of Ar gentiéres, sent him in the same way by the same physician. The results were. Carbonate of soda ....eee2006 32°08 Sulphate of soda .........00006 15°75 Dbee@ete of soda .~.....'00> neces 1589 \ MBICCOUS SADT oo codecs vn ee'ess 10742 fs Carbonate of magnesia ....-.... 34°37 PO ee oo Sara! ee Animal matter .....ssecccceeee 0°78 a 100° The Twelfth Number of Leybourn’s Mathematical Ree pository contains—1. Solutions to the Mathematical Ques- tions proposed in Number X. 2. On the irreducible Case of Cubic Equations. 3. New Properties of the Conic Sections. 4. Indeterminate Problems. 5. On the Ellipse and Hyperbola. 6. On the Roots of Equations of all Di- mensions. 7. Properties of the Right-angled Triangle. 8. Continuation of Le Gendre’s Metnoir on Elliptic Transcen- dentals. 9. A series of new Questions to be answered in a subsequent number, | Dr. Henderson’s paper is obl to be postponed till next month. A JOURNAL NATURAL PHILOSOPHY, CHEMISTRY, AND THE ARTS. AUGUST, 1812. ARTICLE I. On a gaseous Compound of carbonic Oxide and Chlorine. By Joun Davy, Esq. Communicated by Sir HumMPHREY Davy, Knt. LL. D. Sec. R. S*. Since the influence of electricity and solar light, as che- oxjmuriati¢ mical agents, are analogous in many respects, and as thé gas said not to former produces no change in a mixture of carbonic oxide ee and chlorine, it was hataral to infer the same respecting the latter. Messrs. Gay-Lussac and Thenard assert, that this is the case; they say, that they have exposed a mixture of carbonic oxide and chlorine, under all circumstances, to light, without observing any alteration to take placet ; Mr. Murray has made a similar statementt. Having been led to repeat this experiment, from some ob= The centrary jections made by the last mentioned gentleman to the theory found by Mr. Davy. of my brother, sir Humphry Baty concerning chlorine, I was surprised at witnessing a different result. The mixture exposed, consisted of about equal volumes Experiment. of chlorine and carbonic oxide; the gasses had been previ« * Philos. Trans for 1812, p. 144. + Recherches Phisico-Chimiques, Tom. II, p. 150. t Nicholson’s Journal, vol. XXX, p. 227. Vou. XXXII, No, 149.—-AugusT, 1812 S ously 242 Properties of _ the resulting gas. Deesom posd into carbonic and muriatic acid gasses, Condenses 4 times its bulk COMPOUND OF CARBONIC OXIDE AND OXIMURIATIC GAS. ously dried over mercury by the action of fused muriate of lime; and the exhausted glass globe, into which they were introduced from a receiver with suitable stopcocks, was carefully dried. After exposure for about a quarter of an hour to bright sunshine, the colour of the chlorine had en- tirely disappeared; the stopcock belonging to the globe being turned in mercury recently boiled, a considerable absorption took place, just equal to one half the volume of the mixture, and the residual gas possessed properties per- fectly distinct from those belonging either to carbonic oxide or chlorine. Thrown into the atmosphere, it did not fume. Its odour was different from that of chlorine, something like that which one might imagine would result from the smell of chlorine combined with that of ammonia, yet more ins tolerable and suffocating than chlorine itself, and affecting the eyes in a peculiar manner, producing a rapid flow of tears, and occasioning painful sensations, Its chemical properties were not less decidedly marked, than its physical ones. | Thrown into a tube full of mercury containing a slip of dry litmus paper, it immediately rendered the paper red. Mixed with ammoniacal gas, a rapid condensation took place, a white salt was formed, and much heat was produced, The compound of this gas and ammonia was a perfect neutral'salt, neither changing the colour of turmeric nor lit- mus; it had no perceptible odour, but a pungent saline taste; it was deliquescent, and of course very soluble in water; it was decomposed by the sulphuric, nitric, and phosphoric acids, and also by liquid muriatic acid ;. but it sublimed unaltered in the muriatic, carbonic, and sulphue reous acid gasses, and dissolved without effervescing in acetic acid. The products of its decomposition collected over mercury were found to be the carbonic and muriatic acid gasses; and in the experiment with concentrated sulphuric acid, when accurate results could be obtained, these two gasses were in such proportions, that the volume of the latter was double that of the former, I have escertated by repeated trials, both synthetical and analytical, that the gas condenses fonr times its volume of the COMPOUND OF CARBONIC OXIDE AND OXIMURIATIC GAS. 243 the volatile alkali, and I have not been able to combine it of ammonia. with a smaller proportion. Tin fused m the gas ina bent glass tube over mercury, Decompused by means of aspirit lamp, rapidly decomposed it; the liquor by tin; of Libavius was formed; and when the vessel had cooled, there was not the least change of the volume of the gas per ceptible; but the gas had entirely lost its offensive odour, anid was merely carbonic oxide; for like carbonic oxide it burut with a blue flame, afforded carbonic acid by its coms bustion, and was not absorbable by water. The effects of zinc, antimony, and arsenic heated in the zine, antimony gas, were similar to those of tin; compounds of these metals and arsenic, > and chlorine were formed, and carbonic oxide in each ex« periment was |:berated equal in volume to the gas decome posed. In each instance the action of the metal was quick ; the decomposition being completed in less than ten minutes: but though the action was rapid, it was likewise tranquil, no explosion ever took place, and none of the metals bes came ignited or inflamed. The action even of potassium heated in the gas was not potassium, violent. But from the great absorption of gas, and from the precipitation of carboa indicated by the blackness pro« duced, not ouly the new gas, but likewise the carbonic oxide, appeared to be decomposed. The white oxide of zinc heated in the gas quickly decom= white oxide of posed it, just as readily indeed as the metal itself; there was 2inc, the same formation of the butter of zinc; but instead of carbonic oxide being produced, carbonic acid was formed ; and, as usnal, there was no change of volume. The protoxide of antimony fused in the gas rapidly de- ,,4 protoxide composed it; the butter of antimony and the infusible pers of antimony. oxide were formed; there was no change of the volume of the gas, and the residual gas was carbonic oxide. Sulphur and phosphorus sublimed in the gas, produced Not decompo- no apparent change; the volume of the gas was unaltered, os by ba dot and its characteristic smell was undiminished. meetiae Mixed with hidrogen or oxigen singly, the gas was not o, hidrogen or inflamed by the electric spark, but mixed with both, in pro= oxigen singly per proportions, viz. two parts in volume of the former and one of the latter to two parts of the gas, a violent explosion $2 was ~ 244 COMPOUND OF CARBONIC OXIDE AND OXIMURIATIC GAS was produced, and the muriatic and carbonic acid gasses were formed. but quickly by The gas transferred to water was quickly decomposed, svat ground. _ ground. A AC A _ + 10 + 20 0 + 8 + 18 ret + 6 + 16 — & + 4 + 14 — -_. 2 + 12 — 8 : 0 + 10 — 10 — 2 + 8 -— 12 — 4 + 6 — 14 — 6 + 4 — 16 — 8 + 2 — 18 — 10 0 — 20 B B B I cannot think, that Dr. Maycock has seen these experi~ ments; for had he doubted their results at first, he would have found them confirmed im my following paper, with such evidence, that he could not have avoided, either to disprove them, or to show that they were not against his’ system, I shall not euter into an account of all the experiments contained in this paper, as it would be a repetition in the same Journal. I had only here in view Dr. Maycock’s system, which, according to my judgment, involves in ob« security the whole field of electricity and galvanism ; I was therefore to recall those only of these experiments which relate to this subject: but they are more, sir, to this purpose, in my $84 WAVES BETWEEN OIL AND WATER. my paper in your following number for October 1810, which F shall also recall for the same motive in a following communication, and | hope that the whole together will induce Dr. Maycock to change his system. Tam, with great regard, sir, Your most obedient servant, Windsor, J. A. DE LUC. July the 10th, 1812. sis’ : VII. \ Explanation of a hydrostatical Phenomenon ‘observed by Franxuin: by Ropiner*. Agitation of lr you put water and oil into a tumbler, suspend the tum- ae rae bler by a string, and give ita gentle swing, you will perceive nothing particular at the surface of the oil; but the surface of the water beneath will appear agitated, and form considera- ble waves. Such was the phenomenon observed by Franklin, and with which he was puzzled no doubt merely because he had not time to examine it: for that great man had so acute an eye In observing nature, that he scarcely ever failed to seize those Connexions of facts, that constitute properly what we call physical laws. His confession of his ignorance on this occasion merely proves, that his modesty knew how to avail itself of his being too much occupied to examine every thing. ) The pheno- This phenomenon is eaeeble of assuming very diffexent sei Ke forms, by varying the circumstances by which it is produced. tion. I shall confine myself here to that observed by pair because it is one of the most complicated. The factsie- | The facts that compose this phenomenon, some of which aoe from two are known to all the world, are the result of two hydrostati- nown princie BE rete ples, cal principles, well known separately, but not yet considered together; that by which liquids seek their level, and that with the discovery of which Archimedes was so delighted. Tendency ofa By the first, all the parts of a liquid equally heavy, and fiuid toa level. perfectly movable on each other, tend toward the centre of ¥ Abridged frem the Jour, de Phys, vol. LXV, p.277. h . the WAVES BETWEEN OIL AND WATER. 2985 the Earth with equal energy; and, approaching it as long as they find no sufficient obstacle in the adjacent columns, do not stop till they arrive at that state, which is called the level, And as this motion is an effect of gravity, it is acces lerated, carries all the parts beyond the point of equilibrium, and causes them to vibrate several times round this point, producing undulations, a kind of oscillations with which every one is familiar. By the second principle, a body moving in a liquid, being Motion of a obliged, in displacing it, to communicate to it continually a sy nme part of its motion, is incessantly losing force; so that, in obeying the laws of gravitation, it falls Ticoubes the liquid only with the excess of its specific gravity over’that of the liquid in which it moves. It might be supposed at first view, that this second princi- Application of ple should have no influence over either of the two liquids, these es that exhibit the phenomenon in question, because neither of ° them is properlyin the other. Both, however, are subjected to this law: the lowermost, because its surface cannot acquire any undulatory movement without displacing the upper; and the uppermost, because its surface cannot move without raising the air, which then presses on it at every point. Bot, as we are accustomed to see the effeets of this position with regard to the air, we do not think of referring them to their cause. With respect to the inferior liquid, its situation and re- lation to the superior render a phenomenon very remarkable, which at the same time is essentially the same with what we see without attention at the surface of the superior. To understand the reason of this singularity, let us sup- Change of pose some cause to have disturbed the surface of the inferior ta ar ci liquid, so that it is no longer level, but a given column is a ther not muck certain degree higher vias another. This column does not lighter. exceed the shorter in weight by the whole quantity it is higher, for it makes only a part of the column that exists in the vessel at that point, consisting of the heavier liquid at its lower part, and the lighter at its upper. The shorter column of the inferior liquid in like manner is only the lower part of a column, the upper part of which is formed of the | lighter liquid. The difference between these two columns is, Oh 286 , Conditions Nee ” cessary to its restoration. WAVES BETWEEN OIL AND WATER. the first has more of the heavier liquid and less of the lighter, the second more of the lighter and less of the heavier. For these two columns to acquire their level itis necessary , that the first should lose a portion of the heavier liquid and acquire a portion of the lighter, and the second thecontrary. And as there is no cause to produce this effect but the por= tion of the heavier liquid that one column has more than the other, the reduction of the inferior liquid to a Jevel can= not be effected by the absolute gravity of the liquid as hap pens when it is alone in a vessel, but must be caused only by the excess of the weight of the inferior liquid’ over that of the superior. The equili- brium more slowly re- stored, Hence it follows in the first place, that, as the restoration of the level of the inferior liquid is the effect of a very smalt part of its gravity only, it must be extremely slow, and in consequence capable of béing observed more easily, than and its disturb- ance more Gonspicuous, This scarcely observed with m single liquid. fase of two Niauids when this liquid is alone in the vessel. It may not be amiss to observe however, that this cause, however staall it may be, being a gravitating action, must retam its nature'of an acteleratiie forces and thus produce an undulatory motion as in ordinary circumstances. If now we attend to the interruption of equilibriut, or of the level; between the several columns of the inferior liquid, we shall find, that the same cause, which renders the restora- tion of the equilibrium slower and more obvious, renders its interruption hkewise more considerable. Gravitation, as it exists before our eyes, imparts to ordi-~ nary bedies, in the shortest space of time we can estimate, a velocity very similar to those which we ourselves very com~ monly produce: se that when we do any thing to disturb the level of a liquid surface it is restored almost immediately. If we give a moderate inclination to a vessel fitled with a liquid, the level is restored in proportion as we endeavour to destroy it; so that it requires some little knowledge of natural physiology to be aware, that it has been disturbed and restored. But in the circumstances in which the inferior liquor is placed; as but'a smal! portion of its gravity remains to reduce it to a level, itis evident, that it cannot effect this’ with the same cee aor and that, if re same motion be em- ployed WAVES BETWEEN OIL AND WATER. O87 ployed to disturb its equilibrium, this will take place toacon- siderable degree, in a time when it would have been scarcely perceptible had there been but one liquid in the vessel. Thus, in the instance stated by Franklin, the swinging of as observed by the glass produces scarcely any agitation at the surface of ¥™™4lia. ,the oil ; because, though the glass inclines alternately to each side, as the motion is moderate, the surface of the oil returns to an equilibrium as fast as it is diverted from it. But the surface of the water, having to restore its equilibrium only the excess of its weiyht over that of the oil, which is very trifling, as we may estimate it at about 0°006 of the weight of the water, allows the small deviations from the level time to accumulate; so that this surface 1s no longer level when the swinging ceases, and is obliged to return to it by very slow and considerable. undulations, that continue a long time Of all the modes, in which this phenomenon may be varied, The experi- I shall mention but one, where the cause I have mentioned ™*"* varied. is too obvious to be mistaken. Take a glass globe, mounted so as to be capable of being turned on its axis; put into it water alone, so as to fill it te a quarter of its diameter; and turnit gently : the water will continve apparently to oceupy the lower part of the globe. Fill it then to three fourths, and the appearance will be the same, if you turn it in the same manner. So it will if you put oil alone, instead of water, Lastly, pour in water to one fourth of its height, and upon this oil to three fourths: then, if you turn the globe, there will be no change at the surface of the oil, and the whole body of liquid will appear to occupy the lower part of the globe. But with the water it will be different. When you have turned the globe a quarter round, you will perceive it nearly at the extremity of the horizontal diameter, instead of being in the lower part of the globe: and, if you then stop the rotary motion, the water will de- scend slowly down the side of the globe to the lower part, will ascend on the other side nearly to the same height, and thus oscillate a long time, till it settles at its lower part. As I have said above we here see clearly, that the particue lar motion of the water under the oil has the particular cha- acter of that of solid bodies in fluids; and as it is the phe- rk nomenon 88s ON DYEING REDS ON COTTON. nomenon of Franklin divested of all accessory complications there can remain no doubt of its true cause. bien _ | They who frequently carry liquids in open vessels had at plied in ae least an obscure perception of this theory. They know by mon lift. experience, that the liquid is much less liable to be spilt by sudden movements, if a light body float on their surface. For this reason water-carriers put a wooden trencher into each of their buckets; and in vineyards broom is put on the wine, when it is carried from the press to the cellar in an open wooden vessel. Any motion begun or terminated too sud= deuly would produce a considerable change of level in these liquids, a wave that would cause them to overflow. This wave is nearly prevented by the existence of the light body, that swims on the liquid ; because all the columns, that ter« minate in this body, find in it an obstacle to their undulatory motion, as they can rise or fall only with this body itself; and as it corresponds to a great number of columns at the same time, and is urged in opposite directions by different columns, it is a considerable obstacle to them all; and thus it influences those. columns it does not cover, since these cannot undulate separately from the others. IX. Qn the Nature of Sheep’s Dung, and its use in dyeing Cotton the Red that is called India or Adrianople: by J. B. Vit- ais, Professor of Chemistry at Rouen*. Process for "Tur process followed at present in our manufactories — aged dyeing cotton red, and which was first brought from the Levant, is composed of a series of operations, each. of which requires to be elucidated by chemistry, if we would be cer- tain of obtaining uniform success in this sort of dyeing. Chemical ex- Employed’ by government to teach the principles of che- amination of : : : : , : is. mistry in all its connexions with the useful arts, I thought it my duty to pay particular attention to that branch of ® Absidged from the Journ, de Phys. vol, LXVI, p. 153. industry t ON DYEING REDS ON COTTON. 289 industry, which constitutes the base of the employment and trade of the first manufacturing city of the French empire. The manufacturers of Rouen employ both fast and false Dyers of colours. I have already imparted to the latter, by the help ann of certain mordants, a degree of richness, lustre, and even permanence, before unknown; which no doubt procured the specimens I sent the honour of being admitted to the exhibition of 1806. : The class of citizens who are not wealthy, and they are Articles of the most numerous, require clothes of a price proportionate inferior price, to their circumstances. Besides, the dyeing of inferior colours employs a number of workmen, and yields a profit, that would soon be seized by other towns, if it were despised here. But the reputation and wealth of our manufactories are The best dyes derived chiefly from the colours called fast, that is to say ™° ‘hua those that are produced by the process for Adrianople red. These colours have opened a vast field of inexhaustible fertility to the manufacturer. He can now employ in his designs that variety, that happy mixture, that elegant as- and carried to sociation, that harmony of colours, which are so pleasing ak to the eye, and so gratifying to the taste of the most fastic dious. Instead of those peiishable colours, that delighted for a moment, the Indian red, and the extensive series of colours derived from it, as the cherry, rose, violet, lilac, julyflower, amaranth, &c., in all their various tints, have little to fear from the most destructive agents, and scarcely yield to the long continued action of air, light, and soap. This process therefore is of the highest importance to us; Some manw- but, though it is practised with the greatest success by ea ahs some manufacturers, others meet with obstacles, that occa- sion failures, which it would be highly useful to be able to prevent. [have endeavoured as far as possible to remove these, and to dissipate the uncertainty attending the oper ations performed on the cotton intended to receive this colour, by a chemical investigation of them. ° I have the honour now to present to the Institute the Use of sheep's result of my examination into the nature and use of sheep’s ‘naa > dye- dung i in dyeing Adiianople red, my object being to impart si Vor. XXXII, AveusT, 1812. >< solid 290 Mistaken opi- nion of it. Sheep’s dung distilled. Results, Residuum. Oils. Phiegm. e ON DYEING REDS ON COTTON. solid notions of the mode of action and influence of the sheep’s dung bath, the first applied to the cotton. Various opinions have been broached on this subject ; but the experiment, of which I am about to give an account, will at least dissipate every idea of its containing a large quantity of volatile alkali, to which La Pileur d’Apligny ascribes its property of rosing reds. ’ In May 1806 I distilled 61-19 gr. [945 grs] of fresh sheep’s dung in a coated glass retort, to which I fitted a receiver furnished with a tube of safety, and a tube for collecting the gaseous products. The retort was placed in a reverbera. tory furnace, and gradually heated till the bottom was red. On receiving the first impression of the fire, a very clear liquid passed over. On raising the heat, white vapours were evolved, oily, not very copious; and socn succeeded by drops of a very fluid oil, the colour of which was a very fine orange yellow. To this oil succeeded a second, thick, almost concrete, of a blackish brown, and smelling strongly empyreumatic. During the distillation about 50 cubic inches of elastic fluids passed over, which were found to be a mixture of carburetted hidroyen and carbonic acid. Having broken the retort, I observed, that it was lined interiorly with aslight coating of coal, exhibiting the metal- lic lustre, and assuming on exposure to the air, though only in some places, the blue colour of prussiate of iron. At the ' bottom I foynd a dull black coal, tolerably dense, retaining the shape'of the matter subjected to analysis, without any sensible taste, and exhaling a smell precisely like that of tobacco smoke, «This coal weighed 7°8 gram. Heatedin a porcelain cru= cible it readily took fire, and before the vessel was redhot. { observed, that it emitted oily and empyreumatic vapours, owing no doubt to a small quantity of oil, with which it was still impregnated; and that it burned witha small white flame. After burning six hours with a firewell kept up, it left 3°68 gr. of a gray substance, which was found to be phosphate of lime. Of the two oils mentioned above I collected 3° 91 gr. The coloured liquor in the receiver, Gonitaane with a . few ON DYEING REDS ON COTTON, 991 - > few drops of fluid oil, weighed 48°8 gr. It turned sirup of violets green; at the same that it reddened infusion of lite mus, though it is true but faintly. The last-mentioned property was owing toasmall portion of acetic acid, which was formed in the course of the dis- tillation: I think its changing sirup of violets green may be ascribed to the presence of a sinall portion of gelatinous matter, that had passed over with the aqueous vapour, by _ which it was held in solution. For the rest, on assayiug the liquor by every known Noammonia, method, no test discovered in it the least trace of am- monia. From this experiment it appears, that 61°19 gr. of fresh sheep’s dung yielded by distillation An acid and alkaline liquor ...... 48°80 Gaseous fluids .......esceeeesees 0°58 Products, Concrete and fluidoil .......2..06. 3.91 Charcoal and phosphate of lime.... 7°80 61°09 Loss 01 61°19 From these results I think I may conclude, that sheep’s The dung con- dung contains much more hidrogen than nitrogen, which been Bie appears to me demonstrated, Ist, by the great quantity of nitrogen, water furnished by the matter analysed, and which certainly did not exist in it ready formed: 2dly, by the hidrogen gas collected under the jar: 3dly, by the oil obtained: and 4thly, by the absence of ammonia during the whole of the process. ' It appears to me therefore proved, not only that ammonia does not exist in sheep’s dung, but that it cannot be formed . in it in large quantity. But let us go farther, and suppose for » moment, that Ammonia sheep’s dung contains a certain quantity of ammonia; is it Sous nee a not evident to all, who are acquainted with the process for sciibed to it. Adrianople red, that this alkali, so volatile in its nature, p. could pm 292 ON DYEING REDS ON COTTON. could not undergo the numerous manipulations and repeated dryiogs, either in the open air or by the heat of a stove, to which the cotton is subjected, without being entirely disen= gaged? Were it to be urged, that the alkali is rendered fixed by combining with the cotton; I should require proof of this, the contrary of which is shown by experiment. Composition But the property thus ascribed to ammonia of rostng cot- a lila ton, that is of brightening the tint of madder red, and im- parting to it warmth, lustre, and liveliness, is equally un- founded; for these effects can be produced only by forming with white marseilles soap and muriate of tin a metallic soap, in which the oxide of tin is held in solution by soda. Ae hy Thus, since neither does ammonia possess the properties ier (ihe ascribed to it, nor is it contained in sheep’s dung, we must gelatine. look for the cause of its effects in some other principle, Now this can be nothing but the albumino-gelatinous matter so abundantly contained in sheep’s dung: to convince ourselves of which, we have only to attend to the manner, in which it is used. Mode of em- In the first place the dung is macerated in a solution of pioynty 26 soda, of the strength of about 4° [sp. gr. 1°027], for some time. The effect of this maceration is evidently the solution of the albumen and gelatine by means of the alkali. A cer= tain quantity of this solution, passed through a sieve and di« - luted with a solution of soda at 2° [sp. gr. 1°013], is mixed with thick or mucilaginous olive’oil; and thus a kind of liquid animal soap is formed, with which the cotton is care- fully impregnated. This impreg- In this process the cotton, by combining with the albu- rite the cot- men and gelatine, approximates to the nature of animal on with ani- 2 ‘ mal matter. substances; which, as is well known, have.a stronger at- traction than vegetable substances for colouring matter. The combination appears to be farther promoted by the oily principle, that combines with the cotton at the same time. Intestinal fluid We now see why authors, who have written on India red, Sey diet recommend the use not only of the dung, but also of the intestinal liquor of the sheep; which it would be mueh more advantageous to employ, were it possible to procure it in sufficient quantity for the demand. * The GN DYEING REDS ON COTTON. 993 The theory just laid down is supported by experiment. Sheep’s dung Having macerated fresh sheep’s dung for four or five days mee wit in a lixivium of soda at 4°, I filtered, and obtained a reddish brown Jiquid. On separating the alkali by very dilute yielded a pres sulphuric acid, a copious, light precipitate was formed, “Pt which subsided to the bottom of the vessel, after having for some time occupied its whole capacity. To remove all doubt respecting the nature of this pre- consisting of cipitate, I collected it on a filter, washed it well with cold water, and then boiled it in a phial of pure water for near an hour. I then decanted off-the liquid, which was of a reddish yellow, and poured into it a solution of tannin. This formed a precipitate, announcing sufficiently the pre- gelatine sence of gelatine. The albumen, coagulated by the action of the heat, re- and albumen. mained at the bottom of the phial in the form of little soft and spongy grumes: and to judge by the quantity of mat- ter insoluble in water, though it was renewed three or four times, albumen abounds much more than gelatine in Thelattermost sheep’s dung. I do not think it would be far from the abundant. truth to say, that the albumen is to the gelatine at least as three to one. Particular circumstances prevented my carrying the investigation to such a degree of accuracy, as I could have wished for my own satisfaction. To establish a complete conviction on this subject, I An alkaline shall add, that I tried an alkaline solution of whites of ~ebapeatiaad eges, or albumen, instead of the sheep’s dung bath; and ed equally that it succeeded completely in the preparation for both well kinds of dyeing: all the colours were rendered much more permanent, than where natural or artificial sheep’s dung baths were omitted. . This observation, founded on theory and experience, campletely refutes the assertion of Le Pileur d’Apligny, that the dung and intestinal liquor of the sheep are of no use in fixing colours, - 994 Xe = >) METEOROLOGICAL JOURNAL, — PRESSURE, TEMPERATURE. ; 1812. {Wine} Max. | Min. Med. | Max | Min, { Med. 6th Mo. June 2 29°98 | 29°95 | 29°965 60°35 3i|N E] 30°02] 29:98 | 30°000 555. . 4 30°04} 30°00] 30°020 61°0 5} E. | 30°08] 30°04} 30-060 59°5 6IN Fk] 30°18] 30°08} 30-130 55°5 “IN I| 30°35] 30°12] 30°235 57°0 $|N Fy 30°40] 30°35 130-375 54°0 o| N | 30°40] 30°15] 30-275 58°5 10|Var.}| 30°27} 30 17 | 36-220 54°0 111N W{ 30°07 { 30:02 }30°050 64/0 . 12|IN WI] 36°03] 29°93 | 29-980 61°0 13/8 WI 29 93] 29°88] 29°905 59°0 1448 W] 29°88] 29°81} 29°845 59°0 1451S W] 29 82] 29°79] 29°805 58.5 16'S. Wi 29°79} 29°58 | 29°685 56°5 17/S_W| 29°78 $»29°58 | 29°680 49'0. 18S W| 29°58] 29°49] 29°535 56'0 19'S Wj, 2949] 29°34] 29°415 560 20/8 WI 29°53] 29°33] 29430 53°0 21/8 WI] 20°66] 29°32} 29-490 53°0 298 Wi 29°83] 29°00 4'29°745 5 19691 93} W {20°94} 29°81 }.29°875 54'0 24.5 Wi) 29°94) 29°91} 29:925 52'0 25/Var | 29°91] 29:00] 29-755 56°5 26\Var.| 29°S6} 29°45 | 29°655 50°0 27'Var.| 29°80} 29°78 | 29°820 545 a8| N | 30:10] 29°78 | 29-900 48°5 29,8 W| 30:03] 29°96} 29°995 56°0 30'S W} 29°86}. 29°70'} 29:7 80 57-0 30°40] 29°32] 29°881} 75 55°87 {4°09 |2°81 The observations in each line of the Table apply to a period of twenty-four hours begining at g A.M. on the day indicated in the first column. A dash denotes that the result us inciuded in the next following observation, NOTES. ' METEOROLOGICAL JOURNAL. NOTES. Sixth Month. 3. A little rainat intervals. 4. A few large drops: cumulostratus p.m. AshowertotheS.W. Wind E. 6. Much dew: clear with cirrus. 6. Overcast, windy: then very fine withred cirri at sunset. 7. Cloudy morning: clear day af= terward: brilliant orange twilight. 8. Cloudy: brisk wind. 9. Fair, with cumulus, and cirrus above: at sunset the wind rose, with some appearance ofnimbus, 10. Cumulo-stratus, with a cold breeze all day. 11. A. m. wind fresh at W.: the maximum of temperature occured at nine: the barometer fluctuating. Cumulus clouds, with very large plumose cirri above, which showed red at sunset. The new moon appeared (in a white crescent, becoming afterward of a goldcolour) in the midst of a pretty luminous twilight. 12. A.m.cloudy: ba- rometer still unsettled: evening twilight luminous and orange coloured : a stratus began to appear at nine p.m. 13, A. m. misty: much dew. 15. Cool day: rather windy. 16. Rain last night: fair and cool. 17. Heavy short showers. 18. Fair, cloudy: rain by night. 19. The rainbow ¢wice this morning. 21. Several hours’ rain a.m. Barometer fluc- tuating. 22. Nimbia.m. fair p.m. 23. Nimbi through the day: thunder twice to the S.W.: the wind veered as far as to N. W.' but settled W. 24. A.m. much cloud: calm air: showers. 25. Cumulus, with very elevated cirrus in parallel bands KE, and W._ A solar halo for above two hours soon after noon, the higher atmosphere filled with cloud: at sunset the wind, which had been S. E. and S. W., came toN. W, 26. Coldstormy morning,wind N. Thun- der twice about two p. m.: rain almost from sunrise to sune set. 27. A. m. sunshine: wind N.W.: a solar halo p.m. wind S. W.: evening wet and stormy. 28. A. m. wind N. a faint blush on the evening twilight. 30. Windy evening: rain at intervals. ste RESULTS. Winds variable, the South-west most continuous. Barometer: highest observation 30°40 inches; lowest 29°32 inches; Mean of the period 29°881 inches. Thermometer: highest observation 75°; lowest 39°; Mean of the period 55°37°. Evaporation 4:09 inches. Rain 2:81 inches. This period is remarkable for being pretty equally divided into a dry anda wet moiety: the former commencing with the first quarter, the latter the day before the last quarter of the moon. The return of the first quarter appears (by subsequent observations) te have again nearly coincided with that of dry weather. PLAIsTow. L, HOWARD. Seventh Month, 15, 1812. aL 95 206 Qccasion of the visit, Face of the island, Jourmey to the Sulphur. SOUFFRIERE OF MONTSERRAT. XI. An Account of * The Sulphur,” or “ Souffriere” of the Island of Montserrat: by Niéwoias Nucent, M. D. Hon. Member of the Geological Society*. On my voyage last year (October 1810) from Antigua to England the packet touched at Montserrat, and my curiosity having been excited by the accounts I received of a place in the island called ** The Sulphur,’ and which, from the descriptions of several persons, I conceived might be the crater of an inconsiderable volcano, I determined to avail myself of the stay of the packet to visit that place. The island of Montserrat, so called by the Spaniards from a fancied resemblance to the celebrated mountain of Catalonia, is every where extremely rugged and moun- tainovs, and the only roads, except in one direction, are narrow bridle paths winding through the recesses of the mountains; there is hardly a possibility of using wheeled carriages, and the produce of the estates is brought to the place of shipment on the backs of mules, Accompanied by a friend, I accordingly set out on horseback from the town of Plymouth, which is situate at the foot of the mountains on the seashore. We proceeded by a circuitous and steep route about six miles, gradually ascending the mountain, which consisted entirely of a uniform por- phyritic rock, broken every where into fragments and large blocks, and which in many places was so denuded of soil, as to render it a matter of astonishment how vegetation, ‘and particularly that of the cane, should thrive so well. The far greater part of the whole island is made up of this porphyry, which by some systematics would be considered as referrible to the newest floétztrap formation, and by others would be regarded only as a variety of lava. IJtis a compact and highly indurated argillaceous rock of a gray colour, replete with large and perfect crystals of white feldspar and black hornblende. Rocks of this deseription * Trans. of the Geol. Soc. vol. I, p. 185. generally SOUFFRIERE OF MONTSERRAT. go7 generally pass in the West Indies by the vague denomina- West India tion of fire stone, from the useful property ahiey possess of gira resisting the operation of intense heat. A considerable quantity of this stone 1s accordingly exported from Mont- serrat to the other islands which do not contain it, being essential in forming the masonry around the copper boilers in sugar works. We continued our ride a considerable distance beyond the estate called “ Galloway’s,” (where we ‘procured a guide) till we came to the side of a very deep ravine which extends in a winding direction the whole way from one of the higher mountains to the sea. A rugged horse-path was drveed along the brink of the ravine, which we followed amidst the most beautiful and romantic scenery. At the head of this ravine isa small amphitheatre formed by lofty surrounding mountains, and here is situate what is termed ‘* TheSulphur.” Though the scene was extremely grand and well worthy of ohservation, yet I confess I could not help feeling a good deal disappointed, as there was nothing like a crater to be seen, or any thing else that could lead me to suppose the place had any connexion with a volcano. On the north, east, and west sides were lofty mountains wooded to the tops, composed apparently of the same kind of porphyry we had noticed all along the way. On the south, the same kind of rock of no great height, quite bare of vegetation, and in a very peculiar state of ‘decomposition. And on the south-eastern side, our path and the outlet into the ravine. The whole area thus ine ‘eluded might be three or four hundred yards in length, and half that distance in breadth. The surface of the ground, not occupied by the ravine, was broken and strewed rath fragments and masses of the porphyritic rock, for the The rock des most part so exeeedingly decomposed as to be friable and to pi meee ae - ¢rumble on the smallest pressure. For some time I thought vapour. that this substance, which is perfectly white and in some instance exhibits an arrangement like crystals, was a peculiar mineral; but afterward became convinced, that it was merely the porphyritic rock singularly altered, not by the action of the air or weather, but, as I conjecture, by a strong sulphureous or sulphuric acid vapour, which is generated here, and which is probably driven more against one side ee The Sulphur described. No appearance ef a volcano, £298 This evolved trom &ssures with imtense heat. Boilingrivulet. Fissures con- tinwally vary ing. SOUFFRIERE OF, MONTSERRAT. by the eddy wind up the ravine, the breezes from any other quarter being shut out by the surrounding hills*. , Admidst the loose stones and fragments of decomposed rock are many fissures and crevices, whence very strong sulpbureous exhalations arise, and which are diffused to a considerable distance ; these exhalations are so powerful as to impede respiration, and near any of the fissures are quite intolerable and suffocating, The buttons of my coat, and some silver and keys in my pockets were instantaneously discoloured. An intense degree of heat is at the same time evolved, which, added to the apprehension of the ground crumbling and giving way, renders it difficult and painful to walk near avy of these fissures. The water of a rivulet, which flows down the sides ef the mountain and passes over this place, is made to boil with violence, and be- comes loaded with sulphureous’ impregnations, Other branches of the same rivulet, which do not pass immediately near these fissures, remain cool,and limpid, and thus you may with one hand touch one mill which is at the boiling point, and with the other hand touch another rill which is of the usual temperature of water in that climate. The exhalations of sulphur do not at all times proceed fimthe same fissures, but new ones appear to be daily formed, others * This peculiar decomposition of the surrounding rock has been frequently observed in similar situations, and under analogous cir- cumstances, and has I find been accounted for by other persons in the same way: thus Dolomieu says, “ The white colour of the stones in the interior of all the burning craters is owing to a real alteration of the lava produced by acid sulphureous vapours, which penetrate them, and combine with the alumine that constitutes their base, thus forming the alum obtained from volcanic substances.” Voy. aux Isles de Lipari. p. 18. And he afterward adds, “The alteration of lavas by acid sul- phareous vapours is a kind of analysis of volcanic substances made “by Nature herself., There are lavas, on which the vapours have nat yet had sufficient time to act, sv as to change their nature entirely ; and then we see them in different states of decomposition, which we know by the colour.” igh Alum is doubtless formed at this place, as well as elsewhere under similar circumstances: the potash necessary for the composition of this salt being, as well as the argil, derived from the surrounding rock. See Vauquelin’s Memoire. Journal des Mines, vol. x, p. 441. ¢ becoming ‘ ’ SOUFFRIERE OF MONTSERRAT. becoming, as it were, extinct. On the margins of these fissures, and indeed almost over the whole place, are to be seen most beautiful crystallizations of sulphur, in many spots quite as fine and perfect as those from Vesuvius, or indeed as any other specimens I have ever met with. The whole mass of decomposed rock in the vicinity is, in like manner, quite penetrated by sulphur. The specimens which I collected of the crystallized sulphur, as weli as of the decomposed and undecomposed porphyry, were left in- advertently on board the packet at Falmouth, which prevents my having the pleasure of exhibiting them to the society. I did not perceive at this place any trace of pyrites, or any other metallic substance, except indeed two or three small fragments of clay 1 iron stone at a little distance, but did not discover even this substance any where in situ. It is very probable that the bed of the glen or ravine might throw some light on the internal structure of the place, but it was too deep, and its banks infinitely too precipitous for me to venture: down to it. I understood there was a similar ex- halation and deposition of sulphur on the side of a mountain not more than a mile distant ina straight hne; and a sub- terranean communicatien is supposed to exist between the two places. ' Almost every island in the western Archipelago, particu- ! ‘4 ays those which have the highest land, has in like mauner its ‘« Sulphur” or, as the French better ex pressit, its *¢ Souffriére. This is particularly the case with Nevis, St. Kit’s, Guada- Joupe, Dominica, Martinico, St. Lucia, and St. Vincent’s. Some islands have several such places, analogous I presume to this, of: Montserrat ; but i in others, as Cpaiounc St. Lucia, and St.Vincent’ s, there are decided and well characterized vol- canoes, which are occasionally active, and throw out ashes, scorize, and lava, with flame. The volcano of St. Vincent’s is represented by Dr. Anderson, and others who have visited it, as, extremely Jarge and magnificent, and would bear a comparison with some of those of Europe. These circum- stances appear to have been entirely overlooked by geologists in their speculations concerning the origin and form..on of these islands. It has indeed occurred to most persons, on 2 surveying 299 Sulphur beans tifully crystal. lized. No trace of pyrites, Another Sul- phura mile distant. Most islands in the western Archipelago have one or more, and some have volcanoes, General re- marks on the island, 306 The author sails for New Holland, leaves the ship at Timor, and repairs to Java. NATURAL HISTORY OF JAVA, & surveying the regular chain of islands, extending from the southern Cape of Florida to the mouths of the Orinoco, as exhibited on the map, to conclude that it originally formed part of the American Continent, and that the encroach- ments of the sea have left only the higher parts of the land, as insular points, above its present level. But this hypothesis, however simple and apparently satisfactory in itself, will be found to accord very partially with the geological structure of the different islands. Many of them are made up entirely of vast accretions of marine organized substances; and others evidently owe their origin toa volcanic agency, which is either i some degree apparent at the present time, or else may be readily traced by vestiges comparatively recent, There is every reason to believe, however, that some of the islands are really of contemporaneous formation with the adjacent parts . of the continent, from which they have been disjoined by the incursions of the sea, or by convulsions of nature, and it is probably in those islands which contain primitive rocks, that we are chiefly to look for a confirmation of this supposition. XII. Account of various specimens of Natural History brought jrom the Island of Java, Madura, Bali, §c.; by Mr. Le- SCHENAULT*, Me Leschenault was one of the scientific persons, who sailed with captain Baudin, to investigate the natural history of New Holiand and the adjacent countries. It is well known, that most of those gentlemen died ; but the zeal and talents - of the survivors rendered this voyage one of the most inter- esting to science. Mr. Leschenault, being obliged to quit the ship at Timor, in may, 1803, on account of sickness, went over to Java, and repaired to Samarang, the chief seat of the Dutch govern- ment, and less insalubrious than Batavia. Governor Engel- * Journ, de Phys. vol. LXY, p. 406. hard, NATURAL HISTORY OF Java, &c. 301 hard, a very well informed man, received him very cour- ‘teously, and afforded him every assistance in his researches, On the 24th of october Mr. L. set off from Samarang for Tourin Jars. Sourakorta, the residence of the emperor of Java, and about sixty miles south of the former place. On his journey he visited the mountains of Dounarang, Morbabou, Telomayo, Mountains, aod Marapi. The last has on its summit a volcano con- Volcano, stantly emitting smoke. From Sourakorta he repaired to Djiokikorta, the residence of the sultan of Java. ‘The sultan and the emperor are two andeperdant princes. On this road, which is little more than Ancient tem- forty miles, are some ruins of ancient temples, remarkable P!¢* for their extent. Among these are a number of statues of Statues. lava, which seem to prove, that the people followed the re- ligion of the bramins. A severe illness obliged him to return to Samarang. ~ When he recovered, he visited the other parts of the island. After sailing to Madura, he returned to Java, and visited mount Idienne; a volcano, in which he found a lake, the Volcano and water of which was strongly impregnated with sulphuric !Pburic lake. acid. He afterward sailed to the island of Bali. Having returned to Samarang, and packed up his col- lections, he repaired to Batavia in october 1806; sailed thence on the 27th of november on board an American vessel; ar rived at Philadelphia in april 1807; sailed thence in june; and landed safe in France in july. The following is an abstract of the account of his col- lection given to the museum of Natural History by Messrs, Cuvier, Desfontaines, and Lamarck. We sball say nothing, observe these gentlemen, of the wea- 4 Ge. not pons, garments, and other articles used by the Indians, or belonging te of two very curious statues found in the ruins of a temple, a abr ge as they do not pertain to natural history, and will find their place among the antiquities of the imperial library. But Mr. L. has brought some articles interesting to the po. huraam history of man: as some fragments of undoubtedly human bones. bones brought from a burying place, that appear to have undergone at least a commencement of calcareous infiltra- tion; anda scull of a Chinese of Java, that will increase skulf. eur collection of those of different nations. Retura home. His collection. Among ¢ 302 NATURAL HISTORY OF JAVA, &e. =t New species Among the quadrumanous animals he has brought a black of ape. ape of a new species, with its young, and its skeleton; and the great slowpaced lemur [le grand lori paresseux], also with its skeleton. Galeopithecus. You know how rare the flying macauco, or pretended le« mur volans of Linneus, is in collections. Neither Buffon nor Linneus ever saw it. Mr. L. has brought four of differ- ent ages, and two skeletons. The red and the variegated of some recent naturalists are only differences of age. Bats, viverre, He has five or six species of bats, two of which, at felis. least, appear mew to us; a new weasel; a new civet; and a new species of felis, in size approaching the lynx. Skunk, His most curious quadruped in our opinion is a new skunk [mouffette], truly belonging to that genus, hitherto supposed peculiar to America, like it striped with white on a black ground, but distinguished from the other species by being without a tail. It is common in the island of Java, and emits when pursued. the same’ stinking smell as other skunks. Sirens He has also a new flying squirrel, a new ichneumon ichneumon. scarcely as big as a rat, and a new squirrel; beside many specimens of the Java squirrel, and of the taguan, or great~ est flying squirrel. Skeletons, To these he has added the skeleton ofa porcupine of Java, and those of two musks, which were wanting to your anato- mical collection. Birds, Of birds Mr. Leschenault has brought over 130 species, which we have not been able to examine with sufficient mi- nuteness to say how many are new. Mild dockins There are however two different species of wild cocks, with their hens: one was discovered by Sonnerat, the other ap- Bird of Para. pears to us new. And we noticed a new bird of Paradise, aise. black, with avery shining throat, among four other species. Of reptiles Mr. L. has brought a superb skeleton of a wre serpent, more than 15 feet [16f. Eng.] long, worthy a place in the finest collection. A specimen scarcely inferior to it, at least in rarity, is a well preserved skin of the celebrated achrocordus, or warted snake of Java. With these are about an? lizards, 30 other species of snakes, and several lizards ; among which are the gecko of Java, and the blue galeot with its spindle- shaped eggs. Se a “24 * 2S SS ee 4 NATURAL HISTORY OF JAVA, &c. 303 The fishes, mollusce, worms, and zoophytes are less nu- ' merous, and their collection less important in proportion. We have remarked however two new seapens, one of which Pennatule. is extremely curious, on account of its long and slender shape, the other on that of its large spines. In the class of insects however he has been more success= Insects, ful, having at least 600 specimens of 200 different species, more than a third of which are new, and the rest are valu- able, and fetch good prices. They are all in excellent pre- servation ; and his buterflies in particular are very numerous, and admirably fresh in their colours. He has also many shells, some of which are interesting. Shells. His herbal is composed of 900 plants nearly, about a Plants. fourth of which are new. He has already drawn up de- scriptions of near 700, and has made drawings of near 100. They are a valuable acquisition to botany. He has brought about 200 species of seeds, which will be Seeds. divided between the garden of the empress at Malmaison, and that of the Museum. Thirty species too have been brought grawing from North America, and are intended for the garden at Malmaison. Of mineralogy he collected in the island of Java some Minerals. very fine specimens of fossil wood, changed to the siliceous state, without the annual rings having disappeared: a deep green jasper, of a very fine grain, useful to the lapidary : and a collection of lavas and specimens of sulphur from mount Idienne. ; This mountain, which is about 1100 toises [2344 yds] Volcano of above the level of the sea, Mr. L. ascended with much dan- ™0U"tidienne. ger and difficulty, accompanied by commandant Wikerman, to ascertain whether the sulphur produced by the volcano might not be turned to account ; and particularly toinvesti- gate the cause, that affects the waters of the White river at certain seasons of the year, and render them noxious to men, animals, and even vegetation. . This cause did not escape him, and he found it depend- Lake on it oc- ant on a curious volcanic fact. On arriving near the sum- Lien! a, mit of the crater, which appears to be changed at present terofthe © ~ into a solfaterra, he descended to the bottom of this cavity, W 7" "* which is about 400 feet [426 f. Eng.] deep, and 250 toises [533 J04 This may be @bviated. Analysis of the water. Meadow iron ore. Granular iron $re. WATURAL HISTORY OF JAVA, &c. [533 yds} across the widest part of its bottom. Here he perceived four openings, or mouths, near the top of the cavity, continually emitting clouds of sulphurous acid vapour, which, being condensed by the action of the cold air, fell into a great lake at the bottom, which is contained in the crater of the ancient voleano. The waters in this basin, thus continually impregnated with the vapour, ‘become so acid, that they attack every thing they touch; altering all the adjaeent lava, and forme ing sulphate of iron and of lime, which they hold in solu- tion, as well as sulphate ofalumine. Accordingly when the railly seasow arrives, the lake swells, overflows, and conta- minates the water of the White river. The cause being thus known, it is easy to obviate the noxious mixture of this water, by turning aside that which descends from the lake at certain seasons; and opposing obstacles sufficient to prevent its reaching the White river, which would thus remain constantly wholesome, This is a service of no small importance to the colony. Mr. Vauquelin has analysed the acid water of this lake, and found ia it sulphuric acid, sulphurous acid, muriatic acid, sulphur, sulphate of potash, alum, and sulphate of iron. XIII. Analyses of Minerals: by Martin Henry Kriaprotn, Ph. D. &c. (Continued from p. 161). V y IESENERZ (meadow iron ore). Black oxide of irone++eee+++ +66 Oxide of manganese -+++s+e2 15 Phosphoric acid escessceeces § Water ecccccccee seesces eee D3 ; 98°5 Pisiform ironstone from Hogau. Oxide of iron oescccccceneeeS3 Silex eocrererresese sess ee DD ANGIE! sin wie’ 21s’ sissofeyoie wraie lors 0, 1678 Oxide of manganese eeeeeeee P Woater eoceescocssccesesoselAs 98 Granular ANALYSES OF MINERALS. 305 - Granular chromated iron from Styria. ' Chromate ef iron, Oxide of chrome ........02.55°5 ION. ae sseeee ees 33.” NRE. Siiwecdasdcapewes UO BR eiiclececessceinsepsseve « Sad $0 GIR ~Loss in roasting ........ 2 voereeeley iste 98'S Black manganese from layperad’i in Dalecarlia, Manganets. Oxide of maganese .......+ 60 Silex @eoeecneevetevseoeese nee 25 Water e@ereboneneereese eevee 13 . Ty . 98 Cerite from Bastnaes in Sweden. : ar : Cerite, Oxide of cerium ......026.6 54°50 Silex e@eeeecenveeesceaeneoeee02e88 34°50 Oxide of iron .cccccccceee 3°50 PATHE a oes ee ees 1°25 Water tsssssseiseaseress =) ~ 98°75 A fire-coloured opal, brought by Humboldt from Zimas pite coloured pan, in Peru. opal fromPeru, “Silex ceccccccseddaveascas GB | WCET cctv eacttet sane, SS Oxide of iron ..ceccsesees 0°25 100 Wieritiaa topaz. Brazilian Silex eehaatect te Pies am 44°5 topaz. IMIG: <:4s's cada acwee au Agee Oxide of iron... .....005000, 0° vi Place? acid fo iese.desapie 7 i ty 99'S Saxon topaz. Saxon topaz. Silex RE rh a tee 1 a8 ANGiecowtc. sete re dseass OO Fitioric ais... fiussscose Oxide of iron a fravé ..4.56 1 100 “Vor. XXXII.—Aveusr 1812. > § Crystallized 306 Zoisite. Augite from Carniola, and Sicily. Apatite. Columnar brownspar. ree. Tete ANALYSES OF MINERALS: Crystallized zoisite. Slee cc ccveecdeueyilele ae Alumine ...cccccccteccese 29 PAGW ocd ckeceeee et eun Nee Oxide of iron @aevee ee 680 @ a 3 ; 98 Lamellar augite from Carniola. Silex 0 6. SHIGE Po. Peo Magnesia. wevsecccosseeess 12°50 TA GAE ohare talatetaietarmtniteiteaile le atet a A Aldmine + 2ss.25.%5252% 04.0 80 ees Oxide of iron .ecececcceee 10°25 Patash ..'6 oe o.diebbiswn io iors views 98 Scoriform augite from Sicily. Silex 40 tee fs cetwres tere 6 eS ATUMIMG! oe ce hewccaccess- ME Oxide of iron ....e.seee00 13°75 BGIUMC A's o:c'e's cies s Siskin saa a ole Magnesia ..66 die fees sce GS WESEE Ors sie sis's'c wie ciate seb'eal ei pean Manganese a trace 98°5 Conchoidal apatite, or spargelstein, from Zillerthal. Lime e@e2orrseeooenneeeoege 53°75 Phosphoric acid ...ccereee 46°25 100 Stanglichen braunspath (columnar brownspar), brought by Humboldt from Valenciana of Guanaxuato, in Mexico, Carbonated lime ..assqeeee SI'S, MAGNESIA o.eeee 32 ITOW. sss ob ners ———————= manganese ...- 2 Water ‘eae nad gigdaig'as.ts Ms 5 - : 938 ; ; | 4 | Dolomite. | ANALYSES OF MINERALS. Dolomite from St. Gothard. Carbonated lime .......... 52 —— + magnesia ....4 46°50 Oxided iron ...,.,0.0.. 0s’ dis vie O60 Manganese ....--+- 0°25 WAGER: haig'e.a w.cd-ocieie suns wel OREO 100 Dolomite of the Appennines: A decomposed dolomite from Castelamare. Carbonated lime eeeesesese 59 magnesia ...... 40°5 Loss eeevoeeeezeeoeevee0e6 0°5 100 A dolomite in mass. Carbonated lime .......... 65 magnesia, ...... 35 es 100 A dolomite from Carniola. Carbenated lime ......-2++ 52 magnesia ...... 48 Oxided iron ..csccuveccces 20°0* 307 Dolomite from St. Gothard, from Castela~ mare, and from Carniola, Blne anhydrite, called muriacite, from Sulz on the Necker, Anhydrous spec. grav. 2’'94. DRTC. ola ara luielaline Aincsn' scaformgetae AD Salphurie seid.) 6a dvicie ents, BF Orided Wows wos tesvewees. ORO SUH ss sf cicieduieesamce was | Oe | 99°35 Compact anhydrite, vulgarly tripestone, from Bochnia. | Si a iit 2 ae aR Seg A2 Sulphuric acid ............ 56°50 Muriate of Soda ....sces-. 0°95 98 75 ® Probably 0°20; although the other component parts, exclusive of this, amount to 100, C. ae b gh sulphate of lime from Sulz, Bochnia, and * 308 Hajl in Tyrol. agnesian spar. Terre verte from Verona, Wyprusy and West Prusstne a ANALYSES OF MINERALS. Anhydrite from Hall, in Tyrol. LAE. oes cw even bins Bee 41°75 Sulphuric acid ....ee.0.008 55 Mariate of Soda :ccsice Sete De ° 97°75 Bitterspath (magnesian spar) from Hallin Tyrol. Carbonated lime ....eceese 68. magnesia .....» 25°5 TEOW {iluile'e'si stolen WHat uals a's 'bls ee ajeve etolaupye rues A mixture of clay 96:5 Terre verte from Mount Baldo near Verona. SHER is wie Cashes) hate a nis snes Oxidediyon ....cccecrctes 25 Magnesia ....teceaceveses 2 POtasiir Ui ss ieee sinh erie AO Watereeiies ccc et scyseee oe te meme > 99 Terre verte from Cyprus. Silex iis sie's's cae aeeatce aie okey Oxided ‘iron sv seyeasscecs ZOD Magnesia esscscsccceerees 15 Potasaeru: is cnn ss cs tens eek W Gtere crac cu weve ete cercic he 99°5 Terre verte from New West Prussia. , Pe ES UREA ot nie FONE s Sern | ATIC ay 4:0 seas toa h oa so 2D RE ving Sh ce poe eet ew ok ee VERO IERIR! 5c oc cls sehen eas «Otel OA ee re RTD Soda with asuspicionof potash 45 WARE ee sale bcs de ced oe pie hO 99°5 Alumstone _ ANALYSES OF MINERALS. 309 Alumstone from la Tolfa. | Alun Silex Mire kl Oa ae eas from la Tolfa, PA APIAIEL sss ¢n e's 9.0 0 ee oe wonke Pulphuric acid .........005 16°8 POS oie donc oi as wis emea'w et NEES 10 ca 0 Gob da o's C8 aed ot — Se 102 Alumstone from Hungars. Hungary, Silex sessco.sceccteeeeens 62°95 Alumine «+eecess.s.seeeee 17°50 Sulphuric acid ......¢.%.0. 12°50 PEN alsa aca ein's'e ng wae VE Water cecsecsecccscecese 5 aieneeminneennt 98°25 Aluminous earthy schist from Freyenwalde.. and Freyen- Salph wre wiewiernis ite wieieie dol d ISG a Charcoal) oc ccecccvceds se 1 96S AlumMine 6.6 cee vedre sl GO BITES crerererarerereerevete'aretere's of AOD Black oxide of iron, with .a trace of manganese ...... 64 Sulphate of iron ...00eee08 18 GypPSUM ceccceccvcscceee 15 Magnesia ...ccccecccesese 2 Sulphate of potash .......+6 15 Muriate of potash ......02. 5 Water sos cvpedcscocieesenlO7'S 1011°5 Jade from Switzerland, hemanite of Delamétherie, saus- y,4¢, surite of Saussure. PRIOR OCS coclems a woe ee eek eke: 40 WIMHVING/HS cece nce cb ag cwmaa, C4 LIME’ seer cceccevccssesees 10°50 Magnesia .ccesccesecssase 3°75 Oxide of iton ....scceceee 6°50 Soda ih Me Selicne’s cclets ae Se 99°25 Lazulite 310 : ANALYSES OF MINERALS. Lezulite. Lazulite from Krieglach in Styria. AANOADC: vn onl Swidinle alsin sdie eupitinged SOMES in shale ciulets praces's «een TE Magnesia .ceseasceccsnces 5 ESB ea 259 bictetel etaa eine Wolk yaks ¥ Oxide Of AUT. adie cee wi. aes Potselac% ¢ wicgitieins ss cue 8a eee WV atetisis a ccinaih\ ole stake eaten 5 99 Moya. Moya from Quito, brougit over by Humboldt, 100 grs. yielded Cubic inches. Carbonic acid gas....2°25 = 1:06. . Hidrogen gas ......14°50 = 0°36 | Water and ammonia with some _ empyreumatic oi) ,..,.-+- 11 Charcoal .eyecececesecess 525 SP ease os lero osecelenceumuce us oceans »46°50 AL amg) (sein inn jelele elevayeloesyelecs: RN Lime’ §. idee Fe hh CO a OR Oxide of iron .......022-5. 621 SUE ve jnlb eis ie soisionjeiaietiiwla eel: digi) (Te eens 90°88 bie, Guano from the islands on the coast of Peru, brought ei over by Humboldt, This guano%s supposed to be the re- mains of the excrements of the birds, with which those islands are covered. Ammoniacal uyic acid...... 16 Phosphated lime .....-.... 10 Oxalated lime ,......cce-0 12°75 SIGE ila igisioth ainie ais & ss 9 s:h) oie Muriated soda ..........++ 0°50 ING prete SHH, sie 'ee conn csew se OB Water with an animal residuum, DUNG [08S oe gevccseesces s. 20°75 98 Klebschiefer, 1 ANALYSIS OF MINERALS. 81} Klebschiefer, or polishing’slate, from Menilmontant, © Polishing slate, Silex esrcascssesccesecesczee 62°50 I Dene comers cece ksitieee Oxide of iron ..........20 4 . irreonh- 5.2.52. ess eee OS PRUNE * %%.'5'e'e's'c'n 0's 0'e ene” OOO Limne ...cececssesesse. iy. 0°95 Water and gasses evolved *.. 22 Ete, 98 Olive-green garnets from Siberia. Olive green garnets, Silek vscccerdevrscdtcccce a4 BAGG \o:a'ete'e"areteXetave'e"s e'e’e's ve ISS Alumine ee skosceirece eve B'S Oxide of irons sssse. Feil. 12 - manganese, a trace ‘ TsOs8u cst isivaesesaceerer al —- #02100 Green chalcedony from Olympus, near Prusa, in Asia minor. Green chale »t cedony. MULCH aig bibk.0. 9.5.6 (© abeininren aie ie 06°75 CIGe OF TGR gece ess eeee| OSU Alumine evpereeszenr sense e28 0°25 Water @eeseeeneeseeoeeeoeeapeaese 2°50. 100° ~’ True Lemnian earth. * Vassatan earth. BET TS Sc diie ee cece ss cohen OS Al@iiiine. ..corevecceccccse 14°50 Oxide of iron. .cceeeccacers 6- Lime ..ccecccccsesesccsss 0°25 Mamiestacctecerosreccctise OO ee Soden. Sitter eevee ae S30 Waterss eect ols “sso > 99 Fuller’s $12 ANALYSES OF, MINERALS. Fuller's earth, Fuller’s earth from England. + povenenetitebast 3 English, : BHO ceceesscsesseseces 58 Alumin€ eeesssesereeesss 1) 5 Wada) 0) Geis! alaealti 24 vi Potash, a trace and Siberian, Red fuller’s earth from Siberia, Magnesia ‘dps | 1°& Oxide of pn; (o.4s'3 ade to ob ’ z =r, Manganese ..---....0°5 Water | sessesseseare sas 2 sBe 25°5 Sea salt, a trace é Red cant of - Earth of Sinope, in Pontus, brought from Natolia by Sinope. Mr. Hawkins. This ‘earth, according to Pliny, farmed ~ yed paint. acy git hey aw Silex earxcgeneeeeaseetgenseeqeae a 32 Algaiine):73'). (PRS ee 26°5 Oxdgef irons...) f. 82s BI Sea salt e@eeeeseeeoeeoeeseceoeevpe eee 1S IWAter sue sisibielsie ee edie ORR ee 17 Brains cat Wee adkn Me We 98 Tincal. Tincal, crystallized borax. - w Rae c ct. 8 ts Vo Me 98°5 Datholite SCJENTIFIC NEWS, } 313 Datholite. Eat Putholite, . a ie a Di laonth-lartisinis’ wiggays Rpt CRD TOS BS oe Prartic ALG sé . bs fe bs beds QA Water o'élele 4? oh co ee bew se eee 4 Iron and manganese, a.trace 8 100 ~ Fluor. ’ eae: rs Pate ae eo es es Be ROIS Fluorie’acid ..... 6 000.020. 3215 , a0} Oxide of iron, a trace 99°9 { To be continued.) Oe + 5 oe te 5 — — 2¢..-—— Se vee 2“ SCIENTIFIC NEWS. iit sig Geological Society. i Jin UNE the 5th. An account of some new varieties of Al- New varieties eyonia found in the Isle of Wight by Thomas Webster, Esq, °f leyenda. Member of the Geological Society, was read. In viewing the rocks about Ventnor Cove, and in various parts of the undercliff, Mr, Webster remarked, in the sandstone stratum immediately under the chalk marl, a great number of small prominences, resembling in form the branches of trees, They were of various sizes, from half an inch to three or four inches in diameter; their substance ‘was sandstone, of the same kind as the rock they were in; but.the part resem- bling the bark was somewhat harder, which enabled it to éndure longer than the rest of the stone, and thus project above its surface. Someofthem were straight, others a lit- tle crooked, and in a few instances he observed them forked. * He found fragments of these bodies in, every part of the island, where the sandstone stratum can be seen, and parti- cularly among the masses of rock lying under the cliffs of Western Lines. In this last place he found, that the stems above described had frequently heads or bulbous termina- tions attached to them, in form somewhat resembling a closed tulip; and in some of these he found distinct traces of or- ganic $14 Hipywites ‘trem Sicilye SCIENTIFIC NEWS. ganic structure; from which it appeared, that these ‘heads consisted of a group of: tubuliy now converted into, and en-= veloped with stony matter.. Beside these extraordinary shapes, which projected in relief, Mr. W. observedia variety of very regular white figures, as 1f painted upon the rock, being even with the surface. They consisted of circles from two Inches to half an inch in diameter, ellipses of various eccentricities, and parallel lines both straight and curved. By a careful examination Mr. W. found, that these white figures belonged tothe other classof bodiesalready described; and that the cylinders were only the internal parts of the same body, the sections of which formed the white circular and elliptical figures. The vast masses of rock, which have fallen down, having separated from the cliff at the divisions between the beds, showed their upper and under surfaces covered with layers af these bodies heaped upon each other, and lying prostrate in every possible direction: and in the joints between the beds, where they were still not separated, they were distinctly seen. The green sandstone and the limestone he found to be the chief repositories of these bo- dies; in the ferruginous sand below the green sandstone he found none, and only a few fragments of cylinders in the blue marl on which, the sandstone rests. He traced them, upwards into the chert, but they there became rare, and they totally disappeared in the chalk marl. He found them however frequently in, the fragments of flint lying on the shore. Mr. Webster having brought away an. extensive series of specimens, which he has .since deposited in the ' collection of the Seciety, submitted them to the examination of Mr. Parkinson, who is of opinion, that they belong to the genus alcyonium, but that they are of three or four different, _ species, neither of which has been hitherto described. From, the resemblance which these bodies bear to a closed tulip. attached to its stalk, Mr. Webster suggests, that the name of tulip alcyonium may not be improperly applied, Some observations by James Parkinson, Esq. Mem. G, S.. on the specimens, of Hippurites from Sicily, presepted to the Society by the Hon. Heary Grey Bennet, Mem. G. S.. were read. These specimens Mr. P. considers to be such as demand particular attention, as they possess those . cha= racters, SCIENTIFIC NEWS. vacters, which will probably serve to correct some erro- neous opinions respecting the nature and habits of the ani- mals of which these shells were the dwellings. One of the " Specimens contains a nearly perfect shell, longitudinally divided so as to display the two ridges, with the numerous septa and chambers. From an examination of the speci+ mens, and by comparing them with the observations he has before had an opportunity of making, Mr. Parkinson 1s of opinion, that the structure of the shell of the hippurites is such, as would enable the animal to raise itself to the sur- face-of the water.’ This opinion is in opposition to that of Mr. Denys de Montfort, and most of the French orycto- logists, who consider the hippurites as belonging to what they term pelagian shells, or such as constantly inhabit the . bottom: of the sea, never rising to the surface, or appearing on the shore; and therefore, that there is no reason to sup- pose them belonging to animals which are now extinct; but only, that Giesr recent analogues have not yet beea brought to view. June the 19th. A paper by Joseph Skey, M. D., en- 315. Island ef are titled “Some remarks upon the Structure of Barbadoes badoes. as connected with specimens of its Rocks,” communicated ' by Arthur Aikin, Esq., ses. was read ; together with a note by Mr. Parkinson on some of the specimens presented by Dr. Skey. The island of Barbadoes is totally unlike those immediately near it, both in structure and in appearance, the —Jand rises in a gentle swell from the coast towards the middle of the island, except in‘one small district: its highest hills do not exceed 800 or 900 feet, and their general direction is nearly N. W. and S. E. Upon the N. Eastern. coast the shores are bolder than in the other parts of the island, as is the case in many of the islands of those seas. Barbadoes is composed of limestone, in great part of fossil madrepores, and traces of organic structure are to be met with in almost every part of the island, more particularly along the whole of the S. and S. W. coast. The land, which when seen from the sea, appears to rise uniformly from the cvast, is observed on a nearer view, to consist of successive terraces rising in - two or three gradations, one above the other, each forming a plain of a quarter or half a milein breadth, and terminated by Tabes in drift ed sand. SCIENTIFIC NEWS. hy a cliff of coral rock varying in elevation from 12 to 20 feet, and sometimes c onsiderably higher. Deep fissures have, 10 many places of the island, rent asunder the cliff; and these gulhes, as they are called, are continued. across. the terraces im irregular nes. Numerous caves are every where to be met with, and these are sometimes of very large dimensions. On the S. and S. W. side of the island may be seen at very low water a bed of calcareous sandstone, dipping S. W. 30°. Yo the eastward of the garrison of St. Ann’s is found a dull compact chalky looking limestone, with ramose alcyonia; while considerably -to, the westward the rock 1s more dis tinctly’ coralloidal.. Upon the N. and N. E. side of the island is a small mountainous district called Scotland ; con- sisting almost entirely of limestone, but of a kind less marked by organic remains than in the other districts. In Mr. Par- kinson’s note itis observed, that some of Dr. Skey’s speci meng illustrated the nature of some fossil corals; showing, that the forms, in which they at present exist, are not those which belonged to these substances in their original state; and ts aaa ought not to affect their spnenc or praere distinctions. A letter from E. L. Irton, Esq. describing some remark- able tubes found in the drifted sand at Drigg m Lancashire, was read; together with an account by W. H. Pepys, Esq. Treas. G. S., of a chemical examination, made by him, of the substance of these tubes. These tubes are found nearly in a perpendicular position, imbedded in the midst of the hills of drifted sand on the seashore, without any communi cation with the surface; there are ramifications extending from.them, which generally point downwards, and terminate in fine points. The tube sent to the seciety is above an ineh in diameter and of an irregular form. The outside consists of black aud white sand, agglutinated together, the inside is smooth, aud, has a. vitrified appearance. When dug out ef the sand it was soft, apd in some degree flex- ible, and the inside coating at its first exposure to the air was. soft to the tauch,, and rather unctuous, but in less than a quarter of an hour it hardeoed into. the state in which it now exists. "Che tube, when found, was filled, with the sand. of the hill,;aud, that sand is quite different from the gand SCIENTIFIC NEWS. 3} 7 gand of which the outside of the tube consists. Both the sand and the vitreous part of the tube scratch glass; and on the latter, when viewed by a lens, there are seen small air blebs, such as are Common ‘to imperfect vitrification. Both are inselublein sulphuric and nitric acids; infusible be- fore the blowpipe without addition ; partially fusible on the addition of boracic acid but; with soda a complete fusion took place, and the residue was nearly soluble in water. A paper by Dr. Mac Culloch, M. G. S. on the vitrified Vitrified forts fort of Dun Mac Sniechain, near Oban in Argyleshire, was “> Seot#nd. read. Inthe discussion which some time ago took place re- specting the vitrified forts of Scotland, the question on which the two contending parties were most at issue was, whether the vitrification was the effect of design or of acci« dent. It occurred to Dr. M., that light might be thrown on the subject by examining with mineralogical _ accuracy the substances of which these structures were com posed ; and noting the changes, which each hac undergone, in con- sequence of the fire; and also by observing whence the stones =had been derived, which were used inthem. And that the question of accident or design might be illustrated, by examining in the laboratory the degree of heat required to produce the appearances in the stones, which actually exist In these structures. The fort of Dun Mac Sniochain stands on a long narrow Fort of Dun hill, which is nearly precipitous along three parts of its cir- Mac Sniochain cumference; and at the other end it rises from the plain with a very accessible acclivity.' The walls, which are nearly all at present buried under the soil, are about eight or ten feet in thickness, They bear marks of vitrification through their whole fextent, but in no case does it ap- pear to have extended more than a foot or two upwards, and the most perfect slags are found at the bottom of the foun- dation. In the higher parts there are stones roasted by the action of the heat, but unvitrified ; and at length the marks of fire almost entirely disappear. The hill consists of al- ternate beds of schistus and limestone, but the latter is the predominant rock. It is perfectly insulated in a great al- luvial plain. The mountains of Benediraloch, which bound” the plain to the west, consist of granite, gneiss, mica-slate, quartz ° ‘ The vitrificati- on probably the effect of design. SCIENTIFIC NEWSs quartz and porphyry. On the edge of these rocks are found large detached masses of puddingstone, consisting of rounded pebbles‘of greenstone of different varieties, of amy gdaloid and quartz deriented by a paste, which appears to consist chiefly of trapsand united by the hard variety ef calcareous spar. The paste contains also, in. small quantity, zeolites prehnite, garnet, and diallage. This puddingstone, where nearest to the fort, is at least half a mile distant from it. The walls of the fort consist. principally of granite, gneiss, mica-slate, clay-slate, quartz, puddingstone, and pyritical slate, entangled together; with a very small proportion of the particular rock on which the fort itself is founded: the pud- dingstone forming the greater part of them. This pudding- stone Dr, M. shows to be the only. vitrifiable ingredient of the walls; and from the distance from which it must have been brought, and the great quantity of it employed in the work, he considers it probable, that the builders of the.fort must have been acquainted with its vitrifiable nature, and that it was on accouut of this quality, that they bad em- ployed so great labour in transporting it. For if. their ob- ject had not beer to produce vitrification, but merely to erect a dry wall of stone, the limestone of the hill, would have answered their intentions, or perhaps. the loose stones of the adjoining plain. That they did not obtain the puddingstone from the latter source is evident; for although the plain and shore are covered with fragments, these cons sist almost entirely of the primary rocks; and besides, the pieces of the wall which have not felt the fire are angular fragments, showing pretty clearly, that they were not cole - lected on an alluvial plain, but broken from the rocks where they are found. Dr. M. next proceeds to describe the various states in which the different stones are found. The puddingstone exhibits the greatest variety of changes, it is found in every state, from a black glass to a.spongy scoria capable of floating 1 in water, sometimes exhibiting the gra- dual succession of chavges from incipient calcination to complete fusion. To ascertain the degree of heat necessary to produce the corresponding changes in this rock, Dr. M. submitted various parts of it to the furnace, and he found, that some of the fused substances must have been, brought to SCIENTIFIC NEWS. 319 to that state in a heat not less than 100° of Wedgwood’s scale; a heat at which many varieties of earthenware are baked. Dr. M. next gives a short account of the vitrified fort of Craig Phadric. in Inverness-shire, and of another in Galloway; in both of which, but more particularly in the former, he observed circumstances quite analogous to what he had already found at Dun Mac Sniochain: and the con- elusion he has been led to form is, that the vitrification of these forts is the effect of design. The Society adjourned till November. ii Horticultural Society. It has been the intention of the Horticultural Society, opjects for from its first institution, to present annually honorary pre- ete ewes miums, or medals, to such persons as have raised, and pro fer sepponatand duced before them, any new and valuable variety of fruit, nig and mc or esculent plant, or who have made any important dis-° covery in horticulture. Butas the Society conceived every one of these to be still capable of acquiring a greater degree of perfection than it has yet attained, they did not think it necessary to direct the attention of gardeners to the im- provement of any particular plant. Subsequently, however, they have been induced to think, that it might be advanta- geous, to publish an account of such projected improvements as shall be suggested by their members, or others, and ap- proved by their council; and the following are therefore proposed, as objects deserving, among others, the attention of experimental horticulturists. New varieties of the potato, better calculated for forcing, and for supplying the markets early in the summer, than those at present cultivated. Other varieties of the same plant, which will afford abun- - dant crops, and be capable of being longer preserved in perfection than any now known, so that the markets might always afford the potato, as nearly as possible in the great- est state of perfection. A rich and sweet variety of the common red currant, which might probably be obtained from seeds, by appropriate se- lection, through a few successive generations. New S20 Objects for which the so- ciety intend to present premi- ums and me- ° e SCIENTIFIC NEWa New varieties of the gooseberry, which might supply the markets with green fruit at earlier periods, and mature fruit at earlier and later periods than those now cultivated. New varieties of pears, similar to those which have beer introduced from France; but sufficiently hardy to grow and ripen on standard trees, and calculated to ‘supply the mars kets ata moderate pricé during winter and spring. A good and early new variety of grape, better adapted to the climate of Great. Britain, i in the 8 air, hat any now known. Better and more productive varieties of the apple, and capable of being longer preserved i in porfectian, than most hitherto known. . A good early nectarine; a variety of the strawberry earlier than the common scarlet ¢ and of the = whieh would ripen before the early may. More early and hardier varieties of the peach, which bapa succeed better, at least, than any now known, on- standard or espalier trees. ' Several native varieties of the plum afford bléssotis’ so hardy, that they are rarely injured by frost. Might not rich varieties be obtained by introducing the farina of ‘thé fine but tender kinds into the prepared blossomis of these 2 It is stated, in the Pomona Herefordiensis, that very rich and very bardy varieties of the apple have been thus obs tained immediately from the seeds of the Siberian érab. In pointing out the preceding objects, as deserving the attention of gardeners, it is not the inténtién of the society to limit its patronage to those solely: on the contrary, it is their wish, to promote and encoutage successful experiments, in every branch of useful and or naniental hortieulture. To Correspondents. stp The conrenanicutiuis fide Mrs! Bobeteow and E. G. shall he’ inserted the earliest opportunity. \ v ~ bad 2 qawtay Rl he he) A JOURNAL OF NATURAL PHILOSOPHY, CHEMISTRY, AND THE ARTS. SUPPLEMENT TO VOL. XXXII, ARTICLE I. Observations on the Disease in the Potato, generally called the Curl; pointing out the most probable Method of pre- venting it; with an Account of the Results of a few Experiments made on the Subject. By Mr. Tuomas Dickson, Leith Walk, Edinburgh *. "Tus disease, so far as I can learn, first began to be Date of the alarming to the growers of the potato about thirty-five or ais ee forty years ago. Since that time, it has continued to en. gage the attention of many eminent agriculturists and gar. deners. Various opinions have at different times been advanced Opinions re- as to its cause. Some were of opinion, that the disease cs Cebilg ‘eg was caused by the tubers used for seed-stock not having been sufficiently ripened:—others thought, that they had been frost-bitten, in the course of the preceding winter :— some ascribed the evil to the effects of blights attacking the plants in coming through the ground ;—others to the at- tacks of certain minute insects:—lastly, the exhausted state of the soil was blamed for the disease. But no one Real cause. _ seems to have hit upon the real cause, until the honour- able Baron Hepburn of ‘Smeaton, in East Lothian, one of * Memoirs of the Caledonian Horticultural Society, vol. I, p. 49. “Vou. XXXII. Supprement. Z the 322 Experiments made with a view to its proof. Propagation of particular vari- eties by cuts. ON THE CURL IN POTATOES. the most successful and intelligent agriculturists of this country, started a new theory on the subject; which, from its singularity, and seeming inconsistence with our expe- rience in matters of a similar nature, did not at the time meet with that attention, to which it undoubtedly was en. titled. The Baron thought, that the curl was probably caused by the tubers used for seed-stock having been allowed to become too ripe the preceding year; and that this prac. tice of overripening, being repeated year after year, was the real cause of the disease, the vegetative power in the tubers being thus exhausted. I candidly confess myself to have been rather at first a sceptic on the subject; but, after considering the thing a little, my doubts began to clear away. In order to satisfy myself thoroughly, I resolved upon making a suite of ex periments, I accordingly did so; and as they were cone ducted entirely by myself, or under my own immediate su- perintendence, I can pledge myself for their accuracy. I now beg leave to lay them before the Caledonian Horticul- tural Society, in hopes that they may, by means of the Society, be made known to the public; and as the experi- ments are easily repeated, that they may induce others to turn their attention to the subject. I think it right to observe, that the experiments now to be detailed were not made with any view of their ever ap- pearing before the public; nor would they have been brought forward at this time, but from a wish to promote the views of this Society. It is well known to all cultivators of the potato, that the usual mode of reproducing any particular variety of this valuable root is by cuts or sets of the tubers; and that this mode of propagation is repeated every year, so long as that particular sort is wished for, without our ever thinking of reinvigorating the seed-stock*, by raising new plants from the real seeds. In this way it happens, that merely the individual variety is propagated; the species being re- produced only by sowing the true seeds of the plant. It * By this expression is always to be understood the stock of éu- bers for planting, in contradistinction to the real seed of the plant. . 1 is ON THE CURL IN POTATOTS. 323 is only by sowing the seeds that we obtain xez varieties. But if the seeds be taken from any particular variety, that May be effect. is wished to be preserved, and if care be exercised, Ti ia laps the plants shall have no communication with the farina of any other plants of the same species in flower, then the produce of these seeds will probably be the same, or nearly the same, with that variety from which the seeds were saved; and from the seed-stock being renewed and reinvi- gorated in this way, it seems likely, that the variety so obtained may, by observing a proper management, be pre- served from the curl or any other kind of degeneracy, for any length of time. Ishall presume, that the principal cause of the curl in Curl produced the potato is the overripening of the seed-stock for the sup- SA bes ply of the ensuing year, by allowing it to remain too Jong for sets. in the ground, and especially if it be also planted early; this practice, being repeated fur several years successively, causes an exhaustion of the vegetative principle in the tu- bers, which renders them totally unfit to produce vigorous healthy plants; and is the principal cause of the disease. This doctrine has almost uniformly been objected to by Objection to many very intelligent agriculturists and gardeners, as being ‘"'S hypothesis quite contrary to our experience in regard to seeds in ge- neral; full ripeness being considered the best recommen.’ dation. But this objection, I apprehend, arises from the answered, taking an improper view of the subject. It is true, that all of what are properly called seeds are improved, by being thoroughly ripened; but cuts or sets, taken from the tubers of a potato, cannot, strictly speaking, come under the description of seeds. Planting cuts of the potato is analogous to budding or grafting of trees, being only a secondary mode of propagation; and, consequently, the above-mentioned objection does not hold good. This doc- Growth of po- trine may be farther illustrated, by observing the strong esha tendency, which potatoes raised from seeds have to run to flower and seed, unless prevented, by destroying these as they appear, and by earthing up the roots of the plant, so as to induce them to throw out tubers. This natural dis- position of plants raised from seeds will remain for several generations of the plant, gradually yielding to the artificial Z2 means ‘ NN ee i eC Ln. oat ON THE CURL IN POTATOES. Argument from means used, until they at last become what we wish. And a successful practice 5 and the effects of its opposite. Potatoes to be what may be deemed still a farther proof is, that those who cultivate potatoes most successfully, in the low and early parts of this country, where the disease chiefly exists, bring a supply of seed-stock from the higher and Jater parts of the country, for a change, every second year at farthest. In such high places, from the lateness and wetness of the climate, the farmers are prevented from planting their po- tatoes so early as in the low country, and are also, from the fear of early frosts, obliged to take up their crop sooner ; consequently the tubers are never so highly ripened as to weaken the vegetative principle in them. Here, then, we have a strong practical testimony to the truth of the docrine which has been advanced. On the other hand, in the early districts of the low country, where, as has already been remarked, the disease is principally known, particular kinds of potatoes are planted year after year successively, from the same seed- stock; and most of the early kinds are planted soon in the season, with a view to procure an early crop for the mar- ket: a part of these is generally allowed to remain in the ground till the usual time of taking up, to supply seed. stock for the ensuing year: by this time, however, the plants have become so ripe as to weaken very much the ve- getative power of the tubers. This practice being repeated for several years, at last so impairs the vegetative power in the tubers, as to produce the curl; and there is no doubt, that, if this practice were persevered in, it would ulti- mately destroy the power of vegetation altogether, as I have proved by experiments. There is yet another powerful cause, which weakens the used for setting yesetative power in the tubers; and this is, the allowing should never be suffered to flower. such plants as are intended to supply seed-stock for the en- suing year, to run to flower, and produce seed*. This should in all cases be prevented, by cutting off the flowers as they appear, eveninembryo. Thus, by turning nature from her ordinary course, we force her to exert herself in * Tt is generally the late sorts of potatoes, that produce seeds, very few of the early kinds doing so. another ON THE CURL IN POTATOES. another channel, and to throw back into the trbers that portion of the vital principle of the plant, which would have been exhausted in the formation of flowers and seeds. Nothing will more contribute to prevent degeneracy in the potato, and especially to prevent curl, than this treatment. In proof of what I have already advanced on this sub.. Experiments by the author. ject, I shall now state a few experiments made by myself in the years 1801,-2,-3. They appear to me to be quite con. clusive, and will go farther to convince, ne a volume written without experiments. In the autumn of 1800, when in Fife, at a friend’s house, I met with a potato of the long flat kind *, which I thought very excellent, and obtained a few to cultivate for my own use: he however informed me, that they had been so in- fested with the curl for some years, that he had resolved to abandon the culture of them altogether. This led me to conclude, that, from their shape, &c., they were well adapted for being made the subject of some experiments I had previously resolved to make, with a view te ascertain the truth of the new idea, upon the cause of the curl, which had been some time before mentioned to me. Ac. cordingly, I selected about half a peck (14lb.) of these, as near the size and shape of the annexed sketch as possi. ble; I took one or two sets from each end of each potato, Sets taken from the appo- site ends of pa- bilical, or wet end, next the connecting radicle: each sort tatoes. that is, from the extreme, or dry end, and from the um- was planted upon the same ground, but in different rows, with the same kind and quantity of manure to each, and in every respect in exactly the same circumstances, onthe 27th of April, 1801. The season was very favourable. Upon examining the Results. plants about the end of June, I found, that all those that were taken from the wet, or least ripened end of the po- tato, had come up, and were looking well and healthy, ex- cept three plants, which were a little affected with the dis- ease: these I threw out, preserving only such as were quite free from it. Upon examining those plants, which were * A sketch of atuber of this kind, of the natural size, accom- panies this, showing the different cuts or sets, &c. produced 325 eS 2 a a ae SSS 326 The experi- ment twice repeated. ON THE CURL IN POTATOES. produced from the dry or ripest end of the potato, I found, that but few of them had appeared above ground, and such as had were all diseased, more or less ; butin many instances, the sets had not vegetated at all, nor did they, upon taking them up to examine them, show any signs of vegetation ; although quite sound and fresh, they were quite inert; nor did these change their appearance throughout the season, being nearly as fresh when the rest of the crop was lifted, as when they were put into the ground. On the 30th of July, the whole were again examined ; the plants from the unripe sets were almost covering the ground, thongh planted at two feet between the rows, and were looking well, remarkably free from curl, and pro- mising an abundant crop; while those from the ripened sets, which had vegetated, and had grown, had made very little progress indeed, and were universally curled; several of the plants died after coming a certain length, seemingly from mere weakness; and suchas grew stronger had very few tubers at their roots, and these very small and puny. On the 3rd of October, I took up the produce of both sorts, and pitted them, for renewing the experiment the ensuing year. The same course of experiment was accordingly repeat. ed, not only next year (1802), but also the following year (1803); and the resulis were exactly similar; the plants produced from the wet, or unripened ends, continuing healthy, and producing abundant crops, while those pro- duced from the dry ends continued to degenerate. I thus satisfied myself, that the disease originated entire- ly in the overripening of the seed-stock ; and indeed all my experience, since these trials were made, has tended only to strengthen this opinion. I might follow out this toa much greater length, and supply many more facts, all cal- culated to prove the truth of what has already been ad~ vanced; but, by doing so, I should only multiply the de~ tail of similar trials and facts, which, instead of inducing individuals, might rather deter them from satisfying them- selves by making experiments. This I should wish them to do. It ON THE CURL IN POTATOES. 327 It may be proper to observe, that the produce of the Perhaps the curled potatoes was taken up before being too ripe, and Cv"! might be ‘ d removed by replanted with the others: [ cannot say that the disease taking up the Was removed, but they did not get worse. Perhaps re- tuber early. planting them in very highly manured land, for several : years, might have a good effect: but unless it were for the sake of reclaiming a favourite variety, the experiment is hardly worth making. Having trespassed so long on the attention of the Society, I shall only beg leave to suggest afew simple rules, which, if attended to, will, I am humbly confident, soon entirely banish the disease of curl from the country. These are, 1. To procure a sound healthy seed-stock, which cannot Means of pre- be relied on, unless obtained from a part of the high country, Venting the where, from the climate and other circumstances, the tubers aT are never overripened. 2. To plant such potatoes as are intended to supply seed- stock for the ensuing season at least a fortnight later than those planted for crop, and to take them up whenever the haulm or stems become of a yellow-green colour: at this period, the cuticle or outer skin of the tubers may be easily rubbed off between the finger and thumb. 3. To prevent those plants, that are intended to produce seed-stock for the ensuing year, from producing flowers or seeds, by cutting them off in embryo; taking care, how- ever, to take no more off than the extreme tops, as, by taking more, the crop may be injured. The best mode of doing this, is with a common reaping-hook, or light switch- ing bill. Two boys or girls may do an English acre in two or three days. Nurseries, Leith Walk, 6th of March, 1810. References to Plate VIII, Fig. 1. A The ripened or dry end. B_ The waxy or wet end. aa The cuts or sets from the dry end. ‘-b b The cuts or sets from the umbilical end. cc The umbilical cord or connecting radicle. dd The real roots of the plant. II, Electric 328 NOT TWO ELECTRIC FLUIDS. II. Electric Attractions and Repulsions are not explained in @ Satisfactory Manner in the Hypothesis of Two Fluids. By J. C. DevametueErts *. Electrical ae oe J{LECTRICAL attractions and repulsions,’’ says the pee Leger author + of +’? Elementary Treatise on Physics, vol. I, to be easilyex- p. 590, 2ded., ‘‘ form one of those subjects, that have most Oe ecsct engaged the attention of philosophers, and have most em- two fluids. barrassed those, who have endeavoured to refer to the ac- tion of a single fluid two diametrically opposite effects, which frequently succeed each other very rapidly in the same body. Butif we admit the combined action of two fluids, the theory acquires such a happy simplicity, that the simple enunciation of the hypothesis seems to be a con- cise explanation of the phenomena. <¢ Mutual repulsion of two bodies, the electricities of which are homogeneal. Instance in re- ‘* § 557. If we suppose in the first place two bodies, pulsion. each electrified by an additional portion of vitreous or re- sinous electricity, that has been transmitted to it, we see instantly what must take place; since this principle, that bodies animated with the same kind of electricity repel each other, and that bodies solicited by different electricities attract each other, is only as it were a literal translation of that other fundamental principle, that the particles of each of the component fluids act on one another by repellent forces, and exert attractive forces on the particles of the other fluid. This explained ‘* § 558. This however requires some details, which experimentally. will find their place in the exposition we are about to give of the means, that may be employed to prove this principle by experiment. Let AB, Pl. VUI, Fig. 2, be two balls of pith of elder, or any other conducting matter, sus. pended by threads at a small distance from each other, and to which the vitreous electricity has been communicated. The fluids surrounding these balls mutually repel each other ; * Journ, de Phys. vol. LXV, p. 315, + Mr. Haiy. ; and NOT TWO ELECTRIC FLUIDS. and their particles would be diffused through space by op. posite movements, if the surrounding air did not retain them near each body. Hence they can only glide on the surface of the body, so, for instance, that the fluid of the body A, being crowded toward the posterior part of this body, d, will exert its effort on the air itself, that is ad. - jacent to this part. Thus the equilibrium between this air and that contiguous to the anterior part, c, being broken, the latter will act by its elasticity on the body A, to impel at in the directionch. 'The same reasoning applies in the opposite direction to the body B; whence we conclude, that the fluids and the bedies, or balls, impelled by a com. mon movement, must recede from each other. We should have a similar result, supposing the two bodies to be elec trified resinously. *¢ Mutual attraction of two bodies, the electricities of which are heterogeneous. 6¢§ 559. Let us imagine, that, one of the two bodies, Instance in gine, 9 9 : “attraction. A for instance, being solicited by the vitreous electricity, the electricity of the other, B, is resinous. The fluids then will attract each other; so that, with respect to the body A, which we shall.continue to take as the object of comparison, the crowding will take place toward the ante. rior part of the body, c. The fluid accumulated in this place then will act repellently on the neighbouring air: whence it follows, that the «ir contiguous to the posterior part, d, will impel the body in the direction dn. The same effect will take piace in an opposite direction with res _ spect to the body B, and thus the fluids and the bodies will be carried toward each other.” ~ What has been said is copied literally, that the author’s opinion might not be misrepresented. 329 This explanation of electric attractions and repulsions Proof that this by the action of two fluids does not appear ta me satisfac- tory. I conceive it may be refuted by a single experiment. The two experiments related by the author, § § 558 and 559, succeed as well in the vacuum of an airpump, as in the open air: consequently neither the attraction nor the repulsion of the two little balls is produced by the action of the atmospheric air. z In explanation is erroneous : 330 RATIO OF EVAPORATION TO HUMIDITY. Be ihat ee In the next place I would observe, that, if we suppose contrary should the air to be driven back by the electric fluid gliding over take place the the ball, the’ effect should be the reverse of what takes Supposition >] were true, place: for, as this electric fluid .acts with sufficient force against the air to drive it back, and the little ball is very moveable, the same thing should take place as with an eolipile, sky-rocket, &c. The sky-rocket, for example, ascends in the air only because the powder as it burns makes a continual jet, which strikes and drives back the air with great velocity. The air resists this rapid movement; and the rocket, being movable is driven forward, and proceeds with more or less rapidity. Thisis also the cause of the recoil of cannons, muskets, &c. II. Memoir on the Proportion the Evaporation of Water bears to the Humidity of the Air. By Honore FiAueERaues*. Humid ty of By the humidity of the air should be understood the aba abe proportion, that the quantity of water mingled and sus. tion pended in a given quantity of air bears to the quantity of the air. The more humid the air, the slower and less con. siderable the evaporation: and there is even a degree of hu. midity, at which evaporation wholly ceases, because, the air being loaded with all the moisture it can contain, no Experiments more can rise. I have madea great number of experiments, Hale ot? to ascertain the law, that this decrease of evaporation fol- tion. lows; and as experiments of this kind appeared to me most proper to determine the general law of evaporation as it respects the moisture of the air, I shall confine myself here to those, on the results of which most dependance can be placed, as I employed in making them an extensive appa- ratus, of which the following is a description. Apparatus de- I began with procuring ‘a stock of air completely dried poder for the purpose in a very dry season. I caused a cask to be hooped and headed, that would contain about nine cubic * Journ. de Physique, vol. LXX, p. iby feet, RATIO OF EVAPORATION TO HUMIDITY. 331 feet, very clean, and the staves and heads of which were perfectly dry. I luted the joints accurately; and for greater precaution pasted over them slips of paper, to pre- vent all access of the externalair. Into the bung-hole of this Preparation of cask I poured about two cubic feet of quicklime coarsely ‘ ie powdered, and hot from the kiln. The bung-hole was then closed with a very tight straight cock, the key of which was perforated with a hole about three lines in dia. meter, In this state I left things about three weeks, shak- ing the cask several times a day, that the lime might present fresh surfaces to the contact of the air, and thus more speedily and completely free it from all the water, that might be suspended in it. Thus presuming the air to be perfectly dried, I employed it in my experiments, pouring it into a tin vessel, which I had made for the purpose. This vessel consists of a hollow cylinder, 13 in. 2 lines * Vessel for in diameter, and 18 inches high. This cylinder is closed Sa ig sie! at one end by a circular plane, and at the other by a cone 3 in. 7 lines high. Its capacity is about 2614 cub. in. The summit of the cone is truncated; and has soldered to it a small cylindrical tube, capable of receiving a cylindri- cal vessel of glass, four lines in diameter, intended to hold the water to be evaporated into the air in the vessel. This glass is fixed in the tube by medns either of putty or of soft wax. The tin vessel may be fixed in a perpendicular position, with the glass vessel downwards, by means of two handles soldered to the cylindrical part, and resting on two supports of iron fixed upright on a table. The sheets of tin, of which this instrument is made, are very carefully soldered ; and the external air cannot find admit- tance, except through the aperture of the tube at the sum. mit of the cone when this is not closed by the glass vessel. To fill this vessel with the dry air in the cask, I began by Mode of filling filling it completely with fine sand, perfectly dried hy a fire. ‘t® vessel. I then placed it on the cask, so that the aperture at the end of the conical part was exactly fitted to the cock; and, after carefully closing the juncture with soft wax, I turned the key of the cock. The sand, escaping by the hole in * The French measures are here retained. C, the 332 Manner of making the experiments. Heat and pres- sure during the experiments. RATIO OF EVAPORATION TO HUMIDITY. the key, ran into the cask, and the air displaced by it at the same time ascended into the vessel. When the sand, by the help of a few slight shakes, had entirely run out, and the vessel was filled with the dry air of the cask, I shut the cock, carefully removed the tin vessel, ard immediately introduced into the tube the orifice of the cylindrical glass, filled to within three lines of the top with very pure rain water; and cemented it there so that it could not fall, and that none of the external air could get in. I then placed this vessel, keeping it always upright in the way I have mentioned, in a room, where I kept up a uniform temper. ature during each series of experiments. The glass cylin. der at the bottom of the vessel being thus completely iso- lated before the window of the room, it was easy to mea. sure the sinking of the water in it by evaporation, by tak- ing with a pair of very pointed spring compasses, and with the assistance of a good lens, the distance from the surface of the water to the level at which it stood at the commence. ment of the experiment, this being marked on the glass with a diamond. For calculating this distance I employed the same scale of a thousand parts, made by Canivet, as I used for my experiments on the relation between heat and spontaneous evaporation*, Every day at the same hour, four o’clock mean time, I took the measure of the fall of the water below its original level: but in the following table, to save room, I shall set down only the measures of every third day, confining myself also to the four series of experiments that succeeded best. During the first of these series, the thermometer by the side of the tin vessel was constantly at 20° [77° F.]; and the height of the barometer, when the vessel was filled with the air, was 27 in. 9-7 lines [29-64 in. Eng. ]. In the 2nd series the thermometer continued with very little variation at 18° [72°5° F.]; and the height of the barometer at the commencement was 28 in. 0°41. [29°88in. ]. During the.3rd series the thermometer marked nearly 152% [65:75° F.]; and the height of the barometer 27 in. 8-4 I. [29°52 in. ]. * J. de Phys, vol. LXV, p. 446: or Journal, vol. XXVIL, p. 17. On this scale 190 parts were equal to a Paris inch. ; on RATIO OF EVAPORATION TO HUMIDITY. 333 In the 4th series the thermometer was constantly at 10° [54°5° F.]; and the barometer at the beginning was at 28 in. 2:91. [30-1 in. }. The results of these experiments are given in the follow~ The table ex- ing table, divided into four columns. The first of these pone - contains the date; the second, the distance below the level at the commencement; the third, the distance fallen be. tween the times of measuring. These differences form ap- parently a decreasing geometrical progression, as I quickly perceived: but to render this law more evident I have added a fourth column, in which the differences are calculated by inserting five mean geometrical proportionals between the - first and last difference found by experiment. Tabulated Results. Date of thelFall of the|Actu-| Differ- ||Date of the Fall of the|/Actu-| Differ- measures. water. al dif-|. ences measures. water. fal dif-{ ences 1807. fer- calcu- 1807. fer- | calcu- ences, lated. ences.}| lated. First Series. Third Series. Aug. 1 | Parts 0 Sept. 18 | Parts 0 4 59 | 59 | 59 Ai) 35 | 35, |-35 7 96 } 37 | 35°9 24 Sao Zur 10 PUT 2172 2h°9 D7: 70} 15 | 13:5 I ess P32 rs (VSS 30 78 8 8:4 16 Woo} Bp SFL Oct. © 3 SA igs Sy 19 145 5 | 49 6 86 4 case O29 148 3 % 9 88 g Ye Second Series. Fourth Series. Aug. 24 | Parts 0 Oct. 12 | Parts O 27 A7 | 47.) 47 15 24 | 2 | 24 * 30 To NA 20M BSS 18 S77) ls 4 1 Sept. 2g 91 | 18 | 16°4 Q1 44 uf 8:3 5 TO2 TE 9:7 24 50 6 4:9 8 108 6 5°7 a7 53 2 2:9 11 111 3 3°4 30 54 Be, EZ 14 113 g 2 Nov. 2 55 1 1 934 RATIO OF EVAPORATION TO HUMIDITY: The evapora- As the vessel containing the water evaporated in the pre- tion decreased ceding experiments was cylindrical, the successive diminu- at econ ines of the height of the wat re proportional to the progression. § € water are prop quantities evaporated; and as these successive diminutions form a decreasing geometrical progression, as may easily be verified, we shall conclude, that the quantities of water — evaporated in equal times, in the same body of air, likes: | wise form a decreasing geometrical progression. Hence it is easy to ascertain the law followed in the evaporation of water with respect to the humidity of the air, by means of avery simple geometrical construction. The law exem- Let HI, Pi. VIII, Fig. 3, be anhyperbola, described et ia between the rectangular assymptotes CA, CK. On the assymptote CA take the abscissas CA, CB, CD, CE, &c., in a decreasing geometrical progression; and, erecting the perpendicular ordinates AH, BF, DG, ETI, the hy- perbolical spaces AH BF, BF GD, DGET, will be equal*; and the parts AB, BD, DE, of the assymptote, will be in a continued decreasing geometrical progression : for, since, by construction, CA:CB::CB:CD:: CD: CE, we shall have dividendo CA: CA—CB (AB) >;:CB: CB—CD(BD)::CD:CD—CE(DE); and convertendd CA:CB:CD:: AB: BD: DE. We may represent the lowering of the water therefore, or the evaporations, by the lines AB, AD, &c.; and the times of these evaporations by the corresponding hyperbolical spacs AHBF, AHDG, &c. This admitted, let us: suppose A C to represent the quantity of water necessary to saturate completely the body of air, in which the eva. poration takes place; and the hyperbolical area A H EI to represent any time, taken at pleasure: A E will represent the quantity of water evaporated during that time, and CE the difference between the quantity of water necessary for the complete saturation and the quantity of water evapo- rated. Farther, if we draw e7 parallel and infinitely near to the ordinate EI, Ee will represent the evaporation that takes place during the fluxion of time represented by the ¥* F. Deschalles Cursus mathematicus, Sect. conic., Lib. I,. | prop. xli. ‘ elementary RATIO OF EVAPORATION TO HUMIDITY: elementary parallelogram E Jez: but by the hypothesis the 33 ~ od fluxion of time is constant; Ee therefore is inversely pro. portional to EI, which is inversely proportional to C E; and consequently Ke is directly proportional to CE: that is to say, the evaporation is at each instant proportional to the difference between the quantity of water necessary to saturate completely the body of air in which the evapo. ration takes place, and the quantity of water actually eva- porated and suspended in that air; or, in other words, the evaporation is proportional to the excess of the moisture of the air at the point of saturation over the present hu. midity. This is the general law, which evaporation follows with respect to the humidity of the air. This law appears to confirm the opinion of Muschem- Tends to con- breeck * and Leroy +, that the evaporation of water is no- oe Shaan thing buta solution of this fluid in the ambient air; for the poration is a law just announced must take place generally in all solu. ‘Ue Solution. tions. In fact, if the menstruum did not exert on the body to be dissolved, in every portion of time, an action pro. portionate to the quantity that remained to be dissolved to — produce complete saturation, but a greater or less action, it would follow, that, in the first case, when the menstru- um is completely saturated it would still retain a part of its solvent action, which would remain without effect; and in the second, that the effect would be greater than its cause, which is equally absurd. The application of this law supposes a knowledge of the Attempt to quantity of water necessary to saturate completely a given Sheen quantity of air at a given temperature. To endeavour to that would sa- accomplish this object, I repeated the elegant experiments ses i) ae = pa- of Mr. de Saussure +: but not having a large globe, I could ature. only employ glass jars, the apertures of which I closed with a plate of metal cemented all round. Notwithstand- ing the imperfection of this apparatus, I had the satisfac. tion to obtain the same result as that celebrated philoso. pher; namely, that it required about 10 grains of water to saturate completely a cubic foot of air at the temperature * Diss. Phys. Leyden, 1751, vol. II, p. 721, + Mém. Acad. 1751, p. 484 and foll. t Essais sur PHygrométrie, N. 97 and fol. of 336 RATIO OF EVAPORATION TO HUMIDITY? of 15° [65°75° F.]._ I repeated the same experiments with air at the temperature of 20° [77° F.] and 5° [43:25° F.], and I found, that it required in the first case about 16°75 grs., and in the second 4:5. These three quantities are nearly in the same ratio as the evaporations under these de- grees of heat given in the table inserted in this Journal*; and it is obvious, that it could not be otherwise. Humidity of From this principle we have the proportion 17-1: 4:4: 3 pease airat 10 grs : 2-6 grs, the weight of the quantity of water cone tained by a cubic foot of air at the temperature of melting ice, when completely saturated. The weight of a cubic inch of water being 373°5 grs, this is the weight of 12 cub. lines of water; which, divided by the bulk of the air, will for the humidity of the air at the temperature su 12 v Bive (144)3 of melting ice, when completely saturated with water. Rule forfinding By the same reasoning may be found the humidity of a pala ‘cubic foot of air at the temperature X, and at the point of 2 in . other tempera-saturation; by means of the proportion tures. 6) Oe (2-718) 1205 (4.4) :(2.718) 1 “11-05 (4,4) : at : x 11-05 -12:(2-718) . (144)! This 4th term expresses the humidity to which the evapora. tion in air perfectly dry, at the temperature X, is propor. tional. If we call Z the number of cubic lines of water sus. pended in a cubic foot of air, the temperature of which is equally X, the humidity of this air will be expressed by Z . . oa . ; Can? , and the evaporation in this air, agreeably to what has been said, will be proportionate to x . 11:05 12(2'781) ee hs (144)3 verry * Journ. de Phys., vol. eee p- 451; or our Journ. vol. X XVII, p. 22. Consequently ee RATIO OF EVAPORATION TO HUMIDITY. Consequently the evaporation in air perfectly dry is to the evaporation in air that contains Z cubic lines of water in the cubic foot, at the same temperature X, in the ratio x x ‘05 . GCF718)..,. ito (2718). °° 12 337 I have concluded from various experiments, that, by in- Formula for creasing the linear factor of the formula of evaporation * calculating eya- poration at any one fifth, this formula would pretty accurately represent temperature the evaporation in air perfectly dry. If we make this cor- rection, and reduce to lines by multiplying by the propor- tion 435, confining ourselves to two decimal places, this 190 x 3 _ 11:05 , formula will become (A). :.. (2°72) (0°34 lines) ; x 11°05 consequently ( (2°72) ae a (0:34 lines) is the formula, that gives the value of the evaporation, or low- ering of the surface, of water expressed in lines, that takes place in twenty-four hours in air at the temperature of X degrees of De Luc’s thermometer, aud which contains Z cubic lines of water in the cubic foot. The calculation of the last formula is very simple; since it is sufficient, to de- duct from the quantity calculated by the formula (A) the quantity Z (0-03 of aline); to which is reduced the effect of the humidity of the air. / and humidity of the air. . To facilitate the application of this formula, nothing is Desideratum. requisite but 4 more convenicnt and speedy mode of deter- mining the number of cubic lines of water diffused in a cubic foot of air than that of drying this air by potash or quick« lime, and then finding the increase in weight of the latier. I havesought this, which would lead, as has been seen, to the discovery of a true hygrometer ; but my endeavours have not been more successful, than those of the celebrated natural philosophers, who have paid attention to the same subject. The imperfection of these researches has been the reason that I have so long deferred publishing them. I was still in * Journ. de Phys. vol. LXV, p. 452: or Journ. vol. XXVII, p. 23. Vou. XXXII. Suprremenr. 2A hopes 338 Experiments made in the Open air. Improvement in the breech of a fowlingpiece, IMPROVEMENT IN FOWLINGPIECES. hopes of rendering them more perfect; but mot being able to procure the instruments necessary for this purpose, I have resolved to communicate them to.the learned, in hopes that these feeble attempts might perhaps induce them to turn their eyes toward this interesting subject, and give us at length a true theory of evaporation. His principiis via ad muajora sternitur *. I had intended to add to this paper the experiments on a large scale, which I made on evaporation with cylindrical vessels full of water, the apertures of which were from three inches to eleven in diameter, and the height of which varied from eleven inches to eighteen. These vessels were placed in the open air in my garden, and buried within three lines of their apertures, at a little dis- tance from each other. It was from these experiments I inferred evaporation to be proportionate to the surface of the water in contact with the air. I would also publish a journal kept for several months, to compare the evapora- tion that took place in the open air, and in a large vessel, with my formula, would it not occupy too much valuable room. I mention it, however, to show, that I have not always operated on confined air. 8,4) IV. Remarks on the Construction of Fowlingpieces, pointing out , Methods, by which they may be made to throw Shot very close, and the contrary. In a Letter from a Corres- pondent. SIR, To W. NICHOLSON, Esq. Tar following circumstance led me to take into considera- tion the construction of fowlingpieces, and to make what I conceive to be a useful improvement in that part, which is called the breech, Meeting by chance with an old foreiga made gun barrel, of a construction that accorded much with my fancy, I purchased it, and determined to have it fitted” up (first having tried it at.a mark two or three times). * Js. Newtoni Tract. de Quadrat. Curvarum, ad calcem. ‘J thea IMPROVEMENT IN FOWLINGPIECES. 339 J then unscrewed the breech, or plug, which closes the The bottom _ hind part of the barrel, and ordered another, the form of ™4de concave. which may easily be understood by referring to the annexed representation, Pl. ix, fig. 1. Now, after I had been at considerable trouble, and much pains, for I was deter. ) mined to have it fitted up under my own inspection, I was very much disappointed in not being able to kill any thing with it, if at a greater distance than about 25 yards, in consequence of the shot being too much scattered. I va- This caused the ried the charge several times to shoot at a mark, but could shot to scatter, by no means satisfy myself. After some time I took out the breech, and filed down The bottom be- the edges of the hollow part to the touch-hole, and fitted it he eee up in the form of a common breech. I now found I had ims formed better, proved the killing quality of my gun, and had got’ pretty much out of conceit with the concave form of breeching guns. However it had this effect; since, thought I, the form I have just described, impairs the shooting quality of a fowlingpiece, there must be some contrary means of improve ing it; and accordingly I had one made of a form which will be easily understood, by referring to figure 2. Since this last improvement, I can with more certainty, An improve- (and I speak within compass) bring down a bird at a ere distance of about 60 or even 70 yards, than I could when I made use of the breech fig. 1, at the distance of 20 yards. E, in fig. 2, is a strong iron or steel peg, standing out of the common breech, up the centre of the barrel, about an inch, (the thickness must be determined by the bore of the barrel), so as to contain the charge of powder round the peg; the wadding of the powder hereby resting upon the top of it, so as to prevent the powder being hard rammed. This not only keeps the grains of powder from being crush- Its effect. ed by the ram-rod, but the impulsive force of the newly liberated air, on firing the powder, being removed from the central part ef the charge of shot, has an opposite effect to that of thebreech, fig. 1, viz. that of concentrating instead of dispersing the shot. Iam, Sir, your humble servant, Bradford, Yorkshire, July the 7th, 1812. E. G. 2A 2 V. Descripa 340 Use of the sca- rificator. Common con- struction of it. Objections to this construc- tion. IMPROVED SCARIFICATOR. Vs - Description of an improved Scarificator: by Mr. Joux Fuitrr, No. 14, Hatton-Garden *. SIR, I WISH to submit to the notice of the society an improve.“ ment in the construction of the scarificator, which I flatter myself will be found worthy their attention. It may be necessary to premise, that the scarificator is an instrument used in cupping for making the incisions, from which blood is afterward obtained by means of exhausted glasses. As the degree of pain caused by this operation depends on the good or bad quality of the scarificator, this instrument hasalways been an object of attention. The best scarificators generally in use propel from ten to sixteen lancets, through about half a circle, which is effected by a part, termed the rack, moving on its centre or part of its edge. On part of its edge are situate teeth, which are so confined that by moving the cock or tail of the rack, they work three pinions, and make them revolve about halve a round; it is evident, that lancets fixed on the axis of these pinions must also have a circular motion, and endeavour to cat any thing opposed to their passage; it is likewise evident, that, if.a spring be so set, that it can be released, and its force applied on a sudden to the rack, (somewhat similar to the main-spring of a gun-lock) -all the lancets will be carried forward at once, and that with a force and velocity in proportion to the strength of the main-spring. The objections to this construction, which frequently oc- cur in practice are, that from the number of lancets neces« sarily used, the resistance to their motion is so great, that that they do not move with the swiftness requisite to the-ease of the patient; it is likewise often desirable to have the in- cisions rather deep, and then they are often quite stopped.in their pregress ; beside this, by the lancets allmoving one way, they are found to drive the skin up in folds, and thus pre« sent additional resistance, and occasion excessive pain to -* Trans. of the Soc. of Arts, vol. xxix, p..126. The silver medal was voted to Mr. Fuller for this improvement. the IMPROVED SCARIFICATOR. 341. the patient; if to obviate these inconveniences the main spring be made very strong, it is then, from its confined situation, exceeding liable to break; and if this does not happen, another inconvenience is produced, viz. from its very great strength it is scarce possible for any person to cock and discharge it with the requisite ease. It was therefore suggested, that, if two rows of lancets Improvement could be made to move in contrary directions, these, by SSe°e4- keeping the skin equally stretched, would form clean inci- sions with much less force than in the former method: The scarificator A, marked No. 1, was therefore constructed, and first used early in 1802 ; it is accompanied by its work- ing mode! B; this instrument at first contained the twelve long-edged spiral lancets C. This instrament immediately showed its theory to be Defects of this good, but it had its faults; the incisions were too long when "US of the necessary depth ; from the complex nature of thetwo racks, &c., and from the confined situation to which they were restricted, they could not be placed in the most fa- vourable position for motion, and were therefore liable to be out of order. These and many other objections were altered or removed’ These defects in various ways, which at length terminated in the construc. “™°Ved: tion of the instrument D, marked No. 2, also containing twelve lancets, combining every advantage and improvement suggested by experience and reflection. This instrument admits of two main springs, but from the manner in which the racks work in each other, and in their respective pinions, they in effect become one, but maintain the advan. tage of being made more slight, and consequently admitting a greater extent of motion than a single stiff spring can possibly accomplish ; beside which they are not so liable to break; and should this happen to one, the instrument would not be useless, for I believe that one of these springs would be strong enough forall ordinary purposes, as incisions are effected with much less force when the lancets diverge; but combined they never have shown the least disposition to stop, however decp it might be necessary to set them, or strong the integuments to which they were applied; and consequently attended with greater ease to the patient. On aie Ea inspecting 3AZ IMPROVED SCARIFICATOR. inspecting the instrument and working model FE, its sime plicity, I flatter. myself, )will be admitted; nor is any force of the main-springs spent in overcoming unnecessary fric- tion or ill-directed. motion; the ease likewise with which the instrument is discharged, consideriug its strength of spring, will be noticed by every one accustomed to scarifi- cators. It may be objected to this instrument that it is Jarger and heavier than the ordinary scarificator, but itis capable of being reduced without injury to the improvement, as is shown by the instrument F, which is completely with. in the usual size. ' I have been favoured with testimonies of approbation _ from the following respectable gentlemen. _Dr, Willan, physician; Mr. Armiger, Mr. Frampton, and Mr. Law. , Tence, surgeons and teachers of anatomy.—It will be also seen, that, while in the possession of Mr. Armiger, it was approved by the late Dr. Rollo, and by Dry. Irwin, the present surgeon-general and inspector of ordnance hospi- tals; and I may add as a farther proof of its utility, if more be necessary, that by an illiberal use of private confi- dence, others have been made on a similar plan; and I am misinformed, if the honour of this invention has not been claimed, within these few months, by three or four different individuals. Another searifi- | Accompanying this is another scarificator, G, the peculi- ction arity of which consists in the lancets being projeced directly forwards, and returning into the box or case; the working model N is not exactly such as is contained in the instru- ment, but an improvement on it. This instrument and 2 model must be considered merely as experiments, to see how such motion could be effected; for, persuading myself that punctured wounds would be more painful and more difficult to heal in this, as they are usually in other circumstances, com. pared with incised wounds; and likewise having so happily succeeded in constructing thatalready described, which I con. sider so far superior, I never used it, and therefore can say nothing as to its operative merits; nor should I have re. called it from oblivion, but having lately seen a description of ascarificator by punctured wounds, invented by a very ingenious Testimonies in its favour. IMPROVED SCARIFICATOR. 343 m ingenious and respectable medical gentleman #, who speaks very satisfactorily of its performance, and which does not possess the advantage of the lancets withdrawing from the wounds, they being removed with the instrument, I thought, that should mine be a mistaken opinion, and that some real advantage attends this method, it occurred to me that sub. mitting the instrument to the Society would be applying it to its best use; as from its possessing the property of the lancets withdrawing themselves, it might suggest some ideas for farther improvement. I am, sir, . Yours obediently, JOHN FULLER. Description of the Engravings of Mr. Joun Futwer’s Explanation of scarificator, Plate IX. Ale Figs. 3, 4, 5, and 6, are sections of this fastrument, taken in different positions, to explain its interior mecha- nism; fig. 3, isa plan of the lancets, the top of the box be- ing removed to show them; fig. 4, is a section through the centre of the box; and fig. 6, the same, but taken in the opposite direction. The lancets aa, 4, 5, and 6, are fixed upon two small arbors mounted parallel to each other across the box; the Jancets are so arranged on the arbors, that those upon one arbor are placed in the intervals between the lancets fixed upon the other; the arbors are placed near the top of- the box, and the lancets act through clefts cut in the lid, (as shown in figs. 4, and 6,) when the arbors are turned round ; this is performed by a pinion upon each arbor, receiving motion from two toothed sectors, A B, fig. 5, which are also caused to act together by the teeth on their edges; they are fixed upon two parallel spindles C D, which extend across’ the box; the sector A, has a lever or handle attached to it, and coming through the bottom of the box, and by pulling this, the scarificator is wound up ready for action. The power is given by two horseshoe springs, ee, figs. 3 and 6, one end of each is screwed upon the bottom of the box, and the other acts ina notch ff, in each sector, so as to press * See Journ. vol. xxvii, p. 124. those S44 Method of us- ing the instru- ment, IMPROVED SCARIFICATOR. these sides upwards ; the sectors are prevented from move ing, except when required, by a catch g, which enters notches cut in the handle of the sector A; this catch is a. brass bar, lying across the bottom of the box, as shown in figs. 4 and 6, it moves on a screwas a centre pin at one end, and is pressed towards the sector bya slight spring (not scen) ; when itis to be discharged, a button Ais pressed in, which disengages the catch g from the notches in the piece A, and permits the springs to turn the sectors about, and by their teeth acting in the pinions, turn the Jancets round at the same time, which is effected by the teeth of the two sectors engaging each other, in order that they may not operate so as to move the whole instrument upon the skin, as is the casein the common scarificator. - Fig. 5 shows, that the handle of the sector A has two notches in it, for the catch g: when it is caught upon the first of these, the instrument is in the position of fig. 4, which is the half-cock, the lancets standing directly upright out of the box ; in this position, the depth they are intended to penetrate is adjusted by means of a screw k, passing through the bottom of the box ; it is tapped into a piece of brass 2, which is screwed to the lid m of the box; the picce of. brass is bent, as shown in fig. 6, that it may clear the lancets and their spindles ; when the screw is turned, it is evident that it will raise or lower the lid of the box, and cause the lanccts to protrude more or less through it, and consequently enter a greater or less depth into the skin. When the instrument is to be used, the handle of the sector A is to be drawn back into the position of jig. 5, which is at the full cock; the lancets are now turned down wholly within the box, and the springs wound up; the lid is then to be applied flat upon the raised-up skin of the part to be scarified; and by pushing in the button h, the catch ¢ is moved round on its centre pin, and pushed ont of the — notches in the handle of the sector A; the springs now turn the sectors, apd.the lancets fly out of the box with incon- ceivable rapidity; and making as many punctures in the skin, return into the box, having made exactly half a turn with their respective arbors. ‘The dimensions of the instru- ment may be ascertained by the scale of inches annexed to the drawing, VJ. On NERVOUS AFFECTION CURED BY PRESSING THE CAROTIDS. 345 VI. On a Case of nervous Affection cured by Pressure of the “Carotids ; with some physiological Remarks. By C. H. Parry, M.D. F.R.S.* OvxsErvinc that the Royal Society, of which I have Laws ofanimal the honour to be a member, occasionally receives commu- life the most im portant in nications illustrative of the laws of animal life, which are physics. indeed the most important branch of physics, I take the li- berty of calling their attention to a case, confirming a prin. ciple which I long ago published, and which I believe had never till then been remarked by pathologists. About the year 1786, I began to attend a young lady, Nervous affec. who laboured under eitentah and violent attacks, either of tions suspended head-ach, vertigo, mania, dyspneea, convulsions, or other ;>. oye ’ 5% prey SBOAras ’ oO the carotid ar- symptoms, usually denominated nervous. This case I de- tetics. scribed at large to the Medical Society of London, who published it in their Memoirs, in the year 1788. Long meditation on the circumstances of the case led me to con- clude, that all the symptoms arose from a violent impulse of blood into the vessels of the brain; whence I inferred, that as the chief canals conveying this blood were the carotid arteries, it might perhaps be possible to intercept a consider- able part of it so impelled, and thus remove those symptoms, which were the supposed effect of that inordinate influx. With this view, I compressed with my thumb one or both carotids, and uniformly found all the symptoms removed by that process. ‘Those circumstances of rapidity or inten. sity of thought, which constituted delirium, immediately ceased, and gave place to other trains of a healthy kind; head-ach and vertigo were removed, and a stop was put to convulsions, which the united strengih of three or four ate tendants had before been insufficient to connteract, That this extraordinary elfect was not that of mere pres- sure, operating as a sort of counteracting stimulus, was evident: for the salutary effect was exactly proportioned to the actual pressure of the carotid itself, and did aot take place at all, if, in consequence of a wrong direction, either * Phil. Trans, for 1811, p. 89. to 346 NERVOUS AFFECTION CURED ‘BY PRESSING THE CAROTIDS: to the right or left, the carotid escaped the effects of the operation. Mode in which © ‘This view of the order of phenomena was, in reality, very it acts. conformabte to the known laws of the animal economy. It is admitted, that a certain momentum of the circulating blood in the brain is necessary to the due performance of the functions of that organ. Reduce the momentum, and you not only impair those functions, but, if the reduction “ go to a certain degree, you bring on syncope, in which they are for a time suspended. On the other hand, in nervous affections, the sensibility and other functions of the brain are unduly increased ; and what can be more natural than to attribute this effect to the contrary cause, or excessive mo- mentum in the vessels of the brain? If, however, this ana- logical reasoning has any force in ascertaining the principle, I must acknowledge, that it did not occur to me till twenty years afterward, when a great number of direct experi- ments had appeared to me clearly to demonstrate the fact. From various cases of this kind, I beg leave to select one which occurred to me in the month of January, 1805. Case ofnervous Mrs. T. aged 51, two years and a half beyond a certain affection. critical period of female life, a widow, mother of two chil- dren, thin, and of a middle size, had been habitually free from gout, rheumatism, hemorrhoids, eruptions, and all other disorders, except those usually called nervous, and occasional colds; one of which, about two years and a half before, had been accompanied with considerable cough, and had still left some shortness of breathing, affecting her only when she used strong muscular exertion, as in walking up stairs, or up hill. In February 1803, after sitting for a considerable time in a room without a fire, in very severe weather, she was so much chilled as to feel, according to her own expression, ¢¢ as if her blood within was cold.” In order to warm her- self, she walked briskly for a considerable time about the house, but ineffectually. The coldness continued for seve- ral hours, during which she was seized with a numbness or sleepiness of her left side, together with a momentary deaf. ness, but no privation or hebetude of the other senses, or pain or giddiness of the head. After the deafness had sub- sided, NERVOUS AFFECTION CURED BY PRESSING THE CAROTIDS. SAT sided, she became preternaturally sensible to sound in the Case of nervous ear of the affected side, and felt a sort of rushing or ting- ich ling in the fingers of the left hand, which Jed her to con- clude, that ‘* the blood went too forcibly there.” Though the coldness went off, what she called numbness still continued, but without the least diminution of the pewer of motion in the side affected. In about six weeks, the numbness extended itself to the right side. Among various ineffectual remedies for these complaints, blisters were applied to the back, and the inside of the left arm above the elbow. The formerdrew well. The lat. ter inflamed without discharging; so that a poultice of bread and milk was put on the blistered part. After this period, the muscles of the humerus began to feel as if con- tracted and stiff: and these sensations gradually spread themselves to the neck and head, and all across the body, s0 as to make it uncomfortable for her to lie on either side, though there was no inability of motion. \She now began to be affected with violent occasional flushings of her face and head, which occurred even while her feet and legs were cold, together with a rushing noise in the back of the head, especially in hot weather, or from any of those causes, which usually produce the feelings of heat. It is difficult to give intelligible names to sensations of a new and uncommon kind. That, which this lady denomi- nated numbness, diminished neither the motion nor the sen- sibility of the parts affected. It was more a perception of tightness and constriction, in which the susceptibility of feeling in the parts was in fact increased; and the skin of _ the extremities was so tender, that the cold air produced a sense of uneasiness, the finest flannel or worsted felt disa- greeably coarse, and the attempt to stick a pin with her fingers caused intolerable pain. In the month of September 1803, not long after the ap- plication of the blisters, she experienced in certain parts of the left arm and thigh that sensation of twitching, which is vulgarly called the ‘¢ life blood,” and which soon extended itself to the right side. Shortly afterward, she began to perceive an actual vibration or starting up of certain por- tions 348 NERVOUS AFPECTION CURED BY PRESSING THE CAROTIDS. Case of nervous tions of the flexor muscles of the fore-arm, and of the del- affection. Effect of com- pressing the ca- rotid artery. toid on the left side; not so, however, as to move the arm or hand. This disorder had continued with little variation to the period of my first visit. The vibrations constantly existed while the arm was in the common posture, the fore-arm and hand leaning on the Jap. If the arm were stretched strongly downwards, the vibration of the flexors ceased, but those of the deltoid continued. The arm being strongly extended forwards, all ceased; but returned as soon as the muscles were relaxed. ‘The vibrations were of different de. grees of frequeucy, and at pretty regular intervals, usually about 80 in a minute. They were increased in fre- quency and force by any thing which agitated or heated the patient, and were always worse after dinner than after breakfast. The pulse in the radial artery was 80 in a mi. mute, and rather hard. That in the carotids was very full and strong; and each carotid appeared to be unusually di- Jated for about half an inch in length, the adjacent portions above and below being much smaller, and of the natural size. I much regret, that I find in my notes of this case no inquiry, whether there was any coincidence between the systoles of the heart, and the muscular vibrations. The patient’s feet were usually cold, and her head and face hot. The feeling in her limbs was much as I have above described, exeept that the sensibility was somewhat less acute than ithad becn, and she complained of.a tightness all over her head, as if it had been bound with a close night-cap. Her sleep was usually sound on first going to bed, but afterward, for the most part, interrupted by dreaming. Bowels generally costive: appetite moderate: no flatulency or indigestion : tongue slightly furred, without thirst: urine variable, but generally pale. . The insoluble 11. A! was.a iidleatidi 5 rei [7:7 grs}, heated 4 in the’ a aa ex- glass bulb, melted, diffusing a red light, and giving out, 1st, water; 2d, carbonic acid; 3d, inflammable gas, burning white; 4th, nitrous gas; 5th, nitrogen gas; 6th, a little ammonia; 7th, a coal, that emitted a strong smell of prus- sic acid. Acompound of | Hence it is evident, that this sib which possesses pit and the properties ascribed by Proust to the oxide of carbon, is a compound of nitric acid and carbon: it differs from A? and A? only. by containing less acid: and what appears to confirm this lis, by boiling it in concentrated nitric acid it is totally dissolved ; and, when water is poured into this so- lution, it throws down a yellow flocculent precipitate, ex- hibiting all the properties of the unwashed matter A. Hence I imagine, that, when the matter A is boiled in water, the —_ * With respect to this product see what I have said in the arti- cle of the decomposition of Welther’s amer by heat in my paper on the amers from indigo. See houEns yol. XXX, P- 351. _ portion ON ARTIFICIAL TANNIN. 871 portion which does not dissolve cedes a part of its acid: to that which dissolves; and, when the washings are afterward evaporated, a farther division is made of the acid between the substance A*, which is preelpivetad, and A?, which remains in solution. Nitric acid, at least in the proportion in which I’ em- Attempt to ployed it, could not convert A‘ into the tanning matter of rang tin ts “ Hatchett, whichis very soluble in water. There isa por. | tion of matter, however not separated by water from the : nitric solution of A’, which precipitates gelatine; but I cannot assert, that it is absolutely similar to the matter of ‘Hatchett. ' To find whether it were pontine to remove the nitric The nitric acid ita from A" without heating it, I digested it in a weak:so. 1° separable lution of neutral carbonate of potash. By the assistance cee Ne oe of heat carbonic acid was evolved, and nearly the het ash. -was dissolved!) * max % so This boliitzow + was decinttpasdd by sulphuric acid, er sy ‘threw down a brown flocculent precipitate. ibrdigatdenee tant liquid: was colourless.» [twas filtered: -the slight excess of sulphuric ‘acid contained»in it! was: saturated with. car- bonate of potash: it was evaporated to. dryness, and the Fesiduum: was \tteatéd with alcohol at; 30° [sp. gr. 0-868], -to dissolve the nitre, if it contained any; but none’ was found. The. carbonate of potash therefore had taken no observable quantity of nitric acid from:-A?. The browh precipitate left on the filter was washed with After it is sepa- hotrwater, till this gave no farther indication of, sulphuric aici -acid'to the test of solution of barytes. “At this period the ric acid rather: water ‘of -elutriation was’ fawn-coloured,| had a, taste and ™ore soluble, ‘smell slightly inclining to those of oak bark and roses, and «did not-perceptibly precipitate gelatine... On eee an acid, a little flocculent precipitate fell down. If water dissolve more of A‘ that has been Birticigibahel from: potash by'sulphurie acid, thanof that which has not, . -B believe it depends on its lieing more minutély divided’: for -.- > .« sim'‘that whichoI prepared with care I found no sénsible from being ” Oquantity of sulphuric acid y and its coal: afforded re an ae a _ .atomof potash.) 8 /) 0) ik gaat Kos _ © Experiments [have singe’ made lead tie to think, ‘that potash “conttibutes to the sdlution of this substance in water. . 2C2 . v8 dee, | 372 ON ARTIFICIAL TANNING 5 dec. [7-7 grs] of A*, which had been dissolved by the carbonate, and afterward precipitated by sulphuric acid, melted with heat, and afterward gave out carbonic acid gas, nitrous gas, &c., leaving a coal, that emitted a smell’ of prussic.acid, and contained an atom of potash. _ Examination 1275 A*; wail dissolved in the water of. elutriation of | ee croianatieg A, and afterward fell down during its evaporation (10), concentration, was of a blackish brown ‘colour. Treated’ with boiling water part was dissolved, and imparted to the water the property of coagulating gelatine. The solution yielded by evaporation a residuum, that melted, and evolved nitrous gas. The part but little soluble in water greatly resembled A‘. It melted, and gave out nitrous gas, but in smaller quantity than the portion that had dissolved’in the water. This indicates, that acid was transferred’ from the portion but little soluble to the other. afnied xamination of 13. A%, which remained in solution after the concentra- a very solu- tion of the washings of ‘A, and had’ been obtained by eva- substance. ? porating them, was fawn-coloured. Heated in the. glass bulb) it melted’; yielded water, carbonic acid; nitrous |gas, &c.; and left.a coal, that ‘emitted’ a blips ae smell» of carbonate of ammonia. ° 10" 5": ( ) Stained Its difference . This substance, which” previpitatad gekrtieie ‘very: ‘well, from artificial - differed from Hatchett’s'tannin (Art. I)’ in its alkaline so- bc lution being precipitable by acids, in‘its being consequently less soluble in water, and in its not melting by heat. +: The threediffer 39. The matter A therefore is divisible by water ‘into a - wsieny be three portions, which differ’ from each other only by the nitric acid. quantity of nitric acid they contain, since by taking a por- ‘tion of this acid from those that contain ‘the most they are converted into those that» contain the least; and by-adding -acid to those that have me My are are nove? back ta their peaks — ph IL. ge eae praca saith, fit, Fm 1% Artificial tan- ©»! 40. Av hundred-parts of fir charcoal, which had: hadi ni fiom char- cined ina platina crucible, in’a red heat, required for their ’ solution in nitric acid more time and more! ‘acid than 100 parts of pitcoal. The solution of the charéoal was brown, -and thick like a ci 1 Whertsmates was added, a brown v th q i? % poidule rh, ‘matter (ON, ARTIFICIAL TANNIN. _ 373 matter, separated, which shall examine below. . The liquor freed from this was evaporated to dryness: The residuum was black, alittle astringent, and slightly acid. Heated in a,glass tube, it did not melt, butan acid vapour was evolved. The greater part dissolved in distilled water. This solution precipitated gelatine, and many metallic salts. The preci+ pitate formed with acetate of lead, being heated in a glass tube, left a.coal, mixed with metallic lead, which took fire, if thrown on paper while hot. , 41. To obtain the tanning matter in a state of purity, 2 hee, precipitated the solution by acetate of lead, and washed the precipitate, till the water that came off ceased to be colour. ed ‘by sulphuretted hidrogen. I decomposed the precipi- tate, while yet wet, by sulphuric acid. The sulphate of lead was separated by the filter, With barytes and acetate of lead the liquor threw down a flocculent precipitate, so. luble.in an excess of nitric acid; which indicated, that it contained no. sensible excess of sulphuric acid*, How- and examined, ever, having evaporated to dryness, I obtained a brown, deliquescent residuum +, fusible -by heat; which, being heated in the glass bulb, gave out carbonic acid gas, sul- phurous acid gas, and other gaspes insoluble in water, which _ I was unable to examine from the smallness of their quan- tity (for I operated only with 2 dec. [3 grs] of tanning matter); so that I know not whether any nitrous gas were among them. 42. Thus it appears, that, when the compound of tarl- Sulphuric acld ning matter and lead is decom paised by sulphuric acid, the tert matter. My TO find whether a liquid contain any excess of salpliuric acid, Barytes recom- sohition, of barytés should be poured intoit. If a precipitate form, Mended as a try to dissolve it in pure nitric acid. If this dissolve it, the matters = pete, a should be left to act on each other for 24 hours, and then see whie- ther there be any precipitate. I have often observed that lead in- dicated no sulphuric acid, where barytes did perceptibly. The lat ter therefore is preferable as a test to the former. +1 have found, that by heating this residuum a little sttongly ‘in contact .with the air in a capsule white fumes of sulphuric acid were evolved; and the substance thus heated, being redissolved in water, gave indications of sulphuric acid, -when tested: with solution af bary tes. ¥ . latter, Ab 314 ANALYSIS OF THE HUSKS OF WALNUTS. Jatter, if in excess, enters into combination. It is proba. ble, that the sulphuric acid combines with the tanning mat- ter, without expelling the nitric acid. Earthy matter 43. The liquor from which the tanning matter had been of the coal, and precipitated by acetate of lead having had sulphuretted hi- drogen passed through it, and been afterward filtered, con- yellow bitter tained the earthy matters of the coal, and a yellow bitter matter. matter, the nature of ea I doll not positively as- certain. Betas 44. I dissolved the brown matter I have mentioned (40) pia ae in in nitric acid at 45° [sp.-gr. 1:435], concentrated the so. y lution, and afterward added water toit. This precipitated a yellowish substance, similar in appearance to the matter A, separated by water from a nitric solution of pitcoal: but the yellowish substance differs from A in being entirely soluble in boiling water, and in not being fusible by heat. . T presume, that it differs from the portion soluble in water ‘(A1) only in containing less nitric acid, and perhaps more hidrogen. i Chemical Examination of the Husks of Walnuts. By Mr. Henry Braconnor, Prof. of Nat. Hist. &c.* Husks of wal- "Tue daily use of the husks of walnuts in the art.of dye- nutsusedin ing suggested to me the wish of making some experiments it on them, to be enabled to form a more accurate judgment of their nature. When fresh the husk is interiorly white, but it scaaibe coloured very quickly, and ultimately passes to a dark brown. This is owing to the contact of the air; for, if. it unless kept | be immersed in water that has been boiled, it will keep aio some time without undergoing the least change. If it be Apparently a i; fi 5 S BIue P : slow combus- placed in a jar filled with atmospheric air, the oxigen will tion effected. . soon be converted almost wholly into carbonic acid; the husk acquires a blackish colour; and no doubt there is also a prodaction of water: so that the whole seems to indicate 4 Soen changed, t,@ * Ann, de Chim. vol. LXXIV, p. 303. aust the ANALYSIS OF THE HUSKS OF WALNUTS: 375 the phenomena of a slow combustion. Oximuriatic acid Action of oxi- appears to have another kind of action on it; for, instead ea of blackening ‘it, it causes it to assume a yellow colour. Nitric acid comports itself in the same manner. To proceed to the examination of the matters contained Expressed juice in the husk, I bruised a certain quantity in a marble mortar, eth expressed the juice, and filtered it. Some green feculz re- Residuum ex: mained on the paper, which soon changed to a deep brown @™ined. by exposure to the airs This matter, washed and dried, was macerated in alcohol, which extracted from it the green resin common to most vegetables. The residuum insoluble in alcohol was still coloured, and felt smooth. .A portion of it was diluted with weak nitric acid, which converted it into a thick substance, viscous, and soluble in water. In this solution alcohol occasioned a white flocculent precipi- . tate. The same coloured residuum, being diluted with water to which a little potash was added, produced a bulky tremulous substance, of a deep red colour, and resembling the coagulum of blood. Lastly another portion of the same residuum was dissolved in boiling water, and formed starch. Hence it follows, that this substance, contained pretty abundantly in the husk, is starch contaminated by the colouring matter. The juice of ‘the husk recently filtered is of au amber Examination of colour, and of an acrid and sour taste mixed with bitter. (i a oe ness. ‘This acrid principle appears extremely destructible, for the recent juice, left to itself some days, while it loses its yellow colour to assume a blackish brown where it has been in contact with the air, loses also its acrimony, and becomes decidedly acid: at the same time black pellicles form on its surface, which are soon replaced by others if removed. These pellicles, carefully collected and. well washed, yielded on drying a black, brittle substance, of a shining, vitreous fracture, and pretty similar, to asphaltum, or Jew’s pitch, but:burning without any apparentiflame, in -which-it more resembled charcoal. This carbonaceous mat- ‘ter was dissolved in potash, and in this solution a flocculent:~ ~ precipitate was produced by acids. | It may be, obtained “more readily by evaporating the juice of the husk with a gentle heat, and diluting the residuum with water. The Cs EERE Oe trek ab on liquid . ANALYSIS OF THE HUSKS OF WALNUTS. te ay . liquid standing on the sediment is a pure and even agreeable acid; whence it follows, that the acrid and bitter principle -has been entirely destroyed; being converted apparently into the black matter approaching the state of charcoal. The same extract gave out no acetous vapour with sulphu- ric acid, even heated: it contains therefore no acetic acid. Avcompound From what has been said we cannot but observe. in the HAR Hy husk of the walnut, as in many herbaceous plauts, a\sub- solved in the stance held in solution in its juices; and the hydrocarburet juice, as in that yadjcal of which is more or less decomposable by the simple of many plants. 9 : : contact of air, which appears to; cause a production of water, rendering the carbon predominant. Itis obviously impossible to have a very accurate idea of a substance so little permanent: but it appears, ‘that it is but slightly coe: loured in the vessels of plants; and that the action.of the; air or of caloric alters it greatly; causing it to pass by de- grees to the state of extract, another principle badly de- fined, of little stability in respect to its element, and which seems rather the result of a decomposition, than a real pros. ‘ duct of living nature *. Effects of tests. The juice of the husk examined by reagents pa ilibisea? on the juice. the following effects. Litmus. It strongly reddened infusion oe litmus. 98 Gelatine. Solution of gelatine formed in it a slight sinecielliit, which must have been owing to tannin. ' diise Extractsaltered | * Having had an opportunity of examining some. extract. of by keeping. rhus toxicodendron, that had been prepared )several years before, I made the following observation. I applied some to. the skin of an animal, and gave him some internally in pretty large doses, without his experiencing any troublesome consequences; while one drop from the stalk of the plant on the skin occasioned a tolerably extensive inflammation, terminating in an ulcer. Thus it appears, that the principles of plants condensed to.the state of extract un- dergo an alteration, which continues progressive with time;*and. this must cause their action on the animal economy to vary greatly. They should Perhaps apothecaries may prevent this alteration ina certain de- i oe neem ggree, by enclosing their extracts, when perfectly dry, in vessels ed. well stopped; for the moisture they contain, or have a tendency to absorb, does not contribute less to alter the feeble equilibrium of gome of their elements, than the iat of air. Sulphate ~ ANALYSIS OF THE*HUSKS OF WALNUTS. STE » Sulphate of iron gave the juice so deep a green, that it nse of appeared black. No precipitation took place, even on i standing some time, in consequence of the free acid found in the mixture, which is capable of imparting a fine gray to . wool or silk. Oxalate of ammonia indicated the presence of lime. Cee Nitrate of barytes produced no signs of any sulphate. Nitr. of barytes, - Nitrate of silver acts on itin a manner well adapted to 204 of silver. reveal the presence of the alterable -hydroearburet radical, for it produces a pretty copious precipitate, which quickly becomes coloured; while the silver’ resumes. its: metallic lustre from the action of the vegetable substance on the oxigen of the oxide. The precipitate is then no longer soluble but in part in nitric acid, and leaves charcoalas a residuum. : Alkalis change the juice to a deep red, and form in it Alkalis. precipitates that contain lime. If after a certain time an acid be poured into the liquor, another flocculent sediment is produced, which dries, grows black, has a vitreous frac- ture, and resembles in its nature the pellicles, that are formed successively on the surface of the juice exposed to the air. Acetate of lead occasioned in thé juice a whitish, floccu- Acetate of leat. lent, very copious precipitate, which dissolved entirely in distilled vinegar. This precipitate, being decomposed by sulphuretted hidrogen, yielded a coloured liquor, of con- siderable sourness mixed with astringency, which produced a sediment with gelatine, and with acetate of lead a, pre- cipitate soluble in vinegar. This:acid, being evaporated by a gentle heat, yielded small, . ill-defined crystals; immersed in the uncrystallizable Jiquor: The whole was mixed with carbonate of lime; and after the mixture, which contained. an excess of acid, had been heated, I filtered it. By eva- porating I obtained a granular, coloured substance, formed by the union of a number of small acicular-crystals. This _ salt, being treated with cold water, dissolved in it in part: and the solution, evaporated to dryness, left a brown var- nished residuum, which comported itself like malate of lime, retaining some tannin, which then precipitated iron of - ‘a blackish blue. ‘The portion of the calcareous salt that would 378 ANALYSIS OF THE HUSKS OF WALNUTS. would not dissolve in cold water was treated with diluted sulpuric acid, which separatcd from it citric acid, still con- taminated with malic. Subacetateof The juice thus freed from part of the matters ittheld in is solution was still coloured. Acetate of lead supersaturated with oxide produced in it another sediment, and rendered the supernatant liquor nearly colourless. This sediment yielded on analysis the same products as above; namely malic acid, colouring matter, and tannin, which had escap. ed the first precipitation in consequence of the presence of the acetic acid, that had become predominant in the liquor, Examination of The magma left after expression of the juice, after: have " she magma. ing been treated with alcohol, which extracted from it some green resinous matter, was heated with water till it boiled, to free it from the starch and the coloured matter it re- tained. When thus exhausted, it was digested with dilute | nitric acid, which separated some phosphate and oxalate of lime, that had been precipitated from the acid liquor by ammonia. ‘The means I employed to separate these two ; earthy salts, which are very frequently associated together in vegetables, are founded on the property distilled vinegar diluted with water has of dissolving phosphate of lime, with- out sensibly affecting the calcareous oxalate. Distilled watsr Though the husk has a peculiar smell, it afforded tilt = very remarkable by distillation in a water bath. 1 obtained . only a liquor with a faintish taste, which, instead of com- ing over limpid, was brownish; and on its surface were perceptible slight iridescent pellicles, which sunk to the bot- tom in the form of a sediment. Ashes. The husk yielded by incineration potash, carbonate of lime, phosphate of lime, and oxide of iron. From this examination it appears, that the fleshy cover- ing of the walnut contains: Substaricescon- Ist, Starch: tained in the ad, An acid’and bitter substance, very < alterable, which husk. appears to approach the state of charcoal by the contact of air: | 3d, malic acid ; Ath, tannin ; 5th, citric ANALYSES OF MINERALS, 5th, citric acid: 6th, phosphate of lime: 7th, oxalate of lime: 8th, potash. XIl. Analyses of eee! ‘by Martin Henry KLApPrRotH, Ph. D. &c. (Continued from p. 312. Pu OSPHORESCENT earth from Marmarosch. 379 Phosphorescent Phosphoric acid ..........0s.00 32°25 earth of Mar- FIUOric aCid. oo cecccesensoves (2°50 a Re AMG auc Poe teheee eadees er amene i SHON eingrestecee eee Pec OOO Oxide of iron .............. hase TORO Water tetra feed TR COT Quartz mixed Lopeeaitne chal SOD 94:5 A new combustible mineral from East Prussia. 1000 grs. Combustible yielded by distillation. mineral from Prussia. ght? - cubic inches. Grs. * Carbonicacid gas ....:. 130° = ° 61-1 _ Carburetted hidrogen gas 320: == 59-5: Empyreumatic oil ....5:....3255. 90 we Carbonate F anitnonis.! me Me odd OR Ges SaaS Water ais .pectense see ete, 385-5 The residuum consisting of: - Charcoal CS EASE UES NM 0s 0228. | 7 cL RPP Ome GY Et nha 8 45.8 Oxide: of ings sa5..00005 epee: see? 425 Po eee © eae ane seissewe OM Phosphate-of lime...sescssececeecee 14 Sulphate of lime............ 5: | A mi- 380° ; ANALYSES OF .MINERALS», Mineral water A mineral water at Riepoldsa in Furstemberg. 128 oz. of Riepoldsa. yielded Sulphate of soda, dry ......... S93 ot cystatvea 3 Muriate of soda, dry ........ I) Carbonate ofsada,dryssissssesserQicseseyicedervecceessD°D TAC pas 0 csi annene 81 se — magnesia......... 2 COMET OO TOG css tsangmiren sco, 2 SHOX -ferorcss-enronancis> eerrane Carbonic acid gas 332 cub. in. oe 1838 Tantalite. Tantalite (tantale oxidé ferro-manganésifére wf Haiiy). Karth of tantalium ...... 2b.00e 88 Oxidulated iron ............ oO Oxide of manganese............ 2 - 100 Cyanite. Cyanite from Airolo, on St. Gothard. Alumine® Lie .cscsececctescsoses a8 555 Silex scrteGievensresenecncvcsrsuested Oxided iron.........0s0 atin 0°5 Potash, a trace. 99 oo feld- Vitreous feldspar, called sanidin, from Drachenfels; Silex say civeniesiie sv dtebsthsleasiee rE Alumine «.......0.0 Nivescosestaeo ° . Oxide of iron....... setodetaey spi Potash..... Bry paideisiviue ene s's since 1405 B.O8S’ sos nsbsbsscnane cubananeanacniee 0} : 100 Azalmatolite, Agalmatolite from Nagyag. : { Silex.y.sers Roercdncranees Pyeasts 54°50 Alumine ........ et Mit .. 34 Oxide of iron....... Sabb Mn te 0°79 Potash... cssccccoveracenarecdenes 6°25 Water s.ccccdvcesescverssveeeoes 4 99°5 Soaprock ANALYSES OF MINERALS, of from Cornwall.’ Axinite. Gray semiopal from edie athae Bronzite * evi Alumine’. eeesrvesescessace AREA NRE Le 3 Silex.. 010 00.000: O:O,0 .0,D-0.6 6,0 0.0.0.00.0,06 080 45 4 f Magnesia.. 25.0.0 6,00 0.0,0,0,00 600000088 24: 75 PUEDE. scrvecrcosnpsicisovs oiahh ae Oxide of iron isssncdhisecocaas | ORE Potash’ ....csscceypeccceeroeneceee | /O'75 WV AEE nsckiasaniapwnniienensansaene tee er ee 98°75 — See ee, SEO: Litthe « ececcceeeseoerevecreeveneeee 5 KB Altimine: jisssiiiccseceseevene ces S16! J Oxide of ironss...ccc0-se0000. 9°50 Manganese ..eceee. 5°2H Potash ss. RPA Wi QS seses- ~O°25- X ri SHEE deal LARISA Se . 8h Water, a little ammoniacal “a” Bituminous oil ...:........... 0°33 . 99-08 oe pandianpdanadieek te ied) Me ee, 27°5 Oxide Of iron. ...ccenececerres 1095 SVBTCT: ha esac Vasnve A Rdedea teed Ree 98:5 * See Journal, yol. xxv, p. 381. Hyperstene 381 SOapstons, . ~ Axinite. Gray semiopal. Bronzite, 389 ANALYSES “OF “MINERALS. ‘Labrador-horn» Hypersten (Labrador hornblende of Werner)*. sai SHER. eiesrsiccoe see eencn noes Nabi estaciccivcewooeevereeall eo agit ATUMINE voveevevveervesverereces BOS Like witaniieonmil. dy 918d Oxide of ironsssccecsereeeees 24°50 Water ssatccesressasererceevornes 11M Oxide of manganese, a@ trace oe Zoisite. Zoisite. . (Sr ceatoe tena ade tides vicadon Lene CTIA ois ites ac lvoe OEY ae BE TTT RO Pate a Sell i ase 5 TL Poe ane sGe urer er tp BEB i) g Oxide Of 10M... see cee secs cree, 2°5 ’ — manganese, @ trace \,' Natrolite. Natrolite. ae ( Silex Cverevcsseeovcsavces ecvoe Be 48... PAUMINE <,-. 02 e,0nersnecregtegen Sage _Oxide of iron. ........ wissen MING osisiaqeisisn ono ss \omanebopeeparae 16°50 Stangenstein. Pycnite t.. ‘ . SileX si ecssssccscasceseccesescg 4D Pe re es oe Se One OGM. of itanscinsseervidovre MNO PMiBric acid \scscaspeeee AOU OE Weaker srccreccveseere eM TAS NIEO GOSS cidiseddvddcccssestesessecd’ qh iB 100 ’: lgniol aa * 1 NS KOY * See Journ. vol, xxvil, p. 153. Ib p. 154. Lamellar ANALYSES OF MINERALS. 883 Lamellar talc from St. Gothard *. Lamellar talc. OR ALO ARE A Ma apen ia... ...0n..:-.cecerpna eee Oxide of iron.......0.....000+ ey en SO PAGER sss deonwgompmmbeeoesapnse,, ioe Loss in roasting .......+ ane seo, 0°50 98°25 Common mica from Zinnwalde +. Common tnica. Silex..... Sun ueWelsectenunae’ ADORE: * 9 ‘SATUURE as ccnsscebeccectaseeenes ZO CPE GU WOW setirc score conse 15°50 MANZanese .s..0e-e 1°75 Potash... 5 aiaaarere AO Neekipentence hace 98°75 Muscovy glass, or mica in large lamine from Siberia +. Mica in large “TR cient MEL | oc Alumine ......... eer Anges coe 34°25 Oxide of iron....... BEAN EAE: 054 Magnesia.,......... ayenceneey gah 8 jo. ames (nee Ge Sue ete | teens eet ae Loss in roasting .......0.0. 1°25 Black mica from Siberia §. ~ Black mica! t BCBG asian .sscnsacuccyoee «opr ATU ....c0..<.xarkcon dstongss AD PRE CSI A nn.neennnncinnsninnnnss tee DM Oxide of iron.......,..sesss-08 22 . manganese... 2 PR liticvacncstisctataancinans LO Loss in roasting ........... 1 97 * See Journ. yol. xxvii, p. 226.: * + ‘7 Ib. p. 228. § Black 384. ANALYSES OF MINERALSS. Black stxurs’'- = Black staurolite *. Ps oe Silex ..sieitesssceiasatensssiesess 37 SO PUMINE Acc cce ieee SO : Oxide of ‘Trom:ispsseses Alls. POrah? ——— + manganese... 0°50 ‘ Magnesia .c Bere a. 4hOGe 97-75 - ‘Bed staurolite.. Red staurolite from St, Gothard +. Re eR c | Alumine- ee shia vecvssesseecee, 59°25 Oxide of iron. ere, Ws 18:25 tr Se wR manganese .. O'25 9. TF ‘Reddish tow- Rubellite. from Roschna, where it is found with lepides malin from — ite + . + * apt rf CP + ola gt? PHIM on at enalh saeneh pierre oy) SORBO shia Alumine Lisi gS Me Wa enna 6 so 42°25, Oxide of MANgaMese versereae 1:50 : N Lime stasitacingne os aera rr ie | (To be concluded.in a future Number.) vy ae * Journ. vol. xxvii, p. 152. + Ib. t Ib. p. 154. ee ~ * ae bg ey * * * yt « Ost. *e 2 7 te ot? s+ Nichols ons: joe Sourmad. Volt KERR PEL. fl. ‘o) Yor LOW yy ae Ue meregname ie an yi ru Dahl) 4 a wi f i es raed eee ies Nicholsons Philos. Journal, Vol. AXXMPLUL p. 82. wie Srerologometer: ' te WNichoteors Philos. Journal Vol XXXILPLIV, fIOG. fs a Sa \CSS —— Sata == OCEAN ? wes G , BN Z 4 ificclions i U2 Hamer by MX ye Wibetion22 WNichotonis Philos. Journal Vet YXXILPLIV J/00. Nicholsonis Philos. Tournal Vol. XXX LL.V:. ju.174 Mi - i ro DM faction fe Lys oF LN teh by MA, Jebeloon? yi, \ a i (WOVE Ty \\* \ at \\y WAY NS { Z)), T \¥ s Nichotsons Philos. Journal, Vol. XXXILPLVL ju. 256 i Foundation of M? W Beas Temporary EG pop: Sey, | | é Wu "4 G eee Ge thee. i if i) ith } i i i i! H i | i Mi Dtephiensn Method Mv0 tng Bricks : AN il aN i | 4 Bes ; bali SP ian yey eM Si apt nae ‘ Wg) Nicholsons Philos. Journal, Vol. XXII. VIE Ju: am Yi “tcl c WD ML G COTATI Me oe ned - OL LY D y c MW a Ol 0, pp 4 COM ig A, a Od / e! C.. the-Dibdle hes y < ge Se hile (HMA A 4 y erm 72 ya GF Sip hovement on CHa ea ere eer Lantin tall Af, a rl M. orSo hee. ee ‘ ] 1 en ae ———— z 7 ete Or a 7 ' _ / 6h a? 4 nt ‘ > ‘ “a r. iy } 1 ey ; y tard Oth ) h i i) Nicholsons Philos. Journal VolXE PLE)». ae e ee / ios i c Dinf povemecnl tie Tow cng os é ee a eee es = : ———— ———— ed | iy ! Ul ony SLLTPLLPLL WWPPPLLB \NEPLLPLs | zzz Wz L ae SSS SS === —_| —— —<—$<$$—_— a: ere _- a ———— q | | — = Z| Thi SS aes INDE X. «. A. AcIb, camphdric, experimerits on, 151 : o—— muriatic, its action on sugar, 216 4——— oximuriatic, applied against miasmata, 167 “Acorn dibble, improvenient in; 267 Agalmatolite, analysis of, 380 A. H. Z. his inquiry concerning the means of studying the modern ana- lysis, 17++Ariswered, 18 Aitkin, Mr.J. 235 Alcyonia, new varieties of, 513 Aloes, tannin prepared from; 363 Alum, attempt to ascertain the pro- portions of potash and acid in, 154 Alum stones, analyses of, 309 Ammonia, muriate of, experiments on the existence of water in, 185 Analysis, the modern, inquiry relative to, 17—Answered, 18 Analysis of the waters of a chalybeate spring in the Isle of Wight, 55, 85—- Of various fermented liquors, 66—— Of the chromate of iron, 78—Of various vegetable substances; 143—= Of various minerals, 160, 504, 379 —Of triple sulphuret of lead from Comwall, 160—Of sulphuret of bis- muth and copper, from Wittichen, 160—-Of the native iron of meteor- olites, 160—Of native iron from Saxony, 161—Of iron spars and phosphate of iron, 161; 304—0Of the salt from the Droitwich brine spring, 165—-Of indigo, 211——-Of the mi- | neral waters of Nevis and Argen- tires, 240—-Of sheep’s dung, 290 Of black manganese, 305==Of cerite, 8U5—Of Peruvian opal, -€05—Of wopazes, S05—_Of zovisite, 306—Of augite, 306—Of apatite, 306—Of co- humnar brownspar, 506—-Of dolomite, Vor. XXXIL. 807—Of sulphate of lime, i —OF magnesian spar, 508—Of terre verte, 26.—Of dlumstone, 309—Of jade, ib. —Of lazulite, 310—Of moya, 2d. Of guaho, is:—Of polishing slate, S11—Of garnets, 76.—Of chalcedo- ny, 7% —Of Lemnian earth, i2.—Of fuller’s earth, 312—Of tincal, or cry- stallized borax, 26.——Of dathiolite, S13—Of fluor, id—_—-Of an arti- ficial tannin prepared from several vegetable matters by the action of nitric acid, 361—Of the husks of walnuts, $74——-Of phosphorescent earth, 379—Of a new combustible mineral from East Prussia, i.— G. Galvanism, 271 Garnett, Dr. 99 Garnets, olive green, analysis of, 311 Gas, muriatic, experiments to prove the existence of water in, 18, 195, 185 —— oximuriatic, compounded with carbonic oxide, 241 Gaseous compound of carbonic oxide’ and chlorine, 241 Gay -Lussac, M. 113, 188,241, 2457 Geological Society, proceedings i in, 162, 236, 513 mian plants, 2 Godon de St. Mesmin, M. 79 Gold, purity or standard of, 23—=me- dical preparations of, 179 Gough, Mr. J. on the perforations made in paper by electrical batteries, 176 Graham, governor, -236 on the méteotology of 1817, °73 tte Guano, analysis of, 210 °°" Gmelin’s description of the cryptoga~_ fings cured in the Dutch mode on‘ . Fuller, Mr. J. his improved scarificators: Gray, Lord W. J. communication from, - INDEX, Hi. _ Hall, Sir James, 238 | Hatchett, Mr. 160-—-On the bitumen of ‘Trinidad, 209—His artificial tannin examined, 367 Haiy, M. his galvanic experiments, 273 Heat developed in combustion, 105 _ Henry, Dr. 75 Herrings, Dutch mode of curing, 154—- Another method, 137 Me Higgins, Dr. 225 Hippurites from Sicily, 314 ' Hodgson, Mr. J. on arterial diseases, 80. Horner, L. Esq. his account of the brine springs at Droitwich, 163 Horticultural Society, objects for which it intends to give premiums, 319 Howard, Mr. see Meteorological J ournal. Hydrophobia, remedy for, 168 Hydrostatjcal phenomenon, cbserved by Dr. Franklin, explained, 284 I. Tbbetson, Mrs. A. on the fructification of plants of the cryptogamia class, 1— Question to, on the structure of the _ water lily, 22——Her reply, 138—On the dissection ‘of flowers, 169 Indigo, chemical experiments on, 211 —Tannin prepared from, 360 Ipflammable liquids, experiments on, with a view to ascertain the heat de- veloped in their combustion, 120 Tron, analysis of the chromate of, 78— Of the ore, spar, and phosphate of, 161, 304 Yron ores, various, analyses of, 304 Irritability of vegetables, 138 Irton, EL, Esq. on some remarkable tubes found in the drifted sand, in Lancashire, 316... Itch, the, a remedy for, 177 J. Jacksonian prize, of the Royal College ' of Surgeons at London, 80 Jade, analysis of, 809 _ Jameson, professor, on the mineralogy of Scotfand, &c. 235 J annet, M. 143 Java, specimens in natural history feos, 300 - Jones, W. Esq. his temporary rick to secure, corn in sheaves, til] quite dry, 257 coe, ; K, Kidd, Dr. on the mineralogy of St. David's, Pembrokeshire, 238 Kirwan, Mr.87—His treatise on mineral waters, 66 Klaproth, Dr. on. the analyses of va~ “ rious minerals, 160, 304, 379 Knight, T. A. Esq. his concise view of the theory respecting vegetation, lately adyaneed in the Philosophical Trans-> actions, 350-—On the advantages of employing vegetable matter as manure ina fresh state, 357 L. Labrador, geology of the coast of, 162 Larches, premium for planting, 233 Lavoisier, M. 113 Laugier, Mr. his examination of the chromate of iron of the Uralian moun- tains, 78 Lazulite, analysis of, 310 Leach, Mr.235 Lead, black, medicinal uses of, 148 Lead, triple sulphuret of, analy i of, 160 Leaf lice, remedy against, 168 Lectures, medical and chemical, in Lon- don, 168 Lemnian earth, analysis of, 311 Leschenault, M. his account of various specimens of natural history, brought from the island of Java, Madura, , Bali, &c. 300 Leybourn’ s “Mathematical Repository 240 Light, INDEX. Light, apparent streaks of, from falling or shooting stars, 269 Lily, water, question relative to the structure of, 22—Answered, 158 Lind, Dy. his anemometer, 227 Iénnzus’s classification of plants, 2 Liquors, fermented, spirit in, 66 Lowitz, M. 80 Lydiatt, M. E. description of his smicro- logometer, for ascertaining the tena- city of metals, silk, cotton, and linen threads, &c: 81 M. ° Mac Culloch, Dr. on bistre and other “substances distilled from wood, 236 —On the vitrified forts of Scotland, 317 Macknight, Dr. on the mineralogy of Lanarkshire, 235 Magnesian spar, analysis of, 308 _ Maher, Mr. J. on pruning and training standard apple trees, 355 Mallet, Captain, on the bituminous pro- ducts in the vicinity of Trinidad, 205 Manganese, analyses of, 305 Manure, vegetable, best when used fresh, 357 Marcet, Dr. 224——Reply to his abserva- tions on Dr. Pearson’s paper on ani- mal fluids, 37—eHis chemical account of an aluminous chalybeate spring in ‘the Isle of Wight, 52, 85 Marine plants, 1 Maycock, Dr. on the production of elec- trical excitement by friction, 227— Observations on his papers on galya- nism, in a former volume, 271 Mechanism of plants, 169 Melons, vegetation of, 353 Meteorolites, analyses of, 160 Meteorological Journal for March, 50—_ April, 150—May, 198—June, 294 Meteorological table for 1811, 73 Michael's ‘St. narrative of the volcanic. - eruption in the sea off, June 1811, 247 z Mineral, combustible, from Prussia,’ analyses of, 379 Mineral water in the Isle of Wight, 52,. §5—Of Furstenburgh, analysis of, 380 . Mineralogy of the Highlands of Scote. . land, &c, 235, 317—-Of Wales, 238 Minerals, various, analyses of, 160, 304, 379 Mongez, M. 34 Montserrat, description of The Souf- frigre,” in the island of, 296 Mortar, a strong, method of making, © 127 Mosses, fructification of, 12+ Moya, analysis of, S10 — Muriate of ammonia, water in, 125, 18§ | Muriatic acid, see Acid. Muriatic gas, see Gas. Murray, Mr. J. 245——On the SSistence of water im muriate of ammonia, formed by the combination of muri- atic acid and ammoniacal gasses, 18, 185 ) Muschenbroeck, M. $1 ~ N. Natural history of Java, &e. 300 7 Nervous affection cured by ee the carotids, 345 Nettles, fabrication of sloth and cord- age from, 132 Nowell, J. Esq. on the action ‘of mu- rlatic acid on sugar, and on the nature a of its principles, 216 ~ fig Nugent, Dr. N, his account of the pitch ~ lake of the island of Trinidad, 200—= Of “The sulphur,” or Souffriére,” of the island of Montserrat, 296 oO. Oaks, premium for planting, 232 _ Opal, fire-coloured, ‘from Peru, ana lysis of, 805°» Oxide, INDE X. ®@xide, carbonic, compounded with oxi- muriatic gas, 241 Oximuriatic acid and gas, see Acid and Gas. Oxinite, analysis of, 381 P. ‘ é ad Parkinson, J. Esq. on the specimens of hippurites brought from Sicily, 314 Parry, Dr. on a case of nervous affec- tion cured by pressure of the’ ca- “rotids, 345 Pearson, Dr. G. on animal fluids, in ‘answer to Dr. Marcet, 37—His me- dical and chemical lectures, 168 Pear-trees, standard, management of, 355- Pelletier, M.on some preparations of gold, lately employed medicinally, 179 Petrefactions, 230. Phenix, Mr. J. on the zig-zag motion of the electric spark, 227 _ Phosphorescent earth from Marmarosch, analysis of, 379 Pitch lake in Trinidad, 200 Plants, fructification of, 1—Mechanism of, 169 Plumbago, medicinal use of, 148 ‘Pontier, M. 78 Potash in animal fluids, 137° Potash, muriate of, 15%; Nitrate of, 1585 sulphate of, 156, (proportions of base and acid in) Potatoes, probable means of preventing the curlin, 321 Premiums given by the Society for the * Encouragement of Arts, &c. 232 Priestley, Dr. on the effects produced on sugar by muriatic gas, 216 Prize question by the Royal Edinburgh Medical Society, for the year 1813, 162 R. Reaumur on the fineness of gold dust in Europe, 35 | Red dye for cotton, 288 Refining gold, 27 Rick, temporary, for saving corn, 257 Robilant, M. de, 35 Robinet, M his explanation of a liy- drostatical phenomenon observed by Dr. Franklin, 284 Rumferd, Count, his account of some experiments on wood and charcoal, 100—-Inquiry concerning the hea¢ developed in combustion, with a de- scription of a new calorimeter, 105 S Sabrina island, account. of its first emerging from the sea, 247 — Salt from the Droitwich spring, analysis of, 165 Saponaceous principle, 75 _ Saunders, Dr, 52 Saussure, M. de, 113—_On the zig-zag motion of the electric spark, 229——0 On evaporation, 335 Scarificatgr, an improved, 340 Schrader, M. on extract and the sae ponaceous principle, 75 Scientific News, 80, 162, 292, 313 Scotland, mineralogy of, 235, 317 Sheep’s dung, useful in dying cotton, 288 . : Siberia, mineralogy of, 78 Sines and cosines, formule for, 13, Sinope earth, analysis of, 312 Skey, Dr. J. on the structure of the island of Barbadoes, as connected with the specimens of its rocks, 315 Slate, analysis of, 311 Sleavin, Mr. P. on a method of curing herrings, 137 Smicrologometer, a machine for as- certaining the tenacity of metals, &cs $1 Smith, Dr. shis description of the cryp- togamia class of plants, 2 Smith, Mr. E. on the manufacture of cloth and cordage from nettles, 132 Smithson,, INDEX. Smithson, Mr. 160 Soaprock, from Cornwall, conc of, 581 Soapstone, analysis of, 281 Society for the encouragement of arts - &e. premiums by, 232, Soda, in animal fluids, 37 Sonnini, M. 168 “ Souffriere,” the, a district of the ‘ island of Montserrat, described, 296 Sowerby, Mr. 2, 165 Sowthistle, irritability of, 158 Spargelstein, analysis of, 306 Stackhouse’s description of the crypto- gamian plants, 2 Stater of Philip of Macedon, 23 Steinhauer, Rev. Mr. 162 Stephens, J. Esq. his new method of making bricks, so as to form cheaper and firmer buildings, and useful under- ground drains, 252 Stones, artificial, 230 Stucco, a cheap and durable, 126 Sugar, acted on by muriatic acid, 216 Sulphates, composition of, 153 Sulphur, see Souffriére. be Tannin, artificial, S60 © Tantalite, analysis of, 3380 7. B. on a passage in Mrs. Ibbetson’s account of the water lily, 22—-An- swered, 138 Tenacity of metals, &c. machine for ascertaining, 81 Teneriffe, island of, described, 239 Terre verte, analyses of, 308 Tetters, remedy for, 148 Thenard, M. 113, 167, 241, 245. Thouin, M. 147 Tillard, Captain, his narrative of the eruption of a volcano in the sea off the island of St. Michael’s, 247 | Tincal, analysis of, 312 Tinto, a mountain of Lanarkshire, mi- neralogy of, 235 Topazes from Brazil and Saxony, ‘ana- lyses of, S05 Traill, Dr. 186, see Bostock. Trees, forest, premium for planting, 232 hain Trigonometrical formule for sines eae cosines, 13 Trinidad, pitch lake in, described, 200 —Geology of the island, 209 Tubes founded in drift sand, 516 Vv. Vauquelin, M. his chemical examina- tion of a vegetable excrescence from Madagascar, 143--Of a gum-resin from the same place, 144—Of the root of camel’s hay, from the Isle of France, 146—-Of the aromatic leaves of the raventsara, 147—-On the action of muriatic acid on sugar, 21%—His analysis of the mineral waters of Nevis and Argentieres, 240 Vegetable extracts, 75 Vegetable manure, best in a fresh state, 3957 ° Vegetable substances, chemical exa- rainations of, 143 Vegetables, irritability of, 138 Vegetation, theory of, 350 Vitalis, M. on the nature of sheep’s ; dung, and its use in dyeing cotton the red, called ee or Adrianople, 288 Vitrified forts in Scotland, 317 Volcanic eruption in the sea off the island of St. Michael’s, in June, 1811, 247 Ser Ww. Waistell, Mr. C. his improvement in the acorn dibble, 267 Walnuts, chemical examination of their husks, 374 Water, in muriatic gas, experiments on the existence of, 18, 125 Water lily, see Lily, ’ Water, > Sun INDEX. _ Water plants, 1 Waves between oil and water, 284 Wax, experiments on the combustion of, 113 ‘ Way, H. W. Esq. his method of pre- paring a cheap and durable stucco, or plaster, for outside or inside walls, 126 Webster, T. Esq. his electrical experi- ments, 176—His account of some new varieties of aleyonia, in the Isle of Wight, 313 ? Wernerian Natural History Society, meeting of, 235 _ Wicklow gold, 56 Wienhold, Dr. on the efficacy of plumbago against tetters, 148 Wight, Isle of, aluminous chalybeate spring in, 52, 85——Geology of, 315 Wollaston, Dr. 45, 69 Wood, experiments on, 100—-Changed to bitumen by water, 238 Zi Zoisite, crystallized, analysis of, 306 cre 3 _- END OF THE THIRTY-SECOND VOLUMEs | F RCaCm, RSMFG: SPRITES ESAT SEE ae ST OE Stratford, Printer, Crown Cont, Temple Bar. c ts + — ~~ 27a SSSR ST esenesssataastt sianet Sie apts Sse Soerrals? TF 3a Sree Seay oe Sse Steer ties pest: oeebebih- bch, ben nd ak | 4 peer petite: ones: Set stett tthe ett SSexestet iret sone se be ote! t eaad ‘ Thiet sg oe0 baa bts W i ‘ Tere areestetaies t + ei + Saesectseeee eo Prereses meron epee kses eS 8 Obed 7 Be foe eB Serer i inrges pi pemed so 5 SRe 8 seyreete Heap hoon 8 rr veg i-s seth et 48 siwseen 337 Svar sete oaks 4 | cridittio Siieshtsgerstsi=t Ty¢} oan Hh pravee 4 senavtryseeents sreane rhs teen! 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